2014 AHA/ACC Guideline for the Management of Patients With

2014 AHA/ACC Guideline for the
Management of Patients With
Valvular Heart Disease
Developed in Collaboration with the American Association for Thoracic Surgery,
American Society of Echocardiography, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and
Interventions, Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists, and Society of Thoracic
Surgeons
© American College of Cardiology Foundation and American Heart Association
Citation
This slide set is adapted from the 2014 AHA/ACC Guideline for the
Management of Patients With Valvular Heart Disease (Journal of the
American College of Cardiology). Published on March 3, 2014,
available at:
http://content.onlinejacc.org/cgi/content/full/j.jacc.2014.02.536 and
http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2014/02/27/CIR.0000000000
000029.citation
The full-text guidelines are also available on the following Web sites:
ACC (www.cardiosource.org) and AHA (my.americanheart.org)
Slide Set Editors
Rick A. Nishimura and Catherine M. Otto
Valvular Heart Disease Guideline
Writing Committee Members
Rick A. Nishimura, MD, MACC, FAHA, Co-Chair†
Catherine M. Otto, MD, FACC, FAHA, Co-Chair†
Robert O. Bonow, MD, MACC, FAHA† Carlos E. Ruiz, MD, PhD, FACC†
Blase A. Carabello, MD, FACC*†
Nikolaos J. Skubas, MD, FASE¶
John P. Erwin III, MD, FACC, FAHA‡
Paul Sorajja, MD, FACC, FAHA#
Robert A. Guyton, MD, FACC*§
Thoralf M. Sundt III, MD* **††
Patrick T. O’Gara, MD, FACC, FAHA† James D. Thomas, MD, FASE, FACC, FAHA‡‡
*Writing committee members are required to recuse themselves from voting on sections to which their specific
relationships with industry and other entities may apply.
†ACC/AHA representative. ‡ACC/AHA Task Force on Performance Measures liaison. §ACC/AHA Task Force on
Practice Guidelines liaison. ¶SCA Representative. #SCAI Representative. **AATS Representative. ††STS
Representative. ‡‡ASE Representative.
Classification of Recommendations and Levels of Evidence
A recommendation with Level of
Evidence B or C does not imply
that the recommendation is weak.
Many important clinical questions
addressed in the guidelines do
not lend themselves to clinical
trials. Although randomized trials
are unavailable, there may be a
very clear clinical consensus that
a particular test or therapy is
useful or effective.
*Data available from clinical trials
or registries about the usefulness/
efficacy in different
subpopulations, such as sex, age,
history of diabetes mellitus,
history of prior myocardial
infarction, history of heart failure,
and prior aspirin use.
†For comparative-effectiveness
recommendations (Class I and
IIa; Level of Evidence A and B
only), studies that support the use
of comparator verbs should
involve direct comparisons of the
treatments or strategies being
evaluated.
Stages of Progression of VHD
Stage
Definition
A
At risk
B
Progressive
C
Asymptomatic
severe
D
Symptomatic
severe
Description
Patients with risk factors for the development of
VHD
Patients with progressive VHD (mild-to-moderate
severity and asymptomatic)
Asymptomatic patients who have reached the
criteria for severe VHD
C1: Asymptomatic patients with severe VHD in
whom the left or right ventricle remains
compensated
C2: Asymptomatic patients who have severe
VHD, with decompensation of the left or right
ventricle
Patients who have developed symptoms as a result
of VHD
Diagnostic Testing – Diagnosis and Follow-Up
Recommendations
COR LOE
TTE is recommended in the initial evaluation of
patients with known or suspected VHD to confirm
the diagnosis, establish etiology, determine
I
B
severity, assess hemodynamic consequences,
determine prognosis, and evaluate for timing of
intervention
TTE is recommended in patients with known VHD
with any change in symptoms or physical
I
C
examination findings
Periodic monitoring with TTE is recommended in
asymptomatic patients with known VHD at intervals
I
C
depending on valve lesion, severity, ventricular
size, and ventricular function
Diagnostic Testing – Diagnosis and Follow-Up
Recommendations
Cardiac catheterization for hemodynamic
assessment is recommended in symptomatic
patients when noninvasive tests are inconclusive
or when there is a discrepancy between the
findings on noninvasive testing and physical
examination regarding severity of the valve lesion
Exercise testing is reasonable in selected
patients with asymptomatic severe VHD to 1)
confirm the absence of symptoms, or 2) assess
the hemodynamic response to exercise, or 3)
determine prognosis
COR
LOE
I
C
IIa
B
Frequency of Echocardiograms in Asymptomatic
Patients With VHD and Normal Left Ventricular Function
Stage
Valve Lesion
Aortic
Regurgitation
Progressive Every 3–5 y
Every 3-5 y
(stage B)
(mild severity
(mild severity)
Vmax 2.0–2.9 m/s) Every 1-2 y
Every 1–2 y
(moderate
(moderate
severity)
severity
Vmax 3.0–3.9 m/s)
Stage
Severe
(stage C)
Aortic Stenosis
Every 1 y
(Vmax ≥4 m/s)
Every 1 y
Dilating LV–
more frequent
Mitral Stenosis
Every 3–5 y
(MVA >1.5 cm2)
Every 1–2 y
(MVA 1.0–1.5 cm2)
Every 1 y
(MVA <1 cm2)
Mitral
Regurgitation
Every 3–5 y
(mild severity)
Every 1–2 y
(moderate
severity)
Every 6 months
to 1 y
Dilating LV–
more frequent
Basic Principles of Medical Therapy
Recommendations
Secondary prevention of rheumatic fever is indicated in
patients with rheumatic heart disease, specifically
mitral stenosis
Prophylaxis against infective endocarditis (IE) is
reasonable for the following patients at highest risk for
adverse outcomes from IE prior to dental procedures
that involve manipulation of gingival tissue,
manipulation of the periapical region of teeth, or
perforation of the oral mucosa:
 Patients with prosthetic cardiac valves;
 Patients with previous IE;
 Cardiac transplant recipients with valve regurgitation
due to a structurally abnormal valve; or (continued
on next page)
COR
LOE
I
C
IIa
B
Basic Principles of Medical Therapy
Recommendations
COR
(continued)
 Patients with CHD with:
o Unrepaired cyanotic CHD, including palliative shunts
and conduits;
o Completely repaired congenital heart defect repaired
with prosthetic material or device, whether placed by
IIa
surgery or by catheter intervention, during the first 6
months after the procedure; or
o Repaired CHD with residual defects at the site or
adjacent to the site of a prosthetic patch or
prosthetic device
Prophylaxis against IE is not recommended in patients
with VHD at risk of IE for nondental procedures (e.g., TEE, III: No
esophagogastroduodenoscopy, colonoscopy, or
Benefit
cystoscopy) in the absence of active infection
LOE
B
B
Risk Assessment Combining STS Risk Estimate, Frailty, Major
Organ System Dysfunction, and Procedure-Specific Impediments
STS PROM
Frailty
Major organ
system
compromise not
to be improved
postoperatively
Procedurespecific
impediment
Low Risk (must
meet ALL criteria
in this column )
<4%
AND
None
AND
Intermediate Risk
(any 1 criteria in
this column)
4% to 8%
OR
1 index (mild)
OR
High Risk
(any 1 criteria in
this column)
>8%
OR
2 or more indices
(moderate-tosevere)
OR
No more than 2
organ systems
OR
Prohibitive Risk
(any 1 criteria in this
column)
Predicted risk with surgery
of death or major morbidity
(all-cause) >50% at 1 y
OR
None
AND
1 organ system
OR
None
Possible procedure- Possible procedure- Severe procedure-specific
specific impediment specific impediment impediment
3 or more organ systems
OR
The Heart Valve Team and Heart
Valve Centers of Excellence
Recommendations
Patients with severe VHD should be evaluated by
a multidisciplinary Heart Valve Team when
intervention is considered
Consultation with or referral to a Heart Valve
Center of Excellence is reasonable when
discussing treatment options for 1) asymptomatic
patients with severe VHD, 2) patients who may
benefit from valve repair versus valve
replacement, or 3) patients with multiple
comorbidities for whom valve intervention is
considered
COR
LOE
I
C
IIa
C
Stages of Valvular Aortic Stenosis
Stage
A
Definition
At risk of AS
Valve Anatomy
●
●
B
Progressive
AS
●
●
Bicuspid aortic
valve (or other
congenital valve
anomaly)
Aortic valve
sclerosis
Mild-to-moderate
leaflet calcification
of a bicuspid or
trileaflet valve with
some reduction in
systolic motion or
Rheumatic valve
changes with
commissural fusion
Valve
Hemodynamics
● Aortic
Vmax <2 m/s
●
●
Mild AS: Aortic
Vmax 2.0–2.9
m/s or mean
P <20 mm Hg
Moderate AS:
Aortic Vmax
3.0–3.9 m/s or
mean P 20–
39 mm Hg
Hemodynamic
Consequences
● None
●
●
Early LV
diastolic
dysfunction
may be
present
Normal LVEF
Symptoms
●
None
●
None
Stages of Valvular Aortic Stenosis
Stage
Definition
Valve Anatomy
C - Asymptomatic severe AS
C1
Asymptomatic ● Severe leaflet
severe AS
calcification or
congenital
stenosis with
severely
reduced leaflet
opening
C2
Asymptomatic
severe AS with
LV
dysfunction
●
Severe leaflet
calcification or
congenital
stenosis with
severely
reduced leaflet
opening
●
●
●
●
●
Valve
Hemodynamics
Hemodynamic
Consequences
Aortic Vmax 4 m/s
or mean P ≥40
mm Hg
AVA typically is
≤1 cm2 (or AVAi
0.6 cm2/m2)
Very severe AS is
an aortic Vmax
≥5 m/s, or mean
P ≥60 mm Hg
Aortic Vmax ≥4 m/s
or mean P ≥40
mm Hg
AVA typically is
≤1 cm2 (or AVAi
0.6 cm2/m2)
●
Symptoms
●
●
LV diastolic
dysfunction
Mild LV
hypertrophy
Normal LVEF
None–
exercise
testing is
reasonable
to confirm
symptom
status
●
LVEF <50%
●
None
●
Stages of Valvular Aortic Stenosis
Stage
Definition
Valve Anatomy
D - Symptomatic severe AS
D1
Symptomatic ● Severe leaflet
severe highcalcification or
gradient AS
congenital
stenosis with
severely
reduced
leaflet opening
D2
Symptomatic
severe lowflow/lowgradient AS
with reduced
LVEF
● Severe
leaflet
calcification
with severely
reduced
leaflet motion
Valve Hemodynamics
Hemodynamic
Consequences
Vmax ≥4 m/s, or
mean P ≥40 mm Hg
● AVA typically is 1 cm2 (or
AVAi 0.6 cm2/m2), but
may be larger with mixed
AS/AR
● LV
● AVA 1
● LV
● Aortic
cm2 with resting
aortic Vmax <4 m/s or mean
P <40 mm Hg
● Dobutamine stress echo
shows AVA 1 cm2 with
Vmax 4 m/s at any flow
rate
diastolic
dysfunction
● LV hypertrophy
● Pulmonary
hypertension may
be present
diastolic
dysfunction
● LV hypertrophy
● LVEF <50%
Symptoms
● Exertional
dyspnea or
decreased
exercise
tolerance
● Exertional
angina
● Exertional
syncope or
presyncope
● HF,
● Angina,
● Syncope or
presyncope
Stages of Valvular Aortic Stenosis
Stage
Definition
Valve Anatomy
D - Symptomatic severe AS
D3
Symptomatic ● Severe leaflet
severe lowcalcification
gradient AS
with severely
with normal
reduced leaflet
LVEF or
motion
paradoxical
low-flow
severe AS
Valve
Hemodynamics
● AVA 1
cm2 with
aortic Vmax <4 m/s,
or mean P <40
mm Hg
● Indexed AVA 0.6
cm2/m2 and
● Stroke volume
index <35 mL/m2
● Measured when
the patient is
normotensive
(systolic BP <140
mm Hg)
Hemodynamic
Consequences
● Increased
LV
relative wall
thickness
● Small LV chamber
with low-stroke
volume.
● Restrictive diastolic
filling
● LVEF ≥50%
Symptoms
● HF,
● Angina,
● Syncope
or
presyncope
Aortic Stenosis: Diagnosis and Follow-Up
Recommendations
TTE is indicated in patients with signs or symptoms of
AS or a bicuspid aortic valve for accurate diagnosis of
the cause of AS, hemodynamic severity, LV size and
systolic function, and for determining prognosis and
timing of valve intervention
Low-dose dobutamine stress testing using
echocardiographic or invasive hemodynamic
measurements is reasonable in patients with stage D2
AS with all of the following:
a. Calcified aortic valve with reduced systolic opening;
b. LVEF less than 50%;
c. Calculated valve area 1.0 cm2 or less; and
d. Aortic velocity less than 4.0 m per second or mean
pressure gradient less than 40 mm Hg
COR LOE
I
B
IIa
B
Aortic Stenosis: Diagnosis and Follow-Up
Recommendations
Exercise testing is reasonable to assess
physiological changes with exercise and to
confirm the absence of symptoms in
asymptomatic patients with a calcified aortic valve
and an aortic velocity 4.0 m per second or greater
or mean pressure gradient 40 mm Hg or higher
(stage C)
Exercise testing should not be performed in
symptomatic patients with AS when the aortic
velocity is 4.0 m per second or greater or mean
pressure gradient is 40 mm Hg or higher (stage
D)
COR
LOE
IIa
B
III:
Harm
B
Aortic Stenosis: Medical Therapy
Recommendations
Hypertension in patients at risk for developing
AS (stage A) and in patients with asymptomatic
AS (stages B and C) should be treated
according to standard GDMT, started at a low
dose, and gradually titrated upward as needed
with frequent clinical monitoring
Vasodilator therapy may be reasonable if used
with invasive hemodynamic monitoring in the
acute management of patients with severe
decompensated AS (stage D) with New York
Heart Association (NYHA) class IV heart failure
(HF) symptoms
COR
LOE
I
B
IIb
C
Aortic Stenosis: Medical Therapy
Recommendations
Statin therapy is not indicated for prevention of
hemodynamic progression of AS in patients
with mild-to-moderate calcific valve disease
(stages B to D)
COR
LOE
III: No
Benefit
A
Aortic Stenosis: Timing of Intervention
Recommendations
COR
AVR is recommended with severe high-gradient
AS who have symptoms by history or on exercise
I
testing (stage D1)
AVR is recommended for asymptomatic patients
I
with severe AS (stage C2) and LVEF <50%
AVR is indicated for patients with severe AS (stage
I
C or D) when undergoing other cardiac surgery
LOE
B
B
B
Aortic Stenosis: Timing of Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
COR LOE
AVR is reasonable for asymptomatic patients with
very severe AS (stage C1, aortic velocity ≥5 m/s)
IIa
B
and low surgical risk
AVR is reasonable in asymptomatic patients (stage
C1) with severe AS and decreased exercise
IIa
B
tolerance or an exercise fall in BP
AVR is reasonable in symptomatic patients with
low-flow/low-gradient severe AS with reduced
LVEF (stage D2) with a low-dose dobutamine
IIa
B
stress study that shows an aortic velocity 4 m/s
(or mean pressure gradient 40 mm Hg) with a
valve area 1.0 cm2 at any dobutamine dose
Aortic Stenosis: Timing of Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
AVR is reasonable in symptomatic patients who
have low-flow/low-gradient severe AS (stage D3)
who are normotensive and have an LVEF ≥50% if
clinical, hemodynamic, and anatomic data support
valve obstruction as the most likely cause of
symptoms
AVR is reasonable for patients with moderate AS
(stage B) (aortic velocity 3.0–3.9 m/s) who are
undergoing other cardiac surgery
AVR may be considered for asymptomatic patients
with severe AS (stage C1) and rapid disease
progression and low surgical risk
COR LOE
IIa
C
IIa
C
IIb
C
Aortic Stenosis: Choice of Surgical or
Transcatheter Intervention
Recommendations
COR LOE
Surgical AVR is recommended in patients who
meet an indication for AVR (listed in Section 3.4)
I
A
with low or intermediate surgical risk
For patients in whom TAVR or high-risk surgical
AVR is being considered, members of a Heart
I
C
Valve Team should collaborate closely to provide
optimal patient care
TAVR is recommended in patients who meet an
indication for AVR for AS who have a prohibitive
I
B
surgical risk and a predicted post-TAVR survival
>12 months
Aortic Stenosis: Choice of Surgical or
Transcatheter Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
TAVR is a reasonable alternative to surgical
AVR for AS in patients who meet an indication
for AVR and who have high surgical risk
Percutaneous aortic balloon dilation may be
considered as a bridge to surgical or
transcatheter AVR in severely symptomatic
patients with severe AS
TAVR is not recommended in patients in whom
the existing comorbidities would preclude the
expected benefit from correction of AS
COR
LOE
IIa
B
IIb
C
III: No
Benefit
B
Indications for Aortic Valve Replacement in Patients With Aortic Stenosis
Stages of Chronic Aortic Regurgitation
Stage
A
Definition
At risk of AR
Valve Anatomy
●
●
●
●
●
Valve
Hemodynamics
Bicuspid aortic valve ● AR severity
(or other congenital
none or trace
valve anomaly)
Aortic valve sclerosis
Diseases of the aortic
sinuses or ascending
aorta
History of rheumatic
fever or known
rheumatic heart
disease
IE
Hemodynamic Symptoms
Consequences
● None
● None
Stages of Chronic Aortic Regurgitation (cont.)
Stage
B
Definition
Progressive
AR
Valve Anatomy
●
●
●
●
Mild-tomoderate
calcification of
a trileaflet
valve bicuspid
aortic valve (or
other
congenital
valve
anomaly)
Dilated aortic
sinuses
Rheumatic
valve changes
Previous IE
Valve Hemodynamics
Hemodynamic Symptoms
Consequences
● Mild AR:
● Normal LV
● None
o Jet width <25% of LVOT
systolic function
o Vena contracta <0.3 cm ● Normal LV
o RVol <30 mL/beat
volume or mild
o RF <30%
LV dilation
2
o ERO <0.10 cm
o Angiography grade 1+
● Moderate AR:
o Jet width 25%–64% of
LVOT
o Vena contracta 0.3–0.6
cm
o RVol 30–59 mL/beat
o RF 30%–49%
o ERO 0.10–0.29 cm2
o Angiography grade 2+
Stages of Chronic Aortic Regurgitation (cont.)
Stage
C
Definition
Asymptomatic
severe AR
Valve Anatomy Valve Hemodynamics
●
●
●
●
●
Calcific aortic
valve disease
Bicuspid valve
(or other
congenital
abnormality)
Dilated aortic
sinuses or
ascending aorta
Rheumatic
valve changes
IE with
abnormal leaflet
closure or
perforation
Severe AR:
o Jet width ≥65% of
LVOT
o Vena contracta
>0.6 cm
o Holodiastolic flow
reversal in the
proximal abdominal
aorta
o RVol ≥60 mL/beat
o RF ≥50%
o ERO ≥0.3 cm2
o Angiography grade
3+ to 4+
o In addition,
diagnosis of chronic
severe AR requires
evidence of LV
dilation
●
Hemodynamic
Consequences
C1: Normal LVEF
(50%) and mild-tomoderate LV dilation
(LVESD 50 mm)
C2: Abnormal LV
systolic function with
depressed LVEF
(<50%) or severe LV
dilatation (LVESD >50
mm or indexed LVESD
>25 mm/m2)
Symptoms
●
None;
exercise
testing is
reasonable
to confirm
symptom
status
Stages of Chronic Aortic Regurgitation (cont.)
Stage
D
Definition
Symptomatic
severe AR
Valve Anatomy
●
●
●
●
●
Calcific valve
disease
Bicuspid valve
(or other
congenital
abnormality)
Dilated aortic
sinuses or
ascending aorta
Rheumatic valve
changes
Previous IE with
abnormal leaflet
closure or
perforation
Valve Hemodynamics
●
Severe AR:
o Doppler jet width
≥65% of LVOT;
o Vena contracta >0.6
cm,
o Holodiastolic flow
reversal in the
proximal abdominal
aorta,
o RVol ≥60 mL/beat;
o RF ≥50%;
o ERO ≥0.3 cm2;
o Angiography grade
3+ to 4+
o In addition, diagnosis
of chronic severe AR
requires evidence of
LV dilation
●
●
Hemodynamic
Symptoms
Consequences
Symptomatic severe ● Exertional
AR may occur with
dyspnea or
normal systolic
angina, or
function (LVEF
more
50%), mild-tosevere HF
moderate LV
symptoms
dysfunction (LVEF
40% to 50%) or
severe LV
dysfunction (LVEF
<40%);
Moderate-to-severe
LV dilation is
present.
Aortic Regurgitation: Diagnosis and Follow-Up
Recommendations
COR LOE
TTE is indicated in patients with signs or symptoms
of AR (stages A to D) for accurate diagnosis of the
cause of regurgitation, regurgitant severity, and LV
I
B
size and systolic function, and for determining
clinical outcome and timing of valve intervention
TTE is indicated in patients with dilated aortic
sinuses or ascending aorta or with a bicuspid aortic
I
B
valve (stages A and B) to evaluate the presence and
severity of AR
Aortic Regurgitation: Diagnosis and Follow-Up
Recommendations
COR LOE
CMR is indicated in patients with moderate or
severe AR (stages B, C, and D) and suboptimal
echocardiographic images for the assessment of LV
I
B
systolic function, systolic and diastolic volumes, and
measurement of AR severity
Aortic Regurgitation: Medical Therapy
Recommendations
Treatment of hypertension (systolic BP >140 mm
Hg) is recommended in patients with chronic AR
(stages B and C), preferably with dihydropyridine
calcium channel blockers or angiotensinconverting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors/angiotensinreceptor blockers (ARBs)
Medical therapy with ACE inhibitors/ARBs and
beta blockers is reasonable in patients with
severe AR who have symptoms and/or LV
dysfunction (stages C2 and D) when surgery is
not performed because of comorbidities
COR
LOE
I
B
IIa
B
Aortic Regurgitation: Intervention
Recommendations
COR
AVR is indicated for symptomatic patients with
severe AR regardless of LV systolic function
I
(stage D)
AVR is indicated for asymptomatic patients with
chronic severe AR and LV systolic dysfunction
I
(LVEF <50%) (stage C2)
AVR is indicated for patients with severe AR (stage
I
C or D) who are undergoing other cardiac surgery
LOE
B
B
C
Aortic Regurgitation: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
AVR is reasonable for asymptomatic patients with
severe AR with normal LV systolic function (LVEF
50%), but severe LV dilation (stage C2, LVESD
>50 mm)
AVR is reasonable in patients with moderate AR
(stage B) who are undergoing other cardiac
surgery
AVR may be considered for asymptomatic patients
with severe AR and normal LV systolic function
(stage C1, LVEF ≥50%) but severe LV dilation
(LVEDD >65 mm) if surgical risk is low*
COR
LOE
IIa
B
IIa
C
IIb
C
Indications for Aortic Valve Replacement for Chronic Aortic Regurgitation
Bicuspid Aortic Valve and Aortopathy:
Diagnosis and Follow-Up
Recommendations
An initial TTE is indicated in patients with a known
bicuspid aortic valve to evaluate valve morphology,
to measure the severity of AS and AR, and to
assess the shape and diameter of the aortic sinuses
and ascending aorta for prediction of clinical
outcome and to determine timing of intervention
Aortic magnetic resonance angiography or CT
angiography is indicated in patients with a bicuspid
aortic valve when morphology of the aortic sinuses,
sinotubular junction, or ascending aorta cannot be
assessed accurately or fully by echocardiography
COR
LOE
I
B
I
C
Bicuspid Aortic Valve and Aortopathy:
Diagnosis and Follow-Up
Recommendations
Serial evaluation of the size and morphology of
the aortic sinuses and ascending aorta by
echocardiography, CMR, or CT angiography is
recommended in patients with a bicuspid aortic
valve and an aortic diameter greater than 4.0 cm,
with the examination interval determined by the
degree and rate of progression of aortic dilation
and by family history. In patients with an aortic
diameter greater than 4.5 cm, this evaluation
should be performed annually
COR
LOE
I
C
Bicuspid Aortic Valve and Aortopathy:
Intervention
Recommendations
COR
Operative intervention to repair the aortic sinuses or
replace the ascending aorta is indicated in patients
with a bicuspid aortic valve if the diameter of the
I
aortic sinuses or ascending aorta is greater than 5.5
cm
Operative intervention to repair the aortic sinuses or
replace the ascending aorta is reasonable in patients
with bicuspid aortic valves if the diameter of the aortic
sinuses or ascending aorta is greater than 5.0 cm and IIa
a risk factor for dissection is present (family history of
aortic dissection or if the rate of increase in diameter
is ≥0.5 cm per year)
LOE
B
C
Bicuspid Aortic Valve and Aortopathy:
Intervention
Recommendations
Replacement of the ascending aorta is reasonable
in patients with a bicuspid aortic valve who are
undergoing aortic valve surgery because of severe
AS or AR (Sections 3.4 and 4.4) if the diameter of
the ascending aorta is greater than 4.5 cm
COR
LOE
IIa
C
Stages of Mitral Stenosis
Stage
A
B
Definition
Valve Anatomy
At risk of MS  Mild valve doming
during diastole
Progressive  Rheumatic valve
MS
changes with
commissural fusion
and diastolic
doming of the mitral
valve leaflets
 Planimetered MVA
>1.5 cm2
Valve Hemodynamics
Hemodynamic
Consequences
 None
Symptoms
 Normal transmitral
 None
flow velocity
 Increased transmitral  Mild-to-moderate  None
flow velocities
LA enlargement
 MVA >1.5 cm2
 Normal
 Diastolic pressure
pulmonary
half-time <150 msec
pressure at rest
Stages of Mitral Stenosis
Stage
C
Definition
Valve Anatomy
Asymptomatic  Rheumatic valve
severe MS
changes with
commissural
fusion and
diastolic doming
of the mitral valve
leaflets
 Planimetered
MVA ≤1.5 cm2
 (MVA ≤1 cm2 with
very severe MS)
Valve Hemodynamics




Hemodynamic
Consequences
MVA ≤1.5 cm2
 Severe LA
(MVA ≤1 cm2 with very
enlargement
severe MS)
 Elevated PASP
Diastolic pressure
>30 mm Hg
half-time ≥150 msec
(Diastolic pressure
half-time ≥220 msec
with very severe MS)
Symptoms
 None
Stages of Mitral Stenosis
Stage
D
Definition
Valve Anatomy
Symptomatic  Rheumatic
severe MS
valve changes
with
commissural
fusion and
diastolic doming
of the mitral
valve leaflets
 Planimetered
MVA ≤1.5 cm2




Valve
Hemodynamics
MVA≤1.5 cm2
(MVA ≤1 cm2 with
very severe MS)
Diastolic pressure
half-time ≥150
msec
(Diastolic pressure
half-time ≥220
msec with very
severe MS)
Hemodynamic
Consequences
 Severe LA
enlargement
 Elevated PASP
>30 mm Hg
Symptoms
 Decreased
exercise
tolerance
 Exertional
dyspnea
Mitral Stenosis: Diagnosis and Follow-Up
Recommendations
TTE is indicated in patients with signs or
symptoms of MS to establish the diagnosis,
quantify hemodynamic severity (mean pressure
gradient, mitral valve area, and pulmonary artery
pressure), assess concomitant valvular lesions,
and demonstrate valve morphology (to
determine suitability for mitral commissurotomy)
TEE should be performed in patients considered
for percutaneous mitral balloon commissurotomy
to assess the presence or absence of left atrial
thrombus and to further evaluate the severity of
mitral regurgitation
COR
LOE
I
B
I
B
Mitral Stenosis: Diagnosis and
Follow-Up
Recommendations
Exercise testing with Doppler or invasive
hemodynamic assessment is recommended to
evaluate the response of the mean mitral
gradient and pulmonary artery pressure in
patients with MS when there is a discrepancy
between resting Doppler echocardiographic
findings and clinical symptoms or signs
COR
LOE
I
C
Mitral Stenosis: Medical Therapy
Recommendations
Anticoagulation (vitamin K antagonist [VKA] or
heparin) is indicated in patients with 1) MS and
AF (paroxysmal, persistent, or permanent), or 2)
MS and a prior embolic event, or 3) MS and a left
atrial thrombus
Heart rate control can be beneficial in patients
with MS and AF and fast ventricular response
Heart rate control may be considered for patients
with MS in normal sinus rhythm and symptoms
associated with exercise
COR
LOE
I
B
IIa
C
IIb
B
Mitral Stenosis: Intervention
Recommendations
COR LOE
PMBC is recommended for symptomatic patients
with severe MS (MVA <1.5 cm2, stage D) and
I
A
favorable valve morphology in the absence of
contraindications
Mitral valve surgery is indicated in severely
symptomatic patients (NYHA class III/IV) with severe
MS (MVA <1.5 cm2, stage D) who are not high risk
I
B
for surgery and who are not candidates for or failed
previous PMBC
Concomitant mitral valve surgery is indicated for
patients with severe MS (MVA ≤1.5 cm2, stages C or
I
C
D) undergoing other cardiac surgery
Mitral Stenosis: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
COR LOE
PMBC is reasonable for asymptomatic patients
with very severe MS (MVA ≤1 cm2, stage C) and
IIa
C
favorable valve morphology in the absence of
contraindications
Mitral valve surgery is reasonable for severely
symptomatic patients (NYHA class III/IV) with
IIa
C
severe MS (MVA ≤1.5 cm2, stage D) provided there
are other operative indications
Mitral Stenosis: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
COR LOE
PMBC may be considered for asymptomatic
patients with severe MS (MVA ≤1.5 cm2, stage C)
IIb
C
and favorable valve morphology who have new
onset of AF in the absence of contraindications
PMBC may be considered for symptomatic patients
with MVA >1.5 cm2 if there is evidence of
IIb
C
hemodynamically significant MS during exercise
PMBC may be considered for severely
symptomatic patients (NYHA class III-IV) with
severe MS (MVA ≤1.5 cm2, stage D) who have
IIb
C
suboptimal valve anatomy and are not candidates
for surgery or at high risk for surgery
Mitral Stenosis: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
Concomitant mitral valve surgery might be
considered for patients with moderate MS (MVA
1.6–2.0 cm2) undergoing other cardiac surgery
Mitral valve surgery and excision of the left atrial
appendage may be considered for patients with
severe MS (MVA ≤1.5 cm2, stages C and D) who
have had recurrent embolic events while receiving
adequate anticoagulation
COR LOE
IIb
C
IIb
C
Indications for Intervention for Rheumatic Mitral Stenosis
Stages of Primary Mitral Regurgitation
Stage
A
B
Definition
Valve Anatomy
 Mild mitral valve
prolapse with
normal coaptation
 Mild valve
thickening and
leaflet restriction
Progressive  Severe mitral valve
MR
prolapse with
normal coaptation
 Rheumatic valve
changes with
leaflet restriction
and loss of central
coaptation
 Prior IE
At risk of
MR
Valve Hemodynamics
Hemodynamic Symptoms
Consequences
 No MR jet or small central ● None
● None
jet area <20% LA on
Doppler
 Small vena contracta
<0.3 cm
 Central jet MR 20%–40%  Mild LA
LA or late systolic
enlargement
eccentric jet MR
 No LV
 Vena contracta <0.7 cm
enlargement
 Regurgitant volume
 Normal
<60 cc
pulmonary
 Regurgitant fraction <50%
pressure
 ERO <0.40 cm2
 Angiographic grade 1–2+
●
None
Stages of Primary Mitral Regurgitation (cont.)
Stage
C
Definition
Valve Anatomy
Asymptomatic  Severe mitral valve
severe MR
prolapse with loss
of coaptation or
flail leaflet
 Rheumatic valve
changes with
leaflet restriction
and loss of central
coaptation
 Prior IE
 Thickening of
leaflets with
radiation heart
disease






Valve
Hemodynamics
Central jet MR
>40% LA or
holosystolic
eccentric jet MR
Vena contracta
≥0.7 cm
Regurgitant volume
≥60 cc
Regurgitant fraction
≥50%
ERO ≥0.40 cm2
Angiographic grade
3–4+





Hemodynamic
Symptoms
Consequences
Moderate or
● None
severe LA
enlargement
LV enlargement
Pulmonary
hypertension may
be present at rest
or with exercise
C1: LVEF >60%
and LVESD
<40 mm
C2: LVEF ≤60%
and LVESD
≥40 mm
Stages of Primary Mitral Regurgitation (cont.)
Stage
D
Definition
Valve Anatomy
Symptomatic  Severe mitral valve
severe MR
prolapse with loss
of coaptation or flail
leaflet
 Rheumatic valve
changes with leaflet
restriction and loss
of central
coaptation
 Prior IE
 Thickening of
leaflets with
radiation heart
disease






Valve
Hemodynamic
Hemodynamics
Consequences
Central jet MR
 Moderate or
>40% LA or
severe LA
holosystolic
enlargement
eccentric jet MR
 LV enlargement
Vena contracta
 Pulmonary
≥0.7 cm
hypertension
Regurgitant volume
present
≥60 cc
Regurgitant fraction
≥50%
ERO ≥0.40 cm2
Angiographic grade
3–4+
Symptoms
 Decreased
exercise
tolerance
 Exertional
dyspnea
Stages of Secondary Mitral Regurgitation (cont.)
Grade
A
Definition
At risk of
MR
Valve Anatomy
●
Valve
Hemodynamics
Associated Cardiac
Findings
Normal valve
 No MR jet or
leaflets, chords,
small central
and annulus in a
jet area <20%
patient with
LA on Doppler
coronary disease  Small vena
or a
contracta
cardiomyopathy
<0.30 cm
 Normal or mildly
dilated LV size with
fixed (infarction) or
inducible (ischemia)
regional wall motion
abnormalities
 Primary myocardial
disease with LV
dilation and systolic
dysfunction
Symptoms
●
Symptoms due
to coronary
ischemia or HF
may be present
that respond to
revascularization
and appropriate
medical therapy
Stages of Secondary Mitral Regurgitation (cont.)
Grade
B
Definition
Valve Anatomy
Progressive  Regional wall
MR
motion
abnormalities
with mild
tethering of
mitral leaflet
 Annular dilation
with mild loss of
central
coaptation of the
mitral leaflets
Valve
Associated Cardiac
Hemodynamics
Findings
 ERO <0.20
 Regional wall
cm2
motion
 Regurgitant
abnormalities with
volume <30 cc
reduced LV systolic
function
 LV dilation and
systolic dysfunction
due to primary
myocardial disease
Symptoms
●
Symptoms due
to coronary
ischemia or HF
may be present
that respond to
revascularization
and appropriate
medical therapy
Stages of Secondary Mitral Regurgitation (cont.)
Grade
C
Definition
Valve Anatomy
Valve
Associated
Hemodynamics Cardiac Findings
Asymptomatic  Regional wall
 ERO ≥0.20
 Regional wall
severe MR
motion
cm2
motion
abnormalities
 Regurgitant
abnormalities
and/or LV
volume ≥30 cc
with reduced LV
dilation with
systolic function
severe tethering
 LV dilation and
of mitral leaflet
systolic
 Annular dilation
dysfunction due
with severe loss
to primary
of central
myocardial
coaptation of
disease
the mitral
leaflets
Symptoms
●
Symptoms due
to coronary
ischemia or HF
may be present
that respond to
revascularization
and appropriate
medical therapy
Stages of Secondary Mitral Regurgitation (cont.)
Grade
D
Definition
Valve Anatomy
Symptomatic  Regional wall
severe MR
motion
abnormalities
and/or LV
dilation with
severe
tethering of
mitral leaflet
 Annular
dilation with
severe loss of
central
coaptation of
the mitral
leaflets
Valve
Hemodynamics
 ERO ≥0.20 cm2
 Regurgitant
volume ≥30 cc
Associated
Symptoms
Cardiac Findings
 Regional wall
 HF symptoms
motion
due to MR
abnormalities
persist even after
with reduced LV
revascularization
systolic function
and optimization
 LV dilation and
of medical
systolic
therapy
dysfunction due  Decreased
to primary
exercise
myocardial
tolerance
disease.
 Exertional
dyspnea
Chronic Primary Mitral Regurgitation:
Diagnosis and Follow-Up
Recommendations
COR
TTE is indicated for baseline evaluation of LV
size and function, right ventricular (RV) function
and left atrial size, pulmonary artery pressure,
I
and mechanism and severity of primary MR
(stages A to D) in any patient suspected of having
chronic primary MR
CMR is indicated in patients with chronic primary
MR to assess LV and RV volumes, function, or
I
MR severity and when these issues are not
satisfactorily addressed by TTE
LOE
B
B
Chronic Primary Mitral Regurgitation:
Diagnosis and Follow-Up (cont.)
Recommendations
Intraoperative TEE is indicated to establish the
anatomic basis for chronic primary MR (stages C
and D) and to guide repair
TEE is indicated for evaluation of patients with
chronic primary MR (stages B to D) in whom
noninvasive imaging provides nondiagnostic
information about severity of MR, mechanism of
MR, and/or status of LV function
COR
LOE
I
B
I
C
Chronic Primary Mitral Regurgitation:
Diagnosis and Follow-Up (cont.)
Recommendations
COR
Exercise hemodynamics with either Doppler
echocardiography or cardiac catheterization is
reasonable in symptomatic patients with chronic
IIa
primary MR where there is a discrepancy
between symptoms and the severity of MR at rest
(stages B and C)
Exercise treadmill testing can be useful in
patients with chronic primary MR to establish
IIa
symptom status and exercise tolerance (stages B
and C)
LOE
B
C
Chronic Primary Mitral Regurgitation:
Medical Therapy
Recommendations
Medical therapy for systolic dysfunction is
reasonable in symptomatic patients with chronic
primary MR (stage D) and LVEF less than 60%
in whom surgery is not contemplated
Vasodilator therapy is not indicated for
normotensive asymptomatic patients with
chronic primary MR (stages B and C1) and
normal systolic LV function
COR
LOE
IIa
B
III: No
Benefit
B
Chronic Primary Mitral Regurgitation:
Intervention
Recommendations
MV surgery is recommended for symptomatic
patients with chronic severe primary MR (stage D)
and LVEF >30%
MV surgery is recommended for asymptomatic
patients with chronic severe primary MR and LV
dysfunction (LVEF 30%–60% and/or LVESD ≥40
mm, stage C2)
MV repair is recommended in preference to MVR
when surgical treatment is indicated for patients
with chronic severe primary MR limited to the
posterior leaflet
COR LOE
I
B
I
B
I
B
Chronic Primary Mitral Regurgitation:
Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
MV repair is recommended in preference to MVR
when surgical treatment is indicated for patients
with chronic severe primary MR involving the
anterior leaflet or both leaflets when a successful
and durable repair can be accomplished
Concomitant MV repair or replacement is
indicated in patients with chronic severe primary
MR undergoing other cardiac surgery
COR
LOE
I
B
I
B
Chronic Primary Mitral Regurgitation:
Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
COR LOE
MV repair is reasonable in asymptomatic patients
with chronic severe primary MR (stage C1) with
preserved LV function (LVEF >60% and LVESD <40
mm) in whom the likelihood of a successful and
IIa
B
durable repair without residual MR is >95% with an
expected mortality <1% when performed at a Heart
Valve Center of Excellence
Chronic Primary Mitral Regurgitation:
Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
MV repair is reasonable for asymptomatic
patients with chronic severe nonrheumatic
primary MR (stage C1) and preserved LV
function in whom there is a high likelihood of a
successful and durable repair with 1) new onset
of AF or 2) resting pulmonary hypertension (PA
systolic arterial pressure >50 mm Hg)
Concomitant MV repair is reasonable in patients
with chronic moderate primary MR (stage B)
undergoing other cardiac surgery
COR
LOE
IIa
B
IIa
C
Chronic Primary Mitral Regurgitation:
Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
COR
MV surgery may be considered in symptomatic
patients with chronic severe primary MR and
IIb
LVEF 30% (stage D)
MV repair may be considered in patients with
rheumatic mitral valve disease when surgical
treatment is indicated if a durable and successful
IIb
repair is likely or if the reliability of long-term
anticoagulation management is questionable
LOE
C
B
Chronic Primary Mitral Regurgitation:
Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
Percutaneous MV repair may be considered for
severely symptomatic patients (NYHA class IIIIV) with chronic severe primary MR (stage D)
who have a reasonable life expectancy, but a
prohibitive surgical risk because of severe
comorbidities
MVR should not be performed for the treatment
of isolated severe primary MR limited to less
than one half of the posterior leaflet unless MV
repair has been attempted and was
unsuccessful
COR
LOE
IIb
B
III:
Harm
B
Chronic Secondary Mitral Regurgitation:
Diagnosis and Follow-Up
Recommendations
COR
TTE is useful to establish the etiology of chronic
secondary MR (stages B to D) and the extent and
location of wall motion abnormalities and to assess
I
global LV function, severity of MR, and magnitude of
pulmonary hypertension
Noninvasive imaging (stress nuclear/positron
emission tomography, CMR, or stress
echocardiography), cardiac CT angiography, or
cardiac catheterization, including coronary
I
arteriography, is useful to establish etiology of chronic
secondary MR (stages B to D) and/or to assess
myocardial viability, which in turn may influence
management of functional MR
LOE
C
C
Chronic Secondary Mitral Regurgitation:
Medical Therapy
Recommendations
COR LOE
Patients with chronic secondary MR (stages B to D)
and HF with reduced LVEF should receive standard
GDMT therapy for HF, including ACE inhibitors,
I
A
ARBs, beta blockers, and/or aldosterone antagonists
as indicated
Noninvasive imaging (stress nuclear/positron
emission tomography, CMR, or stress
echocardiography), cardiac CT angiography, or
cardiac catheterization, including coronary
I
A
arteriography, is useful to establish etiology of chronic
secondary MR (stages B to D) and/or to assess
myocardial viability, which in turn may influence
management of functional MR
Chronic Severe Secondary Mitral
Regurgitation: Intervention
Recommendations
MV surgery is reasonable for patients with chronic
severe secondary MR (stages C and D) who are
undergoing CABG or AVR
MV surgery may be considered for severely
symptomatic patients (NYHA class III-IV) with
chronic severe secondary MR (stage D)
MV repair may be considered for patients with
chronic moderate secondary MR (stage B) who are
undergoing other cardiac surgery
COR LOE
IIa
C
IIb
B
IIb
C
Indications for Surgery for Mitral Regurgitation
Stages of Tricuspid Regurgitation
Stage Definition
A
At risk of
TR
Valve Anatomy
Primary
 Mild rheumatic change
 Mild prolapse
 Other (e.g., IE with
vegetation, early
carcinoid deposition,
radiation)
 Intra-annular RV
pacemaker or ICD lead
 Postcardiac transplant
(biopsy-related)
Functional
 Normal
 Early annular dilation
Valve
Hemodynamics
● No or trace TR
Hemodynamic
Consequences
● None
Symptoms
●
None or in
relation to other
left heart or
pulmonary/
pulmonary
vascular
disease
Stages of Tricuspid Regurgitation (cont.)
Stage
B
Definition
Valve
Anatomy
Progressive Primary
TR
 Progressive
leaflet
deterioration/
destruction
 Moderate-tosevere
prolapse,
limited
chordal
rupture
Functional
 Early
annular
dilation
 Moderate
leaflet
tethering
Valve Hemodynamics
Hemodynamic
Consequences
Mild TR
Mild TR
 Central jet area <5 cm2
 RV/RA/IVC size
 Vena contracta width not
normal
defined
Moderate TR
 CW jet density and contour:  No RV
soft and parabolic
enlargement
 Hepatic vein flow: systolic
 No or mild RA
dominance
enlargement
Moderate TR
 No or mild IVC
 Central jet area 5–10 cm2
enlargement with
 Vena contracta width not
normal
defined, but <0.70 cm
respirophasic
 CW jet density and contour:
variation
dense, variable contour
 Normal RA
 Hepatic vein flow: systolic
pressure
blunting
Symptoms
●
None or in
relation to
other left
heart or
pulmonary/
pulmonary
vascular
disease
Stages of Tricuspid Regurgitation (cont.)
Stage
C
Definition
Valve Anatomy
Valve
Hemodynamic
Hemodynamics
Consequences
Asymptomatic, Primary
 Central jet area  RV/RA/IVC dilated
severe TR
 Flail or grossly
>10 cm2
with decreased IVC
distorted leaflets  Vena contracta
respirophasic
Functional
width >0.7 cm
variation
 Severe annular  CW jet density  Elevation RA
dilation (>40 mm
and contour:
pressure with “c-V”
2
or 21 mm/m )
dense, triangular wave
 Marked leaflet
with early peak  Diastolic
tethering
 Hepatic vein
interventricular septal
flow: systolic
flattening may be
reversal
present
Symptoms
●
None, or in
relation to
other left
heart or
pulmonary/
pulmonary
vascular
disease
Stages of Tricuspid Regurgitation (cont.)
Stage
D
Definition
Symptomatic
severe TR
Valve Anatomy
Valve
Hemodynamics
Primary
 Central jet area
 Flail or grossly
>10 cm2
distorted leaflets  Vena contracta
Functional
width >0.70 cm
 Severe annular  CW jet density
dilation (>40 mm
and contour:
2
or >21 mm/m )
dense, triangular
 Marked leaflet
with early peak
tethering
 Hepatic vein
flow: systolic
reversal




Hemodynamic
Consequences
RV/RA/IVC dilated
with decreased IVC
respirophasic
variation
Elevation RA
pressure with “c-V”
wave
Diastolic
interventricular septal
flattening
Reduced RV systolic
function in late phase
Symptoms
●
Fatigue,
palpitations,
dyspnea,
abdominal
bloating,
anorexia,
edema
Tricuspid Regurgitation: Diagnosis and
Follow-Up
Recommendations
TTE is indicated to evaluate severity of TR,
determine etiology, measure sizes of right-sided
chambers and inferior vena cava, assess RV
systolic function, estimate pulmonary artery
systolic pressure, and characterize any
associated left-sided heart disease
Invasive measurement of pulmonary artery
pressures and pulmonary vascular resistance
can be useful in patients with TR when clinical
and noninvasive data regarding their values are
discordant
COR
LOE
I
C
IIa
C
Tricuspid Regurgitation: Diagnosis and
Follow-Up (cont.)
Recommendations
CMR or real-time 3-dimensional
echocardiography may be considered for
assessment of RV systolic function and systolic
and diastolic volumes in patients with severe
TR (stages C and D) and suboptimal 2dimensional echocardiograms
Exercise testing may be considered for the
assessment of exercise capacity in patients
with severe TR with no or minimal symptoms
(stage C)
COR
LOE
IIb
C
IIb
C
Tricuspid Regurgitation: Medical Therapy
Recommendations
Diuretics can be useful for patients with severe
TR and signs of right-sided HF (stage D)
Medical therapies to reduce elevated
pulmonary artery pressures and/or pulmonary
vascular resistance might be considered in
patients with severe functional TR (stages C
and D)
COR
LOE
IIa
C
IIb
C
Tricuspid Regurgitation: Intervention
Recommendations
Tricuspid valve surgery is recommended for
patients with severe TR (stages C and D)
undergoing left-sided valve surgery
Tricuspid valve repair can be beneficial for
patients with mild, moderate, or greater
functional TR (stage B) at the time of left-sided
valve surgery with either 1) tricuspid annular
dilation or 2) prior evidence of right HF
Tricuspid valve surgery can be beneficial for
patients with symptoms due to severe primary
TR that are unresponsive to medical therapy
(stage D)
COR
LOE
I
C
IIa
B
IIa
C
Tricuspid Regurgitation: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
Tricuspid valve repair may be considered for
patients with moderate functional TR (stage B)
and pulmonary artery hypertension at the time
of left-sided valve surgery
Tricuspid valve surgery may be considered for
asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic
patients with severe primary TR (stage C) and
progressive degrees of moderate or greater RV
dilation and/or systolic dysfunction
COR
LOE
IIb
C
IIb
C
Tricuspid Regurgitation: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
Reoperation for isolated tricuspid valve repair
or replacement may be considered for
persistent symptoms due to severe TR (stage
D) in patients who have undergone previous
left-sided valve surgery and who do not have
severe pulmonary hypertension or significant
RV systolic dysfunction
COR
LOE
IIb
C
Indications for Surgery for Tricuspid Regurgitation
Severe Tricuspid Stenosis Stages
Stages
C, D
Definition
Valve
Valve Hemodynamics
Anatomy
Severe TS  Thickened,  T ½ ≥190 msec
distorted,
 Valve area ≤1 cm2
calcified
leaflets
Hemodynamic
Consequences
● RA/IVC
enlargement
Symptoms
●
None or variable
and dependent
on severity of
associated valve
disease and
degree of
obstruction
Tricuspid Stenosis: Diagnosis and Follow-Up
Recommendations
TTE is indicated in patients with TS to assess
the anatomy of the valve complex, evaluate
severity of stenosis, and characterize any
associated regurgitation and/or left-sided valve
disease
Invasive hemodynamic assessment of severity
of TS may be considered in symptomatic
patients when clinical and noninvasive data are
discordant
COR
LOE
I
C
IIb
C
Tricuspid Stenosis: Intervention
Recommendations
Tricuspid valve surgery is recommended for
patients with severe TS at the time of operation
for left-sided valve disease
COR
LOE
I
C
Tricuspid valve surgery is recommended for
patients with isolated, symptomatic severe TS
I
C
Percutaneous balloon tricuspid
commissurotomy might be considered in
patients with isolated, symptomatic severe TS
without accompanying TR
IIb
C
Severe Pulmonic Regurgitation Stages
Stages Definition
C, D
Severe
PR
Valve
Anatomy
 Distorted or
absent
leaflets,
annular
dilation
Valve
Hemodynamic
Hemodynamics
Consequences
 Color jet fills
 Paradoxical septal
RVOT
motion (volume
 CW jet density
overload pattern)
and contour:
 RV enlargement
dense laminar flow
with steep
deceleration
slope; may
terminate abruptly
Symptoms
●
None or
variable and
dependent on
cause of PR
and RV
function
Severe Pulmonic Stenosis Stages
Stages
Definition
C, D
Severe
PS
Valve Anatomy
 Thickened,
distorted, possibly
calcified leaflets
with systolic
doming and/or
reduced excursion
 Other anatomic
abnormalities may
be present, such as
narrowed RVOT
●
Valve
Hemodynamics
Vmax >4 m/s; peak
instantaneous
gradient >64 mm
Hg
Hemodynamic
Consequences
 RVH
 Possible RV,
RA
enlargement
 Poststenotic
enlargement of
main PA
Symptoms
●
None or
variable and
dependent
on severity of
obstruction
Prosthetic Valve: Diagnosis and Follow-Up
Recommendations
COR LOE
An initial TTE study is recommended in patients
after prosthetic valve implantation for evaluation
I
B
of valve hemodynamics
Repeat TTE is recommended in patients with
prosthetic heart valves if there is a change in
I
C
clinical symptoms or signs suggesting valve
dysfunction
TEE is recommended when clinical symptoms or
I
C
signs suggest prosthetic valve dysfunction
Annual TTE is reasonable in patients with a
bioprosthetic valve after the first 10 years, even in IIa
C
the absence of a change in clinical status
Prosthetic Valve: Intervention
Recommendations
COR LOE
Choice of valve intervention and prosthetic valve
I
C
type should be a shared decision process
A bioprosthesis is recommended in patients of any
age for whom anticoagulant therapy is
I
C
contraindicated, cannot be managed appropriately,
or is not desired
A mechanical prosthesis is reasonable for AVR or
MVR in patients <60 years of age who do not have
IIa
B
a contraindication to anticoagulation
Prosthetic Valve: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
COR LOE
A bioprosthesis is reasonable in patients >70 years
IIa
B
of age
Either a bioprosthetic or mechanical valve is
reasonable in patients between 60 years of age
IIa
B
and 70 years of age
Replacement of the aortic valve by a pulmonary
autograft (the Ross procedure), when performed by
an experienced surgeon, may be considered in
IIb
C
young patients when VKA anticoagulation is
contraindicated or undesirable
Antithrombotic Therapy for Prosthetic Valves
Recommendations
Anticoagulation with a VKA and international
normalized ratio (INR) monitoring is
recommended in patients with a mechanical
prosthetic valve
Anticoagulation with a VKA to achieve an INR
of 2.5 is recommended in patients with a
mechanical AVR (bileaflet or current-generation
single tilting disc) and no risk factors for
thromboembolism
COR
LOE
I
A
I
B
Antithrombotic Therapy for Prosthetic Valves (cont.)
Recommendations
Anticoagulation with a VKA is indicated to
achieve an INR of 3.0 in patients with a
mechanical AVR and additional risk factors
for thromboembolic events (AF, previous
thromboembolism, LV dysfunction, or
hypercoagulable conditions) or an oldergeneration mechanical AVR (such as ball-incage)
Anticoagulation with a VKA is indicated to
achieve an INR of 3.0 in patients with a
mechanical MVR
COR
LOE
I
B
I
B
Antithrombotic Therapy for Prosthetic Valves (cont.)
Recommendations
Aspirin 75 mg to 100 mg daily is recommended
in addition to anticoagulation with a VKA in
patients with a mechanical valve prosthesis
Aspirin 75 mg to 100 mg per day is reasonable
in all patients with a bioprosthetic aortic or
mitral valve
Anticoagulation with a VKA is reasonable for
the first 3 months after bioprosthetic MVR or
repair to achieve an INR of 2.5
COR
LOE
I
A
IIa
B
IIa
C
Antithrombotic Therapy for Prosthetic Valves (cont.)
Recommendations
Anticoagulation, with a VKA, to achieve an INR
of 2.5 may be reasonable for the first 3 months
after bioprosthetic AVR
Clopidogrel 75 mg daily may be reasonable for
the first 6 months after TAVR in addition to lifelong aspirin 75 mg to 100 mg daily
Anticoagulant therapy with oral direct thrombin
inhibitors or anti-Xa agents should not be used
in patients with mechanical valve prostheses
COR
LOE
IIb
B
IIb
C
III:
Harm
B
Bridging Therapy for Prosthetic Valves
Recommendations
Continuation of VKA anticoagulation with a
therapeutic INR is recommended in patients
with mechanical heart valves undergoing minor
procedures (such as dental extractions or
cataract removal) where bleeding is easily
controlled
Temporary interruption of VKA anticoagulation,
without bridging agents while the INR is
subtherapeutic, is recommended in patients
with a bileaflet mechanical AVR and no other
risk factors for thrombosis who are undergoing
invasive or surgical procedures
COR
LOE
I
C
I
C
Bridging Therapy for Prosthetic Valves (cont.)
Recommendations
Bridging anticoagulation with either
intravenous unfractionated heparin (UFH) or
subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin
(LMWH) is recommended during the time
interval when the INR is subtherapeutic
preoperatively in patients who are undergoing
invasive or surgical procedures with a 1)
mechanical AVR and any thromboembolic risk
factor, 2) older-generation mechanical AVR, or
3) mechanical MVR
COR
LOE
I
C
Bridging Therapy for Prosthetic Valves (cont.)
Recommendations
Administration of fresh frozen plasma or
prothrombin complex concentrate is
reasonable in patients with mechanical valves
receiving VKA therapy who require emergency
noncardiac surgery or invasive procedures
COR
LOE
IIa
C
Excess Anticoagulation and Serious Bleeding With
Prosthetic Valves
Recommendations
Administration of fresh frozen plasma or
prothrombin complex concentrate is reasonable
in patients with mechanical valves and
uncontrollable bleeding who require reversal of
anticoagulation
COR
LOE
IIa
B
Anticoagulation for Prosthetic Valves
Prosthetic Valve Thrombosis: Diagnosis and
Follow-Up
Recommendations
COR LOE
TTE is indicated in patients with suspected
prosthetic valve thrombosis to assess hemodynamic
I
B
severity and follow resolution of valve dysfunction
TEE is indicated in patients with suspected
prosthetic valve thrombosis to assess thrombus size
I
B
and valve motion
Fluoroscopy or CT is reasonable in patients with
IIa
C
suspected valve thrombosis to assess valve motion
Prosthetic Valve Thrombosis: Medical Therapy
Recommendations
Fibrinolytic therapy is reasonable for patients
with a thrombosed left-sided prosthetic heart
valve, recent onset (<14 days) of NYHA class I
to II symptoms, and a small thrombus
Fibrinolytic therapy is reasonable for
thrombosed right-sided prosthetic heart
COR
LOE
IIa
B
IIa
B
Prosthetic Valve Thrombosis: Intervention
Recommendations
Emergency surgery is recommended for
patients with a thrombosed left-sided
prosthetic heart valve with NYHA class III to IV
symptoms
Emergency surgery is reasonable for patients
with a thrombosed left-sided prosthetic heart
valve with a mobile or large thrombus (>0.8
cm2)
COR
LOE
I
B
IIa
C
Evaluation and Management of Suspected Prosthetic Valve Thrombosis
Suspected Prosthetic Valve
Thrombosis
Class I
Class IIa
TTE to evaluate
hemodynamic severity
(I)
Left-sided prosthetic valve
thrombosis
CT or fluoroscopy to evaluate
valve motion
(IIa)
Right-sided prosthetic valve
thrombosis
TEE for thrombus size
(I)
NYHA class III-IV
symptoms
Mobile or large
(≥0.8 cm2) thrombus
Emergency Surgery
(I)
Emergency Surgery
(IIa)
Recent onset (<14 d)
NYHA class I-II symptoms
Small thrombus (<0.8 cm2)
Fibrinolytic Rx if persistent valve thrombosis after
IV heparin therapy*
(IIa)
Prosthetic Valve Stenosis
Recommendations
Repeat valve replacement is indicated for
severe symptomatic prosthetic valve stenosis
COR
LOE
I
C
Prosthetic Valve Regurgitation
Recommendations
Surgery is recommended for operable patients with
mechanical heart valves with intractable hemolysis
or HF due to severe prosthetic or paraprosthetic
regurgitation
Surgery is reasonable for operable patients with
severe symptomatic or asymptomatic bioprosthetic
regurgitation
Percutaneous repair of paravalvular regurgitation is
reasonable in patients with prosthetic heart valves
and intractable hemolysis or NYHA class III/IV HF
who are at high risk for surgery and have anatomic
features suitable for catheter-based therapy when
performed in centers with expertise in the procedure
COR
LOE
I
B
IIa
C
IIa
B
Imaging Studies in Native Valve Endocarditis and
Prosthetic Valve Endocarditis
Infective Endocarditis: Diagnosis and Follow-Up
Recommendations
COR LOE
At least 2 sets of blood cultures should be obtained
in patients at risk for IE (e.g., those with congenital
or acquired VHD, previous IE, prosthetic heart
I
B
valves, certain congenital or heritable heart
malformations, immunodeficiency states, or injection
drug users) who have unexplained fever for more
than 48 hours
At least 2 sets of blood cultures should be obtained
I
C
in patients with newly diagnosed left-sided valve
regurgitation
The Modified Duke Criteria should be used in
I
B
evaluating a patient with suspected IE (Tables 24
and 25 in the full-text guideline)
Infective Endocarditis: Diagnosis and
Follow-Up (cont.)
Recommendations
COR LOE
Patients with IE should be evaluated and managed
with consultation of a multispecialty Heart Valve Team
including an infectious disease specialist, cardiologist,
I
B
and cardiac surgeon. In surgically managed patients,
this team should also include a cardiac
anesthesiologist
TTE is recommended in patients with suspected IE to
identify vegetations, characterize the hemodynamic
I
B
severity of valvular lesions, assess ventricular
function and pulmonary pressures, and detect
complications
Infective Endocarditis: Diagnosis and
Follow-Up (cont.)
Recommendations
COR LOE
TEE is recommended in all patients with known or
suspected IE when TTE is nondiagnostic, when
I
B
complications have developed or are clinically
suspected, or when intracardiac device leads are
present
TTE and/or TEE are recommended for reevaluation of
patients with IE who have a change in clinical signs or
symptoms (e.g., new murmur, embolism, persistent
I
B
fever, HF, abscess, or atrioventricular heart block) and in
patients at high risk of complications (e.g., extensive
infected tissue/large vegetation on initial echocardiogram
or staphylococcal, enterococcal, or fungal infections)
Infective Endocarditis: Diagnosis and
Follow-Up (cont.)
Recommendations
Intraoperative TEE is recommended for patients
undergoing valve surgery for IE
TEE is reasonable to diagnose possible IE in
patients with Staphylococcal aureus bacteremia
without a known source
TEE is reasonable to diagnose IE of a prosthetic
valve in the presence of persistent fever without
bacteremia or a new murmur
COR
LOE
I
B
IIa
B
IIa
B
Infective Endocarditis: Diagnosis and
Follow-Up (cont.)
Recommendations
Cardiac CT is reasonable to evaluate
morphology/anatomy in the setting of suspected
paravalvular infections when the anatomy cannot
be clearly delineated by echocardiography
TEE might be considered to detect concomitant
staphylococcal IE in nosocomial Staphylococcal
aureus bacteremia with a known portal of entry
from an extracardiac source
COR
LOE
IIa
B
IIb
B
Infective Endocarditis: Medical Therapy
Recommendations
COR
Appropriate antibiotic therapy should be initiated
and continued after blood cultures are obtained
I
with guidance from antibiotic sensitivity data and
infectious disease consultants
It is reasonable to temporarily discontinue
anticoagulation in patients with IE who develop
central nervous system symptoms compatible with IIa
embolism or stroke regardless of the other
indications for anticoagulation
LOE
B
B
Infective Endocarditis: Medical Therapy (cont.)
Recommendations
Temporary discontinuation of VKA
anticoagulation might be considered in
patients receiving VKA anticoagulation at the
time of IE diagnosis
Patients with known VHD should not receive
antibiotics before blood cultures are obtained
for unexplained fever
COR
LOE
IIb
B
III: Harm
C
Infective Endocarditis: Intervention
Recommendations
Decisions about timing of surgical intervention
should be made by a multispecialty Heart Valve
Team of cardiology, cardiothoracic surgery, and
infectious disease
Early surgery (during initial hospitalization
before completion of a full therapeutic course of
antibiotics) is indicated in patients with IE who
present with valve dysfunction resulting in
symptoms of HF
COR
LOE
I
B
I
B
Infective Endocarditis: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
Early surgery (during initial hospitalization
before completion of a full therapeutic course of
antibiotics) is indicated in patients with left-sided
IE caused by Staphylococcal aureus, fungal, or
other highly resistant organisms
Early surgery (during initial hospitalization
before completion of a full therapeutic course of
antibiotics) is indicated in patients with IE
complicated by heart block, annular or aortic
abscess, or destructive penetrating lesions
COR
LOE
I
B
I
B
Infective Endocarditis: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
COR LOE
Early surgery (during initial hospitalization before
completion of a full therapeutic course of
antibiotics) for IE is indicated in patients with
evidence of persistent infection as manifested by
I
B
persistent bacteremia or fevers lasting longer than
5 to 7 days after onset of appropriate antimicrobial
therapy
Surgery is recommended for patients with
prosthetic valve endocarditis and relapsing infection
(defined as recurrence of bacteremia after a
I
C
complete course of appropriate antibiotics and
subsequently negative blood cultures) without other
identifiable source for portal of infection
Infective Endocarditis: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
COR
Complete removal of pacemaker or defibrillator
systems, including all leads and the generator, is
indicated as part of the early management plan
I
in patients with IE with documented infection of
the device or leads
Complete removal of pacemaker or defibrillator
systems, including all leads and the generator, is
reasonable in patients with valvular IE caused by
IIa
Staphylococcal aureus or fungi, even without
evidence of device or lead infection
LOE
B
B
Infective Endocarditis: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
Complete removal of pacemaker or
defibrillator systems, including all leads and
the generator, is reasonable in patients
undergoing valve surgery for valvular IE
Early surgery (during initial hospitalization
before completion of a full therapeutic course
of antibiotics) is reasonable in patients with IE
who present with recurrent emboli and
persistent vegetations despite appropriate
antibiotic therapy
COR
LOE
IIa
C
IIa
B
Infective Endocarditis: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
Early surgery (during initial hospitalization before
completion of a full therapeutic course of
antibiotics) may be considered in patients with
native valve endocarditis who exhibit mobile
vegetations greater than 10 mm in length (with
or without clinical evidence of embolic
phenomenon)
COR
LOE
IIb
B
Diagnosis and Treatment of Infective Endocarditis
Native Valve Stenosis
Recommendations
All patients with suspected valve stenosis should
undergo a clinical evaluation and TTE before
pregnancy
All patients with severe valve stenosis (stages C
and D) should undergo prepregnancy counseling
by a cardiologist with expertise in managing
patients with VHD during pregnancy
COR
LOE
I
C
I
C
Native Valve Stenosis (cont.)
Recommendations
All patients referred for a valve operation before
pregnancy should receive prepregnancy
counseling by a cardiologist with expertise in
managing patients with VHD during pregnancy
about the risks and benefits of all options for
operative interventions, including mechanical
prosthesis, bioprosthesis, and valve repair
Pregnant patients with severe valve stenosis
(stages C and D) should be monitored in a tertiary
care center with a dedicated Heart Valve Team of
cardiologists, surgeons, anesthesiologists, and
obstetricians with expertise in the management of
high-risk cardiac patients during pregnancy
COR LOE
I
C
I
C
Pregnancy and VHD: Diagnosis and
Follow-Up
Recommendations
Exercise testing is reasonable in asymptomatic
patients with severe AS (aortic velocity ≥4 m per
second or mean pressure gradient ≥40 mm Hg,
stage C) before pregnancy
COR
LOE
IIa
C
Pregnancy and VHD: Medical Therapy
Recommendations
COR
Anticoagulation should be given to pregnant
I
patients with MS and AF unless contraindicated
Use of beta blockers as required for rate
control is reasonable for pregnant patients with
IIa
MS in the absence of contraindication if
tolerated
Use of diuretics may be reasonable for
pregnant patients with MS and HF symptoms
IIb
(stage D)
ACE inhibitors and ARBs should not be given
III:
to pregnant patients with valve stenosis
Harm
LOE
C
C
C
B
Pregnancy and VHD: Intervention
Recommendations
Valve intervention is recommended before
pregnancy for symptomatic patients with severe
AS (aortic velocity ≥4.0 m per second or mean
pressure gradient ≥40 mm Hg, stage D)
Valve intervention is recommended before
pregnancy for symptomatic patients with severe
MS (mitral valve area ≤1.5 cm2, stage D)
Percutaneous mitral balloon commissurotomy is
recommended before pregnancy for
asymptomatic patients with severe MS (mitral
valve area ≤1.5 cm2, stage C) who have valve
morphology favorable for percutaneous mitral
balloon commissurotomy
COR LOE
I
C
I
C
I
C
Pregnancy and VHD: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
COR LOE
Valve intervention is reasonable before pregnancy
for asymptomatic patients with severe AS (aortic
IIa
C
velocity ≥4.0 m per second or mean pressure
gradient ≥40 mm Hg, stage C)
Percutaneous mitral balloon commissurotomy is
reasonable for pregnant patients with severe MS
(mitral valve area ≤1.5 cm2, stage D) with valve
morphology favorable for percutaneous mitral
IIa
B
balloon commissurotomy who remain
symptomatic with NYHA class III to IV HF
symptoms despite medical therapy
Pregnancy and VHD: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
COR LOE
Valve intervention is reasonable for pregnant
patients with severe MS (mitral valve area ≤1.5
cm2, stage D) and valve morphology not favorable
IIa
C
for percutaneous mitral balloon commissurotomy
only if there are refractory NYHA class IV HF
symptoms
Valve intervention is reasonable for pregnant
patients with severe AS (mean pressure gradient
≥40 mm Hg, stage D) only if there is
IIa
B
hemodynamic deterioration or NYHA class III to IV
HF symptoms
Pregnancy and VHD: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
Valve operation should not be performed in
pregnant patients with valve stenosis in the
absence of severe HF symptoms
COR
LOE
III: Harm
C
Native Valve Regurgitation: Diagnosis
and Follow-Up
Recommendations
All patients with suspected valve regurgitation
should undergo a clinical evaluation and TTE
before pregnancy
All patients with severe valve regurgitation
(stages C and D) should undergo
prepregnancy counseling by a cardiologist
with expertise in managing patients with VHD
during pregnancy
COR
LOE
I
C
I
C
Native Valve Regurgitation: Diagnosis
and Follow-Up (cont.)
Recommendations
All patients referred for a valve operation
before pregnancy should receive prepregnancy
counseling by a cardiologist with expertise in
managing patients with VHD during pregnancy
regarding the risks and benefits of all options
for operative interventions, including
mechanical prosthesis, bioprosthesis, and
valve repair
COR
LOE
I
C
Native Valve Regurgitation: Diagnosis
and Follow-Up (cont.)
Recommendations
Pregnant patients with severe regurgitation
(stages C and D) should be monitored in a
tertiary care center with a dedicated Heart
Valve Team of cardiologists, surgeons,
anesthesiologists, and obstetricians with
expertise in managing high-risk cardiac
patients
Exercise testing is reasonable in
asymptomatic patients with severe valve
regurgitation (stage C) before pregnancy
COR
LOE
I
C
IIa
C
Native Valve Regurgitation: Medical
Therapy
Recommendations
ACE inhibitors and ARBs should not be
given to pregnant patients with valve
COR
LOE
III: Harm
B
Native Valve Regurgitation: Intervention
Recommendations
Valve repair or replacement is recommended
before pregnancy for symptomatic women with
severe valve regurgitation (stage D)
Valve operation for pregnant patients with
severe valve regurgitation is reasonable only if
there are refractory NYHA class IV HF
symptoms (stage D)
COR
LOE
I
C
IIa
C
Native Valve Regurgitation:
Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
COR
Valve repair before pregnancy may be
considered in the asymptomatic patient with
severe MR (stage C) and a valve suitable for
valve repair, but only after detailed discussion
IIb
with the patient about the risks and benefits of
the operation and its outcome on future
pregnancies
Valve operations should not be performed in
pregnant patients with valve regurgitation in
III: Harm
the absence of severe intractable HF
symptoms
LOE
C
C
Prosthetic Valves in Pregnancy:
Diagnosis and Follow-Up
Recommendations
All patients with a prosthetic valve should
undergo a clinical evaluation and baseline TTE
before pregnancy
All patients with a prosthetic valve should
undergo prepregnancy counseling by a
cardiologist with expertise in managing
patients with VHD during pregnancy.
TTE should be performed in all pregnant
patients with a prosthetic valve if not done
before pregnancy
COR
LOE
I
C
I
C
I
C
Prosthetic Valves in Pregnancy:
Diagnosis and Follow-Up (cont.)
Recommendations
Repeat TTE should be performed in all
pregnant patients with a prosthetic valve who
develop symptoms
TEE should be performed in all pregnant
patients with a mechanical prosthetic valve
who have prosthetic valve obstruction or
experience an embolic event
COR
LOE
I
C
I
C
Prosthetic Valves in Pregnancy:
Diagnosis and Follow-Up (cont.)
Recommendations
Pregnant patients with a mechanical
prosthesis should be monitored in a tertiary
care center with a dedicated Heart Valve Team
of cardiologists, surgeons, anesthesiologists,
and obstetricians with expertise in the
management of high-risk cardiac patients
COR
LOE
I
C
Prosthetic Valves in Pregnancy: Medical
Therapy
Recommendations
COR
Therapeutic anticoagulation with frequent
monitoring is recommended for all pregnant
I
patients with a mechanical prosthesis
Warfarin is recommended in pregnant patients
with a mechanical prosthesis to achieve a
I
therapeutic INR in the second and third trimesters
Discontinuation of warfarin with initiation of
intravenous UFH (with an activated partial
thromboplastin time [aPTT] >2 times control) is
I
recommended before planned vaginal delivery in
pregnant patients with a mechanical prosthesis
LOE
B
B
C
Prosthetic Valves in Pregnancy: Medical
Therapy (cont.)
Recommendations
COR LOE
Low-dose aspirin (75 mg to 100 mg) once per day
is recommended for pregnant patients in the
I
C
second and third trimesters with either a
mechanical prosthesis or bioprosthesis
Continuation of warfarin during the first trimester is
reasonable for pregnant patients with a mechanical
prosthesis if the dose of warfarin to achieve a
IIa
B
therapeutic INR is 5 mg per day or less after full
discussion with the patient about risks and benefits
Prosthetic Valves in Pregnancy: Medical
Therapy (cont.)
Recommendations
COR LOE
Dose-adjusted LMWH at least 2 times per day (with a
target anti-Xa level of 0.8 U/mL to 1.2 U/mL, 4 to 6
hours postdose) during the first trimester is reasonable
IIa
B
for pregnant patients with a mechanical prosthesis if the
dose of warfarin is greater than 5 mg per day to achieve
a therapeutic INR
Dose-adjusted continuous intravenous UFH (with an
aPTT at least 2 times control) during the first trimester
is reasonable for pregnant patients with a mechanical
IIa
B
prosthesis if the dose of warfarin is greater than 5 mg
per day to achieve a therapeutic INR
Prosthetic Valves in Pregnancy: Medical
Therapy (cont.)
Recommendations
COR LOE
Dose-adjusted LMWH at least 2 times per day (with
a target anti-Xa level of 0.8 U/mL to 1.2 U/mL, 4 to 6
hours postdose) during the first trimester may be
IIb
B
reasonable for pregnant patients with a mechanical
prosthesis if the dose of warfarin is 5 mg per day or
less to achieve a therapeutic INR
Dose-adjusted continuous infusion of UFH (with
aPTT at least 2 times control) during the first
trimester may be reasonable for pregnant patients
IIb
B
with a mechanical prosthesis if the dose of warfarin
is 5 mg per day or less to achieve a therapeutic INR
Prosthetic Valves in Pregnancy: Medical
Therapy (cont.)
Recommendations
LMWH should not be administered to pregnant
patients with mechanical prostheses unless
anti-Xa levels are monitored 4 to 6 hours after
administration
COR
LOE
III:
Harm
B
Anticoagulation of Pregnant Patients With Mechanical Valves
Evaluation of Coronary Anatomy
Recommendations
Coronary angiography is indicated before valve
intervention in patients with symptoms of
angina, objective evidence of ischemia,
decreased LV systolic function, history of CAD,
or coronary risk factors (including men age >40
years and postmenopausal women)
Coronary angiography should be performed as
part of the evaluation of patients with chronic
severe secondary MR
COR
LOE
I
C
I
C
Evaluation of Coronary Anatomy (cont.)
Recommendations
Surgery without coronary angiography is
reasonable for patients having emergency
valve surgery for acute valve regurgitation,
disease of the aortic sinuses or ascending
aorta, or IE
CT coronary angiography is reasonable to
exclude the presence of significant obstructive
CAD in selected patients with a
low/intermediate pretest probability of CAD. A
positive coronary CT angiogram (the presence
of any epicardial CAD) can be confirmed with
invasive coronary angiography
COR
LOE
IIa
C
IIa
B
Coronary Artery Disease: Intervention
Recommendations
CABG or percutaneous coronary intervention
is reasonable in patients undergoing valve
repair or replacement with significant CAD
(≥70% reduction in luminal diameter in major
coronary arteries or ≥50% reduction in
luminal diameter in the left main coronary
artery
COR
LOE
IIa
C
Evaluation and Management of Coronary Artery Disease in
Patients Undergoing Valve Surgery
Atrial Fibrillation: Intervention
Recommendations
COR LOE
A concomitant maze procedure is reasonable at
the time of mitral valve repair or replacement for
IIa
C
treatment of chronic, persistent AF
A full bi-atrial maze procedure, when technically
feasible, is reasonable at the time of mitral valve
IIa
B
surgery, compared with a lesser ablation
procedure, in patients with chronic, persistent AF
A concomitant maze procedure or pulmonary vein
isolation may be considered at the time of mitral
valve repair or replacement in patients with
IIb
C
paroxysmal AF that is symptomatic or associated
with a history of embolism on anticoagulation
Atrial Fibrillation: Intervention (cont.)
Recommendations
COR LOE
Concomitant maze procedure or pulmonary vein
isolation may be considered at the time of
cardiac surgical procedures other than mitral
IIb
C
valve surgery in patients with paroxysmal or
persistent AF that is symptomatic or associated
with a history of emboli on anticoagulation
Catheter ablation for AF should not be
performed in patients with severe MR when
III: No
mitral repair or replacement is anticipated, with
B
Benefit
preference for the combined maze procedure
plus mitral valve repair
Noncardiac Surgery in Patients With VHD
Recommendations
Moderate-risk elective noncardiac surgery with
appropriate intraoperative and postoperative
hemodynamic monitoring is reasonable to
perform in patients with asymptomatic severe
AS
Moderate-risk elective noncardiac surgery with
appropriate intraoperative and postoperative
hemodynamic monitoring is reasonable to
perform in patients with asymptomatic severe
MR
COR
LOE
IIa
B
IIa
C
Noncardiac Surgery in Patients
With VHD (cont.)
Recommendations
Moderate-risk elective noncardiac surgery with
appropriate intraoperative and postoperative
hemodynamic monitoring is reasonable to
perform in patients with asymptomatic severe
AR and a normal LVEF
Moderate-risk elective noncardiac surgery in
patients with appropriate intraoperative and
postoperative hemodynamic monitoring may be
reasonable to perform in asymptomatic patients
with severe MS if valve morphology is not
favorable for percutaneous balloon mitral
commissurotomy
COR
LOE
IIa
C
IIb
C