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Biodiversity of Kodachadri hill range
(Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary)
Western Ghats
Departments of Botany and Zoology
Vivekananda College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Puttur
Under the guidance of
National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad
Atomic Minerals Directorate for exploration and research, Bengaluru
Sponsored by
Indian Space Research Organisation/Department of Space
under RESPOND
Focal point:
Dr. C. B. S. Dutt, [NRSC, Hyderabad]
Principal Advisors:
Dr. K. Gopalakrishna Bhat, [Emeritus Scientist, Poornaprajna College, Udupi]
Dr. S Shankara Bhat, [Rtd. Professor & H.O.D, D.O.S in Botany, University of
Mysore]
Project Coordinators:
Dr. H. Madhava Bhat, Principal, Vivekananda College Puttur,
Sri G.N. Hegde, Scientific Officer, Atomic Minerals Directorate, Bengaluru.
Principal Investigators:
Sri Srikrishna Ganaraja Bhat S., Head, Department of Botany,
Sri Ishwara Prasad K. S., Head, Department of Zoology,
Vivekananda College, Puttur
Co-investigators:
Sri Deviprasad K. N., Coordinator, Nature Club,
Ms. Mirlam Begum, Officer, Rovers and Rangers,
Vivekananda College, Puttur
Consultants:
Prof. Radhakrishna Rao [Pragathi, Bhavani Nagar, Alevoor Road, Manipal]
Dr. C. Sudhakar Reddy, [NRSC, Hyderabad]
Dr. Girish S. Pujar, [NRSC, Hyderabad]
Sri Gopal Dalmia, [Arabindo Ashram, Pondicherry]
Dr. Manju Singh, [E .L. Mukundh Nagar Society, Mumbai]
Dr. J. Ganapathi Bhat [Alike]
Sri Dinesh Nayak, Sasyashyamala, Vittal [Advisor, Green Belt, MSCZ] Mangalore
Dr. Varanashi Krishnamoorthy [Varanashi Samshodhana Prathisthana, Adyandka].
Sri Manjunatha Hegde Hosabale, Soraba
Dr. Sooryanarayana Rao Addoor
Dr. Sathyanarayana Bhat, M.D. Ph.D [Consultant, Venkatappa Colony, Bengaluru]
Sri Puttaraju K [Scientific Officer, Kaiga Atomic Power Plant, Karawar]
Student participants:
from I B.Sc. (BZC)
Amrithraj
Ankitha G.
Anuradhalakshmi
Ashitha K. J.
Bhagyashree M.
Chaitra M.
Deepa P. R.
Harshitha K.
Jayashree J
Krithika N. G.
Lathapragathi
Likhitha A. M.
Nishmitha S.
Prajna R. H.
Supreetha B.
Swathi G.
Vijaya M. H.
from II B.Sc. (BZC)
Akshatha C. H.
Anjali N. S.
Deepika K.
Deeksha Bhat
Deepak Naik
Kiran M. P.
Pramod H.
Sharanya S. M.
Shivaprakash
Shivaranjani
Swathilakshmi V.
Vishwas
Photographs by:
Sri V. V. Bhat
Dr. H.G. Sreedhara
Mr. Puttaraju K
Cover Page photos:
Strobilanthus sessilis Nees,
which blooms once in three years,
the unique finding of this study
Maytenus rothiana
(walp.)Lobreau-Collen,
an endemic sp. of
Western Ghats
Indirana semipalmatus (Boulanger),
Brown leaping frog – endemic
to Peninsular India
Abisara echerius (Stoll),
Plum judy- a dancing
butterfly of Asia
Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight,
an endemic tree of Western Ghats
Anthracoceros coronatus
Malabar pied hornbill,
an endemic bird of Southern India
.
Thunbergia mysorensis (Wight)
T. Anderson, an endemic sp. of
Western Ghats
Griffithiella an endemic
Warming- a thalloid
angiosperm endemic to
Western Ghats.
Contents
Page No.
Preface
Acknowledgement
1. Introduction
1
2. Review of Literature
2
3. Materials and Methods
3-13
4. Results and Discussions
14-115
5. Recommendations of the study
116-117
o References
118-120
o Annexure I
121-160
o Annexure II
161-176
o Annexure III
177-178
o Annexure IV
179-180
o Annexure V
181
o List of tables and figures
182
o List of plates
183-186
PREFACE
Kodachadri in Western Ghats is a unique biosphere with Shola forest. The shrine of Adi
Mookambika attributed to Adi Shankaracharya has made it a special centre of piligrimage.
The study of ‘Biodiversity of Kodachadri hill range in Mookambika wild life Sanctuary’ was
sanctioned by the Department of Space/Indian Space Research Organisation in view of its
importance in the context of ecology of Western Ghats. It was a huge boost to our plans to
strengthen the research culture among the teachers and learners. It was also a due recognition
of the good work that we were doing in by sensitizing our young men and women to the need
for a responsible and responsive dialogue with their own environment. We have with us a
student folk with a rare keeness, a sound native wisdom and an ingrained concern for Man
and Nature. We didn’t view this field-visit to Mookambika hills as something to be
undertaken only by the Investigators of the project. It was to be a combination of many
things-it was an academic exercise, an adventure, a social responsibility, a task with
implications for the future life.
We are thankful to Sri V.V.Bhat, I.A.S., Secretary to Government of India and Member
(Finance) in the Space Commission, Dr.Ganesh Raj, Scientist, ISRO Headquarters, Dr.C.B.S.
Dutt, Dr.Girish Pujar and Dr.Sudhakar Reddy of National Remote Sensing Centre Dr.G.N.
Hegde of Atomic Minerals Directorate, Bangalore, Dr.S. Shankar Bhat, Professor of Botany
and Biotechnology in the University of Mysore, Dr. Anish Kumar of Indira Gandhi Centre
for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam who have guided us in this study, by their personal
participation.
The specimens collected, the species identified, the observations made, knowledge gained
had to be documented. Back at the college, the Chief Investigators Mr. Srikrishna Ganaraja
Bhat S. and Mr. Ishwar Prasad K. S, along with the Co-investigators Mr. Deviprasad K. N.
and Ms. Mirlam Begum have had to consult experts, undertake visits, refer to journal and
books, sit with students and local farmers to put the findings in a methodical way. We also
received help from eminent experts such as Dr.K. Gopalakrishna Bhat and Dr. Radhakrishna
Rao. Dr. Smitha has assisted us in finalising the Project Report. I commend the efforts of
my colleagues and students in completing a unique project. I think, we have tested our own
abilities and we may be pardoned for our arrogance if we said we performed the task pretty
successfully. Yes, we have enough reasons to be proud of our efforts in adding to the
existing body of knowledge about Western Ghats through this project report.
Dr. H. Madhava Bhat
Principal
(Project Co-Ordinator)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We express our deep sense of gratitude to Shri V.V.Bhat, Dr. A.K Rai and Shri. G.N. Hegde
for providing the rare opportunity of Biodiversity study of Kodachadri hill range; extending
constant guidance, motivation, and encouragement throughout the study.
We are highly grateful to the management of Vivekananda Vidyavardhaka Sangha, Puttur
for providing all the facilities to carry out the project work.
Our heartfelt and sincere gratitude to Dr. K. G. Bhat, Rtd. Professor of Botany, PPC Udupi
for his guidance, suggestions, involvement, experience and invaluable support in completing
this project work.
We thank Prof. S. Shankara Bhat, Rtd. Professor of Botany, Mysore University for his
encouragement and involvement throughout the field study.
It is our pleasure to thank Prof. Radhakrishna Rao for his active involvement in the field
work and plant identification work.
It is our duty to thank Sri Dinesh Nayak Vitla, Dr. Sathyanarayana Bhat, Dr. Manju Singh,
Gopal Dalmia, Dr. Jeddu Ganapathi Bhat, Mr. M.S. Bhat, Dr. Sooryanarayana Adoor, Dr.
Varanashi Krishnamoorthy, Sri Manjunath Hosabale, Sri Chandrashekara Mattikai for their
valuable suggestions and active involvement during the camp.
We appreciate the active involvement and guidance of Dr. Girish Pujar & Dr. Sudhakar
Reddy, NRSC, Hyderabad.
We are thankful to Mr. Puttaraju, Scientific Officer, Kaiga & Dr. H.G. Shreedhar for their
photographic help. We also thank Ms Saraswathi, Mr. Rajesh M.N & Mr. Puneet, for their
technical support.
We thank Dr. G. Kusuma Rao, ISRO Hq & Dr. Vijayalaxmi C. Bhat, H.O.D of Botany, PPC,
Udupi for their assistance.
We express our sincere and heartful thanks to Sri K.E. Chandrashekhar, Mattikai; Staff and
students of Veda Pathashala, Champakapura, Kattinahole, for the necessary arrangements and
help during the camp.
We also record the assistance and help rendered by the local officials of Government of
Karnataka at various levels for successful completion of the work.
Srikrishna Ganaraja Bhat S & Ishwara Prasad K S
1. Introduction
Biodiversity supports life on Earth. It contributes in numerous ways to our existence.
Yet we are either unaware or do not really appreciate the value of biodiversity. Many of the
people especially those who are in the developing countries depend directly or indirectly on the
variety of plant and animal life that share this living space with us. Not only that, biodiversity
is essential for sustaining the ecosystems that support various forms of life on Earth.
When compared to the geological past, biodiversity is being eroded at present at an
unprecedented rate due to various reasons like natural hazards, climate change, anthropogenic
activities, habitat destruction, extension of agriculture, encroachment, tourism, etc. We must do
something to prevent the loss of biodiversity. Creating awareness about the value of
biodiversity is the first and foremost thing that an educational institution can undertake with
the help of available expertise in their own departments.
In order to inculcate in the students a sense of appreciation and awareness regarding
biodiversity issues and various other aspects, the present research study was undertaken jointly
by the Department of Botany and Department of Zoology of Vivekananda College of Arts,
Science and Commerce, Nehru Nagar, Puttur under the guidance of Indian Space Research
Organisation, Atomic Mineral Directorate, Bengaluru and Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic
Research, Kalpakkam. Through this project the students have been able to gain knowledge
about the many dimensions of biodiversity, techniques of study and analysis. Apart from the
field visits, the resource persons interacted with the students during their presentations on
issues related to biodiversity during the evening hours of camping.
The main objectives of the study are listed below:
Objectives
1. To document and prepare an anthology of the flora and fauna of Kodachadri that is
typical of high altitude Shola forests of Western Ghats.
2. To enable the students in understanding the interdisciplinary nature of scientific
explorations of flora and fauna.
3. To understand the issues relating to conservation of biodiversity of Western Ghats.
2. Review of literature
Earliest published report on the flora of South Kanara region was by Gamble in his
Flora of Presidency Madras (1915-36). Raghavan (1970, 1983) has systematically studied the
Flora of Agumbe-Tirthahalli region which form a part of Western Ghats range. Ramaswamy et
al. (2001) have recorded the Flora of Shimoga district including Kodachadri. Ganapathi et. al.
(2006) have reported on the ecological status of Kodachadri Peak.
Kunte, et al. (1999) studied patterns of butterfly, bird and tree diversity in the Western
Ghats. Chandrashekara (2004) assessed vulnerability and climate change impact on the
vegetation structure and composition in wet evergreen and shola forests of Kerala part of the
Western Ghats. Ramachandra, et al. (2004), studied Cumulative Impact assessment in the
Sharavathi River Basin and reported about 215 species of herbs, 143 lichen species, 134
butterfly species, 84 ant species 140 avian species from the Sharavathi Backwater regions of
the Western Ghats. A team of scientists from Indian Institute of Science lead by Dr. Sukumar
and Karthik Shankar have prepared a study report on biodiversity of the proposed Gundia
Hydro Electric Project, Karnataka (2010). This study has enumerated the number of species
supported by the submergence area of the proposed hydro electric power project. Interestingly
many endemic flora and fauna have been reported in this study. The area was found to be as
rich as any other moist western slopes of the Western Ghats such as Silent Valley,
Kudremukha and Uttara Kannada. Dinesh & Radhakrishnan (2011) listed about 157 species of
Amphibians of Western Ghats of which 135 are endemic. According to Kunte (2011), Western
Ghats have about 333 species of butterflies of which 33 are endemic. Purushotham &
Benjamin (2011) recorded 28 species of Amphibians (26 - Anurans & two Caecilians from the
Agumbe Rainforest Research Station, Western Ghats. Shrinivas and Vijaya (2011) reported
130 species of birds from the Shola-forests of Baba Budan Hills, Chikkamagalur Karnataka.
Sanalkumar, et al (2012), reported 160 Bird species from Nilgiri Western Slope Forests - A
Paradise of Avifauna in the Southern Western Ghats.
Though floral records are available for the Western Ghats area, no published record is
available exclusively for Kodachadri hill range, known for the seat of Adi Mookambika,
Sarvajna peetha (Shankaracharya memorial on the highest peak of Kodachadri overlooking the
western plains and the eastern forests) and the Shola forest. With this in view, Kodachadri hill
was selected for the present study keeping in view the unique flora and fauna supported by the
pristine forest, accessibility to the area, and degree of human interference, with the joint
involvement of experts and students.
2 3. Materials and Methods
3.1 Study area
3.1.1. District Profile
Shimoga district lies between 13027’ to 14039’ N latitudes and 74038’ to 760 34’ E
longitudes. The region represents the transitional surface between the Northern Karnataka
Plateau of Deccan Trap and Southern Karnataka Plateau with relatively higher surface. By and
large, this region represents the area of Tungabhadra basin. The general elevation varies
between 450 and 700 meters. However, this transitional ground is broken by several sets of
parallel ridges mainly made up of Dharwar system of rocks. The height of such residual hills is
about 900 meters above mean sea level. The general slope of this region is towards the east
(Karnataka Gazetteer, 1983).
The western side of the Shimoga district rests upon the Western Ghats, called the
Sahyadri. It is a very mountainous area. The raise towards the crest of the Ghats is very rapid, a
height of 1,343 metres (4,405 feet, according to the Geological Survey of India) being attained
at Kodachadri, a mountain on whose summit meet the two boundaries of Shimoga and South
Kanara districts. Kodachadri is a highest peak situated about 16.1 km north-west of Nagara
(Shimoga District Gazetteer, 1975).
3.1.2 Geology
Geologically, the Shimoga district consists of the most ancient rock formations of
Archaean complex, which are composed chiefly of two systems, the Dharwar system (usually
called Dharwar schists) and the gneissic system. Nearly a two-thirds area of the district is
covered by the Schists, Dharwar schists, the Shimoga band forming a prominent belt from west
to east and occupying a larger area. This belt is made up of various types of schists, chiefly
chloritic and in places micaceous or hornblendic, associated with volcanic rocks of different
types. Along with them are found some highly altered sedimentary rocks such as quartzites,
conglomerates, limestone, shales and banded iron stones (ferruginous quartzites). The Shimoga
schist belt is split up into several small bands by intrusion of the granites and gneisses.
The gneissic system is much younger than the Dharwar Granitie Gneiss system and it
chiefly consists of granites and granitic gneisses. The granitic rocks vary in their structure,
texture, color and other similar characteristics. The granites in Shimoga district occur as islands
in the schists. Mining has been known to have flourished in the past in the district. Several
places in the district have relics of ancient iron foundries which prove that the people of the
district were familiar with processing of iron.
3 3.1.3. Climate
The mean minimum temperature ranges from 150C to 220C where as the mean
maximum temperature ranges from 270C to 350C across different months in a year (at Shimoga
station). Humidity at morning hours ranges between 76% and 90% and that during evening
hours ranged between 36% and 82% across different months of the year (at Shimoga station).
The average rainfall of Shimoga district is 1,526 mm. per annum yielding about 15,751.37
million cubic meters of water. The major portion of this water goes underground. The water
table has been gauged in the district and it varies from 2 meters to 15 meters and the fluctuation
of water table is 7.88 meters.
3.1.4 Vegetation
The district is endowed with rich flora and fauna, having a part of the Western Ghats
traversing through the district. Some forest regions can be classified under Western Tropical
Evergreen, Semi -Ever green and Moist Deciduous type.
3.2 Sampling site:
Kodachadri (Toposheet No. 48 K/13) was selected for the present study (Figure 1 & 2)
since it houses diverse species of plants and animals. The area along with its surrounding
region is named after a medicinal plant “Kutaja” (Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall ex
G. Don.). The Kodachadri hill range, which forms a part of Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary,
consists of pristine forest. It was notified by the Government as a Wildlife Sanctuary on June
17th 1974 vide notification No. AFD48FWL74.
According to Sahyadri Khanda, Kodachadri hosted important medicinal plants like
Sanjivani and Bilva.
It is believed that a few Sanjivani group of plants fell down on
Kodachadri when Hanuman was flying back to restore Drona giri to the Himalayas.
The forest types of Kodachadri hill region are Evergreen, Semi-evergreen, moist
deciduous and scrub forests. Small patches of rubber plantation, agricultural and fallow lands
have been observed in the periphery, in the satellite imagery provided by NRSC, Hyderabad
(Figure 3).
Altitudinal zonation of the Mookambika and surrounding areas shows that the
Kodachadri peak lies at an altitude of 1,334 m, (Figure 4). The IRS Cartosat -1 High resolution
(2.5m) Panchromatic data (Figure 5) shows the Kodachadri hill and the surrounding areas of
Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary in greater relief. Figure 6 shows the aspect map of the
Kodachadri hill and surrounding Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary area. It shows that the slope
is towards south-southwest direction. Kodachadri hill is steeply sloped at 370 (Figure 7). The
4 vegetation cover has been recorded for 1973 (Figure 8) and 2006 (Figure 9) as seen in the
satellite imagery provided by NRSC, Hyderabad.
The nearest weather gauge station is situated at Linganamakki which is 80 km away
from the present study site. The recorded mean minimum temperature varied from around 160C
to 240C during the year 2010 (Figure 10) and the mean maximum temperature varied between
230C to 380C (Figure 11). The relative humidity during morning hours (08:30IST) varied
between 63% to 100% during different months of the year (Figure 12) and during evening
hours (17:30IST) it varied between 41% and 100% during different months of the year
2010(Figure 13).The monthly variation in mean minimum temperature, mean maximum
temperature and relative humidity during morning and evening hours for the period 2005-2010
have been graphically represented in Figure 10-13. During monsoon season, the hills receive
heavy rainfall and the weather condition gets colder.
3.3 Sampling method
Field visit was conducted during the period from 22nd November to 24th November
2011. A 15 km stretch located between 13051’29’’ N to13051’42’’ N latitude and 74052’22’’ E
to 740 52’30’’ E longitudes (Figure 1.) covering the regions Kattina Hole, Gauri Theertha,
Hidlumane Falls, Adi Mookambika Temple and Sarvajna Peetha. The 30 students worked in
different groups to document as many number of species as possible during these three days’
field visit. A group consisting of Dr. G.N Hegde and students collected soil samples from
selected sites for further analyses.
3.3.1 Soil Sampling
A total of 15 samples were collected at 4 well defined locations at an altitude of 1042
MSL to 1139 MSL. Shola grass land was in the highest altitude. At the lowest was thick
forest land. In between area is termed Border zone. Samples were also collected from the
sediments of the stream flowing through the Shola grass land regions. Soils were collected
from 0 to 30 cm by giving V cut. Analysis was done as per AOAC methods; Nitrogen by
Micro Kjeldahl method, P2O5 by Bray’s No.1 method, Potash by Ammonium acetate method
(Merwin & Peach 1951), Sulphur by Sodium acetate acetic acid buffer method, Ca & Mg by
titration with EDTA (Hesse, 1971) method. Mechanical analysis was carried out by
hydrometer method. Study methodology and the entire report has been included as Annexure- I
to this report.
The Iron Pillar in front of Adi Mookambika temple was subjected to non-destructive
analysis using spectroscopic methods. The team headed by Dr.Anish Kumar of IGCAR,
5 Kalpakkam measured the height and girth of the pillar (Circumference : bottom – 310 mm,
middle 272 mm, upper portion -285mm.) The result of spectroscopic study is awaited.
3.3.2 Documentation of biodiversity
Plant specimens have been collected and the prepared herbaria have been maintained at
the Department of Botany, Vivekananda College, Puttur. Identification of plants was made in
the field with the help of Dr. K. Gopalakrishna Bhat, renowned taxonomist, Poornaprajna
College, Udupi, Dr. Radhakrishna Rao, Dr. S. Shankara Bhat and Dr. Sathyanarayana Bhat .
The master list provided in the report of Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (2002), is given as
Annexure-II with this research report has also been consulted in order to categorize them based
on their endemic nature, ecological and economic importance. Different Floras have been
consulted to identify plant specimens that could not be clearly identified in the field.
Documentaion of fauna was made using field survey of charismatic taxons such as arthropods,
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The birds were identified using the Direct Visual
method and Vocal method. The observations were carried out mainly in the morning between
6.30 to 11.00 hrs and also in the evening from 15.30 to 19.00 hrs. The birds were sighted using
Binoculars (Olympus 10x50DPS1) and from Digital cameras (Canon Ixus, 15x digital zoom
230HS & Nikon D 60 18x55 zoom). Only confirmed species are included in the list. Some of
the photographs from the study tour and nature camp have been given in Annexure-III.
Along with field visits students were also exposed to the valuable inputs on biodiversity
in the form of presentations in the evenings at camping site by various resource persons who
had accompanied the study team. A brief report has been included as Annexure-IV with this
study report. Further, honey bee related observational study was made by visiting bee-keeping
households in the nearby villages of Karagodu and Mattikai. Sri. K. S. Sridhar showed two
different categories of honey bees and demonstrated the different aspects involved in apiculture
to the team. Interesting and unique characteristics of honey bees were explained by resource
persons. A brief report has been added in Annexure-V.
6 Figure 1. Location map of Kodachadri Hill range within Karnataka, India (Toposheet No. 48 K/13)
(Courtesy: NRSC)
Figure 2. Sample sites as depicted using Google maps tool (Courtesy: Sri Rajesh M.N)
7 Figure 3. Vegetation type of Kodachadri Hill range and surroundings (Courtesy :NRSC)
Figure 4. Altitudinal Zonation map of Kodachadri Hill and surroundings (Courtesy: NRSC)
8 Figure 5. IRS- P5 Cartosat -1 High resolution (2.5m) Panchromatic data showing surroundings
of Kodachadri Hill Range in and around Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka.
(Courtesy :NRSC)
Figure 6. Aspect map of Kodachadri Hill and surroundings (Courtesy :NRSC)
9 Figure 7. Slope map of Kodachadri Hill and surroundings (Courtesy :NRSC)
Figure 8. LANDSAT MSS FCC image of Kodachadri Hill and surroundings (1973) (Courtesy :NRSC)
10 Figure 9. IRS P6 LISS Image of Kodachadri Hill and Surroundings (1:50,000 scale) (2nd March
2006) (Courtesy :NRSC)
11 Figure 10. Time series of minimum temperature for the period from 2005 to 2010 recorded at
Linganamakki
(Courtesy: Dr. Kusuma Rao)
Figure 11. Time series of maximum temperature for the period from 2005 to 2010 recorded at
Linganamakki(Courtesy: Dr. Kusuma Rao)
12 Figure 12. Time series of relative humidity (08:30IST) for the period from 2005-2010 recorded at Linganamakki
Figure 13. Time series of relative humidity ((15:30 IST) for the period from 2005-2010
recorded at Linganamakki
13 4. Results and Discussion
4.1 Soil analysis
The results of the soil analyses shows that the soil of the Kodachadri hill range is
acidic, sandy loam, rich in organic carbon and nutrients. The microbial analysis reflects a
rough quantitative estimation of bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes in the soils tested. It is not
surprising to find a good population of microorganisms in such soils containing high carbon
and other nutrients. The higher population of microorganisms in grass land soils than in the
forest soils could be due to better aerations in the former soils. The detailed report of the soil
analyses has been enclosed in Annexure-I.
4.2 Recorded Flora
Depending upon the average height, the vegetation in these forests shows a three-tiered
arrangement. Top Canopy or emergent layer consists of species like Elaeocarpus tuberculatus
Roxb., Knema attenuata (Hook. f. & Thomson) Warb., Syzigium spp., etc. while the Middle
Canopy layer is represented by medium sized trees like Cinnamomum sp. Hydnocarpus
pentandra (Buch.-Ham.) Oken., Knema attenuata (Hook. f. & Thomson) Warb., Macaranga
peltata (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg., Litsea sp., Maytenus rothiana (Walp.) Lobreau-Collen, Aporusa
lindleyana (Wight) Baill., etc. The important elements in the lower canopy layer are; Calicarpa
tomentosa (L.) Murr., Clerodendron spp., Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith, Euonymus indicus
Heyne ex Wallich, Fahrenhetia zeylanica (Thw.) Airy Shaw, Ixora polyantha Wight., Ixora
coccinea L., Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr., Maesa indica (Roxb.) DC., species of Psychotria
etc. This tier also included palm varieties like Arenga wightii Griffith., spp. of Calamus spp.,
etc.
The Shola forests are one of the characteristic features seen along the Western Ghats of
the district. The shola forests occur in the valley region of two adjacent hills. The shola
typically consists of both tropical and subtropical genera growing together (Ramaswamy et al.,
2001). Shola forests were also observed in Kodachadri hill range (Plate 1) en route to Sarvajna
Peetha (Plate 2). Diospyros spp., Grewia spp., Gnidia glauca (Fresen.) Gilg., Garcinia spp.,
Symplocos racemosa Roxb., Canthium spp. were some of the species recorded from Shola
forests of Kodachadri Hills.
Arundinella purpurea Hochst., Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. ex. Roem &
Schult.,
Ischaemum sp., Thameda sp., are some of the grass species recorded from the
grasslands (Plate 3) of Kodachadri. Gardenia gummifera L., Gnidia glauca (Fresen.) Gilg.,
Phoenix humilis Royle, Wendlandia thyrsoidea (Roem. & Schult.) Steud. are some of the
14 woody plants found in grass lands. Pimpinella sp., Sopubia sp. and Striga gesnerioides
(Willd.) Vatke are found in between the grass spread. Pteridium aquilinum (bracken) is also
found commonly in the grassland. Typically the trees found on the slopes of the grasslands
that are exposed to heavy wind show stunted growth and growth of branches only on leeward
side (Plate 6).
4.2.1 Bryophytes
The team has recorded a total of six bryophytes including, Macromitrium sulcatum
(Plate 7), and Pogonatum aloides Hedw. (Plate 8). The identified species have been listed in
Table 1.
4.2.2 Pteridophytes
Twenty pteridophytes have been recorded from the study site which is listed in Table 1.
Some of the pteridophyetes are Asplenium nidus L. (Plate 9), Cheilanthes farinosa (Forssk.)
Kaulf. (Plate 10), Lycopodium cernuum L. (Plate 11), Pteridium aqeuilineum (Plate 12).
4.2.3 Gymnosperms
Only one species belonging to Gymnospermae has been recorded from the study area
(Cycas circinalis L.) and has been listed as endemic and critically endangered.
Table 1. List of Bryophytes, Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms documented from the
study area
1
Bryophytes
Bryum coronatum Schwager.
Bryaceae
2
Macromitrium suleatum
Orthotrichaceae
3
Meteoriopsis reclinata (C. Muell.) Fleisch.
Meteoriaceae
4
Pogunetum aloides Hedw.
Polytrichaceae
5
6
Porella sp. L.
Trachypodopsis serrulata (P. Beauv.) Fleisch.
Porellaceae
Trachypodaceae
1
Pteridophytes
Asplenium nidus L. ( Bird's nest)
Aspleniaceae
2
Blechnum orientale L.
Blechenaceae
3
Cerotopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongniast
Pteridaceae
4
5
Adiantaceae
Cyatheaceae
6
Cheilanthes farinosa (Forssk.) Kaulf.
Cyathia gigantea (Wallich ex W. J. Hooker)
Hottum
Dryopteris cochleata (D. Don.) C. Chr.
7
Lepisorus nudus (Hook.) Ching
Polypodiaceae
15 Dryopteridaceae
8
Lindsea ensifolia Sw.
Lindsacaeceae
9
Lycopodium cernuum L.
Lycopodiaceae
10
Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw.
Schizaceae
11
Microlepia speluncae (L.) Moore
Dennstaedtiaceae
12
Odontosoria chinensis Palaa
Lindsacaeceae
13
Osmunda regalis
Osmundaceae
14
15
Pteridium aqeuilineum
Pteris quadriaurita H. Christ.
Pteridaceae
Pteridaceae
16
Pteris pellucida Pesl.
Pteridaceae
†
17
18
Selaginella miniatospora (Duk.) Back.
Tectaria polymorpha Wall. ex Hook.
19
20
Trignospora caudipinna (Ching) Sledge
Vittaria elongata Sw.
1
. **
Selaginellaceae
Dryopteridaceae
Thelypteridaceae
Pteridaceae
Gymnosperms
**
†
Cycadaceae
Cycas circinalis L
Critically Endangered
Threatened
4.2.4 Angiosperms
A total of 74 families of angiosperms were noticed in the study area (excluding some
grasses and herbs which could not be collected). The most speciose family was Rubiaceae (23
species) followed by Asteraceae (16 species) and Euphorbiaceae and Fabaceae (13 species
each). Top seven families (Rubiaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Acanthaceae,
Poaceae and Scrophulariaceae) constitute more than 40% of the total species component.
There were 34 families with one spp.; these include families such as Zingiberaceae
(Ginger family), Pandanaceae (Pandanus family), Musaceae (Banana family), Eriocaulaceae,
Thymelaeaceae,
Passifloraceae,
Symplocaceae,
Onagraceae,
Ranunculaceae,
Oleaceae,
Podostomaceae,
Myristicaceae,
Meliaceae
Polygonaceae,
(Neemfamily),
Haemodoraceae, Erythropalaceae, Elaeocarpaceae, Ebenaceae, Dichapetalaceae, Cucurbitaceae
(Cucurbita family), Clusiaceae (Garcinia family) etc.
Deciduous species such as Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight, Hymenodictyon
obovatum Wall., etc. were also met with. Some of the angiosperms documented from the study
area have been represented in Plates 13 to Plate 101. The undergrowth consists of spp. like
Desmodium triquetrum (L.) DC., Elatostemma accuminatum Brongn., Elephantopus scaber L.,
Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr., Psychotria spp. etc. Among the shrubs, dense growth of
16 Psychotria truncata Wall., Ixora spp. along with lianes like Calycopteris floribunda Lam. and
Bauhinia phoenicia Heyne. In the moist hollows in evergreen forests canes like Calamus
thwaitesii Becc. & Hook. f. with wild palm Arenga wightii Griffith are noticed, along with
underflora of Geophila reniformis D. Don. and Psychotria spp. etc.
Strobilanthes sessilis Nees. was an unique finding in relation to this study. In the
exploratory trekking done in the previous year, it was found as a dominant flower in the
landscape in some locations. However it could not be found flowering during this trekking;
only the dried stem and flowers could be seen. It was learnt that this species flowers once in
three years.
Similarly, flowering of Barlaria involucrata Nees. which was found in the previous
year was not sighted during this trekking. It is reported that, this plant blooms once in eight
years.
Though Kodachadri (‘Kutachagiri’ in Sahyadri Khanda) is named after the medicinal
plant ‘Kutaja’, during the field visit the team could not locate even a single plant in its trekking
path!
Thirty eight angiosperms and one gymnosperm are endemic to Western Ghats and one
monotypic genera namely Moullava spicata (Dalz.) Nicolson (Plate 69) was also recorded
from the study site. Out of these endemic species, three are vulnerable namely, Cinnamomum
macrocarpum Hook.f. (Plate 33), Knema attentuata (Hook.f.and Thomson) Warb., and
Gardenia gummifera L.f. another which is vulnerable but not endemic to Western Ghats is
Garcenia morella (Gaertn.) Desr. Arenga wightii Griffith. (Plate 94), (a Monocot) and Vateria
indica L. and Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch., Ham.) Oken. (Dictos) are threatened. The
Gymnosperm Cycas circinalis L. which is endemic to Western Ghats is critically endangered.
The angiosperms documented from the study area have been listed in Table 2.
Species typical to the Flora of Himalaya and Srilanka are found distributed in the study
area. They are Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding. - Hou., Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Teijsm. &
Binn., Crotolaria albida Heyne, Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. Nothapodytes nimmoniana
(Graham) Mabb. Incidentally these plants have high medicinal utility and the last one being
overexploited in the nature.
Some of the trees recorded from the study have been reported as interesting and those
having ornamental value because of their unique features (Neginhal, 2011). Table 4 lists out
some such species form the study area. Some trees have been identified as sacred trees
Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb., Tarrena asiatica (L.) Kuntze ex K. Schum., while some have
been identified as rare, like Arenga wightii Griffith (The wild Coconut tree). Some have scope
17 for cultivation because of their edible parts, for example Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.,
Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Teijsm. & Binn., Debregaesia longifolia (Burm. f.) Wedd.
(Kurigele – with orange-red or yellow edible fruits), Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) A. DC.
(Maanikyana soppu – with pink shining berries), Syzygium zeylanicum (L.) DC. (A tree with
and white edible fruits), Flacourtia montana Grah. (Abluka – With cherry-red, grape-sized
edible sour fruits), Rourea minor (Gaertner) Alston – Fresh aril eaten, while fruits of
Tetrastigma gambei Shetty & P.Singh, are very much liked by monkeys.
Some of the plants sighted are interesting or curious in one or the other way. Table 3
lists out such species noticed in the study area. Some of them have medicinal importance like
Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.-Ham.) Oken. (Seed and seed oil used in leprosy, leucoderma,
etc.), Cycas circinalis (Juice of tender leaves given for flatulence), Desmodium triquetrum
Roxb. (leaf extract used for piles treatment), Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. (decoction of
bark used in cutaneous infections), Vateria indica L. (bark- alexipharmic, used in epilepsy,
backache, tuberculous glands, anemia.) Rubia cordifolia L. (roots used in Ayurveda to treat
disorders of blood, gout, polyuria, eye disease etc.), Syzygium zeylanicum(L.) DC. (Decoction
of leaves and root used as vermifuge), Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding. Hou. (Chakranike Mature roots used in dysentery and cholera), Moullava spicata (Dalz.) Nicolson (root used in
pneumonia); Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb. (anti-cancer properties), Geophila
reniformis D. Don. (used in diarrhea); Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith (root used in epilepsy
and leaves applied to wounds and bruises); Calamus thwaitesii Becc. & Hook. f. (stem sap
used as anti-fertility drug).
Two species, Gnidia glauca (Fresen.) Gilg.(Mukuthi/Rami) and Lobelia nicotianifolia
Roth. ex Roem. & Schult. (Kaadu hogesoppu) were noticed all along the road side from
Kodachadri foothills upto Adi Mookambika temple. Their presence along the slopes suggests
that these species are adaptable to both low and high altitude conditions .
Fungi play a significant role in forest ecosystem dynamics. They generally flourish on
woody substratum. It was very interesting to notice the succession of fungal spp. on dead logs
of wood and other forest substrates. Notorious wood rotters like Ganoderma P.Karst (Plate
102), Polystictus Fr. (Plate 103) and Daedalea (Plate 104) were noticed. Those involved in
the decomposition of leaves, twigs and other non-woody litters are saprophytic fungi like
Xylaria spp. (Plate 105 & 106) (Dead man’s finger), Dasyscyphus, Schizophyllum, Agaricus
spp., and Bracket Fungi (Plate 107) etc. and other creatures like Centipedes and Millipedes
(Plate 108).
18 Table 2. List of Angiosperms documented from the study area
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS
Sl.
Common
No. Botanical Name
Family
Names
Abelmoschus angulosus Wall. ex.
1
Wt. & Arn.
Malvaceae
2
Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medic.
Malvaceae
3
Abrus pulchulus Wall. ex. Thw.
Fabaceae
4
Achyranthes bidentata Bl.
Amaranthaceae
Kaadu uttarane
5
Achyranthus aspera L.
Amaranthaceae
Uttarane
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Adenia hondala (Gaertn.) de Wilde.
Passifloraceae
Airol kande
Adenoon indicum Dalz.*
Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Kuntze
Alternanthera tenella Colla
Ammania baccifera L.
Ampelocissus tomentosa (Roth.)
Planch.
Angelonia salicarifolia Humb. &
Bonpl.
Anisochilus carnosus Wall.
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Amaranthaceae
Lythraceae
Kallurive
*
Climber
Scrophulariaceae
Lamiaceae
Herb
Herb
Aporusa lindleyana (Wight) Baill.
Euphorbiaceae
15
16
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.
Asystasia variabilis Trimen.
Moraceae
Acanthaceae
Rutaceae
18
Atlantia racemosa Wight & Arn.
Atrabotrys zeylanicus Hook. f. &
Thomson
19
20
21
22
Atylosia lineata Wt. & Arn.*
Bacopa monnieri L. (Pennell)
Barleria involucrata Nees*
Bauhinia phoenicia Heyne
Fabaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Acanthaceae
Fabaceae
23
24
25
26
Begonia malabarica Lam.
Blachia calycina Benth.
Blepharis asperrima Nees*
Boehmeria platyphylla D. Don
Begoniaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Acanthaceae
Urticaceae
27
28
Bridelia scandens (Roxb.) Willd.
Buchnera hispidaHam. ex. D. Don
Euphorbiaceae
Scrophulariaceae
29
30
Calicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murr.
Calycopteris floribunda Lam.
Anonaceae
Verbenaceae
Combretaceae
19 Herb
Shrub
Climber
Herb
Undershrub
Woody
Climber
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Vitaceae
14
17
Habit
Saroli mara,
Salle
Halasina mara,
Jack tree
Bombay
Atlantia
Ceylon Green
Champa
Kadu kadale
gida
Neera brahmi
Mayurpankh
Scarlet
Bauhinia
Banda naru
Doddanathada
gida, Pandavara
batti
Anjeeru, Baguli
Tree
Tree
Herb
Tree
Shrub
Climber
Herb
Shrub
Woody
climber
Herb
Shrub
Herb
Undershrub
Woody
climber
Herb
Shrub
Woody
31
32
Canscora diffusa (Vahl.) R.
Canthium coromandelicum (Burm.
f.) Alston
33
34
Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.)
Teijsm. & Binn.
Capparis bravispina DC.
35
36
37
Cassia sophera L.
Cayratia japonica Gagn.
Cerasiocarpum benettii Cogn.
Gentianaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Capparaceae
Fabaceae
Vitaceae
Cucurbitaceae
38
Chasalia curviflora (Wall.) Thw.
Rubiaceae
39
Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss.
Cinnamomum macrocarpum Hook.
f.*‡
Cissus discolorBlume
Clausena indica (Dalz.) Oliv.
Clerodendrum sp. L.
Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith
Coleus mollis Benth.
Crassocephalum crepidioides
(Benth.) S.
Crotolaria albida Heyne
Croton gibsonianus Nimmo*
Meliaceae
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
Lauraceae
Vitaceae
Rutaceae
Verbenaceae
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb.
Elatostemma acuminatum Brongn.
Elephantopus scaber L.
Kasa marda,
Elemuruga
kaadu garuda
pathala
Kempu
devadaru, Dal
mara
Lavanga pathra
Shrub
Tree
Shrub
Herb
Climber
Climber
Shrub
Tree
Tree
Climber
Tree
Undershrub
Shrub
Herb
Herb
Undershrub
Undershrub
Kempu
Uttarane
Ceylon Forgetme-not plant
Herb
Herb
Woody
climber
Fabaceae
Doddate
Urticaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Kurigele
Tree
Herb
Undershrub
Dichapetalaceae
Ebenaceae
Bodingina gida
Tree
Tree
Elaeocarpaceae
Urticaceae
Asteraceae
59
20 Kare gida,
Patikkare
Katu kkapi
mara, amme
hannu
Asteraceae
Fabaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume
Amaranthaceae
Cynoglossum zeylanicum (Hornem.)
Thumb.
Boraginaceae
Dalbergia rubiginosa Roxb.
Debregaesia longifolia (Burm. f.)
Wedd.
Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC.
Desmodium triquetrum (L.) DC.
Dichapetalum gelonioides (Roxb.)
Engl.
Diospyros saldhane Kosterm*
climber
Herb
Bhoothala
mara, Dandele
mara
Nelamucchilu,
Naainaalige
soppu
Tree
Undershrub
Herb
60
61
62
Embelia drupacea (Dennst.)
M.R.Almeida & S.M.Almeida
Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC.
Eranthemum capense
Myrsinaceae
Asteraceae
Acanthaceae
Ilikivi
63
Ervatamia heyneana (Wall.)
Cooke.*
Apocynaceae
64
65
Eryngium foetidium L.
Erythropalum scandens Blume
Apiaceae
Erythropalaceae
Bilikodasalu,
Maddarasa,
Kokkekai
Kaadu
kotthambari
66
Euonymus indicus Heyne ex
Wallich*
Celastraceae
67
68
69
Asteraceae
Euphorbiaceae
Gentianaceae
70
Eupatorium odoratum L.
Euphorbia pycnostegia Boiss.*
Exacum bicolor Roxb.
Fahrenhetia zeylanica (Thw.) Airy
Shaw
71
Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq.
Moraceae
72
Flacourtia montana Grah.*
Flacourtiaceae
73
Garcinia morella (Gaertn.) Desr.‡
Clusiaceae
74
75
76
77
78
Gardenia gummifera L. f.*‡
Geissaspis cristata Wight & Arn.
Geophila reniformis D. Don.
Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis
Glochidion ellipticum Wight*
Glochiodon zeylanicum (Gaertn.) A.
Jussieu.
Rubiaceae
Fabaceae
Rubiaceae
Urticaceae
Euphorbiaceae
79
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
82
83
Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) A.
DC.
Gnidia glauca (Fresen.) Gilg
Gomphandra tetrandra (Wall.)
Sleumer
Gouania microcarpa DC.
84
Grewia heterotrichia Mast.*
Tiliaceae
85
86
Grewia serrulata DC.
Grewia tilifolia Vahl.
Griffithiella hookeriana (Tul.)
Warming*
Gymnostachyum latifolium T.
Tiliaceae
Tiliaceae
80
81
87
88
Rutaceae
Thymelaeaceae
21 Shrub
Herb
Woody
climber
Tree
Communist
Weed
Bale, Sotige
(Kan.)
Bettadarali,
kaadu ashwatha
Abluka mara,
Hennu sampige
Ardala, Devana
Huli
Bukki gida,
Dikemali
Kesulle mara
Sarve mara
Paandeelu,
Maanikyana
soppu
Mukuthi, rami
Icacinaceae
Rhamnaceae
Podostemaceae
Acanthaceae
Shrub
Herb
Undershrub
Herb
Herb
Tree
Tree
Tree
Tree
Tree
Herb
Herb
Undershrub
Tree
Tree
Shrub
Tree
Tree
Shrub
Kadujaane,
kalume
Kadpadenji,
Kaori
Thadasalu
Shrub
Tree
Tree
Thalloid
Undershrub
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
Anderson*
Gynura nitida DC.
Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lam.
Asteraceae
Rubiaceae
Helicteres isora L.
Heritieria papilio Bedd.
Holostemma annulare (Roxb.)
Schum.
Sterculiaceae
Sterculiaceae
Hopea ponga Dennst. Mabberly*
Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.Ham.) Oken*₪
Dipterocarpaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Ascelpediaceae
96
Hymenodictyon obovatum Wall.
Rubiaceae
97
98
99
100
Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R. Br.
Impatiens balsamina L.
Impatiens herbicola Hook. f.
Ixora brachiata Roxb.*
Apocynaceae
Balsaminaceae
Balsaminaceae
Rubiaceae
101
102
103
104
Ixora coccinea L.
Ixora nigricans R. Br. Ex
Ixora polyantha Wight.
Justicia japonica Thunb.
Knema attenuata (Hook. f. &
Thomson) Warb.* ∆
Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight*
Launaea acaulis (Roxb.) Babcock.
ex Kerr.
Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr.
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Acanthaceae
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
Lepidagathis cuspidata Nees
Lepidagathis incurva Buch. Ham.
ex. D. Don.
Leucas cephalotes Roth. Spreng.
Leucas lamifolia Desf.
Lindernia crestacea (L.) F. Muell.
Litsea floribunda (Bl.) Gamble
Litsea ghatica Stald.
Litsea laevigata (Nees) Gamble*
Myristicaceae
Lythraceae
Asteraceae
Leeaceae
Ludwigia linifolia Poir.
Acanthaceae
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Campanulaceae
Onagraceae
22 Kayyolu,
Yedamuri
Jeevanthi
Kalmara,
Doddele bogi
Toratti,
Sooorante,
Gavuda mara
Hire mara,
Gandele
Kaarehambu,
Haalu genasu
Korajji
Kepula,
Kiskaara
Raktha mara
Bile nandi
Shrub
Tree
Climber
Tree
Tree
Tree
Climber
Herb
Herb
Tree
Shrub
Shrub
Shrub
Herb
Tree
Tree
Herb
Andilu, Nedthe,
Kaadumaari
drakshi
Acanthaceae
Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth. ex.
Roem. & Schult.
118
Herb
Herb
Curved
Lepidagathis
Shrub
Undershrub
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Tree
Tree
Tree
Kaadu
hogesoppina
gida, Kandele
Herb
Southeastern
primrose willow Herb
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
Lycianthus laevis (Dunal) Bitter
Lymnophila repens (Benth.) Benth.
Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell.Arg.
Solanaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Maesa indica (Roxb.) DC.
Mallotus stenanthus Muell.- Arg.
Maytenus rothiana (Walp.)
Lobreau-Collen*
Memecylon terminale Dalz.*
Merremia umbellata (L.) Hall. f.
Microcarpaea minima (Koeing. ex.
Retz.)
Mimosa pudica L.
Myrsinaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Celastraceae
Melastomataceae
Convolvulaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Rananculaceae
Rubiaceae
Lauraceae
147
148
Moullava spicata (Dalz.) Nicolson*#
Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC.
Neanotis latifolia W. H. Lewis
Neolitsea cassia (L.) Koesterm
Nothapodytes nimmoniana
(Graham) Mabb.
Olea dioica Roxb.
Ophiopogon intermedius D.Don
Ophiorrhiza hirsutula Wight*
Ophiorrhiza rugosa Wall.
Pavetta indica L.
Pavetta thomsonii Bremek.
Pavetta tomentosa Linn.
Pellionia heyneana Wedd.
Phillocepalum scabridum DC.
Kirkman
Phyllanthus amarus Schum &
Thonn.
Phyllanthus lawii Grah.
Pimpinella heyneana (DC.) Kurz.
Plectranthus stocksii Hook. f.*
Pogostemon paniculatus (Willd.)
Benth.
Polyalthia fragrans (Dalz.) Bedd.*
149
150
151
152
Polygonum chinense L. Sp.
Pouzolzia wightii Benn.
Psychotria flavida Talb.*
Psychotria truncata Wall.
Polygonaceae
Urticaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
Icacinaceae
Oleaceae
Haemodoraceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Urticaceae
Uppaliga,
Chandakala
Gudde hargi,
Wild tea
Dutle, Chabli
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Apiaceae
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Anonaceae
Tree
Tree
Tree
Tree
Shrub
Climber
Herb
Nachige mullu,
Touch-me-not
plant
Gajjige balli,
Mullu sundari
Jwara balli
Durvaasane
mara
Hejjeakerkal
Paavate
Asteraceae
23 Herb
Herb
Undershrub
Shrub
Climber
Herb
Tree
Tree
Tree
Herb
Undershrub
Herb
Tree
Tree
Tree
Herb
Herb
Nelanelli
Kaadu oma
Gowri Hoo
Bili konde,
Bilechini
kanagilu
Madambadi
Herb
Undershrub
Herb
Herb
Herb
Tree
Undershrub
Herb
Undershrub
Shrub
153
154
155
Pterospermum diversifolium Blume
Reissantia indica (Willd.) Halle
Rourea minor (Gaertner) Alston
Sterculiaceae
Hippocrataceae
Connaraceae
156
157
158
159
160
Rubia cordifolia L.
Schefflera sp. Forst.
Scutelloria discolor Colebr.
Senecio corymbosus Wall. ex.DC.
Senecio edgeworthii Hook. f.
Rubiaceae
Araliaceae
Lamiaceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borss.
Smithia salsuginea Hance
Solanum viarum Dunar
Sopubia delphinifolia (L.) G. Don.
Spermacoce mauritiana O. Gideon
Spilanthes calva Wt.
Spilanthes radicans (Jacq.) R.K.
Jansen
Malvaceae
Fabaceae
Solanaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Rubiaceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Verbenaceae
Bignoniaceae
169
Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl.
Stereospermum colais (Buch.-Ham.
ex Dillw.) Mabberley
170
171
172
Striga gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke
Strobilanthes sessilis Nees*
Strobilanthus heyneanus Nees
Scrophulariaceae
Acanthaceae
Acanthaceae
173
174
175
176
Strychnos colubrina L.
Swertia corymbosa (Griesb.) Cl.
Symplocos racemosa Roxb.
Syzygium gardneri Thw.
Syzygium laetum(Buch.-Ham.)
Gandhi*
Syzygium wightianum Wall. ex.
Wight & Arn.
Syzygium zeylanicum(L.) DC.
Tarrena asiatica (L.) Kuntze ex K.
Schum.
Loganiaceae
Gentianaceae
Symplocaceae
Myrtaceae
Terminalia crenulata Roth
Tetrastigma gambei Shetty & P.
Singh
Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz.
Bedd.
Combretaceae
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
Bekkinathale
gida, Keramane
soppu
Hommugulu,
Anesthesia
plant
White Spot
flower
Mitaayi hoovina
gida
Padari mara,
Lingadare mara
Naga musti
Baladoddli
Tree
Climber
Woody
climber
Climber
Tree
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Undershrub
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Undershrub
Tree
Parasitic
herb
Herb
Shrub
Woody
climber
Herb
Tree
Tree
Myrtaceae
Tree
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Tree
Tree
Rubiaceae
Kura, Komi,
Tarani
Karimatti,
Banpu
Tree
Tree
Vitaceae
Climber
Malvaceae
Shrub
24 Muchukunda
Kanguna balli
Kakke soppu,
huleechala balli
Manjistha
185
Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding. Hou
Thunbergia mysorensis (Wight) T.
Anderson*
Acanthaceae
186
187
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam.
Torenia bicolor Dalz.
Rutaceae
Scrophulariaceae
184
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
1
2
3
4
5
Tragia hispida Willd.
Tricholepis glaberima DC.
Truimfetta rhomboidea Jacq.
Tylophora pauciflora Wt. & Arn.
ex. Wt.
Urena lobata L.
Vateria indica L.*₪
Vepris bilocularis (Wight & Arn.)
Engl.*
Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd.
Vernonia dalzelliana
Drumm.&Hutch.
Vigna sp. Savi.
Wattakaka volubilus (L. f.) Stapf.
Wendlandia thyrsoidea (Roem. &
Schult.) Steud.*
Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd.
Aristolochiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Asteraceae
Tiliaceae
Ascelpediaceae
Malvaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Rutaceae
Asteraceae
Ascelpediaceae
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS
Aerides crispum Lindl.
Orchidaceae
*†
Arecaceae
Arenga wightii Griffith
Arundinella purpurea Hochst.
Poacaeae
Calamus thwaitesii Becc. & Hook.
Arecaceae
f.
Carex glaucina Baeck. *
Cyperaceae
Arecaceae
Caryota urens L.
11
12
13
Chrysopogon hackelii (Hook. f.)
Fischer
Cleisostoma tenuifolium (L.) Garay
Courtoisia cyperoides Nees
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Purse
Cyperus corymbosus Rottb.
Poacaeae
Orchidaceae
Commelinaceae
Poacaeae
Cyperaceae
Dendrobium ovatum(Willd.)Kranzl.
Dracena terniflora Roxb.
Orchidaceae
Liliaceae
25 Climber
Scandent
shrub
Herb
Climber
Herb
Undershrub
Kaadu tutti
Dhoopa
Climber
Undershrub
Tree
Kaadujeerige
Tree
Herb
Herb
Climber
Hegalaballi,
Kaada baale
balli
Rubiaceae
Rhamnaceae
Undershrub
Aakire balli,
Ursanike
Brahmadandi
Urki
Asteraceae
Fabaceae
6
7
8
9
10
Chakranike
Mysore Clock
Vine
Kaadu
menasina gida
Climber
Tree
Gotta, Mullu
kare
Tree
PE herb
Tree
Herb
Straggler
Bagani, Baini,
Yeend
Herb
Tree
Herb
PE herb
Herb
Garike, Dubgrass Herb
Pangorai (Tamil Herb
Name)
Kage Hoovu
PE Herb
Shrub
Ensete superbum (Roxb.) Cheesman Museaceae
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Eragrostis sp. P. Beauv
Eria dalzellii (Dalz.) Lindl.
Eriocaulon cinereumR. Br.
Eulalia trispicata (Schult.) Honr.
ex. Roem & Schult.
Flickingeria macraei (Lindl.)
Bennet
Floscopa scandens Lour.
Glyphochloa forticulata (Fischer)
Clayton
Heteropogon contortus (L.)
P.Beauv. ex. Roem & Schult.
Ischaemum impressum Hack.
Jansenella griffithiana (C. Muell)
Bor
Murdannia nudiflora(L.) Brenan
Oberonia verticillata Wt.
Pandanus sp. Parkinson.
Peperomia reflexa (L. f.) A. Dietr.
Phoenix humilis Royle
Piper nigrum L.
Poacaeae
Orchidaceae
Eriocoulaceae
Poacaeae
Porpax jerdoniana (Wt.) Rolfe.
Smilax zeylanica L.
Orchidaceae
Liliaceae
Kallubaale
Hittunde hullu
Gigantic
herb
Herb
PE herb
Herb
Herb
Orchidaceae
PE herb
Commelinaceae
Poacaeae
Herb
Herb
Poacaeae
Herb
Poacaeae
Poacaeae
Herb
Herb
Commelinaceae
Orchidaceae
Pandanaceae
Piperaceae
Arecaceae
Piperaceae
Jansen grass
Kari menasu,
Pepper
Chennare balli,
32
Aachari booru
Themeda triandra Forsskal
Poacaeae
Bheemana
hanchi,
33
Benttanchi hullu
*
Zingiber cernuum Dalz.
Zingiberaceae
Curved-stem
Ginger
34
₪ Threatened, ∆ Least Concerned, ‡ Vulnerable, # Monotypic, † Endangered;
*Endemic
Herb
PE herb
Shrub
PE herb
Tree
Climber
PE herb
Climber
Herb
Perennial
herb
Table 3. Some Interesting or curious plants
Sl. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Botanical name
Cynodon dactylon (L.)
Fahrenhetia zeylanica (Thw.) Airy
Shaw
Gnidia glauca (Fresen.) Gilg
Griffithella hookeriana (Tul.)
Warming
Litsea floribunda (Bl.) Gamble
Unique features
Effective in preventing soil erosion
Female buds open in the following year.
Bark and leaves are used as fish poison
A thalloid angiosperm (Plate 53).
Leaf blade sweet to taste, smells slightly of
crushed mango leaves.
26 7
Maesa indica (Roxb.) DC. (Wild
Leaves resemble that of tea plants
Tea)
8
A pretty root parasite amidst grasses, with
Purse
scale leaves and colorful stem & flowers.
9
Strobilanthes sessilis Nees
Blooms once in three years*
10
Major host of Lac insect
*live specimen could not be collected as it was not in flowering during our visit
Table .4 Handsome and Ornamental plants
Sl.No. Botanical name
1
Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Teijsm. &
Binn.
2
Cissus discolor Blume
3
Debregaesia longifolia (Burm. f.) Wedd.
4
Flacourtia montana Grah.
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.-Ham.)
Oken
Memecylon terminale Dalz.
Pavetta indica L.
Syzygium wightianum Wall. ex. Wight &
Arn.
Syzygium zeylanicum (L.) DC.
Terminalia crenulata Roth
Thunbergia mysorensis (Wight) T.
Anderson
Vateria indica L.
Unique features
Handsome tree,branches are used as walking
stick
A slender climber with pretty blotched leaves
Ornamental plant
With long spines (5-8 cm long) and cherry-red,
grape-sized edible sour fruits
Ornamental foliage, woody fruits
Shrub with attractive white inflorescence with
dark red calyx
A very handsome shrub with bluish flowers
A small tree with pretty white fragrant flowers
A beautiful tree
Showy when blooming and full of red fruits
A handsome little tree with white flowers and
white fruits
With chartaceous leaves and reddish fruits
Climber with beautiful, pendent inflorescence.
Cultivated as an avenue tree
4.3 Recorded Fauna
As the Kodachadri forest area is known for its geographical variation like level areas to
mountains areas with ridges and furrows, streams etc., and various type vegetations like
evergreen forests, shoals and grassland, it is also rich in their faunal diversity.
4.3.1 Arthropods
Arthropods include an incredibly diverse group of taxa such as insects, crustaceans,
spiders, scorpions, millipedes and centipedes.
Since many arthropod species remain
undocumented or undiscovered, especially in tropical rain forests, the true number of living
arthropod species is vast. Narceus species, a black coloured scavenging millipede, Scolopendra
hardwickei (Indian Tiger Centipede), a ferocious predator with alternate orange and black
colour, a fascinating insect Fulgora species (Lantern Fly) which protects itself by displaying
27 fake eyes on its wings (Plate 108), Carausis species (stick insect /walking stick) which
resembles dead twig with brown colour were observed .
Butterflies
Seventy six species of butterflies were documented in the study area which belongs to
five families. The lists of butterflies are given in table 5 & photos (plate 109-122). 50% of the
species belongs to Nymphalidae family which represents the highest out of five families. Two
endangered species Danaid eggfly and Crimson rose (Plate 113 & 117) and two endemic
species of Western Ghats namely, Blue oakleaf and Southern birdwing (Plate 115 & 117) were
documented during the study period. Many species like Common bluebottle, Common
emigrant, Plum judy etc were found mud-puddling close to the streams and some species like
Painted lady, Common sailor, Chocolate pansy, were basking in the open bushy areas. Tamil
lacewing, Common crow, Dark blue tiger were nectoring on flowers. Species like Painted lady,
Great orange tip, Yellow orange tip were recorded from hilltops. Caterpillar of Common crow
feeding on Ficus recemosa (Plate 119,) Common emigrant feeding on Cassia fistula (Plate
120), & Common mormon on Citrus species were also observed (Plate 121). Groups of Dark
blue tiger & Glassy tiger were found feeding on Crotolaria species (Plate 122).
Table 5: List of butterflies documented from the study area
FAMILY- HESPERIIDAE
Sl. No.
Common name
Scientific name
1
Water snow flat
2
Tamil grass dart
3
Dark palm dart
4
Rice swift
5
Indian palm bob
6
Chestnut bob
7
Restricted demon
8
Pygmy scrub hopper
FAMILY- PAPILIONIDAE
9
Common bluebottle
10
Tailed jay
11
Common mime
12
Common mormon
13
Red helen
14
Blue mormon
15
Lime butterfly
16
Common banded peacock
17
Common rose
Tagiades litigiosa (Moschler)
Taractrocera ceramas (Hewitson)
Telicota ancilla (Herrich-Schaffer)
Borbo cinnara (Wallace)
Suastus gremius (Fabricius)
Iambrix salsala (Moore)
Notocrypta curvifascia (C.&R.Felder)
Aeromachus pygmaeus (Fabricius)
Graphium sarpedon (Linnaeus)
Graphium Agamemnon (Linnaeus)
Chilasa clytia (Linnaeus)
Papilio polytes (Linnaeus)
Papilio helenus (Linnaeus)
Papilio polymnestor(Cramer)
Papilio demoleus (Linnaeus)
Papilio crino (Fabricius)
Atrophaneura aristolochiae (Fabricius)
28 18
Crimson rose *
19
Southern birdwing **
FAMILY-PIERIDAE
20
Three spot grass yellow
21
Common grass yellow
22
Common emigrant
23
Yellow orange tip
24
Great orange tip
25
Common wanderer
26
Indian cabbage white
27
Common jezebel
28
Psyche
FAMILY- LYCAENIDAE
29
Common imperial
30
Common pierrot
31
Angled pierrot
2
Banded blue pierrot
33
Dingy lineblue
34
Common cerulean
35
Red pierrot
36
Quaker
37
Common hedge blue
38
Plum judy
FAMILY- NYMPHALIDAE
39
Blue tiger
40
Dark blue tiger
41
Plain tiger
42
Glassy tiger
43
Common crow
44
Common evening brown
45
Dark evening brown
46
Bamboo treebrown
47
Common palmfly
48
Common bushbrown
49
Dark-band bushbrown
50
Gladeye bushbrown
51
Nigger
52
Common fivering
53
Common fourring
54
Tawny coster
55
Tamil lacewing
56
Cruiser
Atrophaneura hector (Linnaeus)
Troides minos (Cramer)
Eurema blanda (Biosduval)
Eurema hecabe (Linnaeus)
Catopsilia Pomona (Fabricius)
Ixias pyrene (Linnaeus)
Hebomoia glaucippe (Linnaeus)
Pareronia valeria (Cramer)
Pieris canidia (Sparrman)
Delias eucharis (Drury)
Leptosia nina (Fabricius)
Cheritra freja (Fabricius)
Castalius rosimon (Fabricius)
Caleta caleta (Hewitson)
Discolampa ethion (Westwood)
Petrelaea dana (de Niceville)
Jamides celeno (Cramer)
Talicada nyseus (Guerin-Meneville)
Neopithecops zalmora (Butler)
Acytolepis puspa (Horsfield)
Abisara echerius (Stoll)
Tirumala limniace (Cramer)
Tirumala septentrionis (Butler)
Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus)
Parantica aglea (Stoll)
Euploea core (Cramer)
Melanitis leda (Linnaeus)
Melanitis phedima (Cramer)
Lethe europa (Fabricius)
Elymnias hypermnesrta (Linnaeus)
Mycalesis perseus (Fabricius)
Mycalesis mineus (Linnaeus)
Mycalesis patina (Moore)
Orsotrioena medus (Fabricius)
Ypthima baldus (Fabricius)
Ypthima huebneri (Kirby)
Acraea violae (Fabricius)
Cethosia nietneri (C.&R.Felder)
Vindula erota (Fabricius)
29 57
Tamil yeoman
Cirrochroa thais (Fabricius)
58
Rustic
Cupha erymanthis (Drury)
59
Common leopard
Phalanta phalantha (Drury)
60
Commander
Moduza procris (Cramer)
61
Common sergeant
Athyma perius (Linnaeus)
62
Common lascar
Pantoporia hordonia (Stoll)
63
Common sailer
Neptis hylas (Linnaeus)
64
Clipper
Parthenos Sylvia (Cramer)
65
Common baron
Euthalia aconthea (Cramer)
66
Gery count
Tanaecia lepidea (Butler)
67
Common map
Cyrestis thyodamas (Biosduval)
68
Angled castor
Ariadne ariadne (Linnaeus)
69
Common castor
Ariadne merione (Cramer)
70
Painted lady
Vanessa cardui (Linnaeus)
71
Chocolate pansy
Junonia iphita (Cramer)
72
Grey pansy
Junonia atlites (Linnaeus)
73
Lemon pansy
Junonia lemonias (Linnaeus)
74
Great eggfly
Hypolimnas bolina (Linnaeus)
75
Danaid eggfly*
Hypolimnas misippus (Linnaeus)
76
Blue oakleaf **
Kallima horsfieldi (Kollar)
* Endangered
** Endemic to Western Ghats
4.3.2. Amphibians
Amphibians are one of the best biological indicators of health of the ecosystem. Seven
species of frogs have been observed from the study area. Three endemic species namely
Indirana semipalmatus, Micrixalus elegans and Rana curtipes (tadpole) were reported (Plate
123 & 124). The eggs of Hylarana temporalis and tadpoles of Rana curtipes were observed in
the streams of the study area. The documented amphibians from the study area have been listed
in Table 6.
Table 6. List of Amphibians documented from the study area
S.N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Common name
Indian Bull frog
Brown leaping frog
Bronzed frog
The indian skipper frog
Elegant torrent frog
Bi-colored Frog
* Endemic to India
Scientific Name
Hoplobatrachus tigerinus (L.,)
Indirana semipalmatus (Boulenger,1882)**
Hylarana temporalis (Gunther,1864)
Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Schneider, 1799)
Micrixalus elegans *(Rao,1937)
Rana curtipes**
Hylarana cf. intermedius
** Endemic to peninsular India & Western Ghats
30 4.3.3. Reptiles.
Nine species of reptiles were observed during the field study. The checklist of reptiles
observed from the Kodachadri region is provided in Table 7 .Vine snake, Striped keelback and
rat snake were commonly seen near the human settlements. The Painted Bronzeback tree snake
and Indian ornate Flying Snake were observed in the thick forests Plate 125. The Common
Skink, (Mabuya macularia) was observed in the mountain top of the Kodachadri (Plate 126).
Indian Rock python (Python molurus morulus), King cobra /kalingasarpa (Ophiophagus
hannah), Indian Cobra/nagarahavu (Naja naja), Russell’s viper/kannadi havu (Daboia
russelii), Common krait/kattada havu (Bungarus caeruleus), Malabar pit viper/Malabar
gulimandala (Trimeresurus malabaricus), have been reported by the people to be prevalent in
the region. Although many trekkers had seen King Cobra during trekking, we did not come
across the same.
Table 7: List of Reptiles documented from the study area
Sl.no
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Common name
Garden lizard
Flying lizard
Common skink
Green vine snake
Rat snake
Water snake
Painted Bronzeback tree snake
Striped keelback
Indian ornate flying Snake
Scientific name
Calotes sp
Draco sp
Mabuya macularia (Blyth, 1853)
Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacepede, 1789)
Ptyas Mucosus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Xenocrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799)
Dendrelaphis pictus (Gmelin, 1789)
Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus, 1758)
Chrysopelea ornate (Shaw, 1802)
4.3.4 Birds
A total of 70 species of birds were documented of which 15 species are endemic to
Western Ghats and Southern India. The checklists of birds are given in table 8 and some of the
photos are given in Plate 127-136 The Malabar grey hornbill (Ocyceros griseus) and Malabar
Pied hornbill(Anthracoceros coronatus) were found in the thick canopy of the forest. The area
also had Indian openbill (Anastomus oscitans), a large migrating bird of Asia. The Brahminy
kite, Common pariah kite, Ashy swallow-shrike, House swift, Yellow-throated bulbul were
observed in the higher altitude and Indian myna, Jungle babbler, Magpie robin, Large pied
Wagtail, Blackheaded munia, Spotted munia, Yellow wagtail, Crow-Pheasant, Whitethroated
ground Thrush were recorded from the lower altitudinal region of the Kodachadri. In the study
area, the populations of Blue rock pigeon, Small Green bee-eater, Black drongo, Jungle crow,
Indian Myna, Red whiskered Bulbul were more. Birds like Jungle babbler, Ashy swallowshrike, Blackheaded munia were observed in large groups.
31 Table 8. List of birds documented from the study area
Sl.no
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
Common name
Little cormorant
Pond heron
Night heron
Cattle egret
Little egret
Indian openbill
Little Ringed plover
Common pariah kite
Brahminy kite
Shikra
Red spurfowl
Common peafowl
Redwattled lapwing
Blue rock piegon
Pompadour Green pigeon**
Spotted dove
Roseringed parakeet
Plum headed parakeet***
Lorikeet
Koel
Crow-Pheasant or Coucal
House swift
Pied kingfisher
Whitebreasted kingfisher
Small blue Kingfisher
Small green bee-eater
Malabar grey hornbill **
Malabar pied hornbill ***
Small yellownaped woodpecker
Black Rumped flameback***
Great black woodpecker
Small green barbet
Coppersmith barbet
Golden oriole
Black headed oriole
Black drongo
Racket-tailed drongo
White bellied Drongo***
Ashy swallow-shrike
Rufous backed shrike
Scientific name
Phalacrocorax niger (Vielliot)
Ardeola grayii (Sykes)
Nycticorax nicticorax (L.,)
Bubulcus ibis (L.,)
Egretta garzetta
Anastomus oscitans
Charadrius dubius
Milvus migrans
Haliastur Indus (Boddaert)
Accipiter badius (Gmelin)
Galloperdix lunulata
Pavo cristatus (L.,)
Vanellus indicus (Boddaert)
Columba livia (Gmelin)
Treron pompadora
Streptopelia chinensis (Scopoli)
Psittacula krameri (Scopoli)
Psittacula cyanocephala
Loriculus vernalis
Eudynamys scolopacea(L.,)
Centropus sinensis (Stephens)
Apus affinis (J.E. Gray)
Ceryle rudis (L.,)
Halcyon smyrnensis (L.,)
Alcedo atthis
Merops orientalis (Lantham)
Ocyceros griseus
Anthracoceros coronatus(Boddaert)
Picus chlorolophus
Dinopium benghalense (L.,)
Dryocopus javensis
Megalaima viridis
Megalaima haemacephala
Oriolus oriolus (L.,)
Oriolus xanthornus
Dicrurus adsimilis (Vieillot)
Dicrurus paradiseus (L.,)
Dicrurus caerulescens
Artamus fuscus (Vieillot)
Lanius Schach
32 41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
** ***
Indian myna
Jungle myna
Indian tree pie
Whitebellied tree pie **
House crow
Jungle crow
Goldenfronted chloropsis
Common iora
Black headed bulbul
Yellow-throated Bulbul***
Redvented bulbul
Redwhiskered bulbul
Scarlet minivet***
Jungle babbler***
Common babbler***
Paradise flycatcher
Blacknaped blue flycatcher
Asian paradise-flycatcher
Magpie robin
Whitethroated ground thrush
Yellow wagtail
Large pied wagtail***
Tickell’s flowerpecker***
Purple sunbird
Purple rumped sunbird ***
Crimson rumped sunbird**
Little spiderhunter
House sparrow
Blackheaded munia
Spotted munia
Endemic to Western Ghats
Endemic to South India
Acridotheres tristis (L.,)
Acridotheres fuscus
Dendrocitta vagabunda (Lantham)
Dendrocitta leucogastra
Corvus splendens (Vieillot)
Corvus macrorhynchos (Wagler)
Chloropsis cochinchinensis (Gmelin)
Aegithina tiphia (L.,)
Pycnonotus melanicterus
Pycnonotus xantholaemus
Pycnonotus cafer (L.,)
Pycnonotus jocosus
Pericrocotus flammeus
Turdoides striatus
Turdoides caudata
Terpsiphone paradisi (L.,)
Hypothymis azurea
Terpsiphone paradise
Copsychus saularis (L.,)
Zootheraa citrine (Lantham)
Motacilla flava (L.,)
Motacilla maderaspatensis (Gmelin)
Dicaeum erythrorhynchos
Nectarinia asiatica (Lantham)
Leptocoma zeylonica (L.,)
Nectarinia minima
Arachnothera longirostris
Passer domesticus (L.,)
Lonchura malacca (L.,)
Lonchura punctulata (L.,)
4.3.5. Mammals
Seven species of mammals are listed in the table 9. Indian giant squirrel or Malabar
giant squirrel (Ratufa indica), an endemic species of India was observed in the thick canopy of
the Kodachadri hill top (Plate137). The herd of Indian bison was encountered on the way to the
Adi Mookambika temple. It was known from the localities of Kodachadri that an Indian
Elephant was also spotted during the time of our field visit. Some mammals like Indian
porcupine (Hystrix indica), Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), Jungle cat (Felis chaus), Tiger
(Panthera tigris), Leopard (Panthera paradus), Lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus), Palm
33 civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Black-naped hare (Lepus nigricollis) missed our eye, but
we were proud to note from the local people that the above mentioned mammals have made the
Kodachadri their home.
Table 9. List of mammals documented from the study area
Sl.no Common name
**
Scientific name
1
Malabar giant squirrel **
Ratufa indica (Erxleben, 1777)
2
Three striped palm squirrel
Funambulus palmarum (Linnaeus,1766)
3
Indian bison or gaur
Bos gaurus (H. Smith,1872)
4
Bonnet macaque
Macaca radiata (E. Geoffroy,1812)
5
Wild boar
Sus scrofa (Wagner)
6
The Indian elephant
Elephas maximus indicus (Linnaeus, 1958)
7
Common Indian Mangoose
Herpestes edwardsi (E. Geoffroy, 1818)
Endemic to Western Ghats
34 Plate 1. Shola forest & grassland Courtesy: Sri V.V. Bhat
Plate 2. Team at Sarvajna peetha
35 Plate 3. Grassland with
w herbs Courtesy:
C
Sri V.V. Bhaat
Plaate 4. Grasslland with Phoenix shru
ubs Courtessy: Sri V.V.. Bhat
36 Plate 5.
5 Landscap
pe
Plate 6. Effect of wind
w
37 Plate 7. Macromitrium sulcatum
Plate 8. Pogunetum aloides
38 Plate 9. Asplenium nidus (Bird’s Nest)
Plate 10 Cheilanthus farinosa
39 Plate 11. Lycopodium cernuum
Courtesy: Dr. Sreedhara H.G.
Plate 12.Pteridium aquilineum Royal fern Courtesy: Sri V.V. Bhat
40 Plate 13. Abelmoschus angulosus
Plate 14. Adenia hondala
41 Plate 15. Alternanthera tenella
Plate 16. Ammania baccifera
42 Plate 17. Angelonia salicarifolia
Plate 18. Asystasia variabilis
43 Plate 19. Atlantia racemosa
Plate 20. Atrabotrys zeylanicus Courtesy: Dr. Sreedhara H.G
44 Plate 21.Barleria involucrata Courtesy: Sri V.V. Bhat
Plate 22. Bauhinia phoenica
45 Plate 23. Begonia malabarica
Plate 24. Blachia calycina
46 Plate 25. Blepharis asperimma
Courtesy: Dr. Sreedhara H.G
Plate 27. Callicarpa tomentosa
47 Plate 26. Boehmeria platyphylla
Plate 28. Calycopteris floribunda- Enjir balli
Plate 29. Canthium coromandelicum
-Kaare gida
48 Plate 30. Canscora diffusa
Plate 31. Canthium dicoccum 49 Plate 32. Chasalia curviflora Kaadu garudapaathala
Plate 33. Cinnamomum macrocarpum 50 Plate 34. Crassocephalum crepidioides Plate 35. Dendrobium ovatum
Courtesy: Sri V.V. Bhat
Plate 36. Desmodium triflorum.
51 Plate 37. Desmodium triquetrum
Plate 38. Elatostemma acuminatum
52 Platee 39. Elephaantopus sca
aber (Nelam
muchel)
Plate 40.. Eranthemu
um capensee
53 Plate 41. Ervatimia heyneana- Kokke Kayi
Plate 42. Euonymus indicus Courtesy: Deepak.Naik
54 Platee 43. Eupatoorium odora
atum- Comm
munist weeed
Plate 44. Exacum
m bicolor – Akka tangi gida
55 Plate 45. Ficus racemosa Courtesy: Sri V.V. Bhat
Plate 46. Flacourtia montana- Abluka
56 Plate 47. Geophila reniformis Plate 48. Glycosmis pentaphylla Plate 49. Girardinia diversifolia 57 Plate 50. Gnidia glauca Courtesy: Sri V.V. Bhat
Plate 51. Grewia heterotrichia Courtesy: Dr. Sreedhara H..G
58 Plate 52. Grewia serrulata- Kadpadenji Plate 53. Griffithella hookeriana
Plate 54. Grewia serrulata 59 Plate 55. Helicteres isora – Kayyolu Plate 56. Hopea ponga –kari mara
60 Plate 57. Impatiens herbicola Plate 58. Ixora coccinea – Kepula 61 Plate 59. Ixora polyantha Infloreescence Plate 60. Lagerstroemia microcarpa-Nandi mara 60
62 Plate 61. Leea indica (Nedthe) Plate 62. Leucas cephalotes 63 Plate 63. Lindernia crustacea Plate 64. Litsea sp. Courtesy: Dr. Sreedhara H.G
64 Plate 65. Macaranga peltata- Uppaliga
Plate 66 Maesa indica
65 Plate 67 Memeceylon terminale Courtesy: Dr. Sreedhara H.G
Plate 68. Merremia umbellata
66 Plate 69 Moullava spicata(Mullu sundari) Courtesy: Dr. Sreedhara H.G
Plate 70. Nothopodytes nimmoniana Courtesy: Dr. Sreedhara H.G
67 Plate 71. Pavetta indica-Paavate Courtesy: Dr. Sreedhara H.G
Plate 72. Phyllanthus amarus
– Nelanelli
68 Plate 73. Psychotria sp.
Plate 74. Polygonum chinensis Courtesy: Sri V. V. Bhat
69 Plate 75 Rubia cordifolia
Plate 76 Sida cordata – Bekkina tale gida
70 Plate 77. Solanum viarum
Plate 78. Spilanthes radicans
Plate 79. Stachytarpheta indica 71 Plate 80 Striga orobanchoides
Plate 81 Strobilanthes sessilis Courtesy: Sri V.V.Bhat
72 Plate 82 Symplocos racemosa Courtesy: Dr. Sreedhara H.G
Plate 83 Syzygium sp.
73 Plate 84 Tarenna asiatica
Plate 85 Thottea siliquosa- Chakranike 74 Plate 86. Thunbergia mysorensis
Plate 87. Tragia hispida- Ursanige
Plate 88. Tricholepis glaberimma 75 Plate 89. Truimfetta rhomboidea- Urki gida
Plate 90. Urena lobata
76 Plate 91. Vernonia anthelmentica
Plate 92. Vernonia dalzelliana
77 Plate 93. Ziziphus xylopyrus
Plate 94. Arenga wightii
78 Plate 95. Caryota urens Courtesy: Shivaprakash
Plate 96. Cleisostoma tenulifolium
79 Plate 97. Ensete superbum
, Kallubaale
Plate 98. Eriocaulon sp.
80 Plate 99. Peperomia
reflexa
Plate 100. Phoenix humilis
81 Plate 101. Zingiber cernuum
Plate 102. Ganoderma sp.
82 Plate 103. Polystictus perrenis
Plate 104. Daedalia querciana
83 Plate 105 Xylaria sp.
Plate 106. Xylaria heterocarpon
84 Bracket fungi
Plate 107
85 A. Indian tiger centipede ( Scolopendra hardwickei) B. Millipede (Narceus species) C. Lantern Fly (Fulgora species)Courtesy: Puttaraju Plate: 108 Arthropods
86 A. Blue tiger (Tirumala limniace)
B. Dark blue tiger (Tirumala septentrionis) Courtesy: Deepak.Naik
Plate: 109
87 A. Common evening bown (Melanitis leda)
B. Common fourring (Ypthima huebneri)
Plate 110
88 A. Grey pansy (Junonia atlites)
B. Lemon pansy (Junonia lemonias)
Plate 111
89 A.Chocolate pansy (Junonia iphita)
B. Plain tiger (Danaus chrysippus)
Plate 112
90 A. Danaid eggfly (Hypolimnas misippus )
B. Great eggfly (Hypolimnas bolina)
Plate 113
91 A. Tamil lacewing (Cethosia nietneri) Courtesy: Deepak.Naik
B. Tawny coster (Acraea violae)
Plate 114 92 A. Painted lady (Vanessa cardui)
B. Blue oakleaf (Kallima horsfieldi ) Courtesy: Kirana.M.P
Plate 115
93 A. Quaker (Neopithecops zalmora) Courtesy: Deepak.Naik
B. Psyche (Leptosia nina)
Plate 116
94 A. Crimsonn rose (Atro
ophaneura hector)
h
Southern biirdwing (Trroides minoos)
Plate 117
7
95 A. Indian palm bob (Suastus gremius)
B Dark palm dart (Telicota ancilla)
Plate 118
96 A. Common crow (Euploea core)
B.Caterpillar feeding on Ficus racemosa Courtesy: Deepak.Naik
Plate 119
97 A. Common emigrant (Catopsilia pomona)
B.Caterpillar feeding on Cassia fistula Courtesy: Deepak.Naik
Plate 120
98 A. Common mormon (Papilio polytes)
B. Caterpillar feeding on Citrus species Courtesy: Deepak.Naik
Plate: 121 99 Plate: 121 Dark blue tiger & Glassy tiger on Crotalaria species
Courtesy: Deepak.Naik
Plate 122
100 A. The Brown Leaping Frog (Indirana semipalmatus)
B. Elegant Torrent Frog( Micrixalus cf. elegans)
Plate 123
101 A. Egg mass (spawn)) of Hylaranna
temporaalis
B. Bronzzed Frog (H
Hylarana tem
mporalis)
C. Hylaranna cf. interm
medius
Plate: 12
24
102 D. The
T tadepolees of Rana curtipes,
c
Bi-collored Frog
A.Indian ornate Flying Snake (Chrysopelea ornate)
Courtesy: Vishwas
B. Painted Bronzeback Tree snake (Dendrelaphis pictus)
Plate 125
103 A. Common skink (Mabuya macularia)
B. Flying Lizard (Draco sp)
Plate 126
104 A. Little Corm
morant (Pha
alacrocoraxx niger)
B. Little
L
Ringedd plover (Chharadrius dubius)
d
Coourtesy: Puttaaraju.K
Plate 127
105 A.Pompadour Green pigeon (Treron pompadora) Courtesy: Puttaraju.K
B. Blue Rock pigeon (Columba livia)
Courtesy: Puttaraju.K
Plate 128
106 A.Plum headed parakeet (Psittacula cyanocephala)
Small blue Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis)
Plate 129
107 Malaabar Grey Hoornbill (Ocycceros griseuss) Courtesy : Putturaju K Malabar pied
p hornbilll (Anthraco
oceros coronnatus)
Courtesy: Puttturaju K
Plate 130
108 A. Coppersmith barbet (Megalaima haemacephala)
Courtesy : Putturaju K
B. Black Rumped flameback (Dinopium benghalense)
C. Black Drongo (Dicrurus macrocercus)
Plate 131
109 B. White bellied Drongo
(Dicrurus caerulescens)
A. Racket-tailed Drongo
Dicrurus paradiseus
C. Rufous backed shrike (Lanius Schach)
Plate: 132
110 A.Jungle Myna (Acridotheres fuscus)
B. Common Iora (Aegithina tiphia) Courtesy : Putturaju K
Plate 133
111 A.Red vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer)Courtesy
: Putturaju K
B. Scarlet Minivet (Pericrocotus flammeus)
Plate: 134
112 A. Jungle babbler
b
(Tu
urdoides striiatus)
B.Ticckell’s floweerpecker
(Dicaaeum erythroorhynchos)
C
Courtesy:
Puuttaraju.K
B.Large pied wagtaail
(M
Motacilla m
maderaspateensis) Plate: 13
35
113 B. Purplee Sunbird (N
Nectarinia asiatica)Ma
a
ale
A Purple ruumped sunbbird (Leptoccoma)
A.
zeylonica)
C.C
Crimson backed Sun Bird(Female
B
e)
(Aeethopyga sipparaja) Coourtesy: Putttaraju. K
Plate 136
114 D.Purpple sunbird (Nectarinia
a asiatica)F
Female
Plate: 137. Malabaar giant squiirrel (Rautaffa indica) 115 5. Recommendations from the study:
1.
Out of the 234 plant species listed, 38 were identified as endemic to Western Ghats; hence
conservation efforts become essential to ensure that they survive the test of time. Collection of
seeds, seedlings, plantlets and propagules, can help in conservation. Besides, there is scope for
propagation of some endemic plants through tissue culture. This will also ensure that the
species survives at places other than its natural habitat in the face of habitat destruction.
2.
Concepts like giving appropriate plants as gift, ‘daana’, mementoes and ‘vriksha prasada’
will be useful in conservation of biodiversity. Temples like Mookambika temple at Kolluru
can arrange for diverse plants which can be distributed as ‘vriksha prasada’ (as done by
Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams Trust) at nominal cost; the devotees and visitors can also gift
them away to their relatives and friends.
3.
The negative impact of anthropogenic activities like-hill cutting for road near the guest
house (with potential for soil erosion) and visual pollution created by visitors/tourists near
Sarvajna Peetha (by discarding plastic and paper materials) was visible. The study team
recommends construction of ropeway to connect Kollur to Adi Mookambika temple to prevent
disturbances to the prestine forest and as a better alternative to the risky and tiresome travel in
jeeps through the zig zag katcha road. Such a ropeway also would provide a panaromic view
of the canopy of the ever-green forests. Since there will be a stream of income generated by
the piligrims and the tourists, such a ropeway project can be explored under public-private
partnership, wherein the Government of Karnataka and the temple at Kollur can provide
viability gap funding, if required.
4. Awareness on conservation of biodiversity and prevention of pollution may be promoted
among visitors and tourists.
5. In view of the legendary fame of Kodachadri as the haven of medicinal plants, a more
exhaustive survey of medicinal plants may be useful for identification and conservation.
6.
The Shola forest and grasslands may be studied with the help of satellite imagery as to
whether the extent of grassland has undergone change over the decades. Though no specific
conclusions could be drawn from the comparative soil testing and study of the Shola forest and
the grassland, whether the grass species cause any allelopathy may be studied. The possibility
of their roots having some toxic effect on other varieties of vegetation, high mineral content in
soil not being amenable to forest growth and the inability of the forest tree varieties to
encroach into grassland may be scientifically investigated.
116 7. We have not been able to source any historical evidence regarding the famous iron pillar at
Kodachadri. Hence, the antiquity and historical aspects of the unique iron pillar may be
researched. The scientific investigation of its ability to withstand the impact of saline weather
and wind blowing from the west coast towards the ghats may be undertaken. The result of the
non-destructive testing conducted by Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam,
particularly the results of spectroscopy and carbon dating are awaited.
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120 Annexure –I
SOIL NUTRIENT, MICROBIAL STUDIES AND LITHO-PEDO-HYDRO-GEOCHEMICAL
ANALYSIS OF KODACHADRI AREA- WESTERN GHATS KARNATAKA
G.N.Hegde and A.K.Rai1
Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research
Bangalore-560 072, 1Hyderabad- 500 016
1. INTRIDUCTION
Kodachadri (Lat-13˚ 51' 39"; Long-74˚ 52' 29") is a hilly region with peak altitude of 1343m, in
the ‘Western Ghats’ of Shimoga district, Karnataka. The region is known for its unique biodiversity,
shola landscape, thick forests, complex geology, rich iron ores and number of scenic spots of tourists’
interest. It is located in the Hosanagara taluk of Shimoga district Karnataka at about 21km from Kollur
Mookambika Temple. The annual rain fall range form 500-750cm, is reported in the region.
Multidisciplinary investigations involving the biodiversity studies by ISRO BangaloreHyderabad and Vivekananda College, Puttur, study of rustless iron pillar by IGCAR Kalpakam and
geological sampling and analysis by AMD Bangalore were held during the period from 21.11.2011 to
27.11.2011at Kodachadri. The soil, rock and water sample results are presented in this report vis-à-vis
general field geological observation. Two distinct types of studies were done on shola and forest zone
soils: (i) The soil nutrient and microbial analysis to assist different landscape studies that involves plant
diversity and (ii) the analysis of soil chemistry to understand mineral and metal contents.
1.1 Soil, rock, water sample collection and analysis
a)
Collection of soil samples form shola and non-shola regions, grass lands at high altitude, fringe
zones of thickly vegetated areas and within the tick forest areas to understand the differences in
nutrients’, microbial and metal contents, etc.
b)
Collection of water samples from Kodachadri area especially the one originating from the hilly
terrains, from reservoir back waters and other interesting spots for chemical analysis to record the
composition of the water in the region.
c)
Rock sample collection form different litho-units for petrological investigations and whole rock
as well as trace element analysis to know the mineral and metal content of economic significance or
geological importance.
121 d)
Radiometric checking at various places to observe radioactive background levels and anomaly
zones if any.
2. FIELD TRAVERSES
During the period, field traverses were organised at three typical landscape regions, viz., (i) selected
high altitude shola grass lands (ii) thick pristine forests in the valley regions and (iii) reservoir back
water areas. Traverses were aimed at general geological, landscape or geo-morphological observations
as well as soil, rock and water sample collections at appropriate locations. A brief account of the field
trekking is given in the table Table-1.
Table-1. Details of field trekking
Sl.No.
1
Places/tracts
Nature of landscape
Kodachadri high altitude
High altitude shola
hill ranges.
landscape.
Remarks
Geological and geo-morphological
observations. Radiometric checking and
collection of soil, rock and water samples.
Thick forests
2
Hidlamane and
bifurcated by narrow
valleys with steep
Arishinagundi valleys.
Geological observations and radiometric
checking.
scarps originating
several water falls.
3
Hasarmakki, Chakra and
Reservoir back water
Water sampling and observations on feed
Savehakkalu areas.
regions.
valleys.
Trekking was taken up along the following five tracts.
1. Kodachadri-Chtramoola tract.
2. Across the Kodachadri high altitude shola lands.
3. Hidlamane valley tract.
4. Dali-Arishinagundi tract.
5. Back water areas at Hasarmakki, Chakra and Savehakkalu.
3. GEOLOGICAL FIELD OBSERVATIONS AND SAMPLING
Geomorphology: The study area (Lat: 13˚ 51' 0.66" - 13˚ 55' 57.6”; Long: 74˚ 46' 5.6" - 74˚ 52' 56.62")
is located along Kodachadri-Kollur tract (Toposheet No. 48K/13), forms the part of the Western Ghats
(Fig. 1).
122 Fig 1. Google imag
ge of the areaa
The Koddachadri higgh altitude (m
maximum, 1343m
1
at Saarvagnya peeetaha), hilly terrain is bounded by
steep esscarpments in the westtern and SW
W side with
h a graduallly sliding eeastern and NE parts.
Accordingly, the weestern part off the hilly reggion poses sharp
s
gorges,, narrow gulllies and deep
p erosional
valleys allowing
a
rapidly flowingg rivers and streamlets, whereas the eaastern part iss the back
Fig 2. Hidlamane
H
water
w
falls
123 water regions of reservoirs, with small hillocks emerging within the water regime.
The western
landscape is responsible for the origin of many water falls (Figs. 2 & 3) along the narrow gushing
streams exposing the bed rocks, in an otherwise thickly forested soil covered area.
Fig. 3 Arishinagundi water falls
124 Shola landscape: In the study area west and SW of high altitude region is directly invaded by
the fast moving SW-monsoon winds and heavy rains, which pronounces intense erosion and
denudation. On the other hand, the eastern and the low lying valley regions are less affected by the
monsoon winds, as a result of which, the fertile top soil in the high altitude regions is constantly
removed and transported to the low lying areas, which may be one of the reasons for conspicuous
absence of deep rooted large trees or forests in the high altitude regions, which are restricted with the
grass cover, ultimately leading into the shola land escape (Fig. 4). The land type classification in
relation to the altitude with roughly demarcated boundaries is given in Table-2.
Fig. 4 Shola landscape of Kodachadri
125 Observation
~Altitude
Land type
Sarvagnya peetaha, Kodachadri
1343m
Grass land
Beginning of first order streams
1000m
~10 km
(grass land-forest land interface)
Thick forests,
650m
Foot hill regions with gradual
increase in forest cover
250m
Beginning of plane land with
thick population
Populated
0.5m
Costal stretch
Table-2. Land type classification of the area
Geological outline and stratigraphy: The study area comprises a part of the Western Dharwar
Craton (WDC) where the mingmatite-granite-peninsular gneissic complex is over lain by volcanosedimentary sequence of Bababudan Group of rocks. Irregular patches of laterite occasionally cap at the
top. The Bababudan Group is wide spread in area which is composed of conglomerate, amphibolite,
quartzite, banded iron formation, chlorite/phyllitic schist, metabasalt and meta-greywake/argillite.
However, during the traverses three important litho-units viz., quartzite, banded iron formation and
schist were encountered and investigated.
The elevated hilly terrain mainly consists of banded iron formation (BIF)-mostly being banded
magnetite quartzite (Fig. 5), with number of intermittent outcrops exposures. A thin layer of top soil
with reddish to reddish brown colour supports the grass cover. BIF exhibit numerous macro to mega
scale normal folds and recline folds indicating multiple structural history. Surface exposures often show
stacked appearance of thin iron rich layers separated by small gaps formed due to the removal of silica
rich portions.
126 The top layer of the high altitude grass land is generally hard, mainly contains gavel to sand sized
materials bounded or cemented by finer soil. The first order streams leading into sudden deep gorges
contain accumulated pieces and fragments of uprooted rocky materials, on occasions cemented with
finer matrix forming reworked or indurated rock mass.
Fig 5. Folded BIF in Kodachadri area
The thickly soil covered low altitude foot hill regions down the ghat sections generally represent
greywake or meta greywake, well exposed in the deeply eroded valley regions, which continues into the
plane land areas. These valley areas are also reported to host basement granitoids. The lithounits in the
area show a regional trend of NS or NNW-SSE compounded with several local variations due to folding
and faulting.
127 BIF
F
Quartz vein
F
Fig 6. Faulted quartz vein cutting across BIF
The BIF is mainly the Banded Magnetite Quartzite (BMQ) occasionally traversed by later
injections of quartz veins (Fig. 6).
Post depositional quartz injections, faults and distortions suggest a multi episode structural history of
the region. The uprooted blocks of rocks, gravels and other fragments are transported to the low lying
first order streams and further carried into the deep valleys. It is observed that these are cemented and
hardened. Lateritisation is also observed at number of places in the valley region especially adjoining
the open streams in the high altitude grass lands. Therefore the general stratigraphic sequence in the
area may be considered a metagreywake/schist, followed by quartzite and BIF, with laterite caps.
Radioactivity: Radiometric checking was carried out at various places during the field traverses.
The area records very low background values in the range of 1-7µR/h. At high altitude shola grass land
areas where the rock formation is mainly the BIF, the radiometric background recorded as low as
0µR/h, at number of places. Therefore, it is concluded that the Kodachadri high altitude region is least
expected to host potential sources of radioactive minerals. It is important to mention is that the basal
conglomerate of the Bababudan Group of rocks indicted ample evidences to host significant uranium
mineralisation of ‘Quartz-Pebble-Conglomerate’ type in Walkunji-Yelakki area near Karkal, Udupi
district, Karnataka. Similar conglomerate was not encountered during the present traverses.
In Murukattu area (N13˚54' 5.0", E74˚54'33.9") the garnetiferous schistose rocks show 5-8µR/h
radioactivity.
128 4. STUDY OF SOIL NUTRIENTS AND MICROBIAL CONTENTS
A total of 15 samples were collected at 4 well defined locations in the altitude range
from 1042m to 1139m MSL roughly at an interval of 50m along a profile, where the Shola
grass land being in the highest altitude while thick forest land at the lowest. Determination of
the status of soil nutrient and microbial population at gross level has been the main objective of
the study.
A small patch of colonization of ferns in between these two major land forms is termed
border zone. Samples were also collected from the sediments along the streamlets flowing
through the Shola grass land regions. Sample details are presented in Table-3. Soils were
collected on 23.12.2011, during a mild winter and bright sunshine day from surface to 30 cm
by giving ‘V’ cut. Sample size varied form 800g-1000g collected after separating gravel size
particles and other plant materials.
Table–3. Location details of the sample
Sl.No.
Sample No
Lat (N)
Long (E)
Alt. (m)
Nature of sample
1
KDR -1
13˚ 51' 59.4"
74˚ 53' 04.0"
1139
High altitude shola grass land soil
2
KDR -2
13˚ 51' 59.9"
74˚ 53' 02.4"
1133
do
3
KDR -3
13˚ 52' 00.4"
74˚ 53' 00.8"
1127
do
4
KDR -4
13˚ 52' 00.9"
74˚ 52' 59.2"
1117
do
5
KDR -5
13˚ 52' 01.3"
74˚ 52' 57.6"
1109
do
6
KDR -6
13˚ 52' 01.5"
74˚ 52' 55.9"
1103
do
7
KDR -7
13˚ 52' 03.9"
74˚ 53' 11.0"
1149
Stream sediments
8
KDR -8
13˚ 52' 05.2"
74˚ 53' 10.0"
1040
do
9
KDR -9
13˚ 52' 06.4"
74˚ 53' 11.4"
1047
Border zone soil of grass & forest
10
KDR -10
13˚ 52' 08.0"
74˚ 53' 11.3"
1044
do
11
KDR -11
13˚ 52' 04.9"
74˚ 53' 08.0"
1055
do
12
KDR -12
13˚ 52' 06.1"
74˚ 53' 06.9"
1051
do
13
KDR -13
13˚ 52' 06.8"
74˚ 53' 08.9"
1041
Thick forest land soil
14
KDR -14
13˚ 52' 08.4"
74˚ 53' 08.6"
1042
do
15
KDR -15
13˚ 52' 07.7"
74˚ 53' 09.2"
1042
do
129 Samples were analysed in the Chemistry Lab of Varanasi Research Foundation,
Adyanadka, and Mangalore by Mr. Asaf Abdulla guided by Dr. Varanasi Krishna Moorthy.
4.1 Location description: Samples from four different geo-morphologically distinct
regions were collected as briefly described
below:
KDR-1 to KDR-6: These six samples were collected from high altitude steep slopes of shola
grass land with altitude ranging between 1139m to 1103m. Essentially the sampling area hosts
continuous spread of thick green grass of about knee height or a little short. The soil is
associated with gravel sized rocks
indicating erosion, denudation and quick transportation of
soil formed. The tight compact texture of the top ground leaves little opportunity for easy
penetration of plant roots into more than few centimetres. Soil is dry, coarse, and reddish in
colour and devoid of any biogenic matter mingled with it. It was conspicuously observed that
the soil gradually becomes finer and the gravel size becomes gradually lesser. This set of
sample should represent typical shola grass land area of Kodachadri.
KDR-7 to KDR-8: These two samples were drawn from the first order streams
developing immediately after the steep slopes of the high altitude shola grass lands. They are
loose debris accumulated from different planks of the hills providing an overall representation
of heavy minerals/materials of the grass land area. Therefore the finer, softer, water dissolvable
contents are removed naturally from this portion with retention of the residual soil associated
with varying sized allochotonous rock particles and chips naturally carried down from
elsewhere.
KDR-9 to KDR-12: These four samples were collected from the transition zone
between the grass land and the thick forest lands. Generally colonization of ferns is observed
here. The soil is finer; light brown to dark brown in colour, holds notable level of moisture.
These characters are manifested by the pitch green coloured ferns developed at this zone
garlanding the thick plant zones down beyond. This transition zone is about 2m to 5m wide in
the sampled area. Interestingly the land surface forms a roughly level ground with altitude range
from 1047m and 1055m. Therefore this is the first step after the steep slope of grass lands
where there is scope for the finer and softer soil particles to accumulate which can support the
growth of the plants like ferns.
130 KDR-13 to KDR-15: These three samples were drawn from thickly forested, tree and
bush dominated land area, where the soil is very fine and possesses the capacity to hold large
amount of moisture content. It is finer in character and devoid of large size rock fragments.
Further it is intermixed with biogenic material or naturally formed manure with rich nutrient
contents. The soil layer thickness goes much beyond a meter deep unlike the high altitude
areas; therefore supports thick deep rooted plants and shrubs continuously, which is unique in
the low altitude valley regions of Kodachadri.
4.2 Chemical Analysis: The results of the chemical analysis are presented in Table-4.
Analysis was done as per AOAC methods. Important ones are listed as follows. Nitrogen by
Micro Kjeldahl method, P2O5 by Bray’s No.1 method, Potash by Ammonium acetate method
(Merwin & Peach 1951), Sulphur by Sodium acetate acetic acid buffer method, Ca & Mg by
titration with EDTA (Hesse, 1971) method. Mechanical analysis by hydrometer method. The
values of the test reports are given and the range is discussed as high, medium or low based on
agricultural nutrient range.
pH: The soil pH is in the range from 5.1 to 5.6, in all samples except one from thick forest land
and two samples from stream sediments. KDR-13 from thick forest zone showed 4.6 and thus
more acidic. This may be due to cations getting leached off due to high rainfall. The two
samples from stream sediments were more near to neutral (6.3) may be due to part of the salts
washed off from other areas getting deposited.
Electrical conductivity: It is normal and below 0.1 m.mhos in all cases except 3 forest
soils which are 0.15- 0.23. These are also well below 1mhos. Comparatively the higher EC in
the forest soil is due to higher Organic Carbon (OC) and nutrients.
Organic Carbon (OC): OC is highest in three forest soils (2.3, 5.2 and 5.3%). This is
due to good vegetation cover. OC is found to be lowest in stream sediments (1.1 and 1.9%).
Shola and border zone showed similar trend; wherein OC was in the range of 1 to 3.5 %. On
the whole all soils exhibited more than recommended level (for agriculture) of 0.75% OC.
Total Nitrogen (N): This is related to OC% and has similar trend. Nitrogen is highest in three
forest soils (0.35, 0.56 and 0.56%). It is lowest in stream sediments (0.21 and 0.14%). Shola
and border zone showed similar trend, where in N was in the range of 0.17 to 0.35 %.
Available Phosphorus (av.P2O5): Was generally found to be more in the forest (2.3, 6.9
and 11.5 kg/Ha) and boarder zone (6.9 -11.5 kg/ha) followed by Shola grass land (traces to
131 11.5 kg/ha) and traces in stream sediments due to washing off. Except stream sediments the
trend of available P in the other three areas is near to mid range (9-22 kg/ha)
Available Potash (av.K2O): Was found to be very good in Thick forest (104 to 176 kg/ka)
followed by border zone (26 to 84) and shola grass (48-86 kg/ha) having more or less similar
trend. Due to leaching loss minimum potash (26 to 34 kg/ka) was found in stream sediments.
That way Potash was in higher range in forest soil (> 120 kg/ha) and mid range (50-120 kg/ha)
in border zone and shola grass land. Low in stream sediment soil (< 50 kg/ha).
Cation Exchangeable Capacity (CEC): It is in the medium range (15-25 m.e./100g) of
14.1, 25.8 and 18.3 m.e./100g in thick forest soil. CEC is Low in border zone (5.3 to 11.6
m.e./100g) and shola grass land (3.9 to 7.2 m.e./100g). The lowest CEC (2.5 to 2.9 m.e./100g)
is found in stream sediments.
Exchangeable Calcium (ex Ca): Found to be in medium range (5-10 m.e./100g) in thick
forest soils (4.5, 13.1, 8.7 m.e./100g) and low in all other soils (<5 m.e./100g).
Exchangeable Magnesium (ex Mg): Found to be medium to high (2.3 –4.4 m.e./100g). In
thick forest and Border zone soil (1.9 - 4.1, m.e./100g) and it is medium in shola grass land
(2.1 – 3 m.e. / 100g) and stream sediments (1.8 - 2.8 m.e. /100g).
Sulphur (av.S): Yet another Secondary nutrient was found to some extent in both
stream sediments and one sample of forest soil. In all other cases found in traces. However, all
are below low level (< 10 ppm) range.
Table–4. Chemical nutrient analysis of Kodachadri soil
Sample
No.
pH
E.C.
m.mhos
O.C.
%
Total%
Av. P2O5
Av.K2O
Nitrogen
(kg/ha)
(kg/ha)
CEC
Ex. Ca
Ex.
Mg.
Sulphur
ppm
Shola grass land
KDR -1
5.2
0.06
2.2
0.30
11.5
48.0
7.5
2.6
2.1
Trace
KDR -2
5.4
0.06
2.5
0.26
6.9
63.3
6.1
2.5
2.1
Trace
KDR -3
5.6
0.07
1.6
0.17
6.9
58.9
4.3
2.3
2.4
Trace
132 KDR -4
5.3
0.06
1.9
0.24
Trace
58.9
3.9
4.8
2.1
Trace
KDR -5
5.4
0.06
2.3
0.28
4.6
54.6
5.3
2.1
3.0
Trace
KDR -6
5.5
0.05
3.2
0.24
9.2
86.2
7.2
2.2
2.1
Trace
Stream sediments
KDR -7
6.3
0.06
1.1
0.21
Trace
26.2
2.5
1.7
1.8
0.19
KDR -8
6.3
0.05
0.9
0.14
Trace
34.9
2.9
1.8
2.8
0.30
Border Zone Soil
KDR -9
5.5
0.04
1.4
0.21
11.5
26.8
6.3
3.4
4.1
Trace
KDR -10
5.3
0.04
1.0
0.24
6.9
43.7
5.3
2.4
2.7
Trace
KDR -11
5.2
0.04
3.0
0.31
6.9
51.3
8.2
3.0
2.0
Trace
KDR -12
5.2
0.06
3.5
0.35
6.9
84.0
11.6
3.2
1.9
Trace
KDR -13
4.6
0.15
2.3
0.35
11.5
104.8
14.1
4.5
2.3
0.16
KDR -14
5.1
0.23
5.3
0.56
6.9
141.9
25.8
13.1
4.4
Trace
KDR -15
5.2
0.20
5.2
0.56
2.3
176.9
18.3
8.7
3.7
Trace
4.3 Mechanical Analysis: All the samples were subjected to physical analysis to find out the
percent of differently sized soil particles viz; sand, silt and clay. Based on the results the soil was given
textural classification. All samples belonged to Loamy sand. The details are given in Table-5. The
uniformity in texture could be due to sample collection in close proximity.
133 Table–5. Mechanical analysis
ID.No.
Sand%
Silt%
Clay%
Texture classification
KDR -1
90.99
0.01
9.00
Loamy sand
KDR -2
90.34
0.06
9.60
Loamy sand
KDR -3
90.99
0.01
9.00
Loamy sand
KDR -4
90.98
0.02
9.00
Loamy sand
KDR -5
90.98
0.02
9.00
Loamy sand
KDR -6
91.08
0.02
8.90
Loamy sand
KDR -7
91.58
0.02
8.40
Loamy sand
KDR -8
91.08
0.02
8.90
Loamy sand
KDR -9
91.63
0.006
8.36
Loamy sand
KDR -10
91.64
Nil
8.36
Loamy sand
KDR -11
90.98
0.12
9.00
Loamy sand
KDR -12
90.95
0.15
8.90
Loamy sand
KDR -13
90.60
0.50
8.90
Loamy sand
KDR -14
91.10
Nil
8.90
Loamy sand
KDR -15
91.09
0.01
8.90
Loamy sand
4.4 Microbial populations: Microbial populations in the soil samples were estimated by serial
dilution method and the results are presented in Table-6. Three different media viz., Nutrient Agar,
Sabourand’s Agar media, and Glycerol yeast extract
Table-6. Microbial populations in soil sample
Samples No
Organism per gram of dry soil
Bacteria
Fungus
Actinomycetes
Total Population
Shola grass land
KDR -1
60 x 105
10 x 103
4 x 104
6.05 x 106
KDR -2
24 x 105
6 x 103
3 x 104
2.44 x 106
134 KDR -3
25 x 105
10 x 103
3 x 104
2.54 x 106
KDR -4
35 x 105
10 x 103
4 x 104
3.55 x 106
KDR -5
17 x 105
16 x 103
6 x 104
1.78 x 106
KDR -6
31 x 105
8 x 103
5 x 104
3.16 x 106
Stream sediments
KDR -7
9 x 105
4 x 103
0.4 x 104
0.91 x 106
KDR -8
8 x 105
1 x 103
5 x 104
0.85 x 106
Border Zone Soil
KDR -9
11 x 105
12 x 103
1 x 104
1.12 x 106
KDR -10
27 x 105
15 x 103
1 x 104
2.73 x 106
KDR -11
12 x 105
16 x 103
4 x 104
1.26 x 106
KDR -12
12 x 105
6 x 103
5 x 104
1.26 x 106
KDR -13
11 x 105
3 x 103
3 x 104
1.13 x 106
KDR -14
5 x 105
5 x 103
0.2x 104
0.51 x 106
KDR -15
8 x 105
6 x 103
5 x 104
0.86 x 106
media were used for enumerating bacteria, fungus and actinomycetes. Among three zones
bacterial population was found in the range of 106 per gram in the Shola grass land and Boarder
zone, 105 per gram in the stream sediments and 105 to 106 per gram in the thick forest land.
Fungal population was also more in the Shola grass land and border zone numbering in the
range of 103 to 104 per gram. Thick forest land and stream sediments exhibited population in
the range of 103 per gram. Actinomycetes were found at 104 per gram in all the samples except
two where colony formation was at 103 per gram (KDR -7 and KDR -14). Total population
was in the range of 106 per gram in three samples and 105 per gram in stream sediments. The
soil samples were dry and there was considerable gap between collection and estimation. So
colony formation should be largely from spores.
Estimation of N.fixer, P.solublizer and K.mobilizer: Estimation of N.fixer, P.solublizer
and K.mobilizer population in the soil samples were also done by serial dilution method and
135 the results are given in Table 6. Three different media used were
viz., N-free media,
Pikavskaya’s media, K. mobiliser media for enumerating free living N.fixer, P.solublizer and
K.mobilizer. Among three types of bacteria, N fixers were found at higher number 106
CFU per gram. Comparatively N-fixers were found lower (105) at thick forest soil. This is due
to higher percent nitrogen in these soils. Same is the observation in case of P solublizer. Forest
soil with higher P showed lower P-solublizers. K-mobiliser was found at 104 to 106 CFU per
gram in all most all samples except one sample(KDR -10) which gave 103 CFU per gram. Four
samples failed to show any free living N-fixers (3 in Boarder zone and one in Thick forest).
Table-7 Estimation of N.fixer, P.solublizer and K.mobilizer
Organism per gram of dry soil
Samples No
N. fixer
P.solublizer
K. mobilizer
Shola grass land
KDR-1
16 x 105
7 x 105
10 x 105
KDR-2
30 x 105
15 x 105
6 x 105
KDR-3
26 x 105
9 x 105
8 x 105
KDR-4
3 x 105
3 x 105
8 x 105
KDR-5
13 x 105
10 x 105
6 x 105
KDR-6
10 x 105
47 x 105
7 x 105
Stream sediments
KDR-7
10 x 105
8 x 105
7 x 105
KDR-8
35 x 105
32 x 105
9 x 105
Border Zone Soil
KDR-9
-
1 x 105
23 x 105
KDR-10
-
4 x 105
0.01 x 105
KDR-11
-
4 x 105
14 x 105
136 KDR-12
10 x 105
13 x 105
16 x 105
KDR-13
3 x 105
5 x 105
13 x 105
KDR-14
-
3 x 105
23 x 105
KDR-15
3 x 105
6 x 105
14 x 105
4.5 Expert Comment:
1. Dr. S.V.Hegde, Retd. Professor, UAS, Bangalore:
The Kodachadri soils look to be acidic, sandy loam, rich in organic carbon and
nutrients. The microbial analysis reflects a rough quantitative estimation of bacteria, fungi and
actinomycetes in the soils tested. It is not surprising to find a good population of
microorganisms in such soils containing high carbon and other nutrients. The higher population
of microorganisms in grass land soils than in the forest soils could be due to better aerations in
the former soils. It is surprising to find the population of free living nitrogen fixing
microorganism as almost equal to the total population of microorganisms in the soils tested
which needs further confirmation by refined techniques. The biodiversity study should be more
qualitative than quantitative analysis of microbial populations. It may involve looking at
general diversity among soil microorganisms or at specific microorganism. Modern molecular
biology techniques will help in finding genetic diversity of microbial population of a given
soil. Good old enrichment culture technique is still helpful in looking at specific
microorganism of interest. The microbial biodiversity study is a laborious, extensive, time
consuming,
expensive
basic
study
and
requires
adequate
funding.
2. Dr. S.C.Kotur, Principal scientist, IIHR, Bangalore
Chemical analysis: The methods of analysis done here are widely used in soil testing in
India.Soil pH: Except soils of the sediments, all the soils are fairly acidic and require judicious
liming if they are proposed to be used for agriculture. Due to high rainfall, the cations are
leached.
137 Electrical conductivity: In situation like the present one, the leaching regime is intense.
Therefore the values are low and the variations are of little consequence for plant growth.
Organic carbon: Lower organic matter content is probably related to lack of vegetative
cover. The nature of vegetation present in each group of the soil can explain the variations
present more effectively.
Available P: ‘Traces’ as reported are normally not encountered in testing of such soils.
Estimation of P is tricky and therefore needs to be reconsidered. Same holds good for available
S content, which was presumably determined by turbidimetry.
CEC: The values reported are commonly observed in such locations.
Exch. Ca and Mg: Versenate method of determination is again a very tricky procedure. The
normality of EDTA of the same strength differs. Lavender colour end point in Ca
determination is also difficult. Interference of cations of heavy metals like Fe and Mn can
interfere etc. There appears to be an underestimation of Ca in favour of Mg. Because, Mg
content is normally a fraction of Ca in acid soils. The determination needs to be checked.
Mechanical analysis: The soils are remarkably similar in their texture. In different
terrains as explained, such uniformity is difficult to accept.
Microbial analysis: Since yeasts are excluded in enumeration, the last column may be
called the sum of the counted microbes. Enumeration from dry soil samples favours those
organisms that form spores or cysts. In Pikovaskaya medium, non-P solubilizers can also form
colonies. Therefore, it will be appropriate to observe the zone of P solibilization around the
colony before counting it as P-solubilzer. If this was not done, the counts are an over-estimate.
If the intent of enumerating the microbes is to assess the strength of the microbial
population, it may better find out the total biomass carbon using an appropriate extractant or
determine dehydrogenase activity to reflect the overall respiration occurring in the soil. This
will also overcome the errors likely when different media are used to culture different set of
organisms. This is a very robust parameter.
138 5. GEOCHEMICAL STUDIES
Geochemical studies on 27 samples which include: soil (n=15),
rock (3), iron ore
(n=4), and garnet mineral grain (n=1) from Kodachadri, as well as suspected slag (n=3),
cannon chip (n=1) localities in the regional vicinity. Table-7 gives the location and other
details of these samples. All the petrological studies and chemical analysis were carried out at
Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD), Bengaluru.
Table-7 Details of samples sought for chemical analysis
Altitude
Nature of sample
Sl.No.
Sample No
Location
Lat (N)
Long (E)
1
KDDR-1
Kodachadri
13˚ 51' 59.3"
74˚ 53' 3.6"
1138
Shola grass land soil
2
KDDR-2
Kodachadri
13˚ 51' 59.6"
74˚ 53' 1.9"
1134
3
KDDR-3
Kodachadri
13˚ 52' 0.3"
74˚ 53' 0.5"
1123
4
KDDR-4
Kodachadri
13˚ 52' 0.4"
74˚ 52' 58.8"
1123
5
KDDR-5
Kodachadri
13˚ 52' 1.2"
74˚ 52' 57.3"
1113
6
KDDR-6
Kodachadri
13˚ 52' 1.2"
74˚ 52' 55.4"
1109
7
KDDR-7
Kodachadri
13˚ 52' 2.5"
74˚ 53' 12.6"
1062
Stream sediments
8
KDDR-8
Kodachadri
13˚ 52' 5.3"
74˚ 53' 10.0"
1048
9
KDDR-9
Kodachadri
13˚ 52' 5.8"
74˚ 53' 10.0"
1045
10
KDDR-10
Kodachadri
13˚ 52' 6.8"
74˚ 53' 10.5"
1046
11
KDDR-11
Kodachadri
13˚ 52' 6.8"
74˚ 53' 10.5"
1051
Colonized border zone soil
12
KDDR-12
Kodachadri
13˚ 52' 4.8"
74˚ 53' 11.5"
1057
13
KDDR-13
Kodachadri
13˚ 52' 3.2"
74˚ 53' 9.7"
1053
14
HMN/S/1
Hidlamane
13˚ 52' 54.0"
74˚ 53' 22.6"
682
15
AGD/S/1
Arishinagundi
13˚ 52' 28.1"
74˚ 50' 22.8"
429
16
HMN/R/1
Hidlamane
13˚ 52' 54.0"
74˚ 53' 22.8"
682
Quartzite rich Rock (BIF)
17
AGD/R/1
Arishinagundi
13˚ 52' 3.2"
74˚ 53' 9.7"
321
Schist
18
KCD/1
Kodachadri
13˚ 52' 54.7"
74˚ 55' 37.7"
661
Rock (BIF)
19
K-1
Kodachadri
13˚ 52' 1.2"
74˚ 52' 55.4"
1100
Iron ore
20
K-2
Kodachadri
13˚ 52' 1.2"
74˚ 52' 55.4"
1100
Iron ore
139 (m)
21
AGD-1
Ambargudda
13˚ 54' 30.6"
74˚ 49' 14.6"
801
Iron ore
22
AGD-2
Ambarbudda
13˚ 54' 30.5"
74˚ 49' 14.7"
797
Iron ore
23
GAR-1
Murukattu
13˚ 54' 05.0"
74˚ 54' 33.9"
616
Garnet crystal
24
Slg-1
Pattepete area
13˚ 52' 40.7"
75˚ 03' 43.3"
578
Slag lump
25
Slg-2
do
13˚ 52' 40.7"
75˚ 03' 43.3"
578
Slag lump
26
Slg-3
Kavaledurga
13˚ 43' 08.9"
75˚ 07' 1.4"
908
Slag lump
27
CNN-1
do
13˚ 43' 09.4"
75˚ 07' 18.7"
832
Ancient cannon chips
5.1 Soil sample studies:
15 soil samples from shola grass lands (n=9), stream sediment (n=1), colonized fringe
zone (n=3) and thick forest area (n=2) were analysed for various major, trace and rare earth
elements (REE). The major oxide results are given in Tables-8.
Table-8 Major element composition of different soils (values in %)
Sr.
Sample
No.
No.
Soil
type
SiO2
Al2O3
TiO2
Fe2O3
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
P2O5
LOI
1
KDDR-1
sgl
7.31
3.11
0.11
69.34
15.66
0.09
<0.01
<0.01
0.87
0.04
0.28
3.48
2
KDDR-2
sgl
16.69
3.23
0.14
64.74
9.36
0.09
<0.01
<0.01
0.48
0.11
0.24
4.66
3
KDDR-3
sgl
9.24
2.25
0.07
79.40
3.96
0.04
<0.01
<0.01
0.53
0.05
0.35
4.87
4
KDDR-4
sgl
22.09
4.89
0.22
57.94
6.48
0.08
<0.01
<0.01
0.76
0.18
0.29
7.46
5
KDDR-5
sgl
6.92
4.72
0.14
71.54
9.54
0.05
<0.01
<0.01
0.84
0.05
0.38
6.59
6
KDDR-6
sgl
7.48
2.53
0.05
78.94
5.76
0.03
<0.01
<0.01
0.81
0.02
0.31
5.02
7
KDDR-8
sgl
41.54
11.70
0.69
19.77
3.06
0.14
1.00
0.22
0.71
0.60
0.15
20.60
8
KDDR-9
sgl
30.97
8.30
0.51
4.53
3.42
0.18
0.93
1.01
0.50
0.60
0.14
47.96
9
KDDR-10
sgl
36.03
9.75
0.56
26.16
7.20
0.16
0.85
0.17
0.67
0.52
0.23
18.39
10
KDDR-7
ss
14.58
3.21
0.11
68.74
7.92
0.12
<0.01
<0.01
0.77
0.04
0.30
4.49
11
KDDR-11
cbz
14.12
2.34
0.13
61.09
21.06
0.07
<0.01
<0.01
0.60
0.04
0.23
1.10
12
KDDR-12
cbz
27.78
3.84
0.20
50.26
14.22
0.05
0.08
<0.01
0.72
0.09
0.20
3.25
13
KDDR-13
cbz
9.42
4.24
0.09
69.03
11.88
0.04
0.04
0.09
1.14
0.03
0.30
3.89
14
HMN/S/1
tf
51.14
14.34
0.62
18.37
1.98
0.16
0.30
<0.01
0.38
0.29
0.13
12.51
15
AGD/S/1
tf
37.35
18.83
1.31
20.23
1.62
0.25
0.75
0.20
0.82
0.48
0.18
17.36
N.B: sgl-shola grass land soil; ss- stream sediment; cbz-colonized border zone soil; tf-thick forest soil. LOI-loss
on ignition.
140 The average major composition (Table-9) reveals that all the soil types mainly composed of iron, silica
and alumina and considerable amounts of LOI. Silica is gradually reduced from high altitude shola land
towards the thick forest soil. As anticipated iron in stream sediments is highest and probably due to high
degree of limonitzation the shola land shows highest LOI.
Table-9 Average major element composition of different soils
Type
SiO2
Al2O3
TiO2
Fe2O3
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
P2O5
LOI
sgl
37.46
13.31
0.76
29.51
5.28
0.16
0.400
0.142
0.66
0.30
0.18
11.89
ss
14.58
3.21
0.11
68.74
7.92
0.12
0.001
0.001
0.77
0.04
0.30
4.49
cbz
26.02
8.26
0.43
49.12
6.60
0.14
0.201
0.071
0.71
0.17
0.24
8.19
tf
20.30
5.73
0.27
58.93
7.26
0.13
0.10
0.04
0.74
0.11
0.27
6.34
Table-10 Correlation matrix of major oxides of soil
SiO2
Al2O3
TiO2
Fe2O3
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
P2O5
SiO2
1.00
Al2O3
0.87
1.00
TiO2
0.93
0.97
1.00
Fe2O3
-0.90
-0.87
-0.93
1.00
FeO
-0.36
-0.50
-0.45
0.34
1.00
MnO
0.72
0.74
0.80
-0.84
-0.36
1.00
MgO
0.86
0.94
0.97
-0.94
-0.50
0.81
1.00
CaO
0.49
0.55
0.59
-0.79
-0.41
0.70
0.72
1.00
Na2O
-0.36
-0.11
-0.29
0.35
0.23
-0.39
-0.29
-0.33
1.00
K2O
0.89
0.94
0.98
-0.95
-0.53
0.84
0.98
0.73
-0.36
1.00
P2O5
-0.82
-0.62
-0.74
0.85
0.05
-0.66
-0.73
-0.62
0.40
-0.73
1.00
LOI
0.63
0.71
0.75
-0.87
-0.54
0.79
0.84
0.97
-0.38
0.86
-0.63
LOI
1.00
Fe2O3/FeO, ratio range from 1.33 to 20.05, with an average value of 7.7; reflects very high degree of
oxidation status of Fe in the area. Strong positive correlation (Table-10) between SiO2-Fe2O3, SiO2TiO2, Al2O3-TiO2, MgO-Al2O3 is found, whereas strong negative correlation among SiO2-P2O5, Fe2O3
and Fe2O3-MgO, MnO, CaO and K2O are reflected in the correlation matrix. Trace element and REE
composition of soil samples is given in Tables-11 &12
141 Table-11 Trace element data of soil
Sender's
U
Th
Ba
Co
Cr
Cu
Hf
Nb
Ni
Pb
Rb
Sr
Ta
V
Zn
Zr
KDDR-1
5
<10
65
<10
55
25
<10
<25
<10
<20
<10
<10
<25
30
40
55
KDDR-2
5
<10
65
<10
95
15
<10
<25
<10
<20
<10
<10
<25
30
40
35
KDDR-3
4
<10
40
<10
65
15
<10
<25
<10
<20
<10
<10
<25
15
30
35
KDDR-4
4
<10
75
<10
110
20
<10
<25
20
<20
<10
<10
<25
50
45
55
KDDR-5
5
<10
50
<10
140
45
<10
<25
<10
<20
<10
<10
<25
60
55
50
KDDR-6
5
<10
45
<10
80
40
<10
<25
<10
<20
<10
<10
<25
25
35
50
KDDR-8
6
<10
145
25
185
40
<10
<25
70
<20
40
30
<25
125
65
75
KDDR-9
4
<10
180
15
95
25
<10
<25
50
<20
45
55
<25
75
70
50
KDDR-10
6
<10
170
20
140
45
<10
<25
55
<20
35
25
<25
100
65
65
KDDR-7
5
<10
70
15
105
50
<10
<25
<10
<20
<10
<10
<25
35
35
40
KDDR-11
4
<10
40
<10
125
25
<10
<25
15
<20
<10
<10
<25
40
25
40
KDDR-12
4
<10
60
10
125
20
<10
<25
10
<20
<10
<10
<25
65
25
45
KDDR-13
5
<10
45
<10
120
45
<10
<25
<10
<20
<10
<10
<25
50
30
70
HMN/S/1
5
<10
160
30
400
55
<10
<25
90
<20
20
10
<25
160
65
50
AGD/S/1
5
<10
165
65
1120
115
<10
<25
290
<20
<10
20
<25
315
105
65
No.
The data indicates low concentration many of the trace metals in the soil. However, little increments in
Ba, Cr, V, Zn and Zr are observed.
The Rare Earth Element data of the soil is given below in Table-12.
Sender's
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Sc
Y
KDDR-1
<5
26
<5
<5
<5
<0.5
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
<1
10
6.0
KDDR-2
<5
14
<5
<5
<5
<0.5
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
<1
4.3
5.7
KDDR-3
<5
15
<5
<5
<5
0.5
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
<1
3.4
6.9
KDDR-4
5
17
<5
<5
<5
<0.5
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
<1
5.4
6.5
KDDR-5
<5
15
<5
<5
<5
0.6
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
<1
13
33
KDDR-6
<5
11
<5
<5
<5
0.6
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
<1
5.4
37
KDDR-7
<5
17
<5
<5
<5
0.5
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
<1
7.1
18
KDDR-8
17
51
<5
16
<5
0.8
3.2
<2
3.1
<2
<2
<2
1.7
<1
14
16
No.
KDDR-9
15
40
<5
11
<5
0.5
1.9
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
<1
7.8
16
KDDR-10
14
42
<5
11
<5
0.6
2.0
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
<1
10
15
KDDR-11
<5
11
<5
<5
<5
<0.5
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
<1
4.9
2.8
KDDR-12
<5
13
<5
<5
<5
<0.5
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
<1
4.8
2.7
KDDR-13
<5
7
<5
<5
<5
<0.5
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
<1
4.3
3.8
Very low concentrations of REE are noted in the Kodachadri soil.
142 5.2 Rock and mineral sample studies:
3 different rocks, 4 iron ore, 3 suspected slag, and one each of a garnet mineral grain
and an ancient cannon were investigated for petrological and chemical characters.
5.2.1 Rock samples: Banded Iron Formation (BIF), schist and quartzite are major rock
types observed in the study area. Petrological studies and chemical analysis were carried out
for these samples. The microscopic petrological characters of these are as follows:
Highlights:
•
The rock types from above area are identified as quartzite, quartz sillimanite
schist/fibrolite and banded hematite quartzite.
•
Ore minerals identified are magnetite, ilmenite, hematite, chromite, covellite,
chalcopyrite and digenite as oxide and sulphide phases.
copper sulphides are
particularly seen in sample from Arishinagundi area.
Quartzite
Megascopy: In hand specimen, it is very fine grained light grey coloured hard and compact
banded rock. A band rich in arenite/quartzite alternating with thin lamination of hematitic
material is also observed. Bit coarser pink coloured gritty type band is also seen in association
with these.
Microscopy: It comprises quartz as main mineral component and opaques and muscovite as
accessories. The rock has undergone crushing and recrystallisation. Quartz shows strained
shadows due to deformation. It is recrystallised with sutured borders. In certain places fine
clayey matter surrounds the grain boundaries of quartz grains. It could be an impurity or
precursor weathered/altered feldspar grains. Opaques are disseminated throughout the section.
They occur in two modes as coarser grains (0.30mm size approx) and finer grains (less than
0.10 mm size approx).
Patches of limonite/goethite is also spread throughout. Ilmenite,
titanomagnetite and chromite are identified as ore minerals.
Quartz sillimanite schist/fibrolite
Megascopy: It is a very fine grained grey coloured hard and compact foliated rock.
Microscopy: Under the microscope, it comprises fibrous material/needles of sillimanite,
biotite and quartz as main mineral components. Opaques of ilmenite, chalcopyrite, covellite,
143 suspected carbonaceous matter and zircon as accessories. All these components show some
sort of parallel alignment. Quartz either occurs as single grains or lenticular aggregates.
Biotites are light yellowish brown in colour, are bleached /decomposed with the formation of
sheaf of fibrolite. At places they still occur as relict grains with yellowish brown or golden
yellow colour hues. Fibrolite has occupied whole section. In crossed nicols coarser flakes show
high birefringence and high interference colour.
Formation of fresh muscovite is also seen in
association with fibrous material and biotite. No feldspars are seen probably altered to clay (Fig. 7, 8).
by sutured borders. At places little amount of clay is also seen around quartz grains. Some of the
quartz grains occur in the form of lenticular grains containing mosaic of recrystallised aggregates quartz
Banded hematite quartzite
Megascopy: In hand specimen it is very fine grained banded rock, containing dirty
white coloured quartzitic rock alternating with chocolate to steel grey coloured hematitic band.
Hematitic band contains glittery minerals. On surface limonitic coating is seen. The rock is
cut across by quartz vein (1cm). Bands very from centimetre to inches
Microscopy: Under the microscope it comprises mainly of quartz and opaque minerals
which occur in a banded form. In quartz bands quartz grains are crushed to variable degrees
and are recrystallised. They are compacted together grains. Quartz also occurs in vein form
which cuts across the above quartz rich and opaque rich bands. Opaque minerals are identified
as ilmenite, hematite and goethite.
Fibrolite
Arishinagundi.20x1N,TL
Fibrolite with opaques.
Arishinagundi.20x, 1N, TL
Covellite, chalcocite and
digenite in fibrolite.
Arsinagundi.20x, 1N, RL
Fig. 7 Photomicrographs of schistose rock from Arishinagundi
144 The chemical analysis of the above three rocks are given in the Table-12
Fig. 8 Sillimanite fibers (variety fibrolite) in biotite-andalusite-muscovite schist. Sillimanite is colorless, has relief much higher
than muscovite. In medium-grade rocks sillimanite is typically in this fibrous variety. Sillimanite fibers can be included in
many minerals, and can survive retrograde metamorphism in garnet and quartz. Plane polarized light, 200x.
Samples from Hidlamane and Arishinagundi area are identified as meta arenite, banded
hematite quartzite and fibrolite. Arenite and banded iron rocks show digenetic modifications
and are intercalated with iron rich band. Fibrolite is rich in fibrous mineral sillimanite shows
schistose fabric. It is also rich in cupper sulphide ore appears to be due to intercalation of basic
rock. This rock is pertaining to basement rock.
145 Table-13 Chemical analysis of different rock types
Major oxides in %
Sample No.
SiO2
Al2O3
TiO2
Fe2O3
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
P2O5
LOI
HMN/R/1
58.58
0.48
0.02
32.34
8.21
0.17
<0.01
<0.01
0.24
0.02
0.14
0.09
AGD/R/1
54.84
10.55
1.03
2.77
10.08
0.12
12.84
2.86
1.17
0.05
0.21
2.49
KCD/1
53.62
0.22
0.01
39.70
6.12
0.04
<0.01
<0.01
0.27
0.01
0.18
0.06
Trace elements in ppm
U
Th
Ba
co
Cr
cu
Hf
Nb
Ni
Pb
Rb
Sr
Ta
v
Zn
Zr
HMN/R/1
4
<10
45
<10
130
<10
<10
<25
<10
<20
<10
<10
<25
<10
10
10
AGD/R/1
5
<10
50
64
1390
265
<10
<25
725
<20
<10
<10
<25
15
100
70
KCD/1
5
<10
55
<10
45
<10
<10
<25
<10
<20
<10
<10
<25
<10
15
10
REE in ppm
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Sc
Y
HMN/R/1
<5
7
<5
<5
<5
<0.5
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
1.2
<1
<1
<2
AGD/R/1
18
41
<5
21
<5
1.1
5.1
<2
4.9
<2
2.7
<2
2.2
<1
26
25
KCD/1
<5
<5
<5
<5
<5
<0.5
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
<1
<1
<2
N.B - HMN/R/1: Quartzite rich BIF (Hidlamane); AGD/R/1: Schist (Arishinagundi); KCD/1: BIF (Kodachadri)
Chemical analysis data Table-13 corroborates the petrological observations. Further it is noted high
concentration of Ni and Cr in schist which indicates basic rock association.
5.2.2 Iron Ore sample studies:
Four iron ore samples, two each form Kodachadri and Ambargudda were investigated.
Kodachadri ore Ambargudda ore Fig.10 Iron ores of Kodachadri and Ambargudda
146 Field observations indicated following differences between the two:
•
Kodachadri ore is located in higher altitude than the one in Ambargudda.
•
Kodachadri ore is more compact, hard concealed at many places probably making it
comparatively difficult for exploitation.
•
On the other hand Ambargudda or is weathered, fragmented, loose and dusty in nature
at number of places.
•
Lightening and thunder induced pits are more commonly seen in Ambargudda area as
against in Kodachadri. This may indicate a potential near surface large iron rich bodies
making it comparatively more conducting surface.
•
Kodachadri ore shows higher iron content than the Ambargudda ore.
Petrological observations of the ore samples are as follows:
Salient features:
•
Samples from above areas are identified as Banded Iron ore bearing rocks and appear to
be iron rich portion of BIF rocks.
•
All four rocks are magnetic; Sp.Gr varies from 3.9 to 4.35 in representative samples.
•
Hydroxide and oxide phase bearing minerals vary from sample to sample.
•
All four contain titanomagnetite, ilmenite, hematite/martite, goethite and limonite.
•
Discrete grains of first three minerals are crushed to variable degrees and depict
exsolved phases (of high temp formation). Limonite and goethite are the secondary
minerals identified depict rhythmic colloform texture (indicating low temp formation).
•
In Ambargudda area spherulitic/radiating phase is more conspicuous.
Some of
minerals are suspected as radiating needles of titanium, probably rutile.
Sample No: K/1 (Kodachadri iron ore-1)
Megascopy: It is a chocolate brown coloured banded (band width 1cm and above) ore
mineral. It is bit heavy with sp.gr. 4.35. It gives cherry red streak. Thin lines of quartz grains
(1mm) are seen.
Microscopy: Under the microscope it comprises mainly of transparent goethite (as secondary
phase) and opaques (as primary phase). Both occur in banded form. Goethite in plane
147 polarized light is blood red in colour, transparent and in reflected light it is dark grey in colour.
Under crossed nicols it shows reddish tint. At places it shows colloform texture indicating its
low temperature formation. Suspected shards are also seen in goethite. Opaques occur in two
modes as finer mode and coarser mode. Quantity of finer mode predominates over larger ones. In
particular coarser mode is less in abundance. This could be due to variable degree of crushing.
Hematite, titanomagnetite and ilmenite are identified as ore minerals. Majority of the titanomagnetite
occurs in core portion surrounded by hematite/martite. Ilmenite at places shows exsolution lamellae
with hematite.
Rock Nomenclature: Banded iron ore bearing rock /hematite -goethite titanomagnetite bearing rock.
Sample No: K/2 (Kodachadri iron ore-2)
Megascopy: This is also more or less similar like above one. It is chocolate brown in colour,
massive and faintly banded (size of the bands is 1” and above) in nature. It is also bit heavy
with sp.gr. 4.25, gives cherry red streak.
Microscopy: Under the microscope it is also more or less like above rock occurs in banded
form. Orange red, transparent to translucent goethite forming as host mineral and opaques as
guest minerals.
Comparatively opaques are more or less in similar size and distributed
uniformly. However, some opaques are slightly elongated and in places occur in coarser sizes
and in banded form. At places also occur in micro displaced blocks. Some of the opaque
grains occur in triangular and cubic shapes. Opaques have been identified as titanomagnetite,
ilmenite converting into hematite/martite.
Rock Nomenclature: Iron ore bearing rock/hematite goethite ilmenite rock
Sample No: AGD-1 (Ambargudda iron ore-1)
Megascopy: Megascopic character is similar to the above rocks but occurs in crude form or the
ore is highly porous and fragile. It is a chocolate brown coloured banded ore mineral width of
band is about 5mm approximately. On the surface and along the contact plane white coloured
patches are seen. Some holes or cavities are also seen in the rock. It gives brownish to cherry
red streak. It shows sp.gr. 4.07.
Microscopy: The rock under microscope occurs in laminated or banded form. Majority of the
portion has been worn out due to presence of gangue minerals. Composition wise it is more or
less similar type. However, Oolitic form of goethite is more predominant. In reflected light,
148 ilmenite, magnetite, hematite, goethite and pyrite are identified.
Rock Nomenclature: Banded iron ore bearing rock/hematite goethite ilmenite bearing rock.
Sample No: AGD-2 (Ambargudda iron ore-2)
Megascopy: It is dark chocolate brown to steel grey to brown in colour. It gives cherry red streak.
Contacts of the bands/fracture at places are sealed by fine quartz. It gives cherry red streak. It shows
sp.gr. 3.9
Microscopy: Under the microscope it is also of oolitic variety. Goethite is the main mineral observed. It
is occurring in radiating, spherulitic/ oolitic form. It is gel type indicating low temp formation. Some
minerals are suspected as radiating needles of titanium, probably rutile (however, elemental analysis is
essential for proper confirmation). Remaining ores are identified as titanomagnetite/ilmenite and
hematite/martite.
Rock Nomenclature: Banded iron ore bearing rock/hematite goethite ilmenite rock.
Discrete opaques of hem-Ilmmagn set in secondary
goethite/limonite. Kodachadri
area.10x, 1N, TL
Goethite/limonite showing
colloform texture. Kodachadri
area.10x, 1N, TL
Suspected shards in goethite/limonite
bearing groundmass. Kodachadri
area.10x, 1N, TL
Radiating spherulitic iron
ore. Ambargudda area.10x,
1N, TL
149 Martite-Ilm-Magn in limonite/goethite
bearing ground mass Kodachadri
area.50x, 1N, RL
The chemical analysis of Kodachadri and Ambargudda ores carried out by portable xrf are presented in
Table-14
Table-14 Portable XRF spot analysis of iron ores from Ambargudda and Kodachadri areas.
Ambargudda iron ore
Sample1
Sample2
Mode
Al
P
S
Ti
Si
Cr
V
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Mo
Sn
Pb
Cu
Nb
Core
Std.Alloy
bdl
1.1
bdl
0.092
0.77
0.059
0.053
0.066
97.62
0.177
bdl
0.036
0.129
bdl
bdl
0.03
Surface
Std.Alloy
bdl
1.044
bdl
0.06
12.01
0.012
0.028
0.078
86.58
0.071
bdl
0.027
0.109
bdl
bdl
0.025
Core
Std.Alloy
bdl
0.095
bdl
0.062
10.39
bdl
0.018
0.008
89.15
0.204
bdl
0.01
0.043
bdl
bdl
0.008
Surface
Std.Alloy
bdl
0.05
bdl
0.026
18.5
0.006
bdl
0.038
82.5
bdl
bdl
0.016
0.093
bdl
bdl
0.019
Kodachadri iron ore
Sample1
Sample2
Sample3
Mode
Al
P
S
Ti
Si
Cr
V
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Mo
Sn
Pb
Cu
Nb
Core
Std.Alloy
bdl
0.037
bdl
0.033
1.99
0.005
bdl
bdl
97.68
0.177
bdl
0.011
0.054
bdl
bdl
0.009
Surface
Std.Alloy
bdl
1.037
bdl
0.033
1.99
0.005
bdl
bdl
97.68
0.177
bdl
0.011
0.054
bdl
bdl
1.009
Core
Std.Alloy
bdl
2.037
bdl
0.033
1.99
0.005
bdl
bdl
97.68
0.177
bdl
0.011
0.054
bdl
bdl
2.009
Surface
Std.Alloy
bdl
3.037
bdl
0.033
1.99
0.005
bdl
bdl
97.68
0.177
bdl
0.011
0.054
bdl
bdl
3.009
Core
Std.Alloy
bdl
2.037
bdl
0.033
1.99
0.005
bdl
bdl
97.68
0.177
bdl
0.011
0.054
bdl
bdl
4.009
5.2.3 Analysis of garnet crystal:
At Murukattu, near Kattinahoale gavels drained out from garnetiferous schistose/gneissose
rocks of Archaean age contain well developed crystals of garnet. Intense search and pick and
choose mining may lead to semi precious varieties of garnet in this locality. A garnet crystal
was analysed (Table-15) by portable XRF and the results reveal that they are closely matching
the almandine variety of garnet because of their high iron content. Table-15 Portable XRF
analysis of Murukattu garnet compared with standard almandine garnet.
Table-15 Chemical composition of garnet crystal
Murukattu
garnet
Standard
almandine
garnet
SiO2
Al2O3
P2O5
K2O
CaO
TiO2
V
Cr
MnO
MgO
FeOt
CuO
8.39
30.65
0.46
0.08
0.07
1.64
0.12
0.49
1.72
ND
55.97
0.04
36.29
20.72
-
-
0.41
0.16
-
-
0.86
3.85
37.2
0.41
150 Traces of V, Cr, P and K are indicated while silica content is conspicuously low and Fe is
significantly high in this garnet. Almandine indicates high grade regional metamorphic
conditions for those garnetiferous shcists.
5.3 Investigation of slag samples:
Two suspected slag lumps form Pattepete near Kargadi-Hosanagar and one form Kavaledurga
fort were investigated for both microscopic characters and chemical contents.
Megascopic studies: The material is fine grained and brittle. It has numerous voids. It is
chocolate brown in colour and has specific gravity 3.3.
Microscopic studies: The rock is composed of opaques, olivine and pyroxene. The opaques
constitute about 65% of the thin section, while olivine and pyroxene constitute 15% of the
rock. The voids occupy about 30% of the rock. Pyroxene is in bladed form with radial
extinction. Olivine displays irregular fractures and has high order interference colour. Opaques
are present in association with rock forming minerals. Opaques comprise titanomagnetite,
goethite and limonite.
Olivine embedded in opaque miner
Pyroxene in association with
Titanomagnetite is noted in dendritic and vermicular form in association with goethite. At
places, goethite occurs in colloidal form. Limonite is observed in association with goethite. All
these features indicate the suspected slag may not be the one formed by artificial means but
accumulated natural iron rich lumps. Later water and other surface agents might have removed
the excess of silica giving slag like appearance.
Rock nomenclature: Iron rich rock
The microscopic examinations reveal that the suspected slag samples are not the remnants of
slag but a highly altered basic or ultrabasic rock very rich in iron.
Chemical analysis of slag and cannon chips:
151 Table-16 Major and trace element composition of suspected slag
Sample
No.
Location
Slg-1
Pattepete
Slg-2
do
Kavaledu
rga
Slg-3
Nature of
sample
Suspected
slag
do
SiO
2
8.6
8
14.
07
Al2
O3
0.77
2.01
Fe2
O3
24.4
1
30.1
7
34.2
9
11
1.9
11.
Average
3
1.6
0.1 29.6
Av. Slag
8.8 0.80 0.5 27.1
std*
2
3
35
2
Trace element composition of suspected slag * CRM ECRM 879-1
Sample
Nature of
U3
O8
Ba
Co
Cr
No.
Location
sample
Suspected
Slg-1
Pattepete
slag
30
105
30
90
Slg-2
do
do
50
260
35
50
Kavaledu
Slg-3
rga
do
10
65
30
55
143. 31.
Average
30
3
7
65.0
Sample
No.
CNN-1
Location
Kavaledu
rga
do
Ti
O2
0.0
4
0.0
9
0.0
9
Nature of
sample
Ancient
cannon
SiO
2
1
U3
O8
<.0
01
Al2
O3
Fe
O
61.
2
43.
2
46.
8
50.
4
Mg
O
0.3
9
0.3
8
0.2
7
Ca
O
2.6
4
6.2
3
-
Mn
O
0.0
2
0.0
1
0.0
3
0.0
2
4.7
9
Na2
O
0.0
6
0.0
8
0.0
7
K2
O
0.2
6
0.3
9
0.1
4
P2
O5
0.2
1
0.3
7
0.2
6
0.3
2.1
9
3.4
43.
7
0.1
0.3
-
-
0.3
8.5
7
Cu
Ni
Sr
V
Zn
Zr
75
170
100
120
135
545
15
20
30
30
20
35
95
113
.3
115
111
.7
60
246
.7
20
18.
3
35
31.
7
25
26.
7
Mn
O
1.2
6
Mg
O
0.0
4
Ca
O
0.0
2
Na2
O
0.0
8
K2
O
0.0
1
1.3
Fe2
O3
96.8
8
Fe
O
0.09
Ti
O2
0.0
3
Ba
Co
Cr
Cu
Ni
Sr
V
Zn
Zr
25
30
105
40
65
<10
90
30
20
P2
O5
0.5
Th & Rb <10ppm, Nb, Ta & Pb <25ppm in all the samples
Comments:
•
Comparison of major oxide composition show closely matching values of
SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2, and Fe2O3, with slag standard; Where as MnO, MgO, CaO
and P2O5 along with FeO do not match the standard slag sample values. CaO
in slag samples is generally very high. But in Pattepete samples it is too low
and similar is the case with P2O5.
•
The samples are very rich in Fe, which corroborates the microscopic studies.
•
Cr and Sr values can be comparable with shale/schistose rocks and Ni, Co and
Cu show parallel abundance with basic rocks.
152 •
Synthesis of chemical analysis data and microscopic examinations indicate
that the suspected slag near Pattepete may be weathered lump of basic rocks
associated with schistose rocks.
•
There are no clear evidences to prove these samples are slag originated from
the smelting of iron ores. Samples also contain an average 30ppm U3O8,
which could be in adsorbed form in the fine iron rich materials.
153 5.4 Water sample analysis:
Nine water samples detailed in Table-17 were analysed for various cations and anions
including selected trace elements. The samples were collected from various water sources
available in the region which included the reservoir water, pond water, natural water falls, hill
top sources and escarpment seepage water. Table-17 Details of water samples The results are
given in Table-18.
Sl.No.
1
2
Sample No.
HMK-1
HMK-4
Location
Latitude (N)
Longitude (E)
Altitude (m)
Hasamakki (Nittur
side)
13˚ 58' 58.7"
74˚ 59' 09.8"
563
Hasamakki (Sagara
side)
13˚ 59' 34.6"
Chakra dam
13˚ 49' 17.9"
Nature of sample
Reservoir
water
Reservoir
74˚ 59' 17.6"
565
water
Reservoir
3
CKR-5
74˚ 57' 22.9"
576
water
Reservoir
4
SHL-6
Savehaklu dam
13˚ 44' 52.0"
75˚ 00' 30.4"
584
water
Bubbling
5
GTH-3
Gowri Tirth
13˚ 52' 55.2"
74˚ 55' 32.5"
664
pond
Water falls
6
HMN-2
Hidlamane
13˚ 52' 43.4"
74˚ 53' 22.6"
771
AGD-7
Arishinagundi (Falls)
13˚ 52' 03.2"
74˚ 53' 9.7"
321
Kodachadri hill
temple
13˚ 51' 42.7"
74˚ 52' 28.1"
1137
Vaghra Tirth
13˚ 52' 54.9"
Water falls
7
8
KDDW-1
Hill top
source
Escarpment
9
VGTW-1
74˚ 55' 37.6"
483
seepage
154 Table-18. Chemical analysis of water samples
Sender's
Na
K
Ca
Mg
CO32-
HCO33-
Cl-
SO42-
F-
P
Pb
Fe
Mn
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
µg/L
µg/L
µg/L
7.9
3
<1
<10
<10
ND
25
<10
<10
0.2
<0.2
<10
<10
<10
35
8.0
1
<1
10
<10
ND
25
10
<10
<0.2
<0.2
<10
<10
<10
<1
20
7.6
1
<1
<10
<10
ND
10
10
<10
<0.2
<0.2
<10
<10
<10
HMK-4
<1
50
7.9
3
<1
15
<10
ND
25
10
<10
0.2
<0.2
<10
<10
<10
CKR-5
<1
35
7.9
1
<1
10
<10
ND
15
10
<10
0.2
<0.2
<10
<10
<10
SHL-6
<1
40
7.6
2
<1
<10
<10
ND
6
20
<10
0.2
<0.2
<10
<10
<10
AGD-7
<1
55
7.9
2
<1
<10
<10
ND
31
10
<10
0.2
<0.2
<10
<10
<10
<1
65
7.5
2
<1
<10
<10
ND
25
10
<10
0.2
<0.2
<10
<10
<10
<1
70
7.8
3
<1
10
<10
ND
35
10
<10
0.2
<0.2
<10
<10
<10
<1
46.67
7.8
2
<1
11
<10
ND
21.89
11.3
<10
0.2
<0.2
<10
<10
<10
100
-
75
30
-
-
250
200
1.0
-
10
300
300
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1.5
-
10
-
-
U
COND
unit
µg/L
us/cm
HMK-1
<1
50
HMN-2
<1
GTH-3
No.
KDDW1
VGTW1
Average
pH
6.6
60
BIS
400
to
8.5
30
WHO
-
-
ND: Not Determined
The results show the entire source is marginally alkaline with an average pH of 7.8 and the
range: 7.6-8. Since the conductance is very low (average: 47us/cm) the TDS of these are also
less, suggesting its soft nature. These results are in the comparable or even much low in their
chemical contents with various brands of mineral water (Table-19).
155 (Table-19). Chemical analysis of different brands of mineral water.
Sample
Brand
No
U
COND
µg/L
us/cm
<1
75
Na
K
Ca
Mg
CO32-
HCO3-
Cl-
SO42-
F-
P
Pb
As
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
µg/L
µg/L
7.6
10
<1
<10
<10
ND
30
25
<10
0.4
<0.5
<20
<10
pH
name
Omkar
SHMW-1
Premium
SHMW-2
Kingfisher
<1
105
7.2
20
<1
<10
<10
ND
15
15
<10
0.8
<0.5
<20
<10
SHMW-3
Kenley
<1
45
7.6
5
<1
<10
<10
ND
25
15
<10
0.2
<0.5
<20
<10
SHMW-4
Bailery
<1
85
7.4
10
<1
<10
<10
ND
40
25
<10
0.2
<0.5
<20
<10
SHMW-5
Kaveri
<1
125
7.0
10
<1
<10
<10
ND
55
30
<10
0.2
<0.5
<20
<10
SHMW-6
Oxypearl
<1
70
7.6
5
<1
<10
<10
ND
25
25
<10
0.2
<0.5
<20
<10
Average
<1
84.17
7.4
10
<1
<10
<10
ND
31.67
22.5
<10
0.33
<0.5
<20
<10
ND: Not Determined
The conductance and other chemical contents in Kodachadri water samples are alarmingly low
including uranium. This is evident form a broad comparison with WHO and Indian drinking
water standards.
This may indicate difficulty in removal of soap applied either to body or
clothes. Since the mineral contents are much lower than required it may result in various
deficiencies. No tests were conducted on bacterial and fungal contents in these waters.
156 6. CONCLUSIONS:
•
The soil nutrient and microbial investigations brought to light the Kodachadri
soil is acidic in nature, which is probably due to constant leaching of cations
attributed to heavy rainfall in the region.
•
The soil is loamy sand constituting ~90% sand, 9% clay and rest ~1% silt).
•
Soil fertility indicated high organic carbon, total nitrogen, phosphorous and
potash in the thick forest zone soil than the shola grass land soil. A gradual
increase in organic carbon from high altitude shola grass land soil towards thick
forest soil is clearly observed.
•
Investigation of bacteria, fungus and actinomycetes of soil unravelled higher
bacterial and fungal population in the grass land when compared with the soil
derived from forest land. A more or less uniform distribution of actinomycetes
is observed irrespective of nature of soil.
•
Probably the high acidic nature, constant leaching of nutrients and abundant
bacteria and fungus in the grass land area may not provide a favourable
atmosphere for the growth of tall growing plants in the shola grass regions.
However, further investigations needs to conducted to substantiate this point.
•
Rock analysis highlights the association of basic rocks with the quartzsillimanite schist/fibrolite indicated by high Ni and Cr.
•
Iron ore of Kodachadri-Ambargudda contains hematite, magnetite, goethite,
titanomagnetite and occasionally goethite. Kodachadri iron ore more compact,
hard, richer in its iron content than the Ambargudda ore which is more friable or
dusty at places, shows little lower iron content; but being soft-friable it is easy
for mining or exploitatoin.
•
Geochemically the soil mainly composed of Fe, Si, Al and Ti and many other
elements are very low or insignificant. The stream sediments do not show any
REE or other heavy metal association.
•
The Fe2O3: Feo ratio of Kodachadri soil is ~7.7 (range: 1.33-20.05), which
indicates high oxidation status of Fe. A strong positive correlation between
SiO2-Al2O3, TiO2 and MgO-Al2O3 observed in the soil while a strong negative
correlation remained Fe2O3- SiO2, MgO, MnO, CaO, K2O and SiO2-P2O5.
157 •
In the Kodachadri iron ore shards are identified in goethite-ilmentie bearing
groundmass while the Ambargudda ore is conspicuously radiating spherulitic
zones under microscope.
•
Radioactivity measured in the range of <1- 8 µR/h indicating very low
background radiation levels in the region.
•
Detrital grain analysis of garnet crystal revealed it to be the almandine variety
with FeOt ~56%. The gravel mining in appropriate locations may lead to
semiprecious verities of is garnet.
•
The suspected slag samples analysed high Fe content and closely matching trace
elements with basic and schistose rocks. Petrological studies revealed the
presence of natural minerals such as olivine and pyroxene in these samples.
Therefore the suspected slag collected near Pattepete area may not be synthetic
one but the residual Fe rich rocks originated due to weathering and leaching of
lighter elements. The ancient cannon chip sample analysed >96% Fe2O3.
•
Water samples form Kodachadri is mildly alkaline which corroborates the
acidic PH of the soil. Constant removal of alkaline cations from the soil due to
heavy and prolonged rain fall increase the water pH while decrease the same in
soil.
Analytical support for the report
1. Soil nutrient and microbial analysis: Varanashi Research Foundation, Adyanaka, D.K.
Report prepared by Dr. Varanashi Krishna Moorty.
2. Petrological studies: Mrs. Kusum Prakash and Mrs. Sikta Patnaik, Petrology
Laboratory, AMD Bangaluru.
3. Chemical analysis of rock, soil and water samples: Dr. Ushanathan and Dr. Bincy
Cyriac, Chemistry Laboratory, AMD Bangaluru.
4. Portable XRF analysis of garnet and iron ore samples: Shri K.L.Srirama, Chemical and
Metallurgical Laboratories, Bengaluru.
158 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are indebted to Shri V.V.Bhat, MF, AEC, DAE, DOS & EC, for creating and designing
the rare opportunity of multidisciplinary scientific study camp at Kodachadri; extending
constant guidance with his personal involvement throughout. We are grateful to Shri
P.S.Parihar, Director AMD, Hyderabad for his constant support and encouragements as well as
for the permission to incorporate the work in the main project report. One of the authors
(GNH) expresses his gratitude to Dr. R.Mohanty, Regional Director, AMD Bengaluru for the
continuous support and words of appreciation.
Analytical support provided by various
laboratories in AMD and outside is gratefully acknowledged. Dr. S.V.Hegde and Dr.
S.V.Kotur are specially acknowledged for their expert comments on soil nutrient and microbial
studies.
Prof. Madhava Bhat principal Vivekananda College, Puttur along with his colleagues and
students are gratefully acknowledged for the sincere insolvent and cooperation during the field
camp. Shri K.E.Chandrashekhar, members of Veda Patah Shala Chanpakapura Kattinahoale
and other local people are remembered for arrangements and help. We also record the
assistance and help rendered by Government of Karnataka State local administrative authorities
at various levels for successful completion of the work.
159 REFERENCES
1. Deer, W.A.; Howie,R.A.; Zussman J. (1996). An introduction to rock forming minerals.
2nd Edition,
2. District Resource Maps. (2005). (i) Shimoga, (ii) Udupi & Dakshina Kannada districts,
Karnataka. Geological Survey of India, Kolkata.
3. Drinking Water Specification tolerance limits: IS: 10500, 1992, (Reaffirmed 1993).
Bureau of Indian Standars, New Delhi.
4. Geology and mineral resources of the states of India, part VII, Karnataka and Goa
(2006). Miscellaneous Publication No. 30, Geological Survey of India, Kolkata.
5. Hesse P. R. (1971), A text book of soil chemical analysis. John Murray London. pp.
520.
6. Levinson A.A (1980). An introduction to exploration geochemistry pp. 924.
7. Marx E. S, J.Hart and Stevens R. G (1999) Soil test interpretation guide. EC 1478.
Oregon State University. P. 1-8.
8. Milner S. (2007). Elemental analysis of blast furnace slag. Steel Times International,
47-48.
9. Morwin HD, Peach PM (1951) Exchangeability of soil potassium in silt and clay
fractions as influenced by the nature of complementary exchangeable cations. Proc Soil
Sci Soc Am. 15:125–128.
10. Ramakrishnan, M and Vaidyanadhan, R. (2008). Geology of India: vol:I & II, P.994.
************
160 Annexure –II
Compendium of plants- Western Ghats (IIRS)
Economically Important species Karnataka
Sl.no
Botanical name
1.
Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex Rottl.)
Willd.
Acacia ferruginea DC.
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.)
Willd.
Acronychia pedunculata (L.)
Miq.
Actinodaphne malabarica Balakr.
Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.)
Ridsdale
Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa
Aglaia elaeagnoidea (Juss.)
Benth
Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.)
Alston
Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin.
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Willd.
Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth
Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br
Anacardium occidentale L.
Anogeissus latifolia (DC.) Wall.
ex Guill. & Perr.
Anogeissus pendula Edgew.
Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.)
Rich. ex Walp.
Antidesma menasu Miq.
Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.)
Parker
Aphananthe cuspidata (Bl.)
Planch.
Arenga wightii Griff.
Artocarpus hirsutus Lam.
Atalantia monophylla (L.) Correa
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.)
Roxb.
Bauhinia racemosa Lam.
Bauhinia variegata L.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
Bischofia javanica Blume
Bombax ceiba L.
Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex
Coleb.
Bridelia montana Willd.
Bridelia retusa (L.) Spreng
Vernacular name in
English
Cutch
Vernacular name in Kannada
Anasandra bark tree
White babool
Banni mara
Bili Jaali
Claw flowered laurel
Sone maavu
Yellow Teak
Arishina Thega, Hetthega
Bengal Quince
Bilwapathre
Tottila Kaayi
Malabar Ailanto
Manda dhoopa
Black Siris
Siris
Fragrant Siris
Dita bark
Cashew nut
Axle wood
Chigare, Sujjulu
Baage mara
Bilvaara
Moorele bende
Karuvaade, Neraluthaare
Maddaale
Godambi mara, Geru
Bejjalu, Dindiga
Cadamaba tree
Kadamba
Aoora bark tree
Baavinasoppu
Mullu mutthala
Hell’s incense
Gabbu chekke
Jack fruit tree
Jungle Jack
Indian wild lime
Neem
Bamboo
Dadiche
Halasu
Hebbalasu
Kaadu Nimbe
Bevu, Bevina mara
Hebbidiru
Haralnmendara
Kempukanchivaala, Ulippe
Variegated Mountain
Ebony
Vinegar wood
Red silk cotton
Indian Frankincense
Gobra nerale, Neeli mara
Kempubooruga
Maddidhoopa, Sambraani
Spinous Kino Tree
Sidigulige
Gurige
161 Kempu Jaali
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
Buchanania axillaries (Desr.)
Ramam
Cuddapah Almondo
Murkaalu
Buchanania lanzan Spreng.
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.
Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murr.
Calophyllum polyanthum Wall.
ex Choisy
Canarium strictum Roxb.
Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.)
Teijsm. & Binn.
Canthium parviflorum Lam.
Capparis sepiaria L.
Careya arborea Roxb.
Hermit’s Tree
Bengal Kino
Malabar Poon
Kolamaavu
Mutthuga
Doddanaathada gida
Siriponne hoo
Black Dammar tree
Ceylon Boxwood
Karidhoopa, Raaladhoopa
Abalu
Honey thoru
Kaare mullu
Katthari gida
Kaulumara
Carissa carandas L.
Caryota urens L.
Casearia esculenta Roxb.
Casearia elliptica Willd.
Cassia fistula L.
Cassine glauca (Rottb.) O. Ktze.
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertner
Celtis timorensis Span.
Celtis philippensis Blanco
Celtis tetrandra Roxb.
Chionanthus malabarica (Wall.
ex G. Don) Bedd.
Chloroxylon swietenia DC.
Chrysophyllum lanceolatum (Bl.)
DC.
Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss.
Cinnamomum keralaense
Kosterm.
Cinnamomum macrocarpum
Hook.f.
Cinnamomum malabatrum
(Burm.f.) Blume
Cinnamomum sulphuratum Nees
Cinnamomum verum Presl
Clausena dentate (Willd.) M.
Roem.
Cochlospermum religiosum (L.)
Alston
Cordia macleodii (Griff.) Hook.f.
& Thoms.
Cordia obliqua Willd.
Croton malabaricus Bedd.
Cycas circinalis L.
Cynometra beddomei Prain
Dalbergia lanceolaria L.f.
Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.
Dalbergia paniculata Roxb.
Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.)
Nees
Dichrostachys cinerea Wight &
Carey’s myrtle
bloom
Bengal Currant
Fish tailed Palm
Wild cowrie plant
Indian Laburnum
Ceylon tea
White silk cotton tree
Ceylon Stinkwood
White Indian Nettle
Grecian honeyberry
Satinwood
East Indian star apple
Huragalu mara
Kappaale
Chittagong wood
Daalmara
Cassia Cinnamou
Lavangapathre
True Cinnamou
Matta dalchini
Dalchini
Kaadukaribevu
Yellow silk cotton
tree
Macleod’s sebestan
Arishina booruga
Large sebestan
Malabar Croton
Doddachalle
Bilichalle, Haatang
Mandeechalu
Bastard Rosewood
Indian Rosewood
Male Bamboo, Solid
Bamboo
Ashy Babool
162 Karande, Kavali
Bagani mara
Ekanaayaka gida
Haniche
Kakke mara
Mukkarki
Bilibooruga
Bende mara
Bilikaakamushti
Kaarthige
Mahisaale
Hasirugaani
Beete mara
Belaga
Gandubidiru
Vadauaarada gida
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
Arn.
Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.
Dimocarpus longan Lour.
Diospyros ebenum Koen.
Diospyros latifolia
Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.
Diospyros montana Roxb.
Diospyros paniculata Dalz.
Diospyros pruriens Dalz.
Dipterocarpus indicus Bedd.
Dysoxylum binectariferum
(Roxb.) Hook.f. ex Bedd.
Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd.
ex Hiern
Elaeocarpus ferrugineus Steud.
Elaeocarpus oblongus Sm.
Elaeocarpus serratus L.
Eriolaena quinquelocularis
(Wight & Arn.) Clegh.
Erycibe wightiana Grah.
Erythrina suberosa Roxb.
Erythroxylon monogynum Roxb.
Euonymus indicus Heyne
Euphorbia antiquorum L.
Eurya japonica Thunb.
Ficus benghalensis L.
Ficus hispida L.f.
Ficus racemosa L.
Flacourtia indica (Burman) Merr.
Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.)
Robson
Garcinia indica (Thouars) Choisy
Garcinia morella (Gaert.) Desr.
Gardenia gummifera L.f.
Gardenia latifolia Aiton
Gardenia resinifera Roth
Garuga pinnata Roxb.
Givotia rottleriformis Griff.
Glochidion malabaricum Bedd.
Glochidion zeylanicum (Gaertn.)
Juss.
Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.)
DC.
Gmelina arborea Roxb.
Gmelina asiatica L.
Gordonia obtusa Wall. ex Wight
& Arn.
Grewia hirsute Vahl
Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl
Helicteres isora L.
Heritiera papilio Bedd.
Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f.
Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.)
Planch.
Homalium zeylanicum (Gard.)
Poonspar tree
Dragon’s eye
Ebony
Kaadu Kanigala
Kandalla
Mallali
Coramandel Ebony
Mottled Ebony
Beedi Ele, Thoopra
Jagalaganti mara
Borneo vegetable
Tallow
Kallapaini
Agilu
Bili Agilu
Paralysis seed tree
Deccan olive
Hennalathade
Dandlamara, Satagada mara
Gomajjge
Wild Coral tree
Bastard sandal
Mullupaarivala
Chambulu, Jeevadaali
Ancient Spurge
Bonthe Kalte, Chadaragalli
Hulayana, Hulumi
Aaladamara
Kaadatthi
Atthi mara
Hetthari mullu, Miradi
Hennu sampige
Manthuli, Munthe huli
Banyan tree
Crow’s Fig
Cluster Fig
Ceylon Plum
Malabar Gamboge
Kokum butter
Ceylon Gamboge
Cambiresin
Cape Jasmine
White catamaran tree
Kumbalamara
Maanikyabeeja
Coomb teak
Shivanemara
Kirushivani
Naagathe
Bran plant
Indian Linden tree
Indian Screw tree
Chikkudippe
Thadasalu
Kavaragi, Yadamuri
Black Varnish tree
South Indian Elm
Kutigeru
Thapasee mara
Kaala
163 Kokummara, Murgina huli
Devanahuli
Bikkigida
Kambimena
Kallarige
Goddanamara
Boodithale
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
136.
137.
138.
139.
140.
141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152.
153.
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
Benth.
Hopea canarensis Hole .
Hopea parviflora Bedd.
Hopea ponga (Dennst.)
Mabberley .
Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.Ham.) Oken
Hymenodictyon obovatum Wall. .
Isonandra montana (Thw.)
Gamble
Ixora arborea Roxb. ex J.E.
Smith
Ixora coccinea L.
Jatropha curcas L.
Kingiodendron pinnatum (DC.)
Harms
Knema attenuata (Hook.f. &
Thoms.) Warb.
Kydia calycina Roxb.
Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight
Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.
Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.)
Merr.
Lasianthus acuminatus Wight
Ligustrum perrottetii DC.
Litsea floribunda (Blume)
Gamble
Litsea ghatica Saldanha
Litsea wightiana (Nees) Hook.f.
Neolitsea zeylanica (Nees) Merr.
Macaranga indica Wight .
Macaranga peltata (Roxb.)
Muell.
Madhuca longifolia (Koen.)
Macbr.
Madhuca longifolia (Koen.)
Macbr. var. latifolia (Roxb.) A.
Cheval.
Madhuca neriifolia (Moon) H.J.
Lam. .
Mallotus philippensis (Lam.)
Muell.-Arg.
Mangifera indica L.
Maytenus emarginata (Willd.)
Ding
Maytenus heyneana (Roth) Raju
& Babu
Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.)
Walp.
Memecylon malabaricum
(Clarke) Cogn.
Memecylon umbellatum Burm.f.
Mesua ferrea L. .
Michelia champaca L.
Michelia nilagirica Zenk.
Mimusops elengi L. .
Iron wood of
Malabar
Common Caung
Haiga
Fish Poison tree
Thorathi
Gandele
Torch tree
Goravi, Hennugoravi
Scarlet Ixora
Physic nut
Malabar Mahogany
Kempukepala, Kisagaara
Doddaharalu
Ennemara, Kodapaala
Kaadu pinde
Roxburgh’sKydia
Benteak
Indian Ashtree
Bellaka, Bendenaarumara
Nandimara
Channangi mara
Oodimara
Kooli
Beluri
Lotus Croton
Chandakanne
Kanchu praanthi
Mohwa of Southren
India
Mohwa tree
Sannippe
Ippe (Doddippe)
Hole ippe
Kamela dye
Mandase
Kumkumada mara
Thorny staff tree
Thandarasi
Kalaavi
Dodda nekkare
Iron wood tree
Ceylon Iron wood
Champak wood
West Indian medlar
164 Kiralbhogi
Limbatholi
Naagakesar
Sampaige
Doddasampige
Pagademara(Ranja)
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
171.
172.
173.
174.
175.
176.
177.
178.
179.
180.
181.
182.
183.
184.
185.
186.
187.
188.
189.
190.
191.
192.
193.
194.
195.
196.
197.
198.
199.
200.
201.
202.
203.
Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.)
Korth.
Morinda pubescens J.E. Smith .
Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack .
Myristica dactyloides Gaertn.
Myristica malabarica Lam.
Naringi crenulata (Roxb.)
Nicolson
Neolitsea zeylanica (Nees) Merr.
Nothopegia racemosa (Dalz.)
Ramamoorthy
Ochna obtusata DC. var. gamblei
(King ex Brandis) Kanis
Olea dioica Roxb.
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Benth. ex
Kurz
Otonephelium stipulaceum
(Bedd.) Radlk.
Palaquium ellipticum (Dalz.)
Baill.
Pavetta indica L.
Persea macrantha (Nees)
Kosterm.
Pittosporum dasycaulon Miq. .
Plecospermum spinosum (Willd.)
Trecul
Polyalthia fragrans (Dalz.) Bedd.
Premna tomentosa Willd.
Psychotria flavida Talbot
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.
Radermachera xylocarpa (Roxb.)
K. Schum.
Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.)
Tirv.
Bombax ceiba L.
Santalum album L.
Sapindus emarginatus Vahl
Sapindus laurifolia Vahl
Saprosma glomeratum (Gard.)
Bedd.
Schefflera racemosa (Wight)
Harms
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken
Schrebera swietenioides Roxb.
Scleropyrum pentandrum
(Dennst.) Mabberley
Scolopia crenata (Wight & Arn.)
Clos
Securinega leucopyrus (Willd.)
Muell.-Arg.
Semecarpus anacardium L.f.
Shorea robusta Gaertn.
Shorea roxburghii G. Don
Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A.
Juss.
Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz
Kadavala
Brimestone tree
Chinabox
Bombay mace
Elephant Nettle
Paale goravi
Indian Wild Olive
Indian trumpet
flower
Indian gutta-percha
Bilisarali
Aanemungu(Thigademara)
Hill Pavetta
Paavatlegida(Petlangovikaae)
Gulumaavu
Dwarf date palm
Kiri eechalu
Bandagooli
Bendaka
Fragrant Cherry
nutmeg
Gowri mara
Panchotimara
Eeji mara
Indian Kino tree
Walking stick
trumpet tree
Emetic nut
Maggaare
Red silk cotton tree
Sandalwood tree
Soapnut berry tree
Kempubooruga
Srigandada mara
Antuvaala
Honne mara
Konananakombu
Murikaddimara
Ceylon Oak
Weave’s Beam
Wallich’s Buffalonut
Kendaale(Saagademara)
Kalgante
Benduga
Potato plum of
Mysore
Cool pot
Doddajabble
Marking nut
Saal tree
Bastard Saal
Bastard Redcedar
Karigeru
Bilibodige(Raaladamara)
Jaalaari
Kemmara(Swamymara)
Hog Plum
Amatekaayi(Kaaduamate)
165 Haladi Paavate(Maddi)
Kaadu Karibevu
Pindi Kaayi
Doddajaaji Kaayi
Naayi bela(Naayinimbe)
Kari sooli
204.
205.
206.
207.
208.
209.
210.
211.
212.
213.
214.
215.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.
222.
223.
224.
225.
226.
227.
228.
229.
230.
231.
232.
233.
Sterculia guttata Roxb. ex DC.
Sterculia urens Roxb.
Stereospermum colais (Buch.Ham. ex Dillw.) Mabberley
Strychnos nux-vomica L.
Strychnos potatorum L.f.
Symplocos cochinchinensis
(Lour.) Moore
Syzygium caryophyllatum (L.)
Alston
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
Syzygium densiflorum Wall. ex
Wight & Arn.
Syzygium gardneri Thw.
Syzygium hemisphericum (Wight)
Alston
Syzygium operculatum (Roxb.)
Niedenzu
Tabernaemontana heyneana
Wall.
Tamarindus indica L.
Tectona grandis L.f.
Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.)
Roxb.
Terminalia chebula Retz.
Terminalia paniculata Roth
Terminalia coriacea (Roxb.)
Wight & Arn.
Tetrameles nudiflora R. Br.
Trewia nudiflora L.
Vateria indica L.
Vepris bilocularis (Wight & Arn.)
Engl.
Vitex altissima L.f.
Wendlandia thyrsoidea (Schultes)
Steud.
Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R. Br.
Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb.) DC.
Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.
Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.)
Wight & Arn.
Country Tragacanth
Nux-vomica tree
Clearingnut tree
Nanjinakoradu
Chilladamara
Balaloddi, (Changa)
Kuntanerale
Black Plum
Small Jamun
Nerale
Naage
Gardner’s Black
Plum
Matta nerale
Naayi nerale
Tamarind
Teak
Belleric Myrobalan
Hunase
Saaguvaani, Thegadamara
Shanthimara, Thaaremara
Chebulic Myrobalan
Flowering Murdah
Leathery Murdah
Alalekaayi, Arale
Hunaal, Huluve
Karimatthi
False Hemptree
River Portia
White Dammar tree
Bolu, Bondaane
Kaadu Kumbalamara
Bilidhoopa, Dhoopadamara
Managappe
Tall chaste tree
Naulaadimara
Bettada Kammagaggre
Dyer’s Oleander
Black Coral tree
Indian Jujabe
Wild Jujabe
Beppaale
Jimmimara
Elachi, Borehannu
Purpaali
Woody fruited
Jujube
Chotte, Gotta
166 Jenukaathaala
Kempu dale
Paadrimara
Compendium of Plants- Western Ghats (IIRS)
Ecologically Important Species
Sl No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
Botanical Name
Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq.
Actinodaphne angustifolia (Blume)
Nees
Aglaia elaeagnoidea (Juss.) Benth.
Aglaia jainii Viswanathan & Rama.
Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.)
Wall. ex Guill & Perr.
Anogeissus pendula Edgew.
Parker
Aporusa lindleyana (Wight) Baill.
Artocarpus gomezianus Wall. ex
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile
Butea superba Roxb.
Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murr.
Calycopteris tomentosa
Canarium strictum Roxb.
Careya arborea Roxb.
Casearia elliptica Willd.
Cinnamomum keralaense Kosterm.
Cinnamomum malabatrum (N. Burman)
Blume
Clausena indica (Dalz.) Oliver
Combretum latifolium Blume
Corypha umbraculifera L.
Cynometra beddomei Prain
Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight &
Arn.
Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.
Dimocarpus longan Lour.
Diospyros crumenata Thw.
Drypetes confertiflorus
Elaeocarpus recurvatus Corner
Embelia basaal (Roem. & Schult.) DC.
Erycibe wightiana Grah.
Ficus mollis Vahl
Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Robs.
Grewia microcos L.
Grewia tiliifolia Vahl
Holigarna beddomei Hook.f.
Holigarna ferruginea Marchand
Holigarna grahamii (Wight) Kurz
Holigarna nigra Bourd.
Hopea canarensis Hole
Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabberly
Karnataka
Vernacular name in
English
Claw Flowered Laurel
-
Sone maavu
Heggoddi mara
Axle Wood
Thottila kaayi
Dindiga , Bejjalu
Aoora Bark Tree
Mullumuthala
Lakoocha, Monkey jack
Zachun Oil Plant
Cuddapal Almond
Black Dammar Tree
Carey’s Myrtle Bloom
Cassia Cinnamon
Salle gida, Sarali
Dadiche
Vaate gida,Vontemara
Ingalaaradamara
Aaraalumandara, Kittharasa
Chaara pappu
Mutthugada balli
Daddanaathada gida
Kari dhoopa
Gaulu, Kaulu
Haniche
Lavangapathre
Fan Palm, Talipot Palm
Indian Rose Wood
Ashy Babool
Olegarimara, Shreethaale
Beetemara
Vadavaarada gida
Dog Teak
Dragons Eye
Hill Banyan
Malabar gamboge
Kokum Butter
Indian Linden
Black Varnish Tree
Rusty Black Varnish
Common Caung
Kaadu kanigala
Kandalla
Karithumri
Kallaalada mara
Manthuli, Munthehuli
Amasolu, Kokkam
Bili abhrangu pitlakaayi
Sannudippe , Thadasalu
Kutigaeru
Doddele bhogi, Haiga
167 Vernacular name in Kannada
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
Ixora brachiata Roxb. ex DC.
Kingiodendron pinnatum (DC.) Harms
Knema attenuata (Hook.f. & Thoms.)
Warb.
Ligustrum perrottetii DC.
Litsea ghatica Saldanha
Litsea mysorensis Gamble
Litsea stocksii Hook.
Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell.
Mammea suriga (Buch.-Ham. ex
Roxb.) Kosterm.
Mesua ferrea L. Tree Clusiaceae
Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) Sinclair
Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack
Nauclea cadamba
Neolitsea scrobiculata (Meisn.) Gamble
Nothopegia beddomei Gamble
Ochna beddomei Gamble
Olax scandens Roxb.
Olea dioica Roxb.
Otonephelium stipulaceum (Bedd.)
Radlk.
Ougeinia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Hochr.
Phyllanthus emblica L.
Poeciloneuron indicum Bedd.
Premna coriacea C.B. Clarke
Pterospermum reticulatum Wight &
Arn.
Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Wilde
Schefflera racemosa (Wight) Harms
Schefflera venulosa (Wight & Arn.)
Harms
Semecarpus kathalekanensis Dassapa &
Swaminath.
Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A. Juss.
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
Tabernaemontana gamblei Subram &
Henry
Taraktogenos macrocarpa (Bedd.)
Balakr.
Taraktogenos macrocarpa (Bedd.)
Balakr.
Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth
Terminalia paniculata Roth
Trema orientalis (L.) Blume
Vateria indica L.
Vitex leucoxylon L.f.
Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub.
Malabar Mahogany
-
Ennemara, Kodapaala
Kaadu pinde
Benteak
-
Nandi mara
Kodi
Uligeru
Chandakala
Surgi mara
Iron wood Tree
China Box
Bombay Mace
Cadamba Tree
Brahmin Poison Nut
Indian Wild Olive
-
Naagakesara, Naagasampige
Kari hessare
Kaadu karibevu
Doddajaaji kaayi
Kadamba
Beluri
Ambata
Pale goravi
Baavamusht gida
Bili sarali
-
Chariot Tree
Indian Gooseberry
-
Kalmuthaga
Bettadanelli kaayi
Ballagi
Jaavangi balli
-
Ashoka Tree
-
Ashoka
Bilihoothala
Ceylon Oak
-
Kendaale, Saagade mara
-
Bastard Red Cedar
Black Plum
-
Kemmara, Swamy mara
Nerale
-
-
-
-
-
Teak
Black Murdah
Flowering Murdah
Charcoal Tree
White Dammar Tree
Burma Iron Wood
Saaguvaani, Thega
Karimatthi
Honaal, Huluve
Gorklumara, Karuhalle
Bili dhoopa, Dhoopada mara
Holelakki
Jambe mara, Shilve
168 Compendium of Plants- Western Ghats (IIRS)
Endemic Species
Sl No
Karnataka
Vernacular name
in English
-
Botanical name
1
2
3
Aglaia barberi Gamble.
4
5
6
7
8
Aglaia jainii Viswanathan & Rama.
Amomum muricatum Bedd.
Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall. ex Graham.
Argyreia cuneata (Willd.) Ker-Gawler.
-
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Artocarpus hirsutus Lam.
Atalantia wightii Tanaka
Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd.
Beilschmiedia wightii Benth.
Calophyllum apetalum Willd.
Carissa inermis Vahl.
Casearia bourdillonii Mukherjee
Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Juss. ex Gagnep.
Cinnamomum keralaense Kosterm.
Cinnamomum malabatrum (N. Burman) Blume
Cinnamomum sulphuratum Nees
Croton malabaricus Bedd.
Curcuma neilgherrensis Wight.
Cynometra beddomei Prain.
Dalbergia horrida (Dennst.) Mabb.
Desmos lawii (Hook.f. & Thoms.) Safford
Diospyros pruriens Dalz.
Diospyros saldanhae Kosterm.
29
Dolichandrone atrovirens (Heyne ex Roth)
Sprague
Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd. ex Hiern
Elatostema lineolatum Wight.
Ellertonia rheedei Wight Climbing
Epiprinus mallotiformis (Muell-Arg.) Croizat
Euodia lunu-ankenda (Gaert.) Merr.
Hairy Bread Fruit
Bamboo
Cassia Cinnamon
Malabar Croton
Borneo Vegetable
Tallow
Crispate Trumpet
Flower
Kokum Butter
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
Garcinia talboti Raizada ex Sant.
Goniothalamus cardiopetalus (Dalz.) Hook.f. &
Thoms.
Gordonia obtusa Wall. ex Wight
Hardwickia binata Roxb.
Holigarna beddomei Hook.f.
Holigarna grahamii (Wight) Kurz
Holigarna nigra Bourd.
Hopea canarensis Hole.
Hopea parviflora Bedd.
169 False frankincense
Black Varnish Tree
Iron wood of
Malabar
Vernacular name in
Kannada
Thottila kayi
Dadiche
Acchegida ,
Kallanahambu
Hebbalasu
Bidiru, Hebbidiru
Kirihonne
Gundaala mara
Kaamapathige balli
Lavangapathre
Matta daalchinni
Maradee balli
Challane, Kalla paini
Neerudure
Mugali, Mungappe
Amasolu, Kokkam,
Murginahali
Naagathe
Kaaraacha, Kammara
Holegeru, Kutigeru
Doddeleholegara
Kiralbhogi
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabberley
Hoya wightii Hook.f. e
Ixora elongata Heyne ex G. Don
Jasminum malabaricum Wight.
Knema attenuata (Hook.f. & Thoms.) Warb.
Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight.
Lasianthus accuminatus Wight.
Ligustrum gamblei Ramam
Ligustrum perrottetii A. DC.
Litsea laevigata (Nees) Gamble
Litsea mysorensis Gamble
Litsea stocksii Hook.f.
Litsea wightiana (Nees) Hook.f.
Maytenus heyneana (Roth) Raju & Babu
Meiogyne pannosa (Dalz.) Sinclair
Memecylon malabaricum (Clarke) Cogn.
Memecylon talbotianum Brandis
Mesua ferrea L.
Common Caung
Malabar Jasmine
Malabar Mahogany
Benteak
Iron wood Tree
66
67
8
Cowithch
-
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.
Myristica fatua Houtt.
Myristica fatua Houtt. var. magnifica (Bedd.)
Sinclair
Nothopegia beddomei Gamble
Nothopegia racemosa (Dalz.) Ramam.
Ochna obtusata DC.
Ophiorrhiza brunonis Wight & Arn.
Otonephelium stipulaceum (Bedd.) Radlk.
Palaquium ellipticum (Dalz.) Baill.
76
77
78
79
Pinanga dicksonii (Roxb.) Bl.
Pittosporum dasycaulon Miq.
Poeciloneuron indicum Bedd.
Polyalthia fragrans (Dalz.) Bedd.
80
81
82
83
84
85
Psychotria anamallayana Bedd.
Psychotria flavida Talbot
Psychotria octosulcata Talbot
Psychotria truncata Wall.
Pterospermum reticulatum Wight & Arn.
Reinwardtiodendron anamallayanum (Bedd.)
Saldanha
Saprosma glomerata (Gardn.) Bedd.
Shorea roxburghii G. Don
Strychnos dalzellii Clarke
Syzygium densiflorum Wall. ex Wight & Arn.
Syzygium laetum (Buch.-Ham.) Gandhi
Tabernaemontana gamblei Subram. & Henry
Tabernaemontana heyneana Wall.
Hydnocarpus macrocarpa (Bedd.) Warb.
Thunbergia mysorensis (Wight) T. Anders.
Tricalysia apiocarpa (Dalz.) Gamble
Tricalysia sphaerocarpa (Dalz.) Gamble
Turpinia malabarica Gamble
Vateria indica L.
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
170 Bombay Mace
Indian Gutta
Percha
Fragrant Cherry
Nutmeg
Bastard Saul
Small Jamoon
Mzerabad Creeper
White Dammar
Tree
Haiga, Kalbhogi
Kaadu jaaji mallige
Shurali
Kaadupinde
Nandimara
Seepi
Kooli
Uligaeru
Dodda nekkare
Naagakesara,
Naagasampige
Nasugunni
Raamanadike
Raamanadike
Doddajaaji kaayi
Ambata, Ulugera
Pale goravi
Panchoti mara
Kaadu adike
Bandagooli, Boogri
Ballagi
Gowri mara
Santhaanabeeja
Murikaddi mara
Jaalaari
Naage
Kaamanabillu balli
Neela
Bilidhoopa ,
Dhoopadamara
99
100
101
Ventilago madraspatana Gaertn.
Vepris bilocularis Engl. & Prantl.
Red Creeper
-
171 Poppli
Managappa
Compendium of Plants- Western Ghats (IIRS)
Medicinally important species
Sl. N0.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
Botanical name
Abrus precatorius L.
Abutilon indicum (L.)
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd.
Acacia pennata (L.) Willd.
Acacia sinuata (Lour.) Merril
Acanthospermum hispidum DC.
Achyranthes aspera L.
Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq.
Actinodaphne angustifolia (Blume) Nees
Actinodaphne hookeri Meis.
Adiantum lunulatum
Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa
Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult.
Ageratum conyzoides L.
Aglaia lawii (Wight) Saldanha
Aglaia roxburghiana (Wight & Arn.)
Miq.
Ailanthus malabarica DC.
Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang.
Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boiv.
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.
Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raendsch.
Alpinia malaccensis (Burm. f.)
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br.
Ampelocissus tomentosa (Heyne ex Roth)
Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall. ex Grah.
Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.)
Wall. ex Nees
Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.) A. Rich.
ex Walp.
Ardisia solanacea (Roxb.)
Argyreia cuneata (Willd.) Ker-Gawl.
Aristolochia indica L.
Aristolochia tagala Cham.
Asparagus racemosusWilld.
Atalantia monophylla (L.)
Azadirachta indica L. 195
Barleria buxifolia L.
Bauhinia purpurea L.
Bauhinia variegata L.
Bidens biternata (Lour.)Merr. & Scherff.
Bidens pilosa L.
Boerhavia diffusa L.
Bombax ceiba L.
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.
Butea superba Roxb.
Byttneria herbacea Roxb
Callicarpa tomentosa (L.)
Calophyllum inophyllum L.
Canscora diffusa Vahl.
Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Teijs &
Binn.
English
Gulagangi
Sri mudre gida
Bilijaali
Kaadu seege
Seege
Kadle mullu
Uttharani
Sone mavu
Heggoddi mara
Malabar Ailanto
Sageleaved alangium
Oilcake tree
Common siris
Dita bark
Jungle Grape
King of bitter
Madddidhoopa, mandadhoop
Ankole
Chujjalu,chigare
Baage
Moorele bende
-
Kadamba
Spleen Tree
Indian birthwort
Jack fruit
Cat creeper
Indian wild lime
Neem Tree
Purple mountain ebony
Variegated mountain ebony
Hog weed
Red silk cotton
Cuddapah almond
Bengal Kino
-
Mullu mutthala
Bodina gida
Kallana hambu
Katthekirubana gida
Dodda eeshwari balli
Halasu
Halavumakkala thayi
Kaadu nimbe
Bevu
Gubbachhi mullu
kempumandara
Kaadu mandara
ulippe
-
Doddanathada gida
Alexandrian Laurel
Ceylon Boxwood
Surahonne
Shankinigida
Abalu
172 Kannada
Indian Liquorice
White babool
Rusty mimosa
Soapnut
Prickly chaff-flower
Claw flowered laurel
Bengal Quince
-
Hamspaadi
Bilwapathre
Bilihindi soppu
Ooralagida
Thottilakayi
Maddaale, aalemara
Kaadu drakshi
Kiraatha kaddi
Adakapputtana gida
Kempu booruga
Piyaal, Kolamaavu
Mutthuga
Mutthugada balli
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
Canthium parviflorum Lam. Root
anthelmintic.
Capparis rheedii DC.
Capparis sepiaria L.
Carissa carandas L.
Carissa spinarum L.
Caryota urens L.
Casearia esculenta Roxb.
Cassia auriculata L.
Cassia fistula L.
Cassine glauca (Rottb.) O. Ktze.
Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.)
Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Juss. ex Gagnep.
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.
Celastrus paniculatus Willd.
Celtis cinnamomea Lindl. ex Pranch.
Centella asiatica (L
Ceropegia candelabrum L.
Chloroxylon swietenia DC.
Cinnamomum malabatrum (N. Burman)
Blume.
Cinnamomum verum Presl
Cissampelos pareira L
Cissus quadrangularis L.
Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC.
Clerodendrum serratum (L.)
Clerodendrum viscosum Vent.
Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels
Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels..
Commelina benghalensis L.
Cordia macleodii Hook.
Coscinium fenestratum (Gaert.) Coleb.
Costus speciosus (Koen.) Smith.
Crinum asiaticum L.
Crinum latifolium L.
Croton malabaricus Muell. Arg.
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.
Cycas circinnalis L.
Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook. f. & Thoms.
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
Cyperus cyperoides (L.) Kuntze
Cyperus rotundus L.
Dalbergia lanceolaria L.f.
Decalepis hamiltoniiWight & Arn.
Dillenia indica L.
Dioscorea bulbifera L.
Dioscorea oppositifolia L.
Dioscorea pentaphylla L.
Diospyros candolleana Wight
Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.
Diospyros montana Roxb.
Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd. ex Hiern.
Elaeocarpus serratus L.
Embelia ribes Burm. f.
Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC.
Entada monostachya DC.
Eriolaena quinquelocularis (Wight &
Arn.) Clegh.
Erythrina stricta Roxb.
Honeythorn
Kaaremullu
Bengal currant
Fish tail palm
Wild cowrie fruit
Tanner’s senna
Indian laburnum
Deccany olive wood
Emetic nut
White silk cotton tree
-
Katthrigida
Karande
chikkakavali
Bagani mara
Ekanayakana gida
Aavarike, thangadi
Kakkemara
Mukkarki
Maggare
Kaamapatige balli
Bilibooruga
Indian pennywort
Satin wood
Cassia cinnamon
Ondelaga
Cinnamon
Gravel root
Bone setter
Indian traveller’s joy
Beetle killer
Broom creeper
Daalchini
Parira bevu
Mangaravalli
Taelejadari
Bhaarangi
Parale
Daagadiballi
Kannesopu
MacLeod’s sebestan
Columbo wood
Mountain sweet flag
--
Bili challe,hadang
Dodda maradarishina
Changala koshta
Vishamungali
Malabar croton
Couch grass
Nut grass
Bastard rosewod
Elephant apple
Betel yam
Fiji yam
-Malabar ebony
Mottled ebony
--Wood oil tree
Nelathengu,nelathatti gida
Mundeechalu
Haadeballi
Garike hullu
Paralysis seed tree
Deccan olive
Elephant’s foot
Common wind berry
-
Konnari gedde
Hasiru goni
Maakali beru
Doddotte
Betta kanagile, kalthega
Heggenasu
Kaadu genasu
Handinoore
Toopra, Beedi ele
Jagalaganti mara
--kallupini
Bili Agilu
Rudraksha
Dandla mara
Naayi nalige gida
Vaayuvilanga
Ilikivi soppu
Hallekayi balli
Gomajjige
Coral tree
Keechige
173 Huragalu mara
Lavanga pathre
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
Erythroxylon monogynum Roxb.
Euodia lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Merr.
Euphorbia antiquarum L.
Euphorbia hirta L.
Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L.
Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq.
Ficus benghalensis L.
Ficus hispida L.f.
Ficus racemosa L.
Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Robs.
Garcinia morella (Gaert.) Desr.
Gardenia gummifera L.f.
Gardenia latifolia Ait.
Gardenia resinifera Roth. .
Gloriosa superba L.
Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC.
Gmelina arborea Roxb
Gnetum ula Brongn.
Grewia hirsuta Vahl
Grewia tiliifolia Vahl
Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.)
Hackelochloa granularis (L.) O. Ktze.
Haldinia cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale
Harpullia arborea (Blanco) Radlk.
Helicteres isora L.
Heliotropium indicum L.
Hemidesmus indicus L. R. Br.
Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv. ex
Roem. & Schult.
Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz.
Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.- Ham.)
Wall. ex Don
Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch.
Holostemma ada-kodien Schultes
Hugonia mystax L.
Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F.V.
Muell.
Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.-Ham.)
Oken
Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb.
Hymenodictyon orixense (Roxb.)
Mabberley
Hymenodictyon obovatum Sp.
Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) Ait. & Aiton.
F1
Impatiens balsamina L.
Ixora arborea Roxb. ex J.E. Smith
Ixora coccinea L.
Ixora nigricans R. Br. ex Wt. & Arn.
Jasminum malabaricum Wight
Jasminum ritchiei Clarke
Jatropha curcas L.
Kirganelia reticulata (Poir.) Baill.
Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr.
Lantana camara L. var. aculeata (L.)
Moldenke
Lepidagathis cristata Willd.
Leptadenia reticulata (Retz.)Wight &
Arn.
Leucas aspera (Willd.) Spreng.
Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R. Br.
Bastard sandal
Ancient spurge
Snake weed
Wild peepal
Banyan
Crow’s fig
Cluster fig
Malabar cambage
Kokum
Ceylon camboge
Canti resin
White emetic nut
Glory lily
Coomb teak
Bran plant
Indian linden
Small Indian ipecacunha
Yellow teak
Jeevadaali ,Chambulu
Mugali, mungappe
Bonthekalli,chadaragalli
Kempu neneyakki soppu
Vishnu kraanthi
Kaadu ashwatha
Aala
Kaadatthi
Atthi
Manthe huli
Bherunda, Kokum
Devana huli
Dikaamali
Kambimena
Bike, kallarige
Karadi kannina gedde
Gurodagida, Maanikya
Shivane mara
Kaadukamballi
Chikkudippe
Thadasalu
Madhunaashini
Sannaharaka hullu
Hetthega
Indian screw tree
Helitrope
Indian sarsapirilla
Spear grass
Edamuri,kavaragi
Chelukondi gida
Sogadeberu, nannari
Oobina hullu
Clustered hiptage
Conessibark tree
Adarganchi hambu
Kodasige
South Indian Elm
Climbing Flax
-
Thapasee
Jeevahaale
Mullu ankole
Purusha rathna
Fish poison tree
Thoratthi
Bridal couch plant
Doddathoppe mara
Black creeper
Gandele
Kari hambu
Balsam
Torch tree
Scarlet ixora
Malabar jasmine
Karna kundala
Goravi, Hennu goravi
Kempu kepula,maale hoovu
Kisugaare
Kaadu malle
Physic nut
Malabar mahogany
Black honey shrub
Indian ash tree
-
Dodda haralu
Ennemara
Kareesooli, Krishna nelli
oodimara
Lantana, naathada hoovu
-
Andilu
Gantukalu gedde
Paalatheege balli
-
Olle thumbe, Thumbe
-
174 172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
Litsea stocksii (Meissn.) Hook. f.
Macaranga peltata (Roxb Auell.-Arg.
Madhuca longifolia (L.) Macbride
Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg.
Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou
Memecylon malabaricum (Clarke)Cogn.
Mesua ferrea L.
Michelia nilagirica Zenker
Mimosa pudica L.
Mimusops elengi L.
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.
Murraya paniculata(L.) Jack.
Mussaenda laxa (Hook. f.) Hutch. ex
Gamble coughs.
Myristica dactyloides Gaertn. .
Naregamia alata Wight & Arn.
Neolitsea cassia (L.) Kosterm. Roots and
Bark applied to eruptions.
Olea dioica Roxb. Bark used as febrifuge
and emetic.
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Benth. ex Kurz.
Osbeckia brachystemon Naud.
Oxalis acetoslla L.
Oxalis corniculata L.
Parthenium hysterophorus L.
Passiflora foetida L.
Pavetta indica L.
Pavonia odorata Willd.
Pavonia zeylanica (L.) Cav
Phoenix dactylifera L.
Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.
Phyllanthus emblica L.
Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L.
Phyllanthus urinaria L.
Piper nigrum L.
Pittosporum dasycaulon Miq.
Plumbago zeylanica L.
Polygala chinensis L.
Polygonum chinense L.
Pothos scandens L.
Premna tomentosa Willd.
Prunus ceylanica (Wt.) Miq.
Psychotria curviflora Wall..
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb
Pterospermum acerifolium (L.)
Remusatia vivipara (Roxb.) Schott.
Rubia cordifolia L.
Santalum album L.
Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde
Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voight
Sarcostigma kleinii Wight & Arn.
Scutia myrtina (Burm. f.) Kurz.
Secamone emetica (Retz.) Schum.
Securinega leucopyrus (Willd.) Muell.Arg.
Semecarpus anacardium L.f.
Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.
Sida acuta Burm. f.
Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borssum
Sida cordifolia L.
Smilax zeylanica L.
Solanum ferox L.
-Mohwa
Kamela dye
Thorny staff tree
Ironwood tree
Touch me not plant
West Indian medlar
Cowiteh
Chinabox
-
Uligeru
kanchupraanthi
Ippe
Mandase
Kumkumada mara
Thandarasi
Dodda nekkare
Naagakesara
Doddasampige
Muttidare muni
Pagade,ranja
Nasugunni
Angarakana gida
-
-Goanese ipecacuanha
-
Pindi kaayi
Nelanaranga
-
Indian wild olive
Bilisarali
Indian calosanthes
French sorrel
Indian sorrel
Congress grass
Fetid passion flower
Indian pellet shrub
Fragrant sticky mallow
Ceylon sticky mallow
Date palm
Wild date palm
Indian gooseberry
Pepper
White lead wort
Indian milk wort
Elephant creeper
Kidney plum
Indian kino tree
Aane mungu
Seeme huliche
Pullam puriche
Parthenium gida
Kukkeballi
Petlangovi kayi gida
Balarakaasi gida
Antuthogari
Karjoora,utthutthe
Eechalu
Nelanelli,bettada nelli
Madras nelli
Kempu nela nelli
Karimenasu
Bandagooli
Bili chithramoola
Belesoppu
Bili cheenee kanagilu
Adkebeelu balli
Eeji mara
Sugni naaru
Hone mara
Kanaka champa
Marakesu
Manjista
Sreegandha
Ashoka
Hambukalli,somalathe
Indian madder
Sandal wood tree
Sorrowless tree
Moon creeper
Oil flower plant
Ceylon oak
Kite’s claw
Cool pot
Saagade mara
Kurudi hannina gida
Seeranige hambu
Kari sooli
Marking nut
Sal tree
Sickle leaf
Country mallow
Hairy night shade
Karigeru
Aseena,raaladamara
Bheemana kaddi
Bekkinathale gida
Hetthtthi
Kaaduhambu thavare
Biligulla
175 233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
262
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
Sopubia delphinifolia (L.) G. Don
Spilanthes paniculata Wall. ex DC.
Spondias pinnata (L.f) Kurz.
Stachytarpheta urticaefolia (Salisb.)
Sims.
Stephania japonica (Thurb.) Miers.
Sterculia urens Roxb.
Strychnos potatorum L.f.
Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn.
Syzygium cuminii (L.) Skeels
Tabernaemontana heyneana Wall.
Tarenna asiatica (L.) O. Kuntze ex.
Schum.
Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.
Terminalia chebula Retz.
Terminalia crenulata Roth.
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers. ex
Hook. f. & Thoms.
Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr.
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam.
Tragia involucrata L.
Trema orientalis (L.) Blume
Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm. f.) R.
Br.
Tridax procumbens L
Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.7
Tylophora asthmatica (L.f.) Wight &
Arn.
Urena lobata L.
Uvaria narum (Dunal) Wight & Arn.
Vateria indica L.
Ventilago maderaspatana Gaertn.
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less.
Wagatea spicata (Dalz.) Wight
Walsura trifolia (A. Juss.) Herms.
Waltheria indica L.
Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf.
Wrightia tinctoria R.Br.
Xantolis tomentosa (Roxb.) Raf.
Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. .
Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight &
Arn.
Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill.
Ziziphus rugosa Lam.
Zornia diphylla (L.) Pers.
Hog plum
Vanamugali
Amate kaayi
False tragacanth
Clearing nut tree
Lodh tree
Black plum
Bottle flower
Vanapaatha
Kempu dale
Chillada mara
Bala loddi, lodhra
Thotahaalu gida
Nerale
Maddarasa, Bili kodasalu
Therane
Teak
Belleri myrobalan
Chebulic myrobalan
Heart leaved moonseed
Saaguvani, thegada mara
Shanthi mara, thare mara
Alale kaayi
Kiranjul matthi
Amritha balli
Climbing nettle
Charcoal tree
-
Sudarshana balli
Kaadu menasina gida
Churachurike gida
Gorklu mara
Gaayamari
Emetic swallow wort
Addike gida
Urki gida
Aadu muttada balli
Aramina fibre
White dammar tree
Red creeper
Fleabane
Doddabende
Unamini gida
Dhoopada mara
Poppali
Karehindi, Sahadevi
Green wax flower
Dyer’s oleander
Indian bully tree
Chinese date
Wild jujube
Male sagade
Kaada hale balli
Beppale
Kabbinada mara
Elachi,borehannina mara
Purpalli
Jackal jujube
-
Pargi mullu
Bommaarulu
Nellu jollu soppu
176 Annexure –III
Glimpses of field study
GPS reading- Demonstration
Study team
177 Field exploration
Herbarium preparation
178 Annexure-IV
Presentations by resource persons
22.11.2011
7:30-9:00pm Sri Manjunatha Hegde Hosabale, a dynamic personality who had a
good knowledge on insects, butterflies, and snake; shared his vast knowledge
with the participants with slideshow on Biodiversity of Western Ghats with
special reference to insects, amphibians, birds and reptiles. Our students are
indeed lucky to attend such a programme.
9:00-10:30pm very nice, informative PPT presentation on Medicinal Plant
diversity of Dakshina Kannada District By Sri Dinesh Nayak, Vitla, Director,
MSEZ, Mangalore. He has explained the uses of nearly 50 species of plants with
common and botanical name.
8.15-9.15pm PPT Presentation by
Dr. K.G. Bhat, Rtrd. Prof of
Botany, PPC, Udupi. It was a useful
presentation
with
splendid
photographs of flora of Western
Ghats. Participants gained much
from the programme.
23.11.2011
7.15-9.00pm: Video show on
Valley of flowers by Dr. Varanashi
Krishnamoorthy. It was really
informative and indeed enhanced
the knowledge of our students on
Angiosperm Diversity.
10.30pm onwards: Prof. Radhakrishna Rao explained the herbarium technique and
demonstrated the method of pressing the plants, poisoning & displaying the
herbarium specimen.
24.11.2011
7.15 -8.15pm: PPT Presentation by Dr.
Sooryanarayana Addor. He has given nice
presentation on Biodiversity of Western
Ghats with special reference to the
diversity of snakes.
179 9.45-11.15pm: PPT Presentation on
Fungal Diversity by Dr. S. Shankara
Bhat, Rtd. Prof of Botany, Mysore
University. He has explained the
diseases of some cultivated plants
like paddy, grapevine, coconut,
arecanut , jower, bajra, cocoa etc.,
and explained about different
methods of disease management.
11.15-11.45pm: there was a video show on collection & conservation of bee
hives.
25.11.2011
7.15 -8.00pm: Photo show by Dr. Puttaraju, Kaiga amateur photographer. He has
displayed nice snaps of birds. It was really splendid photo show.
8.45-9.45pm: talk on history of Kollur & Kodachadri hills by Sri Raghavendra
Bhat, Principal, Vedavyasa Samskrutha Patashala Champakapura, Sampekatte. 9.45-10.45: Photo show by amateur photographers.
180 Annexure V
A Brief report on Apiary:
In amalgamation with this project we have been taken to bee keeping center
on 25/11/2011, because honey and beekeeping have a long history in India. Bee keeping has
been mainly forest based in India. Several natural plant species provide nectar and pollen to
honey bees. Thus the raw materials for the production of honey is available free from nature.
Bee hives neither demand additional land space nor do they compete with agricultural or
animal husbandry for any input. The bee keeper needs to spare few hours in a week to look
after the bee colonies. Bee keeping is therefore identified suitable for part time occupation. It
constitutes resources for sustainable income generation to rural and tribal farmer too. On
considering all the above views it is necessary to inculcate the traditional skills and improve
the knowledge about traditional activities going on in the outer world. Hence this field visit
was planned. Apart from all the above views we are also aware that these species are under
threat due to human activities like mobile tower signal etc.Hence more and more information
should be inculcated in the minds of young citizens.
Bee rearing centre was located in the outskirts of Hosanagra Taluk at Shimoga
District. It is owned by a Bee Keeping trainer K S Shreedhar at Kannagodu Mane, Nittooru.
He has guided students with mind provoking hands on explanation about two species of
honey bees Apis mellifera and Melipona irridipennis(stingless bee), construction of
hexagonal chambers or cells by honey bees. It is during this visit we came to know that, the
honey comb consists of nature’s hexagonal architecture with the highest mass to strength
ratio. He also explained about the construction of honey bee box, how to attract the honey
bees to the bee box, behavior of bees, its breeding time, predators, social organization,
extraction of honey from the honey comb, honey adulteration, medicinal, economical,
commercial value of honey. Though this field visit was for shorter duration it has enlightened
and improved our knowledge.
Hexagonal cells with highest mass to
strength ratio!
Courtesy Sri V.V. Bhat
Team with Sri K. S Shreedhar
181 Sl.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
List of tables
List of Bryophytes, pteridophytes and gymnosperms documented from the
study area
List of Angiosperms documented from the study area
Some Interesting & curious plants
Handsome and Ornamental plants
List of butterflies documented from the study area
List of amphibians documented from the study area
List of reptiles documented from the study area
List of birds documented from the study area
List of mammals documented from the study area
S.N
List of figures
Pg. No.
15-16
19-26
26-27
27
28-30
30
31
32-33
34
Pg.No
1. Location map of Kodachadri Hill range within Karnataka, India.
7
2. Sample collection sites depicted with google maps.
7
3. Vegetation type of Kodachadri Hill range and surroundings.
4. Altitudinal Zonation map of Kodachadri Hill and surroundings
8
IRS- P5 Cartosat -1 High resolution (2.5m) Panchromatic data showing
8
9
5. surroundings of Kodachadri Hill Range in and around Mookambika Wildlife
Sanctuary, Karnataka.
6. Aspect map of Kodachadri Hill and surroundings
7. Slope map of Kodachadri Hill and surroundings
10
8. LANDSAT MSS FCC image of Kodachadri Hill and surroundings (1973)
10
IRS P6 LISS Image of Kodachadri Hill and Surroundings (1:50,000
11
9. scale) (2nd March 2006)
Time series of minimum temperature for the period from 2005 to 2010
10. recorded at Linganamakki.
182 13
Time series of relative humidity ((15:30 IST) for the period from 2005-2010
13. 12
Time series of relative humidity (08:30IST) for the period from 2005-2010
12. 12
Time series of maximum temperature for the period from 2005 to 2010
11. 9
13
List of Plates
Sl.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
Description
Shola forest on Kodachadri hill range
Sarvajna Peetha
Grassland with herbs
Grassland with Phoenix shrubs
Landscape
Effect of wind
Macromitrium sulcatum A bryophyte
Pogonatum aloides Hedw: A bryophyte
Asplenium nidus L: A pteridophyte
Cheilanthes farinosa (Forssk.) Kaulf.: A pteridophyte
Lycopodium cernuum L. : A pteridophyte
Pteridium aqeuilineum : A pteridophyte
Abelmoschus angulosus Wall. ex. Wt. & Arn.
Adenia hondala (Gaertn.) de Wilde.
Alternanthera tenella Colla
Ammania baccifera L.
Angelonia salicarifolia Humb. & Bonpl.
Asystasia variabilis Trimen.
Atlantia racemosa Wight & Arn.
Atrabotrys zeylanicus Hook. f. & Thomson
Barleria involucrata Nees
Bauhinia phoenicia Heyne
Begonia malabarica Lam.
Blachia calycina Benth.
Blepharis asperrima Nees
Boehmeria platyphylla D. Don
Calicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murr.
Calycopteris floribunda Lam.
Canthium coromandelicum (Burm. f.) Alston
Canscora diffusa (Vahl.) R.
Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Teijsm. & Binn.
Chasalia curviflora (Wall.) Thw.
Cinnamomum macrocarpum Hook. f.
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.
Dendrobium ovatum (Willd.) Kranzl.
Elatostemma acuminatum Brongn.
Eranthemum capense
Ervatamia heyneana (Wall.) Cooke.
Euonymus indicus Heyne ex Wallich
Eupatorium odoratum L.
Exacum bicolor Roxb.
Ficus racemosa L.
183 Page No.
35
35
36
36
37
37
38
38
39
39
40
40
41
41
42
42
43
43
44
44
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47 47 48
48
49
49
50
50
51
51
51
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52
53
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54
55
55
56
56
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
Geophila reniformis D. Don.
Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) A. DC.
Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis.
Gnidia glauca (Fresen.) Gilg.
Grewia heterotrichia Mast.
Grewia serrulata DC.
Griffithiella hookeriana (Tul.) Warming
Grewia serrulata DC. flower
Helicteres isora L.
Hopea ponga Dennst. Mabberly
Impatiens herbicola Hook. f.
Ixora coccinea L.
Leucas cephalotes Roth. Spreng.
Lindernia crestacea (L.) F. Muell.
Litsea sp.
Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell.- Arg.
Memecylon terminale Dalz.
Merremia umbellata (L.) Hall. f.
Moullava spicata (Dalz.) Nicolson
Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb.
Pavetta indica L.
Phyllanthus amarus Schum & Thonn.
Psychotria spp.
Polygonum chinense L. Sp.
Rubia cordifolia L.
Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borss.
Solanum viarum Dunar
Spilanthes radicans (Jacq.) R.K. Jansen
Stachytarpheta indica (L.)Vahl.
Strobilanthus heyneanus Nees
Syzygium sp.
Tarrena asiatica (L.) Kuntze ex K. Schum.
Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding. - Hou
Thunbergia mysorensis (Wight) T. Anderson
Tragia hispida Willd.
Tricholepis glaberima DC.
Truimfetta rhomboidea Jacq.
Urena lobata L.
Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd.
Vernonia dalzelliana Drumm & Hutch.
Arenga wightii Griffith
184 57
57 57 58
58
59
59 59 60
60
61
61
62
62
63
63
64
64
65
65
66
66
67
67
68
68
69
69
70
70
71
71
71
72
72
73
73
74
74
75
75
75
76
76
77
77
78
78
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
Caryota urens L.
Cleisostoma tenuifolium (L.) Garay
Ensete superbum (Roxb.) Cheesman
Eriocaulon sp.
Peperomia reflexa (L. f.) A. Dietr.
Ganoderma P.Karst
Polystictus Fr.
Daedalea
Xylaria
Xylaria
Bracket fungi
A. Indian tiger centipede ( Scolopendra hardwickei) B. Millipede (Narceus species) C. Lantern fly (Fulgora species)
A. Blue tiger (Tirumala limniace)
B. Dark blue tiger (Tirumala septentrionis)
A. Common evening brown (Melanitis leda)
B. Common Fourring (Ypthima huebneri)
A. Grey pansy (Junonia atlites)
B. Lemon pansy (Junonia lemonias
A. Chocolate pansy (Junonia iphita)
B. Plain tiger (Danaus chrysippus)
A. Danaid eggfly (Hypolimnas misippus )
B. Great eggfly (Hypolimnas bolina)
A. Tamil lacewing (Cethosia nietneri)
B. Tawny coster (Acraea violae)
A. Painted lady (Vanessa cardui)
B. Blue oakleaf (Kallima horsfieldi )
A. Quaker (Neopithecops zalmora)
B. Psyche (Leptosia nina)
A. Crimson rose (Atrophaneura hector)
B. Southern birdwing (Troides minos)
A. Indian palm bob (Suastus gremius)
B. Dark palm dart (Telicota ancilla)
A. Common crow (Euploea core)
B. Caterpillar feeding on Ficus racemosa
A. Common emigrant (Catopsilia Pomona)
B. Caterpillar feeding on Cassia fistula
A. Common mormon (Papilio polytes)
B. Caterpillar feeding on Citrus species
Dark blue tiger & Glassy tiger on Crotalaria species
A. Brown leaping frog (Indirana semipalmatus)
B. Elegant torrent frog ( Micrixalus cf. elegans)
A. Egg mass (spawn) of Hylarana temporalis
B. Bronzed frog (Hylarana temporalis)
C. Hylarana cf. intermedius
D. The tadepoles of Rana curtipes, Bi-colored frog
185 79
79
80
80
81
81
82
82
83
83
84
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
125. A. Indian ornate flying snake (Chrysopelea ornate)
B. Painted bronzeback tree snake (Dendrelaphis pictus)
126. A. Common skink (Mabuya macularia)
B. Flying lizard (Draco sp)
127. A. Little cormorant (Phalacrocorax niger
B. Little ringed plover (Charadrius dubius)
128. A. Pompadour Green pigeon (Treron pompadora)
B. Blue Rock pigeon (Columba livia)
129. A. Plum headed parakeet (Psittacula cyanocephala)
B. Small blue Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis)
A.
Malabar Grey Hornbill (Ocyceros griseus)
130.
B. Malabar pied hornbill (Anthracoceros coronatus
131. A. Coppersmith barbet (Megalaima haemacephala)
B. Black Rumped flameback (Dinopium benghalense)
C. Black Drongo (Dicrurus macrocercus)
132. A. Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus ,
B. White bellied Drongo(Dicrurus caerulescens)
C. Rufous backed shrike (Lanius Schach
133. A.Jungle Myna (Acridotheres fuscus)
B.Common Iora
134. A. Red vented bulbul
B. Scarlet Minivet (Pericrocotus flammeus
135. A. Jungle Babbler (Turdoides striatus)
B. Tickell’s Flowerpecker (Dicaeum erythrorhynchos)
C. Large Pied Wagtail
136. A. Purple rumped sunbird (Leptocoma zeylonica)
B. Purple Sunbird (Nectarinia asiatica)Male
C.Crimson backed Sun Bird(Female) (Aethopyga siparaja)
D. .Purple sunbird (Nectarinia asiatica)Female
137. Malabar giant squirrel (Rautafa indica)
186 103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112 113
114
115

1. To view Kodachadri Report Click Here

Transcription

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