Economics and managEmEnt

Transcription

UNIVERSITY OF DEFENCE / CZECH REPUBLIC
Economics and Management
2012
UNIVERSITY OF DEFENCE / CZECH REPUBLIC
ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT
3
2012
Economics and Management - p. 3 - 2012 Brno 31 Dec 2012
Published by University of Defence in Brno
ISSN 1802-3975
EDITORIAL BOARD
EDITOR IN CHIEF
Pavel FOLTIN
Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno
Czech Republic
EDITORIAL BOARD
Ladislav ANDRASIK
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Slovak University
of Technology in Bratislava, Slovak Republic
Ghita BARSAN
“Nicolae Balcescu“ Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania
Vasile CARUTASU
“Nicolae Balcescu“ Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania
Miroslav CEMPIREK
Czech Republic
Marijana CINGULU
Faculty of Economics & Business, University of Zagreb, Chorvatsko
Petr CECH
AWD, Brno, Czech Republic
Monika GRASSEOVA
Czech Republic
Frantisek HANZLIK
Czech Republic
Hubert HRDLICKA
Language Training Centre, University of Defence, Brno
Czech Republic
Josef KALAS
Czech Republic
Ales KOMAR
Czech Republic
Miroslav KRC
Czech Republic
Oto KUBIK
Academy STING – Private College, Brno, Czech Republic
Marek KULCZYCKI
The Tadeusz Kosciuszko Land Forces Military Academy, Poland
Stefan KURINIA
National Defence University, Warszaw, Poland
Ivan MALY
Faculty of Economics and Administration, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
Ivan MRAZ
General Staff, Prague, Czech Republic
Ladislav POTUZAK
Czech Republic
Milan SOPOCI
Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik, Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovak
Republic
Oleg STANEK
The University of Quebec at Rimouski, Canada
Jiri URBANEK
Czech Republic
Jaroslav ZELENY
Czech Republic
Iva ZIVELOVA
Faculty of Business and Economics, Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry in Brno,
Czech Republic
EXECUTIVE EDITOR
Vitezslav JAROS
Czech Republic
Copyright © 2012
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without the prior
permission of University of Defence in Brno University Press.
CONTENTS
Martin BLAHA, Ladislav POTUŽÁK and Milan KALINA
SETTING A METHOD OF DETERMINATION OF ‘FIRE FOR EFFECT’
FIRING DATA ……....................................................................................…….... p. 7
František BOŽEK, Lenka JEŠONKOVÁ, Jiří DVOŘÁK and Alexandr BOŽEK
GENERAL PROCEDURE OF RISK MANAGEMENT …….............……........ p. 15
Miroslav CABÁK, Jan MRNUŠTÍK, Nataša POMAZALOVÁ and Stanislav MOŽNÝ
THE TRAINING COURSE OF THE ISL MANAGEMENT: THE STUDY OF
THE UNITS’ SHOOTING TRAINING …………......…………...………..……. p. 25
Danuše KRATOCHVÍLOVÁ, jun., Danuše KRATOCHVÍLOVÁ and David ŘEHÁK
BASIC MEASURE OF CIVIL PROTECTION IN THE AREA OF BUILDINGS
ESTABLISHED FOR THE GATHERING OF LARGE NUMBERS OF THE
POPULATION ………………...............................................…………............….. p. 32
Radka LOPOUROVÁ
MULTICRITERIA EVALUATION OF TENDERS IN THE CZECH ARMED
FORCES – CONTEMPORARY STATE OF THE ART ……..……....……….. p. 40
Tomáš LUDÍK, Josef NAVRÁTIL and Karel KISZA
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT FOR SIMULATION AND EVALUATION
EMERGENCIES ..................................................................................................... p. 46
Jaromír MAREŠ, Nataša POMAZALOVÁ and Václav ZAJÍČEK
TEST RESULTS OF THE ENVIROX ADDITIVE’S INFLUENCE ON
COMBUSTION ENGINES’ OPERATION ….………..........…………….....….. p. 55
Jan NOHEL
INFORMATION SUPPORT FOR THE COMMANDERS’ PLANNING AND
DECISION–MAKING PROCESS AT COMMAND AND CONTROL TACTICAL
LEVEL …….........................................................……………………………...….. p. 64
Jakub ODEHNAL, Marek SEDLAČÍK and Jaroslav MICHÁLEK
AN ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT ON
TERRORISM RISK ................................................................................................ p. 74
Jaromír PITAŠ
WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE - A TOOL FOR SOLVING DECISION
MAKING PROBLEMS IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT ………….…............ p. 84
Martin REJZEK, Martin VLKOVSKÝ and Tomáš BINAR
THE SELECTION OF METHODS OF LAND MILITARY EQUIPMENT
DIRECT
LASHING
ON
RAILWAY
GOODS
WAGONS
AND THEIR VERIFICATION BY MEANS OF CALCULATION ….............. p. 90
5
Ján SPIŠÁK
ALLIED JOINT PUBLICATION FOR OPERATIONS PLANNING (AJP – 5) AS
A NEW CHALLENGES FOR MILITARY PLANNERS …………….....…...... p. 99
Mária ŠIKOLOVÁ, Nataša MOCKOVÁ
ARABIC AS THE SECOND FOREIGN LANGUAGE AT THE FACULTY OF
ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT ……………...…………….................... p. 106
Vladimír ŠILHAN
COMPARISONS OF MILITARY POWER ……………………...……........... p. 112
Marek ŠOLC
RISK MANAGEMENT IN SYSTEMS OF „SECURITY” AND „SAFETY”
………………………………………………………………………………..…… p. 122
Jiří F. URBÁNEK, Jitka RACLAVSKÁ, Albert SRNÍK, Olga ŠIFFEROVÁ and
Jaroslav VONLEHMDEN
ORGANIZATION CONTINUITY PLANNING & MANAGEMENT AND
SOCIETAL SECURITY SCENARIOS …………..…………..……...…............ p. 129
Jana VODÁKOVÁ
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR ENTITIES AND
THEIR UTILISATION FOR ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT ……..…..…… p. 138
Dana ZERZÁNOVÁ, Marek SEDLAČÍK, Ivana ČECHOVÁ, Martin POP and Jana
BERÁNKOVÁ
APPLYING LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AS EFFECTIVE
DISTANCE LEARNING TOOL: EXPERIENCE FROM THE FACULTY OF
ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT …………………………….……..…… p. 145
The Authors´ Bibliographies: .................................................................................. p. 153
The Reviewers´ Bibliographies: .............................................................................. p. 156
The language revision has not been made. The authors are responsible for the papers content.
6
SETTING A METHOD OF DETERMINATION OF ‘FIRE FOR
EFFECT’ FIRING DATA
Martin Blaha, Ladislav Potužák and Milan Kalina
Abstract: This paper is focused on setting a method of determination of Fire for Effect firing
data in the perspective of automated artillery fire support control system. Artillery units of the
Army of the Czech Republic, reflecting the current global security neighbourhood, can be used
outside the Czech Republic. The paper presents problems in the process of complete
preparation, from results arising from creating a fictional auxiliary target; by using an
adjustment gun; abridged preparation and Simplified preparation. The paper presents
problems of current Artillery communication and information system and suggests
requirements of the future system.
Keywords: complete preparation, adjustment gun, simplified preparation, Fire for
Effect
1. Introduction
There are several ways to set firing data
for Fire for Effect (FFE) of artillery
units. They differ in accuracy and terms,
which permit us to apply FFE. For FFE it
is important to decide the most accurate
way of setting the firing data in every
situation.
This decision making action was
provided by artillery commanders during
training activities, where they generally
had only instruments and information,
which usually resulted in one and the
only way of setting firing data for
effective fire. While using Artillery Fire
Support Control System (ASRPP-DEL)
it is necessary to define specific terms
for setting firing data for effective fire by
different means.
Firing data for FFE can be set by these
methods:
- Complete preparation – Accurate
Predicted Fire (APF);
- By results from creating fictional
auxiliary target;
- By using an adjustment gun;
- Abridged preparation;
- Simplified preparation. [3]
Terms and Conditions which permit the
subsequent FFE are available in the
czech
publication
Pub-74-14-01
“Pravidla střelby a řízení palby
pozemního dělostřelectva”.
This chapter defines conditions by which
ASRPP-DEL sets the way of FFE firing
data computation.
2. Accurate Predicted Fire
Complete preparation (APF) is the way
of setting FFE firing with such accuracy
that adjustment of fire is not necessary.
This is the key to achieving the effect of
surprise. Due to this reason APF is the
main way of setting firing data for
effective fire. For calculation of data
using complete preparation these
measures have to be included:
1. Topographical-geodetically
preparation.
2. Reconnaissance and target detection.
3. Meteorological preparation.
4. Ballistic preparation.
7
These conditions are mentioned in
Scheme 35-The way of setting firing data
for complete preparation, Complete
preparation.
2.1. Topographical - geodetically
preparation
Publication Pub-74-14-01 “Pravidla
střelby a řízení palby pozemního
dělostřelectva” sets terms and conditions
of topographical-geodetically preparation
for complete preparation as follows:
- Fire position coordinates have to be
set geodetically by using GPS,
topographically by using a map of
geodetically
data
and
using
instruments
or
topographical
connector;
- Orientation bearings to aim guns
have to be set gyroscopically,
astronomically or geodetically and
by switching a bearing by
simultaneously aiming on luminary
object or by directional order and
magnetically including calculation of
compass rectification set in 5 km
distance from fire positions and for
leading
set
KPzP
including
calculation of correction of device
for set place. [3]
These conditions have to be perfectly
known and applied by members of
reconnaissance teams. These members
have to mark an accuracy of gained
coordinates and orientation bearings in
“Sketch of topographical-geodetically
positioning” (Basis for topographicalgeodetically preparation for ASRPPDEL, 2 Content of “Sketch of
topographical-geodetically connection”)
[1]. On the basis of setting coordinates
and orientation bearings, accuracy
standards
for
mentioned
ways
(attachment 1 and 2) and technical
possibilities of current instruments, it is
possible to set maximal norms
of accuracy for setting angle coordinates
on the value of 40 m and orientation
bearings on the value of 3 units of
artillery quantity (dc).
8
However there is one question
remaining.
Are
topographical
connectors, which are currently included
in equipment of artillery units, able to
reach this accuracy and in which
conditions? In rules of fire from 1992
use of this topographical connector was
restricted by length of marching axis
(axis of march) for maximum of 3 km.
This distance, by the mistake of 3% of
driven distance set by technical
parameters of the instrument, represents
a total mistake up to 90 m. But in
publication Pub-74-14-01 there is no
restriction for marching axis distance.
From the reason of securing an accuracy
of artillery units fire and so its efficiency,
it is useful to cut out a regulation about
setting angle coordinates and orientation
bearings using topographical connector
from conditions for complete preparation
until any instruments will be able to
reach standards for topographicalgeodetically positioning
2.2. Reconnaissance and target
acquisition (TA)
Publication Pub-74-14-01 “Pravidla
dělostřelectva” sets, that for complete
preparation target coordinates must be
set with a maximal probable circle
mistake of 50m. This is conditioned by
carrying out the following requirements:
- Targets must be found in bounds of
effective range of artillery (TA)
instruments (DPz);
- Reconnaissance emplacement has to
be desired geodetically, by GPS or
topographically via a map and by
using instruments or by using
navigation instrument;
- Orientation bearings have to be set
gyroscopically,
astronomically,
geodetically with possibility of
switching a bearing, or magnetically
including rectification of compass
set in the distance of 5 km from
emplacement. [3]
The term “effective range” of instrument
is not defined anywhere. But it can be
characterized as a distance at which it is
possible to reliably acquire the target
data necessary for artillery fire.
Technical range of artillery TA optical
instruments is mentioned in the table 1.
However, acquisition of targets at the
instruments maximal technical range is
unreal, since above 10 km it is not
possible to precisely identify objects.
That means unreliable determination of
target (if the target is a person, animal,
civilian or a soldier, military or civilian
vehicle, etc.). This is given by optical
attributes of instruments (mainly
magnification) and by possibility of
“detection” of object by using optical
instruments mentioned in table 1. It is
necessary to bear in mind that detection
means discovering the object (a person,
personal vehicle, helicopter, etc.), not its
determination. So it is necessary to count
with an effective range of current optical
instruments used by artillery units on its
effective range up to 10 km. In the case
when new artillery TA instrument is
established with such attributes, which
allow this instrument to identify targets
on distance above 10 km, this instrument
will have to meet more strict norms on
orientation accuracy so that spatial norm
for determination target coordinates will
not be exceeded.
The mistake for setting coordinates of
emplacement for PzPK Sněžka using
navigation instrument is 0,2% of the
driven distance. This means, 20ms fault
of 10kms movement. A probable
mistake for setting the target coordinates
by using a radar type SCB 2130 L-2 is 10
m in a distance and 2 units of an artillery
quantity in a direction. The mistake in
distance is constant and this accuracy is
invariable with increasing distance. The
mistake in direction increases with
increasing distance and at the distance of
15 km the mistake is of 30m. In a case
where PzPK is moving on a distance of
10 km, the setting of target coordinates
accuracy for complete preparation for
targets in a distance above 15 km would
not be allowable. If the PzPK
emplacement position determination is
more accurate and it is set on a value of
0,1% of driven distance, the target
coordinates determination accuracy will
be allowable for the target distance up to
20 km. From the mentioned dependences
it is possible to deduce a relation for
calculation of maximum target distance
from an emplacement for PzPK Sněžka:
dp = ½ [50 – (0,002 x dpř)]
where, dp = observer distance;
½ = constant, invert value of probable
mistake for setting target coordinates
using radar type SCB 2130 L-2 in
direction (2 dc); 50 = constant,
characterizing maximal mistake for
setting target coordinates in direction in
meters, which results from maximal
probable circle mistake for setting target
coordinates;
0,002 = constant,
characterizing a mistake for setting
emplacement
for
PsPK
Sněžka
coordinates using navigation instrument
(0,2 %); dpř = movement distance
before taking observer emplacement by
PzPK Sněžka in meters.
A calculated observer distance (dp) is
possible to take for an effective range
of radar SCB 2130 L-2.
The probable circle mistake for setting
target coordinates, detected by radar
ARTHUR in range of its technical
possibilities, is 50 m including mistakes
of its own positioning, which meets the
requirement for APF. Effective range of
radar ARTHUR is identical to its
technical range. [2]
The accuracy of artillery TA instrument
positioning (setting coordinates) is
defined with table T-2.1 in publication
Pub-74-14- -01. From this publication it
is clear that the artillery TA
9
emplacement has to be pinpointed with
the same accuracy as gun firing
positions. This means, up to 40 ms in
length and 3 units of artillery quantity in
orientation direction.
In the case of compliance with the
mentioned requirements, the conditions
for determining target coordinates for
APF are met. An artillery observer has to
count on described values (target
coordinates determination accuracy and
artillery
reconnaissance
instrument
positioning) and in the case of call for
fire (CFF), according to CFF in ASRPPDEL, he will declare information
“accurate” or “inaccurate”, mentioned
behind the figure target position.
2.3. Meteorological preparation
The publication Pub-74-14-01 Pravidla
dělostřelectva determines that for
complete preparation, meteorological
conditions have to be determined from
meteorological
message
METC,
METEO-STŘEDNÍ
or
METEOSTŘEDNÍ PŘIBLIŽNÁ. All these
messages have to comply with spatial
and time validity.
METCM is valid for distances up to 50
km and for a 4h time period.
Nevertheless in the message is stated
time validity, which has to be considered
in the case where the time period is
shorter than standard validity of 4 hours.
METEO-STŘEDNÍ is valid for distances
up to 10 km and for a 3 hour time period,
or the distance up to 35 km and for 2
hours time period. METEO-STŘEDNÍ
PŘIBLIŽNÁ is valid only for division
units, whose meteorological squad
created this message and it is valid for 1
hour time period. All these norms are
valid for stabilized weather conditions.
ASRPP-DEL has to have available
actual local time and overview of the
real deployment of units, placing a great
emphasis on fire positions. From
meteorological messages the system
gathers
information
about
meteorological station position, about
the time of processing the message and
about its validity. On a basis of these
mentioned entry data ASRPP-DEL
automatically provides an overview
about actuality of meteorological
message from the time and space point
of view. In a case where the time of the
end of validity of the message is coming
up (e.g. 30 minutes before the end of
validity), it automatically sends a signal
to starting probing.
Table 1 The range of reconnaissance instruments
S.n.
Instrument
1
Infrared camera
SOPHIE
2
3
4
5
6
7
10
Laser range-finder
HALLEM II
Night vision
KLÁRA
Laser range-finder
VECTOR IV
Day overview
camera
Day aiming camera
Infrared camera
TD 92 B2
Parameter
Range (target detection):
- person
- tank
- helicopter
Range
Value
Note
IPzS LOS, KPzP
Range
3 km
9 km
11,5 km
50 –
IPzS LOS, KPzP
15 000 m
2,5 km
KPzP
Range
4 km
KPzP
Range (detection) target: to 5 km
IPzS LOS
IPzS LOS
PzPK SNĚŽKA
8
9
Laser range-finder
MOLEM
Radio locator SCB
2130 L-2
10
Laser range-finder
LPR-1
11
Radio locator
ARTHUR
20 km
PzPK SNĚŽKA
Range (detection) target:
- person
9 km
- tank
33 km
Range
20 km
PzPK SNĚŽKA
Range
Substitute
reconnaissance
instrument (by PzPK
SNĚŽKA)
Range:
mortars,
20 km
guns, rocket launchers,
30 km
tactical rockets launchers 40 km
2.3. Ballistic preparation
The
publication
Pub-74-14-01
determines that ballistic fire conditions
have to be set, especially total change of
beginning projectile speed. This means
that for meeting conditions for complete
preparation it is necessary to determine
distance correction for:
- total change of muzzle projectile
speed;
- change of propellant temperature;
- cartridge case of Czechoslovakian
type (alternatively of the other,
newly established type);
- unpainted projectile. [3]
Into weapon set individual corrections
there is included distance correction for
projectile weight change.
3. Fictional auxiliary target creation –
Registration fire
According to the results of fictional
auxiliary target creation (FPC) it is
possible to determine data for FFE with
such accuracy, after which it is not
necessary to adjust fire. At the same time
the following restrictions have to be met:
- observer distance of created FPC
cannot
exceed
artillery
reconnaissance instruments technical
possibilities (table 1);
- adjusted distance and direction
corrections can be used only for
projectiles with the same table
corrections for fire conditions
-
-
-
changes;
time period of validity for values,
determined by fictional auxiliary
target creation is up to 3 hours;
switch of fire by simple method can
be used in the case of high-pitched
trajectory fire, if the difference
between the fictional auxiliary target
bearing and eliminated target bearing
(switching
angle)
equals
300 dc or if it is smaller than 300 dc,
and if the difference between
fictional
auxiliary
target
topographical
distance
and
eliminated target topographical
distance equals 1 km or if it is
smaller than 1 km;
switch of fire by coefficient of fire
method can be used in the case of
flat and rounded trajectory, if the
switching angle equals 300 dc or if it
is smaller than 300 dc, and if the
difference
between
fictional
auxiliary
target
topographical
distance and eliminated target
topographical distance equals 2 km
or if it is smaller than 2 km.
4. The application of an adjustment
gun
A publication Pub-74-14-01 Pravidla
dělostřelectva establishment results
in a statement that fire data for an
effective fire can be determined by using
11
an adjustment gun, if the fictional
auxiliary target is created by one of guns
of the whole battery and if a discrepancy
between platoons (batteries) master guns
and a battery master gun, which created a
fictional auxiliary target, is known. [3]
Use of ASRPP-DEL suppose directing
fire from distracted fire positions and
therefore from the one fire position area.
And so these tasks are not performed by
fire batteries but by a specific number of
guns, which can be considered as one
compact unit. In this case it could be
possible to determine firing data for FFE
by switch of fire from a fictional
auxiliary target. The determination of
firing data by using an adjustment gun
could be considered as a good idea, if the
subordinate task force will have an
assigned fire unit, which would take a
different fire position than other
battalion fire units.
This situation may happen in a case
when it is necessary to support a task
force which is performing tasks on its
own direction, this means in an area
where the fire cannot be directed from
the main fire position area because of too
long a range of fire. Then it is excluded
that units from the main fire position
area and assigned fire units could
conduct fire into the area, where they
could use results of a fictional auxiliary
target creation by the second fire unit.
The distance between fire positions is
also very important. However, the
publication Pub-74-14-01 does not set
results of fictional auxiliary targets’
validity by using an adjustment gun in
terms of mutual distance between units,
which created a fictional auxiliary target
and which will use all the results for the
determination of fire data for an effective
fire. For a case where it could be
possible to use an adjustment gun to
determine fire data by a unit located in
another area, the determined process is
represented in a scheme - The way of
setting fire data for an effective fire, an
12
adjustment gun. [1] ASRPP-DEL by this
way, mentioned above, finds a value of a
discrepancy between all of the guns and
a master gun, which had created a
fictional auxiliary target. Then this value
is multiplied by a table distance
correction for the 1% change of a
beginning projectile speed for the
specific projectile, filling, topographical
distance and the final value is added to
adjusted corrections for a fictional
auxiliary target. By this action we can
get calculated distance for a target to
engage. Calculated direction (calculated
side divergence) is obtained by a sum of
topographical direction (topographical
side divergence), adjusted direction
correction and the difference between
derivations on an eliminated target and
derivations on a fictional auxiliary target.
5. Abridged preparation
In the publication Pub-74-14-01 it is
mentioned that fire data preparation is
considered as an abridged preparation, if
any of all conditions are not met, or if
there is data gained from a fictional
auxiliary target creation used for a
setting fire data and if these data are
from 3 to 8 hours old. [3] In these cases,
fire data for effective fire have to be set
by adjustment fire. A decision-making
process for considering achieving
conditions is represented in a scheme The way of setting fire data for an
effective fire, using a complete
preparation and according to results of a
fictional auxiliary target creation. [2]
The fire data for effective fire set by
abridged preparation can be used for
effective fire without any adjust fire, if
that fire is led by a battalion on a
multiple target with a purpose of
“Scotch”, where conditions for complete
preparation are not met within a
maximum of two points and at the same
time these borders are not overstepped:
- fire positions coordinates are set
topographically from the map of
scale 1:50 000 and by using
instruments;
- orientation
bearings
are
set
magnetically
including
the
calculation of a compass correction,
set in a 10 km distance from fire
positions;
- target coordinates are set by some of
the ways mentioned in table T-2.1 of
publication Pub-74-14-01 with the
level of accuracy 1,2 or 3;
- fire meteorological conditions are set
from the meteorological message
METEO-STŘEDNÍ PŘIBLIŽNÁ,
which is not older than 1 hour and
which is used up to 1600 m height;
- there is included only the change of
initial shell speed, caused by wearing
out of the barrel, where corrections
for changes of all shell ballistic
characteristics are calculated, which
are mentioned in tables for fire.
For ASRPP-DEL it is necessary for this
case to exactly set the number of firing
guns. From the table T-1.4 from
publication Pub-74-14-01 it is clear that
the battalion can have 2-3 batteries and
the battery can have 6-8 guns. This
means that the battalion can have 12-24
guns. For ASRPP-DEL, a principle can
be formulated, that if the system sets 12
or more guns for fire on the multiple
target with the purpose of “Scotch!” and
if all conditions from the chapter 5
Abridged preparation will be met, it will
not be necessary to do an adjust fire for
the setting of fire data for effective fire.
Conditions and variants for setting fire
data for an effective fire by abridged
preparation are mentioned in the scheme:
The way of setting fire data for effective
fire, The Abridged preparation.
6. Simplified preparation
Fire data set by simplified preparation is
set extraordinarily for a battery, which in
the case of ASRPP-DEL means 6 to 8
guns only if it is not possible to set fire
data in another way. In the case of
simplified preparation it is necessary to
set firing data for an FFE by adjustment
fire.
7. Conclusions
It is necessary to separate the rating of
meeting
the
conditions
for
topographical-geodetically preparation.
While mistakes of setting fire positions
Cartesian coordinates are influencing the
fire accuracy constantly with rising
distance, mistakes of setting orientation
bearings are reducing the fire accuracy
proportionately with rising firing
distance. That is why the requirement on
accuracy of setting orientation bearings
in relation to setting Cartesian
coordinates is relatively stricter.
Conditions for a survey of a target
position cannot be rated separately,
because these conditions influence each
other. The accuracy of setting a position
of an artillery reconnaissance instrument
shows itself in the accuracy of setting
target coordinates.
The accuracy of artillery reconnaissance
instruments and the accuracy of setting
artillery TA instrument position is
mutually determined. [1] This means that
the accurate detection of an artillery
reconnaissance instrument position and
the accurate detection of orientation
bearings provides a possibility of a
higher tolerance on artillery TA
instruments’ accuracy.
Contrarily, a more accurate observation
instrument provides less accurate
positioning
and
orientation.
By
expression of meeting requirements of
accuracy for setting fire data by complete
preparation in the part of reconnaissance
and target detection the information from
the artillery observer about accuracy of
setting the target position is “accurate”.
Otherwise (the setting of a target
position is “not accurate”) the
adjustment of fire is necessary.
Processing the data of meteorological
preparation can be fully automated by
13
the ASRPP-DEL system. The system
will have all necessary data and on its
basis it is able to set the validity of the
meteorological message for complete
preparation and if it is necessary it can
also point out a need for starting new
probing.
Using adjustment gun spatial standards
of created fictional auxiliary target (FPC)
validity, depending on distance of units
both creating FPC and using FPC results,
must be set. These units will also use
these results for setting fire data.
Fire data for FFE on an abridged
preparation basis can be set by
adjustment fire or without it.
For ASRPP-DEL it is necessary to
exactly set all conditions for each variant
of setting fire data for effective fire.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
14
BLAHA, M., SOBARŇA, M. Principles of the Army of the Czech Republic
Reconnaissance and Fire Units Combat using. In The 15th International
Conference „The Knowledge-Based Organization“. Sibiu (Romania): Nicolae
Balcescu Land Forces Academy, 2009, pp. 17-25.
BLAHA, M., BRABCOVÁ, K. Decision-Making by Effective C2I system. In The
7th International Conference on Information Warfare and Security. Seattle
(USA): Academic Publishing Limited, 2012, pp. 44-51. ISBN 978-1-908272-29-4
Joint Forces Command, Training. Shooting Rules and ground artillery fire
control (gun, platoon, battery compartment). Pub-74-14-1. Prague: 2007. 256 p.
GENERAL PROCEDURE OF RISK MANAGEMENT
František Božek, Lenka Ješonková, Jiří Dvořák and Alexandr Božek
Abstract: The paper deals with a general procedure applied in integrated risk management.
Risk management is a basis for an effective security of environment, which subsequently
determines the requirements for the transformation of the armed forces, because the character
of the security environment plays a significant role in the transformational process of the Army.
Individual phases of integrated risk management are briefly described. The integrated risk
management should be implemented not only at military formationsand facilities, but also in
regions and by accepting the principle of subsidiarity it should contribute to global
environmental security.
Keywords: hazard, risk analysis, risk management
1. Introduction
The development and build-up of society
is determined by a number of factors,
among
which
the
factor
of
environmental security plays a key role
because it is an essential prerequisite for
ensuring sustainable development. The
main principles of the national security
policy are contained in the Security
Strategy and Military Strategy of the CR,
which respect and is based on the EU
Security Strategy and NATO Strategic
Concept [4]. The priorities are based on
the evaluation of current state of
environmental security and reflect its
assumed development. The quality
assessment of security requires the
identification of critical hazards and
subsequently
also
possible
risk
quantification and prioritization. This
phase is the basis for proposing the
implementation of effective security
measures. The statement of the role and
tasks of the society is an integral part of
this process.
The principle of subsidiarity is one of the
primary principles providing adequate
global security. It is assumed that
responsibility for security is delegated to
the lower levels of management.
In practice, this means transferring
responsibility to the Member States of
the
European
Communities
and
subsequently up to the level of national
regional offices, authorities with
extended competence (power) and,
ultimately, to the municipal authorities.
Especially the government, Ministy of
Interior, Ministry of Health, Ministry
of Defence, Ministry of Environment,
Ministry of Industry and Trade, Ministry
of Agriculture, etc. play a significant
role in fulfilling the task aimed at
providing the required security of states,
individual regions and particular sectors
and elements of critical infrastructure.
The fulfilment of this task is monitored
by the EU and also by the NATO
command. Security is achieved by
implementing
the
environmental
management systems (EMS) on the basic
levels of individual sectors, particular
regions, plants institutions and in the
Army on the level of military garrisons
and facilities.
Risk management is an important
proactive tool of EMS enabling the
fulfilment of the above mentioned task;
15
however, it has been implemented only
to a limited extent in the military
practice so far.
2. Risk Management
Risk management is the process during
which the entity tries to analyze risks
and decide which risks are acceptable
and unacceptable. Effective countermeasures are proposed for the identified
critical, i.e. non-acceptable risks. Such
counter-measures reduce or eliminate
existing and future factors, which initiate
hazard sources, help to mitigate the
impacts of undesirable events and make
the reconstruction of damaged assets
easier. The risk management procedure
is schematically shown in Figure No 1
[1]. The generally valid procedure may
be recommended not only for regions,
economic entities, institutions, military
formations and facilities, but also
to the individual sectors and elements
of critical infrastructure to provide
security and stability.
The setting of goals and scope of
analysis is the primary prerequisite of
successful risk management. It should
result from management intentions and
the needs of public administration.
Collection of information in relation to
the assessed entity starts in this phase as
well. It may continue also in other
phases,
especially
during
the
identification of hazards and assets. The
scope and goals of analysis may be
remodified on the basis of acquired
data.Hazard identification may be
carried out concurrently with the
identification of threatened assets. It is
based on the elaboration of a registry of
hazards, which may cause a significant
impact to the environment, property and
health of inhabitants. Such a registry
may be elaborated on the basis of
hazards compiled according to literature,
one´s own experience, the outcomes of
previous analyses, flow charts and
16
discussions with selected stakeholders,
etc. Special methods used for specific
groups of sector risks may also be
applied. The methods of „Check List
Analysis“, “What if? [3, 6] eventually
Security Audit [2] can be recommended
as a suitable for this purpose.
Consequently it is necessary to express
the probability of hazard-source
activation. As the incidence of
undesirable events are stochastic
phenomena the objective probabilitiy Pj
of j-hazard-source activation may be
expressed by relation (1):
Pj = n j × n −1
…………………………...(1)
γ j = n j × t −1
…………………………...(2)
where nj represents the number of
undesirable events made by the j-hazard
species, n the number of all possible
events during the existence of assets, t
means the chosen time period (day,
month, year, etc) and j ∈ N*, where N*
is the symbol for the set of all natural
numbers.
In cases where there is no known
probability or frequency of the hazardsource activation or or it si imposible to
determine it, it has to work with the
subjective probability, which is a base
for semi-quantitative or qualitative risk
assessment. Determination of subjective
probability is usually based on
a qualified specialist, expressing only
according to his/her one´s ovwn
experience.
The result is either a mere verbal
expression of probability in which
correlates with a qualitative risk
assessment or the likelihood evaluated at
the predetermined point scale, e.g.
indices from 1 to 5 , which corresponds
to the semi-quantitative risk assessment
as is presented in the Chart 1.
Figure 1 General Phases of Risk Management and Their Sequence
Chart 1 Verbal and index expressing the frequency (probability) of hazard-source activation
Probability
negligible
small
midle
high
very high
Point value
1
2
3
4
5
Description of frequency (probability)
activation of hazard-source is practically excluded
activation of hazard-source is unlikely, but possible
activation of hazard-source is possible
activation of hazard-source arises quite often
activation of hazard-source is very frequent, respectively is almost
continuous
The identification of assets is aimed at
creating a registry of asets showing the
vulnerabilities of an entity (deficiencies
and weak points), which may be
exploited by hazard-sources. The
quantitative assessment of the impact
(consequences) undesirable events most
commonly used value of an asset usually
unless the asset is totally destroyed or
the sum of the cost needed to repair the
damage ( restoration, reconstruction or
rehabilitation of assets). The value of
assets is mostly expressed in monetary
units. However, the value of asssets can
be expressed in other units, such as the
number of people with disabilities, by
number of injury or mortality, loss of
ecosystem biodiversity, etc., although in
these cases is often possible to transform
the value of the loss or damage of assets
in monetary units through the application
of various specific methods.
17
The following aspects are mainly
considered when assessing the value
such assets.
a)
Acquisition costs, or reproductive
acquisition price;
b)
Importance of asset for the
existence and activities of an entity
or a company;
c)
Costs of overcoming possible
damage and the speed of asset
reconstruction after the damage;
d)
Field characteristics and other
aspects, e.g. the asset’s payoff.
If the harm associated with damage or
destruction of i-aset as a result of the
occurrence of j-hazard source activation
is marked Nj,i, the total sum of damages
Nj for j-undiserable event can be
expressed by relation (3), where m ∈ N*
is the total number of assets that were
given damaged or destroyed owning to
arise of the j-adverse event.
Nj =
m
∑N
i =1
j ,i
(3)
Usually it is difficult or almost
impossible to quantitatively express the
value of the asset. Usage of verbal or
score assessment is common in these
cases, similarly as in determining the
frequency or probability of hazardsource activation. Example of verbal and
index assessment of assets value in the
range point scale from 1 to 4 is shown in
Chart No 2.
Chart 2 Defining the level of impact
Range of
Impact
Point
value
negligible
1
marginal
2
critical
3
catastrofic
4
Qualitative Assessment of the Impact
The asset is sufficiently resistant to hazard and simultaneously is almost insignificant
for the analyzed body.
The asset is relatively susceptible to the effects of hazard, but it has
a low value or asset is sufficiently resistant to hazard, but it has higher value for the
analyzed subject.
The sensitivity of the asset is relatively high and its importance
to the fulfillment of the body mission is relatively large.
The asset is highly sensitive to the action of hazard and its importance for the
fulfillment
of
the
body
mission
is
vital
or
irreplaceable.
The asset is difficult to renewable (only with the expenditure of high costs, effort and
possibly time) or completely non-renewable.
Authorized
managers
may
be
recommended to create, maintain and
update a database of previous damages
and near hits, which might be readily
available for the identification and
determination of asset values. As there is
usually a considerable number of
significant assets they are grouped
together according to various aspects to
reduce their number, create groups of
similar characteristics and simplify the
whole process.The analysis of hazards
and vulnerabilities should result in the
register of hazard/vulnerability pairs
with the assessed levels of hazards and
vulnerabilities, which are expressed
through the probability that a hazardsource will be activated and through the
loss resulting from undesirable event.
18
The level of the risk is given by product
of
probability
of
hazard-source
activation and impact range of
undesirable event how it is evident from
formula (1):
R j ,i = Pj × N j ,i (4)
where Rj,i represents a risk in relation to
the j-type of undesirable event and the i asset, Pj means the probability of jhazard-source activation and finally Nj,i
is the amount of losses due to the
j-undesirable event for a particular asset
i. It is often necessary to respect and
consider time relation between the
probability of source hazard activation
and the range of impact of undesirable
event. The summary risk in time interval
t ∈ 〈to; tx〉 can be mathematically
expressed by formula (5):
R j ,i =
tX
∫ P (t ) ×
j
N j ,i (t ) × dt
(5)
t0
or alternatively for the time dependence
of risk by formula (6):
t
R j ,i (t ) =
∫ P (τ ) ×
j
N j ,i (τ ) × dτ
(6)
t0
where Pj (t), Pj (τ) is the probability of
j-hazard-source activation in dependence
on time, Nj,i (t), Nj,i (τ) is the time
dependence of the amount of losses due
to occurrence of the j-undesirable event
for a particular asset i, Rj,i is a summary
risk in relation to the j-type of
undesirable event and the i-asset in the
time interval t ∈ 〈to; tx〉, Rj,i (t) is the time
function of risk in relation to the
j-undesirable event and i-asset, and
finally t, τ are time symbols with t ∈ 〈to;
tx〉 in the formula (5) and t ∈ 〈to; t∞ ) in
the formula (6).
The relation of risk and time Rj.i (t) as in
the formula (6) is shown in Figure No 2
[2]. The shaded area below the curve
represents the summary risk in the
assessed time interval t ∈ 〈to; tx〉. The
picture also shows a significant increase
in the risk round the current value ty.
Figure 2 Relation between risk and time
Let’s consider the j-undesirable event to
be a terrorist action with the use of
plastic explosives and the i-asset to be a
person. The significant increase of risk
in an assessed region around the time
ty may be caused e.g. by the fact, that a
large social event, where a high number
of people are concentrated at one place,
is held in the region at this time. Such
circumstances are ideal for terrorists to
attack so called soft targets.
The goal of risk management is to
minimize the summary risk, i.e. to
reduce the volume of the shaded area,
represent the summary risk R´j,i in the
time interval t ∈ 〈to; t〉, or, if you like,
find local extremes (maxima) of time
function in such an interval.
Management of any authority should
focus its attention on reducing the risk
during such critical time periods.
If the risk assessment goes to the phase
of detailed quantitative study called
scooping there will be high requirements
for a large amount of accurate input
information, which makes the process
financially and time demanding.
However it is often enough to carry out
only a qualitative risk assessment, called
screening. Based on the results of the
screening it may be decided, whether it
is reasonable to carry out scooping for
critical risks.
Data acquired through risk assessment
are compared with the referential levels
of risks for individual types of
undesirable events in the phase of
determining the risk acceptability. Such
a comparison is the basis for a final
decision about risk acceptability and at
19
the same time is used for the setting of
priorities
in
relation
to
the
countermeasures
implemented
to
increase the system security. When
setting the referential level of risk it is
necessary to consider the probability of
source-hazard activation and range of
impacts caused by undesirable events.
On the other hand the absolute
elimination of risk, i.e. to the “zero risk”
is usually unrealistic and in practice
inaccessible either for economic reasons
or because of the current state of
scientific-technical development.
The outcome of integrated qualitative
risk assessment is a risk matrix in which
the risks are described either verbally or
in points as it is shown in Chart No 3.
The priorities of the countermeasures
implementation rice from value 1 to
value 20.
The importance of assessment in points
is presented in Chart No 4 [2]. The index
risk assessment may be recommended
for top risk manager of economic
entities, institutions, regions, counting
military unit commanders in decisionmaking processes when fulfilling their
civil or combat missions.
Chart 4 Matrix of undesirable event risk assessment in points
Frequency/impact
1 - negligible
2 - small
3 - medium
4 - high
5 – very high
1 - negligible
1
2
3
4
5
2 - marginal
2
4
6
8
10
3 - critical
3
6
9
12
15
4 - catastrophic
4
8
12
16
20
Chart 5 Characteristics of risk value in points
Value in points
1-3
4-7
8 – 11
12 – 20
Risk
Negligible. Countermeasures need not be implemented.
Acceptable. Countermeasures may be implemented with the agreement
of management of assessed entity.
Tolerable. It is necessary to take countermeasures by a certain deadline.
Unacceptable. It is necessary to stop the activity or immediately implement
countermeasures aimed at its minimization.
The outcome of integrated risk
assessment may also be a graph, in
practice often called a map of risks. The
map of risks is shown in Figure 3 [1].
Risk control is a systematic process run
by the top management of an economic
entity, a region, or a military unit
eventually facility. If the risk is
unacceptable, the risk control process
includes implementation, review or
improvement
of countermeasures
together with steps providing the
feasibility of proposed countermeasures.
The process of operational risk
management follows and is based on the
monitoring of significant threat-source
triggers.
The efficiency of countermeasures and
their economic effectiveness expressed
20
by costs and benefits are principal
parameters for assessing the suitability
of
options
and
the subsequent
implementation
of
selected
countermeasure,
or
operational
management.
The
economic
effectiveness has to be related to the
assessment of financial, material and
human resources, which fully reflects
also in the management of companies,
regions including military systems.
Countermeasures costs, or operational
management,
include
acquisition,
implementation and operational costs,
benefits include effects connected with
increased security. This requirement is
called
“As Low
As
Reasonably
Achievable” (ALARA) principle in the
scientific literature.
Figure 3 Graphic setting of priorities in risk minimization (map of risks)
Pj,i - probability that i-asset will be damaged by j-threat; Nj,i - damage caused to i-asset by jthreat; R1-R12 - risk that threat will be exerted, where j∈ 〈1; 12〉 ∧ j ∈ N* (N* is a symbol for
the set of all natural numbers); priorities for the implementation of countermeasures rise from
threat j = 12 up to threat j =1.
There are three basic options of risk
reduction.
Their
principles
are
graphically shown in Figure 4 [1]:
a)
The reduction of impact of
undesirable event (corrective or ex
post measures);
b)
The reduction of probability an
undesirable
event
occurs
(preventive or ex ante measures);
c)
The reduction of probability of
occurrence
and
impact
of
undesirable event.
Risk may be reduced by many tools in
practice. Therefore it is highly effective
to develop and continuously update the
plans of measures aimed at risk
reduction. Solution usually differs
depending on risk, particular situation,
local conditions, and financial, material
and staff potential of management. The
tools may be generally classified into
four basic categories.
a)
Risk transfer;
b)
Risk retention;
c)
Risk reduction or elimination;
d)
Risk avoidance.
The choice of a particular tool should
conform to the set goal and respect the
summary effectiveness of the solution
given by the costs of implemented
countermeasures,
their
technical
feasibility, risk reduction efficiency,
secondary risks, social and political
acceptability, etc. An optimal solution
can hardly be generally recommended,
as it always reflects a particular
situation. Nevertheless, there are certain
principles depending on the level of
probability and impact of hazard, as it is
evident from the Chart 6 [5]. The
proposal of possible countermeasures
consists of two basic phases, the
development
of
countermeasures
alternatives and subsequently their
selection. The proposal of alternatives
uses some of the invention methods, e.g.
brainstorming,
brainwriting
pool,
individual diary, and the Delphi method.
21
Figure 4 Ways of risk reduction
Chart 6 Recommended tools for the solution of risks in dependence on the level of its
occurrence and the impact of undesirable event
High level of impact
Low level of impact
High probability
Risk avoidance or risk reduction
Risk reduction or risk retention
Multicriterial assessment can be
recommended for the selection of an
alternative from the generated set of
measures. Some of the invention
methods proved good for the selection of
evaluation criteria, for the assessment of
weights it suitable apply either weighted
average pairwise comparison method
(Fuller triangle) or Saaty method. The
following criteria may be used as an
example for the assessment of
alternatives:
a)
Achieved security level including
the consideration of secondary
risks;
b)
Technical feasibility with regard to
compatibility with the existing
system;
c)
Material effectiveness and energy
demand;
d)
Capital demand;
e)
Rate of implementation;
f)
Compatibility with the current
system;
g)
Labour input related mainly to the
demand for further labour force;
h)
Level of information support, etc.
The fall in risk related to the spent
financial resources is considerable at the
process beginning, because only
22
Low probability
Risk transfer
Risk retention
organizational measures are usually
implemented in the first phase. Further
phases are more difficult and demand
more financial resources. Therefore it is
much more difficult and expensive to
achieve higher risk reduction. Measures
are taken after the final decision of
company (facility) owners, managers of
regional authorities and in military sector
commanders of unit or facility.
Therefore it is necessary for managers to
have sufficient, clear and synoptic data
to take the most effective decisions. It is
necessary to develop a rigorous plan of
implementing particular measures and
enforce the fulfillment of accepted plans.
It will cover the existing possibilities of
risk reduction in a company, region or a
military unit or facility.
The plans should include the following
points:
a)
Complex of countermeasures and
deadlines for their implementation;
b)
Allocation of responsibility for the
implementation
of
each
countermeasure;
c)
Subjects and dates of seminars or
training
for
individual
stakeholders;
d)
Measurement programme for the
documentation of effects of
implemented measures.
It is important to realize that even the
most thorough and comprehensive risk
assessment cannot identify all risks and
accurately determine the probabilities of
hazard
sources
activation
and
consequences of impact caused by an
undesirable event. Therefore it is
necessary to carry out an operational risk
management, which can reveal other
system vulnerabilitie and hazardsources, which have not yet been
identified. With regard to newly
discovered facts it can result in
a substitution solution or the repetition
of all risk management processes.
Monitoring of selected risk factors and
thorough evaluation of the surrounding
and internal environment of entities and
regions are the basis of operational risk
management. The assessed factors may
signal the occurrence of undesirable
events and in case of need stimulate the
implementation of correction measures.
It is highly efficient to identify the set of
such significant risk symptoms and
monitor them, because their value is
closely connected with the probability of
the hazard-source activation. Even if it is
sometimes not realistic to avert
an undesirable event, due to e.g. shortterm symptoms or mutual and
unexpected influence of hazards, it will
be possible to better prepare for
emergency situations and manage them.
3. Conslusion
The quality fulfillment of goals of
security and military strategy requires
the
implementation
of
effective
integrated risk management starting
from the level of basic entities.
The procedure of risk management has
been proposed, which is generally
applicable for ensuring of sustainable
development in civil practice and
sustainable training and mission
fulfillment of armed forces. It has to be
emphasized
that
effective
risk
management is a systematic process,
which has to be carried out continuously
and mainly in case of changes in the
environmnt affecting the existence
of hazards and overall security. The
following has to be done to have an
integrated risk management practical and
effective:
a)
To appoint an authorized expert or
a team for integrated risk
management, adequately involve
all stakeholders into the process,
provide regular assessment of
effectiveness
of
individual
subproject phases and finally all
complex of risk management;
b)
To
have
top-management
negotiating with this special team
and dealing with the current state
in the process of risk management,
planned
countermeasures,
suggestions, etc.;
c)
Regularly evaluate the adequacy of
critical risk assessment with focus
on detail and consistency and
assess the effectiveness of
implemented measures and the
achieved level of security;
d)
To make all stakeholders familiar
with the results of assessment
within the range of their posts and
competence;
e)
To plan financial, material and
staff resources for the requirements
of environmental security, training
of individual stakeholders and
implementation of suitable training
programmes;
f)
To provide an effective risk
communication;
g)
To
provide
and
keep
documentation of administrative
details and substantial findings;
h)
To carry out regular evaluation of
individual
phases
of
risk
management.
23
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
24
BOZEK, F. - URBAN, R. Risk Management – General Part. (Monograph.).
1st Edition. Brno: University of Defence, 2008. 145 p. ISBN 978-80-7231-259-7.
Czech Environmental Management Centre (CEMC). Safety Audit. 1st Ed. Prague:
CEMC, 1993.
DICKERT, T.G. Methods for Environmental Impact Assessment. 1st Edition.
Berkeley: University of California, 1974.
Ministry of Defence CR. Military Strategy of the Czech Republic.
Prague: TISKAP, 2004. 16 p. ISBN 80-7278-235-5.
SMEJKAL, V. - RAIS, K. Risk Management. 1st Edition. Prague: Grada
Publishing, 2003. 270 p. ISBN 80-247-0198-7.
ZAPLETALOVÁ - BARTLOVÁ, I. - BALOG, K. Hazard Analysis and
Industrial Accident Prevention. 1st Edition. Ostrava: SPBI Spektrum, 1998.
THE TRAINING COURSE OF THE INFORMATION SYSTEM OF
LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT: THE STUDY OF THE UNITS’
SHOOTING TRAINING
Miroslav Cabák, Jan Mrnuštík, Nataša Pomazalová and Stanislav Možný
Abstract: The aim of this article is to introduce possibilities of implementation of new teaching
methods for students with logistics specialization at the University of Defence in Brno. The new
approach combines activities of teachers, Learning Management System and Military logistics
information system, which provides effective students´ training for future practical life in the
Army of the Czech Republic.
Keywords: logistics, information system, e-learning, training course
1. Introduction
Students of logistics specialization gain
knowledge from the general subjects, but
also knowledge in the logistics subjects
during their education at the University
of Defence in Brno. This education in
the logistics subjects covers a wide range
of all logistics processes, which students
have to learn to better understand the
issues. The logistics processes represent
a
set
of
related
logistics
activities/processes, which units of
the defence sector carry out more or less
during the training year.
The project of the specific research titled
as “Analysis of the relevant logistics
processes at the tactical level” also
solves the creation of the training
educational software to support the
theoretical and practical training of
logistics specialists at the University of
Defence in Brno. This is the effort to
indirectly link the theoretical and
practical training by using the
appropriate e-learning tools. In this case,
this is the support of the theoretical and
practical training of selected practical
activities, which is realized by using
the functionalities of Information system
of logistics (ISL).
2. The choice of the theme and
provision the demand
Our students of logistics specialization
usually start their career at the function
of the basic organisation level (battalion,
troop, etc.) and therefore it is taken
account of the choice subject of the
training course. In most cases the
organization units fulfil logisticseconomic function of the cost centre.
The students of each department study
separately, but of course cooperation is
necessary in practice.
The choice of the appropriate theme
for learning software (LSW) was limited
by the project content of the specific
research – “Analysis of the relevant
logistics processes at the tactical level”
to support the training of military
professionals. The learning software of
the training course solves logistics
support for training of shooting
with firearms. In the first stage, it was
necessary to analyse complex logistics
processes
included
in the planning,
25
management and evaluation of the live
shooting of the mechanized battalion.
Analysis of the market of e-learning
product was also executed. The form
of the training course was defined
as a full-time course with maintenance or
animated
character.
The
form
of the synchronous learning with a
lecturer was chosen in the training
course. The course will be conducted
according to the established schedule.
Students will learn time-discipline, time
pressure working, which the will meet
in practise and which is important the stress must not have a negative
impact on the quality of their work.
Due to the requirements for training
of the military professionals in the
tactical level, suitability of the support
of the teaching form is demonstrated by
e-learning tools. The teaching form of elearning tool is necessary aimed at the
processes, which are sufficiently
informatively supported, but not used
routinely. It means that the processes are
carried out at regular times during
the training year, but the period is longer
between the two processes. The reason is
the fact that users may lose the habits
and skills for adequate speed and
faultless execution of logistics processes
during the time delay. As an example,
there are the following processes:
- Logistics planning of the training
year;
- Preparation of equipment and
vehicles
to use
in
seasonal
conditions;
- Preparation of equipment and
vehicles
to complex
control/
certification according to NATO
standards;
- Preparation,
execution
and
evaluation of logistics support in the
tactical exercise of the unit;
- Logistics support of the shooting;
- Inventory of assets and liabilities,
etc.
26
The full, effective, and timely support
of the processes has an impact on
accomplishment of tasks in the context
of units’ operational capabilities.
The results of the training course will be
assessed according to the possibilities
of the electronic teaching development
of logistics specialists in the future.
3. The creation of the study package
The training course consists of two parts:
- theoretical and implementation part;
- practical part.
The theoretical and implementation part
is
carried
out
in
a suitable
e-learning product environment, which is
available using the Internet. The product
learning management system (LMS)
Moodle was chosen for a training course
according to the request of the purchaser.
The main criterion for the selection of
this instrument was the fact that some
departments of the University of Defence
in Brno have already implemented and
used Moodle for preparation of certain
courses. The practical part is linked to
the theoretical and implementation part
and is done at selected functionalities
ISL, which is available through army
data network.
The
system
in
the theoretical
and implementation part (Moodle) meets
the basic requirements for managinglearning system with a modular
structure, enabling the creation of a set
of basic courses.
The choice of the basic functions, which
LSW complies with:
1.
Defining and managing parameters
of individual courses.
2.
Possibility to create different
themed courses in selected areas of
logistics.
3.
Creating a course catalogue and
update.
4.
Maintaining a register and manage
data about individual students.
5.
Testing students.
6.
7.
8.
Have a summary of the results and
marks of students.
Administration of access rights.
Communication tools.
9.
Saving data.
The basic method of practicing activities
of the process is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Basic method of practicing activities
4. The realization of the training
course
The realization of the training course is
included in the following 5 steps:
1.
The analysis of the selected
logistics process;
2.
Approval of the concept LSW;
3.
Preliminary approval of the
structure and the content of the
course
(theoretical
and
implementation part and practical
part);
4.
Drawing up and evaluation
of acceptance tests;
5.
Implementation.
Accurate content of individual tasks
of the training course is described:
1.
Analysis of the selected logistics
process (logistics support for
training of shooting with firearms)
and specification requirements for
LSW is executed. The quality
of the fulfilment of this task is
ensured
by studying
military
regulations,
standards
and
consultations with units which
conduct this process in practise.
2.
The concept LSW (specify
the functional requirement) based
on the mentioned analysis is
27
approved. The requirements for
configuration
of the necessary
infrastructure of the information
technology
for
development,
execution of the acceptance tests,
and subsequently for routine use,
are defined. The specification
of the information technology is
also executed. The coordination
with the project management ISL
and the
authority
of
the
Communication and information
systems division of the Ministry
of Defence Army of the Czech
Republic is necessary in fulfilling
this task.
The issues of the subject, and aim
of the course, are solved in the
introductory part of the training
project and there are also described
the entry requirements for finishing
the course and expected results
after successful completion of the
course. The structure and content
of the course - including
restrictions - are defined in
the introductory
part.
The
definition of the basic terms and
used symbols and brands are also
included to this part.
The entry test checks basic
knowledge of the following topics:
- General overview;
- Logistics
support
knowledge;
- ISL knowledge.
The student is enabled to go to the
block of instructions to handle
the course training after successful
completion of the entrance test.
The core of the course (theoretical
and practical part) is followed after
reading the input information to
handle the course.
The core of the training course is
divided into four modules. These
modules are categorized into
the following structure:
- introduction to the module
28
3.
(what the student learns in a
module, what they will be able
to handle after studying the
issue, basic terms and
timeframe needed to study the
chapter);
- methodical
procedure
(introduction of the issue,
course of action in dealing of
the real situation);
- tasks for each chapter;
- summary of the chapter
(summary,
questions
for
reflection, the most common
faults in reality);
- the key question to the
module.
Modules are complemented by
forms of the document and also by
solutions of selected activities in
ISL which are completed by
example animations of activities in
ISL. The animations are used to
handle activities in the practical
part of the ISL. Students work in
ISL according to the assignment
task in the module or instructions
of the teacher. The practical part is
added by tasks, which are related
to the practical work in ISL.
The output test is followed after
completion of the practical part.
The last part of the course contains
attachments.
Preliminary approval of the course
structure
(theoretical
and
implementation part and practical
part of the various learning
modules) contains the view of
screens and the view and content
of the education, examples of
using forms, presentations and
tests for checking the knowledge
of students.
The
simulated
organizational
structure of the cost centres were
approved in this part, where each
student will carry out the particular
4.
5.
activities selected process with
using the functionality of ISL.
Special attention is paid to
the preparation of data which make
a base for students’ work in their
action - in ISL. Due to this fact the range and quality of data are
one of the basic requirements.
Drawing up and evaluation of
the acceptance tests in the real
condition of the purchaser.
Implementation is the final part of
the training course. The training
part is involved in training and
afterwards regular lessons where
users (teachers, students and
administrators) must learn how to
operate in LMS Moodle and also
in ISL. There is necessary
knowledge of fulfilment of
additional quality data; therefore
the administrator position of the
information technology is very
important in the process of
implementation
and
training
software used.
5. The evaluation of the training
course – changes in the course
The evaluation of the e-learning course
means monitoring, maintenance and
modification of LSW. Provisions of
valid standards for configuration
management are used as a part of these
activities. After implementation of LWS
is assessed, to what extend the education
with use the LSW effective compared
with traditional forms of full-time study,
or how are the traditional methods
supplemented.
The training course LSW is evaluated
and monitored:
1.
The evaluation of the human
recourse – evaluation of the
lectors, students and e-learning
management work.
2.
The evaluation of the educational
content
–
assessment
of
the methodological process of
3.
4.
5.
the educational materials, the text
comprehensibility and clarity, the
logical structure of materials,
timeliness and applicability of
study materials due to the practice.
The evaluation of processes –
constant verification and editing
taught logistics processes and
LSW in relation to the changing
reality of the military practise.
The evaluation of the educational
technologies
–
constant
verification
and
modification
/maintenance/ upgrade of the
information technology which is
used (new modern version of LMS
Moodle, new version/upgrade
functionality ISL and new military
regulations regarding taught issue).
The evaluation of other factors –
how the course responds to the
logistics needs of the defence
sector, how the course is
sustainable, whether it will be
fulfilled and how the course will
impact
(real/potential)
future
practice of students, students
interests etc.
The evaluation as a necessary part
of every training course is not an
end in itself. The evaluation results
will be used for further course
development. Comments and
criticisms will be evaluated and
prepared to the quality of
e-learning and also constantly
increased.
One way of improving the teaching
quality will be regular feedback:
- The questionnaire of students
at the end of semester to
evaluate the LSW benefits;
- The identification of student
satisfaction with the lector and
teaching;
- In the case of the students’
dissatisfaction with any aspect
of teaching - rectification is
done immediately.
29
6. Indicators of LSW benefits
The evaluation of LSW benefits
necessarily started immediately at
the beginning of the life cycle of LSW to
enable definition of the characteristics of
LSW benefits and be able to establish
specific responsibility for results
achieved.
Indicators of LSW benefits will be
classified from several points of view:
- Financial and non-financial (physical
units such as the number, time, etc.);
- Quantitative (measurable by cardinal
scale), quantifiable (measured by
an ordinal scale or a logic value
“pass” x “fail”);
- Direct (for which is proved a clear
causal relationship to benefits
achieved) and indirect (for which is
needed to set some alternative
indicators expressing change);
- Short-term (usually manifested about
half a year after the implementation
of LSW) and long-term (manifested
as later as in next years);
- Absolute (expressed any measurable
value) and relative (expressed as
a number).
The variety of options using the different
indicators and their combinations are
very rich and it is impossible to define
the system of indicators that would be
applicable to any mechanical method on
the process. Everything depends on
the particular process, present state,
development plans, priorities of owners,
organizational culture, expectations, etc.
All indicators must be overseen from the
point of view usefulness, which is
generally a measurable degree of
achievement of objectives.
7. Conclusions
The goal of this article is to introduce a
new teaching method for present and
future logistics managers of the defence
resort (acquisition of new theoretical
knowledge and practical skills with the
modern
manager’s
approach
–
management of logistics processes using
the functionality of ISL). The new
teaching method using e-learning tools
provides first and foremost valuable
information for students who try to
accomplish the engaged tasks.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
30
KOPECKY K., E-learning (nejen) pro pedagogy, Hanex, 2005, ISBN
80/85783/50/9.
PROCHÁZKA J., KLIMEŠ C., Provozujte IT jinak, Grada Publishing Praha,
2011978-80-247-4137-6
VAŠTÍKOVÁ, M. Marketing služeb efektivně a moderně. Praha, Grada
Publishing, 2008, ISBN 978-80-247-2721-9.
MOLNÁR, Efektivnost informačních systémů, Systémová integrace, Grada
Publishing, Praha, 2001, ISBN 978-80-247-0087-8.
ŠMÍDA F., Zavádění a rozvoj procesního řízení ve firmě. Grada, Praha, 2007,
ISBN 978-80-247-1679-4.
ŠMÍDA F., Zavádění a rozvoj procesního řízení ve firmě. Grada, Praha, 2007,
ISBN 978-80-247-1679-4.
HAMMER M., CHAMPY J . Reengineering - radikální proměna firmy,
Management Press Praha,1995, ISBN 80-7261-028-7.
[8]
KORECKI, Zbyšek; POMAZALOVÁ, Nataša; DARKWAH, Samuel Antwi. The
new Approaches in Logistics Services Accomplishment. In KAKOURIS,
Alexandros. Proceedings of the 5th European Conference on Innovation and
Entrepreneurship. United Kingdom: Academic Publishing Limited, 2010. s. 453460. ISBN 978-1-906638-73-3(CD).
[9] POMAZALOVÁ, Nataša; KORECKI, Zbyšek. Leadership Success and Logistic
Education: New Understanding due to Sustainable Strategies. In PANKA, Ewa;
KWIATKOWSKA, Aleksandra. Proceedings of the 6th European Conference on
Management Leadership and Governance: The College of Management Edukacja
and the Professional Development Center Edukacja. 1. Wroclaw: College of
Management Edukacja, 2010. s. 314-318. ISBN 978-1-906638-81-8(CD).
[10] POMAZALOVÁ, Nataša; KORECKI, Zbyšek. Knowledge Innovation for
Supporting of Logistics Performance. In PAWAR, Kulwant S., et al. 16th
International Conference on Concurrent Enterprising Lugano - Switzerland, 2123 June 2010. Nottingham: Nottingham University Business School, 2010. ISBN
9780853582700.
[11] LOPOUROVÁ, R., KORECKI, Z. The importance of Foreign languages
Knowledge for the University of Defence lectures. In: 15th International
conference The knowledge-based organization, behavioural and social science
proceedings. Sibiu: Nicolae Balcescu Land Forces Academy, 2009, ISSN 1843 –
6722.
31
BASIC MEASURE OF CIVIL PROTECTION IN THE AREA OF
BUILDINGS ESTABLISHED FOR THE GATHERING OF LARGE
NUMBERS OF THE POPULATION
Danuše Kratochvílová, ml., Danuše Kratochvílová and David Řehák
Abstract: The article deals with the possibility of the early warning and information, as one of
the basic measures of civil protection, about real threat or an already existing emergency or
crisis situation in the areas of buildings established for gathering of large numbers of the
population. It also presents the alternative solution of warning and information in these areas.
In the end of the article there are described significant factors that can negatively impact the
optimal warning and information.
Keywords: Civil Protection; Warning; Information; Building established for
gathering of the larger number of the population
1. Introduction
The territory of Czech Republic and of
course the population living there are
threatened by emergencies [1] and crisis
situations [2]. These emergencies and
crisis situations can have serious impacts
on the life, health and property of the
population. The one measure of
protection of population that can reduce
or slash these impacts is early warning
and information of the population about
real threats or already existing
emergency
or
crisis
situations
(hereinafter “emergency”).
The article is oriented to the specific
problem to the opportunities of early
warning and information of the
population about real threats or already
arisen emergency in the areas of
buildings established for the gathering of
large numbers of the population
(hereinafter “buildings”) [3]. The main
reason for this choice is not only the
probable high concentration of the
population in the area but also behaviour
of the population that can be influenced
32
by felicitous forms of warning and
information. To this purpose adequate
communication devices are used [4].
The aim of warning and information is
primarily to create sufficient time and
space for required behaviour. This means
that the population will be able to react
to recommended or accepted measures
and to protect themselves and help other
threatened persons, especially the
elderly, children and the infirm. At the
same time it is necessary to prevent the
increase of panic, hysteria and other
manifestations that can arise during the
emergency such as apathy, anxiety,
anger, depression [5].
2. Problem Formulation
The first part of the article deals with the
present situation in warning and
information both in general and also
especially in the buildings. The article
also discusses what is understood by the
term “buildings”. The other part deals
with both the means used of warning and
information and alternative forms. These
alternative forms of warning and
information can be used during the
emergency.
2.1 Warning and distress information
– present situation
The term warning is understood as the
complex summary of the organization,
technical and operational measures that
ensure the early delivery of warning
information about real threats or an
already existing emergency that require
realization of the measures of protection
of the population [6]. Warning
information has acoustic characteristics,
or extraordinarily it can be verbal or
optical.
Informing the population of the distress
information is the complex summary of
the
organization,
technical
and
operational measures that ensure the
delivery of the information about the
source, nature and range of the
emergency and necessary measure to
protect life, health and property
immediately after the warning [6].
Nowadays warning and information of
the population is ensured by the terminal
measures of warning and information
(TMW) that are included in the united
system of warning and information
(USWI).
USWI
is
technically,
organizationally
and
operationally
ensured by the notification centre,
telecommunication nets and TMW [7].
These TMW are created by rotary
(electric) horns (RH), electronic horns
(EH) and other measures that comply
with the given requirements of TMW
(local informational systems with quality
of EH – LIS) [7]. Each of the TMW has
to be able to generate following signals:
- General warning;
- Tests of sirens;
- Fire alarm.
The character and the use of these
signals are set in the Notice of the
preparation and to performing the tasks
of protection of the population [8].
All TMW except RH have to be able to
broadcast the distress information too
that
follows
immediately
after
dispatching the General warning signal.
The number of pieces of information
must be 16 or more. The length of one
piece of information is 20 seconds
(ensuring capacity of the memory of
TMW) [7]. Another requirement of these
TMW (EH and LIS) is to have an
alternate source of energy. It must ensure
72 hours of running of TMW. During the
emergency TMW must be able to
dispatch 4 signals lasting 140 s in 24
hours, or in summary 200 s of verbal
information defined by user or distress
information lasting 5 minutes [7]. All
measures that are integrated to the USWI
comply with these standards.
For warning the population there is one
warning signal – General warning in the
territory of Czech Republic. This signal
has a varying course. It lasts 140 s and it
can be repeated 3times in intervals of 3
minutes (see Figure 1).
Rotary horns
Electronic Horns and local informational
systems
Figure 1: General warning signal [9]
2.2. When do we speak about
buildings established for gathering of
large numbers of the population?
By the term buildings established for
gathering of large numbers of the
population it is considered generally to
be the object in which the attendance of
large numbers of the population is
33
expected. These buildings are usually
shopping centres, culture centres (e.g.
theatres, cinemas), sport centres, school
facilities, stations (train and bus) and
airports. The majority of buildings have
also adjacent car parks and underground
car parks. This fact increases the number
of the population in the place of interest.
Specification of these buildings can be
assessed from various points of view.
E.g. EHI Retail Institute defines
shopping centres as “centrally planning
large-area retail units that serve to satisfy
short-term, medium-term and long-term
needs” [10]. In our conditions from the
view of developer and real estate
agencies the shopping centre is
understood as property that serves for
retail use that is kept as the unit with a
total area larger then 5 000 m2 with a
minimum of 10 separate units. A special
type is a Retail Park that is defined as a
development that has 3 or more
department units in one object with a
total area 5 000 m2 or larger. A part of it
is always car park that is shared by all
operators. A Retail Park is built by one
developer in a single design [11].
Significant material for determination of
the limit of people is the technical
standard oriented to fire safety of
buildings [12]. It determines the number
of people it is necessary to consider for
buildings established for the gathering of
large numbers of the population. For the
purpose of this standard it is a defined
gathering place as area established for
the gathering of persons in which
number and density of persons exceed
limit norm value. The standard also
defines an internal gathering place as
each area that is, besides other
considerations, given for 200 and more
persons and in which at the same time
the ground area that is passed to 1 person
is 5m2 and less.
34
2.3. Warning and information of the
population in the areas of buildings
established for gathering of large
numbers of the population – present
situation
The set standards are valid for warning
and information for the population. It is
necessary to realize that the population
perceive all information differently and
behave differently during the emergency.
If the population is affected by the
emergency it is possible that the
population don´t catch the warning
signal and following information or
don´t pay attention to them in the impact
of stress (mental phenomenon of
deafness or apathy). At the same time the
situation can arise that delivery of the
specific information can evoke the panic
of the population. It is necessary to
deliver information to the population in
the stress situation in a simple and
understandable form lasting max 30 s. It
is important that they include all
important information determined to the
population. It is good to repeat this
information a few times.
The influencing of the behaviour of the
population in the building is given by the
summary of the organisation and
technical measures with the use of
relevant means of the owners, ultimately
operators, of these buildings [13].
If any emergency happens where each
person that is at that moment in the
building its subterranean car park or
adjacent car park, they should respect the
direction and the instructions that can
influence their behaviour toward the
desirable form. For the needs of delivery
of the desirable information (warning
and information) usually there is an
intercom or so-called emergency sound
system. This system serves to amplify or
distribute the sound. This system is
usually connected to the electric fire
signalization by which it is controlled.
Together it is very often used for loud
delivery of the information or
extraordinary
reports,
invitations,
commercials, music etc. To inform,
suitably located light flare means and
information panels can also be used, but
they can serve only as complementary or
supporting means. LCD panels can be an
example. They are, because of their
attributes, used for the dynamic dispatch
of the information, nowadays specially
for promotional or entertainment
purposes.
2.4. Alternative solutions of warning
and information in the Czech
Republic
Among alternative ways of the solution
of warning and information during real
threats or an already existing emergency
or during the emergency mobile
electronic sirens can be used (see Figure
2). Their use is firstly prepared in the
areas where there is poor coverage by
TMW included to USWI, or when they
are not working. An advantage of these
sirens is that their sound spreads evenly
in all directions (horizontally and
vertically). Sirens can reproduce these
signals:
- Tests of sirens,
- Warning signal General warning,
- Fire alarm.
Sirens can enable reproduction of verbal
information. This information can be
prepared (recording, each lasting max 30
s) and also by use of microphone (direct
entry). Audibility of the spoken word is
circa 300 m, whilst audibility of the
signal is approximately double that
distance. It is necessary to allow for
lower audibility in built-up areas
depending on the type of the building
density and level of surrounding noise.
Figure 2: Electronic siren MOBELA [14]
For warning and information mobile
reporting means can be also used (so
called WBM - warning broadcasting
means) that are situated on the cars of
fire brigades, Police of Czech Republic
and local police. Also loudspeakers can
be used, situated on the cars of corporate
and undertaking persons.
Warning and information can be perform
by use of the republic’s mass media
(Česká televize, Český rozhlas) or
regional mass media, and by mobile
operators, internet (social nets) and other
possible accessible information means.
3. Solutions and results
In the second part of the article the most
important factors of the delivery of the
information are chosen. It also proposes
possible solutions of the warning and
information in buildings.
3.1. Factors that influence the optimal
warning and information
For ensuring the optimal delivery of the
warning and emergency information it is
necessary take into consideration various
factors that can influence the delivery of
this information significantly. It is about
technical, physical and personal factors
to a large extent. Among physical factors
there are; the age group of the population
and persons with handicaps or mental
diseases and the like.
An important technical factor that
influences warning and information of
population is blackout. In the case of the
blackout the means that are designated
for warning and information of the
35
population will be working only if they
have their own alternative source of
energy.
Stridency of the surroundings, audibility,
and comprehensibility of the report are
all closely connected. In noisy areas it is
necessary for warning to increase the
level of the dispatching signal but it can
be increased too much because following
information will not be comprehensible
for the population. The informing of the
population should fulfil the conditions
for proper vocal communication (e.g.
loudness of the speech, pitch of the tone,
speed and fluency of the speech, correct
pronunciation, phrasing of the speech,
correctly chosen pauses, tone of the
voice and emotions – in our case it is
necessary to have a calm and balanced
tone of the voice for calming of the
population).
The quality of the audibility, and
comprehensibility of the warning and
information, influence the building
density and the intensity of the cover
area. In the case of a large area the
warning signal will be inaudible on its
outskirts, with the huge problem that
comprehensibility of the information will
be minimal. Too small an area entails the
mutual covering of the warning and
information. This creates problems with
comprehensibility.
The important part of warning and
information performance is the quality of
the sound. The purity of the sound is
important during its reproduction. It is
undesirable for various noises that
deteriorate its quality and significantly
influence both comprehensibility and
verbal information.
The particular age group will treat
receive information in various ways.
Children might not understand the
importance of the situation and may
perceive that they don’t have to respect
the warning and information. They can
also change warning signal Generate
warning instead of signal for control of
36
TMW Test of sirens. Seniors could
underestimate the emergency and may
not devote proper attention to it. Or, vice
versa, they could overestimate it. This
can cause stress and panic. Because the
majority of seniors have problems with
hearing they could miss warnings and
information.
The individual chapter deals with the
deaf, who will not hear acoustical and
verbal
forms
of
warning
and
information.
In this case there is a great advantage in
reinforcing the warning system by visual
means.
Persons with mental disease can´t
distinguish as well as children the
seriousness of the situation and they
can´t react in an adequate way. In their
case it is probable that there would be a
breaking out of panic at an unsuitable
form of warning and information.
The last factor that influences optimal
warning and information it is the content
of the information. The information has
to be understood by the population so
that they can react in the required way.
During the creation of the information it
is necessary to follow some rules. Firstly
the information has to be structured and
clearly formulated.
It is suitable to restrict it to only three
key pieces of information. They should
have from 7 to 12 words.
If it is possible, it is good to use positive
formulation, and not to use the negative
(no, never, nothing, nobody etc.). Since
the population can miss part of the
information, or they might not notice it
in first moment, it is important to repeat
the information.
3.2. Proposal of the improvement of
warning and information of the
population
From the previous chapters it is evident
that warning and information of the
population can be done in various ways.
It is important that the forms of warning
and information are early, clear and
comprehensible for the population. And
it is also important that they will not
create undesirable reactions. People
should know where to go and how to
behave after warning and information.
For the right warning it is necessary to
ensure early delivery of the warning
information. This can be reached by
connection of TWM to USWI. Visitors
of the buildings and adjacent estates will
be warned at the same time as the
remaining population in the area of the
emergency (this is ensured by united
activation of the chosen terminal means
of USWI). In the case of the need of
warning of the building visitors and its
surroundings, USWI will be able to use
local activation of TWM (in this case
Fire and Rescue Services of the region
will be automatically informed about its
activation).
Understanding of the on-going warning
of the population is another important
part of the process of the warning of the
population. Ensuring the appropriate
warning can be done by connection of
TWM to USWI. This ensures that people
receive
already
known
warning
information
(Generated
warning).
Generated warning is used in the whole
territory of the Czech Republic and
during all types of emergencies. People
are used to reacting to it.
The following distress information will
be generated from previously recorded
reports that Fire and Rescue Services of
the region have at their disposal. The
distress information includes data about
the emergency (which the emergency
increases) and about desirable behaviour
of the population. The following other
information can be information that
operators of the building will have
prepared or will be provided by the
responsible employee of the building or
person from the integrated rescue
system.
For the support of the warning and
information by TWM and for warning
and information of persons with hearing
defects or lesser decision-making
abilities (e.g. children and seniors) other
supporting means should be used – e.g.
light board, screens, running texts,
colour marks in the ground, emergency
lights.
4. Conclusions
Warning and information of the
population represent one of the basic
measures of protection of the population.
Their value increases depending on the
degree, the intensity and the area of the
origin of the emergency. From the point
of view of these criteria it can be
established that the buildings established
for the gathering of large numbers of the
population are the most problematic
areas. This fact places great demands on
ensuring quality and a reliable system of
warning and informing the population.
Nowadays the trend of the population is
to go shopping or spend free time in
shopping centres and entertainment
centres. These centres are buildings
established for the gathering of large
numbers of the population including
their car parks (subterranean or adjacent)
and it is necessary to pay special
attention to them, primarily at the threat
or during the emergencies that can strike
them. It is necessary to choose the
optimal system of warning and
information to prevent of the threat of
the life and health of the population. The
population have to react adequately to
warning signals and distress information.
In the range of desirable behaviour it is
required to evoke in the population the
requirement to protect not only
themselves but also other fellow citizens.
37
Acknowledgements
This article was prepared under the support of the research, development and
innovation grant project “Improvised sheltering, warning, and information of
population in the buildings for gathering great numbers of persons“, code number
VG20122014061. A specific grants giver is the Ministry of Interior of the Czech
Republic within the program of Security research for the needs of the state in the years
2010-2015.
References
Act No 239/2000 about Integrated Rescue System (Zákon č. 239 ze dne 28. června
2000 o integrovaném záchranném systému).
[2] Act No 240/2000 about Crisis Management (Zákon č. 240 ze dne 28. června 2000
o krizovém řízení).
[3] Conception of civil protection to 2013 with outlook to 2020 (Koncepce ochrany
obyvatelstva do roku 2013 s výhledem do roku 2020). Praha: Ministerstvo vnitra –
generální ředitelství Hasičského záchranného sboru ČR, 2008. 52 s. ISBN 978-8086640-91-4.
[4] Mesmer, BL, Bloebaum, CL. 2012. Importance of incorporation of personal
communication devices in evacuation simulators. Safety Science, 50(5):13131318. DOI: 10.1016/j.ssci.2011.04.020
[5] Ha, V, Lykotrafitis, G. 2012. Agent-based modeling of a multi-room multi-floor
building emergency evacuation. Physica A-Statistical Mechanics And Its
Applications, 391(8):2740-2751. DOI: 10.1016/j.physa.2011.12.034
[6] Martínek, B, Linhart, P. et al. 2006. Protection of population – Module E:
Didactic requisite for the education in the field of the crisis management
(Ochrana obyvatelstva – Modul E: Učební pomůcka pro vzdělávání v oblasti
krizového řízení). Praha: MV-GŘ HZS ČR, 127 p.
[7] Technical standards for terminal means of warning and information that are
included to the united system of warning and notification (Technické požadavky
na koncové prvky varování připojované do jednotného systému varování a
vyrozumění). Sbírka interních aktů řízení generálního ředitele HZS ČR (částka
24/2008 ve znění částky 13/2009). Praha: MV-GŘ HZS ČR.
[8] Public notice of Ministry of Interior No 380/2002 to preparation and performing
of the task of protection of population (Vyhláška Ministerstva vnitra č. 380 ze dne
9. srpna 2002 k přípravě a provádění úkolů ochrany obyvatelstva).
[9] Pokyn č. 15 generálního ředitele Hasičského záchranného sboru České republiky
ze dne 15. dubna 2008 k realizaci technických požadavků na koncové prvky
varování připojované do jednotného systému varování a vyrozumění (Čj. MV24666-1/PO-2008).
[10] Hesková, M. 2005. Rozvoj obchodních center v zemích EU a České republice
[online]. Marketing & komunikace, Praha, ISSN 1211-5622 [cit. 22-04-2012].
Available at: http://www.mandk.cz/view.php?cisloclanku=2006020003
[11] Velký boom zažívají retail parky [online]. Realit [cit. 22-04-2012]. Available at:
http://realit.cz/clanek/velky-boom-zazivaji-retail-parky
[12] ČSN 73 0831:2011. Fire safety of the buildings – Gathering places (Požární
bezpečnost staveb – Shromažďovací prostory). Praha: Úřad pro technickou
normalizaci, metrologii a státní zkušebnictví, 36 s. Třídící znak 730831.
[1]
38
[13] Strawderman, L, Salehi, A, Babski-Reeves, K, Thornton-Neaves, T, Cosby, A.
2012. Reverse 911 as a Complementary Evacuation Warning System. Natural
Hazards Review, 13(1):65-73. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000059
[14] Hörmann MOBELA 150 digital [online]. Ascom [cit. 02-04-2012]. Available at:
http://www.ascom.cz/cz/index-cz/mobela_150_cz.pdf
39
MULTICRITERIA EVALUATION OF TENDERS IN THE CZECH
ARMED FORCES – CONTEMPORARY STATE OF THE ART
Radka Lopourová
Abstract: Public contracts awarding not only in the Czech armed forces (CAF) is often
discussed by scientists and journalists because of the problems related to corruption and
extremely high prices of goods and services being procured. The approach to tenders
evaluation can significantly influence efficiency of the procurement process. Tenders are
evaluated either according to suggested prices or according to economical convenience
represented by multicriteria evaluation. Is multicriteria evaluation used more or less often than
price evaluation in the CAF? Can multicriteria evaluation of tenders contribute to increase
efficiency of the CAF procurement process? Is there any relationship between type of goods or
services being procured and the way of tenders evaluation? These will be the main research
questions the answers to which will be acquired via statistical analysis. Results of the research
are required by the Armaments division, strategic contracting authority of the CAF.
Keywords: public contract, tender, contracting authority, multicriteria
evaluation, economic advantageousness of the tender
1. Introduction
Procurement process either from private
companies or from public administration
organizations point of view can be
described by the following scheme:
Figure 1: Procurement process phases
40
The third phase of the process, offers
evaluation, represents one ot the main
and at the same time the most difficult
steps of procurement activities spectrum.
Two different approaches to potential
suppliers’offers evaluation can be used:
evaluation according to purchase price or
multicriteria evaluation. This means
application of criterias’ spectrum being
prepared in advance based on the
procured
item
qualitative
and
quantitative characteristics.
Public procurement is the subject of
public finance investment so it is
necessary to regulate it by the system of
acts, government resolutions and public
administration organizations internal
directives.
The conducted research is focused on the
multicriteria tenders evaluation within
the central acquisition process in the
CAF. The central procurement process is
represented by the items the supposed
financial value of which exceeds 1
million CZK without VAT in case of
supplies and services and 3 million for
public works. The exceptions are
specified in the Government resolution
[1].
The Act on Public Contracts [2]
represents the crucial legislation
according to which the contracting
authorities of the Ministry of Defence
(MoD) has to fulfil all the particular
phases of the central procurement
process. Wide spectrum of MoD internal
directives stems from the Act where the
most important is the Order of Minister
of Defence no 39/2008 [3]. Public
contracts awarding procedure within
special military conditions is described
in the order, mainly exclusions from the
scope of the Act related to the
Government resolution where military
materiel is specified [1].
Tenders evaluation approach is analysed
within paragraphs 78-80 of the Act [1].
There are examples of criteria possible
to use in case of tenders’ evaluation
41
according
to
their
economic
advantageousness
(multicriteria
evaluation),
recommendations
concerning
criteria’s
importance
establishment and information related to
the necessity to inform tenderers about
selected evaluation aproach in advance.
Is multicriteria tenders’ evaluation used
more frequently in the CAF than
evaluation according to the lowest tender
price? If so, in which percentage? Are
there any recommendations or rules
which evaluation approach to choose for
which kind of item being procured?
These are the most important questions
that will be analysed within the research
and have never been solved from the
point of view of the CAF procurement
system. That is why the results of the
statistical analysis are required by the
Armaments division of the MoD which
is the most important contracting
authority for central procurement in the
CAF.
Research problem is expressed by
following hypothesis:
H0: There is no relationship between
type of goods, services or public works
being procured and tenders evaluation
approach.
HA: Type of goods, services or public
works and tenders evaluation approach
are strongly connected.
Two main and completely oposing
points of view can be observed in
practice if tenders evaluation approach is
analysed. One part of specialists claims
that it is useful to evaluate tenders only
according to the suggested prices
because it is the most transparent way of
evaluation.
On the contrary the second part of the
experts’
spectrum
declares
that
multicriteria evaluation of tenders is
more appropriate because it can take the
whole life cycle cost of the supply,
service
or
public
work
into
consideration.
If
used
correctly,
multicriteria evaluation can contribute to
increase efficiency of the procurement
process in not only the defence
department but also within the whole
public administration area.
3. Problem Solution
Is it possible to prove that multicriteria
evaluation of tenders is rarely used
within the MoD subordinated acquisition
entities? Yes, it is thanks to special
databases accessible on the MoD and the
Ministry for Regional Development web
sites [4, 5].
Based on the data filtration analysis and
chi-square goodness of fit test applied to
the public contracts (central procurement
in the CAF) being awarded within time
period 2007-2011, following results have
been obtained:
Figure 2: Multicriteria evaluation of tenders and situation in the CAF
Source: own
As can be seen, evaluation according to
the economic advantageousness of the
tenders have been used in case of public
supplies in 31% , within public works in
18% and in case of public services only
in 6% of all the future public contracts.
Table 1 Chi-square goodness of fit test applied to the public contracts within central
procurement in the CAF within time period 2007-2011
Source: own
PC cat.
supplies
services
works
∑
Q PC
475
296
126
897
Oi
147
17
22
186
The above mentioned table being
prepared via MS Excel involves
following data: “PC cat.”, which means
public contracts category, quantity of PC
(Q PC) represents the total number of
42
Ei
98
61
26
186
Oi - E i
49
-44
-4
(Oi - Ei)2
2353
1969
17
χ2
24
32
1
57
below and above-the-treshold public
contracts awarded by corresponding
contracting authorities of the CAF in last
five years. Oi is observed frequency of
multicriteria evaluation being applied
within the above mentioned time period
and Ei expected frequency of evaluation
according to economic advantageousness
of tenders. The value in the last column
means chi-square test statistic χ2 which
is defined by the equation:
(1)
with the degrees of freedom:
(2)
where k is the number of levels of categorical variable [6].
4. Conclusion
Data filtration analysis has confirmed
that evaluation of tenders according to
their economic advantageousness is
applied less frequently than evaluation
according to the lowest tender price (see
Fig 2).
Alternative hypothesis HA: “Type of
goods, services or public works and
tenders evaluation approach are strongly
connected” can be accepted because the
calculated value of test criterion is
significantly higher than critical value
stated in the statistical table (5.991 for
two degrees of freedom). This means
that there is a strong correlation between
category of public contracts and
multicriteria evaluation of tenders
application.
If deeper analysis of the problem is
conducted, it can be found out that in
case of public supplies evaluation
according
to
the
economic
advantageousness
was
used
for
following three groups of items:
garment, shoes and cars. In the area of
services only 17 public tenders out of
296 being awarded from 2007 till 2011
were evaluated according to the
economic advantageousness criterion.
The areas: information technology,
research activities, audits. The field of
public works: 22 contracts out of 126:
reconstruction, repairs, demolitions.
The lowest tender price was applied as a
single evaluation criterion in case of
supplies for items: software, cars, tracks,
fuel, weapons, spare parts, electric
energy, oils, tyres, computers, buses,
printing machines. Services: protection
of
buildings,
catering,
service,
transportation,
cleaning,
language
courses, revisions of technical devices.
Public works: repairs, reconstructions,
demolitions.
Why multicriteria evaluation of tenders
was used for such a kind of items and
why it was not applied to the others?
According to Pavel and Jurčeková [7, 8]
there is a rule that can be applied to the
decision which main criterion of tenders’
evaluation would be the most
appropriate to use. Three different
situations can occure within the above
mentioned
decision
situation:
If
product/service/public work can have
only one form and its consumption does
not cause any additional operational
costs then it is required to use the
criterion of the lowest tender price.
If product/service/public work has only
one form but additional operational costs
can be observed during its consumption,
it is recommended to use the criterion of
economic
advantageousness
(multicriteria evaluation). The main aim
of the client/contracting authority is then
to find out information related to
operational/life-cycle cost of a product
from the tenderer and involve it into
evaluation process.
If product can have different forms and
its consumption is connected to
43
additional operational costs, it is
required to use multicriteria evaluation.
It is obvious from the above mentioned
paragraphs that some of the tenders
being evaluated according to the lowest
tender price in the CAF should have
been evaluated according to the
economic advantageousness because
they can exist in different forms and
their consumption causes additional
costs.
The following recommendation can be
useful for all of the contracting entities:
if it is possible to describe relatively
easily and precisely the procured item’s
qualitative
and
quantitative
characteristics, let’s do it during the first
phase of the process – procured
product/service
characteristics
specification (see Fig 1). After that it is
not necessary to use evaluation
because we should obtain tenders which
all fulfil the required parameters and we
can only compare suggested prices
offered by the tenderers. This decisionmaking situation is valid only on
condition that no additional costs are
connected to the product/service
consumption. If it is not possible to
determine all the product/service
characteristics precisely, multicriteria
evaluation should have been applied.
How we can be sure that the company
which provides the CAF building
protection is the best-one if we take only
the
lowest
tender
price
into
consideration? This situation is possible
within all of the public administration
organizations
because
contracting
entities are not obliged to use evaluation
so they choose the easiest and fastest
option.
44
If evaluation process is not managed
correctly, it can endanger the economic
efficiency of the whole procurement
process. Particular criteria and its
importance should be carefully precised
by the committee of experts and verified
from the point of view of financial limits
given by the budget.
Central procurement process in the CAF
is based on political decision and so
economical, technical and logistical
criteria can loose their weight because of
that. This can be the reason of
contemporary situation when almost all
public contract awarded by the
contracting entities of the MoD has been
critised.
Future deeper research will be conducted
in the field of criteria being used by
contracting authorities of the MoD
database creation and analysis of these
criteria from the point of view of
economic efficiency.
Criteria’s importance determination is
another problem which should also be
solved because a certain weight of a
particular criterion can significantly
influence the result of the evaluation
process. Analysis of the procurement
process in the CAF during last five years
related to this aspect will be conducted
as well within the research.
Similar statistical analysis will be
applied to the accessible databases of the
French armed forces. After that it should
be possible to compare tenders
evaluation processes in both countries
via benchmarking method.
The result of the research should be
represented by establisment of possible
criteria and their importance patterns for
products/services/public works being
procured for the CAF needs which is
required by the Armaments division of
the MoD.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Ministry of Defence, Government resolution no.274/2006 of Military materiel for
the purpose of the Act no. 137/2006 Coll. on Public Contracts [online]. [cit. 201206-20].
Accessible
on:
http://www.portal-vz.cz/CMSPages/
GetFile.aspx?guid=faf72927-9b03-4281-b2ed2ef2f06b251e&versionhistoryid=1452.
Ministry for Regional development, Act no.137/2006 Coll. on Public Contracts
[online].[cit.
2012-06-15].
Accessible
on:
http://www.portalvz.cz/CMSPages/GetFile.aspx?guid=731da08c-4071-49c7-a882-f1503f63934a.
Ministry of Defence, Order no. 39/2008” Public contracts awarding in MoD”.
[online].
[cit.
2012-05-20].
Accessible
on
http://www.army.cz
/scripts/detail.php?id=170.
Ministry of Defence, Central procurement public contracts database [online].
[cit. 2012-05-13].Accessible on: http://www.army.cz/ scripts/detail.php?id=5935.
Ministry for Regional Development, Official site of public contracts [online]. [cit.
2012-05-15]. Accessible on: http://www.isvzus.cz/ usisvz/.
CHRÁSKA, M., Hypotézy a jejich ověřování v klasických pedagogických
výzkumech. Olomouc : Pedagogická fakulta UP, Votobia, 2005. ISBN 80-7220253-7.
PAVEL, J., Stanovení předmětu plnění dle zákona č.137/2006 ve vazbě na cíl
výdajové intervence a s ohledem na 3E, Sborník autorských textů Jak zohledňovat
principy 3E v postupech zadávání veřejných zakázek, MMR 2008, [online]. [cit.
2012-06-28].
Accessible
on:http://www.portalvz.cz/
CMSPages/
GetFile.aspx?guid=6e8404c6-c3a4-4d4a-b684-5295469499de.
JURČEKOVÁ, P., Ekonomická výhodnost nabídek – návrh vhodného modelu
dílčích kritérií hodnocení veřejných zakázek, [Diploma thesis]. Brno: Mendel
university, Faculty of economics, 2011.
45
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT FOR SIMULATION AND
EVALUATION EMERGENCIES
Tomáš Ludík, Josef Navrátil and Karel Kisza
Abstract: Managing the emergencies at the Emergency Staff requires a high co-operation
between its members and their fast decision making. For these purpose it is necessary to
prepare Emergency Staff members adequately. The aim of this paper is to describe the system
development that focuses to emergency staff processes and simulation and evaluation
emergencies. The system development is based on the principles of process management, and
business process management. The suite called jBPM was used for during development. The
output is the information system that allows users to simulate emergencies, including effective
decision making. The system also evaluates the progress of the emergency processes solving by
quantitative and qualitative indicators. Higher quality of specialists’ education can be
achieved by using this simulator and negative impacts of emergencies can be reduced.
Keywords: Simulation, Evaluation, Emergencies, Service Integration, jBPM
1. Introduction
The objective of the paper is to describe
the development of a process simulator
in order to prepare and train emergency
staff members at national and
international level. Preparation is aimed
at promotion of processes and effective
decision-making during the security
environment
analysis
and
crisis
management. It equally includes
comprehensive training and evaluation
of the human factor. This goal is based
on detailed analysis of the current state
[9, 10 and 15] and also reflects the
requirements of experts in the field of
emergency management [1, 5].
Paper is divided into three parts. The
problem formulation describes largescale accident caused by selected
hazardous chemical substances and
chemical products, which is the area that
has been selected to create the simulator
creation. Later, the development of
process simulator is described in terms
of the process analysis [17] and
46
modelling in the business process
modelling notation (BPMN) [16]. The
final part of the paper presents the
system development and outputs of the
research and possibilities of system at
process simulation and evaluation.
A number of emergency situations are
solved at the level of Emergency Staff.
The aim is to develop a comprehensive
information system that will cover these
situations. For this reason, an iterative
approach, that allows implementation of
the system by parts, was selected. Design
of the system is illustrated on chosen
situation, which is the leak of chemical
hazardous substances.
Large-scale accident caused by selected
hazardous chemical substances and
chemical products is rare event
demonstrated by uncontrolled flows of
energy (fire, explosion), and leaks of
toxic substances [6]. These are partially
or totally uncontrollable, time and space
bounded event which occurred or which
is associated with the use of the building
or facility where the hazardous substance
is manufactured, processed, used,
transported or stored. This situation can
lead to immediate or delayed serious
damage or threat to life and health of
people, livestock, and environment or for
damage to property [14].
To solve large-scale emergency, it is
appropriate to use the corresponding
model action plan called Large-scale
accidents caused by selected hazardous
chemical substances and chemical
products processed by Ministry of
Interior of the Czech Republic [14],
which addresses issues across the boardwide
Czech
Republic.
Another
information source is Operational plans
at regional level. These especially
include individual emergency plans,
which are subdivided into: Regional
Emergency Response Plan which are
processed by Fire fighters in cooperation
with the region, all the possible places
where accidents can occur mainly
anthropogenic action [3, 4]; Internal
Emergency Plan which are focused on
particular facilities or subject, they are
processed by the body meeting the
requirement of the legislation [2];
External Emergency Plan which are
focused on particular facilities or subject
too, but they are processed by Fire
fighters processes [3].
Desired state is the stabilization of
activities in the chemical facility and
decontamination of equipment in the
immediate surroundings of the accident.
The best solution is to focus to the
stabilization of public service authorities.
3. System Analysis
The aim of this part is to model the
processes of selected emergencies and to
specify them in detail. The result is a
view on partial actions and user roles
that are responsible for the actions [16,
17]. There is a simple process,
describing a response to an emergency
on the Emergency Staff level, on the
highest process analysis level (Fig.1). It
is the highest level of abstraction. The
process starts with receiving a
notification about an emergency. If an
Emergency State is declared, it is
necessary to gather the Emergency Staff.
Subsequently, the whole range of
emergency processes is carried out on
the Emergency Staff level in order to
deal with the emergency. Once these
actions are carried out and the
emergency is over, it is possible to
disband the Emergency Staff.
Figure1: Process of Solving of Emergencies
The next step is to model the activities
displayed in the Fig.1 in detail. The first
of them is called Receiving Notification
of Emergency. On a lower level, it is
possible to consider this action as a subprocess. The process starts when the
operation centre receives a notification
of a leakage of hazardous substances by
phone. The operator obtains details of
concerning the location, the accident
scope and the number of people injured.
The operator must verify, whether the
call is not only a false alarm.
Subsequently, there is an evaluation of
relevance of the emergency. The units of
Integrated Rescue System (IRS) are
dispatched to the place of the leak and if
the situation is serious, an emergency
state is declared. As the aim of the paper
is to create information system for the
Emergency Staff, the process continues
just in the case of the Emergency and
when the emergency state is declared.
After the declaration of the emergency
47
state, the mayor of the competent
municipality is informed. A standard
formulated report describing the status of
the emergency is created to provide the
mayor with all the relevant information.
Upon its receipt, the mayor of the
competent township is obliged to verify
the information and gets in contact with
the Information Operation Centre. If the
information is verified successfully, the
Emergency Staff is gathered. In the other
case, the process is cancelled. For more
details see Fig. 2.
Figure2: Receiving Notification of Emergency
The next step is a process of Summoning
of the Emergency Staff. It is a very
simple process, in which the mayor
meets the Emergency Staff members and
commences its activity. In the first case,
the mayor specifies a notification
message, in which he or she informs the
individual Emergency Staff Members
about the emergency and the place and
time of the first Emergency Staff
meeting. Based on the character of the
emergency, the mayor can adjust the
Emergency Staff structure and invite
other specialists into the Emergency
Staff. All the Emergency Staff Members
are then sent a notification with
information about the situation. They can
confirm or reject their participation. The
mayor is notified about the confirmation
of each member and if needed, he can
send a fast reaction. Afterwards, it is
possible to begin the activity of the
Emergency Staff in a time which has
been specified in advance and to start to
deal with the emergency itself. All the
actions are adequately documented and
therefore a report on the Emergency
Staff activity commencement can be
created. The whole process of gathering
of the Emergency Staff is in Fig. 3.
Figure 3: Notify the Emergency Staff
Various activities and tasks are
performed on the Emergency Staff level.
The
mayor
of
the
competent
municipality (Emergency Staff Leader)
is responsible for the response to the
emergency and he or she gradually
assigns the tasks that should lead
bringing the Emergency under control.
The individual activities that must be
carried out are defined by law [2]. The
48
Mayor has a possibility to choose a task
and a user role or person that is
responsible for the task and he or she can
also specify the task in more detail. The
group performs chosen task and
adequately documents its solution. Once
the task is completed, the mayor checks
whether this is really the case. If the task
is not completed or completed just
partially, the Mayor has an opportunity
to re-assign or modify the task. When all
the specified tasks have been completed,
it is possible to end the emergency and to
disband the Emergency Staff. The
corresponding process map is depicted in
Fig. 4.
Figure 4: Emergency Processes of Emergency Staff
Similarly, it is possible to continue in the
decomposition and modelling of the
processes into further detail. If a more
complex information system for the
Emergency Management were to be
created, the processes would have to be
more complex and modelled into a
further level of detail. After modelling of
the individual activities, the next step is
system implementation, which is
described in the next section.
4. System Implementation
Interaction with a user is necessary when
dealing with emergencies. This is solved
within BPMN 2.0 by means of User
Tasks [16]. User Task creation depends
on the chosen architecture, the jBPM in
this case. The architecture chosen
supports the use of human tasks inside
processes using a special user task. A
user task node represents an atomic task
that needs to be executed by a human
actor [7]. Although jBPM has a special
user task node for including human tasks
inside a process, human tasks are
considered the same as any other kind of
external service that needs to be invoked
and are therefore simply implemented as
a domain-specific service. To have
human actors participate in the
processes, it is needed to [8]:
- Include human task nodes inside the
process to model the interaction with
human actors;
- Integrate a task management
component;
-
Have end users interact with
a human task client to request their
task list and claim and complete the
tasks assigned to them.
As an example of a Service Automation
in the form of a User Task, an activity
called Commencing of the solution of the
Emergency was chosen. This activity
proceeds the Notification of Emergency
and the Summoning of the Emergency
Staff. The activity is described in BPMN
2.0. The element describing the task
looks as follows:
<userTask id="_5-7" name="Zahajeni reseni KS _
Starosta" >
To ensure correct form display and task
function, it is necessary to pass over the
data entered by the user. This means that
the required data is copied from the
process variables to the task parameters.
Once the task finishes, the results are
then returned by means of mapping to
the process variables. A script in Java
programming language is used for this
purpose. This script is launched upon the
start or finish of the task. An example of
the script for manipulation with the
entered data is shown below.
<extensionElements>
<tns:onExit-script
scriptFormat="http://www.java.com/java">
<script>
ukolySeznam = new java.util.ArrayList();
ukolyPrirazeni = new java.util.HashMap();
if ("y".equals(u1resit)) {
ukolySeznam.add("Vyrozumeni");
ukolyPrirazeni.put("Vyrozumeni", u1Actor);
49
}
if ("y".equals(u2resit)) {
ukolySeznam.add("Varovani obyvatel");
ukolyPrirazeni.put("Varovani obyvatel", u2Actor);
}
kcontext.setVariable("ukolySeznam", ukolySeznam);
kcontext.setVariable("ukolyPrirazeni",
ukolyPrirazeni);
</script>
</tns:onExit-script>
</extensionElements>
First of all, the assignment of individual
tasks to users is evaluated and these
results
are
assigned
into
the
corresponding data structures, which are
then assigned into the process variables.
The input and output variables have to
be mapped. At the end, it is possible to
assign the User Task created to a
concrete user, in this case to the Mayor.
<potentialOwner>
<resourceAssignmentExpression>
<formalExpression>starosta</formalExpression>
</resourceAssignmentExpression>
</potentialOwner>
Consequently, the human task service
needs to be integrated with the jBPM
engine just like any other external
service. This is done by registering a
work item handler that is responsible for
translating the abstract work item (in this
case a human task) to a specific
invocation of a service [8]. It is done by
registering WSHuman-TaskHandler as
prsented in the following code:
KnowledgeBase kbase = readKnowledgeBase();
StatefulKnowledgeSession ksession =
base.newStatefulKnowledgeSession();
ksession.getWorkItemManager().registerWorkItemHa
ndler("Human Task", new WSHumanTaskHandler());
By default, this handler will connect to a
human task service on the local machine
on port 9123. The address and port of the
human task service can easily be
changed. This service should be used by
invoking the setConnection(ipAddress,
port) method on the WS Human Task
Handler.
To ensure the interaction with the end
users, jBPM Console is used. This is a
tool for interaction of the running
processes (User Tasks) with the user.
Business processes and Human Tasks
can be managed through this web
console. There is an example of a form
for starting the response to the
emergency by the Mayor (Fig. 5). The
names of the variables that can be seen
in the individual fields will be replaced
with their values in runtime.
Figure5: User Interface for Human Task
4.1. Key Performance Indicators
Business Activity Monitoring (BAM)
tools are used for Implementation of the
Key Performance Indicators (KPI). All
50
the aspects of introducing KPI – from
definition of the data gathered
by monitoring until the display of the
KPI – are described in the next part. At
first, the principles of the data storage
that will be used for getting the KPI are
described by means of History log. The
BAM rules for jBPM are then used to
manipulate and display the KPIs.
In many cases, it is useful to store
information about the execution of
process instances, so that this
information can be used afterwards.
Storing history information in the
runtime database is usually not a good
idea, as this would result in evergrowing runtime data. Furthermore,
monitoring and analysis queries might
influence the performance of the runtime
engine [8]. That is why historical
information about the execution of the
process instances is stored separately in
History Log. The History Log of
execution information is created based
on the events generated by the process
engine during execution. The jBPM
runtime engine provides a generic
mechanism to listen to different kinds of
events. The necessary information can
easily be extracted from these events and
persisted, for example in a database.
Filters can be used to store only the
relevant information.
The jBPM-BAM module contains an
event listener that stores process-related
information in a database using Java
Persistence API (JPA) or Hibernate
directly. The database contains two
tables; one for Process Instance
Information and one for Node Instance
Information [8]:
ProcessInstanceLog: This contains the
process instance id, the process
(definition) id, the start date and (if
applicable) the end date of all process
instances.
NodeInstanceLog: This table contains
more detailed information about which
nodes were actually executed inside each
process instance. Whenever a node
instance is entered from one of its
incoming connections or is exited
through one of its outgoing connections,
that information is stored in this table.
To achieve this, it stores the process
instance id and the process id of the
process instance it is being executed in,
and the node instance id and the
corresponding node id (in the process
definition) of the node instance in
question. Finally, the type of event (0 =
enter, 1 = exit) and the date of the event
is stored as well.
Business Activity Monitoring is related to
the real-time monitoring of the processes
and introduces a possibility to intervene
directly (possibly even automatically),
based on the analysis of these events.
Drools Flow allows users to define
reports based on the events generated by
the process engine, and makes it possible
to directly intervene in specific situations
using event processing rules (Drools
Fusion). Based on the Eclipse BIRT
plug-in (Business Intelligence Reporting
Tool), users can create reports that show
the KPIs of their business. It is easy for
the users to even define custom reports
using the predefined data sets containing
all process history information (based on
history logger that logs all runtime
events in a database).
By adding a history logger to the process
engine, all relevant events can be stored
in a database. This history log can be
used to monitor and analyze the
execution of the processes. Drools Flow
uses the Eclipse BIRT (Business
Intelligence Reporting Tool) to create
reports that show the KPIs. The Eclipse
BIRT framework allows the user to
define data sets, create reports, include
charts, preview the reports, and export
them on web pages. The following
screen shot shows a sample on how to
create such a chart (Fig. 6).
51
Figure 6: Drools Eventing Report [8]
4.2. Service Outsourcing
It was found desirable to be able to use
the existing systems or portals for
automation of the modelled processes.
As there is only a small amount of
functioning
services
within
the
Emergency Management that could be
integrated with the system, it was
necessary to use the systems that do not
have any interfaces exposed [11]. The
following systems within the paper were
primarily used:
System for Modeling of the Leakage of
the Dangerous Substances – a system,
which makes it possible to predict a
leakage of dangerous substance based on
the supplied parameters. In the Czech
Republic, the systems most commonly
used are called TerEx or Aloha. Once the
parameters are entered, a predicted
model is created in the form of text
output and map. This information can
directly be used in the system developed.
Integrated Warning Service System – a
service provided by the Czech
Hydrometeorological Institute that serves
to inform the public and Emergency
Management Bodies about warnings
declared for the Czech Republic.
Geographical Information System – a
standard add-on to each of the
Emergency Management information
system, which makes it possible to
illustrate emergencies being dealt with
on a map. Contextual mapping service
52
was used within the Proof of Concept. It
enables the user to display the situation
in a given context.
Transport Information System – system
used when there is a leakage of
hazardous
substances
related
to
transportation.
The
system
is
administered by the Ministry of
Transport. It makes benefit of labels that
are required by law to be present on the
containers with the substances. These
make for a quick identification of the
transported substance, which helps to
improve the efficiency of the response to
the emergency.
5. Conclusion
The main aim of this paper is to
describe, design and implement process
simulator for education of the
Emergency Staff. Therefore it is
necessary to identify, model, and then
configure the processes involved in
disaster
management.
Selected
procedures are described from the
methodological perspective but also
from the perspective of software
architecture, which allows processes
automation. The paper emphasizes the
use of standards and best practices in the
field of process management. The result
represents a comprehensive system for
simulation and evaluation processes of
the Emergency Staff.
For an overall understanding of the
described issue it is also appropriate to
familiarize with the Process Framework
for Emergency Management [12]. This
contribution emphasizes the importance
of the two perspectives in the
deployment process of emergency
management. It should be noted that the
architecture itself is not sufficient for the
automation of emergency management
processes
[11].
It
should
be
supplemented by a methodology that
defines how to proceed with process
automation and deployment. Such
methodology has been already published
in
the article entitled Process
Methodology
for
Emergency
Management [13]. This methodology has
been used during the automation of
selected
emergency
management
scenarios described in this paper.
Members of Emergency Staff understand
emergency
planning
issues
and
emergency management more easily
when illustrated on real examples. The
resulting solution allows to model
emergency scenarios using process
maps. The maps can be configured and
deployed on a process engine for the
purpose of simulation emergency
processes in training environment.
Finally, it should be noted that the
proposed solution is suitable not only for
educational purposes, but also for the
automation and deployment of real
emergency scenarios in the Czech
Republic. Thus the used business
process management suite allows
reflecting any changes in emergency
scenarios
more
quickly.
References
[1]
Barta, J, Srník, A. 2011. Infrastructure means for Adaptive Camouflage. In: World
Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology. Volume. 3, Issue 59.
[2] Czech Republic. 2006. Act No. 59/2006 Coll., concerning prevention of major
accidents caused by selected dangerous chemical substances or chemical
preparations. In: Czech Republic Statute Book.
[3] Czech Republic. 2001. Legislation Decree 328/2001 Coll., on some details of the
security of the integrated rescue system. In: Czech Republic Statute Book.
[4] Czech Republic. 2000. Act No. 239/2000 Coll., on the Integrated Rescue System
and on amendment of certain codes, in latter wording. In: Czech Republic Statute
Book.
[5] Diehl, S, Neuvel, J, Zlatanova, S, et al. 2006. Investigation of user requirements in
the emergency response sector: the Dutch case. In: Proceedings of the Second
Gi4DM. Goa, India.
[6] European Commission, Council Directive. 1996. 96/82/EC of 9 December 1996
on the control of major-accident hazards involving dangerous substances (Seveso
II Directive).
[7] The jBPM team. 2012. jBPM Developers Guide, Version 4.0.0 Final.
Accessed
2012
<http://docs.jboss.com/jbpm/v4/devguide/html_single/>.
September 9.
[8] The jBPM team. 2012. jBPM User Guide, Version 5.2.0 Final.
<http://docs.jboss.org/jbpm/v5.2/userguide/>. Accessed 2012 October 6.
[9] Klopfer, M, Kanellopoulos, I. 2008. The ORCHESTRA Consorcium: Orchestra,
an open service architecture for risk management.
[10] Kubíček, P, et al. 2010. Process Support and Adaptive Geovisualisation in
Emergency Management. In: Geographic Information and Cartography for Risk
and Crisis Management - Towards Better Solutions. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
53
[11] Ludík, T, Barta, J. 2011. Architecture for Operational Processes Improvement in
Emergency Management. In: Recent Researches in Computational Intelligence
and Information Security. Jakarta: WSEAS Press.
[12] Ludík, T, Ráček, J. 2011. Process Framework for Emergency Management Solving of Emergency Situations by Way of Business Processes. In: Proceedings
of the 6th International Conference on Software and Database Technologies.
Portugal: SciTePress.
[13] Ludík, T, Ráček, J. 2011. Process Methodology for Emergency Management. In:
IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology. Heidelberg:
Springer.
[14] Ministry of Interior. 2010. Large-scale accident caused by selected dangerous
chemical substances. Model Action Plan of the Ministry of Interior. Prague:
Ministry of Interior, Czech Republic.
[15] Sell, Ch, Braun, I. 2009. Using a Workflow Management System to Manage
Emergency Plans. In: Proceedings of the 6th International ISCRAM Conference.
Gothenburg, Sweden.
[16] Silver, B. 2009. BPMN Method and Style: A levels-based methodology for BPM
process modeling and improvement using BPMN 2.0. Aptos: Cody-Cassidy Press.
[17] Weske, M. 2007. Business Process Management, Concepts, Languages,
Architectures, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
54
TEST RESULTS OF THE ENVIROX ADDITIVE INFLUENCE ON
COMBUSTION ENGINES OPERATION
Jaromír Mareš, Nataša Pomazalová and Václav Zajíček
…
Abstract: Envirox is a chemical preparation based on cerium oxide (CeO2), which when added
to fuel works as a catalyst. It affects the combustion processes by substantially reducing the
amount of harmful combustion products, unburned fuel and solid matter in exhaust gases.
Keywords: Additive, combustion engine, Envirox, fuel consuption
1. Introduction
Naturally occurring element cerium (Ce)
is used during the catalysis. The base of
the catalysis is created by cesium oxide
(CeO2), which allows almost complete
combustion of hydrocarbons and soot.
The determinative factor is the very low
temperature at which catalytic reactions
occur. During ignition, the first stage of
combustion, the low temperature allows
much better catalytic combustion of the
fuel. Lower average combustion
temperature,
regardless
of
the
temporarily
higher
maximum
temperature of combustion, also prevents
the production of NOx due to the high
activation energy of nitrogen oxidation.
The catalytic activity of CeO2 is strongly
dependent on particle size and specific
surface area. The so-called oxygen
vacancies form more easily on the CeO2
surface, which explains that material
with higher specific surface area
(nanoparticles) has a higher catalytic
activity. This is a key factor that, during
the catalysis, makes the combustion with
the use of nanotechnologies based
on cerium a good competitor to catalytic
systems based on metals such as
platinum or palladium. High temperature
stability of CeO2 results in a reoxidation
ability of Ce2O3 nanoparticles, so that
these are active even during the fuel
combustion.
Measurements were conducted in
laboratory conditions on an engine break
aimed to measure the influence of the
ENVIROX additive on T 815 6×6 and
LRD 90 diesel combustion engines
operation. The influence of fuel with
added Envirox preparation on state and
operation of diesel combustion engines
of 2 types. The test consisted of series of
particular test on a brake station as well
as of series of special laboratory tests.
Engines fromTatra T3-930-31 and Land
Rover 300TDi were used to test Envi
2011. The tests were made on a brake
station with the use of a HORIBA
DT900-1 hydraulic brake.
2. Influence of the additive on fuel
consumption
This test was aimed to check the
supposed decrease of fuel consumption,
emission reduction in exhaust gases,
decrease of deposit amount in
combustion chamber and in the exhaust
system and inquest of the influence of
the Envirox additive on the engine state.
The subject of the test was a chemical
preparation (Envirox additive) produced
by ENERGENICS and distributed by
exclusive supplier NanoTrade. This
additive in accordance with to the
55
supplier recipe was mixed with NM-54
diesel oil at a rate of 1 liter Envirox to
4000 liters of diesel. Supplier of the
additive declares, that the influence of
switch to this additive is positively
displayed by emission reduction
immediately after switch to fuel with
Envirox and then during the next
operation – above all by the decrease of
fuel consumption plus by removing and
preventing of deposits formation in
combustion chamber and in exhaust
system. The tests were conducted on two
types of engines from Tatra and Land
Rover vehicles. During the test service
fluids NM-54 were cyclically burnt
followed by a group with EnviNM-54
fuel and lastly again by a group with
NM-54 fuel. The consisted of:
- Assessment of engines condition
(before and after tests on brake
station);
- Tests on Tatra and Land Rover
engines on brake station;
- Laboratory analysis of oil samples
taken from engine on brake during
testing;
- Measurement of exhaust emissions
in exhaust gases on both engines on
the brake at specified operating
modes.
2.1. Oxidation of deposits (carbon)
In diesel engines burning produces a
significant
amount
of
unwanted
substances, which along with the mist
from lubricant produces carbon that
settles
in
combustion
chamber
and in the exhaust
system.
These
deposits results in increased friction and
cause undesirable changes in heat losses
on inner surfaces. The temperature on
piston head and combustion chamber
walls ranges from 200 to 500 °C. But
this is exactly the range of carbon
activation temperatures under the
influence of CeO2 nanoparticles. This
results in a gradual oxidation of deposits
and their removing from engine along
with exhaust gases.
56
CeO2 nanoparticles added to the fuel
allow better hydrocarbons combustion
(which consequently reduces fuel
consumption) and by supporting the
combustion of deposits leads to their
removal.
The test of the Envirox additive
influence on
combustion engine
operation is consisted of a series of subtests on the selected engine and in
specialized centers. The aim of the test
was to verify the expected decrease of
fuel consumption and reduced exhaust
emissions when using diesel fuel with
the Envirox additive and any changes in
engine operation. The tests were aimed
to monitor the following parameters:
- The main engine parameters (power,
torque, specific fuel consumption,
etc.);
- Properties of the Envirox additive
and of the fuel with added Envirox
during its operation;
- Emissions of the engine (gaseous
pollutants and solid matter);
- The state of oil filling;
- Storability of EnviNM54 fuel and
the Envirox additive supplied either
in metal barrels, two-liter glass
bottles or plastic bottles.
The Envi 2011 test was divided into two
groups of tests as follows:
- Tests of the engine on a brake
station;
- Special tests.
4 Mh test was repeatedly conducted on
the brake station, gradually on two
engines - Tatra and Land Rover. The
tests consisted of four-hour sequence of
load cycles (4Mh Test).
In addition to the above brake tests the
necessary maintenance works, sampling
of fuel and oil for laboratory tests and
emission measurements have been
included.
Special
tests
included
the following sub-tests:
- Analysis of oil samples during
engine tests;
-
Analysis and assessment of samples
of the Envirox additive, NM54 fuel
and NM54 doped fuel;
- Evaluation of the emissions in the
exhaust gases;
- Storability evaluation of the
EnviNM54 fuel and of the bought
additive.
2.2. LR tests
The LR tests were made on Land Rover
LR 300TDi with 164 466 km driven.
The used engine is an ordinary diesel
engine, four-cylinder, four strokes and
direct injection, with Garrett T 2.5
turbocharger, with charge-air cooler. The
engine is liquid cooled. Cooling is
pressurized, with thermostat with forced
circulation. Radiator coolant forms one
unit with the engine oil-cooler and
charge-air cooler. Cubic capacity 2495
cm3, bore / stroke 90.47 / 97 mm,
Overhead valve, compression ratio 1 :
19,5. Rated output 65 kW at 4000 min-1,
maximum torque 210 Nm at 1800 min-1.
In preparation for the engine test for the
assessment of sediment (carbon) during
the test, one surface of the cylinder and
cylinder head were cleaned from the
surface sediments from the previous
operation. The test was conducted with
second gear shifted at gear ratio 2.13 : 1
with the friction coefficient 1.116 and
the corresponding mechanical efficiency
of 0.895255 Envi 2011 test contained the
following sub-tests:
- engine test on brake station;
- laboratory analysis of oil samples
collected from the engine on brake
during the test;
- measurement of emissions in the
exhaust gases on the engine and
brake at the specified operating
modes;
- analyzes of fuel samples.
The influence of the Envirox additive
was assessed by comparing values of the
parameters characterizing the engine
activity (specific fuel consumption
[mpe]), the state of its parts (carbon on
the sides of the combustion chamber and
exhaust system) and carbon emissions
in the exhaust gases before and after
application of the Envirox additive.
The Envi LR test had a long-time
character. The engine was in operation
for 172 Mh. Engine operating modes
were selected in order to suit the
operation of vehicle engines, which
is characterized by an activity in a wide
range of speeds and loads.
To assess the influence of used Envirox
additive on the engine a "specific fuel
consumption" variable was used, which
is defined by following formula:
m pe =
Gh
Pe
[g.kW-1.h-1]
Gh [kg.h-1] = fuel consumption per hour
(amount of fuel),
Pe [kW] = efficient engine output.
In total 43 tests were performed, each
test included a 4Mh Test. During the test
No. 18 an anomaly occurred and a large
increase in filling pressure was
registered. Consequently during the test
No. 22 damage on the TD membrane
regulator was found. After replacing
the controller, which includes the
aforementioned membrane, during the
test No. 23 filling pressure at 100% load
declined substantially. When loaded on
60 and 40% there was even a slight
increase.
Relative stabilization of filling pressure
values (at values, which occurred after
switch to the Envi NM-54) occurred
from test No. 25, on 100 and 40% load.
From test No. 29 at lower loads, 80, 60
and 40%, boost pressure increased again.
Filling pressure progress during the tests
is shown in Fig. 1.
2.3. LR test results
Monitored parameters were mainly
specific fuel consumption (mpe) and
emissions production in the exhaust
gases before and after the application of
Envirox
additive.
The
graphs
on the picture 2a, 2b, 2c show that at all
these speeds and at full load (100%) mpe
values fluctuated slightly up until test
57
No. 17. At lower loads (80, 60 and 40%)
mpe was slightly higher. With the load
decrease mpe increased rapidly at all
speeds. The switch to Envi NM-54 fuel
was conducted in the test No. 11, when
mpe values break occurred. At 100%,
80% and 60% load slight declines and
increases occurred. At 40% load a
significant decline of the mpe values
at all speeds became noticeable. This
finding was made after test No. 21 from3
Nov 2011, after 84 Mh of engine
operation. Initially, this decrease was
clearly regarded as a positive Envirox
additive effect. After test No. 11 a
second group of tests started, the fuel
was diesel oil NM-54 with added
Envirox preparation. The measured mpe
values were up to this moment relatively
stable with little variability both before
switch (before the test No. 11, after 40
Mh of testing) and after transition, after
the test No. 11 (other 44 Mh of testing)
with a fuel with Envirox added.
Mpe grew along with speed increase at
all loads. At the same time the range of
mpe values increased:
- 2000min-1 range from 220 to
260g.kW-1.h-1;
345g.kW-1.h-1;
580g.kW-1.h-1.
150
140
nM = 3000
130
120
Filling pressure PvzTD [kPa]
110
100
90
80
70
60
TD malfunction
50
NM-54
Envi NM-54
NM-54
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
LR test number
100
80
60
40
Figure 1: Filling pressure progress during the tests.
58
650
Envi 2011 LR, 2.ZCH
600
-1
2000 min
550
mpe
500
450
400
350
Envi NM-54
NM-54
NM-54
300
250
200
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
42
43
44
45
46
43
44
45
46
Test number
100
80
60
40
Figure 2a: LR Effect of the engine load on the values during LR test at 2000 min-1
650
Envi 2011 LR, 2. LC
600
550
mpe
-1
3000 min
500
450
Envi NM-54
400
NM-54
NM-54
350
300
250
200
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
Test number
100
80
60
40
Figure 2b: LR Effect of the engine load on the values during LR test at 3000 min-1
650
4000 min
600
Envi 2011 LR, 2. ZCH
-1
550
mpe
500
450
400
350
300
250
Envi NM-54
NM-54
NM-54
200
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
Test number
100
80
60
40
Figure 2c: LR Effect of the engine load on the values during LR test at 4000 min-1.
59
2.4 Load characteristics
The load characteristic is a graphic
representation of monitored variable
depending on engine load. Engine load is
proportionally expressed in Figure 3. In
Envi tests (2011 and 2011) a torque ratio
is used because torque is a quantity
measured directly on the brake. The load
in this report is expressed by the torque
ratio at fixed engine speed. Figure 3
shows noticeable changes in the specific
fuel consumption in load characteristics
measured just before switch to Envi
NM-54 fuel (test No. 10) and after the
switch to this fuel (test No. 11).
In Fig. 3 it is clear that the influence of
Envirox additive manifests itself at lower
loads under 80 %. The same conclusion
was found in Envi tests in 2010.
600
Comparison of 2nd LC during 10th. a 11th test at speed 2000 ( 102 and 112 in the legend),
ENVI 2011 LR
500
nM = 4000 min
3000 (103 and 113 in the legend) and 4000 min-1 (104 and 114 in the legend)
Test No.10 was conducted with the NM-54 fuel.
Test No.11 was conducted with the doped Envi NM-54 fuel.
-1
No.10
Specific fuel consumption m pe [g.kW1.h-1]
1
]
No.11
400
No.10
nM = 3000 min -1
300
No.11
nM = 2000 min
-1
No.10
No.11
200
Conclusion
During transition from test No. 10 (NM-54) to No.11 (Envi NM-54) at loads lower than 80% mpe always decreases.
According to the results of smoke measurements (by CDV company at 60% mode at 3000 min-1 with Envi NM-54, the level of
smoke always decreased indicating a perfect combustion.
It can be assumed that these changes, mpe and smoke decrease are caused by the Envirox additive.
100
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Engine load ZatM [%]
102
112
103
113
104
114
Figure 3: LR Comparison of load tests characteristics No. 10 and 11.
In Fig. 3 it is clear that the influence of
Envirox additive manifests itself at lower
loads under 80%. The same conclusion
was found in Envi tests in 2010.
3. LR statistical analysis
Based on the above described tests and
on the result of changes in values before
and after the TD malfunction and after
its repair, the entire Envi LR 2011 test
was divided into four stages:
- 1st stage tests No.1 to 10 LR
NM-54 fuel, (10 tests, 40 Mh);
60
-
2nd stage tests No.11 to 21 LR
Envi NM-54 fuel, (11 tests 4Mh,
44 Mh);
- 3rd stage tests No.22 to 33 LR
Envi NM-54 fuel, (12 tests 4Mh,
48 Mh);
- 4th stage tests No.34 to 43 LR
NM-54 fuel(10 tests, 40 Mh).
At each stage an arithmetic mean of
values
was
determined
and
corresponding standard deviation (Excel
function STDEVP).
120
3.1. Evaluation of specific fuel
consumption
The relative difference in arithmetic
means in each stage (dmpep) is shown in
Table 1 is defined by following formula:
dmpe p =
(m pex − m pe1 )
m pe1
⋅ 100
[%]
Table 1 LR Decrease in specific mpe fuel consumption in 2nd, 3rd and 4th stage related to
valuesin 1st stage [%].
2/1
3/1
4/1
2000
40
100
3000
40
60
60
80
10.87
1.86
6.24
6.36
80
-1.02
-0.63
13.96
8.79
1.29
-0.18
0.18
3.54
2.33
1.69
1.69
5.51
This relative expression is marked
symbolically 2/1, 3/1 and 4/1 in Tab. 1.
Negative values indicate increased
specific fuel consumption and are shown
that the greatest reductions in specific
mpe fuel consumption occur at low loads
(40 and 60%). Specific fuel consumption
increased with an increase in load.
Differences between the mpe values with
and without the Envirox additive are
becoming increasingly smaller and
approach the values of operating with
NM-54 fuel. If the decrease at the speed
of 2000 min-1 and 40% load mpe was
10.87%, then at same speed and 60%
load was the decrease just 1.86%.
Contrarily at loads above 60% even
a slight increase of mpe occurred.
Negative values in the TAB. 6 LR mean
mpe increase.
The first two stages can therefore
presume a positive effect of the Envirox
additive at low engine loads.
3.2. Measurement uncertainty
Uncertainty consists mainly of statistical
uncertainty of type A, which equals the
above mentioned STDEVP%, standard
deviation, which values were obtained
by standard statistical analysis for
normal distribution. Along with the
uncertainty of type A uncertainty also
includes the uncertainty of type B, which
takes into account the non-statistical
uncertainty. In this case, the uncertainty
of type B was determined as a sum of the
measuring uncertainty of the three
100
4000
40
60
80
100
0.5
-0.5
15.8
2.5
0.4
-3.1
2.09
-0.1
0.3
0.1
-1.9
-2.4
-0.5
3.89
2.8
3.1
20.1
8.1
5.9
4.2
measuring
instruments
used
for
determining the value of specific fuel
consumption, ie. tachometer ±0.025 %,
torque ±0.2 % and the fuel flow meter ±
0.01 %. Type B uncertainty was
calculated as the so-called uB =
0.20180436 %. The combined standard
uncertainty was calculated as the sum of
the geometric uncertainties of type A
and B.
In our case the greatest uncertainty of
type A from all stages was taken the 4th
stage with average statistical uncertainty
uA = ±1.89 %). The uncertainty of type
B is shown above, uB = ±0.20 %.
The
highest
combined
standard
uncertainty is defined by the sum
uC = u A2 + u B2 = 1.89 2 + 0.2 2 = 1.90 %
The uncertainty of measurements on an
engine LR can be summarized that in the
least favorable cases, the uncertainty uC
= ±1.9 %. We can state that uncertainty
of the measurements is acceptable.
4. Conclusion
The
specific
fuel
consumption
measurement was carried out on 22 tests
(4 Mh tests) and the engine operated for
88 Mh. Due to the relatively long test
period we can declare that the results can
be considered significant.
Available literature suggests reasonable
uncertainty in the values approaching the
61
interval ± 2 %. Combined uncertainty of
measurements on a LR engine reached
the value uC = ±1,9 % and is acceptable
for the relevance of the measurements
results. Based on the tribotechnic
analyses of the used motor oil it can be
stated, that the Envirox preparation did
not affect the technical state and the
serviceability of the engine in any
direction. The inspection of the most
stressed parts of the engine before and
after the test did not show any noticeable
changes in carbon deposit or in piston
group wear. However, the Envirox
additive did not affect the production of
gaseous pollutants.
Overall, it can be concluded that the
effect of the Envirox additive was
positive and led to a decrease in specific
fuel consumption of 6 to 11 %, which
occurred at lower loads and lower
speeds.
References
FERENC, J., FERENCOVÁ, J., KOŠČÁK, P. Spôsoby a štýly riadenia logistiky
letísk. 1 elektronický optický disk (CD-ROM).In: Aeronautika 2011.
Medzinárodná vedecká konferencia.: 20.-21. októbra 2011, Herľany. - Košice :
TU, 2011 S. 1-8. - ISBN 978-80-553-0758-9.
[2] ZAJICEKV, V., KŘÍŽEK, P. Tribotehnical Diagnostics as an Effective Tool of
Quality Management in the Army of the Czech Republic. In The 17th
International Conference Knowledge-Based Organization. Sibiu, 2011. pp. 378382. ISSN. 1843-6722.
[3] Ministerstvo obrany. Odborné nařízení k provedení zkoušky přísady do paliva –
Envirox. Praha : Sekce logistiky. 2010. Č.j. 250/2010-3042.
[4] Drozdov, N., Lukashina, V., Nazarova, T. I., Using the Achievements in
Tribology for Teaching Technical Disciplines. Journal of machinery manufacture
and Reliability. Vol. 40. No. 2 2011, pp. 3–8, ISSN 1052_6188.
[5] Ministry of Defence. Instruction for Tribodiagnostics of Engines, Gear and
Hydraulic Systems. No. 79-27/2007-3042. Prague , Logistics Division, 2007.
[6] MAREŠ, J., ZAJÍČEK, V. Zkouška vlivu aditiva Envirox na provoz vozidel AČR
v reálném provozu. Metodika. Brno: Univerzita obrany. 2010.
[7] MARES, J., BOZEK, F., ZAJÍCEK, V., KRIZEK, P., MARESOVA, L.
Economic, technical and environmental aspects of fuel additive EnviroxTM
during trials with diesel engines. Proceedings of the IIIth WESSEX International
Conference on Ravage of Planet 2011. Shah Alam, Malaysia. WIT Press, 2011, p.
340 - 352. ISBN 978-1-84564-528-1.
[8] Ministerstvo obrany. Metodika pro činnost útvarů a zařízení, tribotechnická
diagnostiky motorů a převodovek. Praha : Sekce logistiky, 2007. Č.j. 79-28/20073042.
[9] SINGER, J. Protokol o zkoušce hodnocení technického stavu motorů vozidel LRD
a T 815 v průběhu praktické zkoušky přísady ENVIROX v reálném provozu u VÚ
8660 Vyškov. Vyškov: VOP-026 Šternberk, s. p., divize VTÚPV Vyškov, 2010.
Číslo protokolu 10/61/10/01,176.
[10] KORECKI, Z., MAREŠ. J., CEMPÍREK, M. Fuel additive cuts the propellant
consumption in car running. In The 18th International Conference The
Knowledge-Based Organization. Sibiu, Romania, 2012, p. 85-91. ISSN 18438722.
[11] KOMÁR, A., KŘÍŽEK, P., ZAJÍČEK V. and BOŽEK, F. Effect of Additive
Envirox on the Emissions. In The 18th International Conference The KnowledgeBased Organization. Sibiu, Romania, 2012, p.78-84. ISSN 1843-8722.
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[12] KORECKI, Z., POMAZALOVÁ, N., MAREŠ, J. The aditive envirox test on an
engine running condition, Brasov, 2011, ISSN: 1843-6722.
[13] POMAZALOVÁ, N., KORECKI, Z., MAREŠ, J. Fuel Additive Experiment in the
Area of Oil Stability and Quality. In MOSATT. Košice, 2011. ISBN1338-5232.
[14] GAVENDOVÁ, H., MAREŠ, J., KORECKI, Z. Possibilities of Fuel Additives
Usage for the military vehicle. In The 16th International Conference The
Knowledge-Based Organization. Sibiu, Romania, 2010, ISSN 1843-682X.
[15] POMAZALOVÁ, N., KORECKI, Z., MAREŠ, J. Fuel additiv as a tool to achieve
saving expenditures. Revista academiei Fortelor terestre. Vol. XV, Nr4,
Romania. ISSN 1582-6384 2010.
63
INFORMATION SUPPORT FOR THE COMMANDERS’
PLANNING AND DECISION-MAKING PROCESS AT COMMAND
AND CONTROL TACTICAL LEVEL
Jan Nohel
Abstract: The objective of this article is to contribute to the discussion on the future
development of the planning and decision-making process information support at the command
and control tactical level. Information gathering, processing, analysis and distribution are
parts of information support, through which the commander gains situational awareness on the
battlefield. The understanding and complex situational awareness on the battlefield form a
basis for effective manoeuvring. The article describes the requirements of manoeuvre unit
commanders for the information about the situation in the area of task performance. It includes
the analysis of possibilities for data acquisition, methods of processing and distribution of
required information from the battalion commander and staff to unit commanders. Based on
the analyses’ results the author devises methods of and approaches to the improvement and
acceleration of the entire planning and decision-making process.
Keywords: information support, planning and decision-making process
1. Introduction
The asymmetric method for conducting
combat operations, the ever-present
civilian population and non-surveyable
terrain in the area of military operations
during the last few decades make
effective employment of large tactical
formations impossible. This concept has
been replaced by the accurate
employment of smaller units with
increased mobility, increasing range and
higher accuracy of their action. The
importance of lower level commanders’
initiative at the tactical command and
control level has been growing. The
decisive factors of smaller units’ success
are their accurate and well-timed
employment, their sufficient and
complex situational awareness in the
area of operations, and their mobility and
sustainability in the operation, including
their own protection [1]. To understand
the situation completely the unit
64
commander must consider significant
environmental factors in the area of
operation. Their understanding will help
the commander to illustrate the entire
situation display and will facilitate use of
their strengths and weaknesses and to
avoid gratuitous risks in performance of
tasks. These factors are the following
operational variables:
Political situation - includes the
distribution of power, government
responsibility, structure and processes
used for influencing the population by
local authorities up to international
organizations, the understanding of what
motivates key groups to help the
commander to achieve goals or the final
state of an operation.
Military situation – describes the effect
of armed forces in the area of operation
on friendly units’ performance of tasks
and the relationship of these forces to the
other situational factors.
Economic situation – includes the
behaviour of individuals as well as
groups, with respect to production,
distribution and consumption of
resources
(e.g.
industry,
trade
development, finances, restrictions).
Social situation – describes partnerships
in the operational environment and their
social
structure
which
includes
institutions, organizations, links and
similar groups.
Information environment – includes
the complex of individuals, groups and
systems which collect, process and
disseminate information and act based
on it.
Infrastructure – includes the character
of
infrastructure,
clarifies
basic
equipment and services necessary for the
functioning of society.
The environment – describes residences
and built-up areas, climate and weather,
topography,
hydrology,
natural
resources, biological features and risks
and other conditions.
Temporal aspect – includes the analysis
of methods for achieving a goal by the
enemy (strategy of exhaustion, strategy
of mass campaigns to achieve a goal in a
short time). [2]
Commanders obtain the information
about operational variables in the phase
of preparation for the performance of
tasks in the operational area in the form
of lectures, videos or publications. They
study cultural and communication
customs in the course of preparatory
practical and complex exercises.
2. Battlefield Visualization
In the course of preparation and planning
for the performance of tasks every unit
commander
must
also
visualize
situational factors which may affect the
performance of tasks directly in a
concrete restricted area and understand
their cohesion.
These are as follows:
- Task:
- Of his unit and his superior to
clarify his role in the operation;
- Restrictions for the independent
performance of a task (e.g. rules
for using a weapon or for
achieving control points and
coordination lines).
- Enemy:
- Strength, structure, position,
technical data of armament and
equipment,
strengths
and
weaknesses, enemy’s combat
action in the past, periodic and
spatial attacks and expected
concept of operations.
- Terrain and weather:
- Obstacles,
defilades
and
possibilities of camouflaging,
possibilities of observation and
conduct of fire, key terrain and
accesses to the area of operation,
- Visibility, wind direction and
wind force, temperature, rain
precipitation, humidity, terrain
trafficability,
parameters
of
streams,
- Terrain and weather effects and
possibilities of their use by
friendly as well as enemy forces.
- Friendly forces and equipment:
- Combat
potential,
morale,
readiness
and
experience,
strengths
and
weaknesses,
technical data of weapons and
vehicles, reinforcement assets,
support
manpower
and
equipment;
- Tasks of adjacent units, their
deployment,
structure
and
equipment.
- Available time:
- For planning and preparation of a
unit, for planning and preparation
of
subordinates
and
for
preparedness check.
65
-
Civil environment preconditions:
- Demographic
structure,
organization,
attitudes
and
opinions of civilian population,
cultural and religious buildings
and sights. [3]
The commander should have at his
disposal the information from all of
these areas when starting preparation and
planning. He should try to keep updating
the information until the mission is
accomplished. The decision-making and
planning process and its information
support are used for classification,
processing and summarizing all of these
information inputs, and subsequent
creation and presentation of decisions.
3. Information Support
Situational awareness and its real display
help the commander to take qualified
decisions when performing operational
tasks. The available data applicable for
creating these decisions are processed
and take the form of information. The
commander creates a situation display of
the battlefield, based on which, and
using his knowledge and experience, he
takes a decision to accomplish a set goal
through the information analysis. He
uses communication and information
support for the effective decision-making
and planning process using the functions
of communication and information
systems. These include acquisition,
collection,
transfer,
information
processing, distribution, presentation and
security of information.[4]
3.1 Information Support Process
The information support process is a
cyclical and continuing activity which
can be divided into information about
the terrain, weather, environment, task,
situation of the enemy and friendly
forces and equipment in the area of
operations. The result of the entire
process is the provision of timely,
complex and updated data and
information, the logical summarization
66
and presentation of which help to create
a complex situation display on the
battlefield. The faster and more clearly
the commanders, staff and subordinate
commanders have the updated situation
display on the battlefield at their
disposal, the faster they can understand
the relationships of the whole situation.
On this basis it is possible to plan further
activities of friendly forces or deal with
crisis situations more easily and quickly.
4. Planning and Decision-Making
Process
The planning and decision-making
process can be described as a complex of
logically
arranged activities which
facilitate
the
commander’s
understanding of the situation on the
battlefield, anticipate the future situation
on the battlefield and apply the strategy
to achieve objectives. It is a cyclic and
continuous activity which does not end
with the adoption of a decision.
Achieving success or non-success in the
operation depends on commander’s
decisions which are affected by the
information about many constantly
changing factors of the situation on the
battlefield. When planning a manoeuvre
every commander has to acquire, process
and analyze all available information
from all areas of the battlefield with the
aim of obtaining current and complex
situational awareness in the area of task
performance. When he understands all
the relationships he is able to plan and
conduct future activities. The result of
the whole process is issuing a time- and
space-synchronized operation plan or
order which describes the performance
of tasks by the subordinated manpower
and equipment. In the course of
preparation, the operation order is
updated and modified continuously
depending on the development of the
situation on the battlefield.
4.1 Planning and Decision-Making
Process of the Commander and Staff
and its Information Support
The planning and decision-making
process of the staff is an interconnected
methodology of commander’s, staff’s
and subordinated units’ activities aimed
at situation and task understanding and
creating the best variant of the task
accomplishment. The whole process
consists of seven steps as follows: [5]
4.1.1 Step 1 – Receipt of a mission:
The whole process starts with the receipt
of OPLAN (Operation Plan) or OPORD
(Operation
Order),
FRAGO
(Fragmentary Order) or WARNO
(Warning Order) from the superior.
The aim of this step is to warn the
participants in the planning process of
the requirements for planning, to
determine the time available for the
preparation and planning, and to issue
instructions for the method of planning.
In conclusion, the staff will issue the
Warning Order No.1, in which it makes
subordinated commanders acquainted
with the basic information about the
task.
4.1.2 Step 2 – Mission analysis
This includes the analysis of the
superior’s plan and intents, intelligence
preparation
of
the
battlefield,
determination of specific and significant
tasks resulting from the superior’s plan,
identification of insufficient information
sources, determination of restrictions,
identification of critical facts and criteria
of predictions, risk management,
creation of primary CCIR (Commander’s
Critical Information Requirements) and
EEFI (Essential Elements of Friendly
Information), creation of the primary
plan for information collection, creation
of mission formulation, creation and
issue of the initial commander’s intent,
issue of instructions for planning,
creation of the criteria for evaluating
activity variants and issue of preliminary
combat instruction.
Intelligence Preparation of the
Battlefield (IPB):
The IPB is one of the most important
parts of the mission analysis. It consists
of four parts as follows:
a) Defining
the
battlefield
environment
At the beginning of the IPB the
information which the commander needs
to know about the area of the future
operation
is
determined.
The
environment characteristics which may
affect the activities of the friendly forces
and the enemy are defined. These may be
e.g. the terrain, weather, infrastructure,
political and economic-social factors,
demographic structure of the population,
groupings of the enemy and his
capabilities.
The following means are used for the
basic analysis and description of the
environment:
SOUMOP, ARCGIS, the OperationTactical System of the Ground Forces,
GLOBAL MAPPER, TERRA STUDIO,
printed maps, photographs from the area,
meteorological satellites, the Staff
Information Network, CIA internet sites,
CENTRIX, reports from the superior.
b) Description of Battlefield Effects
In this part of the IPB the effects of the
battlefield which both parties of the
operation will have to take into their
consideration are analyzed. The staff
intelligence groups identify restrictions
or advantages, based on which the
activity variants of friendly units will be
created. It comprises the analysis of the
battlefield environment which includes
the following:
- Terrain analysis
- Includes
the
appraisal
of
obstacles, covers and defilades,
observation possibilities and
conduct of fire, key areas and
feasible accesses to the area of
interest.
- SOUMOP,
ARCGIS,
the
Operation-Tactical System of the
67
Ground
Forces,
GLOBAL
MAPPER, TERRA STUDIO,
printed maps and photographs
from the area of operations are
used for elaboration.
- Weather analysis
- Includes the evaluation of
visibility, wind direction and
wind
force,
precipitation,
cloudiness, temperature, humidity
and their effects on the terrain,
personnel and equipment.
- The OBLAK meteorological
station, meteorological satellites
and the Staff Information
Network are used for elaboration.
- Analysis of other characteristics
- Includes
the
analyses
of
infrastructure,
demographic,
economic and political situations
and the effect of other battlefield
characteristics
on
military
operations.
- Personnel databases, CIA internet
websites, CENTRIX, reports
from the superior, ARCGIS,
SOUMOP,
the
OperationTactical System of the Ground
Forces, GLOBAL MAPPER,
TERRA STUDIO and printed
maps are used for elaboration.
c) Threat assessment
In this part the information from the
superior, adjacent units or antecedent
contingents concerning the organization
and method of conducting combat action
by the enemy’s manpower and
equipment are analyzed. Based on the
obtained information and records on the
enemy’s activities in the past, the
estimate of his activities in the future is
created – the threat model.
Creation of the threat model includes:
- Creation of the plot of the enemy
forces’ doctrine activities in the
environment without any restriction;
- Graphic presentation and description
of expected manoeuvre of the
enemy’s manpower and equipment;
68
-
Determination of high-priority goal
types.
The
identification
of
threat
capabilities follows:
- Based on the knowledge of the
organizational structure, tactical
doctrine and expected manoeuvre,
the capabilities and possibilities of
the
enemy’s
manpower
and
equipment in the area of operations
are determined.
d) Determination of threat activity
variants
At the end of the IPB the results of
previous parts are integrated into
meaningful conclusions. The tactical
standard operation procedures of the
enemy and the effects of the
environment where he operates are
summarized. Consequently, the models
of the enemy’s expected activities in the
operation area are created. The next
output of this step is the plan of
information gathering aimed at the
identification of a concrete activity
variant of the enemy. [6]
The output products of the task analysis
are: initial commander’s intent, initial
Commander’s
Critical
Information
Requirements (CCIR) and Essential
Elements of Friendly Information
(EEFI), initial commander’s instruction
for planning, IPB product updating,
running estimate and precondition
updating,
identification
of
IPB
information gaps, updating of the
operation time schedule and evaluation
criteria of activity variants.
The commander determines his CCIR
only
for
particularly
important
information relating to basic decisions
which he assumes he will take. Through
them the commander retains his
situational awareness on the battlefield.
The CCIR provide the commander with
support for the evaluation of effects and
visions of the situation, modification of
the command and control structure and
timely and competent decision-making.
The CCIR are constantly updated and reevaluated to reflect the changing
situation on the battlefield and the
commander’s intents. [7]
All staff members participate in
developing the task analysis according to
the areas of their competences. The
outputs are developed in the form of
surveys, tables, overlays, the OperationTactical System of the Ground Forces
levels or PowerPoint presentations. At
the end of the task analysis, the staff
distributes the Warning Order No.2 to
unit commanders using radio, data
transmission or courier.
4.1.3 Step 3 – Creation of activity
variants:
In this step tailor-made teams of staff
members will create the activity variants
of task accomplishment based on the
determined task, initial commander’s
instructions, and task analysis outputs.
Each activity variant must comply with
the following criteria; should be
executable,
acceptable,
suitable,
recognizable and complete.
4.1.4 Step 4 – Analysis of activity
variants:
In this step the simulation of proposed
activity variants of friendly manpower
and equipment with the expected
reaction of the enemy will be carried out.
It enables the commander and staff the
identification of complications and
coordination problems which may be the
same for all activity variants.
4.1.5 Step 5 – Comparison of activity
variants: In this step variants are
evaluated independently of one another
based on the determined criteria. The
objective is to identify the strengths and
weaknesses of activity variants and to
find the one which will probably be
successful in the task accomplishment.
4.1.6 Step 6 – Variant approval: Based
on the comparison of results of evaluated
activity variants, the most optimum
variant for the accomplishment of the
assigned task will be selected and
completed and the commander will
modify his intent. The staff will issue
Preliminary Combat Instruction No.3 for
units.
4.1.7 Step 7 – Issue of operation plan:
The staff will work out a selected variant
and create a brief concept of operation.
Then, based on STANAG 2014, the
operation order or plan is issued and sent
to subordinate commanders. Thus, the
subordinate commanders will obtain
basic data about the situation, task,
operational
concept,
commander’s
intent, method of manoeuvring, main
effort, determination of tasks for units,
provision of support and protection, and
command and communications. [8]
4.2 Planning and decision-making
process of the company commander,
subordinate
commanders
and
information support.
This is used for issuing orders of
company commanders. It is formed by a
set of preparatory and planning activities
for the task accomplishment. It consists
of eight steps: [9]
4.2.1 Step 1 – Receiving a task:
The planning is initiated by receiving the
Warning Order (WARNO), Operation
Order (OPORD) or Fragmentary Order
(FRAGO) from the superior for
performing a task. A new task may also
arise due to a sudden change of the
situation on the battlefield during the
performance of the original task. After
receiving a new task the commander will
carry out the primary estimate of the
situation (task, enemy, friendly unit,
terrain,
available
time,
civil
environment) on the basis of a received
directive or order. Consequently, he will
carry out the time calculation for the
preparation and planning of the task up
to its accomplishment.
4.2.2 Step 2 – Issue of Warning Order:
The Warning Order is less detailed than
the received WARNO or OPORD. In
this case the commander makes his
subordinates acquainted with the primary
69
estimate of the situation and time
calculation. He allows his subordinates
to initiate the preparation and the
planning and decision-making process
for the new task.
4.2.3 Step 3 – Creation of an initial
plan:
After the issue of the preliminary combat
instruction the commander will develop
a similar, but less detailed decisionmaking process than the battalion
commander and staff. It is a continuous
process which is repeated always after
receiving new information from the
superior or due to discovering new facts
in performance of tasks. When creating
an initial operation plan of a unit the
commander takes advantage of the
information acquired from WARNO,
OPORD or OPLAN from the superior,
from available geographic materials and
photographs. He obtains additional
updated
information
from
the
intelligence group/superior’s department.
This includes the task analysis, creation,
analysis and comparison of activity
variants and the selection of an activity
variant.
Task analysis includes the analysis of the
unit task, enemy, terrain and weather,
friendly unit, available time and civil
preconditions.
Unit task analysis
Based on the superior’s plan or order, the
commander makes clear the share of his
unit in the task performance.
The unit task analysis includes the
following:
- The superior’s task and intent;
- The superior’s concept of operation;
- Specific and significant tasks;
- Restrictions.
Analysis of the enemy
This part of the analysis contains the
organizational structure, deployment,
strength
and
capabilities,
recent
operations, reinforcement capabilities
and the expected activity variant of the
enemy forces depending on actual
70
situation.
In the terrain and weather analysis the
following items are assessed:
- Obstacles
for
performing
manoeuvre,
movement,
using
weapons, equipment and personnel;
- Defilades
and
covers
for
camouflaging the movement of
friendly as well as enemy forces;
- Possibilities for observation and
conduct of fire of friendly as well as
enemy weapons;
- Key terrain (area), the occupation of
which will affect the task
accomplishment;
- Accesses to the key terrain of
objective area;
- Weather effects on the activity of
personnel, equipment and weapons:
visibility,
wind,
precipitation,
cloudiness,
temperature
and
humidity.
Analysis of a friendly unit and
reinforcement assets includes:
- Combat potential, morale, unit
readiness, experience, strengths and
weaknesses
of
subordinate
commanders;
- Determination of available sources;
- Direct support units, their strength,
equipment
and condition of
weapons.
Analysis of available time includes:
- Clarification of how much available
time is at disposal for the
preparation, movement, conduct of
combat operations and sustainability
in the operation area;
- Assessment of events which may
occur and how they will affect the
time schedule.
Analysis of civil preconditions:
- Includes the area, infrastructure,
capabilities, organization, people
and their leaders, events;
- Is carried out based on the
information of the superior, his
knowledge and estimates.
Creation of unit activity variants
The results of task analysis will provide
the commander with general situational
awareness in the area of task
performance, on the basis of which he
will create activity variants for the task
accomplishment. Within this step the
commander will carry out the analysis of
combat power of friendly as well as
enemy forces. Its reason is to determine
whether the unit has enough combat
power
to
defeat
the
enemy.
Consequently, unit commanders will
propose, in the form of brainstorming,
variants for the task accomplishment.
For each activity variant they will
develop a tactical plot in the map and a
written description of manoeuvre. Using
the war-gaming method the commander
will simulate planned actions of friendly
forces, expected reactions of the enemy
and
possible
counteractions.
Consequently, the commander will
compare each variant with the enemy’s
most probable activity variant and
evaluate its strengths and weaknesses,
advantages and disadvantages. Based on
this evaluation and his own judgement,
he will select which activity variant will
be carried out.
4.2.4 Step 4 – Initial unit movement:
After the initial creation of the operation
plan the commander and his unit will
carry out the required movement which
is necessary for the preparation and
occupation of the starting position for the
task performance. This may include the
movement to the area of task
performance, the occupation of the line
of attack departure, the occupation of a
defence position and the employment of
reconnaissance elements.
4.2.5 Step 5 - Reconnoitring:
If the conditions allow, the commander
will reconnoitre the operation area
through his own or his subordinates’
observation. The current information so
acquired will complete his entire
situational awareness in the area which
he obtains from the products of the
intelligence
preparation
of
the
battlefield. He will gain the additional
information he needs to know for the
task accomplishment through the task
analysis and during war-gaming. He will
also pass his requirements for
information to his superior who will
include them in his reconnaissance plan.
4.2.6 Step 6 – Plan completion:
In this step the commander will include
the results of his own reconnaissance in
the selected activity variant and will
complete the whole operation plan. If
time allows, he will coordinate activities
with adjacent units.
4.2.7 Step 7 – Issue of operation order:
Commanders of smaller units issue the
operation order orally and use graphics
or other checking means. An ideal point
for issuing an operation order is in the
operation area with a view of task target
and other terrain aspects. For security
reasons or due to other restrictions it is
also possible to issue the operation order
using a terrain model, detailed scheme,
map or other aids describing the
operation area and situation.
4.2.8 Step 8 – Plan control and
improvement:
In the end of the planning process the
commanders supervise, check and
evaluate the unit preparation, improve
the operation plan, coordinate the
activities with adjacent units and check
unit members and equipment. Drill of
activities is also a part of the preparation
for task performance. It identifies the
areas which require more control and
rehearsal. It is carried out through
inquiry and testing the unit manoeuvre.
5. Common operational picture of the
situation on the battlefield
The basis for creating the plan and
commander’s decision is his complex
situational awareness in the operation
area. For its creation he uses the whole
process of information support. It may be
71
in the form of the tactical situation plot
on a printed map or its display on the
map photograph in a portable computer.
The commander obtains the information
for its creation in the form of reports,
directives, orders or data from his
superior or through his own observation
and reconnaissance.
The basis is formed by the outputs from
the
task
analysis
battlefield
visualization.
The situation display in the operation
area includes the following:
- Boundaries or zones of task
performance in the operation area;
- Character of the terrain, weather
forecast and their effects on the
activities of friendly and enemy
forces;
- Enemy situation, deployment of his
manpower and equipment and
expected concept of operations;
- Friendly forces situation:
- Tasks, condition and current
deployment of friendly unit’s
manpower and equipment;
- Tasks, condition and current
deployment of adjacent units’
manpower and equipment;
- Tasks, condition and deployment
of manpower and equipment of
combat and logistic support;
- Situation of civil preconditions:
- Location of people’s residences,
their situation plans and facilities;
- Nationality composition of the
population, their organization,
leaders, events infrastructure,
cultural buildings and sights.
Every commander, combat means or
individual must have access to newly
acquired information from the superior
as well as adjacent units and share it. In
the same way they also must share the
data about their location, weapon and
ammunition stocks and combat readiness
for which the BLUE FORCE
TRACKER system is used. All
commanders will acquire a unified view
72
of the deployment and stocks of friendly
manpower and equipment on the
battlefield through the mutual automated
information flow concerning friendly
manpower and equipment. Due to that
they can cooperate and coordinate their
activities more effectively and restrict
the losses caused by the activities of
friendly manpower and equipment.
The key element of the commander’s
planning and decision-making process is
information
exchange
and
interoperability of the entire command
and control system. The data service is a
means
for
supporting
necessary
information flow. It must enable
effective time and space interconnection
of data resulting from reconnaissance,
observation, target acquisition and
intelligence activities and provide
flexible and effective information
transfer to all command and control
elements. [10]
6. Conclusion
The collection of input data is carried out
using many different sources. Their
analysis and processing into the form of
information is performed by the analysts
who derive their conclusions and
estimates based on their knowledge and
experience. The commander distributes
the
processed
and
summarized
information to his subordinates based on
their tasks, operation area, possibilities
and capabilities. The unit commander
includes these facts in his decisionmaking process. In case of a changed
and updated situation in the operation
area he will modify his unit manoeuvre.
Thus people are irreplaceable in
providing information support in the
decision-making process. The total time
between the receipt of a task and its
execution may be extended depending on
the quantity, character and complexity of
input data and information from different
sources.
Many analytical operations and estimates
can be converted into program
algorithms using up-to-date computer
technology and programming. After
entering the input data, task and criteria,
set e.g. based on possibilities and
capabilities of a certain unit, the
computer program will generate the
variants of task accomplishment
automatically. At the end of the whole
process the commander will select only
the activity variant which is the most
acceptable for him. The total time for
performing the planning and decisionmaking process is reduced considerably,
which can be used especially in coping
with crisis situations. Through the use of
the algorithms set appropriately, the
errors caused by the human factor, as
well as personnel requirements for
developing the decision, are also
minimized.
References
DOKTRÍNA ARMÁDY ČESKÉ REPUBLIKY, 2. vydání, Vyškov: Správa doktrín
ŘeVD, 2010, 9 s
[2] FM 3-0 OPERATIONS,Washington: Headquarters Department of the Army,2011,
PIN:079091-000, 1-5, 5-3 s.
[3] FM 5-0 THE OPERATIONS PROCESS, Washington: Headquarters Department of
the Army, 2010, PIN: 082115-000, C-5-7 s.
[4] AD – 6.1 KOMUNIKAČNÍ A INFORMAČNÍ SYSTÉMY, Praha: Sekce velení a
řízení MO, 2003, Č.j.: 407/26/2003-4009, 4s.
[5] FM 5-0 THE OPERATIONS PROCESS, Washington: Headquarters department of
the army, 2010, distribuční číslo: 110412, B-2 – B-37 s.
[6] FM 34-130 INTELLIGENCE PREPARATION ON THE BATTLEFIELD,
Washington: Headquarters Department of the Army, 1994, 528-027/80138, 2-1 2-52 s.
[7] DOKTRÍNA AČR V MNOHONÁRODNÍCH OPERACÍCH, 1. vydání, Vyškov:
Správa doktrín ŘeVD, 2008, 93 s.
[8] ŠTÁBNÍ PRÁCE V OPERACÍCH, 2. část, Pub-53-01-3, Vyškov: Správa doktrín
Ředitelství výcviku a doktrín, 2008, 227 s.
[9] FM 5-0 THE OPERATIONS PROCESS, Washington: Headquarters department of
the army, 2010, distribuční číslo: 110412, C-1 - C-10 s.
[10] VELENÍ A ŘÍZENÍ V OPERACÍCH, Pub-53-01-1, Vyškov: Správa doktrín
Ředitelství výcviku a doktrín, 2006, 167 s.
[1]
73
AN ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF INSTITUTIONAL
ENVIRONMENT ON TERRORISM RISK
Jakub Odehnal, Marek Sedlačík and Jaroslav Michálek
Abstract: The article presents the performance of a logit analysis to classify 141 countries on
the basis of the relation between the institutional environment in the analysed countries and
terrorism risk. By comparing the original classification made on the basis of terrorism risk
measured by means of the Terrorism Risk Index with the results of an alternative classification
created by means of data characterizing the institutional environment, deviations of both
classifications will be calculated, analysed in the text and described with respect to terrorist
attacks actually carried out in 2010, i.e. the year subject to the analysis.
Keywords: risk of terrorism, terrorism risk index, governance matters,
multivariate statistical techniques, logit analysis
1. Introduction
The analysis of the impact of terrorism
on the development of countries
represents a significant area of
theoretical and empirical research of the
state’s defence economy. According to
[14], the term “terrorism” is derived
from Latin and can be translated and
construed as “to threaten, to intimidate”.
Under another definition, terrorism is a
method of bringing terror through
repeated acts of violence committed by
secret or semi-secret individuals, groups
or government bodies for idiosyncratic,
criminal or political reasons where, in
contrast to assassinations, the immediate
victims are not the real target of the
terror [15]. Similarly, according to [6]
terrorism can be explained as the premediated use or threat to use violence by
individuals or sub-national groups in
order to attain a political or social
objective through the intimidation of a
large audience beyond that of the
immediate victims. It is possible to
choose from a diverse range of
74
definitions, and it is equally possible to
apply alternative approaches to the
classification of terrorism. According to
[14], who primarily takes into
consideration
the
geographical
perspective, terrorism can be classified
into domestic, cross-border, international
or global. Similarly, according to [6], it
is possible to reveal two basic
differences in the perception of terrorism
definitions, i.e. the difference between
transnational terrorism and domestic
terrorism. Terrorism is transnational
when an incident happening in one
country involves perpetrators, victims,
institutions, governments or citizens of
another country. Domestic terrorism is
home-grown and has consequences for
just the host country, its institutions,
citizens, property and policies. In
domestic incidents, the perpetrators,
victims and audience are all from the
host country. Also, terrorism can be
classified according to motives, into
politically or ideologically motivated
terrorism, criminal terrorism and
psychotic
terrorism.
The
above
definitions and possible classifications of
terrorism clearly show that the objectives
of all terrorist acts of various terrorist
groups can differ based on their motives.
According to [10] it is possible to
distinguish three general objectives of
terrorism: a) advertisement which
attracts the attention of the public to the
existence or programme of the given
terrorist organization, b) one-time acts
performed by having destroyed the
selected building or killed the persons, or
c) strategic aim when terrorism is
perceived as an instrument for
destabilizing the political regime. Many
current economic and econometric
studies focus on the actual impacts of
terrorist attacks on the economies of
affected countries and regions. E.g. [11]
studied the interdependence between the
number of hijacks and selected variables
such as the probability of capture or
conviction and the average term of
imprisonment with the aim of identifying
the behaviour pattern of terrorist groups
in aircraft hijacking. Many articles
examining the economic consequences
of terrorist acts focus primarily on the
impacts of terrorist acts on economic
growth [4], [1], [17], investments [4],
trade and tourist industry [13], [5]. In
general, the economic impacts of
terrorist attacks can be classified into
macroeconomic and microeconomic
impacts. The articles of [9] or [3], [12]
examine hypotheses on the causes of
terrorist attacks in countries differing in
e.g. the economic position, system of
government, form of government or
predominant religion. The authors [9]
attempt to prove the existence of a link
between real economic and institutional
variables characterizing the economies
of selected countries and possible risk of
CBRN attacks (risk of chemical,
biological, radiological and nuclear
terrorism). The empirical hypotheses
constructed in the above manner should
prove the existence of links between the
risks of CBRN attacks and the economic
standing, quality of democracy and law
or corruption. The interconnectedness
between the frequency of terrorist attacks
and political stability in individual
countries is analysed in papers by e.g.
[3], [12]. The authors have proved that
political instability in analysed countries
(caused among other things by the risk of
terrorist attacks) has an adverse effect on
economic growth and the level of
investment in individual countries.
According to [1], it is possible to
distinguish 4 main impacts of terrorist
attacks on the economies of affected
countries: a) capital reduction (real,
human), b) increased insecurity c)
increased counter-terrorism expenses
that cannot be used in the civilian sector,
d) reduction of the affected sectors of the
economy.
The purpose of the article is to create the
classification of countries on the basis of
variables characterizing the governance
matters of selected countries and
terrorism risks. The authors are to survey
the theoretically defined links between
terrorism
risk
and
voice
and
accountability or control of corruption
published in [9] by means of a logit
analysis. Data describing the level of
terrorism risk and the institutional
quality in selected 141 countries
characterize these countries for the needs
of this article in the monitored year
2010.
2. Definitions, Datasets, and Variables
To establish the link between the level of
risk of terrorist attacks and selected
institutional characteristics theoretically
described in [3], [12], [9], the authors
have obtained selected data from the
Governance Matters and Terrorism Risk
Index databases. To analyse institutional
characteristics of selected countries, the
World Bank project has been used for
evaluating and comparing the quality of
75
administration (Governance Matters) by
means of six variables. The first variable
officially designated as Voice and
Accountability (VA) assesses the quality
of administration in compliance with the
evaluation of the level of political, civil
and human rights in individual countries.
The second variable, Political Stability
and Violence (PSNV), assesses the
probability that violence takes place in
the given country or the level of political
instability in the country. Government
Effectiveness (GE), i.e. the third
variable, comprises the public service
quality assessment, the level of
bureaucracy and reliability of the
government in the given country. The
next variable Regulatory Quality (RQ)
assesses the regulatory burden of the
country, and Rule of Law (RL) or the
legal order quality, and comprises the
assessment of public trust in social
norms and the level of conformity to
them. The last variable monitored within
the Governance Matters research project
is Control of Corruption (CC) variable
describing the level of corruption in
individual countries. The above variables
can range from −2.5 to 2.5 on the scale
where the higher value of the variable is
interpreted as lower occurrence of the
negative aspect of the given variable.
To assess the level of terrorism risk, the
authors have examined data from the
Terrorism Risk Index classifying
countries into 4 groups (extreme risk
−
ER, high risk − HR, medium risk − MR,
low risk− LR). Out of a total of 141
countries subjected to the analysis, 16
countries have been assessed, pursuant to
the Terrorism Risk Index, as extreme
terrorism risk countries, 10 as high
terrorism risk countries, 24 as medium
risk countries, and 91 as low terrorism
risk countries. A detailed list of the
countries, including their classification,
is given in Table 1. The purpose of this
article is to analyse the link between
regulatory quality of selected economies
and terrorism risk and to find out to what
extent it is possible to classify terrorism
risk according to the six variables.
Hypotheses published in [9] predict
higher terrorism risk in countries with a
lower level of political stability, lower
quantified quality of democracy and a
higher level of corruption. The
quantified characteristics of regulatory
quality and their link with terrorism risk
measured by means of the classification
of countries into resulting groups are
given together with their basic
descriptive
characteristics
(local
extremes, median, lower and upper
quartiles) in Figure 1.
A more
detailed comparison of the values
determined for countries differing in the
level of terrorism risk shows that the
highest median levels are characteristic
for groups assessed as low risk countries
(the median levels are as follows: Voice
and Accountability (VA) 0.31, Political
Stability and Violence (PSNV) 0.27,
Government Effectiveness (GE) 0.14,
Regulatory Quality (RQ) 0.30, Rule of
Law (RL) 0.10 and Control of
Corruption (CC) 0.05.
Table 1 Classification of countries on the basis of the Terrorism Risk Index
Source:[18]
Extreme Risk:
AFGHANISTAN, CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC, COLOMBIA, CONGO, INDIA, IRAQ, ISRAEL,
LAOS, PAKISTAN, PHILIPPINES, RUSSIA, SOMALIA, SUDAN, THAILAND, UGANDA, YEMEN.
High Risk:
AFGHANISTAN, CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC, COLOMBIA, CONGO, INDIA, IRAQ, ISRAEL,
LAOS, PAKISTAN, PHILIPPINES, RUSSIA, SOMALIA, SUDAN, THAILAND, UGANDA, YEMEN.
Medium Risk:
GREECE, IRAN, KENYA, MYANMAR, NEPAL, NIGERIA, SENEGAL, SPAIN, TANZANIA,
TURKEY.
76
Low Risk:
ALBANIA, ANDORRA, ARGENTINA, ARMENIA, AUSTRALIA, AUSTRIA, AZERBAIJAN,
BAHAMAS, BAHRAIN, BELARUS, BELGIUM, BOLIVIA, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA,
BOTSWANA, BRAZIL, BULGARIA, BURKINA FASO, CAMBODIA, CAMEROON, CANADA,
CHINA, COSTA RICA, CROATIA, CUBA, CYPRUS, CZECH REPUBLIC, DENMARK,
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, ERITREA, ESTONIA, FINLAND, GERMANY, GHANA, GUINEA,
GUYANA, HAITI, HUNGARY, ICELAND, IRELAND, ITALY, JAMAICA, JAPAN, JORDAN,
KAZAKHSTAN, KOREA, NORTH, KOREA, SOUTH, KOSOVO, KUWAIT, KYRGYZSTAN,
LATVIA, LIBERIA, LIBYA, LIECHTENSTEIN, LITHUANIA, LUXEMBOURG, MACEDONIA,
MADAGASCAR, MALAYSIA, MALTA, MEXICO, MONGOLIA, MOROCCO, MOZAMBIQUE,
NAMIBIA, NETHERLANDS, NEW ZEALAND, NICARAGUA, NORWAY, OMAN, PANAMA,
POLAND, PORTUGAL, QATAR, ROMANIA, SIERRA LEONE, SLOVAKIA, SLOVENIA, SOUTH
AFRICA, SURINAME, SWEDEN, SWITZERLAND, TAJIKISTAN, TUNISIA, TURKMENISTAN,
UKRAINE, UNITED ARAB EMIRATES, URUGUAY, UZBEKISTAN, VIETNAM, ZAMBIA,
ZIMBABWE.
Figure 1: Box & Whisker Plots
Source: The graphs were drawn by the authors
The biggest differences between the low
risk countries group and the extreme risk
countries group are apparent for the
variables Voice and Accountability (VA)
(median LR 0.3 and median ER −0.83),
Political Stability and Violence (PSNV)
(0.27 vs. −1.52) and Control of
Corruption (CC) (0.05 vs. −1.07).
The results of descriptive statistics
indicate that the median values of the
variables Voice and Accountability
(VA), Political Stability and Violence
77
(PSNV), and Control of Corruption (CC)
are lowest for countries classified
according to the Terrorism Risk Index
into the high terrorist risk group.
The results of descriptive statistics are
further specified by adding the
classification of individual countries into
groups by means of a logit analysis. It is
an advantage of this classification in
comparison with the results of
descriptive statistics that it is
a multivariate statistical technique so
that it is possible to take into
consideration simultaneously all six
variables when making the classification
of a given country. The logit analysis
also makes it possible to take into
account the statistical links between
individual institutional characteristics
and last but not least the logit analysis
allows us to determine the probability of
classification of individual countries into
each of the risk groups: extreme risk
(ER), high risk (HR), medium risk (MR),
and low risk (LR). In the event that the
probabilities of classification into
individual groups are very close, the
probabilities determined in the above
manner enable us to arrive at the
conclusion that even though the
classification into the given group is the
most probable, the classification into
another group can be highly probable
too. It means that it will not be possible
to classify some countries into a given
risk group unequivocally on the basis of
the institutional characteristics with
regard to the probability of classification
(even though the highest) for this group.
This fact is an advantage of the
classification
because the actual
classification of the selected country into
a given risk category does not
necessarily have to be unambiguous on
the basis of six selected institutional
characteristics only.
The logit analysis principle lies in the
fact that the probability p j that the
given country with the values of
institutional characteristics VA, PSNV,
GE, RQ, RC belongs to the risk category
j , j = LR, MR, HR and ER is
modelled as a logistic function of linear
combination of these institutional
characteristics VA, PSNV, GE, RQ, RC,
CC and unknown parameters. The model
is
described
by
the
equation:
p j = p j (VA, PSNV, GE, RQ, RC, CC ) =
=
exp{β j 0 + β j1 ⋅ VA + β j 2 ⋅ PSNV + β j 3 ⋅ GE + β j 4 ⋅ RQ + β j 5 ⋅ RC + β j 6 ⋅ CC}
4
∑ exp{β
i =1
i0
+ β i1 ⋅ VA + β i 2 ⋅ PSNV + β i 3 ⋅ GE + β i 4 ⋅ RQ + β i 5 ⋅ RC + β i 6 ⋅ CC}
The unknown parameters β jk are to be
determined by means of the maximum
likelihood method (see [6]).
The outcomes of the logit analysis are
discussed in the below paragraph.
The comparison of the classification
results performed on the basis of the
Terrorism Risk Index with the
classification results made by means of
the logit analysis based on the six
institutional variables make it possible to
analyse the deviations between both
original classifications, i.e. between the
78
.
original
classification
and
the
classification by means of the logit
analysis and to interpret the deviations
with regard to individual variables
observed.
3. Results
Table 2 shows the logit analysis results
demonstrating the brief comparison of
classifications in the case when we
restricted the classification of risk and
low risk countries to the basic
classification, i.e. we pooled the ER and
HR categories and MR and LR
categories. This comparison reveals that
the classification of countries based on
the Terrorism Risk Index and on the
analysis of accompanying variables
characterizing the institutional quality of
the countries performed by means of the
logit function shows 89.36 % of
countries classified in the same way in
contrast to the original classification.
Different classification concerns 10
countries (Central African Republic,
Congo, Kenya, Laos, Nepal, Russia,
Senegal, Spain, Tanzania, Turkey) that
have been classified into the MR or LR
category in comparison with the original
classification ER or HR, and similarly 5
countries (Bangladesh, Egypt, Ethiopia,
Guinea, Syria) have been classified into
the ER or HR category, where original
classification was MR or LR.
In contrast to the original classification
of countries into four categories, the
below countries have been classified
with a high degree of probability (more
than 0.75) into different terrorist risk
groups on the basis of the logit analysis:
Angola, Chile, Ecuador, France,
Honduras, Rwanda, Singapore, Congo,
Laos and Tanzania – see Table 3. Out of
these countries the first seven (Angola,
Chile, Ecuador, France, Honduras,
Rwanda, and Singapore) have been
classified into the low terrorist risk
category (in the original classification
pursuant to the Terrorism Risk Index
they were in the medium risk category).
Out of a total 4640 terrorist acts recorded
under the Global Terrorism Database, 16
acts (0.34 %) which claimed 10 lives
were committed in these differently
classified countries. From the point of
view of institutional characteristics
which have indicated the largest
differences between the low risk and
extreme risk countries (Voice and
Accountability (VA), Political Stability
and Violence (PSNV) a Control of
Corruption (CC)), we can see that Chile
(1.04) and France (1.22) only achieve
higher values of the Voice and
Accountability (VA) variable than the
median value. As to the Political
Stability and Violence (PSNV) variable,
we can see that all these countries
demonstrate higher than median values.
As regards the Control of Corruption
(CC) variable, Chile (1.50), France
(1.39), Rwanda (0.48) and Singapore
(2.18) demonstrate higher values than
the median.
Table 2 Logit classification
Source: The table was created by the authors
ER or HR
Predicted
ER or HR
16
Predicted
MR or LR
10
MR or LR
5
110
Observed
79
Table 3 Misclassification result of logit analysis
Source: The table was created by the authors
Classification
under
Terrorism
Risk Index
Logit
Classification
Prob 1
Prob 2
Prob 3
Prob 4
MR
MR
ER
MR
MR
MR
ER
MR
MR
HR
LR
LR
LR
LR
LR
LR
LR
LR
LR
LR
0.005214
0.000045
0.003138
0.004805
0.000184
0.027777
0.007926
0.000022
0.000001
0.001359
0.014075
0.009658
0.027611
0.059118
0.029200
0.037408
0.019611
0.001263
0.000144
0.023945
0.068925
0.165087
0.096952
0.105118
0.172242
0.171113
0.149703
0.155498
0.073539
0.086153
0.911786
0.825210
0.872299
0.830959
0.798374
0.763701
0.822761
0.843218
0.926316
0.888543
ANGOLA
CHILE
CONGO
ECUADOR
FRANCE
HONDURAS
LAOS
RWANDA
SINGAPORE
TANZANIA
The logit analysis results classify the
remaining countries (Congo, Laos, and
Tanzania) into the low risk category,
which is in sharp contrast to their
original classification into the extreme
risk group (Congo, Laos) and high risk
group (Tanzania). The Global Terrorism
Database shows that in total, 15 terrorist
acts were committed in these three
countries in 2010 which, however,
claimed 99 lives. In comparison with the
other falsely classified countries, the
enormous death toll was due to 5
terrorist attacks only (for more details
see Table 4 carried out in Congo in
2010.
Table 4 Terrorist acts
Source:[8]
Incident Summary:
09/01/2010: On Wednesday morning at about 1000, in the village of Kilambo near an
unspecified city in North Kivu, Congo (Kinshasa), unidentified armed militants attacked one
plane at a runway by unknown means and took hostage one Ukrainian and one Congolese
pilot. Two soldiers and one civilian were killed and the plane was damaged in the attack.
Congolese government troops, responding to the attack, killed two militants. The hostages
were released on 09/24/2010. No damage was reported and no group claimed responsibility,
but the militant group Mai Mai was thought to be responsible for the attack.
08/18/2010: On Wednesday morning, in the village of Kirumba near Mabenga, Nord-Kivu,
Congo (Kinshasa), around 50 unidentified assailants attacked a United Nations Mission in the
Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUSCO) base, killing three Indian MONUSCO
peacekeepers and injuring seven others with machetes and knives. No damage was reported
and no group claimed responsibility for the attack, although two suspects, identified as Justin
Kambare and Tembea Mumbere, have been arrested in connection with the attack.
06/28/2010: On Monday morning, in the village of Mutwanga, North Kivu, Congo (Kinshasa),
unknown assailants attacked by unknown means and looted the entire town, killing 16
civilians, kidnapping a security guard, burning and damaging a house and the vehicle of a
local chief. The assailants were targeting Edwardo Nyamwisi, the brother of Congo minister
Mbusa Nyamwisi. Nyamwisi was able to escape unhurt. No group claimed responsibility, but
the militant group Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) were thought to be responsible for the
attack. The status of the hostage is unknown.
80
Fatalities
5
3
16
03/27/2010: On Saturday, in Kiruhura near Rutshuru, Nord-Kivu, Congo (Kinshasa),
unidentified militants attacked and looted the village by unknown means. This incident was
one of two linked attacks that also targeted the village of Burahi. It is unknown if the attack
caused any property damage. The casualties for the attacks were listed cumulatively as one
civilian killed; two soldiers and one person wounded. No group claimed responsibility for the
attack but the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) are suspected.
02/02/2010: On Tuesday, in the village of Kpanga near the Niangara, Orientale, Congo
(Kinshasa), assailants burned homes, attacked and killed at least 74 civilians by unknown
means and kidnapped an unknown amount of civilians. No group has claimed responsibility
for the attack, but the group Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) is thought to be responsible for
the attack. The status of the hostages is unknown.
The reasons for classifying Congo, Laos
and Tanzania into the low terrorist risk
group on the basis of the logit analysis
are apparent from Figure 2 showing
median values of low and extreme risk
countries. This figure shows high values
of the Political Stability and Violence
(PSNV) variable for all these differently
classified countries Congo (−0.24), Laos
(−0.22), Tanzania (−0.008). The high
value of this indicator in comparison
with the remaining countries classified
pursuant to the Terrorism Risk Index
indicates a higher level of political
stability of these countries. A more
detailed analysis of this variable reveals
that according to [7], Political Stability
and Violence (PSNV) indicates the
probability
of
the
government
1
75
destabilization or overthrow including
terrorist threat which is the main focus of
the classification pursuant to the
Terrorism Risk Index. Institutional
characteristics as an indicator of
terrorism risk cannot be perceived as
their general prerequisite and it is
possible that the quantified variables of
selected institutional characteristics and
their structures concerning selected
countries can lead to different
classifications in comparison with the
original
classification
reflecting
terrorism risk without the influence of
the institutional environment of the
given countries. All calculations were
processed by Statistica software and
application STAT1 (see [16]).
Figure 2: Scatterplot
Source: The graph was created by the authors
81
4. Conclusions
Terrorism can be considered one of the
greatest security threats at the beginning
of the 21st century. It is therefore not
surprising that the majority of
developed countries invest considerable
sums of money in counter-terrorism
efforts which accelerated especially
after the attacks in 2001. The term
terrorism can be explained as the premediated use or threat to use violence
by individuals or subnational groups in
order to attain a political or social
objective through the intimidation of a
large audience beyond that of the
immediate victims. Terrorism risk is
different in different countries and its
probability can be affected by various
motives of terrorist attacks, such as
political, religious or ideological
motives. This article analyses the
influence of institutional variables on
terrorism risk in selected 141 countries.
To assess the level of terrorism risk in
the countries subject to the analysis in
2010, we have used the Terrorism Risk
Index data classifying the 141 countries
into 4 groups (extreme risk, high risk,
medium risk, low risk). Out of the total
141 analysed countries 16 countries
have been assessed as extreme terrorism
risk countries, 10 as high terrorism risk
countries, 24 as medium risk countries,
and 91 as low terrorism risk countries
on the basis of the Terrorism Risk
Index.
To assess the institutional
characteristics of the selected countries,
we have used data from the Governance
Matters characterizing the institutional
environment by means of 6 variables
(Voice and Accountability (VA),
Political Stability and Violence (PSNV),
Government
Effectiveness
(GE),
Regulatory Quality (RQ), Rule of Law
(RL) and Control of Corruption (CC).
The analysis of links among these
variables and the classification of
countries pursuant to the Terrorism Risk
82
Index indicates that the highest median
values (higher values of variables from
the Governance Matters database are
considered to be a better result) concern
groups assessed as the lowest terrorism
risk countries (the median values are as
follows: Voice and Accountability (VA)
0.31, Political Stability and Violence
(PSNV)
0.27,
Government
Effectiveness (GE) 0.14, Regulatory
Quality (RQ) 0.30, Rule of Law (RL)
0.10 and Control of Corruption (CC)
0.05. The level of voice and
accountability, political stability, the
rule of law or control of corruption as
variables assessing the institutional
environment is therefore different in
countries differing in terrorism risk. The
purpose of this article was to make an
alternative classification of countries by
means of a logit analysis and compare
the results with those of the original
classification. Pursuant to this analysis,
141 countries have been classified into
the above 4 risk groups where
differences
with
the
original
classification are apparent in 10
countries, the probability of the
classification of which into the given
group is higher than 0.75 (Angola,
Chile, Ecuador, France, Honduras,
Rwanda, Singapore, Congo, Laos and
Tanzania). Similarly Angola, Chile,
Ecuador, France, Honduras, Rwanda,
and Singapore have been classified into
the low terrorism risk group pursuant to
the logit analysis (according to the
Terrorism Risk Index they were
classified into the medium risk group).
Out of the total recorded terrorist attacks
carried out in 2010, 0.34 % occurred in
these countries, which does not exceed
the values typical for countries
classified according to the original
classification into the low terrorism risk
group. The reasons for classifying
Congo, Laos and Tanzania into the low
terrorism risk group in compliance with
the logit analysis results are apparent
from the highest values of Political
Stability and Violence (PSNV) for these
countries (low risk of the government
destabilization or overthrow and low
terrorism risk). However, according to
the information about recorded terrorist
acts committed in these three countries
in 2010, their death toll reached 99. The
institutional
environment
quality
therefore does not necessarily have to be
a prerequisite for terrorism risk and
expert estimates of this data do not
reflect the real danger of terrorist acts in
all countries, which is especially
apparent as concerns the groups of
countries characterized by a long-term
instability which can have an adverse
effect on the security environment of the
given country throughout the year and
cannot be reliably reflected in a single
figure per the whole calendar year.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
Abadie, A., Gardeazabal, J. 2003. The Economic Costs of Conflict: A CaseControl Study for the Basque Country, American Economic Review 93,p.113-132.
Agresti, A. Categorical Data Analysis. John Wiley, New York, 1990.
Alesina, A., Perotti, R. 1996. Income Distribution, Political Instability and
Investment, European Economic Review 40, pp. 1203-1228.
Blomberg, S. B., Hess, G. D., Orphanides, A. 2004. The Macroeconomic
Consequences of Terrorism, Journal of Monetary Economics 51(5), pp. 10071032.
Enders, W., Sandler, T. 1991. Causality Between Transnational Terrorism and
Tourism: The Case of Spain, Terrorism 14:1, pp. 49-58.
Enders, W., Sandler, T. 2009. The Political Economy of Terrorism, Cambridge
University Press, in paperback.
Governance Matters [online]. 2010, updated [cit. 2012-09-09] Available on
WWW: <http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/resources.htm>.
Global Terrorism Database [online]. 2010, updated [cit. 2012-09-09] Available on
WWW:<http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?start_month=0&end_
month=12&start_year=2010&end_year=2010&start_day=0&end_day=31 >.
Ivanova, K., Sandler, T. 2006. CBRN Incidents: Political Regimes, Perpetrators,
and Targets, Terrorism and Political Violence 18(3), 423- 448.
Landes,W. M. 1978. An Economic Study of US Aircraft Hijackings 1961-1976,
Journal of Law and Economics 21.1-31.
Mauro, P. 1995. Corruption and Growth, The Quarterly Journal of Economics
110(3), pp. 681- 712.
Nitsch, V., Schumacher, D. 2004. Terrorism and International Trade: An
Empirical Investigation, European Journal of Political Economy 20, pp. 423-433.
Pikna, B. 2006. Mezinárodní terorismus a bezpečnost Evropské unie: (právní
náhled). Praha: Linde, 407 s. ISBN 80-7201-615-6.
Rehak, D., Foltin, P., Stojar, P. 2008. Selected aspects of contemporary terrorism,
MO CR, (in Czech).
Statistical
application
STAT1.
2012.
Available
on
WWW:
<http://k101.unob.cz/stat1/ >.
Tavares, J. 2003. The Open Society Assesses Its Enemies: Shocks, Disasters, and
Terrorist Attacks, Canegie-Rochester Conference on Public Policy.
Terrorism Risk Index [online]. 2010, updated [cit. 2012-09-09] Available on
WWW: < http://maplecroft.com/about/news/terrorism.html>
83
WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE A TOOL FOR SOLVING
DECISION MAKING PROBLEM IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Jaromír Pitaš
Abstract: One of the decision making tools of a project manager since the 1960s has been Work
Breakdown Structure. It was standardized for the first time by the US Department of Defense for the
environment of military projects. The basis of this method is a hierarchical decomposition of
deliverables (products), which creates first view of the project scope. WBS is built at the start of the
planning process (a phase of a life cycle of the project management planning) and further helps the
project manager with decision-taking in planning processes and project monitoring. A lack of
knowledge of building and using WBS while managing the project by the project manager plays often
a crucial role in not attaining the project success.
Keywords: Work Breakdown Structure, Project Management, Project, decision-making
1. Introduction
Important milestones of the project
management are represented by a creation
and first usage of Critical Path Method –
CPM) and PERT (Performance Evaluation
and Review Technique) in the 1950s.
A concept of Work Breakdown Structure –
WBS was developed together with the
method PERT in the United States
Department of Defense (DoD). Both
methods were developed as a decision
making tool for planning processes and
project monitoring.
In spite of the fact that the method PERT
was first used as early as 1957 by US Navy
in the project of Polaris missiles, WBS was
not put in usage at this first
implementation. Only in 1962 DoD, in
cooperation with NASA, released a
document for implementation of the
system PERT / COST where WBS was
described [1]. Subsequently in 1968 DoD
published a standard "Work Breakdown
Structures for Defense materiel items"
(MIL-STD-881), describing how to build
WBS, its significance and application at
US Army projects and programs [2]. The
standard has been revised for several times
84
by DoD while the latest one was carried
out last year (MIL-STD-881C) [2].
Another milestone for WBS was
established in 1987 when the Project
Management
Institute
(PMI)
in
cooperation with DoD further processed
and spread WBS in order to be applied in
organizations out of the defense industry.
First of all, PMI standardized WBS in a
document Project Management Body of
Knowledge (PMBOK). The document
explains WBS as a term and integrates it
into the project management processes.
After that PMI standardized WBS in the
standard itself “Practice Standard for Work
Breakdown Structures”. Both documents
were subjects to many revisions in the past
years (PMBOK 4th edition, Standard for
WBS 2th edition) [4;5].
2.
Contents of the term Work
Breakdown Structure
The interpretation of the term WBS in the
Czech Republic is closely related to a
quality of translations of English texts,
therefore it is very difficult within Czech
literature to find properly explained
contents of this term. The most accurate
definition of the term in the Czech
Republic is offered by Společnost pro
projektové řízení, o. s. (Association for
Project Management) (SPŘ) in National
Standard
Competences
of
Project
Management version 3.2 that defines WBS
as follows: “...a hierarchical breakdown of
the project
goal into individual
deliverables and further into individual
products and subproducts to the level of
individual work packages to be delivered
in the course of project implementation.”
[3]
The authors of WBS (DoD) describe WBS
in the standard Work Breakdown
Structures for Defense Materiel Items: “A
product-oriented family tree composed of
hardware, software, services, data, and
facilities. The family tree results from
systems engineering efforts during the
acquisition of a defense materiel item.” [2]
Practice standard for Work Breakdown
Structure defines WBS as follows: “A
Deliverable-oriented
hierarchical
decomposition of the work to be executed
by the project team to accomplish the
project objective and create the required
deliverables.” [4] At the same time under
the term outcome it is understood a
verifiable product, output or service, which
have to be produced to complete a process,
phase or project.
The authors of the definitions are in
agreement when claiming that WBS is not
an action-oriented decomposition, it does
not even include any activities since
activities are totally included in work
packages at the lowest level of WBS. On
the other hand they agree on the fact that it
involves product decomposition into
subproducts and further into the lowest
level of detail required.
It is possible to state that the definition
given by SPŘ in the Czech Republic is not
in disagreement with the quoted definitions
by DOD and PMI, therefore it can be used
in the field of the project management of
the Czech Republic.
3.
Creating Work Breakdown
Structure
The project life cycle involves the phases
of initialization, planning, implementation
and terminating of the project. The
planning phase is opened by creating WBS
that is the foundation for:
- managing the costs of the project
implementation;
- identification of activities and creating
an implementation schedule;
- determination
of
the
resource
requirements necessary for the project
implementation;
- defining
responsibility
and
involvement
in
the
project
implementation;
- quality management of the final
deliverable for a customer;
- managing changes in the course of
project
planning
and
project
implementation.
The basic foundation for creating WBS is
a clearly formulated objective of the
project (WHAT is to be delivered to
a customer, UNTIL WHEN and FOR
HOW MUCH). The top (1 level) of WBS
is composed of a definition of delivery
item for a customer (WHAT is to be
delivered to a customer – see example in
Figure 1).
1 (1 level)
Weapon system
Figure 1: Project deliverable – top level of WBS
Source: own processing
The second level of WBS usually contains
more precise definition of a delivery item
for a customer in a way that a customer
defined the item (for the example see
85
Figure 2).
1
Weapon system
1.1
Automatic rifle
1.2
Sight
1.3
Ammunition
1.4
Handbook
Figure 2: Project deliverable decomposition to the products – 2 level of WBS
The following hierarchical breakdown is a
definition of subproducts, which will be
necessary to create (produce) so that a
product at the second level is created.
When creating the second level the
implementation team with a project
manager in charge has to observe the so
called 100 % rule. This obligatory rule
binds WBS creators to define everything
that is to be completed (delivered) so that a
product at a higher level is produced
(delivered). It represents a return check
whether the project team identified
everything that is to be completed in order
to attain a higher level of WBS. Figure 2
illustrates a primary violation of the 100 %
rule because the main product of the
second
level,
which
is
“project
management”, is missing here. Figure 3
shows the right observance of the 100 %
rule [4].
1
Weapon system
1.1
Automatic rifle
1.2
Sight
1.3
Ammunition
1.4
Handbook
1.5
PM
Figure 3: Right project deliverable decomposition to the products – 1-2 level of WBS
Presenting the project management as a
deliverable (product) plays a certain role in
WBS, since the project management is
delivered to a project customer, and there
are costs required to build it. The project
management includes work of a project
manager and project team, which is not
directly related to creation of further
deliverables (products), however, it is
necessary to be executed in order to
produce a final deliverable (achieve the
project objective).
When accomplishing the identification of
the products at a certain level, the project
team together with the project manager
decides whether the performed breakdown
is sufficient for the description of the
products (subproducts). The level of details
of the decomposition is related to
experience and capabilities of the project
86
team and project manager to control their
production from the perspective of
restrictive project criteria (time, costs,
resources, risks), customer defined criteria
(acceptance criteria), together with
achieving the required quality of the final
deliverable, the project as a whole and the
project management (for the example see
Figure 4).
Providing that the project manager decides
that the product decomposition is detailed
enough for managing the implementation
and producing further documents in the
course of planning, it is possible to
terminate the product decomposition in
terms of subproducts decomposition into
work packages. Work packages represent a
set of activities to be accomplished in order
to create the products (to observe the 100
point rule).
1
Weapon system
1.1
Automatic rifle
1.2
Sight
1.3
Ammunition
1.1.1 Barrel
1.2.1 Night sight
1.1.2 Magazine
1.2.2 Day sight
1.1.3 Bolt assist mechanism 1.2.3 ………….
1.1.4 …………
1.4
Handbook
1.5
PM
1.3.1 Shall with tracer 1.4.1 ………………..
1.3.2 ………………..
Figure 4: Project deliverable decomposition into the products – 1-3 level of WBS
4.
How does Work Breakdown
Structure support decision making
in project?
Together with Logical Frame Matrix WBS
is the initial decision making tool of the
project manager for setting up the project
plan, managing the changes in the project
and its monitoring. Completed WBS
enables, after it has been created, clarifying
the requirements of financial resources for
activity achievement summarized in the
work packages (the costs of necessary
project resources, material used in order to
create the required subproducts, products
and the final outcome). The project
manager and implementing team express in
percentage the share of financial means
spent on creating the individual
subproducts and products at individual
levels (for the example see Figure 5). Each
level must add up to 100 points. The total
points of subproducts must equal the final
value of the product (100 points).
Owing to the fact that WBS is not an
action-oriented decomposition, it is not
possible to create, out of WBS, a project
schedule with defined links. However, if
the 100 % rule is observed, then the project
team can decompose the work packages
into activities that are to be carried out and
into milestones that are to be attained.
Individual activities with the usage of the
method CPM or PERT are evaluated in
terms of time, a network chart is composed
and a network chart analysis is executed
(concord
in
attained
milestones,
initialization and termination of the project
according to the assignment).
Consequently, WBS with already created
Organizational
Breakdown
Structure
(OBS) helps the project manager to build
Responsibilities Matrix (RM). The goal of
RM is to assign responsibility to the
members of the project team for the lowest
level products creation, and verification
whether there is a sufficient number of
human resources in the project team or it is
necessary to increase it.
WBS is the foundation for creating WBS
Dictionary, which is composed by the
project manager together with the team.
The document describes the products of
the lowest level in such a way that the
project team members responsible for their
production know what to produce and what
they are responsible for.
It is also necessary to mention the effect of
WBS
on
creating
the
project
communication plan. While making
decisions as to a kind and contents of the
communication, WBS helps the project
manager by indicating WHAT must be
communicated, and together with RM
shows who shall accomplish this
communication.
87
1
100
Weapon system
1.1
45
Automatic rifle
1.2
38
Sight
1.3
10
Ammunition
1.1.1 Barrel 9 %
1.2.1 Night sight 22 %
1.1.2 Magazine 2 %
1.2.2 Day sight 10 %
1.1.3 Bolt assist mechanism 11% 1.2.3 ………….6 %
1.1.4 …………23 %
1.4
2
Handbook
1.5
5
PM
1.3.1 Shall with tracer 6 %
1.3.2 ………………..4 %
Figure 5: Breakdown of products and subproducts evaluation
WBS has also a significant effect on the
identification of the project risks (within
the process of the project risk
management) that may threaten the
creation of the individual products and so
the achievement of the project goal. Since
WBS defines the basic scope of the project
it helps the project team to identify the
technological project risks in particular.
Last but not least WBS is a supporting
platform when managing the changes in
the project. When a change rises in relation
to some product defined in WBS, the
impacts of this change are usually directly
reflected in WBS (e.g. a new product,
work package). The impact of such a
change will most probably cause a
requirement for identification of additional
activities, costs rise, increase of resources
or their work and increase of
implementation time.
5.
Impacts of mistakes in WBS on
decision making within the project
A primary and cardinal mistake that is
obvious is a situation when the
decomposition of the project goal is
performed in terms of activities instead of
products. Then the designers focus on the
task how to create the resulting product
instead of identifying the individual
products and subproducts that they should
create. The basic project scope may be
inaccurate, incomplete or totally wrong. As
a result, the WBS project manager and the
team are not provided with a required view
of the project (basic project scope). The
88
decisions made from that point on are not
correct in most of the cases. The mistake of
this kind stems from the lack of knowledge
of building WBS.
The impact of this decomposition is a high
probability of not identifying all the
products and subproducts that are to be
produced and so the project goal is not
achieved. This approach results in an
excessive exceeding of the project
implementation costs, and in not keeping
the project implementation schedule, and
that is because the team attempts to
accomplish the established goal of the
project through increasing the costs and
extending the schedule. The following
decisions based on this decomposition may
be wrong and do not direct the project to
its achievement.
Another mistake is an incomplete WBS
when the products are not identified
already at the second level or at lower
levels of WBS. Thus created WBS is
incomplete and the following decisiontaking in the course of planning is not
accurate. This mistake stems from
insufficient information from the customer
of the project or from an incomplete /
incorrect analysis of the documents or the
environment. If such a mistake is
discovered when the project planning is
still in progress, its impacts can be
eliminated. This mistake is in most cases
identified as late as the project
implementation takes place.
In this case it can be inferred that the
impacts on the successful project
implementation are similar to the former
case above.
6. Conclusion
Although WBS was developed in the
1950s this method is among the
fundamental methods of the project
management and the knowledge and
application of it have not lost importance.
The truth is that the time has proved its
benefit at decision making in the process of
project
planning
and
monitoring.
Standardization of WBS is a priority for
many organizations dealing with project
management. Unfortunately there is not
such a standard in the Czech Republic. On
the other hand the positive point is that the
standards of Project management Institute
(USA)
and
Association
Project
Management Group (GB) are adopted or
applied in the Czech Republic.
At projects with low complexity of the
project management there is a great
number of experienced project managers
who do not create WBS physically (on
paper), however, they have the ability to
create it mentally. Undoubtedly this helps
them in decision making on project
planning and its monitoring. Unfortunately
there are frequent cases nowadays of a big
number of project managers who are not
familiar with this method or not able to use
it properly.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
MIL-STD-881A. DoD and NASA Guide PERT COST - System, Designe. 1962, 146 p.
<http://www.everyspec.com/MIL-STD/MIL-STD-0800-0899/MIL_STD_881A_886/>.
Accessed 2012 September 3.
MIL-STD-881C. Department Of Defense Standard Practice – Work Breakdown
Structures For Defense Materiel Items. 2011, 249 p. <http://www.everyspec.com/MILSTD/MIL-STD-0800-0899/MIL-STD-881C_32553> Accessed 2012 September 3.
Pitaš, Jaromír at all. Národní standard komeptencí projektového řízení. 3. vyd.
aktaulizované a doplněné. Brno: Společnost pro projektové řízení, o.s., 2012, 335 s.
ISBN 978-80-260-2325-8.
Project Management Institute. Practice standard for Work Breakdown Structures. 2th
edition. Pennsylvania: Project management Institute, Inc., 2006, 111 p. ISNB 978-1933890-13-5.
Project management Institute. A Guide To The Project Management Body Of
Knowledge. 4th edition. Pennsylvania: Project management Institute, Inc., 2008, 467 p.
ISNB 978-1-933890-51-7.
89
THE SELECTION OF METHODS OF LAND MILITARY EQUIPMENT
DIRECT LASHING ON RAILWAY GOODS WAGONS
AND THEIR VERIFICATION BY MEANS OF CALCULATION
Martin Rejzek, Martin Vlkovský and Tomáš Binar
Abstract: The introduction to the sphere in question deals with selected provisions of documents
and standards, meeting of which is required when securing land military equipment. The goal
of the paper is to determine, based on the comparison of inertial forces in a model case, which direct
lashing method is more convenient, and to work out an application calculation algorithm in Microsoft
Excel spread sheet for practical use.
Keywords: Lashing Capacity, Longitudinal and Transverse Securing, Land Military
Equipment, Railway Wagon, Web Lashing.
1. Introduction
While transported on railway goods
wagons, land military equipment is
exposed to inertial forces acting
in particular in the longitudinal direction
(x axis) and transverse direction (y axis).
If not secured properly, the land military
equipment may slide, which may lead
to negative
consequences,
such
as
the delay, increase in the costs expended
to remedy faulty loading or material
damage, impairment of operation safety
on railway
lines
and
jeopardising
the health of persons concerned.
At present, land military equipment is
secured analogically in compliance with
applicable documents. The procedures are
not exactly verified and adapted to land
military equipment in use in the Czech
Armed Forces (CAF). No appropriate
application software is introduced and
utilised for this purpose.
2. The description of status quo
2.1. Documents
and
fundamental
provisions governing land military
equipment securing
90
According to Czech Technical Standard
[1], a load may be, in general, secured by
completely passive connection – locking,
blocking or lashing. As a rule, the first
method
is
applied
in
container
transportation. When blocked, the load lies
against a solid structure or an attachment
(blocking equipment) on a load carrier.
It is often combined with lashing
equipment. There are two methods
of lashing – frictional and direct lashing.
The frictional lashing method makes use
of frictional force, originating between
the load and the deck, in order to secure
a load against sliding. The direct lashing
method does not make use of the force
the lashing assembly is capable of exerting,
but the force it is capable of being safely
tensioned to. The load is secured elastically
up to the elasticity limit of the lashing
assemblies. The direct lashing method
types include slope lashing in longitudinal
or transverse direction, diagonal lashing,
direct lashing preventing tipping over
(in combination with blocking) and spring
lashing (over the edge).
In NATO, land military equipment is
secured on railway goods wagons
in compliance with rules stipulated
in allied
movement
publication
AMov-P-4 (A) [5], Chapter 4, Annex
no. 2, or the provisions of International
Union of Railways (UIC) Loading
Guidelines [3], or ČD CARGO, a. s.
implementing guideline [3].
AMov-P-4 (A) constitutes an integral part
of NATO standardization agreement
(STANAG) 2468, 2nd edition.
The document is ratified by 28 countries,
and applies to the transportation speed
of 90 km∙h-1. It has been implemented
in the Ministry of Defence of the Czech
Republic in its original version.
For the purpose of land military equipment
securing in longitudinal and transverse
directions, following items are permitted:
chocks with steel spikes, wooden chocks,
scotches and wood hedges, lashing wires,
lashing straps and wheel chocks (according
to UIC Loading Guidelines, Section 7.3).
The AMov-P-4 (A) publication specifies
lashing capacity (LC) limit values
for individual categories of transport
operations (individual wagons, wagon
groups and a military train). The data
is processed in the form of a table
for wheeled and tracked vehicles divided
into weight categories.
Out of the total number of 197 members
of the UIC, there are 82 active members
on five
continents.
UIC
Loading
Guidelines apply to the transport speed
of 120 km∙h-1. Section 7.1 deals with
wheeled and tracked vehicles and
machinery secured by chocks. Section 7.2
deals with wheeled and tracked vehicles
and machinery secured by lashing. Section
7.3 deals with wheeled vehicles with tyres
secured by wheel chocks.
Requirements of individual documents
partly differ. Above all, it is a matter
of lashing assembly LC values and
the bearing capacity of chocks for securing
in longitudinal direction, including utilised
chock types. It may be said, that UIC
Loading Guidelines are more stringent
in terms of required values. Differences
can also be seen in the methods of securing
selected equipment (trailers).
Provided that more pieces of the land
military equipment are transported on one
railway wagon, a different securing
method may be applied to each type of the
equipment, depending on the wagon
design. The selection of a suitable securing
assembly depends on transported land
military equipment dimensional and
weight parameters, (available) railway
goods wagon loading area, capability
of adhering to safe securing procedures
and the category of transport operations.
2.2. Securing military equipment
by means of lashing (lashing straps)
In compliance with sAMov-P-4 (A),
the lashing
means
are
classified
as disposable and reusable lashing means,
wire ropes, chains, and polyester fabric
straps. The disposable means are not
utilised in the CAF. The reusable lashing
means are produced in a variety of types,
colours, lengths, widths and strengths.
The combination of lashing means is
applied, where it is impossible to use
a hand brake, or a lower gear cannot
be engaged, or to tracked vehicles that
may, due to their design, slide over chocks
in longitudinal direction during haulage.
Lashing straps are securing means often
utilised by dispatchers on railway wagons.
Safety requirements for reusable lashing
straps are defined by European Standard
– Czech Technical Standard [2]. Each
complete lashing strap must have a label
providing
information
including
the lashing capacity – LC (daN),
length (in meters), standard hand force
– SHF (daN), standard tension force
– STF (daN), a warning “Not Designed for
Lifting”, the textile strap material,
a producer’s name or logo, a producer
traceability code, the number and section
of an (applicable) European Standard,
the year of production, and the textile strap
elongation in % at LC. The label must be
legible; otherwise, the strap use is
prohibited. The label colour refers to
the lashing strap material. Polyester is most
91
often used; polyamide and polypropylene
are less common materials. Lashing straps
may be fitted with a tensioning device
and connecting
components
(hooks,
triangles) for the attachment to lashing
and attachment points.
The standard
specifies in detail how to use and maintain
the lashing straps made of synthetic fibres.
Lashing straps of synthetic fibres are
attached to particularly designed points,
i.e. lashing points – lashing rings
in the railway wagon deck, and attachment
points on transported land military
equipment. These points must be properly
selected in order to prevent impairing the
lashing
ring/lashing
strap
strength
or functionality.
In a load is only secured by lashing,
the lashing means must act both
in the longitudinal and transverse direction.
For land military equipment securing,
2 pairs of lashing straps symmetrically
attached to the front and rear parts, are
utilised. They must have proper length
and must run diagonally at the angle
of approx. 30°. It is the angle between
the vehicle front (rear) part plane which is
perpendicular to the railway wagon
(its deck) and the lashing strap; refer
to figure 1.
Figure 1: Diagram of land military equipment optimum securing on a railway goods wagon
Source: AMov-P-4(A)
In compliance with AMovP-4(A) and UIC
Loading Guideline 7.2, the lashing lines
shall run from the land military equipment
front part diagonally in the shape of letter
“V”. When attached to the rear part,
the straps
are
diagonally
crossed.
In the previous edition of AMovP-4,
the lashing lines were diagonally crossed
on both sides.
For the sake of surface damage prevention
(safety seams, synthetic fibre rupturing)
the lashing straps must not be twisted.
Should a lashing strap run over a sharp
edge, e.g. on the railway wagon headboard
or at points of strap crossing, it shall be
protected by abrasion-resistant mats. Free
strap ends must be coiled along the fibres,
and tied to the tensioning device. Rolling
free strap ends into balls or twisting them
around a tensioned strap is unacceptable.
Proper closing of ratchet buckles shall
92
always be checked. During transport,
straps must be additionally tensioned.
Provided that certain types of land military
equipment are not fitted with attachment
points, the equipment is secured using
appropriate chocks. It must be noted that
there are lashing points on the sole bar
or in the deck of some low-sided railway
wagons – these are lashing eyes made
of rod steel (approx. 12 mm in diameter),
designed for tarpaulin and web lashing,
not for securing the equipment by lashing
straps with carbine snap hooks.
3. Discussion
3.1 Comparison of loading area
utilization efficiency
The efficiency of railway goods wagon
loading area utilization depends mainly
on the kind of selected securing means,
varying land military equipment length and
the loading area design. The statement may
be confirmed by the calculation
of available loading length (length
utilization) in a four-axle low-sided wagon
of Res line, design group 67 (hereinafter
referred to as “wagon Res 67“) with
tipping sides and stakes, provided the land
military equipment is secured by chocks:
𝐷𝑘 = 𝐿𝑑 − 2𝑙𝑘 [𝑚𝑚]
(1)
𝐷𝑘 = 18,500 − 2 ∙ 100 (200) = 18,300 (18,100) mm
Legend:
Dk – available loading length of wagon Res 67, when chocks are used;
Ld – loading length of wagon Res 67;
lk – minimum distance between the front wall and secured land military equipment (100 mm
or 200 mm depending on the category of transport operations).
The calculation of available loading length in wagon Res 67, when land military equipment is
secured by lashing straps:
𝐷𝑝 = 𝐿𝑑 − 2𝑙𝑎 − 2𝑙𝑏 [𝑚𝑚]
(2)
𝐷𝑝 = 18,500 − 2 ∙ 1,250 − 2 ∙ 762 = 14,476 mm
Dp – available loading length of wagon Res 67 when lashing straps are utilised;
Ld – loading length of wagon Res 67;
la – the distance between the front wall and a side attachment point (ring) – 1,250 mm;
lb – the distance between a side attachment point and a lashing point on a wagon Res 67,
while the angle of 30° is maintained, is 762 mm for a typical land military equipment.
Refer to the following calculation:
tan 30° =
𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑤𝑟𝑒𝑠
2
=
𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛
=> 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 762 𝑚𝑚
1,320
zmin – minimum distance between the front wall and a plane perpendicular to the first lashing
point in the side sole bar of wagon Res 67, i.e. 1,250 mm from the wagon headboard;
wres – the width of wagon Res 67, i.e. 2,640 mm.
Based on the equation, minimum distance
of the land military equipment front part
from the front wall of wagon Res 67 is
determined, on the condition of V-shaped
diagonal lashing of the equipment; refer to
AMov-P-4 (A). The minimum distance
calculated between the vehicle front and
the plane (762 mm) is at the same time
a decisive safe distance for the equipment
securing on a railway wagon. When
securing the rear part, the same rule
applies, while the distance may increase
depending on the position of the nearest
lashing points.
The calculation implies that a shorter
(theoretical) available loading length is
reached on a railway wagon when securing
land military equipment by lashing straps,
if compared to the chock variant.
The direct lashing method results in lower
efficiency of loading area utilization,
which, in consequence, may lead
to the increase in the wagon demand
and relating haulage charges for wagon
loads.
93
3.2 Diagonal lashing of land-based
weapons and equipment – calculation
and interpretation
The calculation of securing forces is timeconsuming, unless an automated algorithm
is applied. The calculation shall include
vertical lashing angle α, longitudinal
lashing angle βx and transverse lashing
angle βy. Lashing angles have crucial
impact on the lashing means restraining
force FR [7]. Their values can be measured
practically, or calculated using appropriate
mathematical tools.
The method of calculation can be
confirmed in an example based on a model
application. The task is to secure,
e.g. a light amphibious tracked combat
vehicle with high mobility and armour
protection of BVP-2 type. For the haulage
of heavy wheeled and tracked vehicles
without limitation, a modernised version of
a four-axle flat wagon of Smmps line,
design group 54, technical interval 4728,
without side stakes (hereinafter referred to
as “wagon Smmps 54”), is utilised.
Basic technical parameters of wagon
Smmps 54 are as follows:
- loading length – 14,000 mm;
- loading width – 3,100 mm [6];
𝐹𝑅 = 𝑚 ∙ 𝑔 ∙
wagon width (w) – 3,100 mm;
distance of lashing points from side
edges of the railway wagon (bo)
– 200 mm.
Basic technical parameters of BVP-2 are as
follows:
- weight – 14,300 kg;
- width – 2,700 mm (distance from
wagon edges 200 mm from each side);
- height – 1,600 mm;
- length – 6,720 mm (distance of points
from the end of the railway wagon
– 3,000 mm);
- height
of
attachment
points
on the vehicle (v) – 1,600 mm;
- distance between lashing points
on a vehicle and a side edge
of the railway wagon (bv) – 350 mm;
- distance between attachment points on
a vehicle and the plane of lashing
points on the railway wagon (z)
– 3,000 mm.
The task is to calculate FR, in order
to prevent sliding of land military
equipment on a wagon during transport,
using formula (3), and to determine
the minimum lashing capacity (LC) of each
of the four straps.
(𝑐𝑥,𝑦 − 𝜇 ∙ 𝑓𝜇 ∙ 𝑐𝑧 )
[𝑁]
2 ∙ (cos 𝛼 ∙ cosβ𝑥,𝑦 + 𝜇 ∙ 𝑓𝜇 ∙ sin 𝛼)
For this purpose, parameters from standard
[1] must be applied:
- gravitational
acceleration
–
g
= 9.81 m∙s-2;
- the
coefficient
of
acceleration
in longitudinal direction in case
of railway transportation – cx = 1.0;
- the
coefficient
of
acceleration
in vertical direction in case of railway
transportation – cz = 1.0;
- conversion
factor
for
friction
– fµ= 0,75;
- friction
factor
(combination
of materials on the contact surface
94
-
(3)
– planed wooden loading area of the
railway wagon, rubber or a steel belt)
– µ = 0.30 for tracked vehicles;
µ = 0.60 for wheeled vehicles.
The friction factor μ depends on the type
and texture of the surfaces. The equation
(3) implies that the higher the value of μ
(friction force between land military
equipment and the wagon deck) is,
the lower the requirements for further
securing of load against sliding are. A table
stating friction factor values for certain
couples of materials is provided
in standard [1].
In order to determine vertical lashing
angles α1, α2, α3, longitudinal lashing
angles βx1, βx2, βx3 and transverse lashing
angles βy1, βy2, βy3, goniometric functions
and Pythagoras’s theorem should be
applied.
The calculation of lashing angles for crossed diagonal lashing – index 1:
𝑥1 = �𝑣 2 + (𝑤 − 𝑏𝑜 − 𝑏𝑣 )2 [𝑚𝑚]
(4)
where x1 is a (diagonal) distance between an attachment point on a vehicle and the point of
intersection of the planes of the railway wagon deck, vehicle front and an opposite lashing
point on the railway wagon.
𝑦1 = �𝑣 2 + 𝑧 2 + (𝑤 − 𝑏𝑜 − 𝑏𝑣 )2 [𝑚𝑚]
(5)
where y1 is a (diagonal) distance between an attachment point on a vehicle and an opposite
lashing point on the railway wagon (corresponds to the length of the lashing strap).
tan 𝛼1 =
𝑣
�𝑧 2 + (𝑤 − 𝑏𝑜 − 𝑏𝑣 )2
tan 𝛽𝑥1 =
cos 𝛽𝑦1 =
=
1,600
�9,000,000 + 2,5502
=> 𝛼1 = 22,11°
𝑥1 �1,6002 + 2,5502
=
=> 𝛽𝑥1 = 45,10°
𝑧
3,000
𝑤 − 𝑏𝑜 − 𝑏𝑣
2,550
=
=> 𝛽𝑦1 = 53,13°
𝑦1
�1,6002 + 3,0002 + 2,5502
The calculation of lashing angles for slope lashing (in longitudinal direction)
– index 2:
𝑥2 = �𝑧 2 + (𝑏𝑣 − 𝑏𝑜 )2 [𝑚𝑚]
(6)
𝑦2 = �𝑣 2 + 𝑧 2 + (𝑏𝑣 − 𝑏𝑜 )2 [𝑚𝑚]
(7)
where x2 is a (direct) distance between an attachment point on land military equipment and the
point of intersection of planes of the railway wagon loading area, land military equipment
front and an adjacent lashing point on the railway wagon.
where y2 is a (direct) distance between an attachment point on land military equipment and an
adjacent lashing point on the railway wagon (corresponds to the length of the lashing strap).
tan 𝛼2 =
𝑣
𝑣
1,600
=
=
=> 𝛼2 = 28,04°
𝑥2 �𝑧 2 + (𝑏𝑣 − 𝑏𝑜 )2 �9,000,000 + 22,500
cos 𝛽𝑥2 =
𝑧
𝑧
3,000
=
=
=> 𝛽𝑥2 = 28,18°
𝑦2 �𝑣 2 + 𝑧 2 + (𝑏𝑣 − 𝑏𝑜 )2
�11,582,500
95
cos 𝛽𝑦2 =
𝑏𝑣 − 𝑏𝑜
150
=
=> 𝛽𝑦2 = 87,47°
𝑦2
�11,582,500
The calculation of lashing angles for V-shaped diagonal lashing – index 3:
𝑤
𝑥3 = �𝑣 2 + ( − 𝑏𝑜 )2 [𝑚𝑚]
2
(8)
where x3 is defined analogically to x2.
𝑤
𝑦3 = �𝑣 2 + 𝑧 2 + ( − 𝑏𝑜 )2 [𝑚𝑚]
2
(9)
where y3 is defined analogically to y2.
sin 𝛼3 =
tan 𝛽𝑥3
𝑣
=
𝑦3
�𝑣 2
+
𝑥3 �𝑣
=
=
𝑧
tan 𝛽𝑦3 =
𝑧2
2
𝑣
+ ( 2 − 𝑏𝑜
𝑤
+ ( 2 − 𝑏𝑜 )2
𝑧
√𝑣 2 + 𝑧 2
𝑤
2
𝑤
− 𝑏𝑜
=
=
1,600
�13,382,500
=> 𝛼3 = 25,94°
�4,382,500
=> 𝛽𝑥3 = 34,91°
3,000
�11,560,000
=> 𝛽𝑦3 = 68,34°
1,350
The restraining forces are calculated by
supplying the variables into equation (3).
The forces are then equal to inertial forces
acting during transportation.
The slope (direct) lashing cannot be
applied to land military equipment
on railway wagons, even though it is
the most
convenient
method
in the longitudinal direction (LC value is
the lowest), as it would be impossible to
secure
land
military
equipment
in transverse direction, due to assumed
equipment width (refer to the high value
of FR2y= 13,586 daN).
The
diagonal
lashing
method
– crossing prevents both sliding and
tipping over. It is important that
the crossing is located above the land
military equipment centre of gravity and
in the middle of the lashing line length.
If the crossing is closer to the equipment,
the securing stability decreases, and
the possibility of swaying increases. This
96
)2
=
method is permitted and can be applied; it
is, however, less convenient than V-shaped
diagonal lashing. Crossed diagonal lashing
is more convenient for transverse securing.
In railway transportation, the inertial forces
are relatively small in transverse direction
in comparison with longitudinal direction.
The value of longitudinal inertial force is
primarily affected by shocks during
shunting.
As the most convenient, the securing
method least straining lashing straps can be
selected, i.e. the V-shaped diagonal lashing
method, where maximum inertial force
acting on lashing straps corresponds to the
value of FR3x = 6,629 daN.
3.3 Producing an interactive aid
The goal of the paper was to produce
a calculation aid not requiring any
additional financial means. The aid
(algorithm) was designed using Microsoft
Excel spread sheet; refer to figure 2. Upon
input data supplying, it allows calculating
FR in longitudinal and transverse directions
in compliance with standard [1].
The interactive aid helps verify whether
lashing straps are not under designed or,
on the contrary, lashing straps with
unnecessarily high LC are not utilised
uselessly.
Figure 2: Outcome of the aid for the verification of land military equipment securing on a railway
wagon
Source: own
4. Conclusion
The observation of applicable provisions
governing land military equipment
securing on railway goods wagons
in individual categories of transport
operations is the precondition of successful
loading and safe transportation.
It can be confirmed that the combination
of crossed diagonal lashing and V-shaped
diagonal lashing is an alternative solution
to safe land military equipment securing
on railway wagons. The benefits of both
the methods may be applied in synergy.
In consequence, the securing prevents land
military equipment from sliding and
tipping over. In general, it may still
be recommended to produce the equipment
with attachment points in the middle
of the frame, and to include the condition
in the specifications of public contracts.
On the other hand, despite the many
benefits of land military equipment
97
securing by lashing, the dispatcher must
also take into consideration the negatives
relating to the use of lashing straps that
may
result
in
possible
increase
in the wagon demand. One of the reasons
is the limited number and varying location
of lashing points and tensile strength
of lashing rings. Another reason is
the requirement for diagonal positioning
of lashing lines at the angle of approx. 30°,
which follows from the necessity to secure
land military equipment in longitudinal
and transverse direction.
This angle also affects the values
of lashing angles serving as input data
for the calculations (α, βx, βy). Reducing
the diagonally led lashing line angle
considerably below 30° increases straining
of lashing straps, and, in consequence,
the requirement for FR, through angles
α, βx, βy. Meeting the minimum value
of the respective angle results in higher
safety during transport, and extends the
service
life
of
lashing
straps.
In consequence,
the financial
means
allocated for this purpose may be saved.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
98
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Abstract: The successful planning of military operations requires clearly understood and widely
accepted doctrine. It is particularly important for joint operations that are be conducted by
multinational forces. With these ideas in mind the alliance doctrine’s writers brought the new Allied
Joint Publication (AJP) - 5 ratification draft “Allied Joint Doctrine For Operational-Level Planning”
to be adopted, implemented and widely used by commanders and staff for planning of future military
operations. The article deals with AJP-5 contribution to the theory of Operational art in terms of
broader content of operations planning processes compared to the last version of AJP - 5 dated from
2006. Information mentioned in the article may serve as a source of knowledge and may be helpful
for military professionals in the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic.
Keywords: Doctrine, operations planning, operational art, operational design concepts,
1. Introduction
Allied Joint Doctrine for Operational-Level
Planning is intended primarily for use by
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) military forces, and for NATO-led
operations it may be used for operations
conducted by a coalition of NATO
members and/or partner nations.
AJP - 5 is aimed mainly at commanders and
staff members engaged in operational-level
planning, employed in Joint Force
Command Headquarters (JFC HQ) and
Component Command Headquarters (CC
HQ), yet is a valuable source of military
thoughts and ideas exploitable for military
professionals working at lower levels of
command. At its core it describes the
fundamental aspects of planning joint
operations at the operational level.
Doctrine AJP - 5 is going to be a part of
NATO’s operations planning architecture. It
stipulates an overarching framework of the
key planning principles, considerations and
process steps that are followed in
operational-level planning. Identically to its
predecessor, Allied Joint Doctrine For
Operational Planning AJP - 5 (2006), this
doctrinal publication reflects a linkage to
the capstone Allied Joint Doctrine
publication Allied Joint Doctrine (AJP - 01)
and the NATO keystone doctrinal
publications Allied Joint Doctrine for the
Conduct of Operations (AJP-3), the Allied
Joint Doctrine for Logistics (AJP - 4), and a
few others on this hierarchy level. [1]
2. Doctrinal contribution
Doctrine is much more comprehensive in
terms of explaining key functions of the
Operational-Level Framework at the
operational level, which assist the Joint
Force Commander (JFC) in planning and
execution of military operations. These
functions – Shape, Engage, Exploit, Protect
and Sustain help the commander visualise
how major operations, battles and
engagements relate to one another within
the overall campaign.
There are added “planning principles”
which this AJP - 5 introduced as an aspect
of solid operational thinking of military
planners that they must adopt. There is also
99
deeper and more logical explanation of
particular planning Phases the planners
apply to develop key operational documents
such Operational design [2], Concept of
Operation (CONOPS) [3] and Operation
Plan (OPLAN) [4].
Enough space has been dedicated to
analytical approaches within operational art
in terms of traditional, systemic or design
approach, expanding foundations for
planning, command involvement, campaign
process assessment and finally the nature of
mission analysis at the operational level.
All the operational design concepts (e.g.
Centre of Gravity, End State, Decisive
Conditions, Lines of Operations, Objective
etc.) [5], that play decisive roles during
Operational design development process are
expanded in their theory and practical
application for operations planning.
The noticeable change is implied in the
whole planning process at the JFC level in
terms of its depiction. While the planning
“phases” are still used at the strategic level,
the planning “steps” of Operational-Level
Planning Process are established for this
level. This seems to be a “verbal challenge”
the military planners on specific levels of
command will have to accustom
themselves.
The purpose of the article is not to describe
all the changes and contribution of the new
AJP - 5, rather to draw reader´s attention to
the principles that may be utilized at all
military levels, basic definitions that are to
be incorporated in NATO terminology
publications, and the steps of the planning
process in its logical flow.
3. Doctrinal Principles in Military
Operations
When planning for allied combined joint
operations, planners must consider two
groups of key principles. The first group
relates to conduct of military operations as
such and the second group are “planning
principles”. Both of them may require
different emphasis according to the
operational situation they are applied to.
100
Principles (of the first group) of allied joint
and multinational operations e.g. Definition
of Objectives, Unity of Purpose,
Concentration of force, Economy of effort,
Initiative, Security and others, are quoted in
almost all publications of doctrinal
hierarchy. Most of them are fundamental to
planning; others comprise or describe
principal conditions or constraints which
the planning is subject to. Planning at all
levels has to be conducted following these
principles in order to successfully support
the conduct of military operations.
The second group of principles must be
considered from the early beginning of
operations planning effort. Key factors such
operational environment, problem, end
state, strategic and operational objectives
are assessed. All of them affect Operational
Design development and generate particular
challenges for both military planners and
civilian actors. Planning of operations
should take into account the different aims
and conditions of both Article 5 operations
and non-Article 5 crisis response operations
(NA5CRO). NATO’s operations planning
should conform to the planning principles
as following:
a) Coherence.
Every operational plan must positively
contribute towards the accomplishment of
an approved higher level set objectives for
addressing the crisis. The planning process
is also coherent internally, as well as
externally with other actors.
b) Comprehensive Understanding of the
Operational Environment.
Achieving the desired strategic and
operational outcomes must be understood at
all levels during the planning and conduct
of operations. The commanders must build
and foster a shared comprehensive
understanding
of
the
operational
environment.
c) Mutual
Respect,
Trust,
Transparency and Understanding.
Planning of operations in support of
NATO’s contribution to comprehensive
approach is underpinned by a culture of
mutual respect, trust, transparency and
understanding. Trust is built through
information
sharing
and
practical
cooperation and must be encouraged to
allow collaboration and cooperation across
NATO bodies and with relevant non-NATO
actors and local authorities.
d) Consultation
and
Compatible
Planning.
Mutually supportive, compatible, and
wherever
possible,
concerted
and
harmonised planning is fundamental for the
success of a comprehensive approach.
OPLANs must meet the politically agreed
level of interaction with external civil and
military actors. Planners should establish
mechanisms and procedures to support
early shared situational awareness which
will contribute to compatible planning.
e) Efficient Use of Resources.
Planners should achieve a balance between
tasks and resources. Decision makers
should be aware of the risk if an operation
is not adequately resourced prior to
approval of a strategic OPLAN. Planners
must allow both military and non-military
contributions to focus on and leverage their
fundamental competencies within the
international response to the crisis.
f) Flexibility and Adaptability.
The operations planning process should be
flexible enough to adjust to evolving
political guidance, civil and military advice
needed to facilitate collaborative planning
and adapt to political requirements, and also
agile enough to allow the plan to evolve.
The planning process should, on a regular
basis, allow reviewing and assessing the
mission and to modify or tailor plans when
necessary to reach the desired end state. [6]
4. Definitions are established
Contrary to US Armed forces doctrinal
publications that widely use this “new
term” for years, AJP - 5 is the first Allied
doctrine that has stipulated and defined the
term “Operations Planning” as follows:
“The planning of military operations at the
strategic, operational and/or tactical
levels”. The preferred English term to
designate the planning of military
operations at all levels for military planners
is “operations planning”. It is necessary to
mention the previous term “operational
planning” is not to be used anymore to
prevent confusion with operational-level
planning. [7]
Operational-Level Planning is defined by
AJP - 5 as “military planning at the
operational level to design, conduct and
sustain campaigns and major operations”
in order to accomplish strategic objectives
within given theatres or areas of operation.
[8] Operational-level planning translates
strategic objectives into tactical actions. It is
obviously conducted for the employment of
more than one service (within NATO more
than one nation) and must incorporate
perspectives from the strategic and tactical
levels, as well as considerations of civilian
actors when these are considered necessary
for comprehensive planning activities.
4.1.
Operations planning
Operations planning serves for several
purposes. This is an integral part of
preparing the Alliance to meet any future
operational challenges. Operations planning
can also prepare the Alliance for a possible
future requirement to conduct crisis
response operations. Planning is also a
learning activity that promotes the shared
situational awareness and understanding of
the commander and staff.
The terms operations planning and
operational-level planning are used
extensively throughout AJP - 5. To avoid
ambiguity in
understanding
related
expressions there are important NATO
agreed definitions that guide and give the
right direction for planners. Commanders
and staff members at the strategic,
operational and tactical level should adopt
and grasp them for use in the planning
effort.
4.2.
Operation
Operation is defined as a “military action or
the carrying out of a strategic, tactical,
service, training, or administrative military
101
mission; the process of carrying on combat,
including movement, supply, attack, defence
and manoeuvres needed to gain the
objectives of any battle or campaign.” [9]
(This term, therefore, must be understood as
neutral regarding the level of planning).
4.3. Operational Level
Operational level is defined as “the level at
which campaigns and major operations are
planned, conducted and sustained to
accomplish strategic objectives within
theatres or areas of operations.” [10] (This
term affords appropriate differentiation).
4.4. Operational Art
It is necessary to accent the role of
Operational art. Doctrinal publication
“NATO
Glossary
of
Terms
and
Definitions” (AAP – 6) defines Operational
art as “The employment of forces to attain
strategic and/or operational objectives
through
the
design,
organization,
integration and conduct of strategies,
campaigns, major operations and battles.
[11] (Within the planning process at the
operational level, operational art can be
described as the component of military art
concerned with the theory and practice of
planning, preparing, conducting, and
sustaining campaigns and major operations
aimed at accomplishing strategic or
operational objectives in a given theatre.)
[12] Simply told through Operational art,
strategic objectives are converted into
tactical activity in order to achieve a desired
outcome.
While the AJP - 5 (2006) states that “no
specific level of command is solely
concerned with operational art“, [13] the
new version is not so unequivocal or
102
persuasive: “Operational art bears various
meanings during the operational-level
planning
process,
particularly
in
developing the operational design.” [14]
From this point is not easy to ascertain
whether doctrinal writers have stayed on the
same platform as the previous one. If not, it
could bring some doubts about the
traditional role and place of Operational art.
Operational art is the critical link
between strategy and tactics. Strategy
guides operational art by determining the
ultimate objectives to be accomplished and
by allocating the necessary resources.
Strategy defines and imposes limitations on
the use of combat forces to be successful,
campaigns or major operations must be
conducted within a framework of what is
operationally and strategically possible. Due
to this critical link between strategy and
tactics, if operational art is poorly applied,
no acceptable strategic ends can be
achieved successfully.
5. Planning at different levels
The NATO Crisis Management Process
(NCMP) generally comprises six phases
that are reflected and described in Allied
Command
Operations
(ACO)
Comprehensive
Operations
Planning
Directive (COPD). Due to the requirements
for the separate approval of CONOPS and
OPLAN, Phase 4 (at the strategic,
operational and tactical level) is further
divided into Phase 4a and Phase 4b as
depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Strategic and Operational level Crisis Response Planning in COPD [15]
In terms of planning activities on strategic
and operation levels there are the following
successive phases in COPD:
Phase 1 – Situational awareness
Phase 2 – Operational Appreciation of
Saceur’s Strategic Assessment and
Assessment of Military Response Options
Phase 3 – Operational Orientation
Phase 4a – Operational CONOPS
Development
Phase 4b – Operation Plan Development
Phase 5 – Execution/Campaign
Assessment/OPLAN Review
Phase 6 – Transition
6. Operational-Level Planning Process
Description (OLPP).
The OLPP is developed to support JFC and
his staff in conducting operational-level
planning. The steps presented can be
rearranged and/or phased by the strategic
commander (SC) to fit the planning
circumstances, such as complexity or time
constraints. While the Phases on the
Strategic level are fully identical in its
content in both publications (COPD and
AJP – 5), there is a difference on the
Operational level from the new AJP - 5
perspectives.
Figure 2 Steps in OLPP in AJP – 5 [16]
103
The OLPP consists of the 8 steps to
support a JFC and his staff in order to
develop the operational level OPLAN
including the conduct of the operational
estimate process. The steps also comprise
the campaign and operational assessment
during execution in order to review or
revise the plan, when required. These OLPP
steps are:
Step 1 - Initiation of the OLPP
Step 2 - Problem and Mission Analysis
Step 3 - Course of action (COA)
development
Step 4 - COA analysis
Step 5 - COA validation and comparison
Step 6 - Commander’s COA decision
Step 7 - Operational-level CONOPS and
OPLAN development
Step 8 - Campaign assessment and plan
review/revision
7. Comparison and Explanation Phases
and Steps
According to COPD, the Situational
Awareness (SA) functions a separate Phase
contrary to the new AJP-5 where it is in
position of an ongoing process of gathering
information throughout the operation,
which is logical. This means, it is not listed
as a separate phase or the so-called “STEP”.
It is worth mentioning that SA process has
remained on SACEUR´s level as a separate
phase. Otherwise, the content of other steps
in AJP - 5 is essentially identical to the
activities in particular phases of COPD:
Step 1 - Operational Orientation = Phase 2
Operational Appreciation of SACEUR's
Strategic Assessment and Assessment of
Military Response Options.
Step 2 - Problem and Mission Analysis =
Phase 3 Operational Orientation
Steps: Step 3 - Courses of Action
Development, Step 4 - Courses of Action
Analysis, Step 5 - Courses of Action
Comparison and Validation and Step 6 Commander's Courses of Action Decision,
according to AJP - 5, are associated only
with Course of Action (COA) elaboration
until the Commander's approval of selected
104
COA has been made, without already
"working" on the CONOPS, which is
typical activity in COPD. Previously,
including the development of CONOPS, it
was characteristic within the content of
Phase 4 - Operational CONOPS
development.
Step 7 - Operational-Level CONOPS and
Plan development, however, incorporates
this Phase 4a and thus contains also Phase
4b - Operational Plan Development.
Step 8 - Campaign Assessment and Plan
Review / Revision is not already addressed
to conduct of the operation contrary to
COPD, nevertheless this step is identical to
Phase 5 - (Execution), Campaign
Assessment / OPLAN Review.
What is a remarkable in AJP-5 is that the
Transition Phase is not depicted as a
separate activity. Transition activities are
included in Step 8, while in COPD are
covered through a separate Phase 6 Transition.
Generally, planning activities in AJP - 5 on
the operational level are identical to COPD
in its content although they are not depicted
in the same way externally.
8. Conclusion
Even though not adopted yet, the new AJP 5 ratification draft is on the road to being
ratified and implemented. It may happen
that the meaning of “operational planning”
will not soon become obsolete in several
months or even a few weeks. There are
enough military planners still accustomed to
understanding “operational planning” in
its former sense. In order to prepare for and
conduct military operations it is necessary
to read and study all relevant publications
applicable to the efficient and successful
planning and conduct of operations.
Although content of the article doesn’t
cover all relevant issues and aspects of
operations planning theory it warns about
differences between basic planning
doctrines and documents that are important
for military planners. The new AJP - 5
doctrine is a valuable source of information
not only for commanders and planners, but
also for students in career courses,
academics and all others interested in
military issues.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
AJP-5, Allied Joint Doctrine for Operational-Level Planning (ratification draft 2).
NATO Standardization Agency, 2012, p. x.
Operational Design develops and refines a commander’s operational ideas to provide
detailed, executable plans. It is underpinned by a clear understanding of the political and
strategic context together with an effective framing of the problem. Structured
processes, like the operational design concepts and related tools enable the operational
design development. See AJP-5 p. 2-26.
CONOPS - a clear and concise statement of the line of action chosen by a commander in
order to accomplish his given mission. See AAP-6, p. 66.
Operation plan (OPLAN) - a plan for a single or series of connected operations to be
carried out simultaneously or in succession. It is usually based upon stated assumptions
and is the form of directive employed by higher authority to permit subordinate
commanders to prepare supporting plans and orders. See AAP-6, p. 156.
For better understanding of operational design concepts see e.g. AJP-5, p. 2-26 – 2-40.
AJP-5, p. 1-4 – 1-6.
AJP-5, p. 1-13.
AJP-5 p. 1-13.
AAP-6, NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions (English and French). NATO
Standardization Agency. NATO Headquarters B - 1110 Brussels, Belgium. 2012, p. 154.
AAP-6, p. 155.
AAP-6, p. 155.
AJP-5, p. 2-3.
AJP-5, Allied Joint Doctrine for Operational Planning. NATO Standardization Agency,
2006, p. 3-3.
AJP-5, Allied Joint Doctrine for Operational-Level Planning (ratification draft 2).
NATO Standardization Agency, 2012, p. 2-4.
ALLIED COMMAND OPERATIONS. Comprehensive Operations Planning Directive.
Trial version, Supreme Headquarters Allied Power Europe, Belgium, 2010, p. 4-2.
AJP-5, p. 3-63.
105
ARABIC AS THE SECOND FOREIGN LANGUAGE
AT THE FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT
Mária Šikolová, Nataša Mocková
Abstract: The paper deals with a newly designed Arabic course at the Faculty of Economics
and Management of the University of Defence in Brno. After the events of the Arabic Spring, the
importance of teaching this language to military professionals potentially deployed in the
region has significantly grown. The authors analyse their results from the implementation of the
innovative Arabic course based on their systematic observations, data gathering and
processing. The authors have decided for this solution because Arabic language belongs to the
most difficult world languages and the original teaching approach did not fully correspond to
this fact. Moreover, the number of lessons is not sufficient and cannot be inflated. For these
reasons, the authors have decided to address these issues as a whole by designing a brand-new
course. This article presents the initial results gathered in the course and after the first
semester.
Keywords: Arabic, teaching approach, learning, military.
1. Introduction
The Faculty of Economics and
Management of the University of
Defence puts an emphasis on teaching
foreign languages. Apart from English,
the Language Training Centre, which is
a part of the University, offers several
other languages as the second foreign
language. Since the Academic Year
2011/2012, a new language has been
introduced for the students of the 1st
year of Bachelors’ study. This language
is Arabic and although it is rarely taught
in the Czech Republic, it is increasingly
used in different military missions
abroad.
As the situation in the Middle East has
been rather turbulent in recent decades,
it is highly probable that military
presence will be needed there in the
future, too. Nevertheless, international
troops including Czech units have
already been deployed in the region for
some time. The prevalent language
spoken here is Arabic.
106
The University of Defence, as the only
tertiary military educational institution
in the Czech Republic, prepares its
graduates for various purposes. One of
the main tasks is to prepare the
graduates for real military life,
including military missions abroad.
Apart from excellent physical condition
and professional skills, the students
have to acquire also language skills.
While fluent communication in English
is taken for granted, acquiring a basic
level of Arabic can be helpful in
establishing contacts between our
soldiers and the local population, as it
has been proved in other NATO units in
the area. Therefore, the university
management decided to introduce a
course on basic Arabic for a group of
selected 1st year Bachelors’ students at
the Faculty of Economics and
Management in the academic year
2011/2012.
2. Tradition in teaching Arabic in the
Czech military environment
As a matter of fact, teaching Arabic in
the Czech military has had a long
tradition. Arabic courses started to be
run in the late seventies at the former
Military Academy. They were designed
for Czech officers who were supposed
to work in Arab countries and at that
time they were three-year courses
organized in intensive three-week
sessions, three times per academic year,
altogether 513 ninety-minute lessons.
The expected educational outputs were
to master orthographic and phonetic
systems of Modern Standard Arabic,
and to be able to read, write and
produce basic communication in
Arabic.
The 1989 Revolution in the Czech
Republic resulted in temporarily
diminishing interest in teaching Arabic
for military purposes. However, the
consequent geopolitical development in
the world brought about the comeback
of Arabic to the Czech military. After
the year 2000, some Arabic courses
were re-introduced, albeit on an
irregular basis and for selected officers
only. Since the University of Defence
does not provide intensive language
courses for officers, the Language
Training Centre (part of the University)
first offered Arabic as an optional nonintensive course for students of the
Faculty of Economic and Management,
which became very popular. As
mentioned above, Arabic obtained a
new, higher status at the University of
Defence
in the Academic Year
2011/2012 when it started to be taught
as the second foreign language for a
group of selected students (with the
specialization in reconnaissance). It has
been run as a non-intensive course with
13 ninety-minute lessons per semester,
taught for 5 semesters, which gives
altogether 65 lessons.
3. Teaching methods in Arabic course
3. 1. Difficulty Level of Arabic
Language
Arabic language is not an easy one, if
compared with foreign languages
commonly taught at the non-linguistic
universities in the Czech Republic. It is
unquestionably very complicated to
assess the difficulty of a language, since
its difficulty depends on many factors;
to give an example, let us mention only
the person’s mother tongue and their
language aptitude. Nevertheless, the
Foreign Service Institute (further FSI),
which is the American Federal
Government’s training institution for
officers, diplomats and other personnel
to serve abroad, has looked into this
problem and its experts categorized the
languages according to the number of
lessons needed to learn a language if
you are a native English speaker.
They claim that after the specified time
of study, learners will reach “Speaking
3: General Professional Proficiency in
Speaking (S3)” and “Reading 3:
General Professional Proficiency in
Reading (R3)”. However, the internet
source emphasizes that this ranking
presents only the view of FSI.
According to this classification, Arabic
is in the highest class (5), together with
Mandarin and Cantonese Chinese,
Japanese and Korean. According to the
FSI, to learn these languages to the
above-mentioned level, it is necessary
to learn 88 weeks (2200 hours). Czech
language is in class 4 with 44 weeks and
1100 hours of instruction needed.
However, the information available on
various web pages presents the
difficulty
of
Arabic
more/less
consistently in the highest ranks of
difficulty.
If we compare the number of hours
recommended by the FSI with the
length of Arabic courses in the military,
we should realize that the number of
lessons in the military is significantly
lower – in courses in the seventies and
107
eighties it was more than 500 ninetyminute lessons, while at the moment in
the university environment it is only 65
ninety-minute lessons per the whole
Bachelors’ course.
Nonetheless, it
should be taken into account that the
required outcome of teaching Arabic in
the Czech military was and is
significantly lower than Professional
Working Proficiency; in terms of the
Interagency Language Roundtable, the
required level is closer to either Limited
Working Proficiency (L2) or even
Elementary Proficiency (L1). Thus, the
number of lessons needed to achieve
this level is also lower.
3.2. Modern Standard Arabic
Generally speaking, there are three
basic variants of Arabic language –
Modern Standard Arabic, Classical
(also known as Literary) and Colloquial
Arabic. Modern Standard Arabic
(MSA) is the language that is
understood by all Arabic speakers. It is
the language of written materials, as
well as pan-Arab TV programmes,
talks, films, etc. Classical Arabic is the
language of Al-Qur’án and other
classical literature. Modern Standard
Arabic is based on Classical Arabic, but
it is under constant development, as
with
other
modern
languages.
Colloquial Arabic is represented by
spoken language in various regions of
the Arab World (regional dialects).
They all are to certain extent similar to
modern Standard Arabic, but they vary
in both vocabulary and structure
(Wightwick, Gaafar, 2007, xi). In the
Czech military context, it is Modern
Standard Arabic which is taught
because it is considered to be the
universal one.
3.3. Course design and teaching
methods
Both Arabic course design and the
target population were different in the
eighties from the present ones.
Moreover, the teaching methods have
changed substantially. While in the
108
eighties
the
grammar-translation
method was prevalent also in the
military
environment
in
Czechoslovakia, the situation started to
change in the nineties, which was most
apparent in teaching English. However,
teaching Arabic was not significantly
affected by communicative approaches
in the Czech military even after 2000
when Arabic was introduced as one of
the optional subjects at the University of
Defence. This was caused to a
considerable extent by the textbook
used which is based on a very
traditional grammar pattern of teaching.
We have realized that Arabic as a
highly demanding language for Czech
speakers might require a change in
teaching methods. Although the
motivation of students was quite high at
the beginning of the course, it often
diminished as soon as they realized how
difficult the language is and how slow
the progress in acquiring it is.
Consequently, we have decided to
change the essential approach to
teaching Arabic. While in the past,
students had to first learn all the letters
of the Arabic alphabet (two 13-lesson
semesters) to start learning basic words
and phrases, in the new teaching model
they started to learn some basic words
and phrases from the very beginning of
the course. This approach was partially
inspired by a colleague of the authors, a
linguist who started to learn Arabic and,
later on, also Hebrew. And it was the
Hebrew course where this method was
commonly used. Even though this
approach seems to be working in terms
of intensifying students’ motivation, it
is at the same time rather timeconsuming and demanding for us. It
means in practice to design a brand new
course and to develop most of the
teaching materials. We also have to
tackle the problem that the teaching
materials bought by the university
cannot be fully used because of the
newly-introduced method. Another
challenge to be addressed is providing
the teaching materials since using
photocopiers has been dramatically
restricted.
4. New methodological approach and
initial results
4.1. Theoretical background of the
new approach
The innovative approach is based on the
fact that, in our opinion, language
acquisition does not necessarily happen
in a linear way. For instance, the
linguistic specialists at the Hebrew
Language Academy Charter School
found that their “students can often
listen to and recognize Hebrew words
long before they are comfortable using
them in their own writing or speaking”.
Since Hebrew is typologically close to
Arabic, we believe that the same pattern
can be applied for teaching Arabic.
Different linguistic theories perceive
language acquisition in different way.
On the one hand, Krashen claims that
when learners are provided with
comprehensible input, grammatical
structures emerge in a predictable order.
He claims that “structure emerges in
second language performers in a more
or less predictable order for adults”
(Krashen, 1982, p 128). On the other
hand, Menezes argues that “language
learning is not a linear process, and
therefore cannot be deemed as
predictable as many models of SLA
have hypothesized it to be”.
4.2. Implementation of new approach
The rationale of the new approach was
mentioned above. Now we would like
to describe its novelty and to present the
effects of this new approach on teaching
as they were systematically observed
and recorded by the teachers. All these
results refer to the first semester in
which the new approach was
implemented.
The new approach lies in the idea that
basic words and phrases can be taught
from the beginning of the course with a
minimum knowledge of simplified
grammar rules which is in accordance
with Menez’s opinion, as stated above.
Thus, the only limitation for teaching
words and phrases is whether the
students know the letters of the words.
What this means in practice for us is to
choose only the words formed by the
letters that students have already learnt.
After choosing the words we have to
decide which of the words to use only
for practising reading and writing and
which of them to include into target
vocabulary and phrases. It is also worth
mentioning that all new teaching
materials were provided in e-form only.
The students downloaded them from the
Arabic course in Learning Management
System Moodle. Although this is not an
ideal solution, it did not cause any
serious problems. On the other hand,
using the Internet for teaching purposes
has also some advantages in comparison
with a conventional teaching approach.
We have particularly in mind using
short
videos
which
reinforce
pronunciation, vocabulary and cultural
awareness, even if they have not been
used up to now. Nevertheless, they are
intended to be systematically used in the
next parts of the course.
4.3. Results
At the very beginning of developing the
new approach the authors wanted to
find the answers to the following
questions:
1. Is it possible to teach not only letters,
but also and at the same time
vocabulary with very limited grammar
rules?
2. Can the learners learn both things at
the same time?
3. Is this way of learning/teaching
motivating for students/teachers?
4. Does this method have any
limitations? If so, what?
5. Does this method induce any
unexpected outcomes?
To find the answers to these questions,
we were systematically gathering and
109
recording the relevant data acquired
during teaching, in observations and
from the end-of-course questionnaire.
One of the authors taught the course and
she recorded all interesting findings
after each lesson. The other one
observed several lessons to add a fresh
view. Moreover, the authors designed a
brief questionnaire to find out the
students’ opinions on the course
content, teaching methods and most
difficult areas of Arabic. The results
they have gathered are as follows:
As to the first question, we have come
to a conclusion that teaching letters,
vocabulary and only limited grammar
rules is undoubtedly possible. Similarly,
the learners have proved to be able to
learn all things at the same time,
although not without difficulties and not
all of them at the same level. If
compared with the previous teaching
approach, we have appreciated the new
approach since they found it highly
motivating from the teaching point of
view. Based on the results of the end-ofsemester questionnaire, the new
approach has met the students’
expectations and they have all found the
course interesting and motivating.
Considering the fourth question, we
have come to a conclusion that the most
significant limitation is the number of
lessons which is too low. Nevertheless,
this is the limitation which can be
addressed by neither the authors nor the
students. To answer the fifth question,
there definitely were some unexpected
outcomes obviously induced by the new
teaching method. The fact that the
students were taught only a minimum
amount of grammar has apparently led
them to discover the grammar rules by
themselves based on the given
vocabulary and using it. On the other
hand, the students have tried to apply
the rules also where it was not possible.
Another rather frequent mistake was
missing out prepositions. There was
also a problem of interference in two
110
different language phenomena – the
first one with the verb “to have” and the
second one with gender.
The questionnaire was intended to find
out students’ opinions on the course and
its difficulty. 15 students started the
course. However, only nine of them
finished the first semester. Most of them
expected to learn how to write and read,
as well as to communicate in most
common situations. The course met the
expectations of all students. The
students were also asked to specify the
most difficult part of the course
(writing, reading, vocabulary and
grammar) on a scale from 1 (the easiest)
to 5 (the most difficult). On average, the
most difficult skill was vocabulary
(3.33), followed by grammar (3.11) and
reading (3.00). The easiest one was,
surprisingly, writing (2.22). In the part
of the questionnaire where the students
were asked for any comments, they
mentioned the following: “lessons were
very intensive”, “I was very satisfied
with the content, practical exercises and
the teacher”, “more lessons would be
needed”, “lessons were demanding,
funny and interesting”.
On practical grounds, we tried to
include as many words needed in the
military context as possible from the
very beginning of the course. The
vocabulary during the first semester
with only 13 consonants and three
vowels (all in Arabic) is very limited;
however, we have included at least one
military word (tank), and the names of
some Arab countries and nationalities
(Jordan, Libya, Libyan, Lebanon,
Lebanese).
Although the students were highly
motivated, they admitted that the
language was extremely difficult for
them, especially learning vocabulary.
They asked the teacher for advice on
how to learn the vocabulary more easily
and effectively. Since the learning
strategies are highly individual, we tried
to experiment with a generally likeable
and acceptable method. The concrete
idea came from an Arabic self-teaching
academic worker, the former Faculty of
Economics and Management student.
The idea was to produce a Pexeso game
with pairs of cards (one card – a picture,
one card – the word in Arabic). The
purpose was to help reinforce the
vocabulary and to intensify the
motivation. The result was highly
positive – the students were very
excited and obviously enjoyed the
activity. To make the process a bit more
structured and controlled, the learners
were asked to create a sentence or a
phrase for each word in the game and to
submit it to the teacher at the end of the
lesson in writing. Here are some
examples of the sentences/phrases they
have created:
Where is Lebanon?
This is a tank.
I want cold beer.
Where is my wine?
I am a minister.
Who is he?
Where is he from?
I visited my colleague.
She has got a son.
I saw a cold river.
I want a flat.
I have an excellent tank.
I visited Libya.
I want water.
We had to make one more important
decision while designing the course
materials – it was whether to use nonvowelled texts in the teaching materials.
To explain this, words in Arabic are
written by consonants, and vowels are
then added above or under the
consonants. However, common texts are
written with consonants only. So, a nonnative speaker is generally not able to
read a word which they do not know.
Contrary to the commonly accepted
approach, as well as our own learning
experience, non-vowelled texts are parts
of each lesson from the very beginning
of the course. The reason for this
decision was the fact that the students
might be exposed to these kinds of texts
shortly after finishing their course.
Moreover, the course itself consists of
only a very low number of lessons, so
including non-vowelled texts should be
introduced as soon as possible.
5. Conclusion
The purpose of the paper was to
familiarize the readers, experts in the
area of economics and management,
with one of the building blocks in the
training and education of military
managers. The priority of professional
military and academic skills at the
University of Defence is obvious;
nevertheless in practical life, supporting
skills are also of high importance. We
believe that our enthusiastic struggle in
the area of teaching Arabic is fully in
line with the University global concept
of preparing professional soldiers for
real life.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Krashen, Stephen D. 1981. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language
Learning. Pergamon Press.
Wightwick, Jane, Gaafar, Mahmoud. 2007. Mastering Arabic. Palgrave
Macmillan. P 3 – 4.
<http://www.effectivelanguagelearning.com/language-guide/language-difficulty>.
Accessed 2012 May 27.
<http://www.hlacharterschool.org/Academics/hebrew.php>. Accessed June 4.
Vera Lúcia Menezes de Oliveira e Paiva:
<https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:ERHrPKrA5zsJ:www.veramenez
es.com/ailavera.pdf>. Accessed June 2.
111
COMPARISONS OF MILITARY POWER
Vladimír Šilhan
Abstract: The aim of the article is to provide comparison of the main indicators of military power
among the individual countries, as well as between the EU in total and the USA and the global
comparisons of the world’s biggest military powers. It also includes estimation of future trends. Due
to the differences of various input data multiple information sources were used for comparison.
Current evolvement of changes in military power indicates the shift of the centre of gravity aiming
prevailingly eastward towards emergent and growing economical powers.
Keywords: Military power, defence expenditures, number of forces, complex defence
potential
1. Introduction
Military power of the countries is
determined by the conceptual, physical and
moral factors. Focus of this analysis is,
however, only on the physical factors,
composed of the military systems and
materiel, and of the personnel which are
both the most costly parts of the military
power.
Changes in the military power of individual
countries, whether progressive or not are
successive and have significant level of
persistence. Reviewing of the individual
nation’s military strength is done by
different subjects whose results are
provided with a delay and it is important to
note that they significantly differ. In
addition, it is difficult to get them for some
isolated countries where they are sometimes
only estimated. Data of the European
Defence Agency, SIPRI (Stockholm
International Peace Institute), CIA World
Factbook (further referred as CIA), IISS
(International Institute for Security Studies)
and from the portal GlobalFirepower (GFP)
were considered as the main information
sources for the analysis.
112
2. Comparison of the EU countries
Characteristics of individual EU countries
with regard to their armed forces
developments illustrate a great diversity. As
depicted in Chart 1, five biggest EU
countries spend more than three fourths of
the overall EU defence spending that
amounted to 193,54 b€ in 2010. For the ten
nations spending each more than 2% of the
overall amount (sequenced as follows:
United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy,
Spain, The Netherlands, Poland, Greece,
Sweden and Belgium) is it even more than
91%. Great differences are underlined by
the fact that on the other hand 12 countries
with the lowest defence spending contribute
to the total only with 3,55%.
An interesting indicator is also the defence
expenditure values after their conversion to
those per capita. It can better reflect the
importance put on defence regardless the
size of countries, as shown in Chart 2.
While the Czech Republic holds the 14th
place in absolute values, it goes with the
amount of 191€ down to the 17th place after
the conversion per capita. It represents
slightly less than half of the average EU
value being 390 €. As well as for the
absolute values and values per capita,
United Kingdom and France are leading in
both respects. It underlines domination of
their armed forces in the region. Though
Germany is placed just behind them in the
absolute values it is preceded by the
Netherlands, Finland, Sweden, Cyprus and
Greece as regards values per capita. Last
places when using this indicator pertain
then to Romania, Latvia, Bulgaria and
Lithuania.
Chart 1: Relative national contributions to overall EU
[1] defence spending [1]
Chart 2: Amount of defence expenditures per capita
Further very important indicator, related to
capability developments, is level of
investment (acquisitions and Research and
Development - R&D) in particular when
conversed to the number of soldiers as
depicted in Chart 3. It demonstrates the
biggest spending to one soldier in
Luxembourg, Sweden, Great Britain,
France, Netherlands and Germany. The
lowest on the other hand in Malta,
Romania, Bulgaria and Latvia.
Chart 3: Investments per soldier [1]
Another requisite measure of military power
is the number of soldiers, and to some extent
also civilians employed in ministries of
defence.
Their
overall
numbers
Chart 4: Sustainable, deployable and deployed forces [1]
(in thousands), numbers of soldiers
equivalent to the amount population and
proportion of civilian and military
employees can be deduced from Chart 5.
Chart 5 (composite): Numbers of military and civilian personnel [1]
113
While it is logical and well known that the
most of personnel is employed in the armed
forces of the biggest EU countries, i.e. in
France, Germany, United Kingdom and
Italy, it can be seen that by far the biggest
relative numbers are due to the known
political situation evident for Cyprus and
Greece. They have after the four above
mentioned countries and Spain the biggest
armed forces also in the absolute values.
Significantly above-average is in the
relative values also Finland and Malta. The
lowest numbers have on the other hand
Luxembourg and Sweden that has,
however, traditionally big mobilisation
potential (held up by the fact that conscript
service was abandoned only since July 2010
and experience of former conscripts is still
largely preserved). Low numbers have also
Latvia, Hungary, Ireland and the Czech
Republic (2,21 while average number in the
EU is 3,86).
In the case of the Czech Republic, as well
as of Sweden, low relative numbers of
soldiers to the population are partly
compensated by the conversely aboveaverage rate of civilian employees to the
overall defence personnel, namely 27,4% in
the case of the Czech Republic to compare
with 18,39% being an EU average rate. The
higher rate is only in Slovakia, Sweden,
United Kingdom and Poland. Evidently
lowest proportion has conversely Malta,
Belgium, Cyprus, Ireland and Greece.
The last but not least important
characteristics of the military power that
should give evidence on the preparedness of
troops for operations and on their real
employment is also amount of the
sustainable, deployable and deployed armed
forces, all related to the force strengths as
displayed in the Chart 4. Data on Germany,
Estonia and Latvia are unfortunately
missing as they were not provided.
It can be seen from the chart that the Czech
Republic is in the total of all those three
operational characteristics just next to the
United Kingdom, France, the Netherlands
and Spain. As for the real operational
employment, the highest amount belonged
in 2010 to the Netherlands, United
Kingdom and Sweden reaching 7-8%, while
for employable forces to United Kingdom,
Spain, Netherlands, France and the Czech
Republic being in the extent 36,5-40%.
Highest level of long-term sustainability
declares Sweden, France and United
Kingdom amounting to 10-14% followed
by Ireland and Germany with 7,5-9% of
their armed forces.
3. Comparison of the EU and US
military potentials
While the EU countries have in total higher
GDP and state budget, the USA spends
much more on their defence [2]. It was 2,7
times more in 2010, see Charts 6 and 7
showing also evolution of all three
indicators, i.e. GDP, state budget (SB) and
defence expenditures (DE) within last five
years. For the EU, percentage of the
defence expenditures to the GDP amounted
to 1,6% whereas for the USA up to 4,8%.
For defence expenditures related to the state
budget, proportion is then 3,2% at the EU
side and 11.2% for the USA.
Chart 6: GDP, SB and DE in EU and USA in 2006-2010 [2] Chart 7: GDP, SB and DE per capita in EU and
USA in 2006-2010 [2]
114
When comparing defence expenditures per
capita, US numbers, as shown in Chart 7,
overwhelmed those of the EU more than
four times in 2010. Similarly higher
in favour of the USA were the ratios for the
state budget and for GDP.
Another chart, number 8, provides
information on an amount and structure of
defence expenditures on the EU and US
sides that also shows the US supremacy.
While estimated that the overall amount of
investment is about 3,5 times higher in
favour of the USA then as for Research and
Development (R&D) expenditures, which
include acquisitions, US dominance raised
within last five years from about 5,5 to 6,8
multiple. Furthermore, as for the Research
and Technology (R&T) moves within the
extent of 2,8 and 4,8 multiple. It is,
however, important to note that based on
the national experience, which may not be
unique within the EU, many of subsidised
R&T projects and activities have not real
practical effects due to, inter alia, low level
of coordination and competition among the
EU countries.
Using the chart, one can also compare
proportions
between
personnel
expenditures, investments and common
expenses. At the EU side information on
expenditures focused on infrastructure and
buildings are also provided. It is evident
from the comparison that in the EU
countries higher spending goes in favour of
personnel expenditures at the expense of
investments and common expenses whereas
at the US side all items are almost equal
since 2007 when personnel expenditures
were reduced. It can be also seen from the
chart that while in the EU countries the sum
of all three items was slightly descending,
the trend in the USA was inverse, in
particular in 2009 and 2010.
Chart 8: Structure of EU and US def. expenditures [2]
Chart 9: Numbers of soldiers, deployed soldiers
and civilian employees in EU and USA [2]
The last compared indicators of military
power provided in this part let be the
relations between the amounts of
personnel. It is apparent from Chart 9 that
overall numbers were very similar in
2008, i.e. in the middle of comparing
period. They are, however, steadily
significantly descending as for the EU
while going slightly up at the US side.
The same tendency is evident for the
military and civilian personnel. The
second substantial difference is that
despite of significant reductions of
numbers there are still about 200 thousand
more soldiers at the EU side but almost
about 400 hundred thousand less civilian
employees.
The
last
considerably
noticeable difference concerns deployed
forces. Their numbers steadily slowly
decrease from more than 80 thousand to
some 66 thousand at the EU side whereas
their numbers oscillate along 200
thousand with a positive deflection
amounting 230 thousand in 2009 as for
the USA. In average, number of
operationally deployed personnel has been
about three times higher in the USA than
in the EU that is another great difference
regarding military power indicators.
4. Global comparisons
CIA, SIPRI, IISS and GFP data have been
used as the main information sources for
comparisons in global extent.
Evaluation of all world countries is very
difficult and often ambiguous because for
115
some of them credible information is
lacking. Therefore data from various
information sources significantly differ.
An important factor for evaluation results
is
also
comparison
methodology.
Although the main baseline to which
indicators are referenced is chiefly Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) it is difficultly
comparable among various categories of
countries. Therefore for instance CIA
conveys it using Purchasing Power Parity
(PPP) [3] and their data are then distinct
from those already demonstrated for
comparisons between the EU and USA,
see Chart 6. For illustration, 28 nations
having the highest values of GDP/DPP are
given in table 1 with the addition of the
Czech Republic for illustration of
distinction [4].
State
15 390
15 040
11 300
4 463
4 389
3 085
2 373
2 284
2 250
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Italia
Mexico
South Korea
Spain
Canada
Indonesia
Turkey
Iran
Australia
1 826
1 657
1 554
1 411
1 389
1 121
1 053
928,9
917,7
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
….
Poland
Argentina
Netherlands
Saudi Arabia
Thailand
SAR
Egypt
Pakistan
……………
765,6
709,7
705,7
676,7
609,8
554,6
515,4
488,0
…….
2 214
20
Taiwan
885,3
46
Czech republic
227,2
Both from Table 1 and subsequent charts
growing
economical
and
military
importance of the BRIC [5] countries, that
belong to leading powers, is evident as well
as the changing balance of power in the
world in favour of the biggest Asians
economics, in particular China, India and
Japan.
Other two charts, i.e. number 10 and 11
provide
information
on
defence
expenditures for twenty biggest spenders,
GDP
/PPP
[b$]
Rank
France
State
GDP
/PPP
[b$]
10
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
State (+ EU as a
whole)
EU
USA
China
India
Japan
Germany
Russia
Brazil
United Kingdom
GDP
/PPP
[b$]
Rank
Table 1: Ranking of countries according to the GDP converted to PPP based on CIA data [4]
based on the CIA and SIPRI data,
respectively, while the next one (No. 12)
for only ten biggest available from IISS. All
three charts exhibit also the extent of
differences among the main information
sources. For basic comparison let be also
mentioned that overall spending estimate
for all world’s countries is not so diverse,
namely 2157,2 b$ and 1584,2 b€ according
to the CIA and SIPRI data, respectively.
Chart 10: Distribution of defence expenditures, CIA data [6] Chart 11: Distribution of defence expenditures,
SIPRI data [7,10]
116
Chart 12: Distribution of defence expenditures IISS
data [8]
Comparison of all three charts illustrates
very
considerable
differences
in
proportions, pertinence to and ranking of
the countries with biggest defence
spending.
Expenditures of all world countries might
be according to the IISS data (for 2011)
distributed among the main regions and
strongest countries in the following way:
- North America 47,0% - out of that USA
45,7%;
- Europe 18,3% - out of that United
Kingdom 3,9%, France 3,6%, Germany
2,7%, remaining NATO nations 7.8%
and other nations 1,6%;
- Russia 3,3%;
- Asia together with Australia and
Oceania 18,5% - out of that China
5,5%, Japan 3.6% and India 2,3%;
- Middle East and Northern Africa 7,9%
- out of that Saudi Arabia 2,9%;
- Latin America and Caribbean 4,1% out of that Brazil 2,3% and
- Sub-Saharan Africa 1.0%.
In this respect order of countries with
biggest spending related to GDP is given
according to the CIA [6], SIPRI [7] and for
the first ten countries according to ISSS [8]
available data, in Chart 13, explicitly for the
countries exceeding 5% level.
Chart 13: Countries with highest percentage of
defence expenditures to GDP according to SIPRI,
CIA a IISS [6,7,8]
It is worth mentioning that data on Eritrea
are outdated in SIPRI database. The last
very high amount relates to 2003 while in
1999 reached even 34,4%. Though current
situation will probably be more close to the
second given amount provided by CIA,
SIPRI information is kept as well, at least in
order to demonstrate extent of possible
disproportions among individual sources for
some nations. Furthermore, reliable
information on North Korea is not provided
by any of the sources. They are only briefly
described in newest ISSS information
declaring that official defence budget of
North Korea is around 1,5 billion USD but
that it may reach up to the 5 billion. It
would represent with estimated GDP of
20 billion USD military portion reaching up
to 25% [10], whereas according to [11] real
expenses touched even amount of 9 billion
USD in 2009.
5. Number of forces
Another very important indicator of the
military power is number of soldiers while
their most important part is active soldiers.
Those should have, according to the SIPRI
data, by far the most China, followed by the
USA, India, North Korea and Russia with
numbers overreaching 1 million, as
displayed in Chart 14. By comparing it with
data in Chart 5 it can be noticed that
information differ most significantly in case
of France and Italy which might be caused
by counting considerable numbers of
„Gendarmerie Nationale“ and „Carabinieri“
in case of France and Italy, respectively,
both falling into the competence of their
respective MoDs.
117
Chart 14: Ranking of countries according to
numbers of active soldiers (in thousands) [9]
Among relevant factors of military power,
total forces, composed besides the active
also by reserve and paramilitary forces,
should neither be omitted. It is, however,
particularly complicated to compare
strength of active reserves of individual
nations due to varied national rules and
laws declaring which reserve soldiers and
how can be employed. Despite, respective
data are regularly published for instance by
SIPRI. Based on such data overview of total
forces for nations holding more than 400
thousand of them is displayed in Chart 15.
Numbers of reserves and paramilitary
forces are there offered in descriptive labels
to the bars of the chart.
Chart 15: Countries with highest numbers of total forces (in thousands) [9]
6. Complex defence potential of the
strongest countries
Attempt for complex comparison of
defence potential is represented by the
portal GFP [12] by assessing 55 militarily
strongest countries using 42 different
parameters which include manpower,
amount and quality of ground, air and naval
systems, geography, infrastructure, natural
and financial resources. Ranking of all 55
countries, displayed by a straight line, is
provided in Chart 16 composed of two
concurred parts. For comparison, rankings
of the same nations according to defence
expenditures, based on CIA and SIPRI data,
are put to the chart as well.
It can be deduced from the chart that the
highest disproportions of the evaluated
118
positions between the GFP and other two
information sources are evident for
Ukraine, Philippines and Switzerland, as
well as to a great extent also for Argentine,
Finland, Libya and Denmark. Relatively
very high GFP evaluation of the Swiss
military power could result from the high
mobilisation potential (within the concept
of total forces) and the advanced
infrastructure. On the other hand, ranking of
Greece and Spain seems be significantly
lower than should correspond to their
defence expenditures. Between values of
defence expenditures counted by CIA and
SIPRI, the most striking differences are
apparent for Egypt, Sweden, Switzerland,
Ethiopia, Portugal, Georgia, Afghanistan,
Nepal and Qatar.
Chart 16: CIA and SIPRI ranking of countries with highest defence expenditures compared to GFP evaluation
of the complex military power – part 1 a 2 [6,7,11]
7. Trends of future development
After publishing the newest ISSS data and
other topical information from the area of
military advances the highest attention of
defence analysts was attracted by two
important facts. First, that China escalates
its defence expenditures, specifically
probably by more than 11% [13] and
second, by the estimation that for the first
time in history Asia would overtake Europe
in regard of defence spending [14].
While the USA is maintaining its clear
dominancy, the most important tendency
appears to be especially the change of
balance between Europe and Asia. In
particular China and India, as emerging and
quickly developing economies, strengthen
also their military potentials. Concurrently
potential of Russia is also quickly growing
and consequently that of the BRIC as well.
Such trends may be also exemplified by the
respective data on the main defence
spenders as provided in Chart 17 showing
spending changes within last ten years [15].
Based on that data, noticeable growth of the
three main BRIC countries, USA and Saudi
Arabia is apparent on one side while on the
other, except for the UK, perceivable
decrease or stagnation in the biggest EU
countries and Japan.
Chart 17: Percentage change of defence
expenditures (2001 to 2010) in ten biggest spenders
[14]
There are also some noticeable changes as
concerns the arms trade. One of them is that
overall amount of imports raised according
to the SIPRI data by 24% within five years.
[16] Regarding individual nations, China
starts to be an important exporter of its own
weapon systems and consequently dropped
in the amount of imports from the second to
the fourth place, behind South Korea and
Pakistan. Singapore shifted from the
seventh to the fifth place while Greece from
the fourth to the tens though it still remains
the biggest EU importer and remained
together with the UK and Norway among
the only EU importers placed among the
first twenty. Conversely, ranking of the five
biggest exporters did not change and those
countries, namely the USA, Russia,
Germany, France and UK control about
75% of the whole export volume.
119
8. Conclusions
Elaborated analysis revealed complexity of
an attempt to determine and compare
military power of selected nations. It is
underlined by significantly distinct data
from different sources in particular as for
the countries that are not transparent
enough in terms of their defence
expenditures and arms trade. Some more
sources of information could be evidently
used which was not, however, an aim of the
analysis. On the contrary, only the sources
recognised by the international community
as the most relevant were utilised.
Rendered comparisons are revealing a
disquieting fact that many European
countries, in particular, are trying to solve
impacts of the world economical crisis to a
large extent by weakening their military
power. With the aim to keep standards of
living of the population and influenced by
the public opinion, security and in
particular external security topics tend to be
curtailed.
Accentuated effect of continuing changes in
the global strategic balance is shifting
eastwards. Due to the growing strength and
power of China, Russia and India, attention
of the USA is more focusing on Asia. When
multiplied by the influence of the deepening
economical crisis it should inevitably lead
to the US extenuated presence and attention
to Europe and thus to NATO as well.
Current trends should give an impetus to
the EU countries for taking internal security
issues more seriously than thus far and
invest more in support of military and
defence capability developments.
Article was elaborated in support of the
research project „Trends, Risks and
Scenarios of Security Development in the
World, Europe and the Czech Republic:
Impacts on Security Policy and System of
Security in the Czech Republic“,
VG2012013009.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
120
Pires, M.-L. Europe and United States Defence Expenditure in 2010, EDA 2012.
Available at:
<http://www.eda.europa.eu/Libraries/Documents/EUUS_Defence_Data_2010.sflb.ashx
>.
Pires, M.-L. Europe and United States Defence Expenditure in 2010, EDA 2012.
Available at:
<http://www.eda.europa.eu/Libraries/Documents/EUUS_Defence_Data_2010.sflb.ashx
>.
GDP in exchange rates related to the PPP (Purchasing Power Parity) represents the
overall amount of all goods and services originated from a country and related to prices
prevailing in the USA.
Country Comparison :: GDP (purchasing power parity). Available at:
<https://www.cia.gov/ library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/ 2001rank.
html>.
BRIC = Brazil, Russia, India and China and sometimes also South Africa though
opinions on its pertinence to the group are not unique, see for instance:
<http://mg.co.za/article/2012-03-23-sa-presence-drags-down-brics>.
Country Comparison:: Military expenditures.
Available at: <https://www.cia.gov/library/ publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/
2034rank.html>.
The SIPRI Military Expenditure Database. Dostupný na: <http://milexdata.sipri.org>.
Military Balance, Figure: Comparative Defence Statistics - Defence Budgets and
Expenditures. Available at: <http://www.iiss.org/publications/military-balance/themilitary-balance-2012/press-statement/figure-comparative-defence-statistics>.
[9] SIPRI Publications. Available at : <http://www.sipri.org/publications>
[10] The Conventional Military Balance on the Korean Peninsula, IISS. Available at:
<http://www. iiss.org/publications/strategic-dossiers/north-korean-dossier/north-koreasweapons-programmes-a-net-asses/the-conventional-military-balance-on-the-kore/>.
[11] Grevatt, J. Analysts reveal 'real' North Korea 2009 defence budget. Available at:
<http://www. janes.com/ products/janes/defence-security-report.aspx?id=1065928818>.
[12] GFP, GlobalFirepower.COM, Strength in Numbers.
Available at: http://www.globalfirepower. com>.
[13] China’s Defense Budget.
Available at: //www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/ china/budget. htm>.
[14] Charting the shift in defence spending, New thinking from the International Institute for
Strategic
Studies,
IISS
Voices.
Available
at:
<http://iissvoicesblog.wordpress.com/2012/03/08/
charting-the-shift-in-defencespending>.
[15] The top 10 military spenders: increase from 2001 to 2010. Available at:
<http://www.sipri.org/
research/
armaments/milex/resultoutput/trendCharts/Top10bubble/top10bubble2010/image_view
_ fullscreen>.
[16] Holtom, P., Bromley, M., Wezeman, P., Wezeman, S. Trends in International Arms
Transfers, 2011,
SIPRI Fact Sheet, March 2012. Available at:
<http://books.sipri.org/product_info?c_product_ id=443 >.
121
RISK MANAGEMENT IN SYSTEMS
OF “SECURITY” AND “SAFETY”
Marek Šolc
Abstract: The article deals with the issue of “security” and “safety” in the system of risk
management. Specifically, it discusses the importance of security in today's society, briefly
describes the difference between the terms “security” and “safety”, and describes the safety
analysis in “safety” and “security” systems. Subsequently, the article describes the
management of security within the security and safety systems in the Czech Republic and
Slovak Republic.
Keywords: Security, Safety, Legislation, Risk Management
1. Introduction
At the beginning of the industrial
revolution there was the technical
equipment for security, at a very low
level. Over time, technology has grown
in connection with the increased degree
of complexity of systems and devices,
and constantly increasing demands for
safety,
and
therefore must
be
systematically assessed with respect to a
person who works there, and the person
who moves after work only as a third
party. Therefore, it must be the goal of
all the activities, that a person is not in
danger. The European Agency collects
statistics on OSH and surveys from
around the world. One way of comparing
the health and safety systems in the EU
Member States is the annually
announced “week of safety and health”.
Some statistics in recent years in the area
of OSH:
- every three and a half minutes
somebody in the EU dies from workrelated causes;
- each year in the EU, 142,400 people
die as a result of illness and 8900
122
people as a result of an accident at
work;
- up to one third of the total 150,000
deaths each year can be attributed to
hazardous
substances
in
the
workplace in the EU, including
21,000 deaths caused by exposure to
asbestos (Šolc, 2010).
The Slovak Republic, like the Czech
Republic, became part of the European
Community in 2004. Through the stage
of accession negotiations, the Slovak
Republic (SR) gradually assumed
different
regulations,
and
full
implementation was completed at the
time of its admission to the European
Community. This process involves the
OSH-Safety, as well as the area of civil
security - Security, and experts from the
areas of health and safety worked in
accordance with European legislation in
advance. The Slovak Republic belongs
to the countries, which pay in the past
prevention of accidents systematic
attention to modern legislation. As
a result of these activities the conditions
were created for acceptance of a safety
culture in all groups, social partners,
employees, employers and government.
SR is its geographic location in terms of
aspects of civil security - security
gateway to the EU in its eastern border
with Ukraine. Due to this fact, in this
territory all safety standards followed,
providing tightly controlled movement
along the border. SR is also the gateway
of energy carriers, oil and gas, which are
a precondition for maintaining energy
security not only for Slovak Republic,
but also in other EU countries. It is this
fact which classifies SR into a group of
strategically important countries in terms
of citizens' security.
2. The importance of security in
today's society
One of the key issues in terms of the
risks is security that characterizes the
state with minimal risk. It represents the
final state to which the company aspires
to achieve, to be able to develop
optimally. Term safety is a paired term
with the concept of danger. It is
therefore one of the two opposing states
of existence of natural, social, but also
man-made technical or technological
systems, which may be present during its
existence.
The level of safety of the company and
each individual is generated by a wide
variety of different factors. These factors
affect the processes and activities
necessary to achieve the objectives.
Safety may be affected, for example:
- Policy makers - based on the nature
and form of political power, the
system of government, the position
of law in international affairs and its
acceptance
of
international
organizations;
- Legal factors - the creation of
effective tools for the smooth
running of social processes;
- Military officials - under the state's
ability to ensure the inviolability of
its borders and defend itself, or on
the basis of their membership in
various international communities
and military defense pacts;
- Internal-security factors - related to
ensuring the protection of people,
property, cultural and social values,
but also the environment in any
situation, including emergencies;
- Economic factors - are based on a
well-functioning economy, the state,
its structure and ability to respond to
crisis events affecting the stability
and economic development due to
changes in the external environment,
such as the state's ability to generate
an acceptable standard of living of
citizens;
- Social factors - related to the
provision of the laws guaranteeing
the level of social conditions for
human life at every stage;
- Ecological factors - creating the
conditions for life on our planet, in
all its regional and territorial units
and maintaining these prescribed
standards,
also
for
future
generations;
- Technical and technological factors to carry on activities related to the
production and provision of services
for the benefit of society and without
compromising humans, nature, but
also the economy;
- Energy officials - are based on
coverage of all the energy needs of
society, from the security of
production and service, to ensuring
the security of households;
- Information factors - creating the
conditions necessary for the level of
awareness of the facts necessary for
the life of every individual, various
simplifying administrative processes
and ensuring the privacy of
individuals and the protection of
classified information defined by the
State.
Security has its internal and external
dimensions. Internal security is based on
the interpretation of its own state of the
123
subject and ability to reduce the risks
that may threaten it. It is always ready to
run in order to preserve it. External
security is based on the level and nature
of external threats and, on the other
hand, the effect of different security
features of social life (military, political,
economic). It is ready and able to cause
toward with other objects that affect the
security and quality of the object are able
to participate in a safety. Safety,
however, must be seen, assessed and
externally presented together as a
complex
and
multi-dimensional
structured wide phenomenon, which
relates to the protection of life, liberty
and property of citizens, society and its
spiritual values, and the state as a whole.
The principal means of achieving the
required level of safety of the individual
and society as a whole is:
- Defense law, aimed at preventing a
disruption of the integrity and
sovereignty of the country from the
outside, but also specific internal
threats,
- Protecting people, property and the
environment,
which
aims
at
eliminating the consequences of the
negative impact of the crisis
situations
(incidents)
due
to
anthropogenic activities, and action
of a negative natural factors,
- System of internal safety and
security order in the country, aims to
eliminate the consequences of
disruption law and order of the
country and eliminate the negative
impacts of crime, terrorism and the
124
various manifestations of antisocial
behavior (Šimák, 2006).
3. The terminology of concepts of
“security” and “safety”
Security
(Protecting
citizen-civil
security) – within the framework security
means the system of measures, forms
and methods of protection against the
destructive effects of action into human
and material values in order to cause
damage. The prime mover is mostly
human. Part of the civil safety is
minimizing the consequences of the risks
that arise as a result of major industrial
accidents, as well as adverse events that
may endanger strangers in substantial
quantities (powerline, pipeline).
Safety (Health and safety at work and
safety of technical systems) – safety
characterized by a set, form and
interconnections, minimizing measures
of physical, social, financial, mechanical,
chemical, psychological and other types
of risks, and the creation of a system of
activities to prevent and protect the
human and material values in society.
Damage occurs as a result of unintended
negative interactions in the system.
4. Safety analysis in the systems of
“security” and “safety”
Currently, there are high demands on
technical and technological equipment
(complex mechanical systems, various
machinery, tools). The properties of
these entities are now perceived in a
broad sense and include the requirement.
(Table 1)
Table 1 Facilities technical and technological equipment (Sinay, 2011)
Feature
Functional
Compliance
with
delivery date
Economy
Long life
Characteristic
Compliance with defined roles
the The ability to deliver product quickly and within the agreed
time
Economical manufacture and subsequent operation of the
equipment
Long enough and safe operation
Protecting the environment
No unauthorized loading of the environment during
production, operation, and reassessment
Health and Safety at Work- Safe created working environment or technology
Safety
The safety of technical Safely construction machinery, machine systems and
equipment-Safety
complex technical and technological equipment.
Civil Security-Security
Safe conditions for living for citizens
Transport
With limited costs and safe transport to its destination
Qualification
The ability of managers to use management tools
Maintenance
Safety during maintenance, ensure safe materials and spare
parts
To avoid the creation a risk of
failure/accident, it is necessary to
identify appropriate countermeasures
timely. In connection with the
implementation of effective actions to
minimize the risks (OSH and safety of
technical equipment, the civil security)
there is a need to know the real state of
the art equipment, as part of the system
man - machine - environment. It is
necessary
to
record
information
characterizing operation conditions and
time of operation of technical equipment,
in order to determine the value of its real
technical condition. In the system, manmachine-environment, the human factor
in terms of security as well as in terms of
safety plays a crucial role. Within the
safety, it is the consequences resulting
from unplanned activities which occur in
most cases as an end product of failure
of man. Within the security it can use the
concept dangerous man. Its aim is to
establish a causal dependency with a
negative phenomenon, so at that stage
the damage was the fullest. With regard
to the overlap of activities within the
safety and security management, it is
important to focus and integral
assessment of exposure of the human
factor, and in terms of the achievement
of the final objective, protection of all
components of the human-machineenvironment.
Creating effective options to minimize
harm within the safety, so too security,
has a common basis. In both cases, we
try to find ways, means and methods for
interruption of causal dependence of
negative phenomenon. These procedures
must be included in the scientific and
research activities in different countries,
but especially in the field of security, and
also international research consortia.
Safety and reliability of the machine
must be systematically monitored,
controlled, and conditions must be
created to minimize the negative effects
through disruption of causal dependence
disorders,
accident,
injury,
thus
minimizing the risks. Operators of
technical equipment must know usage
125
methodologies and tools for performing
these activities and must have created the
appropriate organization of management
to enable the machines and equipment to
be operated safely. One of the effective
methods for implementation of these
activities is a summary of the activities
of the maintenance technologies, and in
particular its part – Technical diagnostics
(Sinay, 2011)
5. Management of safety and security
in the Czech Republic and Slovak
Republic
In the Czech Republic, as part of the
European structures, it is possible to
define legislative support within the
frame of security, mainly of the
following laws:
- Law no. 1/1993 Coll. - Constitution
of the Czech Republic;
- Law no. 239/2000 Coll. – on
Integrated rescue system;
- Law no. 374/201 Coll. – on
Emergency medical service.
In the Slovak Republic, as part of the
European structures, it is possible to
define legislative support within the
frame of security, mainly of the
following laws:
- Law no. 460/1992 - Constitution of
the Slovak Republic;
- Law no. 129/2002 - on Integrated
rescue system;
- Law no. 579/2004 on Emergency
medical service.
The central system of management
activities within the civil security is
concentrated within the Ministry of
Interior of the Slovak Republic. On this
level will be provided training in all
areas of civil security, which includes
also the publication of documents. The
implementation of activities under the
protection of civil safety is mainly
undertaken by the Ministry of Interior
and Ministry of Defense, which
guarantee the preparation of conception,
analysis and proposal of legislative laws.
126
In some areas of life are also:
- Ministry of Environment - floods,
industrial accidents;
- Nuclear Regulatory Authority - the
area of nuclear energy;
- Ministry of Economy - economic
mobilization;
- Ministry of Health - protection of
health.
In the Czech Republic, it is possible to
define a strategic legislative support
within the frame of safety, mainly of the
following laws:
- Law no. 1/1993 Coll. - Constitution
of the Czech Republic;
- Law no. 262/2006 Coll. – on Labour
code;
- Law no. 309/2006 Coll. - Act on
further securing the conditions of
health and safety at work;
- Law no. 251/2005 Coll. – on Labour
Inspection;
- Law no. 258/2000 Coll. - on the
Protection of public health;
Prevention of accidents.
In the Slovak Republic, it is possible to
define a strategic legislative support
within the frame of safety, mainly of the
following laws:
- Law no. 460/1992 - Constitution of
the Slovak Republic;
- Law no. 311/2001 - on Labour code,
- Law no. 124/2006 Coll. - on Safety
and Health at Work;
- Law no. 125/2006 Coll. - on Labour
Inspection;
Protection,
Promotion
and
Development of Public Health;
Prevention of Major Industrial
Accidents.
The diversification of business creates
a complex
relationship
of
a
comprehensive
safety management
within the SR. Then, the system creates
the effective power in the international
network of activities, and legislative
instruments which are compatible with
these are used in international
communities. Field safety is primarily
the responsibility of the Ministry of
Labour, Social Affairs and Family of the
Slovak Republic - in some areas also of
the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry
of Defence and for mining technology it
is the Ministry of Economy, and in
accordance
with
international
agreements this is the highest authority
in the field of health and safety at work
of the National Labour Inspectorate NLI.
With respect to management activities
within safety (OSH), is characterized in
SR by compared to most economically
developed countries in that area of
occupational medicine (risks arising
from the direct hazards of health at
work) is the responsibility of the
Ministry of Health of the Slovak
Republic. What may be regarded as a
shortcoming in the current conditions in
the security activity is that no
interagency system was formed for
security management and security
system, especially for carrying out
research activities to link up to the global
projects of research teams within the EU
and outside Europe in world structures.
Only the integration of research activities
will create conditions for defining
projects by state agencies such as the
internal policy of the State, therefore SR
will create conditions to ensure that our
research subjects will participate
effectively in teams within the European
Research Area. It is quite obvious that
the limited research capacities will not
allow
participation
of
Slovak
organizations in all activities with the
same frequency. Therefore, it is
necessary to define the strategic areas in
which the Slovak Research Area has
potential to cooperate (humane area,
material security research base SR).
For lack of strategy of security can be
considered the fact that there is no
discussion on the need for carrying out
research in the field of security, whether
in the Slovak or European Research
Area. This is not highlighted in the fact
of globalization, which has resulted in
the natural implantation of such types of
risks, that are not till now known or
important within the SR. As a result of
their existence there is a changing
relationship between internal and
external security. Groupings and
individual countries have become
interdependent on vital resources,
including food, which drives the
common implementation of all policies
and measures within the civil security.
For the Slovak Republic there is
significant care for Energy media,
primarily oil and gas, which must
provide transportation for SR and its
allies in Europe.
6. Conclusion
Areas of safety and security in many
respects overlap, influence, and we can
say that together form a comprehensive
system of protection of life, health and
property of citizens. Among grouped
components of areas safety and security
belong (Sinay, 2011):
- Subject of that act must be safe, and
are mainly people (employees - such
as safety or others outside of the
technical subject-security);
- The space in which areas acting
(every business is physically part of
the State - environments in system of
man-machine-environment and is
subject
to
the
government
regulations);
- Prevention, a way of protecting a
subject over time and space, must be
performed so as to minimize the
risks already in phases of danger or
threat.
Since the current understanding of the
concept of security in the broad sense is
based on the precautionary or preventive
area of health and safety at work, as well
as the safety of technical systems 127
safety, as well as, area of civil securitysecurity, often uses the same means of
diagnosis for early identification of the
possibility of failure, accidents and
injuries. Accident or injury of people
outside technical equipment may arise as
a result of a technical failure of the
system.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
128
Niektoré poznámky k vzájomnému vzťahu Safety a Security, Konferencia
Bezpečnosť a ochrana zdraví pri práci 2010, VŠB- TU Ostrava, MPaSV ČR, máj
2010, str. 244-250, ISBN: 978-80-248-2207-5.
Sinay, J., Bezpečná technika, bezpečné pracovisko- atribúty prosperujúcej
spoločnosti, Technická univerzita v Košiciach, SjF, 2011, ISBN 978-80-5530750-3.
Sinay, J.: Údržba a riziká- ich vzájomná interakcia v podmienkach Safety a
Security, Setkáni vrcholových manažéru k problematice postavení údržby v
managementu rizík, Česká společnosť pro údržbu, Praha 2011, p. 27-36, ISBN
978-80-213-2172-4.
Šimák, L., 2006. Manažment rizík. Žilinská univerzita v Žiline, FŠI, 2006.
Šolc, M., 2010. OHS management systems as a tool for effective management of
business, Manažment v teórii a praxi 4, p. 48-56.
Thoma, K., Security research and safety aspects in Slovakia, European
perspectives on security research, Berlin Heidelberg, Springer 2011, p. 81-89.,
ISBN 978-3-645-18218-1, ISSN 1861-9924.
ORGANIZATION CONTINUITY PLANNING & MANAGEMENT
AND SOCIETAL SECURITY SCENARIOS
Jiří F. Urbánek, Jitka Raclavská, Albert Srník, Olga Šifferová and Jaroslav Vonlehmden
Abstract: This article brings quite new knowledge from societal security scenarios of civil,
property and infrastructure protection. It includes description, analysis, clear technical and
technological schemata of pertinent standard implementation of organizaton´s Continuity
Planning and Management, especially ISO 22301 and ISO/DIS 22313. These and consequent
standards are expected for human and social sciences and practice for a long period of time.
They will be very helpful for state and municipal authorities and their organizations, as well as
for the common population. They will provide a great contribution to common people’s lives,
similar to the ISO 9001-4:2000/2008, which was very important for production organization
total quality management. In this paper also, fundamental knowledge is published from special
scenario methodology design. It also takes into account the possibilities of maximum use of
computerised aid and assistance for modelling, using the method DYVELOP in future. It is an
insight into problem clarification and implementation of process and logistic access and it
corresponds with the most common contemporary trends, increasing implementing process
effectiveness. This contributed paper is a result of the Faculty of Economics and Management,
University of Defence, Development Project titled Security Laboratory supported by Czech
Ministry of Defence.
Keywords: Continuity plan and management standards & scenarios
1.
Introduction
The systems and processes of prosperous
organizations at the beginning of 21st
century embody the characters, property
and behaviour resulting from their
cooperative or competitive globalization.
The globalization takes place on many
levels, however standardization and
security levels are especially treated in
this
paper.
Efficient
global
organizational systems are distinguished
by high connectivity, complexity and
radical demand on interoperability. The
result of their mutual bindings is
evocatory pertinent relations among
participating players' entities of these
systems. These entities are never only in
cooperative relations! But there have
always been numerous portfolios of
participating "enemies", which are in
apparent or hidden opposing roles within
a prosperous organization system. They
can
overgrow
to
antagonistic
dramatically irreconcilable relations,
resulting in a crisis scene [5] or even to a
battle theatre.
The scenarios [2, 9] of such “the plays”
are then always enacted on net
integrated structure on many process
environments [8]. They operate on a
scene which is more or less competitive,
however,
always
complex
and
influencing
special
interests:
on
commodity,
informative,
financial,
productional, organizational, personal
and other important relations for this
play [8]. Together with growing
complexity [9] of global organization
systems there is developing & growing
the system´s hazard of antagonistic
relations, which doesn't create greater
129
organizational profit, but to the contrary
eliminates its effects. However, it is
necessary to note old knowledge, namely
that the process structure of any
organization system isn't static, but it
changes dynamically, innovates [3] and
forms in real-time. System´s dynamics
is characterized by interdependence,
mutual
interactions,
information
feedbacks and circular causalities [7]. It
is then possible to describe the System
and its process dynamics as mutual
dependence and incidence of system
entities. In every system, there runs an
incidence of mutual bindings and
response in cyclic feedback loops. Their
existence is conditioned by information
diffusion, relevant definite activities
which if, within pertinent system after
certain time, they return back to starting
point, influence the next system
activities. The feedback underlies the
system’s structure and at the same time
is determinant of its behaviour. The
interconnection and influence of entity´s
and system´s component bindings and
feedbacks in the cycle, can be titled as a
relation (-ship) [8]. The relation then, in
real time and owing to environment, can
change an entity´s intensity and systemic
importance.
Feedback existence is natural in
every system. Nevertheless during
system crisis development, the feedbacks
can operate in mode and impact that are
not common in “peace time”. Such
feedback is possibly titled negative,
regarding its necessity of changes
enforcing of system behaviour. For
example in the banking sector [1]:
Negative feedback of banks debts
balance and subsequently pertinent
decreasing of its rating causes financing
costs increasing, which reduce its future
ceteris paribus and this bank is more
vulnerable, because its resulting rating
decreasing would be able to bring "a
waste of the possibilities of other
financial resources obtaining" on
interbanking market. However, negative
130
feedback has the system´s self-regulation
character and they operate like a specific
automatic stabilizer, contributing to an
elimination of system´s crisis. That is
why the changes [3] are compensated by
feedback here, inducing: for example,
values growth of system´s entity A lead
to lower value of B entity than it would
be without the changes. However,
positive feedback (a growth in A leading
to higher B than it would be without the
changes), needn’t operate just in a
“positive words sense”, but they can
evoke negative feedback even [10]: for
example, price falls in a reality market
evoke declining consumer's expense, that
more and more weaken the reality
market and spread further to the other
economy sectors.
Withal for example, state and influence
of financial organizational system on the
real economy is an excellent detector of
procyclicality mechanisms, amplified
natural amplitude of economic cycle. For
example: excessive procyclicality [3]
embodies such a fluctuation that has
induced excessive expense reinforcement
of real economies and it is resulting in
the health damage of financial sector.
A question asserts to the foreground of
system´s vulnerability and security
during economic cycle: What is a
resilience to resistance against relevant
threats and hazards of relating
particular entities, even of a whole
complex organizational system? The
answer, not only for economic, but also
for other sectors of human society, is
possible obtain from the planning,
testing and auditing according to
international standards for Business
Continuity Management System BCMS. [12] The BCSM acts as part of
an organizational total management
system. It sets and innovates a continuity
of total management system activities
and processes in business life cycles.
2. BCMS
The BCMS is founded on Business
continuity planning life cycles. Next,
Figure 1 shows PDCA cycle (‘Plan-DoCheck-Act’) [14] for the planning,
establishing, implementing, operating,
monitoring, reviewing, maintaining and
continual
improvement
of
the
effectiveness of an organization’s
business continuity processes. Business
continuity planning (BCP) [12]
"identifies an organization's exposure to
internal and external threats and
synthesizes hard and soft assets to
provide effective prevention and
recovery for the organization, while
maintaining competitive advantage and
value system integrity”. It is also called
business continuity and resiliency
planning (BCRP). integrity”. It is also
called business continuity and resiliency
planning (BCRP).
Figure 1: PDCA cycle applied to BCMS processes [14]
Business continuity plan is a roadmap
for continuing operations under adverse
conditions (i. e. interruption from natural
or man-made hazards). BCP is an
ongoing state or methodology governing
how business is conducted. In the US,
governmental entities refer to the process
as continuity of operations planning
(COOP).
BCP is working out how to continue
operations under adverse conditions that
include local events like arson, theft, and
vandalism, regional incidents like
earthquakes and floods, and national
incidents like pandemic illnesses. In fact,
any event that could impact operations
should be considered, such as supply
chain interruption, loss of or damage to
critical infrastructure (major machinery
or computing/network resource). As
such, risk management must be
incorporated as part of BCP.
BCP may be a part of an organizational
learning effort that helps reduce
131
operational risk. A backup plan to run
any business event uninterrupted is a
part of business continuity plan. BCP for
specified organization is to be
implemented for the organizational level
in large scale, however the backup plan
at individual level is to be implemented
at small unit scale. The organizational
management team is accountable for
large scale BCP for any particular firm,
while
the
respective
individual
management team is accountable for
their BCP at small unit scale. This
process may be integrated with
improving security and corporate risk
management practices.
In 2004, the United Kingdom enacted
the Civil Contingencies Act 2004, a
statute that instructs all emergency
services and local authorities to actively
prepare and plan for emergencies. Local
authorities also have the legal obligation
under this act to actively lead promotion
of business continuity practices in their
respective geographical areas.
In December 2006, the British Standards
Institution (BSI) released a new
independent standard for BCP — BS
25999-1. Prior to the introduction of BS
25999, BCP professionals relied on BSI
information security standard BS 7799,
which only peripherally addressed BCP
to improve an organization's information
security compliance. BS 25999's
applicability extends to organizations of
all types, sizes, and missions whether
governmental or private, profit or nonprofit, large or small, or industry sector.
In 2007, the BSI published the second
part, BS 25999-2 "Specification for
Business Continuity Management" [12]
that
specifies
requirements
for
implementing, operating and improving
a documented BCMS.Now, whilst
BS25999-2 and BS ISO 22301 [13] are
the new standards, the subject matter is
anything but new.
Since time
immemorial people have practiced BCM
- from the wise virgins (probably earlier,
but we could not find a reference for it)
132
to the present day - the art of BCM has
been practiced.
BS25999-1 describes the activities and
'outcomes' of establishing a BCM
process. It also provides a series of
recommendations for good practice. ISO
22301 defines the requirements for a
management systems approach to
business continuity management. It
provides assistance to the person
responsible for implementing BCM
within an organization. It describes a
framework and process for the Business
Continuity Manager to use and offers a
range
of
good
practice
recommendations. ISO22301 offers the
basis for certification. It defines
management systems’ requirements
within a specification. These, however,
can be used by internal or external
bodies. BS25999 was produced through
the British Standard Institution. The
sponsors of the original document,
which was called PAS 56, were the BCI
and Insight Consulting, although a
number of other organizations were
consulted during the development,
including EDS, Sainsbury's and the Post
Office. ISO 22301 was produced by
International Standard Organization,
using BS25999-2 as a primary input.
This standard will be implemented in
various environments. Special targeted
environment – societal has derivative
ISO/DIS 22313.
3. ISO 22313
The ISO 22313 is the Standard for
Societal security — BCMS [14]. This
international standard issues from British
BS25999 plus ISO 22301 and provides
guidance for setting up and managing an
effective BCMS in societal security
environment, which is the most
universal
and
for
this
reason
recomendations from this standard will
mostly be cited.
A BCMS emphasizes the importance of:
- Understanding the organization’s
needs and the necessity for
establishing business continuity
management policy and objectives;
- Implementing and operating controls
and measures for managing an
organization’s
overall
business
continuity risks;
- Monitoring and reviewing the
performance and effectiveness of the
BCMS and
- Continual improvement based on
objective measurement.
BCMS, like any other management
system, includes the following key
components:
a) A policy;
b) People with defined responsibilities;
c) Management processes relating to:
policy, planning; implementation
and
operation,
performance
assessment, management review and
improvement;
d) A set of documentation providing
auditable evidence and
e) Any
business
continuity
management processes relevant to
the organization.
Business continuity contributes to a
more resilient society. The wider
community and the organization’s
environmental
impact
on
any
organization and therefore other
organizations may need to be involved in
the recovery processes.
BCM is about preparing an organization
to deal with disruptive incidents that
might otherwise prevent it from
achieving its objectives. Any incident,
large or small, natural, accidental or
deliberate has the potential to cause
major disruption to the organization’s
operations and its ability to deliver
products and services. However,
implementing BCM now, rather than
waiting for this to happen, will enable
the organization to resume operations
before unacceptable levels of impact
arise. BCM is not complicated. It
involves:
a) Identifying the organization´s key
products and services;
b) Identifying the prioritized activities
and resources required to deliver
them;
c) Evaluating the threats to these
activities and their dependencies;
d) Putting arrangements in place to
resume these activities following an
incident; and
e) Making sure that these arrangements
will
be
effective
in
all
circumstances.
Figure 2: Mitigating impacts in certain solutions [14]
133
Activities may be disrupted by a wide
variety of incidents, many of which are
difficult to predict or analyze.
By focusing on the impact of disruption,
BCM identifies those activities on which
the organization depends for its survival,
and enables the organization to
determine what is required to continue to
meet its obligations. Through BCM, an
organization may recognize what needs
to be done to protect its people,
premises,
technology,
information,
supply chain, interested parties and
reputation, before an incident occurs.
With that, it can take a realistic view on
the responses that are likely to be needed
as and when a disruption occurs, so that
it may be confident of managing the
consequences and avoid unacceptable
levels of impacts.
An organization with appropriate
business
continuity
management
measures in place may also be able to
take advantage of opportunities that
might otherwise be judged to be too high
risk.
The diagrams on Figure 2 [14] are
intended to illustrate conceptually how
BCM may be effective in mitigating
impacts in certain solutions. No
particular timescales are implied by the
relative distance between the stages
depicted in either diagram.
International standard ISO 22313 for
business continuity provides guidance
based on best international practice for
planning, establishing, implementing,
operating,
monitoring,
reviewing,
maintaining and continually improving a
documented management system that
enables organizations to prepare for,
respond to, and recover from disruption.
It is not the intent of this International
Standard to imply uniformity in the
structure of a BCMS but for an
organization to design a BCMS that is
appropriate to its needs and that meets
the requirements of its interested parties.
These needs are shaped by legal,
regulatory, organizational and industry
134
requirements, the products and services,
the processes employed, the size and
structure of the organization and the
requirements of its interested parties.
This international standard is generic and
applicable to all sizes and types of
organizations, including large, medium
and small organizations operating in
industrial, commercial, public and notfor-profit sectors that wish to: establish,
implement, maintain and improve a
BCMS; assure conformance with the
organization’s
business
continuity
policy; or iii/ make a self-determination
and self-declaration of compliance with
this ISO.
This standard should not be used to
assess an organization’s ability to meet
its own business continuity needs, nor
any customer, legal or regulatory needs.
Organizations wishing to do so should
use the ISO 22301 to demonstrate
conformance to others or seek
certification/registration of its BCMS by
an accredited third party certification
body.
4. BCM providing phase
Life cycles of BCM Implementation
contains the next phases:
- Analysis;
- Solution design;
- Implementation;
- Testing
and
organizational
acceptance;
- Maintenance.
The Analysis phase, in the development
of a BCP manual, consists of an impact
analysis, threat analysis and impact
scenarios with the resulting BCP plan
requirement documentation.
Impact analysis (business impact
analysis,
BIA)
results
in
the
differentiation between critical (urgent
or crisis) and non-critical (non-urgent)
organization functions/ activities. A
function may be considered critical if the
implications for stakeholders of resulting
damage to the organization are regarded
as unacceptable. Perceptions of the
acceptability of disruption may be
modified by the cost of establishing and
maintaining appropriate business or
technical recovery solutions. A function
may also be considered critical if
dictated by law. For each critical (in
scope) function, two values are then
assigned:
Recovery Point Objective (RPO) – the
acceptable latency of data that will not
be recovered;
Recovery Time Objective (RTO) – the
acceptable amount of time to restore the
fiction.
The RPO must ensure that the maximum
tolerable data loss for each activity is not
exceeded. The RTO must ensure that the
Maximum
Tolerable
Period
of
Disruption (MTPD) for each activity is
not exceeded.
Next, the impact analysis results in the
recovery requirements for each critical
function. Recovery requirements consist
of the following information:
The business requirements for recovery
of the critical function, and/or
The technical requirements for recovery
of the critical fiction.
Threat analysis comes after defining
recovery requirements, documenting
potential threats is recommended to
detail a specific disaster’s unique
recovery steps. Some common threats
include
the
following:
Disease;
Earthquake; Fire; Flood; Cyber attack;
Sabotage (insider or external threat);
Hurricane or other major storm; Utility
outage; Terrorism; Theft (insider/
external theft, vital information or
material);
Random failure of mission-critical
systems. All threats share a common
impact: the potential of damage to
organizational infrastructure – except
one (disease). The impact of diseases can
be regarded as purely human, and may
be alleviated with technical and business
solutions. However, if the humans
behind these recovery plans are also
affected by the disease, then the process
can fall down.
The organizations also banned face-toface contact between opposing team
members during business and nonbusiness hours. With such a split,
organizations increased their resiliency
against the threat of government-ordered
quarantine measures if one person in a
team contracted or was exposed to the
disease. Damage from flooding also has
a unique characteristic; if an office
environment is flooded with nonsalinated and contamination-free water.
Definition of impact scenarios comes
after
defining
potential
threats,
documenting the impact scenarios that
form the basis of the business recovery
plan is recommended. In general,
planning for the most wide-reaching
disaster or disturbance is preferable to
planning for a smaller scale problem, as
almost all smaller scale problems are
partial elements of larger disasters. A
typical impact scenario like 'building
loss' will most likely encompass all
critical business functions, and the worst
potential outcome from any potential
threat. A business continuity plan may
also document additional impact
scenarios if an organization has more
than one building. Other more specific
impact scenarios – for example a
scenario for the temporary or permanent
loss of a specific floor in a building –
may also be documented. Organizations
sometimes underestimate the space
necessary to make a move from one
venue to another.
Recovery requirement documentation
comes after the completion of the
analysis phase, the business and
technical
plan
requirements
are
documented in order to commence the
Solutions design phase. A good asset
management program can be of great
assistance here and allow for quick
identification of available and reallocatable resources. For an officebased, IT intensive business, the plan’s
135
requirements may cover the following
elements which may be classed as ICE
(In Case of Emergency) Data: The
numbers and types of desks, whether
dedicated or shared, required outside of
the primary business location in the
secondary location;
The individuals involved in the recovery
effort along with their contact and
technical details;
The applications and application data
required from the secondary location
desks for critical business functions;
The manual workaround solutions;
The maximum outage allowed for the
applications;
The peripheral requirements like
printers,
copiers,
fax
machines,
calculators, paper, pens etc.
Other business environments, such as
production, distribution, warehousing
etc. will need to cover these elements,
but are likely to have additional issues to
manage following a disruptive event.
Solution design goal is to identify the
most cost effective disaster recovery
solution that meets
two main
requirements from the impact analysis
stage. For IT applications, this is
commonly expressed as:
The
minimum
application
and
application data requirements; the time
frame in which the minimum application
and application data must be available.
Disaster recovery plans may also be
required outside the IT applications
domain, for example in preservation of
information in hard copy format, loss of
skill staff management, or restoration of
embedded technology in process plant.
This BCP phase overlaps with disaster
recovery planning methodology. The
solution phase determines: the crisis
management command structure; the
location of a secondary work site (where
necessary);
telecommunication
architecture between primary and
secondary work sites; data replication
methodology between primary and
secondary work sites; the application and
136
software required at the secondary work
site, and the type of physical data
requirements at the secondary work site.
Implementation phase, quite simply, is
the execution of the design elements
identified in the solution design phase.
Work package testing may take place
during the implementation of the
solution, however; work package testing
does not take the place of organizational
testing.
Testing and organizational acceptance
purpose is to achieve organizational
acceptance that the business continuity
solution satisfies the organization's
recovery requirements. Plans may fail to
meet expectations due to insufficient or
inaccurate
recovery
requirements,
solution design flaws, or solution
implementation errors. Testing may
include: Crisis command team call-out
testing; Technical swing test from
primary to secondary work locations;
Technical swing test from secondary to
primary work locations; Application
test; and Business process test.
At minimum, testing is generally
conducted on a biannual or annual
schedule. Problems identified in the
initial testing phase may be rolled up
into the maintenance phase and retested
during the next test cycle.
The Maintenance of a BCP manual is
broken down into three periodic
activities. The first activity is the
confirmation of information in the
manual; roll out to ALL staff for
awareness and specific training for
individuals whose roles are identified as
critical in response and recovery. The
second activity is the testing and
verification of technical solutions
established for recovery operations. The
third activity is the testing and
verification of documented organization
recovery procedures. A biannual or
annual maintenance cycle is typical.
5. Conclusion to scenario design
Three types of exercise scenarios can be
employed when testing business
continuity plans.
Simple exercises are often called a
‘desktop’ or ‘workshop’.
Medium exercises will invariably be
conducted within a Virtual World and
will usually bring together several
departments, teams or disciplines.
Complex exercises are perhaps the
hardest to define as they aim to have as
many boundaries as possible.
Rules for Exercise Scenarios design will
be the object of our next research
activities.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
AIKMAN, D. et al. 2009. Funding liquidity risk in a quantitative model of
systemic stability, Bank of England working paper No. 372.
ARLOW, J. NEUSTADT, I. Enterprise Patterns and MDA, Addison-Wesley,
2006, ISBN 0-321—11230-X.
DRUCKER, P. Innovation and entrepreneurial spirit, Management press, Prague,
1991.
GERLACH, S. GRUNEWALD,P. Procyclicality of Financial Systems in Asia,
Hong Kong Institute of Monetary research: 2006.
HAMMER, M. CHAMPY, J. Reengineering, Management press, 1993.
MACH, O. Příprava, provedení a vyhodnocení cvičení k ověření připravenosti na
jaderné, nebo na radiologické mimořádné události, (Czech) International Atomic
Energy Agency: 2005.
RICHARDSON,G.P. System dynamics, In Encyclopedia of Operations Research
and Information Science, Saul Gass and Carl Harris, eds., Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 2011.
URBÁNEK, J. F.: Teorie procesů – management environmentů, CERM Brno,
2003, ISBN 80-7204-232-7.
URBÁNEK, J. F. a kol. Scénáře adaptivní kamufláže. Brno: Tribun EU s.r.o.,
2012, ISBN 978-80-263-0211-7.
KUBICOVÁ, I. Et al. Analýza mikrofinančních rizik a jejich přenosů v kontextu
zranitelnosti české ekonomiky, Hlávkovo nadání, Praha, 2012, ISBN978-8086729-76-3.
EPR–EXERCISE. Preparation, Conduct and Evaluation of Exercises to Test
Preparedness for a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency, International Atomic
Energy Agency: 2005.
BS25999-2.
ISO 22301:2011.
ISO/DIS 22313:2012.
137
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR ENTITIES
AND THEIR UTILISATION FOR ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT
Jana Vodáková
Abstract: This paper concentrates on financial statements of the public sector entities and their
possible utilization for the purposes of economic management. Firstly the paper analyses
structure and content of financial statements in relation to accounting reform, as proceeding
nowadays in the Czech public sector. This reform, characterized by shifting from cash to
accrual basis of accounting, has influenced structure and content of financial statements
significantly. Further, the paper deals with economic management in the public sector,
explains some principal terms and introduces the main findings of a survey undertaken among
economic managers in the Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic.
Keywords: Cash Basis, Accrual Basis, Financial Statements, Statement of
Financial Position, Statement of Financial Performance
1. Introduction
Financial accounting of public sector
entities is characterized by shifting from
cash to accrual basis within the last
decades. This trend is mainly typical for
developed countries including the Czech
Republic.
Traditional (cash) basis of accounting is
defined as [1] a basis under which
transactions and other events are
recognized when they are directly
connected with cash inflows and
outflows. Consequently transactions that
are not instantly connected with money
increases and decreases cannot be
recorded entirely under cash basis and
subsequently released in time for related
financial statements.
But, in fact, these transactions including
depreciation, provisions, contingent
liabilities or contingent assets can be
material and they can influence the
financial position of the public sector
entity significantly.
So
financial
statements prepared under cash basis can
be insufficient for the purposes of
138
economic management.
For that reason many developed
countries have decided to improve
accounting data information and
substitute the traditional cash system of
accounting for an accrual one.
Actually, under the accrual basis [1]
transactions and events are only
recognized when they really occur and
not just when they are instantly
connected with money inflows and
outflows. Then, transactions and events
are released in financial statements of the
period to which they relate.
As a consequence, assets, liabilities, net
assets/equity, revenue, and expenses are
recognized in financial statements of the
public sector entities. For that reason
financial statements prepared under the
accrual basis of accounting can serve
various purposes of accounting data
users better than statements prepared
under cash basis.
Besides, financial statements prepared
under accrual basis enable mutual
comparison not only among entities
within the public sector but also across
different economic sectors. So we can
compare, for instance, accounting data of
the public sector entity and business
entity which may enable more effective
allocation of the public finance or
transparent evaluation of the public
sector performance. The vast majority of
business entities prepare financial
statements under accrual basis routinely.
Unfortunately, cash and accrual basis of
accounting represent only two limited
attitudes to organization of the
accounting system. For example,
Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD) in that
context, refers to four ways [2] to
organize financial accounting, or Chan
[3] describes three degrees of accrual
accounting. In reality a specific form of
accrual elements implementation can
differ significantly within developed
countries, which can make mutual
international
comparison
rather
complicated. On the other hand full
implementation is often recommended
by accounting experts. Likewise, other
developed countries, also the Czech
Republic, decided to modernize and
harmonize accounting methodology of
the public sector at the beginning of the
21st century. In 2007 the Government of
the Czech Republic in Resolution No.
561 announced for the first time an
intention to implement accrual basis
broadly to the public sector. The
resolution defined the main principles
and tasks in order to launch financial
accounting and reporting under the
accrual basis till 2010.
Though implementation of some
demanding accrual elements was
postponed, it can be stated now that a
basic goal of the accounting reform was
fulfilled and the Czech public sector
entities
have
released
financial
statements prepared under accrual basis
regularly since 2011.
At its first part this paper concentrates on
financial statements as the most
important output from the system of
financial
accounting. It analyses
structure of statements and their content
in the context of proceeding public
sector accounting reform. Further, the
paper introduces the main findings
concerning possibilities of accounting
data utilization for the purposes of
economic management. These findings
were obtained partly as an output from
the survey undertaken among financial
managers of the Ministry of Defence of
the Czech Republic in 2012.
As basic scientific methods, description,
analysis and synthesis were mainly used.
Findings presented in the paper were
supported by the Czech Science
Foundation and the Ministry of Defence
of the Czech Republic (Grant Project
GACR No. P403/10/0609).
2. Reformed financial statements
Analysis and comparison of financial
statements before the public sector
accounting reform, and now carried out
in the terms of above-mentioned
research, suggest that both structure and
content of statements have changed
significantly. Primarily it can be stated
that structure of statements released
compulsorily for external users enlarges.
Also the content of current statements is
changed or supplemented.
On the other hand structure and content
of financial statements harmonize and
standardize across various entities of the
public sector which evidently contributes
to their mutual comparison and
transparency. Thus financial statements
can better serve various purposes of
internal and external users.
2.1 Structure of financial statements
Compulsory structure of financial
statements is specified in Act No.
563/1992 Coll., on Accounting.
139
According to the act financial statements
of the public sector entities represent an
integral complex including:
- Statement of Financial Position;
- Statement of Financial Performance;
- Notes.
As long as a public sector entity fulfils
two criteria, i.e. total assets more than 40
million Czech crowns and annual net
turnover more than 80 million Czech
crowns, it is obliged to prepare:
- Cash Flow Statement;
- Statement of Changes in Net
Assets/Equity.
Statement of Financial Position informs
potential users about assets, net
assets/equity and liabilities of a specific
public sector entity. Statement of
Financial
Performance
contains
information about revenue, expenses,
and net profit or loss for the period. Cash
Flow Statement introduces annual
changes in cash inflows and outflows
from operating, investing and financing
activities. Statement of Changes in Net
Assets/Equity shows annual changes in
specific items of net assets/equity.
Taking into account the limited extent of
the paper, the next text is concentrated
mainly on Statement of Financial
Position and Statement of Financial
Performance as the most frequently used
statements.
2.2 Statement of Financial Position
In table 1 a simplified form of Statement
of Financial Position is introduced. As
follows from the table, total assets (left
side of balance) encompass non-current
and current assets [4]. The right side of
balance is created by net assets/equity
and liabilities. Especially, reporting of
non-current assets and net assets/equity
has gone through significant changes in
the course of accounting reform. Many
public sector entities did not recorded
depreciations before the reform. From
2012 non-current assets are presented in
financial statements in “brutto” (gross)
value, i.e. before depreciation and
“netto” (net) value (after depreciation).
Also the total amount of depreciation is
presented separately in Statement of
Financial Position. For example in the
Ministry of Defence, net value of noncurrent
assets
has
decreased
approximately by 50 % in comparison
with their value before the reform due to
depreciation. It is assumed that a similar
situation may exist in other ministries
too.
As to net assets/equity, there are some
changes in terminology of specific items
and their content, especially relating to
obligatory budget structure. The same
situation concerns specific items of
current financial assets. Classification of
assets and liabilities as non-current and
current is strictly claimed by accounting
legislature while the crucial limit from
this point of view represents a one year
period.
Table 1 Statement of Financial Position
Total net assets/equity & liabilities
Net assets/equity
- Capital of entity
Total assets
Non-current assets
- Intangible assets
- Land and buildings, infrastructure, plant
- Funds of entity
and equipment
- Financial assets
- Net profit (net loss)
- Receivables
- Accumulated profits (losses)
Current assets
Liabilities
- Inventories
- Provisions
- Receivables
- Non-current liabilities
- Financial assets (cash and cash
- Current liabilities
equivalents included)
Source: Annex 1 to Decree No. 410/2009 Coll.
140
2.3
Statement
of
Financial
Performance
Probably the most important changes can
be distinguished in Statement of
Financial Performance. While before the
reform, public sector entities prepared
this statement in restricted form and this
form varied significantly from the
statement prepared by businesses,
nowadays the statement is harmonized
across various entities and its content is
enlarged.
As implied from table 2 the statement
informs about expenses, revenue and
their difference, i.e. net profit or net loss
for calendar year period [4]. Total
expenses encompass expenses from
activity, financial expenses, cost of
transfers, cost from shared taxes and
charges, and income tax.
Expenses from activity represent for
example material and other supplies
consumption,
utilities,
purchased
services, wages, salaries and employee
benefits, depreciation and amortization
or direct taxes. Especially, wages,
salaries and employee benefits constitute
a significant part of total expenses of the
public sector entities. Also, depreciation
and amortization expenses can be
material.
Total revenue includes revenue from
activity, financial revenue, revenue from
transfers, and revenue from taxes and
charges (shared included). Revenue from
activity can include for example revenue
from sale of products, goods or services,
rent revenue, taxes, fees or penalties. In
the case of the public sector entities
(especially if they are fully financed from
the public budget) revenue may not be
material. In that event net loss is
identified.
According to Decree No. 410/2009 Coll.
all expenses and revenue must be
classified as expenses and revenue from
main activity and expenses and revenue
from commercial activities. Main
activity is defined as an activity for
which an entity was established. Other
activities
can
be
indicated
as
commercial.
Complex and realistic information on
expenses of the public sector entities can
be very beneficial in a process of
economic management or budget
planning. Unfortunately problems with
recognition of some kinds of expenses
still remain in financial statements. For
example energy consumption or utilities
can be technically complicated to divide
into adequate portions among specific
entities.
Table 2 Statement of Financial performance
Total expenses
Total revenue
Expenses from activity
Revenue from activity
- Material and other supplies consumption - Revenue from sale of products
- Energy consumption
- Revenue from sale of services
- Other utilities and services
- Revenue from sale of goods
- Wages, salaries and employee benefits
- Rent revenue
- Depreciation and amortization expense
- Taxes, fees, penalties
- Other expenses
- Other revenue
Financial expenses
Financial revenue
Cost of transfers
Revenue from transfers
Cost from shared taxes and charges
Revenue from taxes and charges
Income tax
Revenue from shared taxes and charges
Net profit for period
Net loss for period
Source: Annex 2 to Decree No. 410/2009 Coll.
141
3. Financial statements utilization
Both above mentioned statements are
further supplemented by Notes. In Notes
external users can find information about
accounting methods used, evaluation
patterns, detailed data concerning
infrastructure actives and so on. It seems
that thanks to the reform information
capability of financial statements
increases positively.
On the other hand, changes in accounting
systems make considerable demands for
costly software upgrades, organizational
changes, time-consuming asset database
upgrades, personal training or issuing
internal directives.
Implementation of some accrual
elements such as depreciation or accruals
and deferrals is also inevitably connected
with utilisation of assessments which can
limit or even decrease information
capability of financial statements.
It is also questionable whether both
external and internal users sufficiently
understand the content of financial
statements and in what way they can use
them. In the case of internal users it is
questionable too whether they have
sufficient authority and adequate
management system.
For that reason a survey via
questionnaire was undertaken among
economic managers of the Ministry of
Defence of the Czech Republic in 2012.
The survey was concentrated among
others on accessibility, content and
utilization of financial statements. 75 %
of questionnaires were filled and
returned by managers. The survey has
showed the following results:
3.1 Accessibility and utilization of
financial statements
67 % of respondents stated that they
always have financial statements at their
disposal. (In fact these statements are
available to all economic managers
anytime). The same percentage of
respondents further announced that these
data are utilized only occasionally. In an
142
open-ended question respondents added
that most frequently they use a statement
of budgetary resources exploitation.
Once a year a brief financial analysis is
prepared out of financial statements by
Regional Financial Department as
“Rating” and provided to commanders
(and economic managers). It was
sounded out that 58 % of commanders
never use this analysis and 25 % use it
rarely.
These findings correspond with former
assumptions and they are probably
typical for the whole public sector or at
least state administration. Though
financial statements are commonly
available to economic managers or
commanders, they do not use them very
often and instead they only control
budget expenditures.
There can probably be found more
reasons for this situation. From absence
of strategy and management concept,
through lack of demand for real
economic management, inconvenient
legislature, confused or complicated
organization structure to insufficient
system of internal training. Also
excessively centralized management
system does not generate adequate space
for economic decision-making. Then it is
necessary to define an appropriate level
of management and set up convenient
conditions for effective decision-making
process.
3.2 Concept of economic management
The basic principles of economic
management in the Czech public sector
are implied from legislature, concretely
from Act No. 320/2001 Coll. on
Financial Control in the Public
Administration [5]. This act defines 3E
Concept, i.e. Economy, Effectiveness,
Efficiency that should be obeyed within
the process of economic management.
Various authors also come out from 3E
Concept while defining effective
management in the public sector or
public administration. For example
Ochrana and Půčik [6] specify effective
management in public administration as
the gradual fulfilment of goals in relation
to reaching adequate outcomes and
exploitation of public resources in
accordance with the 3E Concept.
Abovementioned
authors
further
introduce basic assumptions of effective
economic management in the public
administration [6]. Among these
assumptions, they include external and
internal framework conditions settingup, availability of managers, adequate
goals setting-up, gradual goal fulfilment,
feedback and control of main indicator
fulfilment.
The abovementioned authors indicate as
the most urgent problems of the public
sector management gradual feedback and
control of goal fulfilment. The main
reason for this situation is, according to
them, obsolete information about the
state of public sector activities and
successive delay in corrective remedies.
75 % of survey respondents (economic
managers)
mentioned
they
are
familiarized sufficiently with 3E
Concept. A further 67 % of them think
they dispose of adequate authority to
realize 3E Concept. On the other hand,
surprisingly 42 % of respondents
introduce the idea that commanders only
rarely take their economic opinions and
recommendations into consideration.
Only 42 % of respondents further think
they are familiarized sufficiently with
instruments of economic management,
33 % of respondents are not sure
whether they are familiarized with
appropriate instruments. Interesting
results concern also internal conditions
for economic management. 42 % of all
respondents think that necessary
conditions for economic management do
not exist in the Ministry of Defence.
33 % of respondents are sure that
necessary conditions do not exist there.
In an open-ended question respondents
specified that the main obstacle of
economic management represents a high
level of centralization and relatively poor
space for independent decision-making.
In consequence of this obstacle 58 % of
respondents quoted that they only
seldom utilize economic management
instruments.
Relatively perturbing results are
connected with the question concerning
the system of internal training. Roughly
84 % of respondents stated that system
of internal training is either rather or
fully inconvenient. It is evident that the
system of internal training should be
improved as to economic management
principles and adequate instruments of
their realization.
4. Conclusions
Analysis and comparison of financial
statements carried out in terms of GACR
project solution showed that structure
and content of financial statements have
changed significantly. Though some
problems still exist, information
capability of financial statements for
various purposes of external and internal
users increases. Also transparency of
accounting data and possibility of their
mutual comparison improve.
On the other hand the survey undertaken
in the Ministry of Defence of the Czech
Republic suggests that accounting data
are still not adequately used for the
purposes of economic management. The
same situation probably prevails in the
whole Czech public sector. Reasons for
this situation can be various, for example
absent demand for such data utilization,
absent internal economic management
concept, high level of centralization and
poor space for economic decisionmaking, insufficient system of internal
training and so on.
In fact only accounting system can
provide external and internal users with
such a complex system of economic
data.
143
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
144
IPSASB. 2011. 2011 Handbook of International Public Sector Accounting
Pronouncements. 1914 p. ISBN 978-1-60815-582-8. Available from:
<http://www.ifac.org/publications-resources/2011-handbook-international-publicsector-accounting-pronouncements>. Accessed 2012 September 1.
OECD. 2001. Managing Public Expenditure. A Reference Book for transition
countries
504
p.
ISBN
9789264186538.
Available
from:
<http://www.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/display.asp?lang=EN&sf1=identifiers&st1=
422001051p1>. Accessed 2011 September 25.
Chan, J. L. 2006. IPSAS and Government Accounting Reform in Developing
Countries.
Available
from:
<http://blog-pfm.imf.org/files/
chan2006ipsasgafdc.pdf>. Accessed 2012 September 1.
Decree no. 410/2009 Coll. To Act no. 563/1992 Coll. on Accounting.
Act no. 320/2001 Coll. on Financial Control in the Public Administration.
Ochrana, F, Půček, M. 2011. Efektivní zavádění a řízení změn ve veřejné správě:
Smart Administration. 1st ed. Praha: Wolters Kluwer ČR. 2011. 248 p. ISBN 97880-7375-667-7
APPLYING LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AS
EFFECTIVE DISTANCE LEARNING TOOL: EXPERIENCE FROM
THE FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT
Dana Zerzánová, Marek Sedlačík, Ivana Čechová, Martin Pop and Jana Beránková
Abstract: During the last decades, views of learning have changed. These changes are having a
profound effect on formal learning, particularly in institutions of tertiary education. Online
education is perceived by many teachers as an innovation that has considerable potential for
enhancing teaching and learning and can be beneficial for learning in ways not available in
traditional systems, because of the active role the learner plays in knowledge acquisition.
Learning management systems are becoming ubiquitous technology adopted by universities,
and can be defined as web-based systems that allow instructors and/or students to share
materials, submit and return assignments, and communicate online.
In this paper, we report on how three different subjects, Economics, Econometrics and English
Language, deal with distance courses and study supports for distance learners. Initial sections
of the paper focus on definitions of Learning Management Systems and pedagogical principles
of e-learning. The next section states the findings of a qualitative research which was carried
out as a part of the Faculty of Economics and Management research project. In the last part we
present experience from three different subjects and give some practical examples.
Keywords: tertiary education, distance learning, combined form of study,
Learning Management System Barborka, study supports
1. Learning Management Systems
The movement from classical education
towards e-learning is a natural process
for educational institutions of the 21st
century. E-learning is perceived by many
educators as an innovation that has a
significant chance to enhance teaching
and learning, promote lifelong learning
and reach out to distance learners. Elearning includes instructions delivered
via all electronic media including the
Internet,
intranets,
broadcasts,
audio/video means, and CD-ROMs. All
efforts to implement e-learning will
eventually
move
towards
total
automation of administrating the
teaching and learning processes by
means of software known as Learning
Management System (LMS).
LMS comprises the core in a modern
virtual learning environment and can
range from a system for managing
training and educational records, to
software for distributing courses over the
Internet with features for online
collaboration [8]. It takes over the role of
integrating the different technologies
into a common learning environment.
LMS primarily focuses on the
management of learning and training
processes, distributing the learning
content, supporting the learning process,
and serving as a general communication
point and interface between a learner and
a teacher [6]. Today’s LMSs offer
content management and learning
process
technologies.
Content
management functionalities enable an
145
organisation to administer a large scale
of different learning objects, to group
them into different courses or learning
settings.
Process
management
functionalities allow the organisation to
manage the workflows and business
processes, to inform learners and
teachers about events or learning
activities, to set up a syllabus, and to run
training programmes. Hall defines LMS
as: “……software that automates the
administration of training events. All
Learning Management Systems manage
the log-in of registered users, manage
course catalogues, record data from
learners, and provide reports to
management.” [5].
LMS is often considered a substantial
element of both e-learning and distance
study programmes. This point of view is
reasonable from a perspective of control
and management, but from the
perspective of education itself is at least
disputable. The imperative today is not a
mere access to knowledge, but the
prompt access to relevant and useful
knowledge. The real value of e-learning
lies not in its ability to train just anyone,
anytime, anywhere, but especially in the
ability to deploy this attribute to train the
right people to gain the right skills or
knowledge at the right time. Only then
can e-learning yield a justifiable return
on investment considering the costs
incurred in implementing e-learning [3].
The organisational LMS, however, has to
be compatible with a variety of social
network platforms, search engines, open
web services, blogs or wikis, open
content repositories and a high number
of other applications. Thus, the challenge
for organisations today is: “How can
they manage the variety of technologies
and simultaneously foster the creativity
and motivation of their users?” [4].
One of significant future challenges with
LMS usage is the development of
technologies supporting collaborative
learning environments. But LMS is a
146
mere tool, not a strategy. Being
proficient in the use of any technology
does not guarantee that the student will
be successful and reach his/her
educational goals. Likewise, LMS itself
cannot improve the quality of learning
you implement in it.
1.1
Pedagogical
principles
of e-learning
The OECD report "E-learning in Tertiary
Education: Where do we stand?" (2005)
indicates that universities primarily use
LMS for administrative purposes, and
that LMS so far have had a limited
impact on pedagogy: "ICT has
penetrated tertiary education, but has had
more impact on administrative services
(e.g. admissions, registration, fee
payment, purchasing) than on the
pedagogic
fundamentals
of
the
classroom." [9].
Both administration and technology
support are important for any form of elearning but pedagogical principles also
play a crucial role in any form of
learning. It is obvious that different
LMSs can affect the educational changes
needed. The objective is achievable only
if the technology designers address the
underlying
gaps
in
pedagogical
coherence. The proper pedagogic use of
LMS constitutes by itself an innovative
pedagogic methodology that transforms
the traditional communication structures
and favours the application of many
other pedagogic principles that were
difficult to be applied up to now in the
context of the traditional educational
system.
It is possible to confirm that most of the
pedagogical principles that apply to the
traditional classroom delivery method
also apply to e-learning, but these
principles need to be extended to
accommodate and provide for the rapid
changes in technology. Pedagogical
principles must form the very basis for
inclusion of features in LMS. These
principles should be integrated into the
LMS where every feature included is
accompanied by explicit guidelines on
the best method of their use to effect
pedagogically sound instruction. [3].
Kopecky [8], White [13]) and Rosenberg
[11] have identified the following
dimensions of successful distance
learning:
- connectivity (access to information
is available on a global scale);
- flexibility (learning can take place
any time, any place);
- interactivity (assessment of learning
can be immediate and autonomous);
- collaboration (use of discussion
tools can support collaborative
learning beyond the classroom;
- extension of opportunities (econtent can reinforce and extend
classroom-based learning);
- motivation (multimedia resources
can make learning fun).
E-learning can have a broadly positive
pedagogical impact. This fact has been
proved by detailed research (e.g.
OECD/CERI, 2005), but there is also
indirect evidence such as students’
satisfaction surveys, students’ needs
analysis, etc. Rosenberg claims that “…..
introducing new technology for learning
- we are introducing a new way to think
about learning” [11].
2. LMS Barborka
Students of the present form of study are
in a regular face-to-face contact with
their language teachers but students of
the combined form of study cannot use
such possibilities because their face-toface teaching is reduced to a minimum.
Nowadays, there are 216 students of
combined form of study at the Faculty of
Economics and Management, 145
military students and 65 civilian ones.
For them, the computer is not only a
welcomed, but an absolutely essential
device for self-study as well as for their
contact with teachers and schoolmates.
That was one of the main reasons why
the purchase of LMS Barborka from
Ostrava Technical University in 2006
was accepted with enthusiasm.
LMS Barborka seems to be a very
appropriate tool for controlling both
distance and combined forms of study as
it allows the students to access it at any
time and place, in accordance with the
principles of ubiquitous learning. It
offers complex interactive study
materials. LMS Barborka allows the
creation (system Author), administration
(system Administrator), and use (system
Student) of the included study supports
which are distributed by the Internet or
on the intranet of the University of
Defence (UoD). In addition to tools for
the
creation,
administration
and
distribution of courses, this LMS
provides possibilities for communication
both among students and between
students and the teacher. The fourth
system – Tutor – is designed for
controlling individual courses.
In the academic year 2010-2011 the
teachers of English designed a research
study, the task of which was to find out
if and how ICT helps distance students
in their study, and how distance students
assess LMS Barborka. As the research
method, the teachers used semistructured interviews carried out via
Skype, using an ‘interview plus’
approach to enhance discussion [2]. First
of all we wanted to know why our
students want to study English. Among
the most frequent answers, we have
identified the following reasons:
- access to knowledge (most pages on
the Web, books, the press, science,
international libraries, news reports,
etc.);
- communication (contacts with
teachers, peers as well as with
people from all over the world
through email, Skype, Twitter,
Google, easier travelling);
- career development (libraries,
professional magazines, LinkedIn);
147
-
satisfaction
(making
progress,
understanding
English
communication);
- entertainment (Internet, watching
films in the original dialogue,
reading books, listening to songs).
Then we concentrated in particular on
LMS Barborka as a tool for language
training. The significance of educational
environment certainly plays an important
part. If students feel relaxed in a given
environment, if they don’t fear getting
disgraced in front of their teacher or
classmates, then lessons where ICT is
used are preferred to the classical ones. It
is not only the time and place students
can choose, but also their own pace
which makes the students feel
comfortable. From the most repeated
answers in this part of interviews we
have elicited the following facts:
- place and time (possible courses
can be taken where and when they
are necessary);
- pace (students can skip material they
already know, they can study as long
as they want and repeat some
complex matters);
- consistent content (online materials
must be relevant, sequential, logical,
topical and interesting for the target
learners).
According to the analysis of the
students’ interviews it is possible to state
that distance students can see LMS
Barborka as a tool which facilitates their
study, and at the same time as an
accessible form of teaching. They
especially like the chance to study any
time/anywhere and the offer of unique
materials, which are provided only via
this application. On the other hand they
are fully aware of some limitations, e.g.
the lack of communication. These
findings are supported by some previous
studies on online tertiary education.
148
3. LMS Barborka at the Department
of Economics
As mentioned above, e-learning is one of
the most dynamically developing
education fields and we can meet it at all
levels of an educational process. The
same situation is at the Department of
Economics where LMS Barborka is used
mainly for teaching students of
combined form of study in subjects
Economics I - Microeconomics and
Economics I – Macroeconomics. The
teachers prefer this teaching tool for
several reasons. The most important is
the rising number of students and
specific arrangement of lessons for
combined study programme at the
Faculty of Economics and Management.
The students attend three times per term
intensive five-day workshops, which is
effective mainly for military students
who are sent to study at the UoD by
a Personal Order and their absence from
their army unit is minimized in this way.
On the other hand, for civilian students
who decide about their studies on their
own, such lesson arrangement is hardly
acceptable. The only exception is people
who work in public administration
because their employers are very
receptive to their studies within lifelong
learning.
There is an ideal chance to use e-learning
in a teaching process the necessary
preconditions of which, except a certain
LMS, are study supports for individual
subjects. At the Department of
Economics each teacher should work out
one study support per term to be able to
provide especially students of combined
form of study with fully electronic
support. After finishing this process the
attractiveness of studies at the Faculty of
Economics and Management, above all
for civilian students, will rise.
It is necessary to point out that teaching
via e-learning doesn´t mean being fully
out of touch with students. At the
beginning of a term, during the first
session, students are informed about
conditions for getting a credit, about the
way of teaching, and how to use LMS
Barborka. Teachers try to attract
students´ attention to economic studies.
The appropriate motivation and ability to
capture students´ attention are the
prerequisites for successful studies and
their facilitation. The role of a teacher
and his/her personal influence on
students are unique. Within the second
session students take part in lectures
where they are given basic information
about individual study modules and their
chapters, the teachers explain basic
concepts and links to them, and at the
same time they provide students both
with
essential
references
and
recommended literature. During a term
students work on a credit task and in the
following
session
their
gained
knowledge and experience are checked
in a written credit test. LMS Barborka,
similarly to other e-learning management
systems, enables “remote” testing which
hasn´t been used yet because it´s
necessary to apply an individual
approach to students and give them
tutorials dealing with the results of tests.
LMS Barborka is a very friendly elearning platform which offers the whole
range of tools in a simple graphic
version. Having logged into LMS
Barborka, a user as a student can see the
basic tool bar which facilitates the
orientation within the system and offers
the user these tools: Study, Textbooks,
Tests, Tasks, Calendar, Discussion,
Correspondence/emails,
Tutorials,
Results, System adjustment (setting).
For
subjects
Economics
1
Microeconomics and Economics 1Macroeconomics textbooks are the most
important tool. Students can find there,
for a chosen subject and for a current
term, nine well-arranged areas which
include
individual
modules
and
complementary literature. It is possible
to download all the data, credit tasks,
exams and their results. Here is a layout
of one of the subjects:
1. Module 1 – Human Being, Market
and Market System.
2. Module 2 – Consumer Theory and
Demand Formation.
3. Module 3 – Firm Theory and
Supply Formation.
4. Module 4 – Factors of Production
Market.
5. Module 5 – Social Equilibrium and
Prosperity.
6. Module 6 – Complementary
Literature for Downloading.
7. Module 7 Credit Tasks.
8. Exams.
9. Exam Results.
4. LMS Barborka at the Department
of Econometrics
Similarly to the previous part, this
chapter concentrates on the experience of
the Department of Econometrics teachers
with LMS Barborka implication while
teaching certain curriculum subjects in
the combined form of study. There will
also be mentioned some user-technical
features of this system because within
the UoD LMS Barborka is maintained
with the technical support of the
Department of Econometrics.
Excepting abovementioned qualities, the
main contribution of LMS Barborka for
the teaching process, as seen by the
teachers of the Department of
Econometrics, is the possibility of
setting, checking and evaluating partial
tasks, credit projects, tests etc. Providing
study materials, organizing tutorials
(setting place, time and list of
participating students), publishing recent
events for students, task calendar and
internal post client are all obvious. The
environment and setting of LMS
Barborka can be graphically modified
and offers similar functions to any other
LMS, nevertheless without annual fees.
LMS Barborka is currently used at the
Department of Econometrics in parallel
149
with LMS Moodle, particularly as a
support of following subjects:
- Informatics I and II;
- Information Systems of Public
Administration;
- Mathematics I and II;
- Statistics.
For these subjects there are supporting
presentations, study materials and tests.
For students´ self-study there are
provided internet links to appropriate
topics.
Technically, LMS Barborka is run on the
server which was obtained within the
Faculty of Economics and Management
research project. All UoD employees are
provided with the support while inserting
users and groups of new students. The
Department of Econometrics guarantees
the co-ordination between OKIS and the
Studies Office when entering new
students, subjects and groups into the
database. The inserting itself is enabled
with the help of LMS tools and so-called
csv
sets.
The
Department
of
Econometrics is in touch with the
authors for possible system updating,
and moreover offers service and
administration of the system, including
upgrading, helping with forgotten
passwords, creating groups, assigning
students and modules to a certain group,
granting authority, instructions for
simple administration etc.
5. LMS Barborka at the Language
Training Centre
Electronic supports for language training
cover general, economic, and military
topics and they have been elaborated in
accordance with the requirements both
for the final tertiary exams as well as for
the STANAG 6001 (SLP 2-3) NATO
standardized exams. Students of
combined form of study appreciate the
fact they can use such electronic study
supports. The reason is that their study
results above all depend on self-study
due to the different organization of the
150
study program. At the same time LMS
facilitates their orientation in the
curriculum and helps them to prepare for
exams. As the electronic support is
supplemented with exercises both for
reflection as well as those which enable
feedback, it allows the students to
monitor comprehension of the studied
material, either in communication with
the tutor, or during their independent
work. Instantaneous feedback is ensured
in addition by interactive exercises
created in the Hot Potatoes program. The
tutor partly substitutes the role of the
teacher and decreases the lack of face-toface contact with students.
Electronic supports in LMS Barborka are
used for practising understanding of the
main ideas of the texts, making notes on
the main ideas, distinguishing the main
ideas and supporting details or finding
specific information. At the same time
these materials lead them to improve
their abilities, e. g. to communicate
fluently in the target language at a higher
abstract level, to form arguments and
express their attitudes and opinions on
different topics, such as armed conflicts,
foreign missions, political situation in
our country and abroad, current social
problems, topics related to their
profession etc.
Nowadays, distance students can use a
module of general English, three military
terminology modules, two modules of
economic terminology, one module of
management terminology and a module
of special terminology:
1. General English Module
- Family and Relations; Housing
and Accommodation; Food,
Cooking, Restaurant; Health and
Diseases; Education and Jobs;
Environment,
Crime,
Gun
Possession;
Discrimination,
Xenophobia, Racism.
2. Military Modules
- Military Ranks, Daily Routines
and Responsibilities, Uniform
and Equipment, Branches of the
Army,
Combat
Vehicles,
Terrain;
- Armed Forces, Military Service,
Army of the Czech Republic,
Land Forces, Air Force, Current
Deployments, Peace Support
Operations;
- International
Organizations,
European Union, NATO, United
Nations,
Humanitarian
Assistance, Problems of Today
and Security Risks and Threats.
3. Economic Modules
- Introduction to the Economic
System, Production, Types of
Business
Organizations,
Marketing the Product, Starting
a Business, International Trade,
Transport and Communication,
People and Work.
4. Management Module
- What is Management, Planning,
Organizing
and
Staffing,
Operations
Management,
Controlling Process, Leadership.
5. Special Terminology Module
- Combat Engineers, EOD and
IEDs,
Intelligence,
Urban
Operations, Artillery, Terrorism,
Cordon and Search Missions;
-
Ecological Problems, Logistics,
Human Resources, Generation
Next,
Road
Accidents,
Epidemics,
Gas
Detection,
Floods, Earthquakes.
6. Conclusion
The Faculty of Economics and
Management teachers´ common idea is
not only to provide students with a
variety of tools for their self-governed
and problem-based activities, but also to
empower them by offering a tool for
effective
learning.
Therefore
an
important step that must be taken prior to
implementing e-learning tools into
pedagogical processes is selecting a
suitable LMS. We can state that LMS
Barborka is a suitable tool for distance
students of the Faculty of Economics and
Management
according
to
both
tutors/teachers and students.
Our endeavour is supported by K.
Vierack, a NATO representative, who
says: “...If we do not go online, we will
lose the possibility for a comprehensive
approach. We need to get all the experts
together. We have to balance security
and liberty.” [13].
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Economics and Management
Ekonomika a Management
Published by/Vydává:
University of Defence
Univerzita obrany
Address/Adresa:
Kounicova 65, 662 10 Brno
Czech Republic
+ 420 973 442 660
http://www.unob.cz
Number/Číslo:
3/2012
Date of publication:
31th December 2012
Datum vydání:
31.12.2012
Executive Editor/
Výkonný redaktor:
Eng. Vítězslav JAROŠ, Ph.D.
Printed by/Tisk:
University Press of University of Defence
Vydavatelství Univerzity obrany
Registration number/
Evidenční číslo:
MK ČR E 17538
ISSN 1802-3975
© University of Defence
Univerzita obrany

Economics and managEmEnt

Transcription

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