CHALLENGES FOR SOIL AND WATER

H
M
v W
U
/
A
FARMERS' PRACTICES, PROFESSIONALS AND
C H A L L E N G E S FOR SOIL AND WATER
PARTICIPATION:
MANAGEMENT
P a p e r f o r t h e W o r k s h o p on F a r m e r s ' P r a c t i c e s a n d S o i l and
Conservation
Programmes,
Robert
Administrative Staff
of I n d i a
Bellavista
Hyderabad 500 049
India
College
I C R I S A T C e n t r e , 19 - 2 1 J u n e
Water
1991
Chambers
I n s t i t u t e of D e v e l o p m e n t S t u d i e s
U n i v e r s i t y of S u s s e x
B r i g h t o n BN1 9RE
UK
f
CONTENTS
Abstract
Changing
i d e a s in r u r a l
Sustainable future
Professionals as
ignorance
short time
scientific
Farmers as
development
livelihoods
problem
horizons
reductionism
solution
knowledge
farsightedness
systems perspective
T h e c a s e of d e p o s i t i o n
Conservation versus
fields
concentration
Professionals' and farmers' views
Participation
as underdeveloped
contrasted
technology
farmer participatory research
participatory rural appraisal
g r o u p and c o m m u n i t y p a r t i c i p a t ion
Participation
and s u s t a i n a b l e
livelihoods
C h a l l e n g e s for the 1790s: m e t h o d s , q u a l i t y and
scale
References
ABSTRACT
P r o f e s s i o n a l s and f a r m e r s h a v e c o n t r a s t i n g s t r e n g t h s , w e a k n e s s e s , and
objectives.
F a r m e r s ' s t r e n g t h s include their local technical k n o w l e d g e ,
t h e i r s y s t e m s v i e w , a n d , w h e n s e c u r e in t e n u r e a n d r i g h t s , t h e i r
p r o p e n s i t y to f a r s i g h t e d n e s s .
P r o f e s s i o n a l s a r e s p e c i a l i s t s w h o t e n d to
s i m p l i f y and s t a n d a r d i s e ;
f a r m e r s are g e n e r a l i s t s w h o tend to c o m p l i c a t e
and d i v e r s i f y .
P r o f e s s i o n a l s seek c o n s e r v a t i o n , of soil and w a t e r ;
f a r m e r s a l s o s e e k c o n c e n t r a t i o n , of s o i l , w a t e r a n d n u t r i e n t s , t o c r e a t e
stable and productive microenvironments such as deposition f i e l d s .
P a r t i c i p a t i o n is b a s i c t o s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e a p p r o a c h e s a n d
m e t h o d s . o f f a r m e r p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h , of p a r t i c i p a t o r y .rural
a p p r a i s a l , a n d of g r o u p a n d c o m m u n i t y p a r t i c i p a t i o n , p r o v i d e s t a r t i n g
points.
When the r a p p o r t , m e t h o d s and m a t e r i a l s are r i g h t , farmers w o m e n a n d m e n - h a v e a g r e a t e r a b i l i t y t h a n p r o f e s s i o n a l s h a v e e x p e c t e d to
m a p , m o d e l , q u a n t i f y , r a n k , s c o r e , d i a g r a m , a n a l y s e , p l a n and i m p l e m e n t
plans. To facilitate farmers' participation, professionals become
c o n v e n o r s , c a t a l y s t s , s e a r c h e r s and s u p p l i e r s , c o n s u l t a n t s , and t o u r
operators,
s u p p o r t i n g and s t r e n g t h e n i n g f a r m e r s ' own R and D .
Future
s u s t a i n a b l e l i v e l i h o o d s w i l l d e p e n d on g r e a t e r a d a p t a b i l i t y , d y n a m i s m a n d
competence among farm families. To support and enhance these farmers'
c a p a b i l i t i e s , t h e m a j o r c h a l l e n g e s are now m e t h o d o l o g i c a l , to d e v e l o p and
d i s s e m i n a t e p a r t i c i p a t o r y approaches and m e t h o d s a . to enable
p r o f e s s i o n a l s to c h a n g e and learn from and with f a r m e r s , b . to a s s u r e
q u a l i t y , and c . t o s c a l e u p a n d s p r e a d in G o v e r n m e n t .
Changing
ideas
in r u r a l
development
W e l i v e in an e r a of c h a n g e u n p r e c e d e n t e d f o r i t s s p e e d and
u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y : c h a n g e in i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , in p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s ,
in the p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t , in s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , in t e c h n o l o g y , in
professionalism.
In r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t , i d e a s h a v e n o t j u s t b e e n c h a n g i n g ,
but changing faster.
Twenty years ago women were not much m e n t i o n e d .
O n l y ten y e a r s a g o , t h e e n v i r o n m e n t w a s n o t h i g h on t h e a g e n d a .
N o w in
t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s w e h a v e an e v o l v i n g and c o n v e r g i n g c o n s e n s u s on t h e m o v i n g
f r o n t i e r s of d e v e l o p m e n t t h i n k i n g a n d p r a c t i c e .
This values indigenous
t e c h n o l o g y , f a r m e r s ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n in r e s e a r c h , s u s t a i n a b i 1 i t y , a n d
e n a b l i n g a n d e m p o w e r i n g r u r a l p e o p l e to g a i n f o r t h e m s e l v e s m u c h m o r e of
what they want and need.
I n c r e a s i n g l y , t h e s e c h a n g i n g v a l u e s h a v e b e e n e x p r e s s e d in t h e c o n c e p t of
s u s t a i n a b l e l i v e l i h o o d s (see e . g . W C E D 1 9 S 7 ) , a s a c e n t r a l o b j e c t i v e t h a t
can be shared by rural p e o p l e and by p o l i c y - m a k e r s .
L i v e l i h o o d s can be
d e f i n e d a s a d e q u a t e s t o c k s a n d f l o w s of f o o d a n d c a s h t o m e e t b a s i c n e e d s ,
and s e c u r e m e a n s to meet c o n t i n g e n c i e s w i t h o u t b e c o m i n g p e r m a n e n t l y
poorer.
S u s t a i n a b l e r e f e r s t o t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o r e n h a n c e m e n t of r e s o u r c e
p r o d u c t i v i t y on a l o n g - t e r m b a s i s (for a m o r e d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n s e e W C E D
19B7:3-5).
L i v e l i h o o d s are d i v e r s e and often c o m p l e x , with n o n a g r i c u l t u r a l and n o n - f a r m as well a s a g r i c u l t u r a l and farm s o u r c e s .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y of r u r a l l i v e l i h o o d s d e p e n d d i r e c t l y o r
i n d i r e c t l y upon natural r e s o u r c e s and upon a g r i c u l t u r e .
For the
s u s t a i n a b i 1 i t y of m a n y r u r a l l i v e l i h o o d s , t h e n , land h u s b a n d r y is b a s i c .
Of a l l t h e c h a n g e s of t h e p a s t d e c a d e , t h e m o s t h o p e f u l h a s b e e n a n e w
professional humility.
M o r e and m o r e , it h a s b e e n r e c o g n i s e d t h a t " w e "
a r e m u c h of t h e p r o b l e m , a n d " t h e y " a r e m u c h of t h e s o l u t i o n .
By "we" I
m e a n e d u c a t e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s w i t h r e g u l a r e m p l o y m e n t w h o w o r k on r u r a l
d e v e l o p m e n t (even w h e n w e h a v e r u r a l b a c k g r o u n d s o r h o m e s , a n d a r e a l s o
p a r t - t i m e farmers): we include a c a d e m i c s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , a g r i c u l t u r a l
engineers, agriculturalists, animal scientists, medical doctors,
educationalists, economists, entomologists, extensionists, foresters,
h y d r o l o g i s t s , s e e d - b r e e d e r s , s o c i o l o g i s t s , soil s c i e n t i s t s , t e a c h e r s , and
others.
B y " t h e y " I m e a n p e o p l e w h o m a k e t h e i r l i v i n g in r u r a l a r e a s ,
e s p e c i a l l y f a r m e r s and p a s t o r a l i s t s , both women and m e n , and w h e t h e r
literate or illiterate.
S h a d e s and s u b t l e t i e s q u a l i f y each c a s e , but for
clarity I shall draw the c o n t r a s t s s h a r p l y .
P r o f e s s i o n a l s as
problem
T h e r e h a v e b e e n m a n y p r o f e s s i o n a l s u c c e s s e s in r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t a l s o
a d a u n t i n g n u m b e r of f a i l u r e s .
A g a i n a n d a g a i n , c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s of
t h e s e f a i l u r e s h a s p o i n t e d to p r o f e s s i o n a l and b u r e a u c r a t i c e r r o r .
With
s m a l l h o l d e r f a r m i n g , a n a l y s i s of s u c h e r r o r s on t h e p a r t of " u s " a s
t r a i n e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s , is a t f i r s t s i g h t a s t a r t l i n g p a r a d o x , and n o t w h a t
w e w a n t t o r e c o g n i s e : f o r it i n c l u d e s i g n o r a n c e , s h o r t t i m e h o r i z o n s , a n d
scientific reductionism as a constraint.
-
ignorance
P r o f e s s i o n a l s h a v e often failed to u n d e r s t a n d s m a l l f a r m e r s ' p r i o r i t i e s or
why small farmers do what they do.
I s o l a t e d on r e s e a r c h s t a t i o n s a n d
i n s u l a t e d in l a b o r a t o r i e s , t h e y h a v e o f t e n n o t k n o w n w h a t f a r m e r s '
technology was.
F o r A f r i c a , a d e t a i l e d r e v i e w of t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e c e n t l y
c o n c l u d e d t h a t " O u r c u r r e n t k n o w l e d g e of i n d i g e n o u s s o i l a n d w a t e r
c o n s e r v a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s in A f r i c a is e x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d " (Reij 1 9 9 0 : 1 5 ) .
T h e s a m e h a s b e e n t r u e f o r I n d i a , a s t h e n o v e l t y of t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a t
this Workshop will show.
P r o f e s s i o n a l s w o r l d w i d e have tended not to
n o t i c e , or to n e g l e c t , w h a t f a r m e r s do and what farming s y s t e m s e n t a i l ;
a n d t h e s e i n c l u d e f a r m e r s ' a c t i o n s a n d a b i l i t i e s as. d o m e s t i c a t o r s a n d
experimenters
(Richards 1985, Juma 19B9, Rhoades 19B9), farmers'
c r e a t i o n , p r o t e c t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n of m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t s ( C h a m b e r s
1 9 9 0 ) , a n d t h e d i v e r s i t y a n d c o m p l e x i t y of s m a l l f a r m i n g s y s t e m s ,
W o r s e , p r o f e s s i o n a l s have all too often not known that they did not k n o w .
S o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d h a v e p r o v i d e d e x a m p l e s of
a r r o g a n t i g n o r a n c e and i n s e n s i t i v i t y , of imposing s t a n d a r d i s e d bad
practice on rationally resistant small farmers.
In d o i n g s o , t h e y h a v e
b e e n a p a r t i c u l a r c a s e of a g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y .
Often "we" - p r o f e s s i o n a l s
- have been confident that our bookish education has given us s u p e r i o r
i n s i g h t s , that "we" know and "they" a r e i g n o r a n t , that "we" should plan
f o r " t h e m " , that o u r p a c k a g e d t e c h n o l o g y from research s t a t i o n s and
l a b o r a t o r i e s is s u p e r i o r ,
that those who do not adopt or who deviate from
r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a r e stupid and ignorant;
t h a t , in s h o r t , w e k n o w b e s t a n d
they know worst.
But the ignorance has often been o u r s .
- short time horizons..
Notwithstanding our common b e l i e f s about
o u r s e l v e s , w e t e n d to h a v e s h o r t t i m e h o r i z o n s : e c o n o m i s t s d o m i n a t e d b y
discount rates undervalue the future; commercial interests want quick
p r o f i t s ; and g o v e r n m e n t p r o g r a m m e s tend to be bound to a c h i e v e p h y s i c a l
t a r g e t s b y t h e e n d of t h e f i n a n c i a l y e a r o r of t h e p r o j e c t o r p l a n p e r i o d .
N o n e of t h e s e s u p p o r t s s u s t a i n a b i 1 i t y .
- scientific reductionism.
Our professions simplify complex reality into
i t s p a r t s , a s s u m e u n i f o r m i t i e s , a n d c o n t r o l t h e u n p r e d i c t a b l e in o r d e r t o
c o n d u c t e x p e r i m e n t s , to s t u d y a n d t o m e a s u r e .
O u r r e s e a r c h in c o n s e q u e n c e
t e n d s t o g e n e r a t e s t a n d a r d p a c k a g e s s u i t a b l e f o r u n i f o r m and c o n t r o l l e d
e n v i r o n m e n t s . O u r centralised o r g a n i s a t ions also prefer and p r o p a g a t e
standard solutions.
B u t t h e s e t e n d to m i s f i t t h e c o n d i t i o n s and n e e d s of
c o m p l e x , d i v e r s e a n d r i s k - p r o n e a g r i c u l t u r e , w h e r e to r a i s e p r o d u c t i o n a n d
r e d u c e r i s k f a r m e r s o f t e n s e e k n o t t o s i m p l i f y b u t to c o m p l i c a t e , n o t t o
s t a n d a r d i s e b u t to d i v e r s i f y t h e i r f a r m i n g - s y s t e m s .
We are further channelled by our d i s c i p l i n a r y training, our textbooks and
o u r l e c t u r e s , into narrow r u t s . "Soil and w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n " as a label
d o e s a t l e a s t b r i n g t o g e t h e r s o i l a n d w a t e r anci t h e d i s t i n c t p r o f e s s i o n s
or s u b p r o f e s s i o n s (soils s c i e n t i s t s , h y d r o l o g i s t s , etc) which o t h e r w i s e
m i g h t tend to c o n s i d e r soil and w a t e r s e p a r a t e l y ; but e v e n s o , "soil and
w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n " d o e s n o t m e n t i o n n u t r i e n t s , let a l o n e t h e m a n y o t h e r
d o m a i n s and d i m e n s i o n s (climatic, b i o l o g i c a l , s o c i a l , e c o n o m i c ,
m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t a l , s e a s o n a l , a n n u a l - p e r e n n i a l e t c ) in f a r m i n g s y s t e m s ,
let a l o n e s u s t a i n a b l e l i v e l i h o o d s .
T h e s e a r e , o f c o u r s e , a l l n e g a t i v e p o i n t s ; a n d m u c h p o s i t i v e e v i d e n c e of
s u c c e s s f u l p r o g r a m m e s a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n s c o u l d b e a d d u c e d (as i n , f o r
e x a m p l e , Conroy and Litvinoff 1988
T h e G r e e n inq of A i d ) . B u t t h e
n e g a t i v e p o i n t s h a v e a p o s i t i v e o t h e r s i d e of t h e c o i n . T o t h e e x t e n t
t h a t t h e r e h a v e b e e n e r r o r s a n d o m i s s i o n s in t h e p a s t , t h r o u g h i g n o r a n c e ,
arrogance, short sight, reductionism, standardisation, or other causes,
there are opportunities now to do better for the f u t u r e . F o r this, the
emerging consensus,
is that w e h a v e to turn much m o r e to " t h e m " , to farm
f a m i l i e s , for p o i n t e r s to s o l u t i o n s .
Farmers as
solution
" F a r m e r s " h e r e and t h r o u g h o u t t h i s p a p e r r e f e r s to women and m e n , w i t h
s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s o n t h o s e w h o -are r e s o u r c e - p o o r .
There are three respects*
in w h i c h f a r m e r s t h e m s e l v e s a r e a k e y t o f i n d i n g s o l u t i o n s : t h e i r
knowledge; their time horizons; and their analytical c a p a b i l i t i e s .
- knowledge.
R e c o g n i t i o n of t h e v a l i d i t y a n d u s e f u l n e s s of w h a t h a s b e e n
c a l l e d i n d i g e n o u s t e c h n i c a l k n o w l e d g e (ITK) is n o w s o w i d e s p r e a d t h a t it
does not need to b e laboured
( F o r c l a s s i c s t a t e m e n t s s e e B r o k e n s h a e t al
1 9 8 0 a n d R i c h a r d s 1 9 8 5 ) . Q u i t e n a t u r a l l y and o b v i o u s l y , f a r m e r s a r e
e x p e r t s on m o s t a s p e c t s of t h e i r f a r m i n g s y s t e m s ; t h e y h a v e to b e to
survive.
T h e r e is n o w a l a r g e l i t e r a t u r e on s c i e n t i f i c s u b j e c t s p r e f i x e d
w i t h " e t h n o " - e t h n o - b o t a n y , e t h n o - c 1 i m a t o l o g y , e t h n o - s c i e n c e a n d s o on a n d m o s t r e c e n t l y e t h n o - e n g i n e e r i n g (Reij 1 9 9 0 ) .
Of c o u r s e , s c i e n t i s t s
h a v e knowledge and access which farmers lack.
B u t in t e r m s of t h e i r
farming p r a c t i c e s , their p r i o r i t i e s , and their c o n s t r a i n t s , farmers have a
c o m p a r a t i v e a d v a n t a g e : they are c o n t i n o u s l y c r e a t i n g and managing their
f a r m i n g s y s t e m s ; t h e y a r e t h e e x p e r t s - t h e y h a v e to b e ; t h e y k n o w .
- farsightedness.
T h e s t e r e o t y p e of p o o r f a r m e r s a s a l w a y s l i v i n g f r o m
h a n d t o m o u t h , a n d of t a k i n g n o t h o u g h t f o r t h e m o r r o w , is n o t b o r n e o u t
empirically.
To be s u r e , those w h o are d e s p e r a t e will s a c r i f i c e the longt e r m f o r s h o r t - t e r m s u r v i v a l ; and t h o s e w h o a r e i n s e c u r e and f e a r l o s s o r
d i s p l a c e m e n t , may not invest for the f u t u r e .
L a c k of s o i l and w a t e r
c o n s e r v a t i o n p r a c t i c e s by f a r m e r s t e n d s to be a s s o c i a t e d with a b s e n t e e i s m ,
w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l o f f - f a r m i n c o m e s , a n d w i t h l a c k of s e c u r i t y - w h e r e land
is rented or s h a r e - c r o p p e d (Sanghi and K e r r 1 9 9 1 ) .
In c o n t r a s t , t h e r e is
much evidence that wherever small-farm families are present, rely largely
o n f a r m i n g f o r t h e i r i n c o m e , a n d a r e s e c u r e in t h e i r t e n u r e and r i g h t s ,
t h e y h a v e a p r o p e n s i t y to s t r i v e t o t a k e t h e l o n g v i e w a n d to i n v e s t f o r
f u t u r e b e n e f i t s - through p l a n t i n g and p r o t e c t i n g t r e e s , through their own
s o i l , w a t e r a n d n u t r i e n t c o n s e r v a t i o n , h a r v e s t i n g and c o n c e n t r a t i o n (see
d e p o s i t i o n f i e l d s b e l o w ) , a n d t h r o u g h s t r a t e g i e s to i n c r e a s e t h e i r land
hold ings.
- systems perspective.
P e r h a p s t h e g r e a t e s t e r r o r of c o n v e n t i o n a l
p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m in r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t h a s b e e n t h e f a i l u r e to r e c o g n i s e a n d
e n h a n c e f a r m e r s ' ( w o m e n ' s and m e n ' s ) a n a l y t i c a l a b i l i t i e s .
We h a v e
s u p p o s e d t h a t o n l y w e can u n d e r s t a n d a n d p r e s c r i b e f o r t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s of
farming systems.
S o w e h a v e c o m p i l e d long q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , c o n d u c t e d long
i n t e r v i e w s , e x t r a c t e d m u c h d a t a , a n d s t r u g g l e d w i t h m u c h a n a l y s i s to t r y
to d e c i d e what would be g o o d . f o r t h e m .
We h a v e b e l i e v e d "them" to be
i n c a p a b l e of s y s t e m s a n a l y s i s .
M o r e and m o r e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h i s
b e l i e f to b e f a l s e ( e . g . A s h b y 1 9 S 9 , C o n w a y 1 9 8 ? , L i g h t f o o t et a l 1 9 8 9 ,
L i g h t f o o t et al 1 9 9 1 ) .
W h a t h a s b e e n m i s s i n g is o u r a b i l i t y to f a c i l i t a t e
their analysis.
If f a r m e r s a n a l y s e t h e i r f a r m i n g s y s t e m s t h e y
a u t o m a t i c a l l y s c r e e n o u t m u c h r e d u n d a n t i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h w e in o u r
ignorance would collect.
R e c e n t e x p e r i e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t if r a p p o r t ,
m e t h o d s and m a t e r i a l s are right, f a r m e r s , w h e t h e r literate or i l l i t e r a t e ,
h a v e a much g r e a t e r a b i l i t y than o u t s i d e r s h a v e s u p p o s e d to m a p , m o d e l ,
quantify, rank, score, diagram, experiment, observe, analyse, plan,
i m p l e m e n t and e v a l u a t e (Chambers 1991).
What has been wrong has been our
b e h a v i o u r and a t t i t u d e s ; what h a s been m i s s i n g h a s been o u r f a c i l i t a t i o n
and our faith that they can do it, and the r a p p o r t , m e t h o d s and m a t e r i a l s
n e e d e d for them to e x p r e s s , a n a l y s e , and e n h a n c e what they k n o w .
T h e C a s e of D e p o s i t i o n
Fields
T h e c o n t r a s t i n g t h i n k i n g , p e r c e p t i o n s a n d p r i o r i t i e s of f a r m e r s a n d of
t r a i n e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s c a n b e i l l u s t r a t e d b y d e p o s i t i o n f i e l d s in g u l l i e s
(ftlBB M n e w n
g u l l y fields and n a l l a f i e l d s ) .
These artificial
m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t s a r e f o u n d in a e m i a r i d E t h i o p i a ( E R C S 1 9 8 8 : 3 6 - 3 7 ) , a n d
a l s o in C e n t r a l A m e r i c a ( W i l k e n 1 9 8 7 : 7 0 - 7 1 ) a n d I n d i a ( p e r s o n a l
o b s e r v a t i o n s in K a r n a t a k a , G u j a r a t a n d B i h a r ) .
To make these fields,
f a r m e r s o v e r t h e y e a r s b u i l d u p b a r r i e r s of l a r g e s t o n e s in g u l l i e s ,
p r o g r e s s i v e l y t r a p p i n g e r o s i o n s i l t to m a k e f l a t , f e r t i l e and w e l l - w a t e r e d
f i e l d s , often p r o t e c t e d by the g u l l y w a l l s from sun and w i n d .
In t h e s e
m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t s , t h e y o f t e n g r o w c r o p s ( i n c l u d i n g c o f f e e and c h a t in
E t h i o p i a , a n d r i c e in I n d i a ) w h i c h a r e of h i g h e r v a l u e t h a n t h e f i e l d
c r o p s on n e i g h b o u r i n g r a i n f e d l a n d .
T h e c r o p s a r e a l s o m o r e r e l i a b l e : in
G u j a r a t , t h e y h a v e b e e n f o u n d to p r o v i d e t h e m o s t s t a b l e s o u r c e of a
h o u s e h o l d ' s food supply (pers. c o m m . Parmesh S h a h ) .
T h e i m p o r t a n c e of
t h e s e s i l t f i e l d s t o f a r m e r s in I n d i a h a s b e e n i n d i c a t e d b y t h e
e x a g g e r a t e d sise and v i s i b i l i t y they a r e given when farmers make physical
m o d e l s of t h e i r w a t e r s h e d s .
-
f
A n e x a m p l e c a n p r o v i d e i n s i g h t i n t o t h e g e n e r a l p o i n t s h e r e (2). In t h e
L i m b u w a t e r s h e d n e a r K a m a l a p u r a in G u l b a r g a D i s t r i c t , K a r n a t a k a , f a r m e r s
h a v e for s o m e d e c a d e s b e e n m a k i n g d e p o s i t i o n f i e l d s in n a l l a s .
In r e c e n t
y e a r s , a G o v e r n m e n t p r o g r a m m e c o n s t r u c t e d g u l l y c h e c k s of a s t a n d a r d
d e s i g n and o f t e n of a s t a n d a r d s i z e . T y p i c a l l y , t h e s e w e r e l a r g e r and
h i g h e r t h a n f a r m e r s ' s i l t t r a p b a r r i e r s and h a d t o b e c o m p l e t e d in o n e
financial year. Farmers have not favoured this (literally high)
t e c h n o l o g y s i n c e it h o l d s u p w a t e r i n s t e a d of m e e t i n g t h e i r p r i o r i t y Of
forming fields for s u s t a i n a b l e and stable p r o d u c t i o n .
R e c e n t l y , in t h e
l o w e r p a r t s of n a l l a s , w h e r e s t r e a m f l o w s a r e l a r g e r a n d w h e r e t h e i r n o r m a l
s t o n e w a l l b a r r i e r s m i g h t n o t l a s t t h r o u g h big f l o o d s , f a r m e r s h a v e b u i l t
w a l l s w i t h a s l o p i n g d o w n s i d e a p r o n , s i m i l a r to a g o v e r n m e n t d e s i g n , b u t
w i t h t w o d i f f e r e n c e s . F i r s t , t h e w a l l s a r e l o w , in o r d e r t o trap s i l t a n d
b u i l d up f i e l d s g r a d u a l l y , n o t h i g h to h o l d w a t e r . S e c o n d , f a r m e r s h a v e
b e d d e d long s t o n e s in t h e a p r o n , s t i c k i n g up l i k e t e e t h . W h e n I s a w t h i s ,
I t h o u g h t it w a s to r e d u c e d o w n s t r e a m e r o s i o n b y b r e a k i n g t h e s t r e a m f l o w .
A f a r m e r g a v e a d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n . T h e p u r p o s e w a s to p r o v i d e s u p p o r t f o r
t h e n e x t l a y e r of s t o n e s to b e p l a c e d on the a p r o n . T h e i n t e n t i o n w a s to
b u i l d up t h e w a l l g r a d u a l l y o v e r t h e y e a r s a s g o o d s i l t w a s d e p o s i t e d ,
p r o g r e s s i v e l y f o r m i n g a l a r g e r and b e t t e r f i e l d .
To meet their priority
of concentrating s o i l , w a t e r and n u t r i e n t s , and h i g h e r and more s t a b l e
p r o d u c t i o n , f a r m e r s h a d i n n o v a t e d , d e v e l o p i n g t e c h n o l o g y to f i t l o c a l
c o n d i t i o n s and i n v e s t i n g f o r t h e s u s t a i n a b l e long t e r m .
N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , d e p o s i t i o n f i e l d s h a v e b e e n r e l a t i v e l y n e g l e c t e d in t h e
lit§P§1sUPlt 'They a r e e a s y for v i s i t o r s to o v e r l o o k : t h e y a r e o f t e n s m a l l ,
a n d t u c k e d a w a y o u t of s i g h t in v a l l e y b o t t o m s ; and t h e i r c r o p s o f t e n
d i f f e r f r o m the m o r e v i s i b l e a n d e x t e n s i v e f i e l d c r o p s h i g h e r up t h e
T h e y a r e P S P e l y if ever f o u n d on retoiarch a t a t i o n s : i n d e e d ,
r e s e a r c h s t a t i o n s a r e s o m e t i m e s l e v e l l e d for e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n v e n i e n c e ,
t h e i r u n d u l a t i o n s and g u l l i e s b e i n g s e e n a s p r o b l e m s to e l i m i n a t e r a t h e r
t h a n o p p o r t u n i t i e s to e x p l o i t .
A
It is t h e n p e r h a p s less s u r p r i s i n g t h a t e v e n in t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e and
useful review
S o i l and w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n in s e m i a r i d a r e a s
(Hudson
19B7), deposition fields are not presented as a c a t e g o r y . The author's
a i m in t h a t r e v i e w is " . . t o p u t i d e a s and t e c h n i q u e s i n t o a l a r g e a r r a y of
l a b e l l e d p i g e o n h o l e s , f r o m w h i c h t e c h n i c i a n s c a n s e l e c t c o m p o n e n t s to
b u i l d i n t o a p r o j e c t or p r o g r a m m e " ( i b i d : 3 ) . T h e t e x t is o r g a n i s e d u n d e r
n o r m a l p r o f e s s i o n a l h e a d i n g s concerned with soil and with w a t e r , and with
conservation:
-
soil conservation
water conservation
w a t e r h a r v e s t i n g and u s e
a p p l i c a t i o n s of w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n
S o i l a n d w a t e r t e n d to b e t r e a t e d in a r e d u c t i o n i s t m a n n e r a s s e p a r a t e
t o p i c s , a n d n u t r i e n t s t e n d n o t to b e m e n t i o n e d . W h e n d e p o s i t i o n b e h i n d
w e i r s is c o n s i d e r e d , (ibid; 1 1 7 - B ) it i s from t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l
p r o f e s s i o n a l a n g l e of w a t e r s t o r a g e , in s a n d d a m s , n o t to f o r m f i e l d s : in
t h i s v i e w , sand d e p o s i t i o n is g o o d , h o l d i n g m o r e w a t e r , w h i l e s i l t
d e p o s i t i o n w o u l d b e b a d , h o l d i n g l e s s . S i l t d e p o s i t i o n is m e n t i o n e d (e.g
p p 7 8 , 9 1 ) b u t w i t h o u t s t r e s s i n g t h e s y n e r g i s t i c l i n k a g e s of s o i l , w a t e r
a n d n u t r i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n w h i c h f a r m e r s q u i t e o f t e n c r e a t e and e x p l o i t .
S o t h e p i g e o n h o l e s l a b e l l e d in a c o n v e n t i o n a l p r o f e s s i o n a l w a y m i s s t h i s
farmers' technology.
Conservation versus
Concentration
T h e c a s e of d e p o s i t i o n f i e l d s i l l u s t r a t e s the m o r e g e n e r a l c o n t r a s t
b e t w e e n p r o f e s s i o n a l s ' o b j e c t i v e of c o n s e r v a t i o n and f a r m e r s ' o b j e c t i v e of
c o n c e n t r a t i o n . P r o f e s s i o n a l s and o f f i c i a l s a r e t r a i n e d to t h i n k in t e r m s
of c o n s e r v i n g s o i l , of k e e p i n g it w h e r e it is;
they see erosion as bad.
r
F a r m e r s too often r e c o g n i s e e r o s i o n as bad and see the v a l u e of k e e p i n g
s o i l w h e r e it is; but they a l s o think in t e r m s of c o n c e n t r a t i n g s o i l ,
w a t e r and n u t r i e n t s t o g e t h e r in m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t s (Chambers 1990; S c o o n e s
1 9 9 0 ) . A s in J u n a g a d h D i s t r i c t , G u j a r a t , they can be found i n v e s t i n g m u c h
t i m e and e n e r g y in "mining" soil from c o m m o n land and a c c u m u l a t i n g it in
t h e i r f i e l d s . A s in m a n y p a r t s of Tamil N a d u , they can be found r e m o v i n g
the silt fraction n e a r tank b u n d s to m a k e s a n d y u p l a n d s o i l s m o r e f e r t i l e .
S u c h soil m o v i n g is l a b o r i o u s and c o s t l y .
It is h e r e that in the r i g h t
c o n d i t i o n s , e r o s i o n can be not a p r o b l e m but an o p p o r t u n i t y . E r o s i o n can
b e used to m o v e and c o n c e n t r a t e soil at low or zero c o s t .
It can be used
to t r a n s p o r t soil and n u t r i e n t s to p l a c e s w h e r e t h e y will c o n c e n t r a t e , and
w h e r e they will i n c r e a s e and s t a b i l i s e p r o d u c t i o n .
F a r m e r s ' o b s e r v e d p r a c t i c e s on t h e s e lines
include:
* p l o u g h i n g up and down a s l o p e to induce soil m o v e m e n t to form a
s u s t a i n a b l e and m o r e p r o d u c t i v e t e r r a c e b e l o w
* a l l o w i n g s h e e t and rill e r o s i o n shift soil d o w n s l o p e to help
fields between terrace bunds
flatten
* b u i l d i n g up rock b u n d s at the low c o r n e r s of f i e l d s and b o u n d a r i e s
trap silt
to
* c o n s t r u c t i n g and p r o g r e s s i v e l y raising rock w e i r s to let w a t e r t h r o u g h
e a r t h b u n d s w h i l e c a p t u r i n g and a c c u m u l a t i n g silt (pers c o m m . N . K . S a n g h i ) ,
* (as we h a v e s e e n ) e x p l o i t i n g e r o s i o n to build up d e p o s i t i o n
g u 1 1 i es
f i e l d s in
* in arid a r e a s , s i m i l a r l y h a r v e s t i n g w a t e r and silt but in larger flat
a r e a s w h e r e field c r o p s o r trees can be g r o w n (khadins in R a j a s t h a n
(Kolarkar et al 1983; H u d s o n 1 9 8 7 : 9 0 ) , l i m a n s in Israel (Adato 1987))
* in the low p a r t s of b u n d e d f i e l d s w h e r e s i l t , w a t e r and n u t r i e n t s
c o l l e c t , g r o w i n g d i f f e r e n t c r o p s - p a d d y in a field of p i g e o n p e a ,
g r o u n d n u t s or c h i l l i e s in a field of s o r g h u m , etc
P r o f e s s i o n a l s ' and F a r m e r s ' V i e w s
Contrasted
A s in t h e s e e x a m p l e s , p r o f e s s i o n a l s ' and f a r m e r s ' o b j e c t i v e s and v i e w s
o f t e n d i f f e r . P r o f e s s i o n a l s (which term i n c l u d e s o f f i c i a l s )
are i n c l i n e d
to think of s o i l , w a t e r and n u t r i e n t s s e p a r a t e l y ; f a r m e r s think m o r e of
h o w they can be c o m b i n e d and c o n t r i b u t e to m o r e s u s t a i n a b l e p r o d u c t i o n and
livelihoods.
P r o f e s s i o n a l s h a v e i n c e n t i v e s to t a k e a s h o r t - t e r m v i e w :
t h e y are t e m p o r a r y in t h e i r t e n u r e , b e i n g l i a b l e to t r a n s f e r , and a r e
c o n c e r n e d w i t h a c h i e v i n g t a r g e t s w i t h i n the f i n a n c i a l y e a r ; in c o n t r a s t ,
f a r m f a m i l i e s l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t on a g r i c u l t u r e , and with s e c u r e t e n u r e and
r i g h t s , t a k e a l o n g e r - t e r m v i e w : t h e y u s u a l l y e x p e c t to s t a y in the s a m e
p l a c e , and seek p e r m a n e n t l y to i m p r o v e t h e i r r e s o u r c e s and l i v e l i h o o d s .
P r o f e s s i o n a l s o f t e n work to s t a n d a r d b l u e p r i n t s , a s o n e - o f f d e s i g n s ;
in
c o n t r a s t , f a r m e r s b u i l d up p r o g r e s s i v e l y , a d a p t i n g and m o d i f y i n g a c c o r d i n g
to c h a n g i n g c o n d i t i o n s and e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d .
S o m e of t h e s e c o n t r a s t s can b e p r e s e n t e d
diagrammaticially:
Table 2
Soil and Water
C o n s e r v a t ion
Professionals
Smal 1
Farmers
M a j o r aim
Achieve physical
t a r g e t s for work d o n e
Gain
M o d e of a n a l y s i s
R e d u c t iDn ist
Systems
Time horizon
S h o r t e r t e r m . Financial
year targets. Tenure
o f t e n less secure (staff
liable to transfers)
Longer t e r m . E n h a n c i n g
production. Tenure
often m o r e s e c u r e
Strategy emphasises
C o n s e r v a t i o n of soil
(keeeping it w h e r e it is)
H a r v e s t i n g of w a t e r
C o n c e n t r a t ion
(of s o i l , water and
n u t r i e n t s together)
and creation of
m i c roenv i ronmen t s
livelihoods
N o n e of this is to a r g u e that f a r m e r s are a l w a y s r i g h t , and o f f i c i a l s and
p r o f e s s i o n a l s a l w a y s wrong; n o r that o f f i c i a l s and p r o f e s s i o n a l s a l w a y s
fail to u n d e r s t a n d f a r m e r s ' p r i o r i t i e s . Those would be absurd
o v e r s t a t e m e n t s . T h e c o m m o n s e n s e point is, r a t h e r , that p r o f e s s i o n a l s are
t r a i n e d and c o n d i t i o n e d to p e r c e i v e s o i l , w a t e r , n u t r i e n t s , a g r i c u l t u r e
and p r i o r i t i e s in ways which d i f f e r from those of f a r m e r s .
Recognising
t h i s is f u n d a m e n t a l to the c a s e for p a r t i c i p a t i o n . For u n l e s s f a r m e r s '
p r i o r i t i e s are being m e t , they are u n l i k e l y to p a r t i c i p a t e ; and u n l e s s
t h e y p a r t i c i p a t e , s o i l , w a t e r and n u t r i e n t c o n s e r v a t i o n and c o n c e n t r a t i o n
a r e u n l i k e l y to be s u s t a i n a b l e .
P a r t i c i p a t i o n as u n d e r d e v e l o p e d
technology
A
P a r t i c i p a t i o n is c h a n g i n g . In an e a r l i e r p h a s e it often took the form of
a s u r v e y which led to p l a n n i n g by o u t s i d e r s . The plan w a s then taken to
f a r m e r s who w e r e told "This is what we h a v e planned for you" and a s k e d
"Have you any o b j e c t i o n s ? " . But in the past five y e a r s the f r o n t i e r s of
p a r t i c i p a t i o n h a v e been on the m o v e . F a r m e r s h a v e shown they can often do
b e t t e r than u s m a n y of the a c t i v i t i e s that we e a r l i e r thought only we
c o u l d d o . On p r a c t i c a l as well as e t h i c a l g r o u n d s , their p r i o r i t i e s are
s e e n to d e s e r v e p r i m a c y , and c o n s e r v a t i o n is to b e m a d e "farmer friendly"
(Douglas 1 9 9 1 b ) . In rural r e s e a r c h , some are talking of a coming
r e v o l u t i o n through p a r t i c i p a t o r y m e t h o d s (e.g. R h o a d e s 1 9 9 0 ) .
Approaches
and m e t h o d s are being r a p i d l y invented and e v o l v e d , but a r e still
u n d e r d e v e l o p e d , leaving s c o p e for e x p l o r a t i o n .
T h r e e main s t r e a m s of i n n o v a t i o n have been farmer p a r t i c i p a t o r y
p a r t i c i p a t o r y rural a p p r a i s a l , and c o m m u n i t y p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
i. farmer p a r t i c i p a t o r y
research,
research
T h e r e a r e m a n y labels for f a r m e r s ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n in R and D . An e a r l y
d i s t i n c t i o n w a s m a d e b e t w e e n informal (by farmer) and formal (by
s c i e n t i s t ) r e s e a r c h (Biggs 1 9 B 0 ) . T h i s w a s followed by f a r m e r - b a c k - t o f a r m e r (Rhoades and Booth 1 9 8 2 ) , farmer p a r t i c i p a t o r y research (Amanor
19BB; F a r r i n g t o n and M a r t i n 1 9 B B ) , p a r t i c i p a t o r y t e c h n o l o g y d e v e l o p m e n t
(ILEIA 1 9 8 9 ) , and f a r m e r f i r s t (Lightfoot 1 9 8 9 ) . T h e labels do not m a t t e r :
the s u b s t a n c e d o e s .
T h e e s s e n c e of farmer p a r t i c i p a t o r y research and of the farmer first
a p p r o a c h is a shift from the t r a n s f e r of t e c h n o l o g y (TOT) m o d e l . In T O T ,
t e c h n o l o g y is g e n e r a t e d by p r o f e s s i o n a l s on research s t a t i o n s and in
l a b o r a t o r i e s and then t r a n s f e r r e d as p a c k a g e s to farmers; f a r m e r s a r e
t a u g h t and t r a i n e d . In the f a r m e r first (FF) m o d e l , teaching and training
d o e s still h a v e s o m e part to p l a y , as with s i m p l e d e s i g n s for f a r m e r s ' own
e x p e r i m e n t s (Bunch 19B5: 1 3 8 - 1 4 6 ) , or with a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y such as
the w a t e r tube level in B u r k i n a F a s o or the line level in K e n y a (Hudson
1 9 8 7 : 1 ) ) . But c e n t r a l to FF are f a r m e r s ' own a n a l y s i s , d e s i g n ,
7o b s e r v a t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n , conducted by them themselves.
T h e r o l e s of
s c i e n t i s t s a n d e M t o n s i o n i s t s t h e n change?.
T h e y b e c o m e n o t t r a n s f e r e r s of
t e c h n o l o g y , b u t c o n v e n o r s of f a r m e r s ' g r o u p s , c a t a l y s t s and f a c i l i t a t o r s
f o r f a r m e r s ' d i s c u s s i o n s a n d a n a l y s i s , s e a r c h e r s f o r a n d s u p p l i e r s of w h a t
f a r m e r s w a n t a n d n e e d , c o n s u l t a n t s f o r f a r m e r s ' e x p e r i m e n t s , a n d touto p e r a t o r s w h o a r r a n g e v i s i t s for f a r m e r s to learn from each o t h e r .
The
m a i n a i m is n o t t o t r a n s f e r t e c h n o l o g y b u t t o e n h a n c e f a r m e r s ' c o m p e t e n c e .
In F F , t h e s t a n d a r d p a c k a g e of p r a c t i c e s of T O T i s r e p l a c e d b y a b a s k e t o f
c h o i c e s from which farmers can select for their d i v e r s e and complex
farming conditions.
In t h e w o r d s of a r e c e n t s o i l r e s e a r c h b u l l e t i n
( I B S R A M 1 9 9 0 : 3 ) " T h e i n t e r e s t of t e s t i n g d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m s is t o g i v e
o p t i o n s for f a r m e r s to c h o o s e f r o m , d e p e n d i n g on t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t a l ,
economic and social conditions".
A f u n c t i o n of t h e f o r m a l r e s e a r c h s y s t e m
is, then, to help generate
choices for farmers.
A t t h e s a m e t i m e , a s in
the c a s e of d e p o s i t i o n f i e l d s , f a r m e r s c o n t i n u o u s l y e x p e r i m e n t , i n n o v a t e
and a d a p t t e c h n o l o g y t h e m s e l v e s , d o i n g t h e i r own R and D .
ii . p a r t i c i p a t o r y
rural
appraisal
P a r t i c i p a t o r y r u r a l a p p r a i s a l (F'RA) is a r e c e n t d e v e 1 o p m e n t , an o u t g r o w t h
f r o m r a p i d r u r a l a p p r a i s a l (F:RA) ( f o r w h i c h s e e K h o n K a e n 1 9 8 7 ) .
It h a s
b e e n p i o n e e r e d e s p e c i a l l y in K e n y a ( R o c h e l e a u , W e b e r a n d F i e l d - J u m a
1 9 6 3 : 4 3 - 6 7 ; K a b u t h a a n d F o r d 1 9 8 B ; N E S e t a l 1 9 9 0 ) a n d in I n d i a ( M c C r a c k e n
1 9 S 8 ; M Y R A D A 1 9 9 0 - ).
M o r e and m o r e , the a c t i v i t i e s which were e a r l i e r
the d o m a i n of o u t s i d e r s are u n d e r t a k e n by rural p e o p l e .
A striking
e x a m p l e is p a r t ic i p a t o r y m a p p i n g a n d m o d e l l i n g ( M a s c a r e n h a s .and F'rem K u m a r
1991).
E a r l i e r , s k e t c h m a p s w e r e m a d e b y o u t s i d e r s a s p a r t of R R A .
Now,
t h e o u t s i d e r s ' r o l e is t o f a c i l i t a t e m a p p i n g b y v i l l a g e r s .
Done well,
t h i s r e v e a l s m e n t a l m a p s far m o r e d e t a i l e d , a c c u r a t e and revealing than
a n y t h i n g an o u t s i d e r c o u l d q u i c k l y a c h i e v e .
In w a t e r s h e d p r o g r a m m e s ,
p a r t i c i p a t o r y m a p p i n g can p r o v i d e f a r m e r s w i t h a tool for p l a n n i n g and f o r
m o n i t o r i n g p r o g r e s s (Shah 1 9 9 1 ) .
Farmers have also shown a remarkable
c a p a c i t y for a n a l y t i c a l d i a g r a m m i n g (seasonal a n a l y s i s , m a t r i x r a n k i n g and
s c o r i n g , s y s t e m s and c a u s a l d i a g r a m m i n g ) ( C o n w a y 19G9; L i q h t f o o t et al
1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 1 ; M c C r a c k e n e t al 1 9 9 1 ) .
S e v e r a l N G O s in I n d i a h a v e b e e n i n n o v a t i n g b y e n c o u r a g i n g a n d e n a b l i n g
f a r m e r s and v i l l a g e r s to do m o r e and m o r e . T h e y include A c t i o n Aid
(Karnataka and e l s e w h e r e ) , A c t i v i s t s for Social A l t e r n a t i v e s
(Tiruchirapal1i),
the Aga Khan RUral S u p p o r t P r o g r a m m e (Gujarat), the
H I D A S o c i a l F o r e s t r y N e t w o r k (Andhra F'radesh), K r i s h i G r a m V i k a s K e n d r a
(Ranchi), MVRADA (Karnataka, A n d h r a Pradesh and Tamil N a d u ) , SPEECH
( M a d u r a i ) , and Youth for Action (Hyderabad).
In w a t e r s h e d m a n a g e m e n t in
its fully participatory form, farmers now undertake their own transects,
m a k e t h e i r own m a p s and c o l o u r e d m o d e l s of t h e i r w a t e r s h e d s , and d o t h e i r
own a n a l y s i s , p l a n n i n g , t e c h n o l o g y a d a p t a t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t , and
m o n i t o r i n g of p r o g r e s s .
J u s t h o w far t h i s p r o c e s s can g o r e m a i n s to be
s e e n b u t i n d i c a t i o n s to d a t e a r e that p a r t i c i p a t o r y t r a n s e c t s and m a p p i n g
a r e a key starting p o i n t , e m p o w e r i n g farmers through their own appraisal
a n d k n o w l e d g e r i g h t at the s t a r t .
When t h e y own the m a p s and the p l a n s ,
t h e y a r e t h e n in a s t r o n g p o s i t i o n t o c o n t r o l a n d o w n t h e l a t e r p r o c e s s .
i i i. g r o u p
and community
participation
T h e t h i r d s t r e a m of i n n o v a t i o n is g r o u p and c o m m u n i t y p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
T h e r e a r e m a n y t r a d i t i o n s of c o m m u n i t y o r g a n i s a t i o n a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t . T h e o l d e x p e r i e n c e . w i t h c o m m u n i t y d e v e l o p m e n t is
r e l e v a n t , a s w e l l a s n e w a p p r o a c h e s a n d t e c h n i q u e s d e v e l o p e d in m a n y
c o u n t r i e s , including Australia (Chamala and M o r t i s s 1990).
W h a t is
p e r h a p s m o s t n e w is the u r g e n c y and s c o p e f o r g r o u p and c o m m u n i t y a c t i o n
f o r s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t and l i v e l i h o o d s .
A n y list of a c t i v i t i e s f o r
c o m m u n i t y p a r t i c i p a t i o n can include:
- m a n a g i n g r e s o u r c e s of c o m m o n
common property resources such
interest:
as common
T h i s includes the management
lands, f o r e s t s , rivers, and
of
f
b o d i e s of w a t e r ; t h e c o n t r o l of p e s t s a n d d i s e a s e s ; a n d s o i l a n d w a t e r
m a n a g e m e n t w h e r e i n t e r e s t s a r e l i n k e d , a s s o o f t e n in w a t e r s h e d s . P a r t o f
n e w t h i n k i n g is t h a t c o n s e r v a t i o n r u l r e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s s h o u l d b e
d e v e l o p e d a n d e n f o r c e d b y t h e c o m m u n i t i e s in w h i c h t h e y a r e t o b e a p p l i e d
( D o u g l a s 1991a>
- managing funds and services; m a n a g i n g funds raised locally, or
by government or N G O s , and p r o v i d i n g services such as c r e d i t .
provided
- t r i a l s , e x p e r i m e n t s and d i s s e m i n a t i o n : s e l e c t i n g f a r m e r s for t r i a l s and
as e x p e r i m e n t e r s , monitoring and learning from their e x p e r i e n c e s , visiting
i n n o v a t o r s , and s p r e a d i n g g o o d t e c h n o l o g y .
- a c t i n g a s a p r e s s u r e g r o u p : m a k i n g d e m a n d s on g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c i e s ,
including d e m a n d s on e x t e n s i o n to search for n e e d e d information and
g e n e t i c m a t e r i a l , and on r e s e a r c h for w o r k on f a r m e r s ' p r i o r i t y p r o b l e m s
and o p p o r t u n i t i e s .
Participation
and S u s t a i n a b l e
Livelihoods
These three streams - farmer participatory research/farmer first,
p a r t i c i p a t o r y rural a p p r a i s a l , and community participation are braided,
interweaving and c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g .
They mesh with a new paradigm for
a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h a n d e x t e n s i o n in w h i c h r o l e s a r e r e v e r s e d , in w h i c h
f a r m e r s do m o r e of the s u r v e y , m a p p i n g , d a t a c o l l e c t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s , m a k e
r e q u e s t s and d e m a n d s , and then e x p e r i m e n t with t h e i r own i n f o r m a l R and D
to d e v e l o p t e c h n o l o g y with a local fit.
M u c h of t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p a r t i c i p a t o r y a p p r o a c h e s l i e s in t h e i r
potential for generating s u s t a i n a h l e livelihoods for future rural
populations.
Four aspects stand out.
T h e f i r s t c o n c e r n s t h e intents if ieatiijri e n d eerfl^l i e a t ien o f far-mine
systems.
T h e a s s o c i a t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n o l o g y w i t h p a p u l a t i o n
d e n s i t y is s t r o n g ( B o s e r u p 1 9 6 5 ) . In g e n e r a l , a s p o p u l a t i o n to l a n d r a t i o s
r i s e , and as farm s i z e s d e c l i n e , so farming s y s t e m s are intensified and
complicated.
New e n t e r p r i s e s a r e a d d e d , and internal linkages m u l t i p l i e d ,
b o t h to i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i o n a n d to r e d u c e r i s k .
Farmers' comparative
a d v a n t a g e in a n a l y s i s c o m p a r e d w i t h s c i e n t i s t s ' r i s e s w i t h t h e c o m p l e x i t y
of the system.
In t h e w o r d s o f S u m b e r g a n d O k a l i ( 1 9 8 9 : 1 1 2 ) :
" . . t h e f a r m e r s ' r o l e in t e c h n o l o g y d e v e l o p m e n t b e c o m e s m o r e c r i t i c a l a n d
increasingly cost-effective as the proposed technology becomes more multif a c e t e d and c o m p l e x . . . A s w e look t o . . m o r e c o m p l e x t e c h n o l o g i e s such as
agroforestry systems which can potentially produce crops, w o o d , fruit and
f o d d e r , it is o b v i o u s t h a t a t r a d i t i o n a l e x p e r i m e n t a l a p p r o a c h s e e k i n g t o
i d e n t i f y m a n a g e m e n t t r e a t m e n t s w h i c h m a x i m i z e an o u t p u t b e c o m e s u n w i e l d y
and unrealistic.
It is t h e f a r m e r s t h e m s e l v e s w h o h o l d t h e k e y s f o r
d e v e l o p i n g , evaluating and v a l i d a t i n g these systems."
T h u s the denser the population and the greater the intensification
c o m p l i c a t i o n , the more important participation becomes.
and
The second aspect concerns farmers' priorities.
It i s f a r m e r s w h o a r e t h e
e x p e r t s on their p r i o r i t i e s , w h i c h can d i f f e r from t h o s e of s c i e n t i s t s o r
o f f i c i a l s (see e . g . A s h b y e t a l 1 9 8 9 ; P i m b e r t 1 9 9 1 ) . JJnless f a r m e r s c a n
e x p r e s s t h e s e , and t h r o u g h p a r t i c i p a t i o n m a k e d e m a n d s on r e s e a r c h a n d
e x t e n s i o n , the c h o i c e s of t e c h n o l o g y p r o v i d e d to them are liable to b e
inappropriate or h a r m f u l .
T h e third aspect c o n c e r n s s e c u r i t y and the long t e r m .
Secure land and
t r e e t e n u r e , and a c c e s s to o t h e r r e s o u r c e s , c a n b e p r e c o n d i t i o n s f o r
f a r m e r s taking a long v i e w , and i n v e s t i n g for s u s t a i n a b l e f u t u r e
livelihoods.
A virtuous c i r c l e can occur: the m o r e secure they feel, the
m o r e they p a r t i c i p a t e and the m o r e labour they a r e w i l l i n g to invest for
the
are
future; and the m o r e they p a r t i c i p a t e and invest, the more s e c u r e
likely to f e e l , and the m o r e they take a l o n g - t e r m v i e w .
they
T h e fourth a s p e c t c o n c e r n s d y n a m i s m and c o m p e t e n c e .
Conditions are never
static.
Small f a r m e r s face a c h a n g i n g and u n p r e d i c t a b l e p h y s i c a l , social
and economic environment.
This includes climate, seasons, pests and
d i s e a s e s , h o u s e h o l d l a b o u r a v a i l a b i l i t y and m a r k e t a c c e s s and p r i c e s .
To
g a i n a s u s t a i n a b l e l i v e l i h o o d , a f a r m h o u s e h o l d h a s to b e a l e r t ,
adaptable, and innovative.
P a r t i c i p a t i o n h e r e can e n h a n c e d y n a m i s m and
c o m p e t e n c e , through individual and c o m m u n i t y a c t i o n , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s and
i n f o r m a t i o n , and p a r t i c i p a t o r y a n a l y s i s .
Challenges
for
the
1990s:
Methods. Quality
F o r the s p r e a d of t h e s e p a r t i c i p a t o r y
challenges stand out.
and
Scale
approaches
in t h e
1990s,
three
The first concerns methods.
T h e p a r a d o x is t h a t t h e f r o n t i e r in s o i l a n d
w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n is n o t t o b e f o u n d w h e r e w e l o o k f o r i t , in t h e s m a l l
f a r m , o r in t h e f a r m f a m i l y , b u t in o u r s e l v e s , t h e t r a i n e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s .
O u r i g n o r a n c e , s h o r t t i m e h o r i z o n s , r e d u c t i o n i s m , and p o w e r a r e m u c h of
the problem;
and f a r m e r s ' k n o w l e d g e , long-term i n v e s t m e n t s , s y s t e m s
t h i n k i n g , a n d e n h a n c e d c o m p e t e n c e a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n a r e m u c h of t h e
solution.
But one must not fall over b a c k w a r d s .
It is n o t a q u e s t i o n of
e i t h e r / o r , of e i t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s ' k n o w l e d g e a n d c o m p e t e n c e , o r o f
f a r m e r s ' k n o w l e d g e a n d c o m p e t e n c e , b u t of a b a l a n c e d mi::.
In t h e p a s t t h e
b s l a n c t s h a ® o v e r b a l a n c e d on t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s ' s i d e .
An o p t i m a l b a l a n c e
c s n o n l y b e :a c h i e v e d n o w b y w e i g h i n g h e a v i l y o n t h e f a r m e r s ' s i d e ; a n d as;
xi'ifi iitigR f§l riUn§ =vsVefl!= iriishii.fV« d i v e r s i f y find c o m p l i c a t e , t h e o p t i m a l
b a l a n c e will shift even f u r t h e r and further t o w a r d s the k n o w l e d g e and
a n a l y s i s of f a r m e r s .
F o r t h i s b a l a n c e , a n d t o e n h a n c e t h e c o m p e t e n c e of f a r m e r s , r e c e n t
e x p e r i e n c e p o i n t s to the p r i m a c y of o u t s i d e r s ' b e h a v i o u r and a t t i t u d e s .
T r a i n i n g h a s a p a r t to p l a y h e r e .
T h e r e w i l l be l e s s o n s to learn from
a p p r o a c h e s a n d i n n o v a t i o n s in d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s ( f o r a K e n y a e x a m p l e ,
see e.g. Pretty 1990).
R e v e r s a l s of l e a r n i n g w i l l b e c r i t i c a l .
M u c h of
t h e s u p p o s e d i g n o r a n c e a n d i n c a p a c i t y o f r u r a l p e o p l e h a s b e e n an a r t i f a c t
o f d o m i n a n t b e h a v i o u r b y p r o f e s s i o n a l s , n o t j u s t in o n e c o u n t r y , n o t j u s t
in t h e S o u t h , b u t o v e r t h e w h o l e g l o b e .
F a r m e r s ' own technology and R and
D have been largely overlooked.
T h e t r a n s f e r of t e c h n o l o g y h a s b e e n o n e
w a y , c e n t r e - o u t w a r d s and t o p - d o w n .
"Extension" has prevented empowerment.
Eiy d o m i n a t i n g n o t e m p o w e r i n g , b y l e c t u r i n g n o t l i s t e n i n g , b y s t a n d i n g n o t
s i t t i n g , b y " h o l d i n g t h e s t i c k " n o t h a n d i n g it over", o u t s i d e r s h a v e f a i l e d
t o e n a b l e r u r a l p e o p l e to e x p r e s s and e n h a n c e t h e i r k n o w l e d g e , and to d o
their own analysis.
F o r s u s t a i n a b l e s m a l l f a r m i n g s y s t e m s in g e n e r a l , a n d
f o r s o i l , w a t e r a n d n u t r i e n t h u s b a n d r y in p a r t i c u l a r ,
new physical and
biological technologies are surely needed.
But the technology most needed
n o w is n o t p h y s i c a l or b i o l o g i c a l but m e t h o d o l o g i c a l .
It c o n c e r n s
b e h a v i o u r a n d a t t i t u d e s . It i s h o w t o h e l p p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h a n g e .
T h e s e c o n d c h a l l e n g e is q u a l i t y .
Q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e , a s an a p p r o a c h and
m e t h o d s s p r e a d , c a n b e s o u g h t in t w o m a i n w a y s : t h r o u g h r u l e s ; a n d t h r o u g h
self awareness.
R u l e s a r e t h e n o r m a l r e f l e x in b u r e a u c r a c i e s .
Before launching a
p r o g r a m m e , a m a n u a l is d r a w n up d e t a i l i n g t h e s t e p s to b e t a k e n .
If t h e
f i r s t d r a f t is s h o r t , s u b s e q u e n t d r a f t s b e c o m e l o n g e r .
The effect can be
to s t a n d a r d i s e and s t u l t i f y .
S o m e l a r g e m a n u a l s of l a t t e r - d a y f a r m i n g
s y s t e m s research intimidate and inhibit.
T h e y a r e l i a b l e to c r a m p
c r e a t i v i t y and c o n s t r a i n l e a r n i n g to c o n f i n e d c h a n n e l s .
In t h e w o r d s o f a
l e a d i n g b u s i n e s s m a n a g e m e n t a n a l y s t in t h e U S A " S a d to s a y , r u l e b o o k s a r e
o n l y r e f e r r e d t o in o r d e r t o s l o w a c t i o n , d e f e n d t u r f a n d a s s i g n b l a m e "
(Peters 19B7:378-9).
T h e d a n g e r is t h a t l o n g m a n u a l s a n d m a n y r u l e s a n d
r e g u l a t i o n s c o n t r i b u t e t o a t y r a n n y of i m p o s e d s t a n d a r d t e c h n o l o g i e s
(o
r a t h e r than the l i b e r a t i o n of o p e n - e n d e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n and c h o i c e ,
supporting f a r m e r s ' p r i o r i t i e s and strengthening and spreading their
technologies.
The question remains whether simple rules can be so
d e s i g n e d and u s e d that they l e g i t i m a t e , e n a b l e , and even e n f o r c e
participatory approaches.
S e l f - a w a r e n e s s is an a l t e r n a t i v e o r c o m p l e m e n t a r y m e a n s of a s s u r i n g
quality.
T h e c o n v e r g e n c e h e r e b e t w e e n a d v i c e to A m e r i c a n b u s i n e s s
m a n a g e r s , , a n d e v o l v i n g N G O p r a c t i c e w i t h F'RA in I n d i a , i s s t r i k i n g ( S e e
Peters 19B7).
T h e o n e s e n t e n c e m a n u a l of the A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y N o r d s t r o m
" U s e y o u r o w n b e s t j u d g e m e n t a t a l l t i m e s " h a s b e e n a p p l i e d in I n d i a , a n d
e m b o d i e d in t h e K G V K t r a i n i n g m a n u a l w h i c h p r i n t s t h i s s e n t e n c e o n t h e
first page, leaving all o t h e r p a g e s b l a n k .
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y then r e s t s not
in t h e w r i t t e n w o r d , b u t in t h e i n d i v i d u a l .
Quality assurance through
critical s e l f - a w a r e n e s s , through embracing and learning from e r r o r , and
t h r o u g h c o n t i n u o u s a d a p t a t i o n and i n v e n t i o n of m e t h o d s , is o n e w a y
forward.
T h e t h i r d c h a l l e n g e is s c a l e .
The soil and water conservation p r o g r a m m e s ,
a n d w a t e r s h e d p r o g r a m m e s , of G o v e r n m e n t a r e far l a r g e r t h a n t h o s e of N G O s ,
and are the main c h a n c e .
There are obvious tensions here between
b u r e a u c r a t i c s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n and local diversity; between imposed
b l u e p r i n t and o p e n - e n d e d p r o c e s s ; b e t w e e n s c a l e and f i t .
These
difficulties appear serious but not insuperable.
The greatest obstacle,
h o w e v e r , m a y l i e in p r a c t i c a l p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y , in w h o g a i n s a n d w h o
loses from c h a n g e .
In an a n a l y s i s o f g a i n e r s a n d l o s e r s f r o m 2 0
r e c o m m e n d e d m e a s u r e s for lift irrigation and for t r e e s , field level
e f - T i E i a l i §t'§6§
f a i n fpm
§nly 3 ( C h a m b e r s , S a x e n a a n d S h a h 1 9 8 9 : 2 3 2 ) .
In m a n y c a s e s , t h e y s t o o d t o l o s e f r o m u n o f f i c i a l i n c o m e , o r " r e n t s " ,
for-eQone.
With soil and w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n , and with w a t e r s h e d
iflafiaQgffient'i i.f f i e l d l u v e l o f f i c i a l s s t a n d t o l o s e i n c o m e f r o m
p a r t i c i p a t o r y a p p r o a c h e s , they are u n l i k e l y ^ t o implement them u n l e s s there
are strong countervai1ing forces.
F o r scaling up through G o v e r n m e n t , the
c h a l l e n g e is t o f i n d c o m b i n a t i o n s o f m e t h o d s , r u l e s , s e l f - a w a r e n e s s a n d
r e w a r d s which e n c o u r a g e and induce f i e l d - l e v e l o f f i c i a l s to b e h a v e
d i f f e r e n t l y , to a p p r e c i a t e f a r m e r s ' p r a c t i c e s and p r i o r i t i e s and e n a b l e
t h e m to g a i n m o r e of w h a t t h e y w a n t and n e e d .
T h e great question for the
1990s and b e y o n d is w h e t h e r and how such c o m b i n a t i o n s can b e e v o l v e d ,
improved and s p r e a d .
FOOTNOTES
1 . P a r t of t h i s p a p e r is d e r i v e d f r o m " S u s t a i n a b l e S m a l l F a r m D e v e l o p m e n t :
F r o n t i e r s in P a r t i c i p a t i o n " , p a p e r f o r t h e 1 9 9 1 W o r k s h o p o n E n v i r o n m e n t
and the Poor: Soil and W a t e r M a n a g e m e n t for S u s t a i n a b l e S m a l l h o l d e r
D e v e l o p m e n t , A r u s h a , T a n z a n i a a n d N y e r i , K e n y a , 2 t o 11 J u n e 1 9 9 1 . T h a t
p a p e r h a s b e e n a d a p t e d , u p d a t e d and a d d e d to for t h i s W o r k s h o p .
2 . T h i s p a r a g r a p h is s u b j e c t to c o n f i r m a t i o n o r q u a l i f i c a t i o n b y t h e
f a r m e r s and o t h e r s with r e l e v a n t local k n o w l e d g e p r e s e n t at this W o r k s h o p .
T h e d e t a i l s r e p o r t e d a r e b a s e d o n l y on a s i n g l e v i s i t and brief i n t e r v i e w .
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w h i c h r e p o r t s on and e x p l o r e s p a r t i c i p a t o r y a p p r o a c h e s and m e t h o d s .
Some
sources known or believed to be free include:
CIKARD
ILEI A
ODI
News
Newsletter-
Network
F'RA/F'ALM
RRA
Center for Indigenous Knowledge for Agriculture
Rural D e v e l o p m e n t , Iowa State University, 319
C u r t i s s H a l l , A m e s IA 5 0 0 1 1 , U S A
Notes
Papers
Series
and
Information Centre for S u s t a i n a b l e and Low External
Input Agriculture, PO Box 64, 3830 AB Leusden,
Netherlands
Overseas Development Institute, Regent's College
R e g e n t ' s P a r k , L o n d o n N W 1 4 N S , U K (4 n e t w o r k s
c o v e r i n g 1. a g r i c u l t u r e (research and e x t e n s i o n ) ,
2. irrigation management, 3. pastoral development,
and 4 . social forestry)
MYRADA, 2 Service Road, Domlur Layout, Bangalore
560 071, India
(PALM = p a r t i c i p a t o r y learning
methods)
IIED, 3 Endsleigh
Street,
London
WC1H
ODD,
UK
Various manuals have been produced (e.g. Srinivasan 1990), and others are
which p r o m i s e to be useful
in p r e p a r a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g a s e t o f s i x b y I I E D
sources.
B u t a d a n g e r in t h e e x p l o s i o n o f i n t e r e s t a n d d o c u m e n t a t i o n i s
o v e r - f o r m a l i s a t i o n and c o n s e q u e n t i n h i b i t i o n , a s e n s e that o n e h a s to
learn how to a p p l y a m e t h o d " c o r r e c t l y " .
M a n u a l s can provide ideas, and a
menu.
But the "cooking" best takes a d i f f e r e n t , relaxed, creative,
inventive and adaptive form each time.
Dr John Kerr
ICRISAT
P.O. Patancheru
Andhra Pradesh
Dear
IDS, University
Brighton BN1
UK
7 A u g u s t 1991
502324
of Susse:
9RE
John
A m e n d m e n t s to W o r k s h o p P a p e r - F a r m e r s ' P r a c t i c e s , P r o f e s s i o n a l s
Participation: Challenges for Soil and Water Manaoemen
I hope
A.
it
page
Delete
and
is not
4 para
from
too
late
1 about
"When
to
line
I saw
make
a
few
minor
and
changes:
15
this....
substitute
Reportedly, they give three reasons for this practice:
it c o n s o l i d a t e s
t h e o t h e r s t o n e s : it b r e a k s t h e s t r e a m f l o w a n d s o r e d u c e s e r o s i o n
i m m e d i a t e l y d o w n s t r e a m ; a n d , s i g n i f i c a n t l y , it p r o v i d e s s u p p o r t f o r t h e
n e x t l a y e r of s t o n e s to b e p l a c e d on t h e a p r o n .
This third reason
i n d i c a t e s the i n t e n t i o n to build up the wall g r a d u a l l y o v e r the
years
( c o n t i n u e s a s in o r i g i n a l )
^
B.
page
"..have
Dupriez
4 para
2
insert
reference
as
follows
b e e n r e l a t i v e l y n e g l e c t e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e ( b u t s e e
198B: 4 2 - 3 and 5 5 - B ) .
they are easy for v i s i t o r s to
C.
Delete
footnote
D.
To
references
the
2,
end
also
the
(2)
at
the
top
of
page
Chleq and
overlook...
4
add:
C h l e q , Jean-Louis and Hugues Dupriez 1988 Vanishing Land and Water: Soil
a n d w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n in d r y l a n d s , t r a n s l a t e d b y B r i d a i n e O ' M e a r a ,
M a c m i l l a n P u b l i s h e r s , L o n d o n a n d B a s i n g s t o k e in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h T e r r e s <
Vie
I
hope
Yours
Robert
this
is n o t
sincerely,
Chambers
too
late.