In Defense of Iago

George Washington University
In Defense of Iago
Author(s): Marvin Rosenberg
Source: Shakespeare Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 2 (Spring, 1955), pp. 145-158
Published by: Folger Shakespeare Library in association with George Washington University
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In Defenseof Iago
MARVIN ROSENBERG
WOULD like firstto defendIago againstthechargethathe
was a decentman-a man,thatis, who injuredothersonly
afterhe was provokedto do so. This libelagainstIago's wickhas been
century,1
edness,firstmade in the late eighteenth
deadvancedon the groundsthatthe Ancientwas unfairly
that'hewas reallycuckoldedbyOthello,
privedof promotion,
were
to act as if one or bothof thesepossibilities
or thathe foundit necessary
true,and somehowfoundhimselfdoingwrongin spiteof himself.In modern
times,Iago's apologistshave becomeso tenderthatone describedtherascalas
"an honest,charmingsoldier,a man of honestyand innatekindliness";2anhero,a good
otherfelt"he mightalmostserveas an exampleof theAristotelian
and a third,
unforeseen";3
man brought,like Oedipus,to commitenormities
thereis, afterall, something
of circumstance;
"Iago . . . is a pitifulplaything
pitifulin thisman'sfinaldoom."4I can'tagree;Iago was notthatgood a man.
On the otherhand,I want also to defendthe Ancientagainstthe more
frequentchargethathe was a creatureof subhumanevil,malignantwithout
of Satan himself.By one modernhe has been
an embodiment
any motivation,
called"a blackangel. . . theSpiritof Evil . . . withno passionsand no habita". . . a monster,
shouldlie fardeeper
whosewickedness
tion. . .";5 by another,
6 by stillanother,
"a
thananythingthatcould be explainedby a motive
devil in the flesh. . a fiend."7Again I cannotagree; Iago was not thatbad
a man.
A variantof the interpretation
equatingIago with evil has come from
that
critics.One studentofimageryfindsserpentand devilreferences
symbolist
identifyJago"with the devil himself",and make his implicitdiabolismexof thebase
sees lago as an abstraction
plicit;8another,moreFreudian-minded,
side of Othello:"Othello'sis thehumansoulas it strivesto be,and Iago is that
"
'"An Apologyforthe Character
and Conductof Iago," in Essays,by a Societyof Gentlemen
pp. 395-409. See the VariorumOthello,pp..408-409, and MonthlyReview,NS (1796),
XXII, 7.
2 TuckerBrooke,"The Romantic
Iago," Yale Review,VII (Jan.,1918), 3-59.
3 J.W. Draper,"Othelloand Elizabethan
ArmyLife,"RevueAng.-Am.,
IX (April,1932), 324.
' Allardyce
pp. 94, 103.
Nicoll,Studiesin Shakespeare
(I927),
5 JohnJayChapman,A GlanceTowardShakespeare
(Boston,1922), p. 47.
6 LyttonStrachey,
Characters
and Commentaries
(New York,1935), pp. 295-296.
7 E. E. Stoll,Shakespeare
and OtherMasters(Cambridge,
1940),
pp. 231, 246.
8 RobertHeilman,"Dr. lago and His Potions,"VQR, XXVIII (Autumn,1952),
568-584.
(Heilmanhas a curiously
different
imagisticapproachto thesameproblemin "The Economicsof
Iago and Others,"PMLA, LXVIII (June,I953), 555-57I.) S. L. Bethell("Shakespeare's
Imagery:
The DiabolicImagesin Othello,"in Shakespeare
Survey(Cambridge,1952), pp. 62-80) comesto
on thebasisofthe"devil"images.
pretty
muchthesameconclusion
(1796),
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T46
SHAKESPEARE QUARTERLY
which corrodesand subvertsit fromwithin";9still anotherFreudiansees
Tago as all thisand homosexualtoo;10whilean allegoristfeelsthatIago repvillainy. . . thespiritof denial. . . undefined,
formless
resents". . . unlimited,
are entitledto theirimpresdevisualized,inhuman.. ..911 The impressionists
sions; but it seemsto me thattheyfailto do justiceto Iago's fleshand blood
thanthat.
qualitiesin seeinghimas a symbol;he is a betterdramaticcharacter
seeingneitheressenpoint.Some moderncritics,
This lastis an important
in Iago, concludethathe is simply
symbolism
tial humanitynor significant
character,18
a poorand implausible
him;
calls
one
badlymade: stupidand dull,12
saysa third,Othello
tonelesscharacter,
saysanother;becauseof his stationary,
cannotstandbesideMacbeth,Hamlet,and Lear."4This I agree withleastof
the rascalof chargesof outraged
all. What I hope to show,afterexonerating
shaped by
decencyand Satanic or abstractevil, is thathe was wonderfully
as wellas a clearlyrecognizable
dramaticcharacter,
Shakespeareintoa first-rate
evenphysicalsymptypeof humanbeing,withpassionsand frustrations-and
of a typeof troubledhumanitycommonenoughso that
toms-characteristic
it. Shakespearewas notcontent,
encounter
in our timeregularly
psychologists
in Iago, to load his playwithyetanotherstockMachiavel,anotherversionof an
he was
malcontents;16
nor evenone of thenewer-fangled
old Moralityfigure,15
witha
mechanism";17
dramatic
of
piece
"necessary
much
a
more
than
building
searchinginsight,he was probingintothe rootsof human
greatplaywright's
wickednessto find-and show in the theater-howit was thata man really
couldsmileand smileand smileandbe a villain.
Exetergentleman,
arguedthat
Iago's firstapologist,an eighteenth-century
of theplay,butwas badlytreated
at thebeginning
the Ancientwas respectable
by Othello,suspectedhis wifeof affairswithOthelloand Cassio,and largely
The apologistwrote:". . . if vengeancecan
forthesereasonsrevengedhimself.
and Motivein Shakespeare(London,1949), p. io8. The split-ego
9J. I. M. Stewart,Character
heroeswas firstsuggestedas applyingto Macbethby Freud,aftera
conceptionof Shakespearian
hintby Jekels(SigmundFreud,CollectedPapers(London,1925), IV, 332. For Jekel'sexpansionof
It has been
170-195).
the idea, see L. Jekels,"Shakespeare'sMacbeth,"Imago, V (1917-19),
applied severaltimesto Othello.See also Derek Traversi,"Othello",The Wind and the Rain,
VI (Spring,1950), 268-269, Bodkin(see note iI), Leavis (see note17), T. F. Connolly,"Shakespeareand the Double Man," SQ, I (Jan. 1950), 30-35, and Feldman,below. Burke (Kenneth
a Method,"HudsonRev.,IV (Summeri95i), x66-i68) seems,
Burke,"Othello:An EssaytoIllustrate
and findthatOthello,Iago, and
in his curiousand complexstudyof the play,to go one further
integer".
of one "inseparable
Desdemonaare all expressions
10 A. B. Feldman,"Othello'sObsession,"
Am. Imago, IX (June,1952), 151-I52, 156.
pp. 127, I31. Maud Bodkin (Archetypal
"1G. W. Knight,Wheelof Fire (London, 1930),
althoughshe also confollowsKnight'simagery,
Patternsin Poetry(London, 1934), pp. 220-221)
imageof forcespresent
of ". . . Iago as a projected
of thesplitego conception,
sidersthepossibility
in Othello...."
12 JohnR. Moore,"The Character
of Lago,"U' of MissouriStudies,XXI, I, 39-46.
15 RobertBridges,The influence
Drama (London, 1927),
of the Audienceon Shakespeare's
p. 23.
336-344.
"'Honesty' in Othello,"SP, XLVII (Oct. I950), 557-568,sees lago as a
P. A. Jorgensen,
Honesty.
knaveposingas themorality
16TheodoreSpencer,"The Elizabethan
in JosephQuincyAdamsMemorialStudies
Malcontent,"
(Washington,1948), p. 530, suggeststhatlago had some qualitiesin commonwith Marston's
himas a "malcontent".
of classification-lists
Malevole,and-for theconvenience
VI
17 F. R. Leavis ("Diabolic Intellect
and the Noble Hero: A Note on Othello,"Scrutiny,
thecritichad from
(December,1937) 26i, 264), callshim this,partlyin reactionto theimpression
BradleythatOthellowas merelyIago's foil.Leavis makesIago the auxiliary,and even suggests
notedabove(see note9).
conception
(264) thesplit-ego
14
15
"Honestlago," SewaneeReview,XXX (July,I922),
J.W. Abernethy,
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IN DEFENSE
OF IAGO
I47
be vindicatedby an accumulationof injuries,Iago's, thoughexorbitant,
was
just."18
In the nextcentury,
Iago's rightto suspectOthello'srelationswithEmilia
was affirmed.
To one critic,Iago was-really
thejealousone-and he had a right
to be jealous. The unsuspectedinfidelity
was a fact;Othello'spart in it explainedwhyOthellohimselfshouldhavebeenso readyto suspecthisown wife
of adultery.19
In thetwentieth
century,
theattitudetowardIago as a wronged
individualwitha double motivation
has been refined:he was at leasta relativelydecentman,his character
flawsnot emergent,
untilhe was passedover
forpromotionand his suspicionof theadulterywas aroused;thenonlydid he
plungeintoa sea of iniquity,
goingin deeperat lastthanhe wouldat firsthave
likedto do.20
Massive argumentshave been summonedto proveboth his motivations.
Of Othello'sadulterywithEmilia,we havebeenremindedthat:i. Othellois a
fullysexedveteransoldierwitha bentforeroticsatisfaction,
2. Iago has no reason to rationalizehis suspicion,3. Emilia is portrayed
as a "lewd and filthyspeakingharlot"who,in talkingwithDesdemona,does not indignantly
repudiatetheidea of cuckoldingof herhusband,and 4. Othello'sconversation
with
Emilia indicateshis personalacquaintancewithheras a subtlewhorewho will
kneeland pray.2'
In connectionwithIago's othersuggestedmotivation,
thathe is a soldier
wrongfully
passed over,some researchhas been made into the Elizabethan
popularattitudestowardthe military.It has been deducedthatIago was a
frontline
soldierpassedoverforan exampleof the less populartypeof bookEssays, op. cit. (Note I), p. 409.
S. J. Snider, System of Shakespeare's Drama (St. Louis, i877) II, 97. J. A. Heraud (Shakespeare, His Inner Life (i865), p. 270), says the adulterywas "not impossible". Interestinglyenough,
S. A. Tannenbaum ("The Wronged lago," SAB, XII (Jan. I937), 57, in expanding this argument,
noted that most criticswere too squeamish to discuss the adulteryissue, and added "From nineteenth
centurycriticsnothingelse could have been expected."
The Snider-Heraud interpretationof Iago, as a deeply jealous personalitywas, it seems to me,
a step in the right direction. It has been elaborated effectivelyby modern critics: John W. Draper,
"The Jealousyof Iago," Neophilologus, XXV (1939), 50-60; F. P. Rand, "The Over-GarrulousTago,"
SQ (July, I950),
I55-i6i;
and Kenneth Muir, "The Jealousyof Iago," in English Miscellany, II
(Rome, I951),
65-83. Muir emphaticallydenies the possibilityof a relationshipbetween Emilia and
Othello; Draper and Rand are not certain.
20 Rand (p. s58) sees Iago's treacheryas perhaps the sudden
outbreak of what may have been
a predisposition:". . . he could hardly have been the Iago we know when Emilia married him, or
during the years when he was becoming the 'honest Iago' to the Venetians." Jordan (H. H. Jordan,
"Dramatic Illusion in Othello," SQ (July, I950),
146-152)
also finds lago, a brooding egoist, at
loose ends between wars, moved by his intelligenceto deserta life of honestyto plunge into treachery
for the firsttime when he seems unfairlytreated. Here Jordanfollows Nicoll (pp. 94-97). Rand,
Jordan,and Nicoll take for granted, as do-among others-Kittredge (Othello, ed. G. L. Kittredge
(New York, 1941), p. x), Hallett (W. H. Hallett, "14onest,Honest lago," Fortn. Rev., NS, LXXIX,
275-286), Praz (Mario Praz in Proceedings of the British Academy, XIV (1928),
p. 76), Lewis
(Wyndham Lewis, The Lion and the Fox (New York, n.d.), p. 197), Bowman (Thomas D. Bowman, "A Further Study in the Characterizationand Motivationof lago," College English, IV (May,
1943) 460-469). Shackford (John B. Shackford,"The Motivation of lago," SNVL(Sept. I953),
30),
and Tannenbaum, Draper, Webb and Brooke agree (see following notes) that Iago was definitely
motivated to revenge by his loss of the appointmentand/or the suspicion of Emila's infidelitywith
Othello. Miller (Donald C. Miller, "lago and the Problem of Time," Eng. Stud. (June, I940),
97-I
5) argues that Othello had made a secret "contract marriage" with Desdemona well before
the play opened, and that lago suddenly realized, with the overt elopement,that he had been superseded by a man (Cassio) merelybetterable to act as an assistantin the courtship.
21 Tannenbaum (pp. 58-6o) catalogues the arguments. He adds a fifthpoint that contributes
nothingto the case.
18
19
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SHAKESPEARE QUARTERLY
148
andthatOthello's
soldier,
actioninthisappointment,
andinhisotherwise
"lovesick"attitude,
wouldsuggest
totheElizabethans
thatheis atfaultas a general
andis inviting
thedisaster
thatcomes.22
At theextreme
oftheseapologist
attitudes
an almostlovableIagoemerges.
Thus one modernwrites:"It is evident,
I think,
thatShakespeare
imagined
Iago a manofwarm,sympathetic
qualities,"
a kindofFalstaff
who,through
no realfaultofhisown,goeswrong.23
Thiscritic
feelstheElizabethans
would
findIagodistinctly
attractive,
andsodoesanother,
whoargues
thatIagowouldbe
as a kindofcentral
regarded
ina thesis
figure
playonthemilitary
codeofmartial
honor,
thathewouldarousemoreinterest
andsympathy
of
thanOthello
inmany
Shakespeare's
spectators
becausetheycouldidentify
withhimas oneof their
own class.24
Thisis thecruxoftheextreme
apologists'
case.Ifan injured
Iagohasbeen
givenduecauseforvengeance,
if he is a wronged
man,thenhe mustalmost
arousesomesympathy
Does he
certainly
in an audience.
Was he wronged?
arousesympathy?
We cannotanswerthissimply
byhunting
thetextforbits
andscrapsoflinesfromwhichtodeducethenature
The lines
ofthecharacters.
giveus onlyone of thecharacter's
dimensions.
For depth,
to getan adequate
testofa character's
thepossibilities
implications
intheround,
wemustexamine
oftheplayas it comesto performance
in thetheater.
thatcannotbe
Meanings
madeapparent
in somewaythrough
words,
voice,andactionon thestageare
ifOthellohad
Forinstance
unlikely
to havebeenintended
bytheplaywright.
an affairwithEmiliabeforetheplayopened,or after,
thismustbe communicable
in a theater.
Nowitis notinthelines,as such;true,
Emiliaiscynical
aboutmarital
harshwordsat her,butthereis no
fidelity,
true,Othellothrows
evidence
ofan illicitconnection
sucha connection,
them.To establish
between
we wouldhaveto seetheMoorengagein somesortofby-play
withher-or
of
refuse
perhaps
to,nowthathe is married.
Butthereis no remote
suggestion
thisin thelines,anditis difficult
ofitintegrated
toconceive
intoanyconsistent
Othellocharacterization.
By themeasure
of totality
of effect-of
theunityof
poetry,
speech,
and actionin livingdrama-suchan interpretation
seemsimpossible.
The sameseemstrueofIago'scomplaint
aboutbeingunfairly
treated
inhis
military
position
byOthello.If he was,theremustbe morethanhiswordto
showit; butnowhere
in thelinesorimplied
actionis itsuggested
thatOthello,
eitherconsciously
or unconsciously,
is lessthanfairto hisensign.In fact,the
oftheplaydemands
dramatization
thathego outofhiswaytoshowhisrespect
andfriendship
forIago.
of Iago as suddenlyturningfromdecencyto unAgain,the interpretation
seemsincompatible
pleasantness
witha theater
performance
of therole.His
cruelexploiting
ofRoderigo
is clearly
a habitual
thingwiththisAncient;
thus
doeshe evermakehisfoolhispurse,
andthebuttofhisangry
wit.Evenmore
22 H. J.Webb,"The Military
Background
in Othello,"PQ, XXX (Jan.I951), 40-51. For more
on the titlesubject,see J.R. Moore'sanswerto Webb,"Othello,Iago, and Cassioas Soldiers,"PQ,
XXXI(April,1952),
I89-I95;
andJ.W. Draper,
"Honest
Iago,"PMLA,XLVI(Sept.,I93i),
724-
737, "CaptainGeneralOthello,"Ang. Zeit. furEng. Phil.,LV (Halle, i93i), 296-3io, and Shackford.(See note24 below.)
23 Brooke,pp. 351-359.
See alsoNicoll(p. 103) forthe"conception
ofIago as a character
to be pitied."
24 Draper,"Othelloand Elizabethan
ArmyLife,"pp. 324-326.
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IN DEFENSE OF IAGO
149
is Iago's attitudetosignificant,
thoughnot adequatelyrecognizedin criticism,
ward his wife.Beforeothers,he treatsher at bestwithsadistichumor;alone
withher,as whenhe tearsthehandkerchief
fromherhandand sendsherabout
her business,he snarlsordersat her as if she werean inferior
being.It seems
meantto be clear,in thetheater,
thatEmilia'sis no happymarriage;sheresents
Iago's sharptongue,as on the Cyprusquay,she has had painfullyto bear his
suspicionof her adulterywithOthello,she has been made by thistimevery
with
cynicalabout loyaltyto husbands,as is obviousfromher conversation
Desdemonain the"willowsong"scene.So Iago has long beenviciousbyhabit,
and theaudienceseemsmeantto sensethisin his appearancewithsubordinates
on thestage.
Finally,is it at all possiblethatIago, on thestage,mightdrawcompassion
as a wrongedor erringman? However Shakespearemixed frailtyinto the
character
of Othelloand Desdemona-and Cassio and Emilia-surelytheyare
the ones meantto captureaudiencesympathy.
unmistakably
Could Iago, on
the stage,possiblydrawthegood will of a normalaudience-whenalmosthis
everyline withits impliedactionis an invitation
to hate and fearhim? An
apologistwho believesShakespearewas tryingto ". . . raise an elementof
in theaudienceforthis'villain"' sees Iago as notmeaningto rouse
sympathy
Othelloto sucha fury,
and as hesitating
afterhe seesthestormhe has caused;25
anotherviewfindsIago recoilingfromhis villainyafterthescenewhenEmilia,
in Desdemona'schamber,voiceshersuspicionthat"someeternalvillain,some
cogging,cozeningslave" has made Othellojealous.26Consideringthe subsequent wickednessIago initiates,a considerable
exerciseof the imaginationis
ofa conscience-stricken
villain.It seemsutterly
requiredto accepttheconception
withanystageperformance,
incompatible
whereIago appearsclearlyintended
to plungesteadilydeeperintocrime.And surelyclass has nothingto do with
thisvillain'scharacteras has been suggested;Iago was no Georgea Greene;
he was,as theFolio unmistakably
identifies
him,a "Villaine."
To go on-was he morethanthis?Was he thedevilhimself?Was he evil
incarnate?Or perhapsthe symbolicrepresentation
of what the devil stands
for-of destructiveness,
of nothingness,
of thebasersideof Othellohimself
?
The outrightSatanists,who see Iago as indeedthe foul fiend,have two
one practical.
largeproblemsto face:one theoretical,
The theoretical
difficulty
is
this: if Iago is the Princeof Darkness,why does he seek,in his soliloquies,
humanmotivesforhis evil? Why does he not sail straightahead,passionless,
25 Nicoll (p. i02) findsthatIago
Othelloaflame,". . . a hesitation
evinces,aftersetting
which
betraysa certainfear. . . thathe has gone too far...." But in performance
Iago seemsto gain
assuranceas he goes along.It is Iago afterall who urgesOthelloon to "strangleherin herbed",
and who bringsthe Moor back to the murderous
purposewhen he waversmomentarily
(IV. i),
remembering
Desdemona'sgentlequalities.
26 Brooke(p. 358). Goddard(H. C. Goddard,The Meaningof Shakespeare
(Chicago,195i),
pp. 481-485,also suggeststhatafterthisscene,and Desdemona'spatheticappealto him,lago, prohis powersapped,goes haltingly
foundlydisturbed,
to his end. Goddardcitesas his chiefsupport
the scenefollowingwithRoderigo,where". . . we see lago for the firsttime at his wit's end,
unable to deviseanything
by way of answerto Roderigo'simportunities."
As customarily
staged,
the scenepointsin theotherdirection.
thaneverof Roderigo,
Iago is moredisdainful
untilthegull
threatensto go to Desdemona,whereuponlago promptly-andwith some humor-flatters
him
again into temoprary
submission.
Surelylago is shownas nevermoreresourceful
and purposeful
thanin the openingsceneof thefifth
act,where,pressedat last to takea hand in theviolencehe
has initiated,
he almostkillsCassio,does kill Roderigo,
and blamesthewholethingon Biancawith
hardlya stopforthought.
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SHAKESPEARE QUARTERLY
150
doinghis worst?The onlyanswer,if thereis one,is thathe is makingup his
humanity,
huntingaboutformotives.It is nota good answer,and theSatanists
tendto talkaroundthepoint.27
Of coursetheyhavetheright,
on thetheoretical
level,to counton the validityof theirown impressions;
if,readingthe text,
theyvisualizeIago as a demon,thena truedemonhe is to them.On thepractical level,however,we mustquestioninterpretations
of character
thatdo notfit
theartisticmediumin whichtheplaywright
functioned.
Shakespearewrotefor
thetheater.
His effects
are theeffects
thatcouldbe communicated
froma stage.
Giventhisplay,themostrecognizably
domesticof all his tragedies,
iftheplaywrightintendedto developas a centralfigurea cloven-foot
devil,wouldhe not
have madehis intention
effective
in termsof languageand action?Can Iago be
presented
on thestageas a fiendin humanform?
I have seen somethingof the sorttriedin a performance
whereinIago
appearedas an ugly,twisted,gnomelikecreature,
clinginglike a dirtyshadow
to Othello.Visuallythethingwas interesting;
in it,
buttherewas no humanity
no sense of friendship
and hate
betrayed;Iago's own claims of frustration
soundedmeaninglessin a devil'smouth,and the linesabouthis honestyand
seemedto belongto anotherplay.The performance
did notstirthe
friendliness
pulsebya flicker.
In thebetterperformances
of Iago I have seen,it seemedunquestionable
to
human
me thattheclosertheactorcame to a projection
of Iago as a thwarted
of tragiclifebeingplayed
being,the morepowerfulwas the totalimpression
on thebetrayal
of a nobleman
out. A greattragedymightcertainly
be written
Satanhimselfor thepersonified
by a devil-a devilrealor symbolic,
expression
of theevilin thehero'scharacter;
butOthellois notthatplayas it mustbe done
in the theaterforwhichShakespearedesignedit. If it is something
in
different
the
the limitlessimaginationof a critic,it is onlybecausethecriticdisregards
creative
conditionswhichdetermined
themode of expression
of Shakespeare's
workintoa difThe criticis then,in effect,
fantasy.
transmuting
Shakespeare's
ferentart form,and his judgmentsmay be only obliquelyrelevantto the
originalplay.
of one of the
Perhapsthe bestevidenceof thiscomesfromtheexperience
of the tragedy,
Wilson Knight.
mostimaginativeof the symbolicinterpreters
in thismanner:
In a firststudyof the play,Knightdescribedthe characters
we see thatOthelloand Desdemonaare
". . . on the plane of personification,
withthemmetaconcrete,mouldedof fleshand blood,warm.Iago contrasts
formless
physically
as well as morally:he is unlimited,
villainy.He is thespirit
of denial,whollynegative.He neverhas visualreality. . . (he) is undefined,
I
inhuman."
devisualized,
to turnfromthisestimateto thecritic'snextbook.SomeIt is instructive
timeafterhis firststudy,WilsonKnightproducedand actedin Othello-a proto any who would discusscritically
cedure stronglyrecommended
a Shakespearianplay. Knight'sexperiencechangedhis attitudetowardthe tragedy.
of the impressions
he had firstreported,
There is a considerablesoftening
of
and
thoughthecriticagain spokeof
idiocy,negation";28
"ugliness,hellishness,
anotherlevelof meaning:"Othello,Desdemona,and Iago areMan, theDivine,
27
28
Theatre(1927),
See, forinstance,
JohnPalmer,Studiesin theContemporary
Wheel,p. 129.
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p. 78.
IN DEFENSE OF IAGO
151
and the Devil .'2
he followedthiswitha mostsignificant
but."The symboliceffects,"
Knightwrote,"are all in thepoetry.Iago knowshe is in league
withhell'sforcesand oftensaysso,whileDesdemonais clearlyequatedimagisticallywithDivinity.But [theitalicsare mine]themomentanyofthisis allowed
to interfere
withtheexpressly
domesticand humanqualitiesofthedrama,you
getdisaster."
This makessplendidsense.The symbolism
of thedevil,of denial,of the
alterego,or whatever,
is in thepoetry-forthosewho findit there;and indeed
the body of Shakespeariancriticismhas been enrichedby much stimulating
subjectiveinterpretation
by the symbolists.
But the symbolism
is oftenessentiallyprivate;it does not have a naturalplace on thestageShakespearewrote
for; to repeatthe wordsof the critic,"the momentany of thisis allowedto
interfere
withthe expressly
domesticand humanqualitiesof the drama,you
get disaster."You get disasterbecause,as faras we can tellobjectively,
Shakespearewas not creatingpersonifications,
but people-the people of dramapeoplecommunicated
withsuch realitywithinthelimitsof theartformthat
theirtroubledemotionswould deeplyinvolvewatchingaudiences.We would
notsparemuchpityforthetroublesof Divinity;butwe weepforthefrailand
lovelywoman who was Desdemona; and in the same way we are strangely
stirred
bythewickedness
ofthemanIago.
For thereis somecuriouslycompellingfascination
in Iago, something
that
bringsus back to him,and thatresultsin the wide rangeof criticism
I have
reviewed.What it is,I think,is thewonderfully
contrived
in him,of
projection,
emotionaldrivesthatrun deep in humanity
generally.
In Iago theplaywright
was showingthesedrivesas theymay be deformedin personality
underthe
pressures
oflife.
To testthissuggestion,
letus tryto examineIago afresh,
forgetting
previous
attitudes
towardhim.Shakespeareneededa wickedman fora playhe wanted
to do involvingthebetrayalof one man by another.I thinkit is quitepossible
thatShakespearewas drawnto thisstorybecauseit was one of betrayal;the
themewas one of his favorites,
and at thepointwhenhe was readyto write
OthelloI believehe had a particularly
personalmotivation
towardit. However
thismaybe, he neededa wickedman,a betrayer,
a villain.He neededone because his borrowedstorycalledforone; butit was thisplotfunction
onlythat
he borrowedforIago. The restis Shakespeare's.
What we knowaboutShakespeare's
lago appearsin two aspects:his external appearance,as he reactswithothers,and his innerlife,as revealedby the
soliloquies.If we neglectwhatwe learnfromthesoliloquiesfora moment,
and
examineonlythe facethatIago turnsto othersduringtheplay,we observea
clever,ambitiousman coollymanipulating
othersforhis own ends.In conversationwithhis confidant
he is outspokenabouthis overtphilosophy;
he denies
therealityof lovingfeelings-they
are onlya lustof theblood,a permission
of
thewill; he assertsthesupremacy
ofthewilland intelligence,
and theirpowerto
efface
emotions
so thatdesiredendsmaybe achieved;heidealizestheself-sufficient
man-the one who knowshow to lovehimself.
In Iago's actionswithothersthis
philosophyhas obviouslylong sincehardenedinto expertpractice,as already
observed.
Towardthosehe can exploitopenly,he is domineering
and brutal.But
29
G. W. Knight,Principles
ofShakespearean
Production
(1936), p. 57.
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152
SHAKESPEARE QUARTERLY
whenhe
intellect,
of theself-seeking
in accordancewithhis ideal of supremacy
pushed
always
almost
are
emotions
true
his
station,
in
is with his superiors
calcool,
of
a
working
by
the
guided
seem
actions
his
down belowthesurface,
pretenceof being a pleasant,decent
culatingwill. He makes a near-perfect
fellowduringmostof his timeon stagewithothers;almosthis onlyshowof
orwhenhe is matching
passionis whenhe is so sad aboutCassio'sdrunkenness,
angerof his own. So comOthello'shonestrage withwhatseemssympathetic
slipsdo we seehishateofthepeople
pleteis hiscontrolthatonlyin momentary
abouthim.Withoutthe soliloquies,we get in Iago a pictureof a villainwho
fromcrimeto crime;and as faras itgoes,thepicture
movesalmostpassionlessly
is complete.
Now this bringsup a pointworthdwellingon. Read the play through
omittingthe soliloquiesand you discoverthatthe soliloquiesare actuallynot
necessaryto the dramaticactionat all, thatwithoutthem,in fact,thereis an
ofplot.The plansIago revealsin hisdiscussion
increasedsuspenseand tightness
withRoderigoare enoughto makethelurkingmenaceclear;theapprehension
of
executions
of whatis to come,and thesurprise
is whettedbytheuncertainty
whenIago firstgets
the villainyare receivedwithmoreof a jolt.For instance,
ifhe did nottellus howhe was goingto use it,thesubsequent
thehandkerchief,
of his villainywithit, as theycome out in theaction,would have
revelations
evenmoreimpact.And thewholeplaymovesfaster.
musthave been aware of this.He knew long beforethe
The playwright
dramaticvalueofplantinga barehintofvillainyand lettingtheaudienceimagiAaronhidingthebag ofgold withoutexplananationwork;recall,forinstance,
RichardIII,
tionand theshockvalueof thetrickhe playswithit; or remember
Hastings'doom.For that
manipulating
ofhisintention,
afteronlyan intimation
so
it is when Iago himself,in the fifthact,improvises
matter,how effective
to throwthe blame on Bianca forCassio'sbrawl.On the stagethe
brilliantly
threatof a hiddenvillainythatmaybreakout in a new formwithoutpreparadramaticweapon.
tionis a powerful
of surprise
byintroYet Shakespearewas contentto lose someof theeffect
that
it
was the
was
did
this
he
reason
one
ducingIago's soliloquies.Probably
of
traces
are
there
and
inevitably
he
had
art
form
in,
up
grown
of the
tradition
of the conventional
villainin Iago. However,if a repetition
the conventional
onlypurpose,he couldhaveletIago, as a devilor man,
had beenShakespeare's
was
merelyoutlinethevillainyto comeand gloatoverit.But theconventional
in
not enoughforShakespeare.If it had been,we shouldnotbe so interested
him today.That he understoodand dramatizedthe hiddenworkingof the
has been helpedto
aftergeneration
soul hardlyneeds to be said; generation,
its own behaviorthroughShakespeare'spoetry.Surelyhe was not
understand
nor,surely,
together;
or bytackingpiecesof convention
doingthisaccidentally,
was he a kind of innocentgeniuswho had brilliantinsightswithoutknowing
tooadeptat gettingthemost
whathe was doing.He was toogood a craftsman,
thanhiscontemporaries.
so
much
more
and
dramatic
materials,
his
of
human
out
When he made Iago he was at one of thepeaksof hisart,he was dealingwith
interest-and
in whichhe had considerable
a wickedman-a kindof humanity
use of thesoliloquiesto showwhatwenton
he seemsto have made deliberate
behindthesurfaceofthiskindofman.
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IN DEFENSE OF IAGO
153
So Wecometo thesoliloquies.What do theytellus aboutIago's innerbeing
thatis different
fromwhathis exteriortoldus? Rememberthatthe-outerman
seemeda cool, controlledvillain,usuallythe completemasterof his feelings,
and indeedhe boastedofhispowerto controlemotion.If we wereleftwithonly
thisside of him,we mightbe contentwiththeclassicestimateof Bradleyand
century,of Iago, the cold,,
inherited,
fromthe nineteenth
Granville-Barker,30
passionlessdesignerof tragedyin real life; or we mightsee him,with the
Satanists,a devilwho of courseneedsno passion.3lBut thereis anotheraspect
to Iago, his innerlife;a look intothis,and we knowhow little,actually,he is
whathe is. The momenthe is alone and the mask comesoff,all thepassions
hidden behind the smooth,subordinatesurfacesuddenlyboil up. Far from
beingpassionless,
thisinnerIago is one greatfuryof passion,themorefurious
whenhe is withpeople.Anyoneon
becauseso muchof his passionis smothered
whom his thoughtlingersbecomesan objectof some spurtof passion-hate,
envy,jealousy,lust,fear.His superior,his superior'swife,his militarycompanions,his gull, his wife-in the existenceof all of themhe findssome torlittle
ment,somethreatto hisown ego. His wifeand his gull takeup relatively
sadismin actual
ofhisimaginative
fury,
becausehe exploitsthemwithsatisfying
life; but the others,Othello,Cassio,and Desdemona,to whom he mustoutwardlyturna pleasant,socialface,are,fortheirreal or imaginedsuperiority,
intolerable
to him,and he needsto crushthemin his mind.When thethought
of theirdecentor noblequalitiesforcesitselfintohis awareness,
it automatically
of hostility-theMoor, of a freeand open nature,
evokes a counter-thought
Desdemonamusthave hervirtueturnedinto
mustbe led by thenose; fruitful
The contempt
lago showsfor
pitch;Cassio,a properman,mustbe overthrown.
othersis fierceand tireless;but we learnat lastthatbehindit is a searingconthatCassio
temptforhis own self,whenthethoughtrisesto his consciousness
inhislife
... hatha dailybeauty
Thatmakesmeugly....
by transMostlyhe defendshimselffromthe awarenessof thisself-contempt
intofuriousfantasiesof his greatpower:he is clever,very
ferringhis hostility
veryclever,indeed he has superhumancunning,he is above-or below-the
and morality
of thosehe resentsand needsto despise.It is
commonsentiment
not any single need that frustrates
Iago-the passed-overlieutenancy,the
fantasied
passionforDesdemona,theimaginedcuckoldingbyOthello;it would
do him no good to be satisfied
on all thesepoints-indeed,whenhe does get
his fury.What we are shownin the
the lieutenancy,
it does nothingto satisfy
consumingpassionthatfeedson all lifearoundit.
innerIago is a bottomless,
the innerand the overtmanifestations
of lago's,
Let me sum up, briefly,
On thesurfacehe givesthisimpression:
personality.
of will,of intelligence,
and reason,while
He believesin theomnipotence
forces
thepowerofemotional
forthem;he
andshowing
contempt
denying
S0 Bradley(A. C. Bradley,
Shakespearean
Tragedy(1929), p. 224) is frankly
bewildered
to find
thatlago ". . . has less passionthan the ordinaryman,and yethe does thesefrightful
things."
of Hazlittand Swinburne(p. 228), and he accepts
Bradleyacceptsin principlethe suggestions
Coleridge's"moove-huntiing"
figuretoo (p. 226); Bradley'spointis thatColeridge'sestimatedoes
notequatewith"'evilforevil'ssake" Barker(H. Granville-Barker,
pp.
Prefaces(Princeton,
1947),
98ff.)allowslago theemotionofhate,buteventhisis seenas cold.
31 For theSatanistview-oflago's-lackof passion,see Chapman,Stoll,p. 247, and Palmer.
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154
SHAKESPEARE QUARTERLY
his
and theirfeelings,
theirdignity,
forothers,
disrespect
has an essential
people
as
of
them
thinks
he
them;
of
beinghissubordination
onlyconcern
he is proudof his abilityto exploitthem,byhookor by
to be exploited,
feelings.32
at hand-money,
sexuality,
crook,workingwithanything
actionsShakespearehas
This fairlywell describesIago fromtheobservable
It
provided.Is thisthepictureof a kindofhumanbeing? is; nota pleasantone,
writingwe may
but one so commonin societythatin psychological
certainly,
lago is an ababout
paragraph
the
preceding
fact,
In
type.
a
findit chartedas
modern
a
distinguished
by
description
the
of
word-for-word,
almost
stract,
of a familiarneuroticpattern.lago mighthave been a
medicalpsychologist
is matchedbythe
modelforthestudy.And thepatternof Iago's overtactivity
almostverbatim,
recognizabledrivesof his innerlife.Here is anotherabstract,
type:
ofsucha neurotic
ofthemotivations
froma description
..
triumph
forcein lifeis hisneedforvindictive
His mainmotivating
does,
he
than
more
achieves
or
knows
who
anybody
tolerate
he cannot
Compulsively
hissuperiority.
wieldsmorepower,or in anywayquestions
himhe hasto draghisrivaldownor defeathim.Evenifhe subordinates
Not
triumph.
for
ultimate
scheming
is
he
career,
his
of
sake
selfforthe
... the
he easilycan becometreacherous
of loyalty,
beingtiedbyfeelings
pridethat
of life... withtheunsatiable
mastery
drivefora triumphant
all feelmore
and
more
swallowing
a
monster,
becomes
it,
accompanies
in
are
that
appalling
self-contempt
and
self-hate
the
covering]
...
[and
ings
humanties-are
considerateness-all
Love, compassion,
theirdimensions.
glory. . . he mustprovehisown
on thepathto sinister
feltas restraints
onlybyarrogating
Andhe canproveitto hissatisfaction
worthto himself.
thespecialqualitiesofwhicharedeterattributes,
extraordinary
to himself
he
feelings,
positive
needs. . . Havingsmothered
minedbyhis particular
of life.Hencehispridein
forthemastery
can relyupononlyhisintellect
in
pridein vigilance,
powersreachesunusualdimensions,
his intellectual
outcome
[A]
frequent
in
planning....
foresight,
in
everybody,
outwitting
thathe willbe cheated
or exploitis an anxiety
to deprive
of [his] tendency
byothers.... He givesfreerange,at leastin hismind,to his
or exploited
of
theoutward]expressions
... [though
resentment
amplesupplyofbitter
orexpediofprudence
maybe checkedbytheconsiderations
vindictiveness
perofcrushing
feelings
whyhisprocess
ency.. .. In orderto understand
andhisvisionofthe
sists... we haveto takea look... at hisimagination
than"they"[theothers]are.He
better
He is and willbe infinitely
future.
will becomegreatand putthemto shame.He willshowthemhowthey
and wrongedhim.He willbecomethegreathero. . . or
havemisjudged
revenge,
Drivenby.. . a needforvindication,
persecutor....
great)
(the
thecourseofhis
Theydetermine
thesearenotidlefantasies.
and triumph,
he
in largeor smallmatters,
to victory,
fromvictory
life.Drivinghimself
livesforthe"dayofreckoning."33
32 KarenHorney,
(New York,1942), pp. 56ff.See also,bythesameauthor,"The
Self-Analysis
in The NeuroticPerand "NeuroticCompetitiveness,"
and Possession,"
Quest forPower,Prestige,
ofOurTime (New York,1937), pp. i62-206.
sonality
someby
itselfin variousways,somemarkedbywithdrawal,
manifests
personality
The neurotic
fromHorney,and in the followingone, I have broughtto focus,
aggression.In this abstraction
of one "expansive"manifestation.
descriptions
frommanypages,thepsychologist's
33Karen Horney,Neurosisand Human Growth(New York, 1950), pp. 197-213. Bradley,
I think,was reachingfor some such explanationfor Iago's humanityin his emphasison the
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IN DEFENSE OF IAGO
155
It is notnecessary
here,as it wasforthepsychologist,
toexplaintheearly
stresses
thattwistthenormalhumandrivesintothesevindictive
to
channels,
findin a man'schildhood
theconditions
ofemotion
thatmakehimfearful
and
drivehimtoseekomnipotence
he
in a fantasy.
Forus,Iagohadnochildhood;
artform.
existsonlyas a moreor lessvalidreflection
of lifein thedramatic
Whatisimportant
outdramatically,
hereis thatShakespeare
sawandworked
as
thepsychologist
couldbe-how
did in textbook.observation,
howthesethings
intimately
relatedweretheneedforvindictive
and theneedto deny
triumph
positive
feelings,
howpervasive
hosmisdirected
andpowerful
wastheresulting
tility,
howdangerously
thesurface
andpoisonously
fumedbeneath
thehostility
whenit was further
compressed
bytheoutward
and
needto appearpleasant
subordinate.
It is no longersurprising
ofhutous thatShakespeare
sensedcomplexities
manmotivation
thatpsychologists
are stilltrying
to explain.Freudlongago
paid tribute
to himforthat.Butit is interesting
to see howdeephisinsight
couldgo,as in thecase'ofIago.Forhavingshapedthetruementalandemotionalqualities
ofhisvindictive
man,theplaywright
addeda distinctive
physical
illnessthatunmistakably
belongsto lago.It was an illnessthatplaguedIago
savagely,
andonethat,
inhisrevenge
ontoOthello.
fantasies,
hehopedtofasten
The illnessis common
today-itis almostexpected
to occuramongthose
individuals
whoburnwithresentment
It
andhostility
thattheytrytosuppress.
feedson internalized
rage.In lago it occurswhen,outofthedeepwellofhis
self-contempt,
he dredges
up a fantasy
uponwhichtocenter
hisfurious
resentment-specifically
whenhe tortures
himself
withthethought
thatOthellohad
sexualrelations
withEmilia.
. . . Thethought
whereof
Doth,likea poisonous
mineral,
gnawmyinwards....
Iagodoes,thatis,burninwardly
from
a familiar,
severe
functional
disorder,
a disorder
thateatsa manawaywithin
whenhisnerves
flay
hisstomach.
Modern
medicalstudies
showthatemotionally
likethetypethatsuffers
Iagois curiously
fromthepsychosomatic
stress
whichabrades
the"inwards"
andfrequently
leads
to thepainful,
persistent
ulcer.The ulcer"type",
as thesestudies
show,canbe
fromanyfieldofactivity,
buthowever
diverse
theoccupations
andenvironment
he is likelyto be a personwho was driven,
to quoteone study,
to evolve
"6...a lifepattern
of beingself-sufficient,
independent,
or the'lone-wolf."'
This pattern
was ".
commonly
accompanied
byfeelings
ofresentment
and
hostility."34
The casestudies
showthatulcerpatients
frequently
takeoutsomeoftheir
on exploitable
aggressions
underlings;
thiswas an accompaniment
to the
smothered
resentment
and hostility
fantasies
theysuffered
in theirrelations
withpersons
couldnotmanipulate.
they
Ancient'surgeto "plumeup mywill" (Bradley,pp. 229 f.), Bradleysaw, too,thatlago did not
understand
thepowerof love; but thecriticstoppedshortof thefurther
insightthatit was some
repression
of thepassionall humansshare,and nottheutterlackof it,thataccountedforthepower
of lago's characterization.
Perhapsa greatertolerance
forseeingOthelloin thetheater
would have
helpedBradleyhere.Kittredge,
thoughhe tendedto justifylago's actionson the basisof external
provocation,
sensedmoreacutelythe"ragingtorment"
withintheAncient.
84 B. Mittelman,
H. G. Wolff,and M. Scharf,"Emotionsand Gastroduodenal
Functions,"
Psychosomatic
IV (1942), 5, i6.
Medicine,
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156
SHAKESPEARE QUARTERLY
lago,whois ceaselessly
on firewithsuppressed
hostility
againstthosehe
cannotopenlyexploit,
represents
excellently
thetypical
hostforthisgnawing,
poisonous
mineral
of an illness;andifhe mistakes
itsphysiological
he
nature,
knowswellenoughwhatcausesit in him.A thought,
likehissusa conceit,
picionofEmilia'sinfidelity,
is enoughto setthesharpteethbitingat hisgut;
anditisprecisely
for
sucha conceit
thathehopestofeedOthello,
Dangerous
conceits
areintheirnature
...
poisons
which...
... witha-littleact upontheblood
Burnliketheminesofsulphur.
Iago knewthefeeling
well.The imagery
is so sharpthatone wonders
how
wellShakespeare
himself
mighthavebeenacquainted
withtheproblem.
Certainly
Renaissance
psychologists
knewthesignsofit,little
as theyunderstood
its
location
or itscausesin detail;thus,a latesixteenth-century
treatise
explained:
"Buttheenvious
bodyisconstrained
tobiteonhisbridle,
tochewandtodevoure
hisenvywithin
himselfe
andtolockup hisownemiserie
in thebottome
ofhis
heart,
totheenditbreaks
notfoorth
andshowitself...."5 Iagoindeedchewed
anddevoured
hisenvywithin
himself,
andlockedup hismisery
in thebottom
ofhisheart-orinthatapproximate
location.
If thischaracterization
I haveproposed
is consistent
withShakespeare's
intention,
itshouldbe abletostandthesametestI appliedtotheother
interpretaions:is it communicable
in thetheater?
I believeit is. Indeed,in myviewits
valueforcriticism
wouldbe seriously
limited
unlessit did havemeaning
in
terms
oftheartform
inwhichShakespeare
worked.
Thisdoesnotmeana belief
thatIago-or anycomplex
Shakespearian
orshouldbepresented
character-can
in anyrigidity
patterned
wayfromthestage.One ofShakespeare's
greatnesses
as a dramatist
washissenseoftheflexibility
and
oftheartinwhichheworked,
particularly
itsdemandsforlanguageand characterization
thatcouldfit,like
a loosebutalwaysshapely
inthewidelyvarying
creative
approaches
garment,
evitable
whendifferent
ofmanysizes,shapes,
actors
playthesamerole.Actors
andcultural
haveshown,
andwillshow,Iagoswith
temperaments,
backgrounds
different
ormoregenial,
surfaces:
another
onemorebrooding,
moremercurial,
or moresardonic.
Butthecharacter
is mostpowerfully
communicated
on the
I have
of humanity
stage,it seemsto me,whenitsnucleusis theconception
outlined.
The twosharply
contrasting,
yetcomplementary
sidesoflago givea sustotheroleonthestage.A constant
penseful
tension
unity
surrounds
theAncient
in hisoutward
seeming,
itemerges
fromtheimpression
notonlyofhiscynical
butalso of his continuously
hypocrisy
down.Whenhe
holdinghisemotions
hisdeephostility,
smothers
andappears,
without
anyshowofhypocrisy--even
to theaudience-the
truefriend
and subordinate
of Othello,
we knowhe is
morethana coollycalculating
We
pretender;
heis a dangerous
highexplosive.
anda hintofits
geta glimpseofhispassionwhenhe is exploiting
Roderigo,
heatin histreatment
of Emilia.Probably
Shakespeare
meantthemaskto slip
in othercompany,
too: as whenCassiokissesEmiliaon theCyprus
momentarily
quay, and lago, aftera flashinglook of hate,coverswiththe line of sadistic
35 Peter de la Primaudaye,
The FrenchAcademy,trans.T. B(owes) (1586), quoted in
Lily B. Campbell,Shakespeare's
TragicHeroes-SlavesofPassion(Cambridge,193(), p. 153.
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IN DEFENSE OF IAGO
157
toRoderigo
a bitlater
istalking
humor
aimedathiswife;orwhentheAncient
envyletshispassiongetaway
abouttheplottoruinCassio,andin hisfurious
and
young,
theknaveis handsome,
fromhim,andherunsonandon: "Besides,
a pestilent
andgreenmindslookafter;
inhimthatfolly
hathall thoserequisites
knave,andthewomanhathfoundhimalready."
complete
of
on thephilosophy
Roderigo
WhenIagois in theverymidstoflecturing
seemsmeanttoshow,
ofreasonandwill,hissuppressed
emotion
thesupremacy
is nota
there
love.Probably
as whenhe dwellsmorethanheneedstoon erotic
ofIago'sinnerpassionis notmeantto be sensedbescenewheretherumble
surface.
neaththecontrolled
Iago is leftalone,we lookintothevolcanoitself:the
Then,themoment
and
revenge
wellsup, and he ragesdownthestage,fantasying
resentment
deep
anditaddsthenecessary
is first
ratetheater,
The suddencontrast
triumph.
the
sharpens
man.Eachsoliloquy
ofthesurface
shadows
tothecharacterization
hiddenat
thatmustbe so carefully
hostility
audiencesenseof thecontrolled
shows.
whenthehostility
thembment
and makesmoredramatic
othertimes,
consciously
or
haveseemedto sense,whether
The better
IagosI havewatched
and havedeliberately
smoldering
ofthecharacter,
emotional
not,theconstant
and maskedit withbiting
dampedthefireduringIago'ssceneswithothers,
character
ofIago's
Therethediffuse
humor,
toletitblazeoutinthesoliloquies.
him,but
No onepassionis seentodominate
is emphasized.
hostility
pervasive
humiliation,
hate,self-contempt.
fear,
allthatcancrowdin,jealousy,
envy,
pride,
yetas he
Theseareno made-up
theyshakeIagofiercely;
emotions,
either;
he is
theater
lifeitis clear,fromthefairtreatment
hisstormy
movesthrough
him.It is
is notoutside
thatthesourceofhistorment
seento getfromothers,
hasdiverted
where
thedenialofpositive
feelings
tobewithin,
seeninperspective
inallthefurious
itself
hisemotions
intoa fountain
ofhostility
thatmustrelease
theouterworld
he can manufacture.
To theendhe triesto deceiver
fantasies
deceived
abouthispowerto
obviously
abouthisinnerlife,justas he is himself
havelifted
Finally,
whenall is lost,whentheothers
subduehisownemotions.
of
hiswifein a suddenrelease
on hissecret
andhe murders
world,
thecurtain
reinonhisrebellious
emotions,
thestrenuous
re-asserts
heimmediately
hostility,
These
from
thesightofothers.
andtriesforthelasttimetosealoffhisfeelings
hand.
cannotmakehimspeak,though
mortals
hisheartwerein their
is hisunmisWhatis compelling
aboutthiskindof Iago in thetheater
becauseheis a verywicked
He doesnotdrawoursympathy,
takablehumanity.
andhere
man;buthe evokesourfear,becausewe knowwickedmendo exist,
emotions
of how theirtwisted
work;and he
is a shockingly
realreflection
forheiscomkindofterror,
a terror
ofrecognition,
nameless
evokessomeother
all ofus.I believeitis this
thatrunthrough
poundedofdeephumanmotives
in theFreudian
sense-that
hasmadehimso
echoin Iago-uncanny
uncanny
and
to
so
audiences
and
critics.
many
puzzling
fascinating
to explainIago'shumanity
on
whohavesought
werecertainly
Tle critics
wereincomplete-as
thisonemaysimilarly
betheright
track;iftheirstudies
becausetheydid notgo farenoughbehindIago'sjealousy,
or
it was perhaps
orother
manifestations
tohisbroad-based
affinity
withmankind.
pride,orenvy,
havegenerally
an outside
forIago'swickedThe apologists
provocation
sought
hishumanity;
andperhaps
nessbecausetheyfeltthatonlythiscouldjustify
this
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158
SHAKESPEARE QUARTERLY
devilbecausetheycannot
thosewhofindIago a veritable
feeling
alsoprompts
him.
thatpoursfrom
bringthemselves
toacceptas humanthefloodofhostility
oras a symbol,
ofreality
as a figure
The devilhasfora long,longtime,either
bynowthe
I thinkwe understand
takentheblameforhumanwickedness.
scapegoats.
andallegorical
to unloadhumanevilon spiritual
impulse
and if so the
unconscious,
This impulsemayhavelain in Shakespeare's
that
forus; butthereis no soundevidence
havemadea discovery
symbolists
fortheevilthatmendo
to findresponsibility
meantconsciously
Shakespeare
fortimes
as a dramatist
hisgreatness
Largely
butin menthemselves.
anywhere
forces
mortal
thepurely
and revealing
beyondhisownlayin hisrecognizing
In Iago,he wentdeepintothenature
thatmovepeopleto action-orinaction.
theaccuracy
we cantrytogo no lessfarin confirming
ofthwarted
humanity;
ofhisportrait.
as a badgeofhumanity
torecognize
we havelearned
drives
The aggressive
disownthem.Evenin people
in Iago,butwecannot
aretwisted
andmagnified
reuseful
intosocially
thosewholearnto channeltheirforces
we call normal,
build
sometimes
hostilities
wrongs,
risesat realandfancied
leases,resentment
livingundertheinnertension
in thelifepath.Decentpersons
up at obstacles
wishes
momentary
thoughts
their
through
thiskindoflifeproduces
findflitting
whiletheyfantasy
or deathwillcometorivalsor enemies,
thatharm,disease,
the
withreality,
unsatisfied
hopelessly
forthemselves.
In theneurotic,
triumph
are
as they
takeonmoreandmoreimportance,
wishes
fantasies
andglory
hostile
thefantasies
andsometimes
libido,
charged
withthefullforceoftherepressed
when
It is thiskindofhumanbeing,
intoaction.
areeventranslated
recklessly
who
tofithisvisionofomnipotence,
he is driven
tochangetheformofreality
itis thiskindofhumanbeing,
makestragedy,
in lifeorin thedrama;I believe
thatShakespeare
andreaders,
audiences
forendless
attraction
withhisuncanny
inJago.
reflected
skillandinsight
technical
withsurpassing
ofCalifornia
University
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