Karyotype and cytogeography of the genus Heracleum (Apiaceae
Transcription
Karyotype and cytogeography of the genus Heracleum (Apiaceae
JSE jse_031 Dispatch: 5-22-2009 CE: Journal MSP No. No. of pages: 14 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 Journal of Systematics and Evolution 47 (4): 1–14 (2009) PE: Rod doi: 10.1111/j.1759-6831.2009.00031.x Karyotype and cytogeography of the genus Heracleum (Apiaceae) in the Hengduan Mountains ∗ Xian-Lan DENG Xing-Jin HE Wei-Lue HE Yun-Dong GAO Yu-Cheng ZHANG Hai-Yan LIU (Laboratory of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, College of Life Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China) Abstract In the present study, the karyotypes of 34 populations belonging to 11 species and one variety of Heracleum from the Hengduan Mountains in China were examined. Chromosome numbers and the karyotypes of three species (H. souliei, H. kingdoni, and H.wenchuanense) are reported for the first time, as are the karyotypes of H. moellendorffii and H. henryi (tetraploid). Populations of H. candicans, H. franchetii, and H. kingdoni in the Hengduan Mountains were found to consist of a mixture of diploid and tetraploid plants. Except for four species of Heracleum, namely H. candicans, H. franchetii, H. henryi, and H. kingdoni, which have both diploid and tetraploid karyotypes, all other species of Heracleum are were found to be diploid. All karyotypes were found to belong to the 2A type of Stebbins, with the exception of H. candicans var. obtusifolium, which belongs to 2B, and H. hemsleyanum and H. franchetii (Mt Dujuan, Daocheng, Sichuan, China), which belong to 1A. There was only a slight difference in the karyotype asymmetry index, which suggests a close kinship for species of Heracleum and that the entire phylogenetic development of Heracleum is relatively primitive. Species that exhibited advanced morphological features were also more advanced in karyotype structure, with the order of karyotype evolution being 1A→2A→2B. This phenomenon indicates that the species distributed in the Hengduan Mountains have not diverged completely and that the Hengduan Mountains are a relatively young and active area for the evolution of Heracleum. Polyploidization in Heracleum may be an important evolutionary mechanisms for some species, generating diversity. The biological attributes, distribution range, and the geological history of the genus have all played a part in accelerating the evolution through polyploidization or aneuploidization. It is known that as the distribution latitude of Heracleum decreases from north to south, the chromosome number, ploidy level, and asymmetry structure appear to increase. In the Hengduan Mountains, these tendencies are also evident. Finally, based on all the available cytogeographic data, we speculate that the more advanced tetraplont or aneuploid species of Heracleum in India may be derived from early diplont species that were distributed in the Caucasus region and Hengduan Mountains. The dispersal of Heracleum was from Eurasia to India, because this correlates with the emergence of the Himalayan Mountains through tectonic movement. Thus, the Hengduan Mountains are not only a center of diversity for Heracleum, but also a center of active speciation in modern times. Key words cytogeography, evolution, Heracleum, karyotype, polyploidization. The genus Heracleum L. belongs to the Umbelliferae, tribe Peucedaneae, subtribe Tordylieae (Drude, 1898). It consists of approximately 70 species distributed throughout the world (Pu & Watson, 2005). Heracleum species are distributed mainly in the Northern Hemisphere, with most species occurring in Asia and Europe, only one species in North America, and a few species in East Africa. The two main diversity centers for Heracleum are in the Caucasus and the SinoHimalayan region (Logacheva et al., 2008). Heracleum is also widespread in the Hengduan Mountains of China, with 26 species and two varieties belonging to four sec- ∗ C Received: 6 October 2008 Accepted: 7 March 2009 Author for correspondence: Xing-Jin HE, E-mail: [email protected]; Tel. 028-85415006; Fax: 028-85415006. 2009 Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences tions: Millefolia T. S. Wang & Shan, Wendia (Hoffm.) Manden., Villosa Manden., and Heracleum L. (Shan, 1992). Nineteen of the species are endemic to China. Heracleum species are perennial herbs and they are easily recognized by their radiant outer petals, strongly dorsally compressed fruit, and distinctly clavate vittae. The classification of Heracleum is based mainly on the morphology of the leaves and the quantity and morphology of the vittae. Heracleum has been recognized as a natural group since 1753 (Pu & Watson, 2005). Due to its complex morphology and incomplete information from type specimens (most of the specimens lack basal leaves and intact inflorescences), species identification has been problematic. Moreover, phylogenetic relationships with the genus have not been investigated adequately. Hence, most of the infrageneric species relationships are still 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 2 Journal of Systematics and Evolution Vol. 47 No. 4 unresolved. Furthermore, there has been no study on the speciation and biogeography of these species. Studies on Heracleum conducted so far include palynology (He & Pu, 1992), chemotaxonomy (Rao et al., 1995), molecular systematics (Logacheva et al., 2008), anatomy of the leaf stalk and fruit (He et al., 1995, 1998), and cladistics (Zhao et al., 2004). In these studies, the infrageneric grouping problems of Heracleum were mainly discussed, with few authors investigating the interspecific relationships. Based on differences in the cytotype and morphology between H. millefolium and H. millefolium var. longilobum, He et al. (1994) took H. millefolium var. longilobum as a separate species: H. longilobum. On the basis of results of comparisons of chemical constituents, as well as morphological and anatomical evidence for H. millefolium and H. longilobum, Rao et al. (1995) considered it is reasonable to take H. longilobum as a variety: H. millefolium var. longilobum as part of the species H. millefolium. As for the phylogenetic relationships of Heracleum, Logacheva et al. (2008) explored the phylogenetic relationships between west Asian Heracleum species and related taxa using data from sequences of the internal transcribed spacer region of nuclear ribosomal DNA. The results indicated that Heracleum was a polyphyletic genus and that the infrageneric classification of some species was not considered by existing classification systems. Zhao et al. (2004) studied the phylogenic relationship among 16 species of Heracleum using cladistic analysis. The results indicated that all Heracleum plants studied were divided into four sections, namely sect Millefolia, sect Plurivittata, sect Villosa, and sect Heracleum. The possible features of the primitive ancestors and the direction of evolution of the related characteristics were also discussed. Zhao et al. (2004) reported that the evolutionary trend of characteristics in Heracleum was as follows: pollen shape evolved from a rectangular to an equatorially constricted type; the V-type vascular bundle of the leaf stalk evolved from the ring type; the ribs and lateral wings of the mature fruit eveloved from an underdeveloped to developed form; and the ratio of the width of the carpellum to its thickness evolved from small to large. Chromosome numbers (2n) in Heracleum have been reported to range from 22, 24, 38, 40, and 44 to 46 (Gurzenkov & Gorovoy, 1971; Moor, 1973; Gagnidze, 1975; Hore, 1977; Pan & Qin, 1981; Pan et al., 1985; Qin et al., 1989; Marhold, 2006; Rostovfseva, 1979, 1982; Goldblatt, 1981, 1984, 1985). Subramanian (1986) studied the karyotype of eight species in south India and He et al. (1994) studied the karyotype of eight species and two varieties in the Hengduan Mountains. Chromosome numbers have been reported for only 13 species and two varieties in the Hengduan 2009 Mountains (Pan & Qin, 1981; Pan et al., 1985; Qin et al., 1989; He et al., 1994; Marhold, 2006). However, because the Hengduan Mountains region is recognized as a biodiversity “hot spot” (Myers et al., 2000) and because the Hengduan Mountains have a complex biogeographical history, a cytological study of Heracleum species in the Hengduan Mountain is highly desirable. In the present study, the chromosome number and karyotypes of 34 populations belonging to 11 species and one variety of Heracleum from the Hengduan Mountains were investigated. The aim of the present study was provide cytological evidence to answer the following questions: (i) what are the genetic relationships among the Heracleum species in the Hengduan Mountains; (ii) how has the karyotype of Heracleum evolved in the Hengduan Mountains, as well as worldwide; and (iii) what are the evolutionary mechanisms and cytogeographical patterns of Heracleum throughout the world? 1 Material and methods All plants studied and their seeds were collected in the field (Table 1). Plants were cultivated in pots and seeds germinated readily in moist sand in a Petri dish after 1 month of chilling at 4◦ C for cytological studies. Voucher specimens were deposited in the Herbarium of Sichuan University (SZ) and the voucher numbers are listed in Table 1. For each population, fresh roots were obtained from at least three individual plants. Actively growing root tips were collected between 08:00 and 10:00 hours and were treated with 0.1% colchicine at ambient temperature (10–20◦ C) for 8–10 h before fixation in Carnoy I (one part glacial acetic acid to three parts absolute ethanol) at 4◦ C for 2–24 h. Samples were macerated in 1 mol/L HCl at 60◦ C for 6 min, and then stained and squashed in carbolic acid fuchsin. Karyotype formulae were based on measurements of fine metaphase chromosomes taken from photographs. The chromosomes of at least 30 cells were counted and measurements were made in at least five cells. The nomenclature for the centromeric positions of chromosome introduced by Levan et al. (1964) was used in the present study: m, median centromeric chromosome with arm ratio of 1.0–1.7; sm, submedian centromeric chromosome with arm ratio of 1.7–3.0; st, subterminal centromeric chromosome with arm ratio of 3.0–7.0. The karyotype classification of Stebbins (1971) and the index of asymmetry (As.K%) defined by Arano (1963) were adopted in the present study. C 2009 Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 DENG et al.: Karyotype and cytogeography of Heracleum Table 1 Source of materials Taxon Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC. H. candicans var. obtusifolium (Wallich ex de Candolle) F. T. Pu & M. F. Watson H. millefolium Diels H. hemsleyanum Diels H. souliei H. Boissieu H. yungningense Handel-Mazzetti. H. moellendorffii Hance H. franchetii M. Hiroe H. stenopterum Diels H. wenchuanense F. T. Pu & X. J. He H. henryi H. Wolff H. kingdoni H. Wolff Locality Altitude(m) Voucher (SZ) Riwa village, Daocheng, Sichuan, China Chitu village, Daocheng, Sichuan, China Mt Chitu, Daocheng, Sichuan, China Chitu village, Daocheng, Sichuan, China Mt Julong, Daocheng, Sichuan, China Zhongdian, Yunnan, China Litang, Sichuan, China Yajiang, Sichuan, China Wenchuan, Sichuan, China 3200 3300 3375 3500 3300 3400 3900 4140 2100 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC003 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC004 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC005 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC006 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC013 Q. Z. Wang W200617 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DL003 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DL012 X. L. Deng & H. Y. Liu 200707004 Kangding, Sichuan, China Daocheng, Sichuan, China Yajiang, Sichuan, China Kangding, Sichuan, China Zheduotang, Kangding, Sichuan, China Mt Zheduo, Kangding, Sichuan, China Daocheng, Sichuan, China Wenchuan, Sichuan, China Mt Dujuan, Daocheng, Sichuan, China Chitu village, Daocheng, Sichuan, China Mt Julong, Sichuan, Daocheng, China Julong village, Daocheng, Sichuan, China Mt Tuer, Litang, Sichuan, China Mt Kalazi, Litang, Sichuan, China Yajiang, Sichuan, China Kangding, Sichuan, China Mt Dujuan, Daocheng, Sichuan, China Mt Julong, Daocheng, Sichuan, China Mt Julong, Daocheng, Sichuan, China Litang, Sichuan, China Wenchuan, Sichuan, China Tengchong, Yunnan, China Baoshan, Yunnan, China Qushi, Tengchong, Yunnan, China Mt Gaoligong, Tengchong, Yunnan, China 3100 3970 4040 3080 2750 3750 3590 2000 3600 3500 3720 3900 3800 4000 4000 3450 3600 3600 3920 3900 3500 1447 1514 1540 1729 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang YK004 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC015 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DL009 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang YK006 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu YK007 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu YK008 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu DC012 X. L. Deng & H. Y. Liu 200707002 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu DC002 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu DC007 X. L. Deng & F. D. P u DC009 X. L. Deng & F.D. Pu DC014 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu DL004 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu DL006 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu YK001 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu YK002 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC001 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC011 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC019 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DL008 Y. Yu & H. Y. Liu dyy080816 X. L. Deng & Y.D. Gao YN008 X. L. Deng & Y. Yu YN009 X. L. Deng & Y. D. GaoYN007–6 X. L. Deng & H. Y. Liu YN007–7 2 Results The karyotype results for all populations examined are given in Table 2, whereas Figs 1–6 show the chromosome size and morphology of all populations studied. Results for chromosome numbers and karyotypes of three species (H. souliei, H. kingdoni, and H. wenchuanense) and the karyotypes of two tetraploid species (H. moellendorffii and H. henryi) are reported here for the first time. In addition, the mixoploidy of H. candicans, H. franchetii, and H. kingdoni is reported for the first time. Eight populations of H. candicans were examined. The single population from Daocheng, Chitu village, has mixoploid cell types, where both diploid and tetraploid cytotypes exist in the same population. Seven populations were found to be diploid with 2n = 22 (Fig. 1), which is in accordance with the reports of He et al. (1994) and Marhold (2006). Within the mixoploid population, the percentage of diploid cells (2n = 22; Fig. 1B, b) was 75%, the percentage of tetraploid cell types (2n = 44; Fig. 4G) was 25%. The tetraploid chro C 3 2009 Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences mosomes were small and difficult to measure accurately. Eight populations of H. candicans shared the same type (2A) and the As.K% was similar, ranging from 57.71% to 59.99%. A pair of small satellites was observed on the shorter arms of the 10th chromosome pair in the Yajiang population (Fig. 1F, f). In contrast, one small satellite was present in the Daocheng, Chitu (Fig. 1C, c) and Yunnan, Zhongdian (Fig. 1G, g) populations, indicating the phenomenon of satellite heterozygosis. Eight populations of H. franchetii were examined in the present study. The single population collected from Mt Dujuan was a mixed population with both diploid (2n = 22; Fig. 3B, b) and tetraploid (2n = 44; Fig. 4H). The ratio of diploidy to tetraploidy levels in that population was 3 : 1 and the diploid karyotype type was 1A. Conversely, the other seven populations were diploid with 2n = 22 (Figs 3A, C–H, 4A) and belonged to the 2A type. These observations support the results reported by He et al. (1994). Because the tetraploid chromosomes were very small and difficult to measure, no karyotype data were obtained. The As.K% of the eight populations ranged from 54.99% to 59.83%. A pair of small 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 Q1 54 55 4 Journal of Systematics and Evolution Vol. 47 No. 4 2009 Table 2 Karyotype structure for each Heracleum taxon and population investigated Taxon Karyotype Type As.K (%) Heracleum candicans 2n = 2x = 18m + 2sm + 2st 2n = 2x = 18m + 2sm + 2st 2n = 2x = 18m + 4st(1sat) 2n = 2x = 18m + 2sm + 2st 2n = 2x = 16m + 4sm + 2st 2n = 2x = 18m + 2sm + 2st(1sat) 2n = 2x = 18m + 2sm + 2st 2n = 2x = 16m + 6sm(2sat) 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 57.94 59.13 59.65 58.62 59.99 58.35 58.00 57.71 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC003 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC004 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC005 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC006 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC013 Q. Z. Wang W200617 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DL003 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DL012 1A, a 1B, b; 4G 1C, c 1D, d 1E, e 1F, f 1H, h 1G, g H. candicans var. obtusifolium 2n = 2x = 18m + 4sm 2n = 2x = 16m + 2sm + 2st + 2T 2n = 2x = 18m + 2sm + 2st(2sat) 2n = 2x = 18m + 2sm + 2st(2sat) 2n = 2x = 20m + 2sm 2n = 2x = 20m + 2sm 2n = 2x = 16m + 4sm + 2st 2n = 2x = 18m + 2sm + 2st 2n = 2x = 18m + 2sm + 2st 2n = 2x = 20m + 2sm 2n = 2x = 20m + 2sm 2n = 2x = 18m + 2sm + 2st 2n = 2x = 14m + 6sm + 2st 2n = 2x = 16m + 4sm + 2st(2sat) 2n = 2x = 20m + 2sm 2n = 2x = 16m + 6sm 2n = 2x = 16m + 6sm 2n = 2x = 18m + 2sm + 2st(2sat) 2n = 2x = 16m + 4sm + 2st 2n = 2x = 20m + 2sm 2n = 2x = 18m + 4sm 2n = 2x = 18m + 4sm 2n = 4x = 36m + 8sm 2n = 2x = 36m + 8sm 2n = 4x = 36m + 8sm 2n = 4x = 36m + 8sm 2A 2B 2A 2A 1A 2A 2A 2A 2A 1A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 55.68 61.74 59.56 59.26 55.82 57.15 60.79 58.41 58.46 55.59 54.99 59.83 59.97 59.79 56.74 59.82 58.81 59.21 59.33 55.66 57.97 57.25 57.81 57.82 56.95 57.87 X. L. Deng & H. Y. Liu 200707004 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang YK004 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC015 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DL009 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang YK006 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu YK007 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu YK008 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu DC012 X. L. Deng & H.Y. Liu 200707002 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu DC002 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu DC007 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu DC009 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu DC014 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu DL004 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu DL006 X. L. Deng & F. D. Pu YK001 X. L. Deng & F.D. Pu YK002 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC001 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC011 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DC019 X. L. Deng & Q. Wang DL008 Y. Yu & H.Y. Liu dyy080816 X. L. Deng & Y. D. Gao YN008 X. Yu & Y. D. Gao YN009 X. L. Deng & Y. D. Gao YN007–6 X. L. Deng & Y. D. Gao YN007–7 2A, a 2B, b 2C, c 2D, d 2E, e 2F, f 2G, g 2H, h 3A, a 3B, b; 4H 3C, c 3D, d 3E, e 3F, f 3G, g 3H, h 4A, a 4B, b 4C, c 4D, d 4E, e 4F, f 5A, a 5B, b 5C, c; 4I 6A, a H. millefolium H. hemsleyanum H. souliei H. yungningense H. moellendorffii H. franchetii H. stenopterum H. wenchuanense H. henryi H. kingdoni Voucher (SZ) Figure As.K, karyotype asymmetry index. dddddddddddddddddd ddd ddd ddd ddd ddd ddd (dddddddddd, ddddddddd dd 610064) d d dddddddddddd Heracleum dd11d1dd 34dddddddddddd; dddddd H. soulieiddddd H. wenchuanense ddddd H. kingdoni ddddddddddddddd H. moellendorffiiddddd H. henryi (ddd)ddddddddd; ddd d Heracleum candicansddddd H. franchetii dddddddddddddddddddddd: 1) dddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddddd, ddddddddddddddddddd H. candicans var. obtusifolium dd Stebbins d 2B d ddd H. hemsleyanumddddd(ddddddddd)ddStebbinsd 1A dd,ddddd 2A d,ddddddddddddd,dddd ddddddddddddddddddd, ddddddddddddddddddddd2) dddddddddd 1A→2A→2B dd dd, dddddddddddddddd, dddddddddddddddddddddddddd, dddddddddddddd dddddddd3) dddddddddddddddddddddddd, dddddddddddddddddddddddddd dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd4) dddddddd, ddddddddddd, ddddddd dddddddddddddddddddddddddd; ddddd, dddddddd5) ddddddddddddddddddd d,dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd; dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd,dddddd ddddddd d d d ddd;dd;ddd;dd;ddddd satellites was observed on the shorter arms of the 11th chromosome pair in the population collected from Mt Tuer in Litang (Fig. 3F). Two populations of H. henryi were examined in the present study. Both were tetraploid with 2n = 44 (Fig. 5A, a, B, b), confirming the report of Qin et al. (1989), but contradicting the results of Pimenov et al. reported by Marhold (2006). The karyotype both belonged to 2A of Stebbins (1971), and the As.K% was similar for the two populations (57.81% for the Tengchong population and 57.82% for the Baoshan population). Two populations of H. kingdoni were also examined in the present study. In the Qushi population, both diploid and tetraploid plants were found. The percentage of diploid plants (2n = 22) was 30% (Fig. 4I). The chromosomes of the diploid plants were very small and difficult to measure, so no karyotype data were C 2009 Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 DENG et al.: Karyotype and cytogeography of Heracleum 5 Fig. 1. Karyograms of Heracleum candicans (arrows indicate satellite chromosomes). A, a, Daocheng, Riwa village. B, b, Daocheng, Chitu village (2n = 22, XQ DC004). C, c, Daocheng, Mt Chitu. D, d, Daocheng, Chitu village (XQ DC006). E, e, Daocheng, Mt Julong. F, f, Yajiang. G, g, Zhongdian. H. h, Litang. C 2009 Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 6 Journal of Systematics and Evolution Vol. 47 No. 4 2009 Fig. 2. Karyograms of Heracleum species (arrows indicate satellite chromosomes). A, a, H. candicans var.obtusifolium (Wenchuan). B, b, H. candicans var.obtusifolium (Kangding). C, c, H. millefolium (Daocheng). D, d, H. millefolium (Yajiang). E, e, H. hemsleyanum. F, f, H. souliei (Kangding, Zheduotang). G, g, H. souliei (Kangding, Mt Zheduo). H, h, H. yungningense. C 2009 Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 DENG et al.: Karyotype and cytogeography of Heracleum 7 Fig. 3. Karyograms of Heracleum species (arrows indicate satellite chromosomes). A, a, H. moellendorffii. B, b, H. franchetii (2n = 22; Daocheng, Mt Dujuan). C, c, H. franchetii (Daocheng, Chitu village). D, d, H. franchetii (Daocheng, Mt Julong). E, e, H. franchetii (Daocheng, Julong village). F, f, H. franchetii (Litang, Mt Tuer). G, g, H. franchetii (Litang, Mt Kalazi). H, h, H. franchetii (Yajiang). C 2009 Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 8 Journal of Systematics and Evolution Vol. 47 No. 4 2009 Fig. 4. Karyograms of Heracleum species (arrows indicate satellite chromosomes). A, a, H. franchetii (Kangding). B, b, H. stenopterum (Daocheng, Mt Dujuan). C, c, H. stenopterum (Daocheng, Mt Julong, XQ DC011). D, d, H. stenopterum (Daocheng, Mt Julong; XQ DC019). E, e, H. stenopterum (Litang). F, f, H. wenchuanense. G, g, H. candicans (Daocheng, Chitu village ; XQ DC004 ; 2n = 44). H, h, H. franchetii (Daocheng, Mt Dujuan; 2n = 44). I, i, H. kingdoni (Qushi; 2n = 22). C 2009 Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 DENG et al.: Karyotype and cytogeography of Heracleum 9 Fig. 5. Karyograms of Heracleum species (arrows indicate satellite chromosomes). A, a, H. henryi (Tengchong). B, b, H. henryi(Baoshan). C, c, H. kingdoni (Qushi; 2n = 44). C 2009 Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 10 Fig. 6. Journal of Systematics and Evolution Vol. 47 No. 4 2009 Karyograms of Heracleum kingdoni (Mt Gaoligong). obtained. The percentage of the tetraploid plants, with karyotype 2n = 44 was 70% (Fig. 5C, c), the same as the chromosome number of the population collected from Gaoligongshan (Fig. 6A). The karyotypes of the Qushi and Gaoligongshan populations were 2A (Table 2), and they had similar As.K% values of 56.95% and 57.87%, respectively. Fourteen populations of the other seven species and the one variety examined were found to be diploid (2n = 22; Figs. 2–4). The karyotype of H. hemsleyanum belonged to 1A, H. candicans var. obtusifolium from Kangding was 2B; the remaining species and the one variety were all 2A. Two populations of H. millefolium (Fig. 2C, c, D, d) and the population of H. stenopterum collected from Mt Dujuan in Daocheng (Fig. 4B, b) had a pair of small satellites chromosome, no satellite chromosomes were observed in the other populations. The distribution of As.K% values for the seven species and one variety was comparatively large, ranging from 55.66% to 61.74% (Table 2). 3 Discussion 3.1 Genetic relationship and karyotype evolution The karyotypes of the 13 species and two varieties of Heracleum in the Hengduan Mountains have been studied previously (He et al., 1994), as well as in the present study. Stebbins (1971) pointed out that the evolutionary trend of karyotypes in the vegetable kingdom was from symmetry to asymmetry. Thus, relatively ancestral or primitive plants in systematic evolution have relatively symmetric karyotypes, an asymmetric kary- otype often seen in derivative or more advanced plants. Based on the classification system of Stebbins (1971), the karyotypes obtained from the plants in the present study can be classified into three groups, namely 1A, 2A, and 2B. The 1A group included H. hemsleyanum, H. franchetii (Mt Dujuan, Daocheng, Sichuan, China), H. wolongense (He et al., 1994), and H. stenopterum (He et al., 1994), the chromosomes of which were all metacentric or submetacentric and the karyotype structure of which was slightly symmetrical. All these species belonged to the section Heracleum defined by Shan (1992) and all species had rectangular pollen. The ratio of the length of the polar axis to that of the equatorial axis was small, the germinal furrow was long, and the germinal pore was large (He & Pu, 1992). For these species, the bundle types of the leaf stalk were the or ring forms (He et al., 1995). All these morphological characteristics suggest that these species are a relatively primitive group within the genus Heracleum, which agrees with the results of our karyotypic analysis. The 2A group was characterized by subtelocentric chromosomes with an asymmetric karyotype structure. Most of the species examined in the present study belonged to this group and they were classified under the sections Villosa, Millefolia, or Heracleum according to Shan (1992). These species had developed an equatorially constricted type pollen, as well as an intermediate type between the rectangular and equatorially constricted pollen (He & Pu, 1992). In addition, the ribs and lateral wings of the mature fruit were relatively developed, and the ratio of the width of the carpellum to its thickness was high (He et al., 1998). The bundle types C 2009 Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Q2 55 DENG et al.: Karyotype and cytogeography of Heracleum of the leaf stalks in these species were of the ring or V forms, and the V form is relatively developed (He et al., 1995). These cytological and morphological features indicate that there is a mixture of ancestral and advanced groups, as well as intermediate groups, in these species. The 2B group consisted only H. candicans var. obtusifolium (Kangding population), with a chromosome type that was metacentric, submetacentric, subtelocentric, and T chromosome. The karyotype structure was much more asymmetric than in the other groups and the As.K% was 61.74%. The cytological features of this species were congruent with various other morphological features, such as mature fruit characteristics, with a ratio of the width of the carpellum to its thickness > 7.2 and well-developed lateral wings (He et al., 1998). The equatorially constricted pollen type was most developed in this species (He & Pu, 1992) and the special leaf stalk bundle was a star-scattered type (He et al., 1995). Furthermore, this population of plants was found to be quite hairy. On the basis of the pattern of karyotype evolution proposed by Stebbins (1971) and the phylogenetic analyses of cladistics (Zhao et al., 2004) in Heracleum, the data indicate that H. candicans var. obtusifolium is relatively advanced. This species belong to sect Villosa, as proposed by Shan (1992). On the basis of the results reported above, we can conclude that species in the genus Heracleum that were more advanced morphologicallyy were also more advanced in terms of their karyotype, and that the karyotype evolutionary trend in this genus is also from symmetry to asymmetry, as put forward by Stebbins (1971). Through somatic chromosomal studies on 13 species and two varieties, the karyotype evolutionary order was found to be 1A→2A→2B, which followed the pattern of Stebbins (1971) with 2B being the most advanced in evolution. However, most of these karyotypes were either 1A or 2A, and the chromosomes were almost metacentric or submetacentric, which indicated that those species of Heracleum were relatively primitive in in terms of the entire phylogenetic development in Heracleum. Different species of Heracleum in the Hengduan Mountains appeared to have distinct As.K% values, but the differences were not marked, with values ranging from from 54.99% to 61.74%. This reflects the fact that the 13 species and two varieties in the Hengduan Mountains have a somewhat close kinship. Heracleum millefolium var. longilobum exhibited aneuploidy (He et al., 1994), indicating that it should be a more advanced species; a similar trend was observed with pollen morphology. H. henryi and H. kingdoni were found to be tetraploid, with 2n = 44 and chromosomes that are slightly asymmetric. Sharma and Sarkar (1970) reported that the chromosome number of H. nepalense C 2009 Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences 11 D. Don was 2n = 24, 44 (as cited in He et al., 1994). Subramanian (1986) examined the karyotype of eight species of Heracleum distributed throughout south India and observed cell types with 2n = 40, 44, and 46. This indicates that these species are tetraploid or aneuploid. All exhibited a more asymmetric structure (Subramanian, 1986). Furthermore, the morphological features of these species suggest that they are are advanced. Pimenov et al., as reported in Marhold (2006), found that the chromosome number of H. candicans and H. pinnatum in India was 2n = 22. From the above analysis, we can conclude that there are two evolutionary pathways in the Heracleum species, especially in karyotype structure and the tendency for asymmetry and polyploidy or aneuploidy. 3.2 Polyploidy and evolutionary mechanisms Polyploidy is an important driving force for diversification and speciation in plants (Levin, 2002). Recent estimates suggest that 70% of all angiosperms have undergone one or more episodes of polyploidization (Masterson, 1994). Several studies have shown that certain Heracleum species are polyploids, and species such as H. wallichii (Hore, 1977), H. candicans (Figs 1, 4G), H. franchetii (Figs 3, 4H), H. henryi (Fig. 5A, B; Marhold, 2006), and H. kingdoni (Figs 4I, 5C, 6A) have intraspecific polyploidization phenomena. Examples were seen for H. candicans and H. franchetii from Daocheng, Sichuan, and for H. kingdoni from Qushi, Yunnan, in which both diploid and tetraploid cytotypes can be found in a single population. The diploid cytotype was dominant in the two populations from Sichuan, but the opposite was true for the population of H. kingdoni from Yunnan. When polyploids have diverged sufficiently, they differ morphologically from their progenitors (Greilhuber & Ehrendorfer, 1988). Because these species have not diverged completely (they are morphologically similar), they exist as mixoploids. Polyploidy as a new cytotype is the manifestation of evolution. This indicates that Heracleum in the Hengduan Mountains differentiates continually to polyploidy. Most of the polyploids in nature are derived from the union of unreduced gametes (Ramsey & Schemske, 1998). Therefore, formation of tetraploids is possibly due to the abnormal mitotic divisions of certain cells in the diploid, which produce progeny with a doubling of chromosome number. The frequency of diploid gametes in nature is dependent on several factors, such as a plant’s own biological characteristics, heterozygotism, the environment etc. (Ramsey & Schemske, 1998). Apparently, heterozygotism promotes the formation of unreduced gametes (Ramsey & Schemske, 1998). Moreover, a harsh environment can also accelerate this phenomenon. All these Q3 Q4 1 2 3 4 Q5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 12 Journal of Systematics and Evolution Vol. 47 No. 4 factors likely contribute to the production of multiploids in nature (Ramsey & Schemske, 1998). Heracleum is a genus of temperate perennial herbs. Several populations of different species can be found growing together in the wild and most of these coexisting populations occur at high altitude. These features demonstrate that Heracleum has a tendency to undergo polyploidization in its evolution. Meanwhile, the history of geographical changes indicates that Himalayan tectogenesis, beginning from the Neogene, has had an extensive influence on the paleoclimate and geomorphy of India, Nepal, and southwestern China (Sun & Li, 2003). Along with the uplifting of the mountains, a complex and highly variable environment has been formed that has provided a suitable ecological and evolutionary niche for the survival and development of polyploids. Therefore, polyploidization may be an important evolutionary mechanism of some Heracleum species that has accelerated the species diversity within this genus. 3.3 Cytogeography problem Based on all reported cytological data, chromosome numbers have been described for nearly 60 species of Heracleum. All 14 species studied in the Caucasus region are diploid, with 2n = 22 (Gurzenkov & Gorovoy, 1971; Gagnidze, 1975; Rostovfseva, 1979, 1982; Goldblatt, 1981, 1984, 1985). The chromosome numbers of H. wallichii, a native of Nepal, is 2n = 22, 38, and 44 (Hore, 1977). Eleven species have been studied in India (Subramanian, 1986; He et al., 1994; Marhold, 2006); except for two species (H. candicans and H. pinnatum) with 2n = 22 (Marhold, 2006), all other nine species have 2n = 24, 40, 44, and 46, and their karyotypes exhibit a greater asymmetry than those of other regions (Subramanian, 1986). A total of 16 species and two varieties have been karyotyped in China (Pan & Qin, 1981; Pan et al., 1985; Qin et al., 1989; He et al., 1994; Marhold, 2006; present study). Except for four species (H. candicans, H. franchetii, H. henryi, and H. kingdoni) that have diploid and tetraploid types, and H. millefolium var. longilobum, which has diploid and aneuploid cytotypes, all other 12 species and one variety are 2n = 22. The karyotype structure of these species varies from slight asymmetry to asymmetry. From these data, we can draw the following conclusions. First, there are several cell types in Heracleum: diploid (2n = 22), tetraploid (2n = 44), and aneuploid (2n = 24, 38, 40, and 46). Second, as the latitude changes from north to south (from the Caucasus region to south India), the chromosome numbers of Heracleum appear to increase from diploid to tetraploid or aneuploid, and the ploidy level also tends to increase 2009 from north to south. In the Hengduan Mountains, these patterns are also evident. Third, the structural modifications in karyotype also change with latitude, ranging from slight asymmetry in the north (i.e. China) to asymmetry in the south (i.e. south India). There are two geographical distribution centers for Heracleum. One is the Caucasus region, which has 30 species (Logacheva et al., 2008), and the other is the Hengduan Mountains, with 26 species and one variety (Shan, 1992). The climate of the Caucasus region is continental temperate. The chromosome type of all 14 species in the Caucasus region is diploid. Moreover, these species are marked by their slight external morphological differentiation. The Hengduan Mountains are geologically young and have a complex terrain. During the Quaternary glacial period, the region was not completely covered by the glacier, making it a refuge for many plant species (Xu, 2003). This resulted in abundant primitive and many relatively advanced species, as determined by cytological and external morphological analyses. Of the Heracleum species in the Hengduan Mountains, 73% are endemic to China, but polyploidization of these endemic species is not common. Moreover, the chromosomes of the polyploid species are all metacentric or submetacentric, and their karyotypes are slightly asymmetrical. Thus, the species in the region were generated from diploid progenitors, which may be due to the uplifting of the Himalayas and associated climatic changes that brought about rapid diversification of the species. Twenty Heracleum species are distributed throughout India. Most (especially those in south India) are tetraploid and aneuploid (Subramanian, 1986), their chromosomes are more subtelocentric and T chromosome, and their karyotypes are all more asymmetrical than those in the Hengduan Mountains. According to analyses of ploidy level and karyotype structure (asymmetry and chromosome type) of Heracleum species in these three regions, we think that the species distributed in India are more advanced than the species in China and the Caucasus. From the cytogeographic and geobotanic features mentioned above and on the basis of the hypothesis that ploidy variation is irreversible (Stebbins, 1971), we speculate that the more advanced tetraplont or aneuploid species of Heracleum in India may be derived from early diplont species distributed in the Caucasus region and Hengduan Mountains. It is not difficult to imagine that the dispersal of Heracleum species from Eurasia to India was correlated with the substantial Himalayan tectogenic geological event. The more advanced taxa in systematic evolution in Heracleum were regenerating taxa that differentiated from the Himalayas and Hengduan Mountains region after collision of the India plate and the Asian continent. These taxa evolved C 2009 Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 DENG et al.: Karyotype and cytogeography of Heracleum into polyploids or aneuploids to adapt to their different harsh environmental conditions and began differentiating and dispersing to other parts of Asia. Thus, the Hengduan Mountains, with a large number of Heracleum species, is not only a center of diversity for this genus, but is also a center of active speciation in modern times. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Professor Fa-Ding PU for species identification and to Qiang WANG and Yan YU for assistance during our collecting trip. 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