STUDY OF ROHTANG PASS

Transcription

Final Report
Study of Rohtang Pass
Sponsor Himachal Pradesh State Pollution Control Board ______________________________________________ National Environmental Engineering Research Institute Nehru Marg, Nagpur ‐ 440 020 October, 2012
Final Report
“STUDY
OF ROHTANG PASS”
Sponsor
Himachal Pradesh State Pollution Control Board
___________________________
National Environmental Engineering
Research Institute
Nehru Marg, Nagpur - 440 020
October, 2012
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 : Introduction
1.1
Preamble
1.2
Study Objectives
1.3
Scope of Work
1.3.1
Air Environment
1.3.2
Water Environment
1.3.3
Land Environment
1.3.4
Solid Waste
1.3.5
Biodiversity
1.4
Past Studies
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.5
Chapter 2 : Air Quality Monitoring
2.1
Winter Air Quality Monitoring
2.1.1
Description of Sites
2.1.2
Results of Winter Monitoring
2.2
Summer Air quality Monitoring
2.2.1
Results of Summer Monitoring
2.3
Conclusions
2.1
2.1
2.5
2.8
2.9
2.14
Chapter 3 : Air QualityModeling
3.1
Preamble
3.2
Meteorological Data
3.3
Vehicular Sources
3.4
Applicable Emission Factors
3.5
Paved Road Dust
3.6
Modeling Results
3.6.1
PM Concentration
3.6.2
NO2 Concentration
3.6.3
CO Concentration
3.7
Conclusions
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.4
3.5
3.5
3.6
3.8
3.9
Chapter 4 : Water Environment
4.1
Introduction & Objective
4.2
Methodology
4.3
Sampling Procedure
4.4
General Observations
4.1
4.1
4.4
4.5
Chapter 5: Impact of Tourism on Solid Waste Management and Sanitation
5.1
Preamble
5.2
Geographical Features of the Study Area
5.3
Wastewater Treatment Plant at Manali
5.4
Solid Waste Management for Manali
5.5
Sanitation
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.3
5.4
Study of Rohtang Pass | i Chapter 6: Assessment of Soil, Soil Erosion and Conservation Measures for Erosion
6.1
Introduction
6.2
Geomorphology of the Study Area
6.3
Site Factors for Erosion
6.4
Results and Discussions
6.5
Chemical Properties
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.7
6.8
Chapter 7: Biological Environment
7.1
Introduction
7.2
Methodology
1. (A) Assessment of Flora at Select Locations in the Study Area
1. (B) Assessment of Fauna at Select Locations in the Study Area
2. Impact of Tourism on Biotic Component in the Study Area
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.10
7.13
Chapter 8: Assessment of Impacts of Vehicular Pollution on Glacial Environment
8.1
Preamble
8.2
Selection of Sampling Locations at Rohtang Pass
8.3
Sampling Procedure
8.4
Processing of Filters in the Laboratory
8.5
EC OC Analysis
8.6
Ion Analysis
8.7
Analysis of Molecular Marker
8.1
8.2
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.9
8.10
Chapter 9: Remote Sensing Analysis
9.1
Introduction
9.2
Study Area
9.3
Methodology
9.4
Results and Discussion
9.5
Summary of Remote Sensing Analysis
9.1
9.1
9.1
9.7
9.17
Chapter 10: Recommendations
10.1
Recommendations
10.2
Transport Sector Action Plan
10.2.1
Approach and Issues
10.2.2
Recommended Plan
10.3
Water Environment
10.4
Solid Waste Management
10.5
Soil Erosion vis-à-vis Land Sliding
10.6
Biological Environment
10.7
Glaciers
10.1
10.1
10.1
10.2
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
10.10
Study of Rohtang Pass | ii LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.7
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.5
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 8.1
Figure 9.1
Figure 9.2
Figure 9.3
Figure 9.4
Figure 9.5
Figure 9.6
Figure 9.7
Figure 9.8
Figure 9.9
Figure 9.10
Study area of Rohtang Pass
Air Quality Monitoring Locations
Air Quality Monitoring Locations
RSPM Concentrations in April at 3 Locations
PM2.5 Concentrations in April at 3 Locations
RSPM Concentrations at the Monitoring Sites in May
PM2.5 Concentrations at Monitoring Locations During May
Site wise Variation of Elements (As, Ni and Pb)
Wind Rose for the Month of May, 2012
The Three Vehicle Counting Locations
Contour Map of PM10 in μg/m3 Due to Vehicular Sources & Paved Road Dust
Three Dimensional Contour Map of PM10 in μg/m3 Due to Vehicular Sources
and Paved Road Dust
Observed and Predicted Concentrations of PM10 in μg/m3 at the Monitoring Sites
Contour Map of NO2 in μg/m3 Due to Vehicular Sources in the Study Domain
Three Dimensional Contour Map of NO2 in μg/m3 Due to Vehicular Sources
Observed and Predicted Concentrations of NO2 in μg/m3 at the Monitoring Sites
Contour Map of CO in μg/m3 Due to Vehicular Sources in the Study Domain
Three Dimensional Contour Map of CO in μg/m3 Due to Vehicular Sources
Observed and Predicted Values of CO in μg/m3 Due to Vehicular Sources at the
Monitoring Sites
1.3
2.2
2.3
2.6
2.6
2.11
2.12
2.13
3.2
3.3
3.5
3.6
Beas and Chenab River Basin
Water Sampling Locations Between Manali to Koksar
Tourist Influx at Manali During 2011
Base Map of Study Area (Manali to Khoksar)
Location Map of Ground Truth and Ground Control Points
False Colour Composite (FCC) Image of 17 July 2012
False Colour Composite (FCC) Image of 27 October 2011
False Colour Composite (FCC) Image of 31 January 2011
False Colour Composite (FCC) Image of 29 October 2005
Supervised Classification for LULC (17 July 2012)
Supervised Classification for LULC (27 October 2011)
Supervised Classification for LULC (31 January 2011)
Supervised Classification for LULC (29 October 2005)
4.1
4.3
8.3
9.2
9.6
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
3.6
3.7
3.7
3.8
3.8
3.9
3.9
Study of Rohtang Pass | iii LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
Table 2.3
Table 2.4
Table 2.5
Table 2.6
Table 2.7
Table 2.8
Table 2.9
Table 2.10
Table 2.11
Table 2.12
Table 2.13
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 3.3
Table 3.4
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table 4.4
Table 4.5
Table 4.6
Table 4.7
Table 5.1
Table 6.1
Table 6.2
Table 6.3
Table 6.4
Table 7.1
Table 7.2
Table 7.2
Table 7.3
Table 7.3
Table 7.3
Air Quality Levels and Number of Vehicles
Ambient Air Pollutants and their Standard Measurement Procedures
Air Quality Status at Palchen (Winter)
Air Quality Status at Kothi (Winter)
Air Quality Status at Solang Valley (Winter)
Average Concentration of Ions in μg/m3 in Winter
Average Concentration of Elements in μg/m3 in Winter
Air Quality Status at Palchen (Summer)
Air Quality Status at Kothi (Summer)
Air Quality Status at Solang Valley (Summer)
Air Quality Status at Marhi (Summer)
Air Quality Status at Koksar (Summer)
Average Concentrations of Ions in Summer at 5 Monitoring Locations
Average Element Concentrations in Summer at 5 Monitoring Locations
Applicable Emission Factors for Vehicular Source
Vehicle Weight
Paved Road Emission Load (kg/day)
Percent Exceedance of PM10 and PM2.5 During May and April
Water Sampling Locations
Physico-chemical Characterization of Beas and Chandra River Water Samples
Physico-chemical Characterization of Springs and Municipal Water Supply Samples
Physico-chemical Characterization of Ground Water and Nallah Samples
Trace Metal Analysis of Water samples from Rivers, Springs, Ground Water, Water
Supply Schemes and Nallahs
List of Algal Species Found in the Water Bodies of Rohtang Study
Density and Species Composition of Phytoplankton in Water Samples Collected
from Various Sources
Tourist Statistics for Manali for the Period 2011
Details of Soil Sampling Locations
Physical Characterization of Soil Samples Collected Between Manali-Rohtang NH-21
Chemical Characterization of Soil Samples Collected Between ManaliRohtang NH-21
Mechanical Characterization of Soil Samples Collected Between ManaliRohtang NH-21
Select Locations for Biodiversity Studies During May, 2012
A : Flora of Rohtang Pass Region in Manali Forest Range Kullu District
B: Flora of Rohtang Pass Region, with Medicinal Value, in Manali Forest Range,
Kullu District & Koksar Region of Lahul District
A. Density, Frequency and Dominance and IVI of Trees in Solang Valley
B. Density, Frequency and Dominance and IVI of Trees in Kothi (Tungu)
Forest Area
C. Density, Frequency and Dominance and IVI of Trees in Gulaba (Rahla Fall)
Forest Area
1.5
2.4
2.5
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.9
2.10
2.10
2.10
2.13
2.13
3.4
3.4
3.5
3.9
4.2
4.6
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.9
5.2
6.5
6.6
6.6
6.7
7.1
7.4
7.4
7.7
7.7
7.7
Study of Rohtang Pass | iv Table 8.1
Table 8.2
Table 8.3
Table 8.4
Table 8.5
Table 9.1
Table 9.2
Table 9.3
Prediction of Particular matter Emissions (Kg/day) from Vehicles
Sampling Locations for Collection of Snow Samples
OC and EC Concentration in Glacier Samples
Ion Concentration (in mg/kg) in Glacier Samples
Molecular Markers and Their Probable Sources
Details of Satellite Data
Details of Ground Truth Locations in the Study Area
Landuse Pttern of Study Area in Percentage
8.3
8.4
8.8
8.10
8.11
9.3
9.4
9.17
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 4.1
Plate 4.2
Plate 4.3
Plate 5.1
Plate 5.2
Plate 5.3
Plate 5.4
Plate 5.5
Plate 5.6
Plate 5.7
Plate 5.8
Plate 6.1
Plate 6.2
Plate 6.3
Plate 6.4
Plate 6.5
Plate 7.1
Plate 7.2
Plate 7.3
Plate 7.4
Plate 7.5
Plate 8.1
Plate 8.2
Plate 8.3
Plate 8.4
Plate 8.5
Plate 8.6
Plate 8.7
Plate 8.8
Plate 8.9
Water Sampling at Various Source
Field Laboratory Established for Water Quality Analysis for Physico-Chemical
Parameters
Water Quality Analysis for Microbiological
Tourist Places at Manali Rohtang Pass
Solid Waste Management at Manali
Common Toilet Facility and Portable Prefabricated Toilets
Horses used by Tourist as Source of Animal Dung
Tourist Throwing Liter Along the Road
Non Compliance of Waste Management by Hotels
Promotional Activities for Clean Environment, H.P. Govt.
Food Vendors Adding to Nalla Pollution
Vehicles Plying on Rohtang Pass
Road Widening Activities
Titling of Retaining Wall and Need for River Diversion for Road Widening
Collection of Soil Samples
Collection of Core Soil Samples
Study of Forests by Plotless Sampling Method
Vegetation at Different Altitude in the Study Area
Dominant Flora in Study Area
Fish Culture Activities at Trout Farm, Patlikuhal
Impact of Tourism on Biotic Component of Study Area
Traffic Congestion at Beas Nalla Near Marhi
Vehicular Movement at Snow Covered Rohtang Pass
Snow Sample Collection in Clean Glass Bottles
Snow Sample Collection on Top of Snow Pack
Millipore All-Glass Filter Assembly with Suction Pump
Exposed Quartz Filter
DRI’s EC OC Analyzer
Block Diagram of EC- OC Analyzer
Dionex ICS-3000 Ion Chromatography (IC) System
4.3
4.4
4.5
5.1
5.4
5.5
5.5
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.7
6.3
6.4
6.4
6.5
6.6
7.3
7.6
7.8
7.12
7.14
8.4
8.4
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.7
8.9
Study of Rohtang Pass | v LIST OF ANNEXURES
Annexure 2.1
Annexure 4.1
Annexure 4.2
Annexure 4.3
Annexure 4.4
Annexure 4.5
Annexure 6.1
Annexure 6.2
Annexure 7.1
Annexure 9.1
CPCB- National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Standards
Uniform Protocol on Water Quality Monitoring Order, 2005
The methodology for sample collection and preservation techniques,
Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) (APHA)
The analytical techniques used for water analysis for selected parameters (APHA)
“BIS: 10500-2012 (second revision) Specifications for Drinking Water
Water Quality Criteria – CPCB
Methods Adopted for Soil Analysis for Mechanical Properties and Significance of
These Parameters
Chandel et al., 2009. RS & GIS Based Landslide Hazard Zonation of Mountainous
Terrains A Study from Middle Himalayan Kullu District, Himachal Pradesh, India.
International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences, Volume 2, No 1, 2011
Medicinal Flora in Lahul District
Ground Truth Survey (Rohtang Pass) with For assessment of LULC
Study of Rohtang Pass | vi Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Preamble
Rohtang Pass about 4111 meter above the mean sea level is also called Rohtang La by Buddhists,
or Rohtang Jot by Kullui locals. It is a high mountain pass across the Pir Panjal range of the
Himalaya that connects the Kullu Valley with the Lahul and Spiti valleys of Himachal Pradesh. It
is at a distance of 51 km from the town of Manali. The pass provides a natural divide between the
sub-humid/humid Kullu Valley with a primarily Hindu culture (in the south), and the arid/semi-arid
high-altitude Lahul and Spiti valleys with a Buddhist culture (in the north). The pass lies on the
watershed between the Chenab and Beas Basins. On the southern side of this pass, the Beas
River emerges from underground and flows southward and on its northern side, the Chandra River,
a source stream of the river Chenab, flows westward.
The weather at Rohtang Pass is highly variable and generally very cold and closed in the winter
from November and opens sometime in May. Long before the pass opens, tourists start visiting its
road at whatever point has been cleared to experience snow. This point is called the snow point and
is a major attraction with snow sledges, skis and all kinds of tourist attractions set up. A gateway to
the adjoining tourist destinations, this scenic spot provides excellent opportunities for
trekking. Rohtang Pass is the 'Highest Jeepable Road in the World and offers spectacular views of
the Himalayas. The Border Road Organization (BRO) of Indian Army maintains and broadens the
Leh Manali Highway and ensures safety as well as movement of vehicles. It is not particularly high
or difficult to cross on foot by Himalayan standards, but it has a well-deserved reputation for being
dangerous because of unpredictable snowstorms and blizzards. This pass is an ancient trade route
between the people on either side of Pir Panjal. This has been the oldest and most frequented pass
in the region, and it is the main pass leading from one cultural region (Indian) to another, quite
different one, to the north. The tedious journey is often dangerous owing to the high velocity wind
and the unpredictable snowfall.
The road through the Kullu Valley, past Manali and over the Rohtang Pass to Keylong,
and Lahul and on to Ladakh, has become very busy during the summer months as an alternate
military route, following the Kargil Conflict in 1999 in addition to tensions in Kashmir. Traffic
jams are common as military vehicles, trucks, and goods carriers try to navigate the narrow roads
and rough terrain, compounded by snow and ice at certain points and the large number of tourists
vehicles. Partially due to the military significance of the pass, the Indian government began
building the $320 million Rohtang Tunnel project in 2010 which promises to create a year-around
link which is much safer and faster.
Study of Rohtang Pass | 1.1
The city nearest to Rohtang pass is Manali which is at an altitude of 1,950 m (6,400 ft) in the Beas
River valley . It is an important hill station in the mountains of Himachal Pradesh, India, near the
northern end of the Kullu Valley. It is located about 250 km north of state capital, Shimla. Manali
with population of approx. 30,000 is administratively a part of the Kullu district.
Himachal Pradesh Pollution Control Board (HPPCB) has been directed by Hon’ble High Court to
undertake a study of Rohtang pass. HPPCB has also been asked to submit an alternative proposal
to reduce the pressure of tourist vehicles and to fix the permissible number of vehicles and visitors
that should be allowed to ply in the region. The Court further indicated that soil and water quality
needs to be studied. Minimal damage to the ecology especially on the biodiversity of the area due
to developmental activities in the region needs to be ensured. Study should include all related
aspects of developments such as air quality, roads, vehicles, availability of water etc. Keeping in
view the above, it is proposed to conduct a study on air, water, soil pollution and biodiversity
around Rohtang Pass area from Solang Nala to Khoksar which is beyond Nehru-Kund near Bhang
village up to Khoksar. Map of the study area is depicted in Figure 1.1.
1.2 Study Objectives
The main objectives of the study of “Rohtang Pass Region” given to NEERI is to :
•
Evaluate the change in environmental quality in terms of air, water, soil, ecology/biodiversity,
due to the activities carried out in the vicinity of Rohtang pass due to tourists influx
•
Identify adverse effects on environmental status, if any, and
•
Provide remedial measures on resultant impacts to prevent expected environmental
degradation.
1.3 Scope of Work
Environmental component-wise (envisaged) scope of work is given below:
1.3.1 Air Environment
a) Air quality monitoring
• Air quality monitoring w.r.t. major parameters i.e. PM10, PM2.5, SO2 NO2, CO & HC along
with Chemical speciation of PM10 and PM2.5 for EC, OC, Pb, As, Ni, Anions and cations.
•
5 days continuous monitoring each in winter and summer season at 5 locations, preferably
simultaneously. 24-Hr sampling for PM10, PM2.5, SO2 and NO2, whereas grab sampling thrice a
day for CO & HC. The monitoring locations shall be finalized in consultation with HPPCB.
Since power supply may not be available at Rohtang Pass, the sampling shall be carried out
using battery operated equipment (accordingly, monitoring strategy may need to be redefined).
Figure 1.1: Study Area of Rohtang Pass
•
Continuous meteorological measurements (wind speed, wind direction, temperature, humidity,
etc.) during air quality monitoring period.
b) Preparation of emission inventory
• Assessment of vehicular traffic on the major road (Manali-Leh-Highway) during the study
periods shall be carried out. Number of different categories of vehicles (such as cars, buses,
trucks etc.) passing through the region shall be counted and vehicular emission inventory shall
be developed using appropriate emission factors.
•
Other activities leading to air pollution, emanating from nearby villages (e.g. cooking and
mechanized agricultural/ horticultural activity etc.) will also be considered.
c) Air quality modeling
• Air quality modeling shall be undertaken using appropriate model. The reduction in air quality
levels after applying control techniques for vehicle sources shall be ascertained.
•
Assessment of atmospheric assimilation potential of vehicular transport emissions in Rohtang
Pass.
1.3.2 Water Environment
a) Surface water (River/ Ponds)
• Assessment of surface water quality and quantity in Rohtang Pass area between Solang, Kothi
to Khoksar on NH-Manali-Leh. Water quantity will be assessed through secondary records.
•
Assessment of water quality of various water resources in Beas and Chandra rivers and hill
streams at 5 or more locations.
•
Water quality shall be assessed for the parameters specified under “Uniform Protocol on Water
Quality Monitoring Order, 2005” prescribed by Ministry of Environment & Forests.
1.3.3 Land Environment
This will have three sub-components viz. land quality in relation to soil erosion, solid waste
generation due to tourist activities and bio-diversity.
Soil Erosion
Erosion is the prime process, which is responsible for the variation in topography. It is aggravated
due to human interventions through indiscriminate cutting of trees, mining, overburden dumping,
etc., thus affecting natural ecosystem. Areas affected by severe soil erosion need immediate
attention for soil conservation measures like bunding, contour farming, gully, farm forestry, water
harvesting, etc.
•
Sampling of soil will be carried out in areas of Solang, Kothi, Marhi upto Khoksar on NHManali-Leh Road in the Rohtang Pass and analyzed for related parameters to study the
impact on soil erosion.
1.3.4 Solid Waste
•
Assessment of solid waste generation due to the tourist activities
1.3.5 Biodiversity
•
Assessment of flora and fauna including sensitive terrestrial systems in the study area
•
Delineation of existing land use pattern and practices in the project area using Remote Sensing
Imageries
•
Assessment of impacts on landuse pattern due to the proposed developments
•
Assessment of impact on flora and fauna of the study region.
1.4 Past Studies
To assess the impact of vehicles on air, air quality monitoring was conducted in April 2011, by
Himachal Pradesh State Pollution Control Board (HPSPCB) before the start of tourist season.
Number of vehicles on the road was also counted. Thereafter monitoring was conducted during the
peak tourist season in May 2011. The concentration of NO2 before the tourist season was below
detection limit, whereas the average NO2 concentration during peak season increased to 11.1
μg/m3. This can be attributed to Vehicular pollution. The average PM10 concentration prior to
tourist season was 23 μg/m3 while the average concentration during the peak tourist season was
25μg/m3. The sources of PM10 are vehicles, re-suspended road dust, burning of wood. Pb, As, Ni
were not detected at any time. SO2 was also under Below Detectable Level (BDL). Table 1.1 gives
the details of air quality monitoring conducted by HPSPCB.
Table 1.1 : Air Quality Levels and No of Vehicles
Parameters
Kothi Tungu Nalla
6.4.11
7.4.11
26.5.11
19
26
25
RSPM (μg/m3)
3
ND
ND
ND
Pb (μg/m )
As (ng/m3)
ND
ND
ND
3
Ni (ng/m )
ND
ND
ND
BDL
BDL
BDL
SO2 (μg/m3)
BDL
BDL
11
NO2 (μg/m3)
No of vehicles
10
11
156
crossed point of
monitoring location
Marhi Fourway
27.5.11 28.5.11
20
18
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
BDL
BDL
11.9
BDL
143
141
29.5.11
36
ND
ND
ND
BDL
14.2
142
Chapter 2
Air Quality Monitoring
2.1 Winter Air Quality Monitoring
Air quality monitoring was carried out for 6 days continuously at the three selected locations viz.
Solang valley, Palchen and Kothi. Level of pollutants such as RSPM, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, CO,
NMHC and HC were recorded. Further, PM2.5 samples were analyzed for EC/OC, ions and
elements. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 shows the three monitoring locations.
2.1.1 Description of Sites
Each site description has been presented with a view to bring out the overall characteristics of sites.
Solang Valley : Solang valley, popularly known as Snow Point, is 13 km northwest of Manali.
Solang Valley is known for its beautiful landscape, thrilling snow-capped mountain peaks and the
view of the glaciers. Many tourists throng this place especially during the winter skiing festival.
The monitoring location was about 100m from the main road connecting the Solang valley with
Manali.
Palchen : Palchen is situated on the Manali-Leh highway at a distance of 9 km from Manali. the
Hamta peaks are located further ahead.
Kothi : Located at a distance of 12 km from Manali, Kothi is situated on the Manali-Leh highway.
Kothi is a picturesque village and has a thrilling view of the deep gorge through which the Beas
River swiftly races, an idyllic village, which boasts of a superb view of the deep gorge, and the
Beas River rushing through it. The monitoring location at Kothi was located very close to the LehManali highway and hence is kerb site.
Teflon and Quartz filter papers were used alternatively for PM2.5 to carry out EC and OC analysis
for alternate days. During April, Rohtang pass was not open and very few tourists were present in
Manali. Roads were opened few kilometers above Gulaba and Marhi was not accessible.
Pollutants Monitored : RSPM, PM2.5, SO2, NO2 and CO were monitored at all the three airmonitoring sites. Further, PM2.5 samples were analyzed for EC and OC, ions (Na+, NH4+, K+,
Mg+2, Ca+2, F-, Cl-, NO2-, SO4-2, Br-, NO3- and PO4) and elements (As, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni,
Pb and Zn). Table 2.1 presents the details of sampling instrument, sampling principle, flow rate,
analytical method and instrument for each monitoring attributes.
Figure 2.1 : Air Quality Monitoring Locations
Figure 2.2 : Air Quality Monitoring Locations
Table 2.1: Ambient Air Pollutants and their Standard Measurement Procedures
Particulars
Sampling
Instrument
RSPM
Respirable
particulate
matter sampler
Sampling
Principle
Filtration of
aerodynamic
sizes with a
size cut by
impaction
1.1 m3/min
24 hourly
Flow rate
Sampling
Period
Analytical
instrument
Analytical
method
Min.
Reportable
value
Particulars
Sampling
Instrument
Sampling
Principle
Flow rate
Sampling
Period
Analytical
instrument
Analytical
method
Minimum
Reportable
value
PM 2.5
Airmetric
NOX
Impingers
attached to
RPM sampler
Chemical
absorption in
suitable media
SO2
Impingers
attached to
RPM
sampler
Chemical
absorption
in suitable
media
CO
Model
8762 IAQCALc
--Grab
sampling
thrice a day
Model
8762 IAQCALc
5 LPM
24 hourly
0.5 LPM
24 Hourly
0.5 LPM
24 Hourly
Electronic
Balance,
Respirable
particulate
matter sampler
Gravimetric
Electronic
Micro
Balance,
Airmetrics
Spectrophotometer
Spectrophotometer
Gravimetric
Colorimetric
Improved
West & Gaeke
Method
5 µg/m3
5 µg/m3
9 µg/m3
Colorimetric
Jacobs &
Hochheiser
Modified
method
4 µg/m3
Suction by
Pump
OC/EC
PM10
Sampler
with Quartz
filter
Filtration of
aerodynami
c sizes with
a size cut by
impaction
5LPM
24 hourly
OC/EC
Analyser
Nondispersive
infrared
TOR/TOT
Method
NIOSH
5040
1ppm
0.2 µg/ 0.5
cm2 punch
Ions
PM2.5 Sampler
Particulate
collected on
Quartz filter
Filtration of
aerodynamic
sizes with a size
cut by impaction
5 LPM
24 hourly
NMHC
Low volume
sampling pump
connected to
Tedlar bags
Suction by
Pump
HC
Low volume
sampling pump
connected to
Tedlar bags
Auto suction
by pump
0.5 lpm
24 Hourly
0.5 lpm
24 Hourly
5 LPM
Ion
Chromato-graph
Ion Chromatography
GC - FID with
Methaniser
Flame ionization
detector
Analysis
GC - FID with
Methaniser
Flame
ionization
detector
Analysis
Inductively coupled plasma optical
emission spectrometry (ICPOES)
Emission spectroscopy to produce
excited atoms and ions that
emit electromagnetic radiation at
wavelengths characteristic of a
particular element. The intensity of
this emission is indicative of the
conc. of the element
Varies with element to element
Varies with ion to 0.05 ppm
ion
0.05 ppm
Metals
PM2.5 Sampler Particulate collected
on Teflon filter
Filtration of aerodynamic sizes with
a size cut by impaction
2.1.2 Results of Winter Monitoring
The 24 hourly concentrations of PM2.5 and RSPM for summer season at all the locations are
presented in Figures 2.3 and 2.4. The National Ambient Air Quality Standards of Central
Pollution Control Board is presented in Annexure 2.1.
a) Palchen Site : The 24 hourly observed concentrations for winter season are presented in Table
2.2. The RSPM and PM2.5 concentrations at Palchen were within the CPCB standard of 100 µg/m3
and 60 µg/m3. SO2 and NO2 were also very low and well below the CPCB standards. As the site
was 100 m away from the Leh Manali highway, the concentrations are within the limits. CO values
ranged between 0-1 ppm. OC and EC account for 30% and 9% respectively and thus indicate the
contribution from sources like automobile exhaust and biomass burning. The average OC/EC ratio
was found to be 5.7 indicating secondary aerosol formations. OC can be directly emitted to the
atmosphere in the particulate form (primary) or can be produced by gas to particle conversion
processes (secondary). EC is emitted from combustion sources. Since primary OC and EC are
mostly emitted from the same sources, EC can be used as a tracer for primary combustiongenerated OC (Gray, 1986; Strader et al., 1999). The formation of secondary organic aerosol
(SOA) increases the ambient concentration of OC and the ambient OC/EC ratio. OC to EC ratios
exceeding the expected primary emission ratio are an indication of SOA formation.
Table 2.2: Air Quality Status at Palchen (Winter)
Pollutants Min
Max Avg
SD
3
RSPM (µg/m )
34
78
56
15.3
PM2.5 (µg/m3)
25
35
29
5.2
OC (µg/m3) in PM2.5
8.3
15.3
11.0
3.8
EC (µg/m3) in PM2.5
2.3
5.1
3.5
1.4
TC (µg/m3) in PM2.5
10.6
20.5
14.5
5.2
3
SO2 (µg/m )
BDL 4
2
1.56
NO2 (µg/m3)
BDL BDL 5
0.79
N
6
3
3
3
3
6
6
b) Kothi Site : The observed concentrations for winter season are presented in Table 2.3. The
RSPM concentrations are within the CPCB standards.
SO2 and NO2 values were very low. OC
and EC account for 17% and 3% respectively of PM2.5. The average OC/EC ratio was found to be
6.4 indicating formation of secondary aerosols.
Palchen
Kothi
Solang
Figure 2.3 : RSPM Concentrations in April at 3 Locations
Figure 2.4: PM2.5 Concentrations in April at 3 Locations
Table 2.3: Air Quality Status at Kothi (Winter)
Pollutants
Min
Max Avg
3
RSPM (µg/m )
31
94
66
PM2.5 (µg/m3)
21
32
26
6
10
8
1
2
1.5
7
12
10
SO2 (µg/m3)
BDL 3
2
NO2 (µg/m3)
5
5
5
SD
26.8
6.0
2.0
0.3
2.1
1.5
0
N
6
3
3
3
3
6
6
c) Solang Site : The 24 hourly observed concentrations for winter season are presented in Table
2.4. The RSPM and PM2.5 at Solang was within the CPCB standards for all six days of monitoring.
SO2 and NO2 values were also very low. As the site was 200 m away from the Leh Manali
highway, the concentrations are within the limits. CO values ranged between 0-1. ppm. The
average OC and EC account for very high value of 44% and 6% respectively of PM2.5 and thus
indicate the contribution from sources like automobile exhaust. The average OC/EC ratio was 5.3.
Table 2.4: Air Quality Status at Solang Valley (Winter)
Pollutants
Min
Max Avg
SD
RSPM (µg/m3)
29
70
48
14.6
PM2.5 (µg/m3)
24
35
29
5.6
9
18
15
4.4
1.9
2.5
2.2
0.3
11
20
17
4.7
SO2 (µg/m3)
BDL BDL 2
0
NO2 (µg/m3)
BDL BDL 5
0
N
6
3
3
3
3
6
6
Concentration of Ions : Ions were analyzed in PM2.5 samples. Table 2.5 gives the concentration
of ions at the three monitoring locations. Lithium, Sodium, Magnesium, Calcium, Nitrite and
Phosphate were analyzed but not detected at any of the sites.
Table 2.5 Average Concentration of Ions in μg/m3 in Winter
Palchan
Kothi
Solang
Li+
BDL
BDL
BDL
Na+
BDL
BDL
BDL
+
NH4 1.900
BDL
BDL
K+
BDL
BDL
0.472
Mg+2 BDL
BDL
BDL
Ca+2 BDL
BDL
BDL
F
0.279
BDL
BDL
ClBDL
BDL
1.241
NO2- BDL
BDL
BDL
SO4-2 10.216
BDL
BDL
Br0.660
BDL
BDL
NO3 BDL
0.800
0.280
PO4-3 BDL
BDL
BDL
Concentration of Elements : Table 2.6 gives the average concentration of elements in PM2.5 at
three monitoring locations. At Kothi, As is exceeding the CPCB standard of 6 ng/m3. Ni is below
detectable level at all monitoring sites. Concentration of Pb is also well below the CPCB standard
of 1 μg/m3 at all the sites. Fe is the most abundant metal.
Table 2.6 Average Concentration of Elements in μg/m3 in winter
Palchen Kothi
Solang
As
BDL
0.011
BDL
Cd
BDL
BDL
BDL
Co
BDL
BDL
0.006
Cr
0.633
0.193
0.204
Cu
0.073
0.062
0.057
Fe
8.348
3.487
4.991
Mn
0.056
0.033
0.042
Ni
BDL
BDL
BDL
Pb
0.014
0.005
0.111
Zn
0.734
0.293
0.673
2.2 Summer Air Quality Monitoring
Five sampling sites were selected which were representative of Rohtang pass area. Monitoring was
carried out at five locations during May 2012 for 10 days. These included the three locations
monitored earlier. Figure 2.1 shows the five monitoring locations. The description of two
additional sampling locations is given below.
Marhi: Marhi is a "shanty town of roadside
restaurants" in Himachal Pradesh, India, located
midway between Manali and Rohtang La on the
Manali-Leh Highway. Buses traveling the highway
often stop in Marhi for passengers to eat. The
settlement is seasonal, with most businesses closing
for the winter.
Khoksar: Khoksar is located in Lahul & Spiti district of Himachal Pradesh State in India.
Khoksar is located on the other side of Rohtang pass. To reach Khoksar one has to cross the
Rohtang pass. It is the best location for White Water Rafting. This is covered heavily by snow
during the winter months. This place is thinly populated and once snow fall starts, people move to
other warm places. Khoksar being very thinly populated with very few vehicles can be considered
as a background site.
2.2.1 Results of Summer Monitoring
Figures 2.5 and 2.6 give the concentrations of RSPM and PM2.5 at the five monitoring locations.
a) Palchen Site : Table 2.7 gives the 24 hourly observed concentrations for summer season. The
percent exceedance of RSPM at Palchen was 30. PM2.5, NO2 and SO2 were within the CPCB
standards of 60, 80 and 80 µg/m3. The average OC and EC account for very high value of 30% and
12% respectively of PM2.5. The average OC/EC ratio was 3.2 which indicates that there may be
formation of secondary organic carbon aerosols. CO values ranged between 0-1 ppm. Methane
observed at Palchen was 2.53 ppm whereas nonmethane hydrocarbon was not found at Palchen.
Table 2.7 : Air Quality Status at Palchen (Summer)
Pollutants
Min Max Avg SD
RSPM (µg/m3)
32
118
82
31.3
3
PM2.5 (µg/m )
23
53
35
12.4
8
15
11
3.8
2
5
4
1.5
10
20
15
5.2
3
SO2 (µg/m )
BDL BDL BDL 0
NO2 (µg/m3)
5
10
5
3.29
N
10
5
5
5
5
10
10
b) Kothi Site: Table 2.8 gives the 24 hourly observed concentrations for summer season. The
percent exceedance of RSPM and PM2.5 at Kothi were 0 and 17 percent respectively. NO2 and SO2
levels were within CPCB standards. The average OC and EC account for 29 and 14% respectively
of PM2.5. The average OC/EC ratio was 4.3. CO values ranged between 0-1.0 ppm. Methane
ranged between 0.99 and 1.61 ppm. Non-methane hydrocarbon observed at Kothi ranged between
0.11 and 0.31 ppm.
Table 2.8 : Air Quality Status at Kothi (Summer)
Pollutants
Min Max Avg SD
RSPM (µg/m3)
63
98
83
12.4
PM2.5 (µg/m3)
11
64
28
19.3
7
9.5
8
1.4
2
9.3
4
4.3
9
19
13
5.3
SO2 (µg/m3)
BDL 37.8 3.8
11.9
NO2 (µg/m3)
5
11
6
1.2
N
10
6
4
4
4
10
10
c) Solang Site: The 24 hourly observed concentrations for Solang site for summer season are
given in Table 2.9. The percent exceedance of RSPM at Solang was 40 whereas PM2.5 was found
to be within the CPCB limits. Several tourist activities like paragliding, snow tubing, skiing were
observed at Solang which resulted in more tourists and hence higher value of RSPM. SO2 and NO2
levels were very low. The average OC and EC account for 36 and 12% respectively of PM2.5. The
average OC/EC ratio was 2.9. CO values ranged between 0-1 ppm. Methane was 2.88 ppm and
nonmethane hydrocarbon was 0.15 ppm.
Table 2.9 : Air Quality Status at Solang Valley (Summer)
Pollutants
Min Max Avg SD
N
3
RSPM (µg/m )
55
132
93
26.6
10
PM2.5 (µg/m3)
19
53
33
14.6
6
11
12
12
0.6
6
3
5
4
0.7
6
15
17
16
1.2
6
SO2 (µg/m3)
BDL BDL BDL 0
10
NO2 (µg/m3)
BDL 12
6
2.5
10
d) Marhi Site: The 24 hourly observed concentrations for summer season are given in Table
2.10. RSPM and PM2.5 concentrations were within the CPCB limits. SO2 and NO2 concentrations
were very low. The average OC and EC account for 36 and 8% respectively of PM2.5. The average
OC/EC ratio was found to be as high as 5.7. CO values were found to be 0 ppm. Methane ranged
between 1.97 and 2.15 ppm whereas non-methane hydrocarbon was not found at Marhi. The
sampling site was about 250 m from the highway and therefore the concentrations were low.
Table 2.10 : Air Quality Status at Marhi (Summer)
Pollutants
Min Max Avg SD
RSPM (µg/m3)
13
84
50
24.4
PM2.5 (µg/m3)
15
40
25
9.4
3
OC (µg/m ) in PM2.5
8
10
9
0.9
1
3
2
1.1
9
13
11
1.8
SO2 (µg/m3)
BDL BDL BDL 0
NO2 (µg/m3)
BDL 6
5
2.5
N
9
6
4
4
4
10
10
e) Khoksar Site: The 24 hourly observed concentrations for summer season are given in Table
2.11. RSPM and PM2.5 concentrations were within the CPCB limits. SO2 and NO2 levels were
below detectable limits. The average OC and EC account for very high value of 62 and 23%
respectively of PM2.5. The average OC/EC ratio was found to be 2.7. CO values were found to be
0 ppm. Methane observed at Khoksar ranged between 2.31 to 2.48 ppm and non-methane
hydrocarbon was not found at Khoksar. Khoksar being very thinly populated with very few
vehicles has very low concentrations of pollutants.
Table 2.11 : Air Quality Status at Khoksar (Summer)
Pollutants
Min Max Avg SD
N
RSPM (µg/m3)
26
44
37
7.8
5
3
PM2.5 (µg/m )
19
24
21
6.3
3
11
15
13
---2
3
7
5
---2
14
22
18
---2
3
SO2 (µg/m )
BDL BDL BDL 0
10
NO2 (µg/m3)
BDL BDL BDL 0
10
Palchen
Kothi
Solang
Marhi
Koksar
Figure 2.5 : RSPM Concentrations at the Monitoring Sites in May
Palchen
Solang
Kothi
Marhi
Khoksar
Figure 2.6: PM2.5 Concentrations at Monitoring Locations During May
Concentration of Ions in PM2.5 : Table 2.12 gives the levels of ions in PM2.5. Lithium, Sodium,
Magnesium, Bromide and Phosphate were analyzed but not detected in any of the sites.
Table 2.12 Average Concentrations of Ions in Summer at 5 Monitoring Locations
Palchan Kothi
Solang
Marthi
Khoksar
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
Li+
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
Na+
+
BDL
2.777
2.769
1.839
BDL
NH4
3.172
1.919
1.121
1.369
BDL
K+
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
Mg+2
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
6.457
Ca+2
4.359
BDL
BDL
0.467
BDL
FClBDL
BDL
BDL
2.473
2.634
BDL
9.029
BDL
BDL
BDL
NO2BDL
BDL
BDL
11.251
SO4-2 BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
Br0.650
0.550
0.657
0.795
0.442
NO3
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
PO4-3 BDL
All values in µg/m3
Concentration of Elements in PM2.5 : Table 2.13 gives the concentration of elements in PM2.5 at
five monitoring locations. As is exceeding the CPCB standard of 6 ng/m3 at Marhi. Average
concentration of Ni is also exceeding the standard of 20 ng/m3 at all sites except Palchen.
However, concentration of Pb is well below the CPCB standard of 1 μg/m3 at all the sites.
Table 2.13 : Average Element Concentrations in Summer at 5 Monitoring Locations
As
Cd
Co
Cr
Cu
Fe
Mn
Ni
Pb
Zn
Palchen
BDL
BDL
BDL
0.729
0.173
9.824
0.947
BDL
0.120
0.512
All values in µg/m3
Kothi
BDL
BDL
BDL
1.076
0.271
10.921
0.212
0.181
0.145
0.325
Solang
BDL
0.035
0.01
0.358
0.263
5.695
0.777
0.071
0.042
0.351
Marhi
0.022
BDL
BDL
0.699
0.114
8.316
0.080
0.158
0.126
0.237
Khoksar
BDL
BDL
BDL
0.242
0.057
5.035
0.050
0.026
0.027
0.507
Conc. in μg/m3
Figure 2.7 represents variation of carcinogenic elements at sampling sites.
Figure 2.7 : Site wise Variation of Elements (As, Ni and Pb)
2.3 Conclusions
RSPM values were reported in the range of 13 to 132 µg/m3. PM2.5 values were varying from 11 to
64 µg/m3. OC and EC concentration in PM2.5 was reported to be 6 to 18 µg/m3 and 1 to 9.3 µg/m3
respectively. The gaseous pollutants (SO2 and NO2) were within the standard during all the
sampling days.
Ionic composition of particulate matter at the sampling sites indicated the presence of Cl-, NO-3,
SO-4, NH4+ shows impact of vehicular transport, whereas K+ and Cl- also indicate the contribution
of biomass burning.
During the study period, concentration of carcinogenic elements viz. As and Ni exceeded the
prescribed CPCB standards, whereas Pb concentration at all the sites is within stipulated standards.
Irrespective of season crustal element ‘Fe’ is the most abundant metal.
The results show that though the overall pollution is less, some trends show that deterioration has
started.
References
• Gray, H.A., Cass, G.R.; Huntzicker, J.J., Heyerdahi, E.K., Rau, J.A. (1986). Characteristics of
Atmospheric Organic and Elemental Carbon Particle Concentrations in Los Angeles.
Environmental Science and Technology. 20: 580-589.
• Strader, R., Lurmann, F.; Pandis, S. (1999).Evaluation of Secondary Organic Aerosol
Formation in Winter. Atmospheric Environment. 33, 4849-4863.
Chapter 3
Air Quality Modeling
3.1 Preamble
Himachal Pradesh boasts of beautiful landscapes and mountains in their pristine form. It is one of
the top tourist destinations in the country. Rohtang pass provides excellent opportunities for
trekking and offers spectacular views of the Himalayas. During the peak period in May and June
around 10,000 tourists visit Rohtang pass every day. According to the Tourism department, about
2200 to 2500 vehicles ply to the pass every day. According to BRO, about 3600 vehicles ply to the
pass. According to the NEERI study during May end of 2012, the total no of vehicles along the
road between Manali and Palchen were 3180.
The width of the road is not enough to sustain such a heavy traffic and this leads to massive traffic
jam daily. This also leads to higher emissions. The BRO has started constructing the Rohtang
tunnel which is expected to be completed by 2015. The traffic to Leh, Lahoul and Spiti areas will
get diverted after the tunnel construction is over leading to improvement in traffic jams. Therefore,
there is a great concern about the vehicle management in this area and therefore air quality
modeling was carried out.
Air quality modeling was carried out for summer season for the Month of May, 2012. EPA
regulatory model AERMOD (Cimorelli, 2005) which is a state of the art dispersion model was
used to predict spatial distribution of PM10, NO2 and CO concentrations in ambient air. The
AERMOD model is applicable to rural and urban areas, flat and complex terrain, surface and
elevated releases, and multiple sources (including, point, area and volume sources). AERMOD is a
steady-state plume model.
In the stable boundary layer (SBL), it assumes the concentration distribution to be Gaussian in both
the vertical and horizontal. In the convective boundary layer (CBL), the horizontal distribution is
also assumed to be Gaussian, but the vertical distribution is described with a bi-Gaussian
probability density function. The convective boundary layer, or dry adiabatic layer is the lower
tropospheric layer in contact with the ground heated by the sun and swept by the wind. The
convective phenomena and wind causes significant air mixing with horizontal and vertical
turbulences. Additionally, in the CBL, AERMOD treats “plume lofting,” whereby a portion of
plume mass, released from a buoyant source, rises to and remains near the top of the boundary
layer before becoming mixed into the CBL. AERMOD also tracks any plume mass that penetrates
into the elevated stable layer, and then allows it to re-enter the boundary layer when and if
appropriate.
Recently USEPA has developed the meteorological preprocessor IMD-AERMET which uses
routine data from the IMD to estimate the meteorological inputs required to apply AERMOD. IMD
AERMET requires only a single surface measurement of wind speed wind direction and ambient
temperature. Like ISCST3, AERMOD also needs observed cloud cover. Surface characteristics in
the form of albedo, surface roughness and Bowen ratio, plus standard meteorological observations
(wind speed, wind direction, temperature, and cloud cover), are input to AERMET. AERMET then
calculates the PBL parameters: friction velocity, Monin-Obukhov length, convective velocity
scale, temperature scale, mixing height, and surface heat flux (H). These parameters are then
passed to the INTERFACE (which is within AERMOD) where similarity expressions (in
conjunction with measurements) are used to calculate vertical profiles of wind speed (u), lateral
and vertical turbulent fluctuations, potential temperature gradient (d2/dz), and potential
temperature.
3.2 Meteorological Data
Meteorological conditions play a vital role in transport and dispersion of pollutants in the
atmosphere. The hourly surface meteorological data viz. wind speed and direction and surface
temperature required as input to the model were collected at Manali. Meteorological data was
collected using a continuous wind monitoring instrument round the clock during May 2012
(summer season). The wind rose for May is given in Figure 3.1. The prominent directions during
May are South (S), South South East (SSE), and South East (SE) with a high calm percentage of
65%.
Figure 3.1: Wind Rose for the Month of May, 2012
3.3 Vehicular Sources
Vehicular emissions are considered to be one of the major source categories of air pollution in
cities and major highways. The quantity of air pollutants emitted by different categories of vehicles
is directly proportional to the average distance traveled by each type of vehicle, number of vehicles
plying on the road, quality of fuels being used, age and technology of vehicles in use etc. However,
several other factors, such as inadequate and poorly maintained roads as well as adopted practices
of inspection and maintenance of vehicles; unplanned traffic flow, and non-availability of effective
emission control technology etc. also contribute to the air pollution from vehicular sources.
Vehicle Count: In order to prepare emission inventory of vehicular sources, primary data on
traffic count were collected in the identified study zone. All types of vehicles moving on the Leh
Manali Highway were counted manually from 7 am to 7pm at four monitoring sites in May 2012
on two days. The vehicles are categorized into four major categories as heavy motor vehicles, car
petrol, car diesel and two wheelers. Emissions from the tail pipes of the automobiles were
estimated on the basis of vehicle kilometers traveled (VKT) by different types of vehicles and the
fuel used. Figure 3.2 shows the three vehicle counting locations.
Figure 3.2 : The Three Vehicle Counting Locations
According to the NEERI study during May end of 2012, the total no of vehicles along the road
between Manali and Palchen were 3180. The no of vehicles plying from Palchen to Marhi were
1836 whereas the no of vehicles plying from Palchen to Solang valley were 1344. Highest
percentage was observed for cars, which was 86%. Average percentage of two wheelers and heavy
motor vehicles observed were 12 and 2% of the total number of vehicles.
3.4 Applicable Emission Factors
Emission Factors for different types and makes of vehicles have been developed by Automotive
Research Association of India (ARAI), Pune in 2007 under CPCB guidance [2]. The emission
factors used in the emission load calculations are summarized in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 : Applicable Emission Factors for Vehicular Source
Type of Vehicle
NOx (gm/km) PM (gm/km) CO (gm/km)
Trucks (post 2000)
9.300
1.240
6.00
Car petrol (post 2005)
0.090
0.002
0.84
2 wheeler (post 2005)
0.150
0.013
0.72
Car diesel (post 2005)
0.280
0.015
0.06
3.5 Paved Road Dust
The other source considered for modeling was paved road dust. As motor vehicles move over road
surface, settled dust from the paved surface is emitted by the turbulent wake of the vehicles.
Emissions are estimated as a function of the silt loading of the paved surface and mean weight of
the vehicles traveling over the surface. Data source included road length, vehicle km traveled, and
vehicle counting at few locations. The Table 3.2 gives the vehicle weight and Table 3.3 gives the
paved road emission load.
Table 3.2: Vehicle Weight
Vehicle Count
%Vehicle
Avg. Weight [3] Veh. Weight by %
May 2012
Count (A)
(kg) (B)
(A*B) (kg)
2W
745
0.117
175
20.5
Heavy motor
110
0.017
20000
346.0
vehicles
cars
5503
0.866
1425
1233.4
Total
6358
1
1599.9
Annual /Long Term Avg. Emission Factor E =[{ k (sL/2)0.65 (W/3 )1.5}-C] (1-P/4N).
Where, E = particulate emission factor (having units matching the units of k)
k = particle size multiplier for particle size range and units of interest
sL = road surface silt loading (grams per square meter) (g/m2)
W = average weight (tons) of the vehicles traveling on the road
P = No. of wet days with at least 0.254 mm of precipitation during avg. period
C = Break and tire wear correction (PM10=0.1317)
N = No. of days in averaging period (365 /year, 30/monthly, 91/seasonal);
Values of k (g/vkt) for PM10 = 4.6
Value of road surface silt loading was taken as 0.531 from ADB 2005 [3].
Therefore EF (PM10)
= [{4.6*((0.531/2)^0.65)*((1.599/3)^1.5)}-0.1317]*((1-120/(4*365)))
=0.5701 g/VMT = 0.354 g/VKT
Table 3.3 : Paved Road Emission Load (kg/day)
Road
Emission Load
Palchen to Solang
9.52
Palchen to Marhi
62.41
Marhi to Khoksar
2.79
Manali to Palchen
40.55
3.6 Modeling Results
3.6.1 PM Concentration
Predicted concentration contours of PM are shown in Figure 3.3 and 3.4. The concentrations
range between 0.to 90 μg/m3.
Figure 3.3 : Contour Map of PM10 in μg/m3 Due to Vehicular Sources & Paved Road Dust
Figure 3.4: Three Dimensional Contour Map of PM10 in μg/m3 due to
Vehicular Sources and Paved Road Dust
The observed and predicted concentration of PM10 is presented in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5: Observed and Predicted Concentrations of PM10 in μg/m3
at the Monitoring Sites
3.6.2 NO2 Concentration
Average concentration contours for the month of May, for NO2 are shown in Figure 3.6 and 3.7.
The concentration range between 0.0 to 10.05 μg/m3. The observed concentration of NO2 lies
between 0 to 14 μg/m3.
Figure 3.6: Contour Map of NO2 in μg/m3 Due to Vehicular Sources in the Study Domain
Figure 3.7: Three Dimensional Contour Map of NO2 in μg/m3 Due to Vehicular Sources
The observed and predicted concentration of NO2 is presented in Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.8 : Observed and Predicted Concentrations of NO2 in μg/m3
3.6.3 CO Concentration
Average concentration contours for the month of May, for CO are shown in Figure 3.9 and 3.10.
The concentration range between 0.0 to 9 μg/m3. The observed concentration of CO lies between
0 to14 μg/m3.
Figure 3.9 : Contour Map of CO in μg/m3 Due to Vehicular Sources in the Study Domain
Figure 3.10: Three Dimensional Contour Map of CO in μg/m3 Due to Vehicular Sources
The observed and predicted concentration of CO is presented in Figure 3.11.
Figure 3.11: Observed and Predicted Values of CO in μg/m3 Due to Vehicular Sources
3.7 Conclusions
The monitoring results show that the overall pollution is less. The percent exceedance for April
and May with the 24 hourly CPCB standards are given in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 : Percent Exceedance of PM10 and PM2.5 During May and April
Summer (May)
Winter (April)
Location
PM10
PM2.5
PM10
PM2.5
Palchen
30
0
0
0
Kothi
0
16.7
0
0
Solang
40
0
0
0
Marhi
0
0
Khoksar
0
0
-
The results show that deterioration has started. With increase in tourists over the years the air
quality would deteriorate further unless it is taken care.
References
1. AERMOD: Description of Model Formulation, Alan J. Cimorelli et al, USEPA, Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards, Emissions Monitoring and Analysis Division, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina, 2004
2. Emission Factor development for Indian vehicles, as a part of Ambient Air Quality
Monitoring and Emission Source Apportionment Studies, ARAI, Pune, CPCB, MOEF,
August, 2007
3. Strengthening Environmental Management at the State Level (Cluster) Component EStrengthening Environmental Management at West Bengal Pollution Control Board, TA No.
3423-IND, Asian Development Bank, Nov. 2005
Chapter 4
Water Environment
4.1 Introduction & Objective
Water quality assessment is important to evaluate the existing water environment and the expected
impact due to the tourist activities. The study of water environment aims at
•
•
•
•
•
To understand the baseline characteristics,
To identify water polluting sources;
To identify critical parameters of water characteristics and their origin;
To predict impact on water quality
To suggest appropriate preventive and mitigation measures
Objective: To assess the various water resources in Beas and Chandra river and hill streams
covering Rohtang pass area between Manali to Khoksar on NH- Manali Leh.
4.2 Methodology
The area between Manali to Khoksar was considered for present study. Beas and Chenab are the
two major rivers flowing through the selected study area. The river Beas has its origin at Beas
Kund near the Rohtang pass in the Pir-Panjal range to the north of Kulu, at an elevation of 4085 m.
Chenab River is formed as the result of conflux of Chandra and Bhag river at Tandi in the lap of
Upper Himalayas. Both the rivers are perennial with continuous input of water from nearby springs
and glaciers. The water shade maps of these rivers are given in Figure 4.1. The samples were
collected from upstream and downstream of major towns of both the rivers to know their water
quality. Water sampling locations within study area were finalized based on
•
•
•
Preliminary site visits
Approachability of areas
Identification of major water bodies through Google maps
Figure 4.1 : Beas and Chenab River Basin
The water samples from various river stretches, springs, ground water, nallah and municipal water
supply schemes were collected from selected study area during April and May 2012 to review the
overall water quality. There are 21 hand pumps in study area, but due to surplus of surface water
availability, these hand pumps are not used frequently. To assess ground water quality hand pump
samples were also collected. List of water sampling locations is given in Table 4.1 and depicted in
Figure 4.2. The collection of samples from various sources is presented in Plate 4.1.
Table 4.1: Water Sampling Locations
Category Sample
Name of Location
Code
River
Beas river at Dhundi
R1
Water
R2
Beas river at Shanang
R3
Beas river at Bahang
R4
Beas river at Vashisth
R5
Beas river at U/S of Manali
R6
Beas river at D/S of Manali
Chandra river at Sissu
R7
Chandra river at Khoksar
R8
Chandra river at Gramphu
R9
Springs
S1
Marhi Spring
S2
Gulaba Spring
S3
Rahallah Fall
S4
Palchan Spring
S5
Nehru Kund
S6
Vashishth Kund
Ground
GW1
Hand Pump at Palchan
Water
GW2
Hand Pump at Bahang
GW3
Hand Pump at Nehru Kund
Water
Khoksar
WS1
Supply
Marhi
WS2
WS3
Solang
WS4
Kothi
Nallah
N1
Beas Nallah U/S
N2
Beas Nallah D/S
N3
Solang Nallah
N4
Palchan Nallah
N5
Rani Nallah
Latitude (N)
32°21’21.3”
32°16’29.6”
32°16’23.2”
32°15’53.3”
32°14’43.9”
32°13’57.3”
32°26’51.2”
32°24’33.6”
32°23’36.3”
32°21’06.7”
32°20’24.8”
32°20'11.0"
32°18'32.0”
32°16’42.8”
32°15’55.1”
32°18'34.0"
32°16'21.0”
32°17'15.8"
32°24’31.6”
32°21’05.4”
32°18'44.0"
31° 8'17.6"
32°19'23.1"
32°18'45.5"
32°18’47.5”
32°18'30.0”
32°21'46.0"
Longitude (E)
77°07’42.9”
77°10’48.0”
77°10’48.9”
77°11’04.9”
77°11’29.1”
77°11’18.1”
77°08’58.6”
77°14’05.3”
77°15’32.7”
77°12’ 58.8”
77°13’04.7”
77°13'70.0"
77°10'40.0”
77°10’52.0”
77°11’16.5”
77°10'41.0"
77°10'56.2”
77°10'39.0"
77°14’07.3”
77°12’57.2”
77°10'40.2"
77°29'47.5"
77° 9'15.5"
77°10'40.6"
77°09’27.4”
77°10'39.0”
77°14'40.0"
Figure 4.2: Water Sampling Locations Between Manali to Khoksar
Plate 4.1 : Water Sampling at Various
4.3 Sampling Procedure
The water quality was assessed for various physico-chemical and microbiological parameters
specified under “Uniform Protocol on Water Quality Monitoring Order, 2005” prescribed by
Ministry of Environment & Forests (Annexure 4.1). The samples were collected and analyzed as
per the procedures specified in ‘Standards Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste
Water’ published by American Public Health Association (APHA) 21st edition (2005).
Samples for chemical analysis were collected in polyethylene carboys. Samples collected for
heavy metal analysis were acidified (1 ml HNO3/100 ml). Samples for microbiological analysis
were collected in sterilized glass bottles. Samples for phytoplankton were preserved using Lugol’s
Iodine in plastic bottles of 100 ml capacity. Basic parameters like pH, temperature, colour, odour,
turbidity and dissolved oxygen were analyzed at sampling sites using portable water testing kits.
Field laboratory was set up at Manali HPPCB laboratory to conduct physico-chemical and
microbiological analysis (Plates 4.2 and 4.3). The methodology for sample collection and
preservation techniques was followed as per the Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) mentioned
in Annexure 4.2. The analytical techniques used for water analysis for selected parameters are
given in the Annexure 4.3.
Plate 4.2 : Field Laboratory Established for Water Quality Analysis
for Physico-Chemical Parameters
Plate 4.3 : Water Quality Analysis for Microbiological
The analytical results of all the water samples are presented in Tables 4.2 to 4.4. The results of
trace metals analysis is given in Table 4.5. All the results are compared with standards for
drinking water as per “BIS: 10500-2012 (second revision) Specifications for Drinking Water” and
CPCB water quality standards (Annexure 4.4 and 4.5). The results of phytoplankton are presented
in Tables 4.6 and 4.7.
4.4 General Observations
The general observations of selected water samples are as indicated below:
¾
Physico-chemcial Parameters : The various water sources in study region are pristine having
less turbidity. It is observed that all physico-chemcial parameters for surface, spring and
ground water along with municipal water supply samples were much below the desirable
limits of drinking water standards. The pH of water samples showed that all the collected
samples were neutral to slightly alkaline. Nitrate, ammonical nitrogen and phosphorus were
most of the time below detectable level. Low nutrient concentration in water samples indicates
there is no chance of eutrophication. It indicates that there is no pollution due to domestic and
industrial effluent.
Though no significant water pollution in terms of chemical constituents was observed, the
water quality gets deteriorated from upstream to downstream where large population is
concentrated. Study of Rohtang Pass | 4.5
Table 4.2 : Physico-chemical Characterization of Beas and Chandra River Water Samples
TDS Tur. TCa- Mg- TCl2 SO4 NO3 NH3-N
Sam. pH Temp EC
Alk. Har. Har. Har.
Code
(0C)
(μS/cm)
R1
7.5
7.5
114.4
68.6 1.0 59.0 21.0 22.0 43.0 6.0 6.5 BDL
BDL
R2
7.4
7.2
107.0
64.1 6.0 34.0 37.0 8.0 45.0 5.0 15.0 BDL
BDL
R3
7.3
6.8
100.0
60.1 5.0 28.0 33.0 15.0 48.0 5.5 14.0 BDL
BDL
R4
7.2
6.2
93.0
55.2 3.0 27.0 32.0 14.0 46.0 6.0 9.8 BDL
BDL
R5
7.0
6.4
97.6
58.5 2.0 26.0 39.0 8.0 47.0 5.0 13.0 0.4
BDL
R6
7.1
6.7
89.3
53.6 3.0 30.0 32.0 16.0 48.0 6.0 5.5
0.4
0.8
R7
7.2
8.0
111.6
67.0 2.0 26.0 36.0 16.0 52.0 1.0 24.5 0.6
0.17
R8
6.7
8.0
119.7
71.8 5.0 24.0 41.0 19.0 60.0 1.0 28.0 0.4
BDL
R9
7.1
8.2
109.0
65.4 3.0 24.0 37.0 11.0 48.0 1.5 24.5 0.5
0.98
T-PO4
DO
BOD
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
7.2
7.8
7.4
7.8
7.4
7.5
7.5
6.9
7.2
2.4
3.4
2.8
3.2
3.1
3.5
2.7
1.9
2.4
TC
FC
800
5000
1300
TNC
-
200
2200
550
TNC
-
All samples are colourles and odourless. Temp.- Temperature, EC- Electrical Conductivity, TDS- Total Dissolved Solids, Tur.- Turbidity. T-Alk- Total Alkalinity,
Ca-Har.- Calcium Hardness, Mg-Har. –Magnesium Hardness, T-Har.- Total Hardness , Cl2- Chlorides, SO4- Sulphate, NO3- Nitrate,NH3-N- Ammonical Nitrogen,
DO- Dissolved Oxygen, BOD- Biochemical Oxygen Demand, TC- Total Coilforms, FC-Fecal Coliforms, BDL- Below Detectable Limit. All parameters are in
mg/L. TC and FC are expressed in CFU/100ml.
Table 4.3: Physico-chemical Characterization of Springs and Municipal Water Supply Samples
TDS Tur. TCa- Mg- TCl2 SO4 NO3 NH3-N T-PO4
Sam. pH Temp EC
Alk. Har. Har. Har.
Code
(0C)
(μS/cm)
S1
7.8
8.0
26.0
15.6
2.0
9.0
5.0
3.0
8.0 1.5 BDL BDL
BDL
BDL
S2
7.6
5.0
34.5
20.7
6.0
8.0
6.0
3.0
9.0 3.5 3.3 BDL
BDL
BDL
S3
7.3
8.5
28.6
17.1
1.0 10.0 5.0
1.0
6.0 2.5 BDL 0.4
BDL
BDL
S4
7.4
9.2
110.1
66.1
6.0 33.0 41.0 16.0 57.0 5.0 15.0 BDL
0.45
BDL
S5
7.3
8.0
98.8
59.3
1.0 28.0 44.0 14.0 58.0 5.5 10.0 BDL
BDL
BDL
S6
7.4 50+
448.0
268.8 3.0 165 26.0 4.0 30.0 123 29.0 0.4
1.26
BDL
WS1 6.8
4
31.2
18.7
1.0
9.0
9.0
5.0 14.0 2.0 BDL 0.5
BDL
BDL
WS2 7.5
16
25.5
15.3
3.0
8.0
7.0
2.0
9.0 1.0 BDL 0.2
BDL
BDL
WS3 7.0
9
66.5
39.9
1.0 16.0 24.0 11.0 35.0 4.5 7.5 BDL
BDL
BDL
WS4 7.5
6
130
78
1
45
45
16
61
6.0 5.5 BDL
BDL
BDL
DO
8.3
7.7
7.5
7.8
7.8
2.6
7.1
6.7
6.9
7.2
BOD TC
2.8
2.6
2.3
2.5
2.3
0
2.6
1.4
1.7
2.2
FC
2000 1100
300 150
200
95
-
All samples are colourles and odourless. Temp.- Temperature, EC- Electrical Conductivity, TDS- Total Dissolved Solids, Tur.- Turbidity. T-Alk- Total Alkalinity, CaHar.- Calcium Hardness, Mg-Har. –Magnesium Hardness, T-Har.- Total Hardness , Cl2- Chlorides, SO4- Sulphate, NO3- Nitrate,NH3-N- Ammonical Nitrogen, DODissolved Oxygen, BOD- Biochemical Oxygen Demand, TC- Total Coilforms, FC-Fecal Coliforms, BDL- Below Detectable Limit All parameters are in mg/L. TC and
FC are expressed in CFU/100ml.
Table 4.4: Physico-chemical Characterization of Ground Water and Nallah Samples
Sam. pH Temp EC
TDS Tur. TCa- Mg- TCl2 SO4 NO3 NH3-N
Code
(0C)
Alk.
Har.
Har.
Har.
(μs/cm)
GW1 7.4
11
180.6 108.4 4.0 70.0 80.0 25.0 105.0 12.5 9.8 BDL
BDL
GW2 7.4
18
177.0 106.2 1.0 76.0 73.0 12.0 85.0 7.0 15.0 0.5 BDL
GW3 7.4
15
156.0
93.6 3.0 66.0 72.0 11.0 83.0 3.0 13.0 0.5
0.17
N1 6.6
9.0
31.0
18.6 5.0
7.0
6.0
2.0
8.0
1.5
2.5
0.5
0.35
N2 6.5
9.0
25.7
15.4 5.0
6.0
7.0
1.0
8.0
1.5 BDL 0.3
0.45
N3 7.0 10.3
47.1
28.3 5.0 14.0 12.0 11.0 23.0 3.5
2.5
0.4
BDL
N4 7.4
10
63.6
38.2 1.0 19.0 19.0 9.0
28.0 4.5
6.5 BDL
BDL
N5 6.6
8
23.2
13.9 5.0
6.0
6.0
1.0
7.0
1.5 BDL 0.2 BDL
T-PO4
DO BOD TC
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
7.5
7.2
6.8
6.8
6.9
2.8
2.5
1.9
1.6
2.2
FC
100
20
6000 2400
100
15
300
50
1500 600
6000 4000
-
All samples are colourles and odourless. Temp.- Temperature, EC- Electrical Conductivity, TDS- Total Dissolved Solids, Tur.- Turbidity. T-Alk- Total Alkalinity, Ca-Har.Calcium Hardness, Mg-Har. –Magnesium Hardness, T-Har.- Total Hardness , Cl2- Chlorides, SO4- Sulphate, NO3- Nitrate,NH3-N- Ammonical Nitrogen, DO- Dissolved
Oxygen, BOD- Biochemical Oxygen Demand, TC- Total Coilforms, FC-Fecal Coliforms, BDL- Below Detectable Limit. All parameters are in mg/L. TC and FC are expressed in
CFU/10
Table 4.5: Trace Metal Analysis of Water samples from Rivers, Springs, Ground Water,
Water Supply Schemes and Nallahs
Sample
Cd
Cr
Cu
Ni
Pb
Zn
code
Rivers
R1
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
BDL
0.1
R2
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
0.01
0.6
R3
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
0.01
1.9
R4
BDL
BDL
0.2
BDL
0.01
0.2
R5
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
BDL
0.2
R6
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
BDL
0.2
R7
BDL
BDL
0.03
BDL
BDL
0.1
R8
BDL
BDL
0.04
BDL
BDL
0.1
R9
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
BDL
0.1
Springs
S1
BDL
0.01
0.3
BDL
0.02
0.3
S2
BDL
0.02
0.1
BDL
0.02
0.2
S3
BDL
BDL
0.04
BDL
BDL
0.2
S4
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
0.01
0.6
S5
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
0.02
0.1
S6
BDL
BDL
0.04
BDL
BDL
0.1
Ground Water
GW1
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
BDL
0.9
GW2
BDL
BDL
0.04
BDL
BDL
0.3
GW3
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
BDL
2.1
Organized Water Supply
WS1
BDL
BDL
0.05
BDL
BDL
0.1
WS2
BDL
BDL
0.04
BDL
BDL
0.1
WS3
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
BDL
0.2
WS4
BDL
0.01
0.2
BDL
0.02
0.4
Nallah
N1
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
BDL
0.1
N2
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
BDL
5.4
N3
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
BDL
0.3
N4
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
BDL
0.2
N5
BDL
BDL
0.1
BDL
BDL
0.1
BIS
0.003
0.05
0.05-1.5
0.02
0.01
5-15
10500:2012
All values are in mg/L. BDL: Below Detectable Limit
Table 4.6: List of Algal Species Found in the Water Bodies of Rohtang Study
Bacillariophyceae
Cyanophyceae
Navicula
Oscillatoria
Nitzschia
Aphnocapsa
Diatomella
Cholorophyceae
Mellosira
Spirogyra
Meridion
Tabellaria
Cymbella
Gyrosigma
Amphora
Table 4.7: Density and Species Composition of Phytoplankton in Water Samples
Collected from Various Sources
Location
Total
Percentage of Different Genera
Count/10ml Bacillariophyceae Cyanophyceae Chlorophyceae
Spring near Marhi
20
100
--Spring near Gulaba
130
100
--Beas river at Bahang
90
88.9
-11.1
Beas river at Shanang
70
85.7
14.3
-Beas river at D/S
20
100
--of Manali
Chandra river at Sissu
10
-100
-Nehru Kund
190
100
--Solang Water Supply
30
100
--Khoksar Water Supply
11
-100
-Palchan Nallah
530
18.9
81.1
-Solang Nallah
20
-100
-Beas Nallah U/S
01
-100
-Beas Nallah D/S
04
-100
-¾
Organic Constituent: All the water samples had adequate oxygen content. The natural
conditions like low temperature and huge turbulence in river flows in the hilly terrain result in
high DO values. River water samples collected from urbanized areas like Bahang, Shanang,
Manali etc. have BOD values slightly higher than ‘Class C’ drinking water CPCB standard,
which can be attributed to domestic waste discharges. This situation indicates that there is
significant input of organic waste of human origin. The slower biodegradation rate at low
temperature leads to high BOD values.
¾
Microbiological Parameter : The surface water samples having high organic load and all
nallah showed presence of large number of Total and fecal coliforms. The possible reason for
this is use of waterways for defecation large number of human population due to inadequate
sanitation facilities as well as dumping of different kinds of solid wastes. Chandra river water
has not shown presence of coliform thereby indicating adequate dilution of insignificant
domestic releases due to thin resident’s density. The presence of coliform organisms indicates
that fecal wastes entering into the river is contaminating the water, which may lead to
gastrointestinal diseases, hepatitis or other water born diseases.
¾ Trace Metals: The water samples from all the sources were analyzed for environmental trace
metals for which drinking water guidelines are prescribed. The results indicate that the values
for Cd, Cr and Ni were below detectable limit. In most of the samples other trace metal
concentrations like Cu and Zn were within the acceptable limits. Some of the samples had
exceeded the acceptable limit for Cu but well within the permissible limit. All these results
indicate that there is no threat from metal contamination. The findings are supportive to fact
that there are no industries located in study area and the water sources originated by melting of
snow.
¾ Biological Quality: Water samples from various water sources viz. spring, river, nallah, water
supply source etc. were analyzed for phytoplankton. The observed data indicates that
phytoplanktons are represented mainly by Bacillariophyceae as dominant group with
occasional occurrence of Cyanophyceae and cholorophyceae. Total nine species of
Baccillariophyceae included Navicula, Nitzschia, Diatomella, Mellosira, Meridion, Tabellaria,
Cymbell, Gyrosigma, Amphora. Presence of Baccillariophyceae indicates naturally productive
conditions.
Oscillatoria and Aphanocpsa belonging to the class Cyanophyceae were observed with density.
The blue-green algae belonging to Cyanophyceae use water as an electron donor and produce
oxygen in the presence of light. Spirogyra belonging to the class Chlorophyceae was observed
scantily. Spirogyra is a filamentous green alga which is common in freshwater habitats. These
organisms are responsible for photosynthesis
Total count varied from nil to 53 per ml. The highest number was observed at Palchan nallah
with dominance of cyanophyceae (81%) and diversity index 1.09 indicating nutrient
enrichment. Beas River at Shanang and Nehru kund with diversity index value 2.23 and 2.21
respectively, indicate clean water condition with less of nutrients.
Chapter 5
Impact of Tourism on Solid Waste
Management and Sanitation
5.1 Preamble
Himachal Pradesh is blessed with number of tourist places with lofty Himalayas draped with snow,
deep valleys, vast woods, chilled rivers, green surroundings, scenic lakes etc, that add to its overall
fascination. It is often called “The Valley of Gods”. The Himachal Pradesh government is
promoting state tourism which is one of the major financial resources. Better staying facilities for
the tourists, organization of adventurous sports activities such as trekking, skiing, ice skating, river
rafting, paragliding, etc. are provided by the concerned authorities.
Manali is one of the pleasing hill stations and a hot favorite place for the visitors who have a deep
desire in naturally rich scenic beauty. There are various natural and manmade tourist attractions in
and around Manali like Vashishth hot Spring, Hadimba Temple, Solang Valley, Gulaba and
Rohtang Pass up to Khoksar (Plate 5.1).
Plate 5.1: Tourist Places at Manali Rohtang Pass
Manali and surrounding tourist attractions are visited by large number of people. The details of the
number of tourists flux visiting Manali to enjoy the natural beauty of Manali and Rohatang Pass is
presented in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Tourist Statistics for Manali for the Period 2011
Sr.
Month
Indian
BNS
Foreigner
BNS
No
Visitors
1
January
1,19,234
1,70,257
5247
8140
2
February
1,48,530
2,10,471
5367
6741
3
March
2,40,520
3,11,478
7811
8625
4
April
3,80,885
4,71,256
12897
15243
5
May
3,44,810
4,12,534
14828
16247
6
June
3,89,508
3,95,217
14694
16357
7
July
1,80,534
1,93,216
14470
16236
8
August
1,80,412
1,92,569
15361
18451
9
September
1,97,893
2,11,357
17136
16567
10
October
2,71,432
2,97,451
16117
18324
11
November
1,02,579
1,29,874
7844
8367
12
December
1,03,190
1,70,367
6716
7569
Total
26,59,527
31,66,047 1,38,488
1,56,867
BNS – Bed Night stay, Source: Green text barrirer, Bahang, SDM office Manali
At tourist places, “Tourism and municipal solid waste (MSW) & sanitation sustainability” need
careful investigation, as tourism fluxes could have a strong impact on the implemented waste
management systems. Hence a methodical and systematic way of solid waste management and
sanitation is essential to protect the environment.
5.2 Geographical Features of the Study Area
Manali, the major hill station is entitled as the Switzerland of India and is the base station where
most of the tourists stay and travel towards nearby areas like Solang, Palchan, Kothi, Marhi, and
Rohtang pass.
Being the heart of the tourist place, Manali is full of hotels, bars, restaurants, travel agents, guides,
& and out door photographers. The statistical data of all these is given below: (This is up to 30th
Dec 2011)
Hotels:
Bars & Restaurants:
Travel agents:
Guides:
Out door Photographers:
598
56
578
121
328
All the hotels provide 9,058 rooms with a bed capacity of 19, 563. Besides these, there are about
139 home stay arrangements with 356 rooms having 720 bed capacities. The “Atal Bihari
Mountaineering Institute at Solang” has hostel facility which accommodates good number of
people. The tourists are issued passes for visiting the Kelong-Khoksar route, so the tourist influx
can be calculated from the number of tourist passes issued.
5.3 Wastewater Treatment Plant at Manali
The Wastewater (Domestic Sewage) Treatment Plant (STP) is installed near Manali. Total sewage
generated is about 1.82 MLD. About 85% of sewage generated in the town is collected and treated
with biological aerobic treatment at this STP. Collection and transportation of sewage take place
through 18.82 km sewer lines. This line will be extended to 21.05 km and construction has already
been started for the additional 2.23 km sewer lines required. Bigger hotels have their own STP’s
while smaller hotels are connected to the common STP’s. Some of the hotels particularly at Solang
release the wastewater openly on the land creating unhygienic conditions. Other villages in the
study area also do not have organized wastewater collection and treatment systems. The domestic
wastewater ultimately joins river Beas through small nallas.
5.4 Solid Waste Management for Manali
The total population of Manali including the floating population is approximately 40,000. Solid
waste collection in Manali is well organized. Solid waste management plant started in the year
2003 - 04 at Rangari, about 3.5 km away from Manali town. The plant is installed in collaboration
with Indo-Norwegion Company. Solid waste generated by about 60% of total population is
collected by door to door campaign supported through Mahila Mandal team members. This
practice is also followed in Solang, Marhi and Kothi. There is provision of bins for biodegradable
and non bio-degradable materials for segregation of domestic waste at source. The amount of solid
waste collection is about 5-7 tones/day, which rises up to 13-15 tones/day during peak period of
tourism (Plate 5.2).
Littering and use of plastics is totally banned in the state. Special Area Development Authority
(SADA) is involved in collection of garbage from Rohtang, Solang and Marhi area and the
collected garbage is treated at Rangari Solid waste Treatment plant. About 10% of the solid waste
is subjected to composting, and the rest is being recycled and dumped at the open landfill sites.
The waste collected initially goes for segregation at plant site into two categories viz.
biodegradable and non-biodegradable. The non-biodegradable material is further separated into 4
different types: glass, tin, plastics and paper. The glass, tin, papers and plastics are recycled and
sold in the market. The segregated biodegradable wastes are dumped into 240 compost pits of 2.75
x1.20 x 1.20 m dimensions each available for pit composting at the treatment plant. Each pit is
having the capacity of 1 tone. The plant also has leachate treatment facility.
Plate 5.2: Solid Waste Management at Manali
Littering in Manali-Rohtang area is being looked after by the chairman Special Area Development
Authority (SADA) and SDM Manali. The agreement to manage litter solid waste in the area is
through a contractor which has shown better results. Mahila Mandal collects the litters from
Solang, Kothi and Marhi area. Jute bags are provided for collection. This project needs to be made
more accountable for regular day to day cleaning, collection and safe disposal of solid waste
including non-biodegradable material. The solid waste collection in other places like Palchan and
Rohtang Pass is not satisfactory.
5.5 Sanitation
Common toilet facilities are provided in some of the villages (Plate 5.3). The picnic spots like
Marhi, Solang, Gulaba and Rohtang pass are provided with Portable toilets. The waste disposal
system adopted for portable toilets are not available. During the field visit installation of portable
toilets at picnic spots was not observed.
Portable
Community
Toilet
Plate 5.3: Common Toilet Facility and Portable Prefabricated Toilets
There are about 18 prefabricated potable toilets but they are not sufficient for the entire tourist
population. It is informed that the waste material from these toilets is brought back to Manali by
shifting the toilets to Manali city for appropriate treatment at sewage Treatment plant and placing
it back at Rohtang pass. However, the modality and actual functioning of this facility with respect
to duration of placement, load on each unit, spillage during transportation of the unit if any, for
disposal/cleaning /collection of waste etc is not physically observed during the field visit during
May 2012 as these units were not placed at Rohtang pass. These mobile toilets are not placed
throughout the year. As a result, people are left with
no choice but attend the nature calls in the open.
This
practice
is
contaminating
the
water
environment. Being a cold place, the biodegradation
rate is not fast which takes longer time for
stabilization of waste.
Besides these, Animal dung is another type of waste
generated and it scatters in the hilly slopes.
Generally horses are being used for tourist
activities. A 1,000 lb (454 kg) horse can generate 30
lbs (13kg) of dung. More than 1300 kgs of manure
is expected to be generated daily by approx 1000
horses. Large numbers of horses are also used to
carry tourists in difficult hilly areas. The owners of
horses should be instructed to take necessary
Plate 5.4: Horses used by Tourist as
Source of Animal Dung
precautions to collect such waste and help to prevent pollution (Plate 5.4).
Tourists are not following required practices to keep the places clean which add a negative impact
on the environment of this beautiful place (Plate 5.5). While
traveling towards Rohtang pass region, large number of
tourists throw the plastics/paper tea cups, wrapping papers,
Plate 5.5 : Tourist Throwing
Liter Along the Road
corn stalk etc indiscriminately
here
and
there.
Hotels
accommodating large number
of tourists also throw the
garbage and the liquid waste
Plate 5.6: Non Compliance of Waste Management by Hotels
from toilets on the open land (Plate 5.6).
The display boards for maintaining the environmental cleanliness are placed on the way along the
roads (Plate 5.7). But stipulated rules are not followed. These malpractices should be controlled by
Pollution control Board at the earliest. Records of collection of fine should be evaluated to check
the implementation of clean eco friendly practices. The campaign for Clean Environment initiated
by the school children in Manali town was observed during the field visit. Such activities should be
promoted.
Plate 5.7: Promotional Activities for Clean Environment, H.P. Govt.
However, it was observed that the state has achieved 100% ban on use of plastic bags. No plastic
carry bags were noticed in the area and there is a fine of Rs. 1000/- if anyone is found using plastic
bags. Paper bags have replaced these plastics bags and are being widely used by everyone, from
vendors to local people to tourists. 40 quintals of poly bags used earlier were reused for road
construction (Plate 5.8). These were from milk pouches, chips packets, oil packets, mineral water
bottles etc.
Plate 5.8 : Food Vendors Adding to Nalla Pollution
For Eco tourism and protection of scenic environment, there is an urgent need for proper integrated
method in handling and disposal of solid waste so that the beauty of the place remains undisturbed.
Chapter 6
Assessment of Soil, Soil Erosion and
Conservation Measures for Erosion
6.1 Introduction
The land deterioration due to erosion is a big problem in hilly regions. Erosion is the prime
process, which is responsible for the variation in topography. During erosion process, soil and
rocks are removed from the Earth's surface by natural processes such as wind or water flow, and
then transported and deposited in other locations. Apart from natural causes, it is aggravated due to
human interventions through indiscriminate cutting of trees, mining, overburden dumping, etc.,
thus affecting natural ecosystem. Areas affected by severe soil erosion need immediate attention
for soil conservation measures like bunding, contour farming, gully, farm forestry, water
harvesting, etc. Splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully erosion, stream channel erosion,
tunnel erosion, tillage erosion are some of the classes of erosion.
Factors affecting erosion rates are broadly identified as wind speed and Precipitation, Soil
Structure and composition, vegetation cover and topography. Human activities that increase
erosion rates are Agricultural practices, Deforestation, Roads, Urbanization and Climate change.
• Wind erosion is a major geomorphologic force, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. The rate
and magnitude of soil erosion by wind is controlled by the factors like erodability of soil, soil
surface roughness, climate, unsheltered distance, vegetation cover, Wind erosion may create
adverse operating conditions in the field. Wind erosion is more common in Rajasthan.
• As a direct result of rainfall, three primary types of erosion occur as a direct result of rainfall
sheet erosion, rill erosion, and gully erosion.
• Sheet erosion is the transport of loosened soil particles by surface runoff either of rain water or
the melted snow water that is flowing downhill in thin sheets.
• Rill erosion refers to the development of small, momentary concentrated flow paths, which
function as both sediment source and sediment delivery systems for erosion on hill slopes.
• Gully erosion occurs when runoff water accumulates, and then rapidly flows in narrow channels
during or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow, removing soil to a considerable depth.
Soil properties influencing erodibility include texture, structure and cohesion. Texture refers to the
combination of sizes of the individual soil particles. Three broad size classifications are clay, silt,
and sand. Soil having a large amount of silt is most susceptible to erosion from both wind and
water. Structure refers to the degree to which soil particles are clumped together, forming larger
clumps and pore spaces. Structure influences both the ability of the soil to absorb water and its
physical resistance to erosion. Cohesion refers to the binding force between soil particles and
influences the structure. When moist, the individual soil particles in a cohesive soil cling together
to form a doughy consistency. Clay soils are very cohesive while sandy soils are not.
Vegetation is probably the most important physical factor influencing soil erosion. A good
vegetation cover shields the soil from the impact of raindrops, provides organic matter, slows
runoff, and filters sediment. It also binds the soil together, making it more resistant to runoff.
Topography: Slope length, steepness and roughness affect erodibility. Generally, the longer the
slope, the greater is the potential for erosion. The greatest erosion potential is at the base of the
slope, where runoff velocity is greatest and runoff concentrates.
Slope steepness, along with surface roughness, and the amount and intensity of rainfall control the
speed at which runoff flows down a slope. The steeper the slope, the faster is the water flow that
causes erosion with increased sedimentation.
6.2 Geomorphology of the Study Area
Himachal Pradesh (HP) is a hill state with altitude ranging from 350m above MSL along Punjab
plains to 6816 m above MSL in Kinnaur dist. The general landscape presents an intricate mosaic of
mountain ranges, hills and valleys. The study region falls in middle and greater Himalaya
topographic region which have most of the high altitude conifers, broad leaved forest, alpine
meadows, land under horticulture, glaciated landscape, thin vegetation and low human population
density.
The soils of HP vary according to aspect, slope and climatic conditions. The soil in study region is
characterized as brown hill soils (over sandstones and shales)#, podsolic or sub-montane and the
glacial and eternal snow types which are not fully developed as they are found in snow covered
areas. The soils are generally thin but deep only in valleys.
Soils of HP are under great stress and strain due to sheet and gully erosion. Sheet and gully erosion
caused due to heavy rains is the predominant phenomenon due to which the top layer of a soil over
large areas gets washed away. When rainwater flows down the slopes making deep and narrow
furrows, Gully erosion occurs. Such gullies make the land unfit for cultivation and result in the
formation of badlands. The study region has snow covered areas and snow melts during summer
months. The streams or water from melted snow flow along the slope and causes erosion.
# Source: Velayutham & Bhattacharyya, NBSS &LUP, ICAR, Nagpur (2000)
The hilly terrain with great slopes is another reason for soil erosion. The presence of moderate or
steeper slopes (ie. > 5 – 10%), and/ or readily erodible soil profiles are prone to soil erosion. Soils
with relatively high silt and fine sand fractions are most susceptible to erosion, while very fine
grained, high plasticity clay soils are least susceptible.
6.3 Site Factors for Erosion
The natural soil erosion occurs due to factors like sheet and gully erosion due to rain and snow
water flows, moderate to deep slopes and erosion prone soils profiles.
Apart from the natural causes, human interventions like road broadening activities are also causing
soil erosion in the study region. Existing Manali to Rohtang road of 51 km is double lane road with
the width of 12 m. However, based on the town/village placement, diversion of river Beas and
hilly turnings at certain locations, the width is less and ranged from 7 to10 m. This road is used by
BRO for supply of material to Leh Ladak which is carried out by big Army vehicles. Large number
of private taxies also plies every day to carry tourists to scenic places along the Manali – Rohtang
road (Plate 6.1). The current carrying capacity of the road is under stress due to movement of large
number of vehicles. Traffic jams have become very common due to multiple factors.
Plate 6.1 : Vehicles Plying on Rohtang Pass
To ease out the load of traffic, Boarder Road Organization (BRO) has undertaken the job of
widening the road from Manali to Rohtang - Khoksar which is 71 km long. To undertake the road
widening activity, clearance from forest department and other formalities for cutting the mountains
have been already completed. The whole project is expected to be completed by 2015.
At the time of visit during April 2012, about 6.5 km road from Manali towards Rohtang is
widened. All engineering aspects like construction of retaining wall, provision of outlets for water
streams are implemented during widening activity (Plate 6.2).
Plate 6.2: Road Widening Activities
The incidences of tilting of retaining walls had occurred at few places due to stress resulting in
eroding of roads (Plate 6.3). The nature of soil and its characteristics are creating hurdles because
the types of soil is such that even the small disturbance like the vibrations of machines, lead to
large landslide. Natural land slide and cloud burst is a common phenomenon that hampers the
progress of the widening activity.
Plate 6.3: Titling of Retaining Wall and Need for River Diversion for Road Widening
The road widening activity has resulted in landslides and soil is spread on the road thereby
blocking the roads for traffic. In order to evaluate the quality of soils and geology which can cause
landslides/ soil erosion, the number of soil samples was collected at appropriate locations along
Manali – Rohtang pass National highway during April and May 2012 (Plate 6.4). The list of the
locations is presented in Table 6.1.
Plate 6.4 : Collection of Soil Samples
Table 6.1: Details of Soil Sampling Locations
Sample
Code
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
Sample Location
Latitude (N)
Longitude (E)
Palchan
Solang
Kothi
Between Marhi and Gulaba
Marhi
B/W Upper Marhi & Radi Nallah
Khoksar/Basi Dang
Rohtang Tunnel muck
32°18'32.0”
32°18'44.0"
31° 8'17.6"
32°20’24.8”
32°21’06.7”
32°21'46.0"
32°24’33.6”
32°21’21.3”
77°10'40.0”
77°10'40.2"
77°29'47.5"
77°13’04.7”
77°12’ 58.8”
77°14'40.0"
77°14’05.3”
77°07’42.9”
During May, 2012, the attempt was made to collect the core of soil from the area where the land
slide had occurred. A stainless steel pipe of 2 feet length and 4 inch diameter was used to collect a
core sample. The samples were collected at Solang, Kothi, Marhi, Radinala and Khoksar. Since
these areas are covered with snow in earlier months, the soil at the selected sites was damp and
hence the core sample could be collected. Figure 6.5 shows the site view during sample collection.
The soil samples were analyzed for physical and chemical properties. The analytical results for
physical and chemical parameters for the soil samples are presented in Tables 6.2 and 6.3
respectively.
Plate 6.5 : Collection of Core Soil Samples
Table 6.2 : Physical Characterization of Soil Samples Collected Between
Manali-Rohtang NH-21
Sample
Code
Sample
Location
S1
S2
S3
S4
Palchan
Solang
Kothi
Between
Marhi and
Gulaba
Marhi
B/W Upper
Marhi &
Radi Nallah
Khoksar/Basi
Dang
Tunnel
S5
S6
S7
S8
Colour
Brownish gray
Drak gray
Black
Brown gray
Brown gray
Dark gray
Dark gray
Gray
Grain Size
Distribution
Sand
Silt Clay
(%)
(%)
(%)
64.1
33.3
2.6
63.1
32.9
4.0
68.4
24.6
7.0
Texture
Bulk
Density
(g/cc)*
Sandy loam
Sandy loam
Sandy loam
1.51
1.53
1.62
52.1
30.6
17.3
Sandy loam
1.45
45.8
34.2
20.0
Loam
1.42
47.3
36.1
16.6
Loam
1.45
52.3
38.4
9.3
Sandy loam
1.54
85.0
10
5.1
Loamy sand
1.70
* Calculated from texture.
Table 6.3: Chemical Characterization of Soil Samples Collected Between
Manali- Rohtang NH-21
Sample Sample Location
pH
EC
OC
OM
T-N
T-P
Code
(µS/cm) (%)
(%) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
S1
Palchan
6.6
277
0.8
1.4
148
13
S2
Solang
6.8
219
0.9
1.6
187
19
S3
Kothi
6.8
221
1.2
2.1
208
27
S4
Between Marhi and
2.4
6.3
356
1.4
367
33
Gulaba
S5
Marhi
6.9
171
1.3
2.2
342
30
S6
B/W Upper Marhi &
1.6
6.3
124
0.9
210
18
Radi Nallah
S7
Khoksar/Basi Dang
6.6
107
0.8
1.4
176
12
S8
RohtangTunnel
6.2
70
0.2
0.3
104
8
The core samples were processed for evaluation of mechanical properties like grain size, liquid
limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index; sheer test etc so that the reasons for the landslides and soil
erosion occurring naturally can be explained scientifically. The detailed methodology adopted for
this testing and its significance with soil erosion/ landslides is provided in Annexure 6.1. The test
results are presented in Table 6.4.
Gravel (%)
Sand (%)
Silt (%)
Clay (%)
Liquid Limit (%)
Plastic Limit (%)
Plasti-City Index
(%)
NMC (%)
Bulk Den-Sity (g/cc)
Dry Den-Sity (g/cc)
Free Swell Index
(%)
Specific Gravity
Cohesion
(kg/cm2)
Angle F
Table 6.4 : Mechanical Characterization of Soil Samples Collected Between
Manali- Rohtang NH-21
Solang
31
54
12
03
NL
NP
NP
11
1.82
1.64
05
2.64
0.0
24
Kothi
19
44
32
05
NL
NP
NP
12
1.84
1.64
06
2.64
0.0
22
Marhi
48
39
11
02
NL
NP
NP
11
1.82
1.64
04
2.64
0.0
26
Radinala
36
50
11
03
NL
NP
NP
09
1.80
1.65
04
2.64
0.0
25
Khoksar
34
50
14
02
NL
NP
NP
10
1.91
1.74
04
2.64
0.0
24
Sample
I/D Mark
Grain Size Analysis
Direct
Shear Test
NMC: Natural moisture content
6.4 Results and Discussions
The soil samples have been collected from eight locations on Manali – Rohtang – Khoksar
National Highway NH-21. The observations of soil characteristics are as under;
Textures: Soil texture is one of the most important physical properties of soil. It refers to the basic
composition of the soil, which consists of sand, silt and clay contents. The soil texture directly or
indirectly affects almost every single characteristic of the soil. It also enables to measure the
possibility of risks, such as erosion, and it helps to select adequate crops for production.
The texture of soil sample collected at locations S-1 to S-4 and S-7 are sandy-loam. Loamy
texture is observed for samples at S-5 and S-6. The texture of Muck from Rohtang tunnel (S-8)
which consists of broken rocks is sandier and falls under the class Loamy sand.
Colour: Color indicates chemical, biological and physical transformations and translocations that
have occurred within a soil. Soil organic matter causes a dark brown to black color in the soil. A
bright and light color can be related to an alluvial horizon, where carbonates and clay minerals
have been leached out. Black colour of the soil indicates that they are very hard when it is dry,
slowly permeable for water and roots. The grey coloured soil is poorly drained having low
permeability, which causes anaerobic conditions in the soil. Such soil is frequently waterlogged.
The soil samples were brown gray, dark gray and black in colour, whereas sample from Tunnel
is gray in colour.
Bulk density: If the bulk density is less or near to 1.0 it means, that the soil density is low and it
should have high organic matter content. Dark color of the soil may confirm this fact. If the value
is higher than 2.0, we consider the soil a very dense soil. The reason can be various, but usually we
can find the cause in compaction of the soil and low organic matter content. Sandy textured soils
have higher bulk density than clayey soils.
The values for loam type soils are generally between 1.2 and 1.6 and clayey soils have a bulk
density less 1.2. The bulk density of all soil samples was in the range of 1.42 to 1.62 g/cc and that
for tunnel muck was 1.7 g/cc. The observation from bulk density confirms the texture reported.
Soils which show massive structures and less porosity will show bulk densities ranging from 1.6 to
1.7g/cc, water movement will be hindered at this point down the profile. Sample from tunnel has
been originated by boring of hard rock of mountains.
6.5 Chemical Properties
Soil tests for chemical properties are conducted to evaluate soil fertility at a specific time. Nutrient
content continuously varies with time. Therefore, soil tests should be made on a regular basis. The
measurement of nutrients creates a focus on the nutrient content available for plant growth.
The observations on physico-chemical characteristics of the soils are presented below:
•
pH: Based on the pH, the soils are classified in different categories. Nutrients availability is
controlled by pH. The soil samples have pH values in the range between 6.2 & 6.9 indicating
slightly acidic to near neutral nature. The pH observed is mostly suitable for agriculture and
cultivation of crops.
•
Conductivity:
The collected soil samples have conductivity in the range between 107
µmhos/cm and 356 µmhos/cm .However, conductivity of muck sample from tunnel was 70
µmhos/cm indicating low dissolved constituents..
•
Organic Matter: Soil Samples collected from study area have Organic Matter between 1.4
and 2.4 % range. Whereas muck sample collected from tunnel has very low organic matter
(0.3%). The values for soil represent the soil condition rich in organic matter.
Soil organic matter content in most common mineral based soils ranges from 1% to 6%.
Sandy textured soils are usually the lowest and soils dominated by clay the highest*.
_________________
* The Nature and Nurturing of Soil Organic Matter, (http://209.213.232.153/TR/articles/Organic_matter.pdf)
•
Total Nitrogen: Soil samples collected show concentration of total Nitrogen as its values has
ranged between 148.0 to 367 mg/kg indicates low concentration of nitrogen. The muck from
tunnel has very low nitrogen content (104 mg/kg).
•
Total Phosphorus: Phosphorus has low mobility in the soil. Its availability decreases in wet
and cold soils. The samples have medium to low concentrations of total phosphorous as its
values are ranged between 12.0 to 33 mg/kg. Muck sample from tunnel is deficient in Total
phosphorus (8.0 mg/kg).
Podozolic and sub-montane soils which are generally found in hilly regions of Himachal Pradesh
are usually deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus. Overall physico – chemical quality of soil
tested confirms characteristic of normal hilly soil with slightly low nutrients and organic matter.
The mechanical properties of soil samples collected from study area have indicated low clay
content and absence of Atterberg's Limits like liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index which
support more soil erosion. Cohesion i.e binding capacity of soil is good when clay content and
plasticity index is more. The natural moisture content is also low. The cohesion values are 0. All
these observations indicate that the binding capacity of soil is poor which will tend to soil erosion
and landslides even with minor impacts of vibration due to manmade activities like building, road
construction and even the consistent heavy load of traffic.
The study conducted by Vishwa B.S. Chandel et al., 2011 (Annexure 6.2) for Kullu district has
stated the following:
The susceptibility to landslides is inherent in the natural characteristics of the landscape and there
is a definite relationship between landslide occurrence and geo-physical setup of the area. The high
slope angles, drainage density, high local relief and geological structure produce suitable
conditions for landslide occurrence; the torrential rainfall in monsoon season is invariably the
immediate trigger. In Kullu district, out of total of 49 landslides during 1971-2009, nearly 63.27
per cent occurred in monsoons; 26.53 per cent were recorded during winter months (JanuaryMarch) while pre and post monsoon seasons together recorded less than 10 per cent landslides.
In addition, the past events show that these have close association with the land use and were
confined to the built-up (roads) and agricultural lands. The intensification of human activities,
encroachment on vulnerable land, uncontrolled settlement and rampant expansion of roads adds to
landslide vulnerability. It is pertinent to note that landslide activity is largely confined to the
inhabited part of the district primarily in the vicinity of the rivers and roads and this is
substantiated by field visits and data. These are the prime locations of all human activities and this
enhances the risk potential of this disaster.
The landslide probability values obtained through satellite imageries of LANDSAT ETM+, IRS
P6, ASTER along with Survey of India (SOI) topographical sheets formed the basis for deriving
baseline information on various parameters like slope, aspect, relative relief, drainage density,
geology/lithology and land use/land cover, were classified into no risk, very low to moderate, high,
and very high to severe landslide hazard risk zones. The results show that over 80 per cent area is
liable to high severe landslide risk and within this about 32 per cent has very high to severe risk.
Chapter 7
Biological Environment
7.1 Introduction
Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of all life forms in the planet. In practice, it refers
to all living beings present in the ecosystems. In view of the need for conservation of
environmental quality and biodiversity, including current international focus on the global crisis in
biodiversity, the present study at Rohtang Pass region, a tourist hub, envisages to meet following
objectives.
•
Delineation of biodiversity in the study area of Rohtang Pass
•
Assessment of impact of tourism on flora and fauna of the study region
•
Mitigate measures to conserve and preserve the biodiversity
The demarcated area from Manali to Khoksar on Manali-Leh National Highway in Figure 1.1 is
studies for biological environment.
7.2 Methodology
1. (A) Assessment of Flora at Select Locations in the Study Area
Considering the accessibility and approachability, the assessment of flora was carried out in the
study area at select locations (Table 7.1) which falls in Kullu Forest Division and Lahaul Forest
Division comprising Manali and Keylong Forest ranges, respectively.
Table 7.1 : Select Locations for Biodiversity Studies During May, 2012
Forest Division Study
Name of Forest
Latitude (N)
& Range
Locations
Solang Valley Kangni forest
Manali Forest
32°17'16.6"
(2/1 Kangni C.IIb)
Range, Kullu
Forest Division
Tungu (Kothi) Kothi-Tich forest
32°18'32.0"
(2/11 Kothi-Tich C.Ia)
Gulaba
Kothi-Tich forest
32°19'25.0"
(2/11 Kothi-Tich C.Ib)
Marhi
Undemarcated forest
32°20′56.0"
Khoksar
Keylong forest
32°24’33.6"
range, Lahaul
Forest Division
Longitude (E)
77°08'26.4"
77°10'40.0"
77°12'21.0"
77°13′04.0"
77°14’05.3"
Flora was assessed for density, diversity, species composition & Importance Value Index (IVI)
using plotless (or Point-Quarter) sampling method following Rau and Wooten, 1980. Sampling
locations were randomly selected on the slopes, along and off the roads. In this method, vegetation
measurements are determined from points. A number of randomly determined points/plots were
sampled. Each point represents the centre of the measurement area and is divided into
four 90° quadrants. In each of the quadrants studied measurements, using a measuring tape, were
done to collect data on the distance to the closest plant from the centre point, tree girth- perimeter,
and tree height, canopy cover of trees and identification of the trees/plants available in the study
area (Plate 7.1). The following parameters were calculated from the field observation data. IVI
was calculated using following formulae :
Importance value = (relative density + relative dominance + relative frequency) / 3
The density measurements may over emphasize the importance of a species that consist of many
small individuals; the dominance measurements over emphasize about a species that consists of
few, very large individuals; and the frequency measurements may over emphasize the importance
of distribution of individuals belonging to a particular species in the vegetation sampled, regardless
of the size or number of those individuals. Therefore, importance value index is a reasonable
measure to assess the overall significance of species since it takes into account several properties
of species in the vegetation.
Plate 7.1: Study of Forests by Plotless Sampling Method
Forest type is defined as a unit of vegetation which possesses similar characteristics of
physiognomy, structure, function, floristic composition and phenology influenced by climate and
topography. The forest types in this region were broadly categorized into Himalayan Moist
Temperate forests and Sub-Alpine and Alpine forests. Himalayan Moist Temperate forests are
distributed in temperate zone (from 2000m to 3000m) which were mostly dominated by conifers
and mainly comprised of Cedrus deodara (Deodar), Abies pindrow (Fir/Tosh), Picea smithiana
(Spruce/Rai), Acer caesium (Maple), Betula utilis (White trunk Birch/ Bhojpatra), Aesculus indica
(Horse chestnut/Khanor), Populus ciliata (Poplar) and Juglans regia (Walnut/Akhrot). Majority of
the forest blocks at lower reaches comprised of Abies pindrow (Fir), Picea smithiana (Spruce) and
Cedrus deodara (Deodar); however, at higher reaches, vegetation was dominated by Acer caesium
(Maples) (Table 7.2 A).
The Sub-Alpine and Alpine forests are distributed in alpine zone (above 3000m), from Marhi to
Khoksar in the study area and are ecologically very important as it is in these areas that the rivers
originate from the glaciers. Vegetation is mostly herbs and shrubs with occasional trees of the
temperate zone. The zone is rich in medicinal plants (Table 7.2 B) and is at threats due to
overgrazing and unscientific and rampant extraction of medicinal plants.
Table 7.2 A : Flora of Rohtang Pass Region in Manali Forest Range Kullu District
Plants Botanical
Plants Common Name
Forests Vegetation
Name
Tungu
Gulaba
Solang
Willow/Beuns
+
+
+
Salix elegans
Maple
Acer calsium
+
+++
‒
Tosh
+++
+
+
Abies pindrow
Rai
++
+
+
Picea smithiana
Kail
Pinus wallichiana
+
+
‒
Poplar
Poplas ciliata
+
+
‒
Birdcherry/ Jamu
Pinus padus
+
‒
‒
Bhojpatra /White trunk Birch
Betula utilis
+
‒
‒
Kharsu /
Quercus
‒
++
‒
Brown oak
semecarpifolia
Walnut/ Akhrot
Juglans regia
+
+
‒
Deodar
Cedrus deodara
+
+
‒
Kosh
Alnus nitida
+
‒
‒
Ash/ Angu
Fraxinus floribunda
+
‒
‒
Present where the tree line ends
Rhodendron arboreum Baras
Robinia pseudoacacia Black locust/ Pseudocasia
++
‒
‒
Yew/ Barmi/ Rakhal
Taxus baccata
+
+
‒
Kasmal
Berberis aristata
+
‒
‒
Indigofera gerardiana Kathi
+
+
‒
+ Present; - Absent; ++ Subdominant; +++ Dominant
Source: primary data collected by Scientists CSIR NEERI, Nagpur
Table 7.2 B : Flora of Rohtang Pass Region, with Medicinal Value, in Manali Forest Range,
Kullu District & Khoksar Region of Lahul District
Botanical Name
Common Name
Uses
Manali
Padish
Root has medicinal value, extract used against fever
Aconitum heterophylum
Girardinia heterophylum
Bichubuti
Root extract is used as anti-coagulant against
intrinsic blood clotting, extract used against fever
Karu
Root is used against fever, stomach ache
Gentiana kurroo
Ban ajwayan
Leaves used against gastric troubles
Thymus serpyllum
Khoksar
Bhig
Outer bark is locally used for roofing
Betula utilis
Chug
Medicinally used in lung complaint
Hippophae rhamnoides
Bes
Used for making sports goods and wicker baskets
Salix elegans
Bithal
Juniperus communis
• Juniper fruits are commonly used in herbal
medicine, as a household remedy, and also in
some commercial preparations.
• Especially useful in the treatment of digestive
disorders plus kidney and bladder problems.
• Fully ripe fruits are strongly antiseptic, aromatic,
carminative, diaphoretic, strongly diuretic,
rubefacient, stomachic and tonic
Source: Working plan, Kullu Forest Division (Manali Forest Range),
Lahaul Forest Division (Keylong forest range)
Solang valley is one of the attractive tourist sites in Kangni forest which covers an area of 61.78 ha
and is located at an altitude of 2438-3048 metres. Solang valley is heavily populated with tourists
due to sport activities like mountain biking, para gliding etc. In this region, forest vegetation
mainly comprised of 8 tree species, Cedrus deodara being the dominant genera (Plate 7.2 A)
followed by Aesculus indica and Picea smithiana. Occurrence of broad leaved genera like
Aesculus indica (Khanor), Juglans regia (Walnut), Poplas ciliata (Poplar) and Prunus padus
(Birdcherry) were also found as mixed vegetation. The importance value index varied between
28.39 to 3.81 highest being for Picea smithiana ( Rai ) and lowest for Salix elegans (wild willow)
(Table 7.3 A). The deodar is used for timber and hence is a commercially valuable tree species.
In Kothi-Tich forest, Tungu region covers an area of 212.12 ha and it is located at an altitude of
2560-2650 metres. A mixed plantation of Abies pindrow (Tosh), Picea smithiana (Rai) with some
Pinus wallichiana (Kail) and sprinkling of Cedrus deodara (deodar) occurs in this region. The
plantation of Tosh was carried out in 1962, as confirmed by forest officials, which resulted as the
dominant genera, acquired upto 50m height, of the existing vegetation in this region. A few trees
of Acer caesium (Maple), Poplas ciliata (Poplar), Salix elegans (Wild willow) and Prunus padus
(Birdcherry) were also found scattered along the roadside plantation. While 150-200 yrs old Abies
pindrow (Tosh) trees were recorded, new plantation comprised Abies pindrow, Pinus wallichiana
and Picea smithiana.. Along the roads, Tosh and Rai plantations (Plate 7.2 B & C) were dominant
in this area with importance value index varying between 54.56 to 4.06 for Tosh and Kail
respectively (Table 7.3 B). However, the timber yielding Tosh plant is expected at the age of 150
years of a tree, it is one of the commercially important species of this region. Medicinal herbs like
Girardinia heterophylum (Bichubuti) and Thymus serpyllum (Ban ajwayan) were also recorded in
this region.
The study area also comprise of Patalsu Reserve forest which covers an area of 54.63ha and occurs
at an elevation of 2865 to 3322 mts. The region was not accessible and hence, no biological
assessment was carried out in this forest area.
At Gulaba, forest area is spread over an area of 152.10 ha and this site is located at an altitude of
2650-2743 metres. Maple (Acer caesium) was recorded as dominant trees (Plate 7.2 D) among
Betula utilis (Bhojpatra), Picea smithiana (Rai), Quercus semecarpifolia (Kharsu), Salix elegans
(Wild willow) and Abies pindrow (Tosh). Tree line ends at Gulaba near Rahala Fall region. The
importance value index ranged from 50.61 for Maple trees to 7.29 for Tosh (Table 7.3 C). Higher
up above tree line there lies an extensive pasture interspersed with thaches and rocky outgrowth.
A] Cedrus deodara dominant at
Solang Valley
B] Abies pindrow dominant
at Tungu
C] Picea smithiana dominant
at Tungu
D] Acer caesium dominant
at Gulaba
E] No Vegetation at Marhi
F] Grassland and Snow Covered
Area at Khoksar in Lahaul
Plate 7.2 : Vegetation at Different Altitude in the Study Area
Table 7.3 A : Density, Frequency and Dominance and IVI of Trees in Solang Valley
Name of
Average
Relative
Relative
Relative
IVI
Ranking
Trees
Height (m)
Density
Frequency Dominance
Rai
58
20.83
21.43
42.91
28.39
1
Khanor
47
16.67
14.29
37.73
22.89
2
Deodar
11
29.17
21.43
1.96
17.52
3
Walnut
36
12.5
14.29
8.84
11.88
4
Poplar
26
8.33
7.14
2.26
5.91
5
Tosh
45
4.17
7.14
6.01
5.77
6
Birdcherry
6
4.17
7.14
0.16
3.82
7
Wild Willow
4
4.17
7.14
0.13
3.81
8
Table 7.3 B : Density, Frequency and Dominance and IVI of Trees in Kothi (Tungu)
Forest Area
Name of
Average
Relative
Relative
Relative
IVI
Ranking
Trees
Height (m)
Density
Frequency Dominance
Tosh
11.00
65.62
50
48.08
54.56
1
Rai
28.75
24.99
28.57
29.77
27.77
2
Maple
10
3.12
7.14
14.12
8.12
3
Wild Willow
8
3.12
7.14
6.87
5.71
4
Kail
15
3.12
7.14
1.91
4.06
5
Table 7.3 C : Density, Frequency and Dominance and IVI of Trees in Gulaba
(Rahla Fall) Forest Area
Name of
Average
Relative
Relative
Relative
IVI
Ranking
Trees
Height (m)
Density
Frequency Dominance
Maple
6.75
50
36.36
65.46
50.61
1
Rai
5.75
25
27.27
19.73
24
2
Kharsu
4
6.25
18.18
4.55
9.66
3
Wild Willow
8
12.5
9.09
3.67
8.42
4
Tosh
12.9
6.25
9.09
6.53
7.29
5
Beyond Gulaba, Marhi is an alpine area with no tree-line (Plate 7.2 E) and it is categorised as
undemarcated forest area. The place remains a stopover for transit visitors and tourists during
summer and autumn seasons. This region was mostly snow covered and there was no vegetation
recorded during study period. This area is surrounded by lush green meadows during june- august.
At Khoksar in Lahaul forest division, most of the part was snow-covered (Plate 7.2 F). During the
study period, vegetation was mostly herbs and shrubs with small patch of dried Betula utilis
(Bhojpatra). This tree has white paper-like bark which was used in ancient times for writing
Sanskrit scriptures, sacred mantras and texts. The Khoksar zone is rich in medicinal plants (Table
7.1 B and Annexure 7.1).
Flora comprising of Hippophae rhamnoide , Juniperus communis,
Aconitum heterophylum, Artemisia maritime, Morchella esculenta, Picrorhiza kurroa, Thymus
serphyllum, Jurinea macrocephala, Aconitum violaceum, Podophyllum emodi, Saussurea lappa,
Carum carvi, Crocus sativus, Jurinea dolomiaea, Nardostachys jatamansi, Rosa damascene,
Thymus linearis, Viola odorata.
During the survey, 20 tree species and 19 herb species were recorded in the study area out of
which Cedrus deodara , Abies pindrow , Picea smithiana, Aesculus indica and Acer caesium
were found to be dominant (Plate 7.3). Most of herb species are medicinal plants found in
Khoksar.
Cedrus deodara (Deodar)
Pinus wallichiana (Kail)
Plate 7.3 : Dominant Flora in Study Area
Abies pindrow (Tosh)
Picea smithiana (Rai)
Acer caesium (Maple)
Populas ciliata (Popular)
Prunus padus (Birdcherry)
Aesculus indica (Khanor)
Plate 7.3 (Contd..) : Dominant Flora in Study Area
Betula utilis (Bhojpatra)
Salix elegans (Wild Willow)
Plate 7.3 (Contd..) : Dominant Flora in Study Area
1. (B) Assessment of Fauna at Select Locations in the Study Area
The fauna of the study area include mammals and avifauna & fisheries. The data with reference to
communities of animals and birds in study area were collected from concerned wildlife
departments including information from local people.
Wildlife : The study area was rich in a variety of wildlife due to its deep compact forest cover,
prolific growth of fodder species and presence of predator and prey animals. The varied terrain,
dense, compact contiguous forests of different types had contributed to the richness of wildlife and
still the environment continues to be conducive though there is continuous pressure on the wildlife
habitats by human interference, especially tourism. Due to rapid growth of population and better
road links facilitated the communication to deep forest responsible for the slow and steady
degradation of fauna. The fauna of study area included Capra sibirica (Ibex), Fes uncia (Snow
leopard), Moschus moschiferus (Musk deer), Ursus torquatus (Black bear), Canis lupas (Wolves),
Vulpes vulpes (Red Indian Fox), Ursus arctos (Brown bear), Canis aureus indicus (Himalayan
Jackal), Martes flavigula (Yellow throated Mantin) in the forests of Kothitich, Kangni and LahaulSpiti Valley.
Avifauna : Avifauna is an important part of the ecosystem playing the various roles as scavengers,
pollinators, predators of insect pest etc. They are also the bio-indicators of different status of
environment like urbanization, industrialization and human disturbance. They are one of the best
indicators of ecosystem. The areas having good bird diversity signifies healthy forest. They can be
sensitive indicators of pollution problems and function as early warning system. Information
regarding birds in study area was collected from officials of concerned Wildlife Departments and
enquiry from local people. Wide varieties of birds are found in Manali forest range including
Lophophorus impejanus (Monal), Tetraogallus himalayensis (Snow cock), Chukar pectoris
(Chukar), Pucrasia macrolopha (Koklass pheasant), Garrulax lineatus (Streaked laughing thrush),
Myophonus caeruleus (Blue whistling thrush), Urocissa flavirostris (Yellow billed blue magpie),
Megalaema virens (Himalayan hill Barbet), Saxicola ferreus (Bush chats), Columbia leuconota
(Snow Pigeon), Tragopan melanocephalus (Western horned tragopan), Gallus gallus (Red jungle
fowl), Syrmaticus humiae (Cher pheasant), Pavo cristatus (Pea fowl) , Lophura leucomelanos
(Khaleej), Columba livia (Blue rock pigeon), Motacilla alba (Wagtail), Anthus roseatus
(Himalayan pipit), Carpodacus nipalensis (Spectacle rosefinch), Aquila chrysaetos (Golden
Eagle), Gyps himalayensis (Himalayan griffon vulture), Terpsiphone paradisi (Paradise fly
catcher), Melanerpes superciliaris (Woodpecker), Phoenicurus ochruros (Black redstart),
Chaimarrornis leucocephalus (White capped redstart), Gennaeus albicristatus (Kalij), Falio
peregrinus (Sahin falcon), Venellus indicus (Red wattled lapwing), Megalaima ascatica (Blue
throated barbet), Bubo bubo (Indian great horn owl), Apus melba (Alpine swift), Dendrocitta
vagabunda (Treepie), Acridotheres tristis (Indian myna), Parus major (Gray tit), Pericrocotus
cinnamomeus
(Small
minivet),
Buchanga
atra
(Black
drongo),
Gypaepus
barbatus
(Lammergeyer), Pericrocotus speciosus (Indian scarlet minivet), Tinnunculus alaudarius (Kestrel)
and Graculus eremite (Red-billed Chough).
In Lahaul region, Alectoris chukar (Chukar), Tetraogallus himalayensis (Himalayan Snowcock),
Columbia leuconota (Snow Pigeon), Pyrrhocorax graculus (Yellow-Billed Chough) and Corvus
macrorhynchos (Jungle Crow) are the main avifaunal species found.
Fisheries Activities : Beas and Chenab are the two major rivers flowing through the selected
study area. Information pertaining to fisheries activities was collected Trout Farm, Himachal
Pradesh Fisheries Dept., Patlikuhal, Dist. Kullu. There are three main components of fisheries in
this area as follows:
Game Fisheries : In the study area, from Manali to Beas nala, game fisheries is common
recreational activity. Trouts (Rainbow and Brown trout) and Schizothorex sp. (Indigenous species)
are the major varieties of fishes found in this region. Fish angling is the popular activity among the
aqua-tourists. More than 500 anglers visit Kullu for angling competition. H.P. Fisheries dept. and
Tourism dept. has authority to issue licence to anglers to carry out angling at very meager rate of
Rs.100 per day. Beas River and its tributaries are used for angling. Clear water is needed for the
game. Depending upon the climate and water turbidity, these activities are carried out.
Culture Fisheries : Trout is an exotic species which is cultured in this region. Rainbow trout is
cultured by private fish farmers in Nehru Kund at Bhang and also Trout Farm, Himachal Pradesh
Fisheries Dept., Patlikuhal (Plate 7.4). At Trout Farm, Patlikuhal, trout ova are reared and bred
successfully and the technology is transferred to the general masses of the state. There is a Trout
growers’ association which look into the interests of trout growers.
Capture Fisheries : Capture fisheries is prohibited as there are cold water streams and the fishes
are left for sport fisheries to attract aqua- tourism.
Rearing Ponds
Harvest of Mature Fishes
Rearing of Fingerlings in Tanks
Plate 7.4 : Fish Culture Activities at Trout Farm, Patlikuhal
2. Impact of Tourism on Biotic Component in the Study Area
Tourism and the environment have a very complex and interdependent relationship. Today,
tourism is one of the largest industries, which contributes to world economy and is a great source
of foreign exchange for many developing countries, whose major assets are their natural resources.
Rohtang, being a popular tourist destination has an influx of approximately 18,000-20,000 tourists
and vehicles going to the top of the mountain every day during summer from May to September.
Anthropogenic activities have left a strong impact on the flora and fauna of Rohtang pass. It was
reported by forest officials that when new saplings were planted along the road, they did not
survive due to heavy tourist activities which resulted in uprooting of the saplings. For example, at
Tungu (Kothi), the plantation in the vicinity of road side could not attain the forest structure as
compared to that away from the road side due to heavy access of tourists to this site leading to
trampling and plucking of new samplings of the plantation and also due to heavy grazing (Plate
7.5 A). Moreover, vehicular pollution leading to gaseous emissions is also harmful to plants (Plate
7.5 B). Tourist activities like trekking and mountain biking (Plate 7.5 C) on the slopes has caused
destruction of old as well as new plantations. Increased use of horses and sledges has caused
loosening of the soil. Tourist influx has correspondingly resulted in new infrastructure in the form
of road construction. Road construction activities have had a disastrous effect on the natural
habitats of flora and fauna. They have caused heavy soil erosion and destruction of forest cover
(Plate 7.5 D). Incidence of solid waste disposal including polythene and plastics has increased due
to influx of tourists and has ruined the aesthetic value of the region (Plate 7.5 E).
Fauna is in this region is also greatly affected by anthropogenic activities, as tourists cause
disturbance and destruction of their natural habitat. Incidences of hunting and poaching have also
increased. Infrastructural development has destroyed vast amount of forest cover which makes the
fauna in this region vulnerable. Fish angling is a popular game activity which is a costly affair and
is one of the main source of revenue generation in this region. Lots of anglers come for sport
fisheries which also generates employment to guides, hoteliers, drivers etc. But on other hand, such
activities disturb the fish migration for spawning and also cause habitat destruction. Activities like
garbage disposal in water streams also affects the water flow regime and in turn the riverine
fisheries.
A] No regeneration of new plantation along
the roads due to uprooting by tourists
C] Trampling of New Plantation
Due to Mountain Biking
B] Tourist activities and Vehicular
Pollution near Plantation
D] Soil Erosion
E] Plastic and Garbage Disposal
Plate 7.5 : Impact of Tourism on Biotic Component of Study Area
Chapter 8
Assessment of Impacts of Vehicular
Pollution on Glacial Environment
8.1 Preamble
Rohtang Pass located at an altitude of more than 13,000 feet in the Pir Panjal range is the main
tourist attraction. The place is visited by thousands of tourists. Petrol and diesel driven vehicles are
used as a mode of transport. Due to cold weather and walls of snow along the road, the pollutants
released through the exhaust get adhered to the glaciers and remain there till melting of snow starts.
These pollutants absorb heat and enhance the melting of glaciers thereby disturbing the ecosystem.
The water formed due to melting of ice gets contaminated by the vehicular pollution and adds
contaminants such as PAHs, having distinct markers to the receiving water bodies.
Aerosols released by the vehicles are suspended particulates and have adverse effects on climate
and health. Carbonaceous fraction of aerosols is further classified into two sub categories viz.
Elemental carbon (EC) and Organic carbon (OC). EC is optically absorptive and OC is the nonabsorptive fraction of the carbonaceous aerosol. Elemental carbon has primary source of emissions
from industrial processes, vehicles. Wood burning is the single major source of non-fossil EC. EC
is often used as a tracer for diesel exhaust particles (Götschi et al., 2002). OC can be emitted from
above emission sources and generated from chemical reactions among primary gaseous organic
carbon species in the atmosphere (Kim et al., 2000). Primary Organic carbon is emitted directly
from combustion of fossil fuels, biomass burning, vegetative detritus and meat cooking. Secondary
Organic aerosols are formed from the oxidation products of volatile organic compound (VOC)
gases (Seinfeld and Pandis, 1998). Volatile organic compounds are usually oxidized to OH, O3 or
NO3, and once oxidized their products accumulate and can form aerosols by condensing on already
available particles (Bowman et al., 1997).
Black Carbon (BC) is emitted in the atmosphere due to incomplete combustion of fossil fuels,
biofuel, and biomass. It consists of elemental carbon in several forms. The largest sources of black
carbon are Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Some estimates put that China and India together
account for 25-35% of global black carbon emissions. On a global basis, approximately 20% of
black carbon is emitted from burning biofuels, 40% from fossil fuels, and 40% from open biomass
burning (Ramanathan and Carmichael, 2008).
In the Himalayas, the glaciers cover approximately 33, 000 sq. km. area and this is one of the
largest concentrations of glacier-stored water outside the Polar Regions. Elemental carbon or black
carbon is chemically non reactive and therefore when deposited into the snow pack, it remains
unchanged with no conversion into other chemical species. When black carbon is deposited on ice
and snow, it absorbs sunlight, raises the surface temperature and causes the snow to melt. The
water from these glaciers forms an important source of run-off into the North Indian rivers during
the critical summer months. It was found that a concentration of 15 μg kg−1 of BC in snow may
reduce the snow albedo by ∼1% (Warren and Wiscombe, 1980 Cited from Ming et al., 2009). Black
Carbon (BC) has emerged as a major contributor to climate change, possibly second to carbon
dioxide (CO2) as the main driver of change (Ramanathan and Carmichael, 2008). Increase in
melting of Glaciers is one of indicators of climate change. Glacier retreat provides a clear
indication of warming phenomenon since the Little Ice Age (LIA), which occurred from
approximately 1650 to 1850 (Oerlemans, 2005).
8.2 Selection of Sampling Locations at Rohtang Pass
Rohtang Pass remains snowbound in winters for nearly six months, cutting off the tribal LahaulSpiti Valley in Himachal as well as the strategically vital Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir.
The terrain and climate of the area pose serious problems in maintaining road communication for
more than four months at a stretch. The area faces heavy snowfall, high-velocity winds and subzero temperatures. The snow melts during summer season and fresh snow layer gets deposited
every year during winter season.
Tourism in Himachal Pradesh is one of the most important sectors for the state’s economy. Large
number of tourist’s inflow leads to extremely high influx of vehicles. Being the hilly region, the
approachability to this place through rail and air is restricted. The two wheelers and cars comprise
82% of the total vehicle population whereas the commercial vehicles account for only 18% of the
total vehicular population. This composition of vehicular population coupled with high growth
rates of personal vehicles has caused serious problem of traffic congestion, accidents and pollution.
(http://moef.nic.in/soer/state/SoER%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf). The tourist influx during
January to December 2011 recorded at Manali is presented in Figure 8.1. The maximum visitors
were recorded during April to June followed by decline in July to September probable due to rains.
Rise in tourist has noticed during October just prior to start of snowfall (November to March).
Plate 8.1 depicts typical traffic congestion scenario caused by increasing rate of vehicular
population. The vehicular movement during snowfall season is seen in Plate 8.2.
Figure 8.1: Tourist Influx at Manali During 2011
Correlation of Tourist Influx vis-vis Vehicles Plying on Rohtang Pass
Large number of tourists is visiting Manali and Rohtang area. The maximum number of tourist
(both Indian and Foreigners) recorded during June 2011 was 4, 15, 000. Based on assumptions of
number of tourist and type of vehicle, the total numbers of vehicles per day are calculated.
Considering that four persons are traveling in a single vehicle and it is a car, then about 3458
vehicles will ply every day. The number of vehicles will get reduced to 1730 for eight sitter
passenger cars and merely 700 for twenty sitter bus. The expected particulate matter load due to
various types of vehicles with highest tourist influx of 4,15,000 is given in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Prediction of Particular Matter Emissions (Kg/day) from Vehicles
Cars
20
Road
8
Sitter
Length
Sitter
100%
100% 60%+40% 50%+50% 40%+60%
(Km)
Vehicles Vehicles
D
P
(D+P)
(D+P)
(D+P)
20
4.15
0.28
2.60
2.21
1.83
3.46
6.65
40
8.30
0.55
5.20
4.43
3.65
6.92
13.3
60
12.45
0.83
7.80
6.64
5.48
10.38
19.95
80
16.60
1.11
10.40
8.85
7.30
13.84
26.6
100
20.75
1.38
13.00
11.07
9.13
17.3
33.25
D: Diesel, P: Petrol, Emission factor (g/km) considered for diesel driven car 0.06,
Petrol driven car 0.004, 8 sitter vehicles 0.1 and 20 sitter vehicles 0.475
Ref: Air Quality Monitoring Project-Indian Clean Air Programme (ICAP),
The Automotive Research Association of India, March 2008
If the diesel driven cars are only used as tourist vehicles, the emissions of particulate matter (PM)
will be higher as compared to diesel driven eight sitter vehicles. The concentration of black
carbon is also likely to be increased in proportion to concentration of PM. Using eight sitter
vehicles will not only reduce the PM emissions by around 17 % but will also result in less traffic
congestion due to decreased number of vehicles plying on the road. Though number of vehicles on
road will be reduced by using 20 sitters the PM emissions will be higher due to higher emission
factors. Moreover the nature of NH 21 which passes through hilly terrain from Manali to Rohtang
with slopes and turnings it will be difficult to use 20 sitter buses which required more space.
Plate 8.1: Traffic Congestion at Beas Nalla Near Marhi
Plate 8.2: Vehicular Movement at Snow Covered Rohtang Pass
To realize the impact of vehicular emissions on glaciers, snow samples were collected at
different locations. Table 8.2 gives the details about the sampling locations.
Table 8.2: Sampling Locations for Collection of Snow Samples
Sampling Location
Latitude
Blank (5m right side away from the
32º23’05.40” N
road at Top of Rohtang)
Top of Rohtang
32º22’15.46” N
Near Gramphu
32º22’26.32” N
Between upper Marhi and Rani Nallah
32º21’10.20” N
Rani Nallah
Beas Nallah
Rahalla Fall
Marhi
5 km from Marhi towards Manali
32º21’19.67” N
32º20’56.85” N
32º19’58.25” N
32º20’56.02” N
32º21’22.56” N
32º21’15.08” N
32º21’14.79” N
Longitude
77º14’51.52” E
77º14’47.82” E
77º14’55.97” E
77º13’06.41” E
77º13’11.33” E
77º13’17.85” E
77º12’56.38” E
77º13’05.78” E
77º13’46.54” E
77º13’21.66” E
77º12’54.63” E
8.3 Sampling Procedure
•
Snow samples were collected with the help of stainless steel pipe of two feet length of four
inch diameter from different locations starting from Marhi to Khoksar on Manali Rohtang
National highway NH-21
•
The collected snow from the core was transferred to clean glass bottles of three liter capacity.
•
Just before processing for filtration, the snow samples were melted in a microwave oven.
Plate 8.3 and 8.4 depicts methodology adopted for collecting the snow samples.
Plate 8.3: Snow Sample Collection
in Clean Glass Bottles
Plate 8.4: Snow Sample Collection
on Top of Snow Pack
Details of Set up of Assembly used to process the snow samples (Plate 8.5)
Plate 8.5: Millipore All-Glass Filter Assembly with Suction Pump
Suction assembly: Millipore all-glass filter assembly with suction pump was used for filtration
Quartz filter papers: Tissue Quartz Filters manufactured by PALL Life Science was used to collect
the particulate matter. The diameter of the filter is 47mm and the pore size is 1μ. Salient features of
Quartz filter are:
• It is mat of pure quartz fibers
• It melts at > 9000 C
• It has low blank levels for ions as it is pre-washed during manufacture
• It has low hygroscopic character
(Source: Chow et al., 1995)
Hence these filters are suitable and can be used for Carbon and ion analysis
Preconditioning of Filter papers These filters passively adsorb organic vapours and hence to
eliminate the chances of overestimation of organic fraction, the filters are fired at 9000 C in Muffle
Furnace before further processing them on site and were then stored in air tight Petri slides.
Filtration Procedure
•
The fixed volume of liquefied snow samples were filtered through pre – fired Tissue Quartz
filters.
•
The filters were dried in a desiccator.
8.4 Processing of Filters in the Laboratory
The filters were stored at -200 C before further analysis. The
filters were then cut into 2 equal halves using filter cutter. One of
them was used for Elemental and Organic Carbon analysis and
the other half was extracted in Double Distilled Water for Ion
analysis. Plate 8.6 shows typical Quartz Filter after filtering the
sample.
Plate 8.6 : Quartz Filter
8.5 EC OC Analysis
Instrument used: The Thermal/Optical Reflectance (TOR), Thermal/Optical Transmittance
(TOT), and Thermal Manganese Oxidation (TMO) methods have been most commonly applied
in aerosol studies for the analysis of organic and elemental carbon. Desert Research Institute’s
Thermal/Reflectance Optical Carbon Analyzer, (Model 2001 A, Protocol Improve A) was used
for the analysis. Plate 8.7 shows DRI’s EC OC Analyzer. This instrument can measure carbon
content in the range of 0.05 – 750 μg C/cm2.
Plate 8.7 : DRI’s EC OC Analyzer
Principle: The analysis is based on liberating carbon compounds at different temperatures. The
sample boat having a punch of 0.5-cm2 area is passed through oxygenator having heated MnO2 at
9000 C. Here, volatilized carbon compounds get converted to CO2. Methanator having hydrogen
enriched Nickel catalyst reduces CO2 to CH4 at 4250C. The CH4 concentration is detected using
FID detector at 1250 C. CH4 concentration is equivalent to elemental and organic carbon present
in the sample. The results are noted in terms of reflectance based upper split values for regular
OC, regular EC and TC in µg/filter. Following figure shows block diagram for DRI’s Carbon
Analyzer (Plate 8.8).
Plate 8.8 : Block Diagram of EC- OC
To differentiate the impact of vehicular exhaust on glaciers from other polluting sources like wood
burning, biomass burning, vegetative detritus etc., in addition to EC OC analysis, ion analysis was
also carried out.
The results for OC and EC concentration in glacier samples are given in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3: OC and EC Concentration in Glacier Samples
Organic
Sampling Location
Carbon
Blank (5m right side away from the
0.556
road at Top of Rohtang)
Near Gramphu
2.798
Top of Rohtang
5.720
Rani nallah
6.445
Betn Upper Marhi - Rani Nallah
8.854
Beas nallah
9.838
Rahalla Fall
8.615
Marhi
11.419
3 km From Marthi towards Manali
15.123
13.263
14.572
Note: All the values are reported in mg/kg of snow
Elemental
Carbon
0.015
0.022
0.053
0.040
0.067
0.158
0.137
0.227
0.455
0.249
0.416
Observations
The lowest concentrations of 0.556 mg/kg of Organic Carbon (OC) and 0.015 mg/kg of Elemental
Carbon (EC) also termed as black carbon were observed in sample collected at 5m right side away
from the road at Top of Rohtang Pass which was considered as control/reference site not directly
exposed to vehicular exhaust. The highest concentration of OC (15.123 mg/kg) and concentration
of EC (0.455 mg/kg) was found at sampling site located 3 km from Marthi towards Manali.
Maximum visitors were observed in and around Marhi and large number of tourist vehicles, other
heavy duty traffic vehicles and snow scooters were observed near the selected site. Similarly, the
values of EC and OC at 4 km (13.263 and 0.249 mg/kg respectively) and 5 km (14.572 and 0.416
mg/kg respectively) locations show the similar trend of high concentration. The locations above
Marhi showed significant decrease in OC and EC concentration as less tourist vehicles were
passing beyond Marhi towards Rohtang due to traffic restrictions.
Similar concentration range of EC (0.02 to 0.98 mg/kg) was also observed in samples collected
from glaciers in west China during 2004-2006 (Ming et al., 2009). In a study by Huang et al.,
2010, the concentration of black carbon in Northern China was estimated to 0.03 – 0.05 mg/kg (3050 ppb).
8.6 Ion Analysis
Ions in snow can act as very good tracers for identifying the emission sources (Hanks, 2003).
Aerosol ions refer to chemical compounds which are soluble in water. In water soluble fraction of
the filter paper, different ions viz. Chloride, Nitrate, Sulphate, Phosphate, Sodium, Potassium,
Calcium, Magnesium and Ammonium were analyzed.
Filter Extraction: The filters were extracted in 50 ml double distilled water by sonicating for one
hour, followed by shaking for one hour and storing it overnight in refrigerator. It was then filtered
through 0.45 μ pore size Millipore filter.
Instrument used: The samples were analyzed by Dionex ICS-300 Ion Chromatography system
comprising of suppressor column, analytical column and a conductivity detector. Plate 8.9 shows
instrument used for ion analysis.
Plate 8.9: Dionex ICS-3000 Ion Chromatography (IC) System
Principle: A sample of the mixture to be analyzed (analyte) is injected into a carrier fluid (the
eluent). The combination is passed through a column containing a stationary fixed material
(adsorbent). Compounds contained in the analyte are then partitioned between the stationary
adsorbent and the moving eluent / analyte mixture Different dissolved materials adhere to the
adsorbent with different forces. The ones that adhere strongly are moved through the adsorbent
more slowly as the eluent flows over them. As the eluent flows through the column the components
of the analyte will move down the column at different speeds and therefore separate from one
another. A detector is used to analyze the output at the end of the column. Each time analyte
molecules/ions emerge from the chromatography column the detector generates a measurable
signal which is usually printed out as a peak on the chromatogram. A suppressor is being used to
reduce the background conductance of the eluent and at the same time enhance the conductance of
the sample ions.
The results for ion analysis in glacier samples are given in Table 8.4.
Table 8.4: Ion Concentration (in mg/kg) in Glacier Samples
Sampling Location
Potassium Chloride
Blank (5m right side away
ND
ND
from the road at Top of Rohtang)
ND
ND
Near Gramphu
ND
ND
Top of Rohtang
0.439
0.766
Rani nallah
0.145
0.828
Betn Upper Marhi - Rani Nallah
0.062
3.249
Beas nallah
0.083
0.610
Rahalla Fall
0.076
0.805
Marhi
0.204
1.134
0.127
0.810
ND
ND
Phosphate
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.026
ND
0.053
ND
ND
ND
Note – ND: Not Detected
Observations
Amongst the different ions analyzed, potassium, chloride and phosphate were detected in
different samples. The highest concentration of potassium was observed at Rani nallah (0.439
mg/kg). Beas nallah had the highest concentration of chloride (3.249 mg/kg). The presence of
chloride indicates contribution from vehicular exhaust. But, the presence of potassium along with
chloride confirms that biomass burning also plays a significant role in ionic composition of
glaciers. Absence of sulphates and nitrates may be due to negligible concentration of SO2 and
NO2 observed during air quality analysis.
8.7 Analysis of Molecular Marker
Another approach for evaluating the existence and impact of vehicular pollution on glacier is
examination of presence of molecular markers on snow.
Analysis of individual compounds like alkanes, alkenes, carboxylic acids, hopanes, steranes and
aromatic compounds like Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) which constitute OC
fraction, commonly referred as “molecular markers” (Simoneit, 1999) should be done to gain
further in-sights into the sources of OC. Components of OC and their emission sources are listed in
Table 8.5.
Table 8.5: Molecular Markers and Their Probable Sources
Molecular Markers
Probable Sources
PAHs
Automobiles, resuspended soils, refineries, power plants.
n-alkanes
Vehicular exhaust, natural gas combustion, coal
combustion, wood burning, cooking emissions from meat
or vegetables and natural sources like vegetative detritus,
pollens and microbial spores.
Hopanes and Steranes Vehicular emissions
Levoglucosan
Biomass burning
The results on EC-OC and ionic composition should be indicative of presence and extent of
vehicular impact on glaciers in the areas of Rohtang Pass. For confirmation additional analysis
on molecular markers is recommended. Estimation of molecular markers along with the
implementation of appropriate short term and long term control strategies for the polluting
sources will help in keeping the surrounding environment clean and healthy for living.
References
1.
National Carbonaceous Aerosols Programme (NCAP), 2011. Black Carbon Research Initiative
Science Plan INCCA: Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment
2.
Ramanathan, V. and Carmichael, G., 2008. Global and regional climate changes due to black
carbon. Nature Geoscience, 1(156)
3.
Ming J., Xiao C., Cachier H., Qin D., Qin X., Li Z., Pu J., 2009. Black Carbon (BC) in the snow of
glaciers in west China and its potential effects on albedos. Atmospheric Research, 92: 114-123
4.
http://moef.nic.in/soer/state/SoER%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf
5.
DRI (2000). Standard Operating Procedure – Thermal/Optical Reflectance Carbon analysis of
Aerosol Filter Samples, DRI – SOP 2 – 204.6
6.
Huang J., Fu Q., Zhang W., Wang X., Zhang R., Ye H., Warren S., (2010). Dust and Black Carbon
in Seasonal Snow across Northern China. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, doi:
10.1175/2010BAMS3064.1
7.
Hanks K., (2003). Water Insoluble Particulate Organic and Elemental Carbon Concentrations and
Ionic Concentrations from Snowpits Obtained at Summit, Greenland. M.Sc. Thesis, Georgia
institute of Technology
8.
Standard Operating Procedure for the analysis of Anions and Cations in PM2.5 Speciation samples
by Ion Chromatography. SOP MLD 064, California Environmental Protection Agency Air
Resource Board
9.
Simoneit B.R.T., (1999). A Review of Biomarker Compounds as Source indicators and Tracers for
Air Pollution. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 6: 159-169
Chapter 9
Remote Sensing Analysis
9.1 Introduction
Remote Sensing technology has emerged as a powerful tool in providing reliable information on
various natural resources at different levels of spatial details. It has played an important role in
effective mapping and periodic monitoring of natural resources including land use land cover
(LULC) estimation. With the availability of high resolution remote sensing data, newer areas of
remote sensing applications have been identified, techniques of data processing have been
improved and computer based image processing systems have become more effective.
9.2 Study Area
The study area comprises of Manali to Khoksar including Rohtang Pass and lies between 32° 13’
and 32° 25'N latitudes and 77° 9' and 77° 17’E longitudes in district of Kullu, Himalchal Pradesh.
The study area is considered as 2 km buffer of road from Manali to Palchan and 1km buffer of
road from Palchan to Khosar (Rohtang Pass) for the assessment of current practices and changes in
land use land cover in the region. The details of the study area are provided in Figure 9.1
considering national highway (NH-21), roads, village and drainage including Beas river and its
tributaries based on the Survey of India Toposheet No 52H3. The total geographical area of the
boundary is 8548.6 sq.km. The study area comes under the PirPanjal range of the Himalaya that
connects the Kullu Valley with Lahul and Spiti valleys of Himachal Pradesh. The Rohtang pass is
open from May to November while closed in winter (December to April) due to snow cover.
9.3 Methodology
For assessment of LULC, satellite images of the study area were collected based on the availability
of the data. Since, the study area is covered by snow during December to April and open (Rohtang
Pass) during May to November, images were collected for the month of January, July and October.
Satellite image of 17 July 2012 was procured for the assessment of current LULC practices in the
study area. Image of 31 January 2011 was collected to visualise the spatial extent of snow cover in
the study area while 27 October 2011 and 29 October 2005 images were procured based on its
availability and being free from cloud and snow cover as well as assessment for change in LULC.
The methodology for remote sensing analysis of satellite imageries is divided into following
headings:
•
•
•
•
Acquisition of Satellite data
Collection of ground truths and ground control points (GCP)
Pre-processing of data
Geo-referencing and rectification
Figure 9.1: Base Map of Study Area (Manali to Khoksar)
•
•
•
Supervised classification
Estimation of LULC
Accuracy assessment
The satellite data were procured from National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad for
remote sensing analysis. Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) data P6 Linear Imaging Self-Scanning
(LISS) III of 17 July 2012 was procured to assess the current LULC practices in the study area
especially around Rohtang Pass. Apart from latest satellite image, other images were also collected
namely IRS P6 LISS III (27 October 2011), IRS P6 LISS-IV (29 October 2005), and LANDSAT
ETM+ (31 January 2011) for LULC mapping. The details of imageries are presented in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1: Details of Satellite Data
Sr.
1
2
3
4
Satellite
IRS P6
IRS P6
LANDSAT7
IRS P6
Sensor
LISS III
LISS
Pan ETM +
LISS IV
Resolution m
23.5
23.5
15
5.8
Date of Pass
17 July 2012
27 October 2011
31 January 2011
29 October 2005
The spatial resolution and the spectral bands in which the sensor collects the remotely sensed data
are two important parameters for any land use survey. IRS P6 LISS III data offers spatial
resolution of 23.5 m with the swath width of 141 x 141km.LISS III data is collected in four visible
bands namely green (Band 2: 0.52-0.59μm), red (Band 3: 0.62-0.69μm), near Infrared (NIR)
(Band 4:0.77-0.89μm) and short wave infrared band (Band 5: 1.55-1.75μm) with orbit repeat
period of 24 days.IRS P6 LISS IV data offers spatial resolution of 5.8m with the swath width of
23.5 x 23.5km. LISS IV data is collected in Multi-spectral mode in three spectral bands as green
(Band 2:0.52 to 0.59μm), red (Band 3: 0.62-0.68μm) and NIR (Band 4: 0.76 to 0.86μm).
LANDSAT- 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) is downloaded from Global Land Cover
Facility which offers spatial resolution of 15 m with pan image with swath width of 170 x 185km.
The data is collected in seven bands namely blue-green (Band 1:0.45-0.52μm), green (Band 2:
0.52-0.60 μm), red (Band 3: 0.63-0.69 μm), near infrared (NIR) (Band 4: 0.75-0.90 μm), midinfrared (MIR) (Band 5 and 7L: 1.55-1.75 μm) and far-infrared (FIR) (Band 6: 2.08-2.35 μm) with
orbit repeat period of 16 days. The shapes, sizes, colours, tone and texture of several geomorphic
features are visible in IRS and LANDSAT data. Spectral bands provide high degree of
measurability through band combination including FCC generation, bands rationing, classification
etc. These features of the IRS and LANDSAT data are particularly important for better
comprehension and delineation of the land use land cover classes.
The remote sensing analysis was performed on ERDAS Imagine 10 on high-configured computer.
This software package is a collection of image processing functions necessary for pre-processing,
rectification, band combination, contrast stretching, filtering, statistics, classification etc. Arc
Map 10 was also used for final layout presentation of base map, drainage, False Colour
Composites (FCC) and LULC maps.
The satellite data from the compact disc was loaded on the hard disk and by studying quick looks
(the sampled image of the appropriate area); the sub-scene of the study area is extracted. Imageries
were geo referenced and rectified with ground control points (GCP) from Survey of India
Toposheet and field data collected during ground truth survey. Detailed survey was carried out
using Global Positioning System (GPS) and digital camera for collection of ground truth and GCP
in the study area for LULC analysis. The locations of ground truth points in the study area are
geographically presented in the map (Figure 9.2) and details are provided in Table 9.2. Various
activities and locations of the land mark were captured through digital camera to assess the current
practices of LULC in the study area (Annexure 9.1).
Table 9.2 : Details of Ground Truth Locations in the Study Area
Sr. Details of Ground Trothing Locations
Latitude N
Rohtang Pass (Palchan to Khoksar)
1
Built-up (Palchan)
32º 18’ 33”
2
Beas Kund Hydro Power Plant
32º 18’ 32”
3
Built-up
32º 18’ 46”
4
New Construction (Kothi)
32º 19’ 03”
5
New construction
32º 19’ 06”
6
Natural Forest (TOSH)
32º 19’ 17”
7
Steel Bridge
32º 19’ 21”
Small Hydro Electric Power Project
8
32º 19’ 59”
(Marhi Power House) site at Kothi
9
Shops (Temporary) at Gulaba
32º 19’ 31”
10
DETT Gulaba (BRO)
32º 19’ 23”
11
Exposed rock near Raila Fall
32º 19’ 57”
12
Beas Nallah d/s Marhi
32º 20’ 55”
13
Bridge on Beas Nallah
32º 20’ 57”
14
Grass Land near Marhi
32º 21’ 00”
15
Rohtang top (near Beas kund)
32º 22’ 17”
16
Landslide
32º 21 32”
17
Built up (Marhi)
32º 20 57”
18
Permanent Structures
32º 19’ 06”
19
Built-up (Near Hill View Cafe)
32º 19’ 00”
Longitude E
77º 10’ 31”
77º 10’ 30”
77º 10’ 44”
77º 11’ 22”
77º 11’ 30”
77º 11’ 37”
77º 11’ 37”
77º 11’ 49”
77º 12’ 05”
77º 12’ 05”
77º 12’ 56”
77º 13’ 16”
77º 13’ 17”
77º 13’ 10”
77º 14’ 47”
77º 13’ 43”
77º 13’ 04”
77º 11’ 33”
77º 11’ 20”
Table 9.2 : Details of Ground Truth Locations in the Study Area
Sr. Details of Ground Trothing Locations
Latitude N
20
Built-up (Kothi)
32º 19’ 01”
21
New Construction (Kothi)
32º 18’ 47”
22
Bridge on Beas River
32º 18’ 23”
Palchan to Manali
Apple orchard near confluence of Solang and
23
32º 18’ 19”
Beas river
24
Forest along road (Kulang)
32º 17 43”
RCC Bridge on nala near Snow and Avalanche
25
32º 16 08”
Estt. (SASE)
26
Forest around Circuit House
32º 15’ 00”
27
Forest (Log Huts area)
32º 14’ 59”
28
Apple Orchards (Log Huts area)
32º 14’ 59”
29
Forest (Hotels Highlands)
32º 15’ 06”
30
Tiraha Log Huts (new and old Manali)
32º 15’ 10”
31
Bridge onMalanashu River
32º 15’ 09”
32
Forest along Malanashu River
32º 15’ 04”
33
Forest near Hadimba Temple
32º 14’ 50”
34
Forest surrounding Hadimba Temple
32º 14’ 55”
35
Forest along Hadimba Temple Road
32º 14’ 49”
36
Forest near Wildlife Information Centre
32º 14’ 51”
37
Nehru Park Mal Road
32º 14’ 45”
38
Bridge on Beas Bypass Rohtang
32º 14’ 46”
39
Forest along Beas River
32º 15’ 13”
40
Manali Model Town
32º 14’ 36”
41
Built up (near Gompa road)
32º 14’ 34”
42
Forest along Manali-Kullu road
32º 14’ 14”
43
Open land (Manali potato ground)
32º 13’ 59”
44
Aleo village near manali
32º 14’ 23”
45
Apple orchard
32º 13’ 53”
46
Built- up (Khoksar)
32º 24 30”
Longitude E
77º 11’ 14”
77º 10’ 51”
77º 10’ 52”
77º 10’ 56”
77º 10’ 57”
77º 10’ 57”
77º 11’ 09”
77º 10’ 26”
77º 10’ 33”
77º 10’ 47”
77º 10’ 54”
77º 10’ 47”
77º 10’ 41”
77º 10’ 42”
77º 10’ 51”
77º 11’ 00”
77º 11’ 21”
77º 11’ 23”
77º 11’ 23”
77º 11’ 17”
77º 11’ 20”
77º 11’ 18”
77º 11’ 12”
77º 11’ 18”
77º 11’ 18”
77º 11’ 49”
77º 15’ 05”
LULC maps were prepared using supervised classification technique based on maximum
likelihood classifier. The training areas for classification were homogeneous, well spread
throughout the image. Training sets were used throughout the satellite image for similar land use
classes based on spectral responses and acquisition of ground truth data (Annexure 9.1). After
evaluating the statistical parameters of training sets, the training areas were rectified by deleting no
congruous training sets and creating new ones.
Figure 9.2: Location Map of Ground Truth and Ground Control Points
9.4 Results and Discussions
The land use land cover classification system standardized by Department of Space, for mapping
different agro-climatic zones has been adopted in the present study. This classification system has
six major LULC classes at level I and twenty-seven at level II (Annexure 9.2). The various
categories of LULC observed in the study area is classified into major groups like forest
(evergreen and scrub), vegetation (plantation, grassland, shrubs etc.), built-up, barren (exposed
rock), water body and snow.
False Colour composites
FCC images of the study area were prepared based on the buffer (2km and 1km) from the road. In
FCC images of IRS P6 (LISS III and IV) and LANDSAT 7 ETM+, forest appears as dark red,
vegetation/plantation appears as red and pink red, built-up and water body as cyan, exposed rock
as grey and greenish and snow as white. Attributes such as colour, tone, texture, shape and size
were used for visual image interpretation. Figure 9.3 through 9.6 represent the FCC images of 17
July 2012, 27 October 2011, 31 January 2011 and 29 October 2005, respectively. Cloud cover and
its shadow was found in FCC image of 17 July 2012 as white and black patches, respectively
(Figure 9.3). Ground truth data was collected and used for training different classes of LULC and
for accuracy assessment of the classification.
In FCC image of July 2012, most of the study area is occupied with forest (evergreen and scrub)
and vegetation/plantation cover due to the effect of monsoon season and rest of the area is
occupied with built-up, water body, barren and snow. Even in FCC image of October 2011, major
LULC classes are forest (evergreen and scrub) and vegetation/plantation (Figure 9.4). FCC image
of 31 January 2011 depicts the occupancy of the snow cover in most of the study area due to
winter season (Figure 9.5). FCC image of 29 October 2005 provides the distinct identification of
the LULC classes due to its finer spatial resolution (5.8 m) as compared to July 2012 (23.5m),
October 2011 (23.5) and January 2011 (15m) images. October 2005 image is also free from snow
and cloud cover for better assessment of the LULC in the study area (Figure 9.6).
Supervised Classification
Supervised classifications of the images were carried out for LULC with seven different classes as
evergreen forest, scrub forest, vegetation/plantation, built-up, barren (exposed rock), water body
and snow. Figure 9.7 to Figure 9.10 represents the LULC classification of images of 17 July
2012, 27 October 2011, 31 January 2011 and 29 October 2005, respectively. LULC maps were
prepared by assigning the colour to individual classes as given in legend namely evergreen forest
as dark green, scrub forest as yellow green, vegetation/ plantation as lawn green, built- up as red,
Figure 9.3 : False Colour Composite (FCC) Image of 17 July 2012
Figure 9.4 : False Colour Composite (FCC) Image of 27 October 2011
Figure 9.5 : False Colour Composite (FCC) Image of 31 January 2011
Figure 9.6 : False Colour Composite (FCC) Image of 29 October 2005
Figure 9.7 : Supervised Classification for LULC (17 July 2012)
Figure 9.8 : Supervised Classification for LULC (27 October 2011)
Figure 9.9 : Supervised Classification for LULC (31 January 2011)
Figure 9.10 : Supervised Classification for LULC (29 October 2005)
barren (exposed rock) as magenta, water body as blue and snow as pale turquoise colour. The
inventory of LULC classes in all the classified maps is illustrated in Figure 9.11. Classified image
of 17 July 2012 indicates 3.7% built-up, 25.2% evergreen forest, 14.7% scrub forest, 34.5%
vegetation/plantation, 18.1% barren (exposed rock), 2.9% water body and 0.9% snow cover in the
study area (Figure 9.7). Similarly, inventory of classified image of 27 October 2011 (3.4% builtup, 25.2% evergreen forest, 14.0% scrub forest, 28.4% vegetation/plantation, 19.6% barren
(exposed rock), 2.8% water body and 6.6% snow), 31 January 2011(2.1% built-up, 17.1%
evergreen forest, 1.5% scrub forest, 6.7% vegetation/plantation, 0.9% barren (exposed rock), 1.6%
water body and 70.1% snow) and 29 October 2005 (2.8% built-up, 26.3% evergreen forest, 13.3%
scrub forest, 30.6% vegetation/plantation, 24.5% barren (exposed rock) and 2.5% water body)
indicated percentage area under different classes of LULC (Figure 9.8 through Figure 9.10).
Figure 9.11 : Inventory of Land Use Land Cover in the Study Area
Classified image of 17 July 2012was used for post classification accuracy assessment as this was
the only latest image available along with current practices of LULC as recorded during ground
truth survey in July 2012. Based on spatial extent of LULC classes and variability of distribution
across the study area, a suitable sample size of 36 was used for the accuracy assessment.
Accordingly, an error matrix was generated to assess the overall accuracy. The overall accuracy of
supervised classification is found to be 81%. The user’s and producer’s accuracies of the
classification are as 75% and 73%, respectively.
Classified images indicated that forest and vegetation are the main classes of LULC in the study
area (Figure 9.11). Percentage of evergreen forest decreased marginally from 26.3% to 25.2% in
the study area during 2005 to 2011. Simultaneously, scrub forest has increased from 13.3% to
14% in the study area during the same period.
Vegetation/plantation includes horticultural land (apple orchard), farm land, natural vegetation,
grass land etc. Vegetation/plantation was estimated more in July 2012 image as compared to
October 2005 image due to monsoon season which favours the growth of natural vegetation. Due
to growth of natural vegetation in the upper Rohtang Pass region during monsoon, barren land
(exposed rock) was estimated comparatively less in July 2012 as compared to October 2005 image.
Built-up area has been increased from 2.8% to 3.7% in the study area during 2005 to 2012
especially at Manali, Palchan and adjoining to these areas. Built-up was found to be slightly
increased (0.2% of the study area) between Khoksar and Palchan as per image analysis of July
2012 as compared to October 2005 image. Similarly, an increase (0.74%) in built-up was observed
between Palchan and Manali as per image analysis of July 2012 and October 2005. During survey
from Palchan to Khoksar, built-up was observed at Palchan, Kothi, Marhi and Khoksar. Temporary
shops were also observed at Gulaba. New construction activities were also observed in between
Palchan and Kothi. No settlement/built-up was observed between Marhi to Khoksar except one
Gompa (temple) at Rohtang top.
Percentage area occupied by the water body class is more or less same in all the images except
January 2011 image where it was found less due to snow cover. Since, the study area comes under
Himalayan region and is covered with snow during winter season (December– March), image of
January 2011 was also analysed for LULC classes. About 70% of the study area was found to be
covered by snow (Figure 9.9) therefore other LULC classes were estimated to be lesser as
compared to July 2012, October 2011 and October 2005 images.
Useful analysis could be based on data Sets of 29th October, 2005 and 27th October, 2011.
The classified images of these two data sets are given in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3 : Landuse Pttern of Study Area in Percentage
29th October, 2005 27th October, 2011
Built Up Area
2.8
3.4
Evergreen Forest
26.3
25.2
Scrub Forest
13.3
14.0
Vegetation / Plantation
30.6
28.4
Barren (Exposed Rock)
24.5
19.6
Water Body
2.5
2.8
Snow
0.0
6.6
* Values expressed in percentage.
9.5 Summary of Remote Sensing Analysis
The remote sensing analyses of the satellite images provide some useful initial information about
land use and related changes. Useful analysis could be manly based on images of 29th October,
2005 compared with 27th October, 2011 as other images show high snow cover during winter
month. In terms of percentage change, the data does not show any alarming trend as of now;
however, it is important to note that small percentage in built area at in appropriate place or
sensitive landslide zones can be detrimental to environment.
It is therefore, necessary to adopt following measures and integrate the same in planning of
development in the region:
-
-
All areas of the region should be subjected to annual satellite surveillance along with ground
truthing. This will help in documenting the conditions of the select important regions, as also
any other changes in rest of the places.
Micro-planning to the scale of 1:100 m grid should be done so that slopes and elevations can
be better documented along with possible planning.
Slope area should be strictly regulated through town planning and local corporation.
Chapter 10
Recommendations
10.1 Recommendations
Himachal Pradesh state boasts of numerous picturesque tourist destinations, which are responsible
for generating much of the revenue for the state. The economy of Himachal Pradesh depends
greatly on tourism. National Highway 21, the road through the Kullu Valley, past Manali and over
the Rohtang Pass to Keylong, and Lahul and on to Leh in Ladakh, has become very busy during
the summer months as an alternate military route, following the Kargil Conflict in 1999 in addition
to tensions in Kashmir. Traffic jams are common as military vehicles, tourist vehicles, trucks, and
goods carriers try to navigate the tight roads and rough terrain, compounded by snow and ice at
certain points and the large number of tourist vehicles.
10.2 Transport Sector Action Plan
During the peak season in May and June about 2200 to 2500 vehicles ply on this highway
according to the Tourism Department. However, as per figures supplied by the BRO, between
7331 and 7376 vehicles ply (both ways). According to the NEERI study, during the end of May,
the number of vehicles on Palchen Rohtang highway was 3250 on both ways out of which 80% are
cars. About 10,000 people visit the Rohtang pass every day. The width of the road from Manali to
Rohtang is not wide enough to sustain this traffic leading to massive traffic jams. The snow
deposits in the upper valley turn black with the layer of carbon and soot generated by the vehicles
and the snow has started melting earlier as by July.
10.2.1 Approach and Issues
•
The approach for developing the action plan for particulate matter reduction for the vehicular
sector are :
•
o Targeting the most polluting vehicles (vehicles emitting high emissions per km)
o Targeting the most used vehicles
o Targeting the vehicles with high growth rate vehicles such as cars and two wheelers have
the highest growth rate)
Stakeholders important for overall implementation & improvement are :
o Transport operators
o State govt. authorities
o Academics and research institutions
o Health care authorities
o Enforcement authorities (RTO)
o NGO’s
o Tour Operators/ Hotels
o Oil Companies
•
Contribution of Different Type of Vehicles
Based on vehicle count carried out by NEERI during the study
period it appears that cars/ taxis/ jeeps/ SUVs dominate the
overall vehicles moving on Manali-Rohtang-Leh Highway.
HMV constitute a very small percentage of vehicles on the
NH-21.
•
Growth Rate of Vehicles
The total number of vehicles counted by NEERI on the road from Manali to Palchen and back
during end of May 2012 was 6359. Assuming a growth rate of 9% per annum (Since the
growth rate of vehicles in India is 9% per annum
(1)
the number of vehicles in 2022 will be
15000. Growth rate of VKT will also be about 9% per annum. The calculated emission of PM,
NOx and CO for the years 2012 and 2022 without any control for a distance of 43 km from
north of Manali to Rohtang are given below. This increase shall be more than 100% of current
emission load.
PM (Kg/day)
2012
2022
3.11
7.34
NOX (Kg/day)
2012
2022
34.03
80.26
CO (Kg/day)
2012
2022
56.75
133.86
10.2.2 Recommended Plan
•
Restriction of Traffic: Several transportation service options are available for encouraging
reductions in energy consumption and fuel emissions. These initiatives focus on reducing the
use of private vehicles for internal transportation purposes. They include creating public transit
fee structures or introduction of congestion charges that encourage visitors to shift from private
vehicle use to public modes of travel. Such interventions are especially applicable for tourism
destinations that want visitors to experience their communities in a more engaging and tactile
fashion. Although it is unlikely that planning solutions can completely eliminate the use of
private automobiles within destination areas, minimizing vehicle use can enhance the
experience of tourists by decreasing noise and air pollution. Such actions can contribute to a
more relaxed atmosphere and increasing recreational opportunities.
•
Vehicle Fitness Test: The complete fleet system to be examined. Vehicular fitness tests may
be made mandatory and only those may be allowed to operate which comply with the vehicular
emission norms. A fitness centre should be established in Manali. This center shall be managed
by qualified and properly trained manpower. At this center (can also be called Vahan Nagari/
Mechanic and Testing Nagari), a comprehensively planned inspection and certification unit can
be set up. The inspection and certification system development and its implementation should
involve all the stakeholders such as the respective association of various commercial transport,
private owners, testing authority and NGOs.
•
Lowering the Age of Vehicles: More stringent options may be introduced such as only
commercial vehicles with less than 4 yrs age may be allowed to ply from Manali to Rohtang
•
Low Cost Buses : LCB may be introduced which will reduce the total number of vehicles per
day travelling on Manali-Leh Highway. Provide better frequency of buses to reduce congestion
during peak period. Better bus quality to be provided in terms of sitting space. The vehicles are
the main sources of air pollution in Manali Rohtang highway. And hence this will help to
reduce the air pollution to a large extent. Low cost bus travel can be achieved through high
congestion charges to be collected from private vehicles. The mode of collection shall be as
given in box below :
Subsidization of Public Transport, Higher Car User Charges
Efficient and cheaper public transport
Objective
Mechanism to be detailed
Cost
Stakeholders Residents, users of public transport
All taxis, private cars which go towards Rohtang to pay Rs. 300/- (this cost
Remarks
will be exclusive of current parking charges). The funds thus collected
shall be directly passed on to the State Government, which will run
efficient, high frequency buses along all the routes. The bus fare will be
kept low. Bus route shall be designed to cover almost all areas of the
region.
•
Installing Ropeways with intermediate stops at suitable places is also required for better
tourism option and experience. This will reduce the pollution from vehicular traffic and also
reduce the traffic congestion to a large extent.
•
While planning for the Ropeways, at all intermediate stops, only battery operated vehicles
should be used for short distance travels. Government incentive should be given in terms of
waiver of registration fee and any other Government levies for all battery operated vehicles.
Also at each of these stops, a vehicular parking area shall be created to avoid congestion.
•
Introduction of air routes like helicopters may be examined.
•
Battery Operated Snow Scooters: Snow scooters are observed during the snow period
spoiling the snow from air emissions and oil spillage. Only battery operated snow scooters may
be allowed to avoid spoiling the snow with fuel oil and black carbon.
•
Fuel (Sulphur) Options
− Emphasis on use of low S diesel equivalent to Bharat Stage IV should be given in Manali
Region
− Rationalization of price structure of fuel within and also adjoining states.
− Fuel quality parity across adjoining states as fuel prices and quality are not same in all the
states, operators want to fill in inferior quality fuel outside the region.
− Central Government and Refineries related oil companies to be contacted for introduction
of BS IV huel in HP, especially in Manali.
•
Fuel (Adulteration)
− Oil companies to ensure better movement of their produce to avoid adulteration.
− High degree of education and awareness to the petrol pumps operators.
− Oil companies to show pro-activeness in promoting the better lubricants (ban on low grade
lubricants).
− Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG) should develop better specification for
the lubricants to be used. HPSPCB may contact MoPNG for the necessary assistance.
− Oil companies to actively undertake programmes such as BPCL’s Pure for Sure; HPCL’s
Club HP and IOC’s Q & Q etc. to provide better fuel quality.
− MoPNG to strengthen anti adulteration cell and establish a cell in HP.
•
Fuel (Alternatives)
− HDDV and LDDV to operate on diesel of low S (350 ppm ) diesel, equivalent to BS IV.
− Vehicles should be subjected to strict, reliable and reproducible inspection for smoke
levels.
− Smoke levels should be brought below 45 HSU (Hartridge Smoke Unit) by the use of DOC
(Diesel Oxidation Catalyst) or DPF (Diesel Particulate Filter), whichever achieves the
desirable result.
•
Retro Fitment of Emission Control Technology
− Evaluation of all the private vehicles emission control system (catalytic converter were
first introduced in the year 1995) through a proper inspection schedule.
− Evaluate the need for emission control device replacement for all the vehicles which have
become more than 8 years old.
− All the grossly polluting vehicles plying only within the city, such as school buses, water
tankers, garbage trucks etc should be fitted with emission control devices.
− As retrofitment of emission control devices also needs a certain levels of fitness of the
vehicle, it would be desirable to follow the norm after developing the same through the
inspection and certification procedures
− Vehicle manufacturer should be asked to give emission warranty for the complete period of
the operation of the vehicle.
− Delineation of useful vehicles life along with the emission warranty for a longer period
should be demanded from vehicle manufacturer.
•
Phase out of the Private Vehicles
− The vehicles older than 15 years may go through the inspection and certification every
year. Vehicles not meeting the norm should be phased out.
− The vehicles should be able to meet the current norms at that time of certification.
− Vehicles between 8 and 15 years should go through inspection and certification every two
years.
− Other vehicles can go through the inspection every three years.
The basic purpose of such certification process shall be to identify vehicles needing
phase-out
− Voluntary phase out of vehicles after 15 years with an incentive can be introduced by HP
Government. It can plan to give Rs. 20,000/- for phasing out >15 years vehicles.
•
Roads and Pavement
− Better road quality can dramatically reduce the re-suspended dust as well as direct
contribution from vehicles.
− Pavement improvement is the other major issue within the city. A micro-planning exercise
should be undertaken to upgrade pavements and kerbside.
•
Traffic Management
− Pedestrian movement on pavement should be a priority to reduce congestion on roads
within the city.
− Awareness, training and inspection of the road users in terms of abiding by the traffic rules.
− Augmentation of capability of the personnel involved, better resource availability in terms
of manpower and infrastructure for RTO and Traffic police.
− Coordination with all the other concerned authorities in the city.
•
Institutional Arrangement
− The APEX Body should be created comprising of
representatives of HP State Pollution
Control Board, Department of Environment and Transport Commissioner Office.
Policy Level
(MMC, DoE, TCO, CPCB, MoEF)
Monitoring and Regulatory
MMC, HPSPCB, RTO,
Anti Adulteration Cell
Preventive and Treatment
Hospitals, Clinics
Problem Identification and Prediction
Research Institutes, Academic Institutes
Public Transport Facilities
(Taxi, Manali Transport System,
LDDV, HDDV Operators)
•
•
•
•
Other Stakeholders
Oil Companies, Retailers
Vehicle Manufacturers
Ngo, Public, Others
Tour/Hotel Operators
Interrelationships of Institutional Arrangement for Effective Control and Planning Management
•
Clean Rohtang Fund: It is proposed that a separate fund should be created called ‘Clean
Rohtang Fund’. This will be used for various programmes and activities which can be
undertaken locally to improve current situation.
Purpose of the Fund
− Promotion of public transport
•
−
Setting up of fuel testing laboratories
−
Setting up of vehicle inspection facilities and emission check
−
Introduction and promotion of alternate fuel
−
Promotion of health facilities
−
Targeted research activities for preventive action
−
Providing incentive to old grossly polluting vehicles
Source of Fund
The “Clean Rohtang Fund” may generate funds from the following routes:
a.
Restricted Entry Charges in Rohtang Area
b.
Higher Parking Charges in city
c.
Clean Air Surcharge for Sale of Fuel
d.
Fixed One Time Surcharge on Existing Population of Vehicles
e. Clean Air Surcharge on New Vehicles to be Sold in the State
•
Estimated Collection of Fund
a
b
c
d
e
•
Methods of Levying Charges
Restricted entry charges
Higher parking charges
Fuel cess 0.25 for petrol and 0.15 for diesel
Fixed one time charge on existing vehicle
Fixed one time charge on new vehicles
Collection
Rs. 300/- per day
Rs. 50/hr
--Rs. 5000/- per vehicle
Rs.10000/- per vehicle
Collection Protocol of Surcharges
− Places where Life-Time Tax is taken from the owners, they do not necessarily go to any
Road Transport Authority for payment of Road Tax. Collection of surcharge from such
vehicle owners might be difficult.
−
The only regular contact point for all vehicles is the Insurance Companies who provide
them with annual insurance coverage.
−
This is a mandatory requirement as per Motor Vehicles Act of 1988 u/s 146, Chapter XI
where 3rd Party Insurance is compulsory for all vehicles other than Government (Central,
State and Local Authority).
−
The above mentioned funds can be collected at the time of annual renewal of insurance
through insurance companies.
•
Rohtang Tunnel is a tunnel being built under the Rohtang Pass in the eastern range of the
Himalayas on the Leh-Manali Highway. With 8.8 km length, the tunnel is expected to reduce
the distance between Manali and Keylong by about 60 km. Rohtang pass receives heavy
snowfall and blizzards during winter months and it is open from May to October. Lying on the
Manali-Leh axis, this is one of the two routes to Ladakh. The other route through the Zoji La
pass on the Srinagar-Drass-Kargil-Leh highway also gets blocked by snow for nearly four
months in a year. These two routes are vital to feed military supplies into the sub-sector west
and the Siachen Glacier. The Rohtang Tunnel will be very important for the military supplies
and will be open through out the year. Out of 8.82 km 2.7 km of the tunnel is already
constructed and is expected to be commissioned in 2015. The 85 km distance from Manali to
Keylong on the other side of Rohtang Pass is usually covered by vehicles in about five to six
hours, without counting the long hours of traffic jams on the hilly route. The same distance
would now be covered in less than half-an-hour through the tunnel and without traffic snarls.
Keylong would be just 25 km from the North Portal of the tunnel. Once the Rohtang tunnel is
commissioned, people going to Keylong, Ladakh and military supplies will travel through the
tunnel reducing the traffic through Rohtang pass.
10.3 Water Environment
•
The water environment in study area mainly shows contamination due to domestic discharges.
As there is no water polluting industries in the study region up to Manali.
•
The villages/ townships along the Beas and Chandra River have small inhabitants and no
organized wastewater collection system is installed by Gram Panchayat. The domestic waste
ultimately joins river Beas and Chandra through small drains and streams. Currently impact of
such waste is not significant because of the quantity of flow in these rivers and adequate
aeration due to turbulence created in hilly terrain. Small scale waste water treatment facilities
like phytorid nature based treatment systems should be adopted before releasing the domestic
waste into the rivers.
•
Due to absence of sanitation facilities, the tourists are compelled to use open places for
attending the nature calls. Hence there is urgent need to adopt well-designed and adequate
sanitation facilities along with proper treatment and disposal of collected liquid waste at
important tourists places.
•
Strict action needs to be taken to discourage increasing use of waterways by tourist for
sanitation purpose.
10.4 Solid Waste Management
Investing in environmentally sensitive solid waste management systems that emphasize reuse,
reduction, recycling and composting can minimize the amount of waste sent to landfills.
•
The solid waste collection system should be for the entire region up to Rohtang pass.
•
Additional treatment methods like vermi composting, aerobic composting and anaerobic
composting can be used as on site batch process.
•
The current practice of dumping in the open land and recycling some of the plastic and paper
should be improved.
•
Tourists should be specified strict instructions to throw the used articles in the dustbins only
and not to pollute the environment.
•
After regular intervals, dustbins should be emptied for collection of solid waste.
•
The animal dung should be properly collected and can be used for composting or methane
generation process.
•
The number of portable/public toilets with appropriate treatment of the waste generated should
be increased to cater ever increasing tourist population. Generally for residential areas for 50
persons 1 seat of toilet is considered for sanitation program. The toilet will be used for 10
minutes by each user. Hence, the number of tourist should be considered for deciding the
extent of toilet facilities.
•
Adequate manpower should be provided for cleaning and maintaining public toilets with
provision of funds.
•
The toilet system should have minimum use of water which can restrict the volume of waste to
be collected and can be subjected to use of Biodigestor technology.
•
A fine should be collected from the tourists who are found not using the facilities.
•
The land filling should be done in a scientific manner.
•
Civil society should be made more conscious about their responsibility towards the
environment.
•
The number of dust bins at frequently visited tourist places must be increased with efficient
collection system.
•
Dhabas and vender shops should use biodegradable items and take proper precautions for safe
disposal of the food waste.
•
Awareness of General public can play a important role foe environmental protection. Public
awareness programmes through hoardings, television can be organized. This will help in solid
waste management and disposal.
With these recommendations, it may be possible to maintain the sustainable solid waste
management in the state. The SADA and other related departments should initiate public
awareness programmes so that the menace of solid waste disposal, littering and management can
be smoothly controlled.
10.5 Soil Erosion vis-à-vis Land Sliding
The study region is facing soil erosion due to the nature of soil strata and manmade activities like
road broadening and other construction though deforestation i.e. green cutting is totally banned.
The soil erosion is occurring due to climatic reasons of snow melting and rains.
Corrective measures which can be tried for minimization of landslides and soil erosion due to
rains/snow water flowing are as follows:
•
Install earth works along the slide prone areas
•
Drainage correction
•
Proper land use measures by plantation of vegetation, horticulture
•
Construction of Protection wall
•
Structural works to stabilize gully heads formed so that they no longer erode
•
Gully reshaping, battering and re-vegetating to prevent further erosion
•
Diversion banks to divert runoff and prevent it building up energy
•
Drop structures to control water flow
•
Overgrazing can also encourage soil erosion
The geological and mechanical properties should be considered while planning the activities
like construction and traffic management.
Large quantity of water from the small hydal power plant like Kothi and Marhi and many others
are released in the hilly slopes in valley which may wash out the top soil. Such flows should be
properly regulated to avoid soil loss. In small catchments for hydel plant releases, natural springs
and falls, possibility of construction of bandharas or small check dams, can help intercept runoff of
sediment and gully erosion. However, this approach needs detailed Engineering feasibility and
approval from Department of Natural Resources to construct dams. Nehru kund at Marhi is one of
the examples of above suggestion which has formed a water body and spot of attractions for the
people. There is a need to undertake micro-planning of the entire region especially the areas of
construction or on near slopes.
10.6 Biological Environment
•
Tourist activities should be restricted to areas of ecological importance like natural habitats of
endangered species of plants and animals.
•
Developmental activities like road construction should be carefully planned to avoid habitat
fragmentation affecting the animal corridors.
•
The tourists should also be made conscious towards the environmental impact through
effective posters and proverbs along the roadside.
•
The entry point of the city as also in each hotel, a 5 minutes “do’s and dont’s” video can be
shown to all tourists. In addition printed matter on the above should be given to all tourists to
create awareness.
•
Strict fines should be implemented on tourists found loitering in the region with plastics and
polythene bags.
10.7 Glaciers
•
The transport sector is considered as the third-largest source of energy-related black carbon
emissions in Asia as a whole and it is projected to become the second-largest source with ever
increasing vehicular traffic. So, the control of transport-based black carbon emissions form an
essential part in any comprehensive black carbon control strategy.
•
Within the transport sector, on-road diesel combustion accounts for the majority of black
carbon emissions, due to diesel’s much higher emission factors compared to petrol and its
dominance as a transport fuel in Asia.
•
The current study has confirmed the impact of vehicular traffic on snow in Rohtang region.
However, the concentrations of black carbon observed were low.
•
During the interim period of recommended measures a continuous study of following should
be considered.
− Vehicle type and count
− Impact on snow by analysis of black carbon and molecular markers
This will help in better understanding and also to modify the plans in future.
•
The impact of vehicular movement can be ascertained by carrying out analysis of Molecular
Markers.
Control of transport-related black carbon emissions can be achieved as given in Section 10.2.2.
References
1. Rameshwar Dayal Sharma, Sandeep Jain, Kewal Singh, 2011. Growth Rate of Motor Vehicles in India
- Impact of Demographic and Economic Development. Journal of Economic and Social Studies.
Volume 1, Number 2, 2011
ANNEXURES
______________________
Annexure 2.1
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD
Notification : No. B- 29016/20/90/PCI-L- In exercise of the powers conferred by Sub-section (2) (h) of
section 16 of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (Act No. 14 of 1981) and in
supersession of the Notification No.(s).S.O.384 (E), dated 11th April, 1994 and S.O. 935(E), dated 14th
October, 1998, the Central Pollution Control Board hereby notify the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards with immediate effect, namely : Sr.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sulphur Dioxide
(SO2), µg/m3
Nitrogen Dioxide
(NO2), µg/m3
Particulate
Matter (Size less
than 10 µm) or
PM10 µg/m3
Particulate
Matter (Size less
than 2.5 µm) or
PM2.5 µg/m3
Ozone (O3)
µg/m3
Time
Weighted
Average
Industrial,
Residential,
Rural and
Other Area
Concentration in Ambient Air
Ecologically
Methods of Measurement
Sensitive
Area (notify
by Central
Government)
20
* Improved West and Gaeke
80
* Ultraviolet fluorescence
30
* Modified Jacob & Hochheiser
(Na –Arsenite)
80
* Chemiluminescence
60
* Gravimetric
100
* TOEM
* Beta attenuation
Annual *
24 Hours **
Annual *
50
80
40
24 Hours **
Annual *
24 Hours **
80
60
100
Annual *
24 Hours **
40
60
40
60
* Gravimetric
* TOEM
* Beta attenuation
8 hours **
1 hour **
100
180
100
180
6.
Lead (Pb)
µg/m3
Annual *
24 Hours **
0.50
0.50
7.
Carbon
Monoxide (CO)
mg/m3
Ammonia (NH3)
µg/m3
8 hours **
1 hour **
02
04
02
04
*UV photometric
* Chemiluminescence
* Chemical Method
* AAS/ ICP Method after
sampling on EPM 2000 or
equivalent filter paper
*ED- XRF Using Teflon Filter
* Non Dispersive Infra Red
(NDIR) Spectroscopy
Annual *
24 Hours **
100
400
100
400
* Chemiluminescence
* Indophenol Blue Method
8.
Pollutant
A2.1_1 Sr.
9.
Pollutant
Time
Weighted
Average
Industrial,
Residential,
Rural and
Other Area
Concentration in Ambient Air
Ecologically
Methods of Measurement
Sensitive
Area (notify
by Central
Government)
05
* Gas Chromatography Based
Continuous Analyzer
* Adsorption and Desorption
followed by GC Analysis
01
* Solvent extraction followed
by HPLC /GC Analysis
Benzene (C6H6)
Annual *
05
10. Benzo(a)Pyrene
(BaP) –
Particulate Phase
only, ng/m3
11. Arsenic (As),
ng/m3
Annual *
01
Annual *
06
06
Annual *
20
20
12. Nickel (Ni)
ng/m3
*
Annual arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year at a particular site taken
twice a week 24 hourly at uniform intervals.
** 24 hourly or 08 hourly or 01 hourly monitored values, as applicable shall be compiled with 98%
of the time in a year. 2% of the time, they may exceed the limits but not on two consecutive days
of monitoring.
Note : Whenever and wherever monitoring results on two consecutive days of monitoring exceed the
limits specified above for the respective category, it shall be considered adequate reason to institute
regular or continuous monitoring and further investigation.
Sant Prasad Gautam
[ADVT-III/4/184/09/Exty.]
Note : The notification on National Ambient Air Quality Standards were published by the Central
Pollution Control Board in the Gazette of India, Extraordinary vide notification No(s). S.O. 384(E), dated
11th April, 1994 and S.O. 935(E), dated 14th October, 1998.
A2.2_2 Annexure 4.1
Ministry of Environment and Forests
NOTIFICATION
S.O. 2151, New Delhi, the 17th June, 2005
WHEREAS the Water Quality Assessment Authority (WQAA) was constituted by the Central
Government vide Order No. S.O. 583 (E) dated the 29th May, 2001 and No. S.O. 635 (E) dated the 27th
October, 2004 to exercise powers under section 5 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of
1986) for issuing directions and for taking measures with respect to matters referred to in clauses
(ix), (xi), (xii) and (xiii) of sub-section (2) of section 3 of the said Act and to standardize method(s) for
water quality monitoring and to ensure quality of data generation for utilization thereof and certain
other purposes;
AND WHEREAS it is necessary and expedient to evolve water quality assessment and
monitoring protocol as directed by the Water Quality Assessment Authority in order to maintain
uniformity in the procedure for water quality monitoring mechanism by all monitoring agencies,
departments, Pollution Control Boards and such other agencies so that water related action plans
may be drawn up on the basis of reliable data;
AND WHEREAS the uniform process on water quality monitoring shall provide frequency of
monitoring, procedure for sampling, parameters for analysis, analytical techniques, quality
assurance and quality control system, infrastructure requirement for laboratories, procedure for
data processing, reporting and dissemination and such other matters as the Central Government
deems necessary for the said purpose, both for surface and ground water;
AND WHEREAS due to the deterioration of the river water quality, health and livelihood of the
downstream people are being severely affected and concerns are raised time and again;
AND WHEREAS the immediate maintenance and restoration of ‘wholesomeness’ of the river
water quality is the mandate under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of
1974) and that of maintenance of the ground water quality by the Central Ground Water Authority
constituted under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
AND WHEREAS sub-rule (4) of rule 5 of the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986, provides
that whenever it appears to the Central Government that it is in public interest to do so, it may
dispense with the requirement of notice under clause(a) of sub-rule(3) of the said rule”;
AND WHEREAS the Central Government is of the opinion that it is in public interest to
dispense with the requirement of notice under clause (a) of sub-rule (3) of rule 5 of the said rules to
issue the Order.
NOW, THEREFORE, in exercise of the powers conferred by section 3 of the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986, the Central Government hereby makes the following order, namely:-
1.
Short title and commencement:-
a)
This order may be called the Uniform Protocol on Water Quality Monitoring Order, 2005”.
b)
It shall come into force on the date of its publication in the Official Gazette.
2.
Application:-
It shall apply to all organizations, agencies and any other body monitoring surface and ground
water quality for observance of uniform protocol on water quality monitoring.
1
3.
Definitions:In this Order, unless the context otherwise requires –
(1)
“Agencies” means water quality monitoring agencies (government or non-government, local
bodies) and other organizations including research and academic institutions involved in water
quality monitoring of surface and ground waters;
(2)
“Authority” means the Water Quality Assessment Authority (WQAA) constituted under subsections (1) and (2) of section 3 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
(3)
“Baseline stations” means the monitoring location where there is no influence of human
activities on water quality;
(4)
“Flux stations or Impact stations” means the location for measuring the mass of particular
pollutant on main river stem for measuring the extent of pollution due to human interference
or geological feature at any point of time and is necessary for measuring impact of pollution
control measures adopted;
(5)
“Monitoring” means standardized measurement of identified parameters in order to define
status and trends of water quality;
(6)
“Protocol” means a system of uniform water quality monitoring mechanism developed by the
Water Quality Assessment Authority constituted under sub-sections (1) and (3) of section 3 of
the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
(7)
“Quality Assurance Programme” means a programme described in paragraph 12 of this
Order;
(8)
“Trend station” means the monitoring location designed to show how a particular point on a
watercourse varies over time due, normally, to the influence of man’s activities;
(9)
“Water quality monitoring network” means a systematic planning for collection, preservation
and transportation, storage, analysis of water samples and dissemination of data for national
water bodies restricted to surface and ground water in the country.
4.
Monitoring station and frequency of sampling:-
(1)
The frequency of sampling in respect of surface water shall be as follows:a)
all the stations shall be a combination of Baseline, Trend and Flux or Impact stations
b)
the Baseline stations shall be monitored four times a year for perennial rivers and lakes
and three to four times a year for seasonal rivers. Trend stations shall be monitored
with an increased frequency of once in a month i.e. twelve times in a year. Flux or
Impact stations shall be monitored twelve to twenty-four times in a year depending
upon pollution potential or importance of water use.
c)
all agencies shall follow the sampling frequency and parameters for analysis of surface
water as mentioned in the Table – I given below:
2
Table – I
Frequencies and parameters for analysis of surface water samples
1
2
3
Type of Station
Frequency
Parameters
Baseline
Perennial rivers and lakes: (A) Pre-monsoon: Once a year
Four
times
a
year
Analyse 25 parameters as listed below:
(seasonal)
a) General: Colour, Odour, Temperature,
Seasonal rivers:
pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Dissolved
Oxygen (DO), Turbidity, Total Dissolved
3-4 times (at equal spacing)
Solid (TDS)
during flow period
b) Nutrients: Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH4-N),
Lakes:
Nitrite & Nitrate Nitrogen (NO2 + NO3)
4 times a year (seasonal)
Total Phosphate (Total P)
c) Demand parameters: Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD)
d) Major ions: Sodium (Na), Potassium (K),
Calcium
(Ca),
Magnesium
(Mg),
Carbonate (CO3) Bicarbonate (HCO3),
Chloride (Cl), Sulphate (SO4)
e) Other inorganic: Fluoride (F), Boron (B)
and other location specific parameter, if
any
f) Microbiological: Total coliform and Faecal
Coliform
(B) Rest of the year (after the pre-monsoon
sampling) at every three months interval
Analyse 10 parameters: Colour, Odour,
Temperature, pH, EC, DO, NO2 + NO3 , BOD,
Total coliform and Faecal Coliform
Trend or impact Once every month starting A. Pre-monsoon: Analyse 25 parameters as listed
or flux
April-May (pre-monsoon)
for baseline monitoring
i.e. 12 times a year
B. Other months: Analyse 15 parameters as
listed below
(a) General : Colour, Odour, Temp, pH, EC,
DO and Turbidity
(b) Nutrients : NH3 - N, NO2 + NO3 , Total P
(c) Organic Matter : BOD, COD
(d) Major ions : Cl
(e) Microbiological: Total and Faecal
coliforms
C. Micropollutant: Once in a year/pre monsoon.
a) Pesticides – Alpha Benzenehexachloride
(BHC), Beta BHC, Gama BHC (Lindane),
OP-Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (OP3
DDT), PP-DDT, Alpha
Endosulphan, Beta Endosulphan, Aldrin,
Dieldrin, Carbaryl (Carbamate),
Malathian, Methyl Parathian, Anilophos,
Chloropyriphos
b) Toxic Metals:- Arsenic (As), Cadmium
(Cd), Mercury (Hg), Zinc (Zn), Chromium
(Cr), Lead (Pb) Nickel (Ni), Iron (Fe)
(The parameters may be selected based on local
need)
Note:
I.
The parameters mentioned in the above Table shall be the minimal requirement. This does
not, however, restrict analysis of more parameters depending upon the specific requirements
of the analyzing agency and its manpower availability.
II.
For lakes or reservoirs, monitoring of additional parameters, like total Kjeldhal Nitrogen,
Chlorophyll, total Plankton count and productivity, shall be included in the list of parameters.
III.
If bio-monitoring is done in river or lakes or reservoirs, additional specific parameters are to
be considered.
(2)
Ground Water
The frequency of sampling in respect of ground water shall be as follows:
a.
All stations shall be classified as Baseline stations
b.
20-25% of Baseline stations shall be classified as Trend stations where there is a
perceived problem.
c.
All agencies shall follow the sampling frequency and parameters for analysis of ground
water as mentioned in the Table-2 given below:
Table – 2
Frequencies and parameters for analysis of Ground Water samples
1
2
3
Type of Station
Frequency
Parameters
Baseline
Twice a year
A. Pre and Post Monsoon Season: Analyse 20
parameters as listed below:
(Pre and post monsoon
season)
a. General: Colour, Odour, Temperature, pH,
EC, TDS
b. Nutrients: NO2 + NO3 , Orthophosphate
c. Demand Parameter: COD
d. Major Ions: Na+, K +, Ca++, Mg++, CO3--,
HCO3-; CI, SO4, --%Na & SAR
e. Other inorganics: F, B and other locationspecific parameters, if any
4
Trend
Twice a year
(Pre and post
monsoon)
A. April-May: Analyse 20 parameters as listed for
Baseline monitoring
B. Other times: Analyse 14 parameters as listed
below:f. General: Colour, Odour, Temperature, EC,
pH, TDS, %Na & SAR
a) Nutrients: NO2 + NO3, orthophosphate
b) Demand parameter: COD
c) Major ions: Cl
d) Other inorganics: F,B
e) Microbiological: Total coliform and Faecal
coliform
C. Micropollutant (parameters may be selected
based on local need):
2. Pesticides- Alpha BHC, Beta BHC, Gama
BHC (Lindane), OP-DDT, PP-DDT, Alpha
Endosulphan, Beta Endosulpham, Aldrin,
Dieldrin, 2, 4-D, Carbaryl (Carbamate),
Malathian, Methyl, Parathian, Anilphos,
Chloropyriphos.
3. Toxic Metals – As, Cd, Hg, Zn, Cr, Pb, Ni, Fe
(Pesticides and Toxic metals may be analysed
once a year in pre monsoon on selected
locations)
Note:I.
The parameters mentioned in the above Table shall be the minimal requirement. This does
not, however, restrict analysis of more parameters depending upon the specific requirements
of the analyzing agency and its manpower availability.
II.
If Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) value exceeds 20 mg/I, the sample shall be analysed for
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) also.
5.
Sample Collection
(1)
The procedure for sample collection in respect of surface water shall be as under:
(2)
a)
Samples for Baseline and Trend stations shall be collected from well-mixed section of
the river or main stem 30 cm below the water surface using a Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
sampler or weighted bottle.
b)
Samples for Impact stations shall be collected from the point of interest, such as bathing
ghat, down stream of point discharge, water supply intakes and other sources.
c)
The Dissolved Oxygen (DO) in the sample shall be fixed immediately after collection and
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) analysis shall be done either in the field or in laboratory.
The procedure for sample collection in respect of ground water shall be as under:
5
a)
Open dug wells, which are not in use or have been abandoned, shall not be considered
as water quality monitoring station. However, such well could be considered for water
level monitoring.
b)
Weighted sample bottle to collect sample from an open well about 30 cm below the
surface of water may be used. The plastic bucket, which is likely to skim the surface
layer only, shall not be used.
c)
Samples from the production tube wells shall be collected after running the well for
about five minutes.
d)
Non-production piezometers shall be purged using a submersible pump. The purged
water volume shall equal 4 to 5 times the standing water volume, before sample is
collected.
e)
For bacteriological samples, when collected from tube wells or hand pump, the spout or
outlet of the pump shall be sterilized under flame by spirit lamp before collection of
sample in container.
6.
Sample preservation and transportation
(1)
The type of containers and sample preservation to be adopted shall be as mentioned in the
Table-3 below:
Table – 3
1
2
3
Analysis
Container
Preservation
General
Glass, PE
40C, dark
BOD
Glass, PE
40C, dark
COD, NH3, NO2, NO3
Glass, PE
H2SO4, PH<2
Coliform
Glass, PE, Sterilised
40C, dark
DO
BOD bottle
DO fixing chemicals
Fluoride
PE
None
P
Glass
None
Pesticides
Glass, Teflon
40C, dark
Toxic metals
Glass, PE
HNO3, PH<2
(2)
Samples shall be transported to concerned laboratory as soon as possible, preferably within
forty-eight hours of collection.
(3)
Analysis for coliforms shall be started within twenty-four hours of collection of sample. If time
is exceeded, it should be recorded with the result.
(4)
Samples containing microgram /l metal level should be stored at 4 0C and analyzed as soon as
possible. If the concentration is of mg /l level, it can be stored for up to 6 months, except
mercury, for which the limit is 5 weeks.
(5)
Sample Identification for the water sample analysis for surface and ground water samples
shall be as mentioned in the Form-I and Form-II.
6
7.
Sample records
1)
Each laboratory shall have a bound register, which shall be used for registering samples as
they are received. A format for sample receipt register is annexed as Form-III.
2)
The Laboratory In-charge shall maintain a register for assignment of work to specific analyst.
8.
Analytical techniques
Each agency shall follow the analytical techniques prescribed in the Standard Methods for
Analysis of Water and Wastewater published by American Public Health Association (Latest Edition)
or Bureau of Indian Standard(BIS) Methods for Testing Water and Wastewater-methods of sampling
and testing (physical and chemical) (IS:3025)
9.
Analysis records and data validation
A recommended format for recording data including all parameters except toxic metals and
trace organics is enclosed as Form – IV. Report of heavy metals and trace organics as per Table 2
may be recorded separately. Validation checks should be performed in the laboratory on completion
of the analysis. The results of laboratory analyses shall be entered in the format provided in Form – II
for validation.
10.
Manpower requirements in laboratories
The manpower requirements shall be optimized by the concerned monitoring agencies in
order to get the maximum utilization of mandays, for timely completion of analysis.
11.
Data Processing, Reporting and Dissemination
Each monitoring agency shall process the analytical data and report the data after validation
to the Data Centre at the Central Pollution Control Board. The Central Pollution Control Board shall
store the data and disseminate through website or electronic mail to various users on demand.
12.
Quality Assurance and Accreditation of Laboratories
The Quailty Assurance Programme for the laboratories of various agencies shall contain a set
of operating principles, written down and agreed upon by the organization, delineating specific
functions and responsibilities of each person involved. Each laboratory of water quality monitoring
agencies shall follow the guidelines of Quality Assurance Programme prescribed by their respective
Central Laboratory or Headquarters and shall participate in Inter Laboratory Quality Assurance
Programme like Proficiency Testing (PT) organized by them or any other agency on regular basis. The
Water Quality Laboratories shall seek recognition from the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India or accreditation from National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration
Laboratories (NABL) under the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India.
[F.No.15011/8/2004-NRCD]
M.SENGUPTA, Advisor
7
FORM – I
Sample identification for surface water samples analysis and record
Sample Code
Observer
Agency
Date
Time
Station Code
Parameter Code
Project
Container
Glass
PVC
PE
Preservation
Teflon
None
Cool
Acid
Treatment
Other
None
Decant
Filter
(1) General
(2) Bacteriology
(3) BOD
(4) COD, NH3, NO3
(5) Toxic Metals
(6) Trace Organics
Source of Sample
Water
Point
Approach
Medium
Matrix
o
o
o
o
o Main Current
o Right Bank
o Left Bank
o Bridge
o Boat
o Wading
o
o
o
o
Water
Suspended Matter
Biota
Sediment
o
o
o
o
o Flow comp
o Depth-integ
River
Drain
Canal
Reservoir (Lake
/ tank / Ponds)
Sample Type
o Grab
o Time Comp
Sample Device
o Weighted bottle
o Pump
Fresh
Brackish
Salt
Effluent
o Width-integ
o Depth Sampler
Field Determination
o
Temp
Odour code
C
pH
(1) Odour free
(2) Rotten eggs
(3) Burnt sugar
(4) Soapy
(5) Fishy
EC
(6) Septic
(7) Aromatic
(8) Chlorinous
(9) Alcoholic
(10) Unpleasant
micromhos/cm
Colour code
DO
(1) Light brown
(2) Brown
(3) Dark brown
(4) Light green
(5) Green
mg/l
(6) Dark green
(7) Clear
(8) Other(specify)
Remarks
Weather
o Sunny
o Cloudy
o Rainy
o Windy
Water vel (m/sec)
o High(>0.5)
o Medium(0.1 – 0.5)
o Low(<0.1)
o Standing
Water Use
o None
o Cultivation
o Bathing & Washing
o Cattle washing
o Melon / vegetable farming in river bed
o Organised water supply
8
FORM – II
Sample identification for ground water samples
Sample Code
Observer
Agency
Project
Date
Time
Station Code
Source of Sample
o Open dug well
Parameter Code
o Hand pump
Container
Glass
PVC
PE
o Tube Well
o Piezometer
Preservation
Teflon
None
Cool
Acid
Treatment
Other
None
Decant
Filter
(1) General
(2) Bacteriology
(3) BOD
(4) COD
(5) Toxic Metals
(6) Trace Organics
Field Determination
Temp
Odour code
o
C
pH
(1) Odour free
(2) Rotten eggs
(3) Burnt sugar
(4) Soapy
(5) Fishy
EC
(6) Septic
(7) Aromatic
(8) Chlorinous
(9) Alcoholic
(10) Unpleasant
micromhos/cm
Colour code
DO
(1) Light brown
(2) Brown
(3) Dark brown
(4) Light green
(5) Green
mg/l
(6) Dark green
(7) Clear
(8) Other(specify)
If well is purged, complete below
Office Well Data
Diameter
Depth
Static Water Level (Avg.)
Water Column (D-SWL)
Initial Volume Well
Projected Pump Discharge
Projecting time of pruging (V/PQ)
Q
D
SWL
H
V
PQ
PT
cm
m
m
m
L
L/s
min
Field Flow Measurement
Static Water Level on arrival
Actual pump setting
Purging duration
Pump discharge before sampling
Pump discharge after sampling
Volume purged
Dynamic water level
Time at start of sampling started
+ 10 min
+ 20 min
+ 30 min
+40 min
SWL
m
M
min
L/min
L/min
L
m
Q
Q
V
DWL
Field Chemical Measurement
o
T ( C)
EC (micromhos/cm)
9
pH
FORM-III
Sample Record for Analysis
Date /
time
received
at lab
Date /
time
collected
1
2
Station
Code
3
Project
Collecting
agency /
collector
4
5
Preservation Parameter Lab.
Code
Sample
No.
6
7
8
Sample receipt register
Note:

Column (3) gives the station code conventionally followed by the monitoring agency

Column (4) gives the project under which the sample is collected

Column (7) corresponds to the parameter(s) code given in the sample identification form

Column (8) gives the laboratory sample assigned to the sample as it is received in the
laboratory. Note that the numbering has two parts separated by hyphen. The first part is
assigned in a sequential manner as samples are received from various stations. If two
samples are collected at the same time from a station for different sets of analysis, the first
part of the number is the same. The second part corresponds to the parameter code as
given in the sample

The result of the analysis of all the samples having the same first part of the code would be
entered in the data entry system as one sample having the same station code and time of
sample collection
10
11
Annexure 4.2
Annexure 4.2
ANNEXURE II
Standard Operating Procedure for Water Sampling
Parameters
pH
Electrical
Conductivity
Turbidity
Total Dissolved Solids
Alkalinity
Hardness
Chlorides
Sulphates
Sample Collection
Grab sampling
Plastic/glass container
Grab sampling
Grab sampling
Grab sampling
Plastic/glass containers
Grab sampling
Grab sampling
Grab sampling
Sample
Size (ml)
Storage/Preservation
50
On site analysis
50
On site analysis
50
On site analysis
100
Refrigeration, can be
stored for 7 days
100
Refrigeration, 14 days
100
Add HNO3 to pH <2,
refrigeration;
50
Not required; 28 days
100
Refrigeration, 28 days
Nitrates
Plastic Containers
100
Refrigeration, 48 hrs
Ammonical Nitrogen
100
Add H2SO4 to pH<2,
refrigeration; 28 days
Phosphate
100
Refrigeration; 48 hrs.
500
Refrigeration, 48 hrs
100
Add HNO3 to pH <2,
Grab sample; 6 months
100
Refrigeration; 24 hrs
Trace Metals (Hg, Cd,
Cu, Fe, Zn, Pb )
Grab sampling
rinse with 1+1 HNO3
Microbiology (TC, FC)
Sterile glass bottle
BOD
Source: Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and wastewater, Published by APHA,
AWWA, w.e.f. 20th Edition, 2005.
Annexure 4.3
ANaNEXURE III
Methodology for Sampling and Analysis of Water
Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Parameters
Methods (APHA)
pH
Colour
Odour
Temperature
Electrical Conductivity
Total Dissolved Solids
Turbidity
Alkalinity
Total Hardness
Chlorides
Sulphates
Nitrate
Ammonical Nitorgen
Total Phosphate
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
BOD
Coliforms
APHA-4500-H+
APHA-2120 C
IS:3025, part-4
APHA-2550 B
APHA-2510 B
APHA-2540 C
APHA-2130 B
APHA-2320 B
APHA-2340 C
APHA-4500 ClAPHA-4500 SO4-2
APHA-4500 NO3APHA-4500 NH3
APHA-4500 P
APHA-2500 O
APHA-5210 B
APHA-9215 D
Source: Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and wastewater, Published by APHA,
AWWA, w.e.f. 20th Edition, 2005.
Annexure 4.4
Annexure 4.5
Annexure III
Water Quality Criteria- CPCB
Designated-Best-Use
Class of
water
Criteria
•
Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml
shall be 50 or less
• pH between 6.5 and 8.5
A
• Dissolved Oxygen 6mg/l or more
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days
20°C 2mg/l or less
• Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml
shall be 500 or less
Outdoor bathing
• pH between 6.5 and 8.5
B
(Organised)
20°C 3mg/l or less
• Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml
Drinking water source
shall be 5000 or less
after conventional
• pH between 6 to 9
C
treatment and
disinfection
20°C 3mg/l or less
• pH between 6.5 to 8.5
Propagation of Wild life
D
and Fisheries
• Free Ammonia (as N) 1.2 mg/l or less
• pH betwwn 6.0 to 8.5
Irrigation, Industrial
• Electrical Conductivity at 25°C micro
Cooling, Controlled
mhos/cm Max.2250
E
Waste disposal
• Sodium absorption Ratio Max. 26
• Boron Max. 2mg/l
Below-E
Not Meeting A, B, C, D & E Criteria
Source: http://cpcb.nic.in/Water_Quality_Criteria.php
Drinking Water Source
without conventional
treatment but after
disinfection
Annexure 6.1
Methods Adopted for Soil Analysis for Mechanical Properties
and Significance of These Parameters
For evaluation of soil properties to find the causes of soil erosion and land slides occurring
frequently in the study area of Rohtang pass, the soil samples at selected locations were tested for
specific mechanical properties. The selected parameters, the methods adopted and significance of
parameters are presented in following table:
Parameter
Specifications of Significance
method
Grain size analysis Sieve
IS : 2720 (Part 4)- Indicates the quantity of gravel, sand,
Analysis
1985
silt and clay which are responsible for
the cohesive property or binding
Particle size
Hydrometer,
capacity of the particles of the soil.
distribution
USDA Textural
Triangle
Atterberg's Limits: The moisture conditions viz. liquid limit, plastic limit, along with shrinkage
limit are referred to as the "Atterberg Limits", The Atterberg limits are used to identify the soil's
classification and allows for the use of empirical correlations for some other engineering
properties
Liquid limit %
Mechanical
IS : 2720 (Part 5)- The moisture content, expressed as a
method
1985
percentage of the weight of the ovendried soil, at the boundary between
the liquid and plastic states of
consistency.
Plastic limit %
Plasticity index %
Method
Mechanical
method
IS : 2720 (Part 5)- The moisture content, expressed as a
1985
percentage of the weight of the ovendry soil, at the boundary between the
plastic and semisolid states of
consistency.
A dimensionless number: the
numerical difference between its
Soils with a high PI tend to be
liquid limit and its plastic limit. The
clay, those with a lower PI tend to plasticity index is the size of the
be silt, and those with a PI of 0
range of water contents where the soil
(non-plastic) tend to have little or exhibits plastic properties.
no silt or clay.
By calculation.
A6.1_1
Parameter
Method
Specifications
of method
IS: 2720
(Part-7) – 1987
-
Bulk density
(g/cc)
Dry density
(g/cc)
Specific
Gravity
Soil density
Free swell
index %
Free swell or differential
IS: 2720
free swell, also termed as
(Part 40) –
free swell index, is the
1977
increase in volume of soil
without any external
constraint when subjected to
submergence in water.
Direct shear
test
The strength of a material is
the greatest stress it can
sustain; The direct shear test
measures shear strengths as
a function of normal stress.
Period. The test does not
measure “friction angle” or
“cohesion,” as these values
are parameters that are
derived from the test results.
IS: 2720
(Part3/
Section 1) –
1987
IS: 2720
(Part 13).
ASTM
D3080
Significance
• Bulk density of soil is an
indicator of soil compaction
and depends greatly on the
mineral make up of soil. It is
calculated as the dry weight
of soil divided
by
its
volume.
• Dry density means the
density of the soil when it is
dry e.g. there is no water.
• Specific gravity G is defined
as the ratio of the weight of
an equal volume of distilled
water at that temperature
both weights taken in air.
• The knowledge of specific
gravity
is
needed
in
calculation of soil properties
like void ratio, degree of
saturation etc.
Used for Prediction of swelling
characteristics to measure Swell
potential and swell pressure
With their ability to swell and
shrink in relation to the
environment's water content,
expansive soils are considered
as geonatural hazards and form
a challenge to geotechnical and
construction
engineers.
Addressing
the
problems
associated with these soils
This test is performed to
determine the consolidateddrained shear strength of a
sandy to silty soil.
A6.1_2
Parameter
Cohesion
(kg/cm2)
Angle f
Safe Bearing
Capacity
(t/m2)
Method
Specifications
of method
Cohesion is the shear ASTM
strength or the force that D5321
binds together like particles
in the structure of a soil.
ASTM
Friction angle in direct
D3080-04
shear test
-
I.S. 6403 –
1981
Significance
Indicates soil consistency.
Tests are often done to determine
the soil's cohesiveness before
building
construction.
Consideration of “friction angle”
and “cohesion” simply as
mathematical parameters used to
describe shear strength data is of
great benefit to practitioners
Bearing capacity is the power of
foundation soil to hold the forces
from the superstructure without
undergoing shear failure or
excessive settlement.
Factors Influencing Bearing Capacity
Bearing capacity of soil depends on many factors.
The following are some important ones.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Type of soil
Unit weight of soil
Surcharge load
Depth of foundation
Mode of failure
Size of footing
Shape of footing
Depth of water table
Eccentricity in footing load
Inclination of footing load
Inclination of ground
Inclination of base of foundation
A6.1_3
Annexure 6.2
RS & GIS Based Landslide Hazard Zonation of Mountainous Terrains
A Study from Middle Himalayan Kullu District, Himachal Pradesh, India
Vishwa B. S. Chandel1, Karanjot Kaur Brar2, Yashwant Chauhan3
Email : [email protected]
1. Map Curator, Centre of Advanced Study in Geography, Department of Geography,
Panjab, University, Chandigarh
2. Associate Professor, Centre of Advanced Study in Geography, Department of
eography, Panjab University, Chandigarh
3. Product Specialist (Remote Sensing), ESRI Muscat, Oman,
ABSTRACT
Land slides are short Lived and suddenly occurring phenomena; it is just a hazard when it
occurs in an uninhabited place, however it turns into a disaster causing extraordinary landscape
changes and destruction of life and property when it occurs in the vicinity of human habitation.
Land slides are common and cause massive damage in tectonically active Himalayas. The
western Himalayan district of Kullu with a location on the southern side of Pir panjal mountain
range has an established history and inherent susceptibility to massive land slides. Using
remote sensing and GIS a land slide Hazard Zonation can be worked out.
The study conducted by Vishwa B S Chandel et al has used the satellite imageries of
LANDSAT ETM+, IRS P6, ASTER along with Survey of India (SOI) topographical sheets
formed the basis for deriving baseline information on various parameters like slope, aspect,
relative relief, drainage density, geology/lithology and land use/land cover. The weighted
parametric approach was applied to determine degree of susceptibility to landslides. The
landslide probability values thus obtained were classified into no risk, very low to moderate,
high, and very high to severe landslide hazard risk zones. The results show that over 80 per
cent area is liable to high severe landslide risk and within this about 32 per cent has very high
to severe risk.
Results
The susceptibility to landslides is inherent in the natural characteristics of the landscape and
there is a definite relationship between landslide occurrence and geo-physical setup of the area.
The high slope angles, drainage density, high local relief and geological structure produce
suitable conditions for landslide occurrence; the torrential rainfall in monsoon season is
invariably the immediate trigger. Out of total of 49 landslides during 1971-2009, nearly 63.27
per cent occurred in monsoons; 26.53 per cent were recorded during winter months (JanuaryMarch) while pre and post monsoon seasons together recorded less than 10 per cent landslides.
In addition, the past events show that these have close association with the land use and were
confined to the built-up (roads) and agricultural lands. The intensification of human activities,
encroachment on vulnerable land, uncontrolled settlement and rampant expansion of roads
adds to landslide vulnerability. It is pertinent to note that landslide activity is largely confined
to the inhabited part of the district primarily in the vicinity of the rivers and roads and this is
A6.2_1
substantiated by field visits and data. These are the prime locations of all human activities and
this enhances the risk potential of this disaster.
Landslide Hazard Analysis: Conclusion/Findings
The analysis shows that almost entire district is prone to landslide risk of varying magnitude.
Over 80 per cent area is liable to high-severe landslide risk and within this about 32 per cent
has very high to severe risk while about 48 per cent of the total area has high risk of landslide
occurrence (Table 1). Such areas include southern slopes of Pir-Panjal range in RohtangManali area, southern off-shoot of Pir-Panjal forming western border of Kullu valley and
slopes on the northern parts of Parbati river valley particularly in the areas around Malana
valley (map 8). Another section of high-severe risk comprise of Kullu-Larji-Rampur (KLR)
geological window which spread over Hurla, Sainj and Banjar areas of district. The rocks are
not only highly deformed but the area also possesses active faults/thrusts. The northern part of
Nirmand tahsil also falls in this very high landslide risk class.
Table 1: Kullu district: Landslide hazard zones
Landslide Risk Category
Area (km.2)
Area (per cent)
1 No Risk
23.22
0.42
2 Low-Moderate
1068.65
19.42
3 High
2650.19
48.16
4 Very High-Severe
1960.94
32.00
Total
5503
100
Source: ASTER DEM, LANDSAT ETM+ (2005); IRS P6 LISS III (2005)
Source: ASTER DEM, LANDSAT ETM+ (2005); IRS P6 LISS III (2005),Map 8
A6.2_2
The present study demonstrates high degree of hazarduousness of Kullu district of Himachal
Pradesh, India. The higher degree of landslide hazard is associated with geo-physical elements
especially slope, relative relief and lithology of the area. The presence of faults, particularly in
the vicinity of human occupancy enhances vulnerability. Vulnerability is compounded by
mindless and rampant expansion of settlement onto vulnerable land and ambitious road
construction that aids this settlement. In addition, anthropogenic activities play a significant
role in triggering such events.
___________
Reference: INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOMATICS AND
GEOSCIENCES, Volume 2, No 1, 2011
A6.2_3
Annexure 7.1
Plants
Local
Name
Padish
English
Name
Indian
Atees
Artemisia
maritima
Gandha
Sea Wormwood
Morchella
esculenta
Guchhi
Common
morel
Picrorhiza
kurroa
Karoo,
Katuka
Kuru
Thymus
serphyllum
Ban
ajwain
Creeping
Thyme
Aconitum
heterophylum
Dhoop
Jurinea
macrocephala
Juniper
Habitat
Medicinal Flora in Lahul District
Uses
Commonly found in
alpine and sub-alpine
regions of Himalaya at
an altitude of 1800 –
4500 m
Drier parts of salt
marshes[17] in sand
and shingle
Fruit bodies are
sometimes found
solitary, but more often
in groups, on the
ground in a variety of
habitats. A preference
for soil with
a limestone base
Found in the higher
mountain elevations at
2700 - 3600 metres.
Himalayas from
Kashmir to Sikkim
Found in Dry
grassland, usually on
calcareous soils
Found in western
Himalayas form
Kashmir to Kumaon
region
Root has medicinal value,
extract used against fever
Leaf decoction is in
intermittent fever, yields
santinin trade
Sought-after as good edible
fungi, Extracts from the fruit
bodies
have antioxidant properties.
Roots of medicinal value, used
against scorpion stings, has
anti-inflammotary activity
The leaves, and especially the
essential oil contained in them,
are antiseptic, deodorant,
disinfectant and expectorant
Root used as Poultice;
Stomachic. A decoction of the
root is cordial. It is given in the
treatment of colic and
puerperal fever. The juice of
the roots is used in the
treatment of fevers. The
bruised root is applied as a
poultice to eruptions.
The root extract is used as an
incense
A7.1_1 Plants
Local
Name
Tilla
English
Habitat
Name
Monkshood Shrubberies and open
slopes, 3600 - 4800
metres from Pakistan
to C. Nepal
Podophyllum
emodi
Bankakri
Himalayan
May Apple
Saussurea
lappa
Kuth
Carum carvi
Jeera
Carraway
Crocus
sativus
Kesar
Saffron
Jurinea
dolomiaea
Dhoop
Guggal
Dhoop
Aconitum
violaceum
Scrub forests and
alpine meadows,
usually in humus rich
soils, 2000 - 3500
metres in the
Himalayas. Very
abundant in fir forests
in Kashmir
Costus/ Kut Found in the alpine
root
regions in moist areas
of open slopes
Found in north
Himalayan region.
Cultivated as winter
crop in plains and
lower hills and summer
crop in high hill zone
Found in cold regions
of H.P. subtropical
climate zones of
Kangra and Kinnaur
between Oct-Dec
Distributed in Chamba,
kangra, Kinnaur,
Shimla, Kullu and
Chambal- Spiti district
between Sept. – Oct.
Uses
The entire plant is used in
Tibetan medicine, it is said to
have a bitter taste and a
cooling potency. Antidote,
anti-inflammatory and
febrifuge, it is used in the
treatment of snake and
scorpion bites, contagious
infections and inflammation of
the intestines
Rhizomes and roots are
cholagogue, cytostatic and
purgative
Root used as antioxidant,
diuretic, asthma and
inflammation. Also used as
adjunct for cancer treatment
Dried fruits are used as spice
and flavouring agents. Fruits
are stomachic and carminative.
Used for colouring butter,
cheese, confectionary etc. used
as nerve sedative,
emmenagogue, stimulant,
stomachic, abortifacient and
remedy for catarrhal affections
of children
Aromatic roots used as incense
in houses, temples and
religious ceremonies. Roots
are considered to be stimulant
and given in fever after child
birth. Bruised roots are applied
to eruptions and decoction is
given in colic.
A7.1_2 Plants
Nardostachys
jatamansi
Local
English
Name
Name
Jatamansi/ Indian
Batchir
Nard
Rosa
damascena
Shatpatri
Thymus
linearis
Ban
ajwain
Viola odorata
Banafsaj
Habitat
Uses
Found in Alpine
Himalaya at an altitude
of 3000-5000 m
between July- Sept.
Rhizomes are tonic, stimulant,
anti spasmodic, diuretic,
deabstruent, and stomachic,
laxative. Infusion of rhizome is
useful in epilepsy, palpitation
of heart and chorea. Root
extract shows sedative
properties
Damask
Found in temperate and Oil is used in perfumery and
rose
sub tropical type of
for flavouring food products,
climate between
tobacco, and alcoholic liquors.
March- June
Rose oil used for treatment of
gall stone. Rose water used for
washing eyes
Wild thyme Found in Himalayas at Shoots used for flavouring non
altitude of 1500-4500
alcoholic beverages. Posses’
m between March- Oct. antispasmodic, antiseptic,
expectorant, carminative,
anthelumintic and stimulant
properties. Seeds are given as
vermifuge
Sweet
Found at an altitude of Herb is expectorant,
Violet
1500- 1800 m between diaphoretic, antipyretic and
April- July
diuretic. Flowers are emollient,
demulcent and household
remedy for coughs, sore throat,
hoarseness and ailments of
infants. Leaves are said to
relieve pain due cancerous
growths particularly of mouth
and throat
Source : Working Plan Lahul district & discussion with Divisional Forest Officer (DFO- Mr. Chandel)
A7.1_3 Annexure 9.1
Ground Truth Survey (Rohtang Pass)
Plate I: Built-up in Palchan
(Lat 32º 18’ 33”N and Long 77º 10’ 31”E)
Plate II: Built-up and new construction activities in Kothi
(Lat 32º 19’ 03”N and Long 77º 11’ 22”E)
Plate III: Forest (Tosh) along Rohtang Pass
(Lat 32º 19’ 17” N and Long 77º 11’ 37” E)
Plate IV: Hydro Electric Marhi Project at Kothi
(Lat 32º 19’ 59”N and Long 77º 11’ 49”E)
A9.1_1
Plate V: Temporary shops in Gulaba
(Lat 32º 19’ 31”N and Long 77º 12’ 05”"E)
Plate VI: BRO camp and office, Gulaba
(Lat 32º 19’ 23”N and Long 77º 12’ 05”E)
Plate VII: Exposed rock near Raila Fall
(Lat 32º 19’ 57”N and Long 77º 12’ 56”E)
Plate VIII: Storage on Beas nallah for Marhi PH
(Lat 32º 20’ 55”N and Long 77º 13’ 16”E)
Plate IX: Build-up in Marhi
(Lat 32º 20 57”N and Long 77º 13’ 04”E)
A9.1_2
Plate X: Landslide on Rohtang Pass
(Lat 32º 21’ 32”N and Long 77º 13’ 43”E)
Plate X: Grass land near Marhi
(Lat 32º 21’ 00”N and Long 77º 13’ 10”E)
Plate XI: Rohtang top (Gompa)
(Lat 32º 22’ 17”N and Long 77º 14’ 47”E)
(Palchan to Manali)
Plate XII: Apple orchard near confluence of
Beas river and Solang nala
(Lat 32º 18’ 19”N and Long 77º 10’ 56”E)
Plate XIII: Forest along road (Kulang)
(Lat 32º 17’ 43”N and Long 77º 10’ 57”E)
A9.1_3
(Manali)
Plate XIV: Confluence of Beas and Manalashu
(Lat 32º 15’ 18”N and Long 77º 11’ 21”E)
Plate XV: Forest around Circuit House, Manali
(Lat 32º 15’ 00”N and Long 77º 11’ 09”E)
Plate XVI: Forest (Log hut area, Manali)
(Lat 32º 14’ 59”N and Long 77º 10’ 26”E)
Plate XVII: Apple orchard (Log hut area, Manali)
(Lat 32º 14’ 59”N and Long 77º 10’ 33”E)
Plate XVIII: Forest along Manalashu river
(Lat 32º 15 04”N and Long 77º 10’ 41”E)
Plate XIX: Forest around Hadimba temple
(Lat 32º 14’ 55”N and Long 77º 10’ 51”E)
A9.1_4
Plate XX: Forest near Wildlife Information Centre
(Lat 32º 14’ 51”N and Long 77º 11’ 21”E)
Plate XXI: Forest along Beas river
(Lat 32º 15 13N and Long 77º 11’ 17”E)
Plate XXII: Manali Model Town
(Lat 32º 14’ 36”N and Long 77º 11’ 33”E)
Plate XXIII: Bridge on Beas river (Bypass)
(Lat 32º 14’ 46”N and Long 77º 11’ 23”E)
Plate XXIV: Open land (Manali potato ground)
(Lat 32º 13’ 59”N and Long 77º 11’ 18”E)
A9.1_5
Annexure 9.2
Land Use Land Cover (LU/LC) Classification Scheme (NRSA, 1995)
Sr.
No.
1.
Level - I
Level – II
Built-up Land
1.1
1.2
1.3
Towns/cities
Villages
Road/Railway
2.
Agricultural
Land
2.1
2.2
Crop land
Fallow / Plantation
3.
Forest
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Evergreen/Semi-evergreen forest
Deciduous forest
Scrub Forest
Forest blank
Forest plantation
Mangrove
Cropland in Forest
4.
Wasteland
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
Salt affected land
Waterlogged land
Marshy/Swampy land
Gullied/Ravinous land
Land with or without scrub
Sandy area (coastal and desert)
Mining / Industrial Wasteland
Barren rocky/Stony Waste/sheetrock area
5.
Water bodies
5.1
5.2
5.3
River/Stream
Tank/Canal
Lake/Reservoir
6.
Others
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
Shifting cultivation
Grassland/Grazing land
Salt Pans
Snow cover/Glacial area
A9.1_6

STUDY OF ROHTANG PASS

Transcription

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