vertebrate pesticides - Internet Center for Wildlife Damage

Transcription

VERTEBRATE PESTICIDES
G-1
Registered Vertebrate Pesticides
William W. Jacobs
G-23
Description of Active Ingredients
Robert M. Timm
G-24
G-25
G-26
G-30
G-32
G-33
G-34
G-35
G-36
G-37
G-38
G-39
G-40
G-41
G-42
G-43
G-44
G-46
G-47
G-48
G-49
G-52
G-54
G-56
G-57
G-60
Acrolein
Aluminum Phosphide
Anticoagulants
Avitrol®
Bone Tar Oil
Bromethalin
Capsaicin
Alpha-Chloralose
Chloropicrin
Cholecalciferol
Denatonium Saccharide
Egg Solids, Putrescent
Fatty Acids (various compounds)
Fenthion
Gas Cartridges
Methyl Anthranilate
Methyl Bromide
Naphthalene
Red Squill
Sodium Cyanide
Sodium Fluoroacetate
Starlicide®
Strychnine
Thiram
Zinc Phosphide
Ziram
G-63
Poison Control Centers
Blain (Jess) Benson
G-67
Sample Labels of Representative Products
Scott E. Hygnstrom
G-69
Avitrol®
G-70
G-71
G-72
G-73
G-74
G-78
G-79
G-80
G-82
G-84
G-85
G-87
G-89
G-90
G-91
ReJeX-iTTM AG-36
ReJeX-iTTM TP-40
ReJeX-iTTM AP-50
Tanglefoot® Bird Repellent
Alpha-Chloralose
Rid-A-Bird® Perch 1100 Solution
PurinaTM StarlicideTM Complete
Compound DRC-1339 Concentrate - Feedlots
Compound DRC-1339 98% Concentrate - Pigeons
1339 Gull Toxicant 98% Concentrate
Compound DRC-1339 98% Concentrate - Livestock Depredations
Hinder® Deer and Rabbit Repellent
Millere® Hot Sauce® Animal Repellent
Ro-pel® Animal, Rodent and Bird Repellent
Ro-pel® Garbage ProtectorTM
(continued)
G-92
G-93
G-94
G-95
G-96
G-98
G-99
G-100
G-101
G-102
G-103
G-104
G-105
G-106
G-107
G-108
G-109
G-110
G-111
G-112
G-113
G-114
G-115
G-116
G-117
G-118
G-119
G-120
G-121
G-122
G-123
G-124
G-125
G-126
G-127
G-128
G-129
G-130
G-132
G-134
G-135
G-136
G-137
G-138
G-140
G-141
G-142
G-145
G-147
G-148
G-149
Bonide® Dogzix Dog and Cat Repellent
SudburyTM Chaperone® Squirrel and Bat Repellent
Eaton’s® 4 the SquirrelTM Repellent
Deer-Away® Big Game Repellent
Gustafson Thiram 42-S
NOTT Chew-Not Animal Repellent
F & B® Rabbit & Dog Chaser
Earl May® Rabbit Scat
Talon®-G Rodenticide Bait Pack (Pellets)
Contrac® Rodenticide
Maki® Mini-Block
PurinaTM Mouse-A-RestTM Pellets
Eaton’s® AC90TM Rodenticide
Rozol® Rat and Mouse Killer
Rozol® Pocket Gopher Bait
Ditrac® Tracking Powder
Ditrac® Rat & Mouse Bait
Eaton’s® All-Weather Bait Blocks®
Liqua-Tox II®
Ramik® Green
Rodere Paraffinized Rat Bait
Eaton’s® AnswerTM for Pocket Gophers
Eaton’s® A-C 50TM Rodenticide
Final® Rat & Mouse Bait
PurinaTM Rat Control Pellets
RodexTM BloxTM-1
PurinaTM Assault Rat Place Pack
Quintox® Rat and Mouse Bait
M-44 Cyanide Capsules
Sodium Fluoroacetate (Compound 1080) Livestock Protection Collar
0.5% Strychnine S.R.O. Pocket Gopher Bait
Petersens Pocket Gopher Killer I
Wilco Gopher Getter AG Bait
Bonide® Moletox II
Bonide® Orchard Mouse Bait
Ridall-ZincTM Tracking Powder
Roban II Ag
Zinc Phosphide on Wheat for Mouse Control
Zinc Phosphide Concentrate for Muskrat and Nutria Control
Zinc Phosphide Prairie Dog Bait
ZP® Rodent Bait AG
ZP® Rodent Bait Place Pack
ZP® Tracking Powder
Phostoxin®
Chlor-o-pic®
Chloropicrin
Brom-o-gas®
The Giant Destroyer®
Gas Cartridge for Woodchucks, Ground Squirrels, Prairie Dogs and Pocket Gophers
Gas Cartridge for Coyotes
Snake-A-Way® Snake Repellent
G-151
Index, Chemical and Trade Names
Scott E. Hygnstrom
G-155
Index, Target Species
Scott E. Hygnstrom
William W. Jacobs
PESTICIDES
FEDERALLY
REGISTERED FOR
CONTROL OF
TERRESTRIAL
VERTEBRATE PESTS
Registration Division
Office of Pesticide Programs
US Environmental
Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460
This report lists the pesticide formulations federally registered for use in
controlling vertebrate organisms discussed in this manual. The tables
which follow indicate the chemicals
registered, the types of formulations
available, the number of registered
products (as of winter 1993) for each
type of formulation, and significant
special factors which must be considered prior to using a particular type of
product.
Species which represent closely related
taxonomic groups or similar classes of
pests may be listed in the same table.
For example the Norway rat, the roof
rat, and the house mouse are placed in
one table because they are closely
related and many labels bear claims
for control of all three species. Similarly, products bearing claims for control of ground squirrels are listed in a
single table even though some labels
claim control of only one or two types.
Although these factors have resulted
in some adjustments, the order in
which registered formulations are
listed generally follows the table of
contents of this manual (Table 1).
Tables 2 through 23 below do not
include products registered, under
Section 24(c) of the Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
(FIFRA), for use in individual states
because of special local needs. The
most common Special Local Needs
registrations for controlling vertebrate
pests are chlorophacinone and
diphacinone baits used in post-harvest
applications to control voles in orchards or to control ground squirrels.
State agencies responsible for regulating pesticides and extension specialists
can provide information on the products available only in their states. California residents may consult their
county agricultural commissioners.
The tables also do not list products
which have been or are currently available under the emergency exemption
provisions (Section 18) of FIFRA.
Extension specialists can provide
information on products which are
temporarily available for emergency
situations.
Federal registration certifies that it is
legal to market and use the product in
question in the United States, subject
to the conditions and restrictions stipulated on the approved label. Federal
registration does not guarantee that a
particular chemical or product will be
available throughout the United States
or even that the product will actually
be marketed. If a particular product
cannot be found in a local outlet, the
manufacturer should be contacted. If
the name of the manufacturer is not
known, it can be obtained from your
local extension specialist or from
Product Management Team 14, Registration Division (H7505C), Office of
Pesticide Programs, US Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC
20460.
Federal registration does not guarantee that a particular pesticide will be
effective in controlling a specific pest
in every possible situation. This handbook offers guidance for selecting the
proper course of action for resolving a
particular problem. The product label
provides directions for using the product to your best advantage in an
environmentally safe manner. Users
should read labels carefully before
proceeding, and should consult with
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WILDLIFE DAMAGE — 1994
Cooperative Extension Division
Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources
University of Nebraska - Lincoln
United States Department of Agriculture
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
Animal Damage Control
Great Plains Agricultural Council
Wildlife Committee
G-1
extension agents if any questions
remain after the appropriate section of
this manual and the product label have
been read.
In the tables which follow, most
products are identified as “baits.”
“Baits” are formulations which are
designed to be consumed by the target
pests. Baits may be “dry” formulations
such as whole grains or pelleted grain
mixtures treated with a toxicant, or
liquid formulations to be presented for
target organisms to drink. “Weatherresistant” baits are dry baits treated
with a material such as paraffin which
is intended to make the baits resistant
to the effects of excessive moisture
and/or heat.
“Technical” products consist of the
active ingredient in pure or relatively
pure form. Technicals are usually sold
for manufacturing purposes only, but
there are a few (see Tables 2 through
23) which can legally be mixed into
baits or other types of formulations
and applied as pest control agents.
Tables 2 through 23 list the available
technical vertebrate pesticide formulations only once. Technicals are listed
with products for control of commensal rodents (Table 4), unless the chemical in question is not registered for
control of Norway rats, roof rats, or
house mice. Other technicals are also
listed once — under the heading for
the type of pests which comprise the
principal vertebrate target species
grouping for the chemicals in question.
Technicals bearing use claims are
listed in tables for each pest type
claimed.
Products identified as “concentrates”
are formulated with active ingredient
strengths lower than those found in
technicals but higher than the concentrations which are used in pest control
applications. Concentrates are of two
types. One type is sold for manufacturing or formulating purposes only. The
labels for these products bear no use
directions. It is unlawful to use such
products directly in pest control operations. Such concentrates can be formulated into products which can be
registered and sold as pesticides. The
second type of concentrate bears label
G-2
directions for mixing and applying the
product. In vertebrate pest control, this
type of concentrate enables the experienced worker to mix baits suited to the
control of a particular infestation.
“Restricted Use Pesticides” are
products which may be used only by
persons who have been trained and
certified to use them. Nearly all
pesticide-user certification programs
are run by state governments. A pesticide may be classified as “restricted”
because the US Environmental Protection Agency has determined that the
product is highly toxic and must be
handled especially carefully or that
special training is necessary to ensure
that the material is used effectively or
in a safe manner.
Other significant terms in the tables
are consistent with their use elsewhere
in this manual.
Within a species grouping, products
are classed under use category headings such as “Toxicant,” “Fumigant,”
and “Repellent.” In some cases, prod-
ucts of different formulations or even
different chemical compositions have
been grouped together as one table
entry. Such grouping has occurred for
gas cartridge fumigants with more
than one product for a species or type
and for “polybutene” bird repellents.
The abbreviation “Conc.” in Tables 2
through 23 stands for “concentration.”
In Tables 2 through 23, the column
titled “Use Considerations and
Restrictions” highlights factors that
must be considered in determining
whether a product is appropriate for
use in a given situation. These limitations are fully explained on product
labels. Do not use any pesticide until
you have thoroughly read and understood its label.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank William
Erickson and Barbara Madden for assistance in updating the lists of vertebrate pesticides.
Table 1. Tables where federally registered pesticide formulations for
controlling terrestrial vertebrates can be found.
Animal Type(s)
Beavers
Chipmunks
Gophers, Pocket
Mice, Deer
Mice, Harvest
Mice, House
Mice, Pocket
Mice, White-footed
Mountain Beavers
Muskrats
Nutria
Porcupines
Prairie Dogs
Rats, Cotton
Rats, Kangaroo
Rats, Norway
Rats, Polynesian
Rats, Roof
Rats, Water
Woodrats
Squirrels, Ground
Squirrels, Tree
Voles
Woodchucks
Badgers
Bears
Bobcats
House Cats
Table Number
2
13
3
6
None
4
6
6
None
7
7
8
9
10
10
4
5
4
10
10
11
14
6
12
None
None
None
15
Animal Type(s)
Coyotes
Dogs
Foxes
Mink
Mountain Lions
Raccoons
River Otters
Skunks
Weasels
Wolves
Armadillos
Bats
Deer
Elk
Moles
Opossums
Pronghorn Antelope
Pigs, Wild
Rabbits
Hares
Shrews
Birds
Alligators
Crayfish
Frogs & Toads
Salamanders
Snakes
Turtles
Table Number
16
15, 16
16
None
None
None
None
17
None
None
None
18
19
19
20
None
None
None
21
21
None
22
None
None
None
None
23
None
Table 2. Pesticide federally registered to repel beavers.
DENATONIUM SACCHARIDE
Conc.
Product Form
0.065%*
Liquid
No. of
Products
Use Considerations and Restrictions
1
Taste repellent used to protect trees, poles, fences, siding,
outdoor furniture, shrubs, ornamentals, grass, flowers, and
garbage
* Also contains 0.035% thymol
Table 3. Pesticides federally registered to control pocket gophers.
TOXICANTS
CHLOROPHACINONE (RoZol)
Conc.
Product Form
Species
0.005%
Dry bait
Geomys spp.
Thomomys spp.
No. of
Products
1
Subterranean applications
DIPHACINONE (Eaton’s Answer)
Conc.
Product Form
Species
0.005%
Dry bait
(block)
Geomys bursarius
Thomomys bottae
T. talpoides
T. mazama
T. bulbivorous
T. monticola
T. townsendii
No. of
Products
1
STRYCHNINE ALKALOID
Conc.
Product Form
Species
No. of
Products
0.25%-0.5%
Dry baits
Geomys spp.
Thomomys spp.
0.35%
Dry bait
Unspecified
1
Manual subterranean applications only
0.5%
Dry baits
Plains
Desert
Yellow-faced
Northern
Southern
Mazama
Mountain
Townsend’s
Botta
Camas
2
0.31%-0.5%
Dry baits
Geomys spp.
Thomomys spp.
3
Restricted Use Pesticides
0.5%
Dry baits
Thomomys spp.
2
0.5%
Dry baits
Plains
Yellow-faced
Northern
Southern
Mazama
Mountain
Townsend’s
Botta
Camas
2
0.35%
Dry bait
Unspecified
1
Restricted Use Pesticide
98.4%-100%
Technical
1
Manufacturing use
5
Use Considerations and Restrictions*
* Strychnine alkaloid pocket gopher baits are classified as “Restricted Use Pesticides” if their labels permit applications by machine-drawn burrow
builders. All strychnine alkaloid pocket gopher baits must be applied underground.
G-3
Table 3. (Continued)
ZINC PHOSPHIDE
Conc.
Product Form
Species
No. of
Products
2%
Dry baits
(bulk)
Geomys spp.
Thomomys spp.
6
Subterranean use
2%
Dry bait
(placepack)
Geomys spp.
Thomomys spp.
1
Subterranean use
2%
Dry baits
Geomys bursarius
Geomys pinetis
Pappogeomys castanops
Thomomys spp.
2
Restricted Use Pesticides*
* Products are classified as “Restricted Use Pesticides” due to directions on labels for using burrow builders and claims for control of species other than
pocket gophers for which zinc phosphide baits are “restricted.”
FUMIGANTS
ALUMINUM PHOSPHIDE (Phostoxin)
Conc.
Product Form
Species
55%-60%
Tablets,
Pellets, or
Bags
Unspecified
No. of
Products
16
for treating burrows
GAS CARTRIDGES (many active ingredients)
Conc.
Product Form
Species
Various
Ignitable
cartridges
Unspecified
G-4
No. of
Products
4
For treating burrows
Table 4. Pesticides federally registered to control commensal rodents: Norway rats, roof rats, house mice.
CHRONIC TOXICANTS
BRODIFACOUM (Talon) - 3-[3-(4'-bromo[l,l’-biphenyl]4-yl)-l,2,3,4-tetra-hydro-l-naphthalenyl]4-hydroxy-2H-l-benzopyran-2-one
Conc.
Product Form
No. of
Products
Norway
rat
Species Claimed
Roof
House
rat
mouse
0.005%
Dry baits (bulk)
7
X
X
X
In and around buildings
0.005%
Dry baits (in
placepacks)
14
X
X
X
0.005%
Dry baits (in
bait trays)
2
X
X
X
0.005%
Dry baits (in
nonprotective
bait dispensers)
4
X
0.005%
Dry bait (in
tamper-resistant
bait stations)
1
X
0.005%
Weather-resistant
baits
2
X
In and around buildings, sewers
0.25%
Concentrate
1
Formulating use
90%
Technical
1
Manufacturing use
X
X
BROMADIOLONE (Maki, Contrac) - 3-[3-(4'-bromo[l,l’-biphenyl]-4-yl)-3-hydroxy-l-phenylpropyl]-4-hydroxy-2H-l-benzopyran-2-one
Conc.
Product Form
No. of
Products
Norway
rat
X
Species Claimed
Roof
House
rat
mouse
0.005%
Dry baits (bulk)
7
0.005%
Dry bait (bulk)
1
0.005%
Dry baits (in placepacks)
5
0.005%
Dry bait (in nonprotective bait
dispensers)
1
0.005%
Weather-resistant
baits
3
1.0%
Concentrates
2
Formulating use
93.5%-96.5%
Technicals
2
Manufacturing use
X
X
X
X
X
X
In and around urban buildings;
indoor use only in other areas
X
In and around urban buildings.
Indoor use only in other areas.
X
X
X
CALCIUM SALT OF PMP - 2-isovaleryl-1,3-indandione, calcium salt
Conc.
2.18%
Product Form
Tracking powder
No. of
Products
1
Norway
rat
X
Species Claimed
Roof
House
rat
mouse
X
X
CHLOROPHACINONE (RoZol) - 2-[(p-chlorophenyl)phenylacetyl]-1,3-indandione
Conc.
Product Form
No. of
Products
Norway
rat
Species Claimed
Roof
House
rat
mouse
0.005%
Dry baits (bulk)
5
X
X
X
0.005%
Dry baits
2
X
X
X
0.005%
Weather-resistant
bait
1
X
X
X
0.2%
Tracking powders
2
X
X
X
0.28%
Mineral oil
concentrate
1
X
X
X
For mixing dry baits
2%
Concentrate
1
Formulating use
96.03%
Technical
1
Manufacturing use
G-5
CHOLECALCIFEROL* (Quintox) 9,10-seocholesta-5,7,10(19)-trein-3-betaol
Conc.
Product Form
No. of
Products
0.075%
Dry bait (bulk)
1
0.075%
Dry bait (bulk)
1
0.075%
Dry bait
(placepacks)
1
0.075%
Dry bait
(placepacks)
1
Norway
rat
X
X
Species Claimed
Roof
House
rat
mouse
X
X
X
X
X
X
* Cholecalciferol is the only chronic poison listed in this table that is not an anticoagulant.
DIPHACINONE (Ditrac, Ramik) - 2-(diphenylacetyl)-l,3-indandione
Conc.
Product Form
No. of
Products
Norway
rat
Species Claimed
Roof
House
rat
mouse
0.005%
Dry baits (bulk)
13
X
X
X
0.005%
Dry baits (in
placepacks)
6
X
X
X
0.005%
Dry bait (in
non-protective
bait stations)
1
0.005%
Weather-resistant
dry baits
13
X
X
0.005%
Weather-resistant
dry baits
11
X
X
0.1%
Concentrates
3
X
X
X
Mixing dry baits
0.1%
Concentrates
2
X
X
X
Manufacturing use
0.2%
Tracking powders
2
X
X
X
2.0%
Concentrate
1
Formulating use
98.0%-98.6%
Technicals
3
Manufacturing use
X
X
Can be used in
damp/moist areas
Can be used in
damp/moist areas
SODIUM SALT OF DIPHACINONE
0.1%
Concentrate
1
X
X
X
Mixing dry baits
0.106%
Concentrates
2
X
X
X
Mixing liquid baits
PIVALYL (Pival, Pindone) - 2-pivalyl-l,3-indandione
Conc.
Product Form
No. of
Products
Norway
rat
Species Claimed
Roof
House
rat
mouse
0.025%
Dry baits (bulk)
6
X
X
0.025%
Dry baits
2
X
X
0.30%
Concentrate
1
X
X
X
0.50%
Concentrates
2
X
X
X
100%
Technical
1
X
Mixing liquid and dry baits
Mixing dry baits
Manufacturing use
SODIUM SALT OF PIVALYL
0.14%
Concentrates
2
X
X
X
Mixing liquid baits
1.5%
Concentrate
1
X
X
X
Mixing liquid baits
100%
Technical
1
Formulation use
PIVALYL AND SODIUM SALT OF PIVALYL MIXTURE
0.11%
Pivalyl
0.15%
Sodium salt
G-6
Dry bait
1
X
X
X
WARFARIN - 3-(α
α-acetonylbenzyl)-4-hydroxycoumarin
Conc.
Product Form
No. of
Products
Norway
rat
0.025%
Dry baits (bulk)
23
X
0.025%
Dry bait (bulk)
1
0.025%
Dry baits (in
placepacks)
4
X
0.025%
Dry baits (in
bait trays)
2
0.025%
Dry bait (in
nonprotective
bait stations)
0.025%
Species Claimed
Roof
House
rat
mouse
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
X
X
X
Weather resistant
1
X
X
X
In and around buildings and in
sewers
0.054%
Dry bait (in
nonprotective
bait stations)
1
X
0.3%
Concentrate
1
X
X
X
Mixing dry baits
0.5%
Concentrates
2
X
X
X
Mixing dry baits
0.5%
Concentrates
4
Formulating use
5%
Concentrate
1
Manufacturing use
50%
Technical
(encapsulated)
1
Manufacturing use
99.9%-100%
Technicals
5
Manufacturing use
SODIUM SALT OF WARFARIN
0.54%
Concentrate
1
X
X
X
Mixing liquid baits
ACUTE TOXICANTS
BROMETHALIN (Assault, Vengeance) - N-methyl-2,4-dinitro-N-(2,4,6-tribromophenyl)-6-(trifluoromethyl) benzenamine
Conc.
Product Form
No. of
Products
Norway
rat
Species Claimed
Roof
House
rat
mouse
0.005%
Dry bait (bulk)
1
X
X
In and around buildings, alleys
0.01%
Dry baits (bulk)
2
X
X
X
0.01%
Dry bait (bulk)
1
0.01%
Dry baits (in
placepacks)
3
X
X
X
X
0.01%
Dry bait (in
placepacks)
1
X
X
0.01%
Dry bait (in
placepacks)
1
X
0.01%
Dry bait (in
nonprotective
bait stations)
1
X
Indoor use only
0.01%
Weather-resistant
bait
1
1.5%
Concentrate
1
Formulating Use
2%
Concentrate
1
Formulating Use
X
X
G-7
RED SQUILL
Conc.
10%
Product Form
No. of
Products
Bait in caulking tube
1
Norway
rat
X
Species Claimed
Roof
House
rat
mouse
X
ZINC PHOSPHIDE
Conc.
Product Form
No. of
Products
Norway
rat
Species Claimed
Roof
House
rat
mouse
Use Considerations
and Restrictions
1.0%
Dry bait
1
X
X
X
Restricted Use
Pesticide - structural
1.88%-2%
Dry baits
2
X
X
X
Restricted Use
Pesticides - sugarcane
1.88%-2%
Dry baits
5
X
X
X
Restricted Use
Pesticides - sugarcane and other uses
1.88%-2%
Dry baits
3
X
X
X
Structural uses only
2%
Dry bait
1
X
X
Structural uses only
2%
Dry bait
1
X
X
Restricted Use
Pesticide - structural
10%
Tracking powders
2
X
Restricted Use
Pesticides - indoor use
63.2%
Concentrate
1
X
X
74.7%
Concentrate
1
X
X
X
Restricted Use
Pesticide for making baits
80%-94%
Technicals
2
X
X
X
Restricted Use
Pesticides for making baits
80%-94%
Technicals
5
X
Restricted Use
Pesticide for making baits
Manufacturing use
FUMIGANTS
Conc.
55%-60%
Product Form
No. of
Products
Tablets, pellets,
or bags
Norway
rat
Species Claimed
Roof
House
rat
mouse
18
X
X
X
Restricted Use Pesticides for
treating burrows
2
X
X
X
treating structures
CHLOROPICRIN (Chlor-o-pic)
99%
Liquids
GAS CARTRIDGES (Many active ingredients)
Various
Ignitable
cartridges w/fuse
2
X
16
X
X
X
treating structures
X
X
X
Taste repellent used on trees,
poles, fences, shrubs, garbage, and
other objects
METHYL BROMIDE (Brom-o-gas)
98%-100%*
Gases
* Some products contain small amounts of chloropicrin.
REPELLENT
DENATONIUM SACCHARIDE (Ro-pel)
0.065%*
Liquid
G-8
1
Table 5. Pesticides federally registered to control polynesian rats.*
ACUTE TOXICANT
ZINC PHOSPHIDE
Conc.
Product Form
1.88%-2%
Dry baits**
No. of Products
Use Restrictions and Considerations
5
Restricted Use Pesticides for use in sugarcane fields
* In the United States, this species is found only in Hawaii.
** Prebaiting is recommended.
Table 6. Pesticides federally registered to control native mice (voles, deer mice, and others)
TOXICANTS
ZINC PHOSPHIDE
Conc.
Product Form
Species
No. of
Products
1.0%
Dry bait
Meadow voles
Pine voles
1
Restricted Use Pesticide for post-harvest use in orchards
and other sites
1.82%
Dry bait
Voles (Microtus spp.)
1
and noncrop areas
1.82%
Dry bait
Meadow voles
Prairie voles
Pine voles
White-footed mice
1
and other sites
1.88%
Dry bait
Meadow voles
Pine voles
1
and other sites
2.0%
Dry bait
Meadow voles
Pine voles
1
Restricted Use Pesticide for post-harvest use in apple
orchards
2.0%
Dry bait
Microtus spp.
Peromyscus spp.
1
Restricted Use Pesticide for use in grape vineyards,
orchards, and other sites
2.0%
Dry baits
Meadow voles
Pine voles
White-footed mice
3
Restricted Use Pesticides for post-harvest use in orchards
and other sites
2.0%
Dry bait
Meadow voles
Pine voles
1
and other sites
2.0%
Dry bait
Meadow voles
Pine voles
White-footed mice
Pocket mice
1
and other sites
2.0%
Dry baits
Meadow voles
Prairie voles
Pine voles
White-footed mice
Meadow jumping mice
3
Restricted Use Pesticides for use in grape vineyards,
orchards, and other sites
62%
Concentrate
“Orchard mice”
1
For making baits with “cubed apples”
63.2%
Concentrate
Meadow voles
Pine voles
White-footed mice
1
Restricted Use Pesticide for making baits with
“cubed apples” for post-harvest use in orchards
G-9
FUMIGANTS
Conc.
Product Form
Species
No. of
Products
55%60%
Tablets, pellets,
or bags
Voles
Conc.
Product Form
Species
2.5%
Liquid
Meadow voles
Pine voles
Conc.
Product Form
Species
7%
Liquids
“Meadow mice”
2
Ornamental plants and trees
20%
Liquid
concentrates
“Meadow mice”
3
Nursery stock, ornamentals, fruit trees, and other sites
16
REPELLENTS
CAPSAICIN
No. of
Products
1
Ornamental trees, shrubs, dormant fruit and nut trees,
vines, and certain crops
THIRAM
NOTE:
G-10
No. of
Products
Labels vary in the use of common or scientific names for native mice. This table generally portrays species claims as they appear on the labels.
Scientific names are used in this table only if common names for species do not appear on labels. The term “pine vole” refers to Microtus (or
Pitymys) pinetorum. “Meadow vole” technically refers only to Microtus pennsylvanicus, but at times has been applied to other Microtus species
(except M. pinetorum). Peromyscus species include deer mice and white-footed mice, and related types. Pocket mice are Heteromyid rodents of
the genus Perognathus. Jumping mice are of the genus Zapus. “Orchard mice” — a poorly descriptive term — is taken to include voles and
Peromyscus species.
Table 7. Pesticide federally registered to control muskrats and nutria.
TOXICANT
ZINC PHOSPHIDE
Conc.
Product Form
Species
63.2%
Concentrate
Muskrats
Nutria
No. of
Products
1
Restricted Use Pesticide for making baits to be placed
on floating rafts
NOTE: This is a grouping of convenience due to ecological similarities between muskrats and nutria. It is not a taxonomic grouping.
Table 8. Pesticide federally registered to repel porcupines.
REPELLENT
CAPSAICIN
Conc.
Product Form
2.5%
Liquid concentrate
Number of
Products
1
To be applied to maple sap collection equipment
Table 9. Pesticides federally registered to control prairie dogs.
TOXICANTS
ZINC PHOSPHIDE
Conc.
Product Form
Species
1.88%-2.0%
Dry baits*
Black-tailed
White-tailed
Gunnison
No. of
Products
7
* Prebaiting is recommended.
FUMIGANTS
Conc.
Product Form
Species*
55%-60%
Tablets,
pellets, or
bags
Black-tailed
White-tailed
Gunnison
No. of
Products
16
Restricted Use Pesticides for treating burrows
* Labels claim “Prairie dogs (except Utah prairie dogs).”
GAS CARTRIDGE (many active ingredients)
Conc.
Product Form
Species
Various
Ignitable
cartridge
Unspecified
No. of
Products
1
G-11
Table 10. Pesticides federally registered to control native rats (woodrats, cotton rats, kangaroo rats, and others).
TOXICANTS
ZINC PHOSPHIDE
Conc.
Product Form
Species
No. of
Products
2.0%
Dry baits
Cotton rats
Rice rats
Florida water rats
Merriam’s, Ord’s,
& banner-tailed
kangaroo rats
3
Restricted Use Pesticides for use in sugarcane
(first three claims)
and
rangeland vegetation and noncrop areas
(latter three claims)
2.0%
Dry bait
Cotton rats
1
Trees and grassy areas (implied)
2.0%
Dry bait
Cotton rats
1
Sugarcane
2.0%
Dry bait
Cotton rats
Rice rats
1
Sugarcane
Table 11. Pesticides federally registered to control ground squirrels.
TOXICANTS
ZINC PHOSPHIDE
Conc.
Product Form
Species
No. of
Products
1.0%
Dry bait*
Columbian
Richardson’s
13-lined
1
1.88%
Dry bait*
California
Richardson’s
13-lined
1
2.0%
Dry bait*
California
1
2.0%
Dry baits*
California
Columbian
Richardson’s
13-lined
3
2.0%
Dry bait*
Belding’s
California
Columbian
Golden-mantled
Richardson’s
13-lined
Townsend’s
Uinta
Washington
1
* Prebaiting is recommended.
FUMIGANTS
Conc.
Product Form
Species
55%-60%
Tablets, Pellets,
or Bags
Unspecified
No. of
Products
16
Conc.
Product Form
Species
Various
Ignitable
cartridges
Unspecified
G-12
No. of
Products
6
Table 12. Pesticides federally registered to control woodchucks and yellowbelly marmots (rockchucks).
FUMIGANTS
Conc.
Product Form
Species
55%-60%
Tablets, pellets,
or bags
Woodchucks
Yellowbelly marmots
No. of
Products
16
Use Considerations and
Restrictions
Conc.
Product Form
Species
Various
Ignitable
cartridges
Woodchucks
No. of
Products
4
NOTE: Consult state and local wildlife laws before using any pesticide to control woodchucks or yellowbelly marmots.
Table 13. Pesticides federally registered to control chipmunks.
FUMIGANTS
Conc.
Product Form
Species
55%-60%
Tablets, pellets,
or bags
Unspecified
Conc.
Product Form
Species
21%
Liquid
Unspecified
No. of
Products
16
REPELLENT
THIRAM
No. of
Products
1
Shrubs, ornamentals, and dormant fruit trees
G-13
Table 14. Products federally registered to control tree squirrels.
REPELLENTS
CAPSAICIN
Conc.
Product Form
Species
2.5%
Liquid
concentrate
Gray squirrels
“Black” squirrels
Fox squirrels
Red squirrels
Conc.
Product Form
Species
0.065%*
Liquid
Unspecified
squirrels
No. of
Products
1
No. of
Products
1
To be applied to maple sap collection equipment
Taste repellent used to protect seeds, bulbs, trees, poles,
fences, siding, outdoor furniture, shrubs, ornamentals,
grass, flowers, and garbage
* Also contains 0.035% Thymol
NAPHTHALENE
Conc.
Product Form
Species
100%
Flakes
Unspecified
squirrels
Conc.
Product Form
Species
90%
Tacky gel
Unspecified
squirrels
No. of
Products
1
Attics, wall, and floor voids
POLYBUTENES
G-14
No. of
Products
1
Buildings and “adjacent inanimate structures”
Table 15. Federally registered dog and cat repellents.
PRODUCTS CLAIMED TO PROVIDE INDOOR OR OUTDOOR AREA OR SPOT REPELLENCY, CESSATION OF URINATION OR
DEFECATION, OR PROTECTION OF GARBAGE CONTAINERS
ANISE, OIL OF
Conc.
Product Form
Species
1.6%
Liquid
Dogs and cats
Conc.
Product Form
Species
4.015%*
Granular
Dogs
No. of
Products
1
Outdoor use to prevent defecation, urination, and digging
(cats only) in lawns, gardens, and flower and shrub beds
d-LIMONENE
No. of
Products
1
Outdoor use to prevent defecation in lawns, flower
gardens, driveways, sidewalks, and other areas
* Also contains 0.049% dihydro-5-heptyl-2(3H)-furanone and 0.024% dihydro-5-pentyl-2(3H)-furanone
METHYL NONYL KETONE*
Conc.
Product Form
Species
No. of
Products
0.08%
Granular
Dogs and cats
1
Outdoor use to repel from ornamental plants, trees,
shrubs, flowers, and vegetables
1.8%
“Water
crystals”
Dogs and cats
1
Outdoor use to prevent urination and defecation on or
near trees, shrubs, and flowers, or in yards
1.9%
Sprays
Dogs only
Cats only
Dogs and cats
1
1
31
Indoor use to protect rugs and furniture and/or outdoor
use to prevent urination or defecation on or near trees,
shrubs, and flowers, or in yards, and (in some cases) to
repel dogs and cats from garbage cans and/or trash bags
1.9%
Granulars
Dogs and cats
2
Outdoor use to protect trees, shrubbery, lawns, and flower
beds from urination or defecation, and to repel dogs and
cats from garbage cans
47.5%-95%
Concentrates
or Technicals
3
Manufacturing use
* Methyl nonyl ketone products also contain compounds “related” to methyl nonyl ketone at an aggregate concentration of about 5% of the
concentration declared for methyl nonyl ketone.
NAPHTHALENE
Conc.
Product Form
Species
15%*
Granular
Dogs
No. of
Products
1
Outdoor use to repel dogs from lawns, flowers, shrubs,
and fences
* Also contains 5.0% dried blood, 4.0% thiram, and 0.5% nicotine.
TOBACCO DUST
Conc.
Product Form
Species
70%*
Dry mixtures
Dogs
No. of
Products
2
Border treatment for protecting trees, shrubs, and
vegetable gardens
* Also contains 15% dried blood and 15% naphthalene.
NO-CHEW PRODUCT
BITREX
Conc.
Product Form
Species
0.065%*
Spray
Dogs
No. of
Products
1
For use on furniture, rugs, and other “household articles”
* Also contains 1.3% thymol, and 1.3% essential oils.
G-15
Table 15 (Continued)
ATTACK REPELLENTS
CAPSAICIN (Oleoresin of Capsicum)
Conc.
Product Form
Species
0.35%-1.0%
Sprays
Dogs
No. of
Products
4
Protection from attack
Conc.
Product Form
Species
No. of
Products
0.065%*
Liquid
Dogs and cats
1
For use on trees, poles, fences, siding, outdoor furniture,
similar objects, shrubs, ornamental plants, grass, flowers,
and garbage
* Also contains 0.035% Thymol
Table 16. Pesticides federally registered to control coyotes, foxes, and wild dogs.
TOXICANTS
SODIUM CYANIDE
Conc.
Product Form
88.78%
Powder packed
in capsules
91.06%
No. of
Products
Species
1
Coyotes
Wild dogs
Restricted Use Pesticide for use in M-44 ejector device
(livestock protection only)
Powder packed
in capsules
1
Coyotes
Gray fox
Red fox
Wild dogs
(livestock protection only)
91.06%
Powder packed
in capsules
4
Coyotes
Gray fox
Red fox
Wild dogs
(livestock and endangered species protection)
91.06%
Powder packed
in capsules
1
Coyotes
Gray fox
Red fox
Wild dogs
(livestock and endangered species protection, and control
of vectors of communicable diseases)
* Consult specific labels and technical bulletins for information pertaining to where products may be used, who may use them, and detailed restrictions
on use. Specific training and state certification is required.
SODIUM FLUOROACETATE (Compound 1080)
Conc.
Product Form
No. of
Products
Species
1.00%-1.04%
Solutions in
“Livestock
Protection Collar”
6
Coyotes
Restricted Use Pesticides with specific training and state
certification required (collars are placed on necks of sheep
and goats in fenced pastures)
90.0%
Technical
1
None
May only be used to formulate solutions for federally
registered “Livestock Protection Collars”
* Consult specific labels and technical bulletins for information pertaining to where products may be used, who may use them, and detailed restrictions
on use
FUMIGANT
GAS CARTRIDGE (many active ingredients)
Conc.
Product Form
Various*
Ignitable
cartridge
* Also contains 35% charcoal.
G-16
No. of
Products
Species
1
Coyotes
For use in dens only
Table 17. Pesticides federally registered to control skunks.
FUMIGANTS
Conc.
Product Form
Species
Various
Ignitable
cartridges
Unspecified
skunks
No. of
Products
2
Table 18. Pesticides federally registered to control bats.
REPELLENTS
NAPHTHALENE
Conc.
Product Form
Species
100%
Flakes
Unspecified bats
No. of
Products
4
For use in attics and wall voids
G-17
Table 19. Pesticides federally registered to repel deer and elk.
AMMONIUM SOAPS OF HIGHER FATTY ACIDS (Hinder)
Conc.
Product Form
Species
No. of
Products
15%
Liquid
concentrate
Unspecified
deer
1
Fruit trees, vines, field crops, forage crops, grain crops,
ornamentals, nursery stock, vegetables, and noncrop areas
15%
Liquid
concentrate
Unspecified
deer
1
Flowers, trees, vines, lawns, ornamentals, and vegetables
BONE TAR OIL (Magic Circle)
Conc.
Product Form
Species
93.75%
Liquid
concentrate
Unspecified
deer
No. of
Products
1
Grain and forage crops, fruit and shade trees, shrubs,
flowers, vegetable gardens, and nursery stock
CAPSAICIN (Hot Sauce)
Conc.
Product Form
Species
No. of
Products
2.5%
Liquid
concentrate
“Deer”
1
Ornamental trees, shrubs, vines, nursery stock, dormant
fruit and nut trees, and certain crops
Conc.
Product Form
Species
0.065%*
Liquid
Unspecified
deer
No. of
Products
1
For use on trees, poles, fences, siding, outdoor furniture,
similar objects, shrubs, ornamental plants, grass, flowers,
and garbage
EGG SOLIDS, PUTRESCENT WHOLE (Deer-Away)
Conc.
Product Form
Species
36%
Powder
White-tailed deer
No. of
Products
1
Black-tailed deer
Mule deer
Roosevelt elk
37%
Liquid
concentrates
White-tailed deer
Various ornamentals, almond, fruit, and citrus trees
Conifer seedlings
2
Mule deer
Black-tailed deer
Roosevelt elk
Various ornamentals, nonbearing fruit, and citrus trees
Conifer seedlings
THIRAM
Conc.
Product Form
Species
No. of
Products
7%
Liquid
“Deer”
1
Dormant fruit trees, shrubs, and ornamentals
11%
Liquid
“Deer”
1
Shrubs, fruit trees, ornamentals, and nursery stock
20%-21%
Liquids
Unspecified
5
Dormant fruit trees, shrubs, and ornamentals
42%
Liquids
Unspecified
2
Fruit trees, shrubs, ornamentals, and nursery stock
G-18
Table 20. Pesticides federally registered to control moles.
TOXICANT
STRYCHNINE ALKALOID
Conc.
Product Form
Species
0.5%
Dry bait
Unspecified
No. of
Products
1
FUMIGANTS
Conc.
Product Form
Species
55%-60%
Tablets, pellets,
or bags
Unspecified
No. of
Products
16
Conc.
Product Form
Species
Various
Ignitable
cartridges
Unspecified
No. of
Products
4
Table 21. Pesticides federally registered to control rabbits.
REPELLENTS
AMMONIUM SOAPS OF HIGHER FATTY ACIDS (Hinder)
Conc.
Product Form
Species
No. of
Products
15%
Liquids
Unspecified rabbits
Conc.
Product Form
Species
2.5%
Liquid
Unspecified rabbits
Conc.
Product Form
Species
7.0%
Liquid
Unspecified rabbits
1
Ornamentals
11.0%
Liquid
Unspecified rabbits
1
Shrubs, fruit trees, ornamentals, and nursery stock
20%-21%
Liquids
Unspecified rabbits
5
Dormant fruit trees, shrubs, ornamentals, and other sites
(claims vary somewhat among products)
42%
Liquids
Unspecified rabbits
2
Fruit trees, shrubs, ornamentals, and nursery stock
Conc.
Product Form
Species
70%*
Dry mixtures
Unspecified rabbits
2
Fruit trees, flowers, vegetables, ornamentals, and other sites
CAPSAICIN
No. of
Products
1
Ornamentals, dormant fruit and nut trees, fruit bushes and
vines, and certain edible crops
THIRAM
No. of
Products
TOBACCO DUST
No. of
Products
2
Border treatment for protecting trees, shrubs, and
vegetable gardens
* Also contains 15% dried blood and 15% naphthalene.
ZIRAM
Conc.
Product Form
Species
23%
Dust (to be
applied as is or
to be mixed
and sprayed)
Unspecified rabbits
No. of
Products
1
Flowers, shrubs, and certain garden fruits and vegetables
NOTE: Labels that state “rabbits” are taken to refer to “true rabbits” as well as “hares.”
G-19
Table 22. Pesticides federally registered to control birds.
TOXICANTS
FENTHION (Rid-A-Bird 1100)
Conc.
Product Form
Species
11%
Liquid
Starlings
House sparrows
Pigeons
No. of
Products
1
Restricted to “persons trained in bird control” to be used
only in special perches placed where stipulated on label
STARLICIDE (Compound DRC-1339)
Conc.
Product Form
Species
No. of
Products
0.1%
Dry bait
Starlings
Blackbirds
1
For use around livestock and poultry operations under
direction of personnel trained in bird damage control
97%
Technical
Starlings
Blackbirds
1
For formulation, by state and federal agencies, into “experimental baits suitable for starling and blackbird control”
98%
Technical with
use directions
Starlings
Brewer’s blackbirds
Red-winged blackbirds
Common grackles
Brown-headed cowbirds
1
Restricted Use Pesticide for use by or under direct
supervision of US Department of Agriculture employees
in cattle, poultry, or hog feedlots
98%
Technical with
use directions
Herring gulls
Great black backed gulls
Ring-billed gulls
1
in or near nesting colonies of certain types of birds within
coastal areas between March 1 and June 30
98%
Technical with
use directions
Pigeons
1
on flat rooftops or within fenced areas from which the
public and pets, domestic animals, and most non-avian
wildlife can be excluded
No. of
Products
FRIGHTENING AGENTS
4-AMINOPYRIDINE (Avitrol)
Conc.
Product Form
Species
0.03%
Dry bait
Common grackles
Yellow-headed blackbirds
Cowbirds
Starlings
1
Restricted Use Pesticide to be used to protect ripening
sweet corn and field corn
0.03%
Dry bait
Common grackles
Rusty blackbirds
Cowbirds
Starlings
1
Restricted Use Pesticide to be used to protect ripening
sunflower fields
0.3%
Concentrate
1
Formulation and repackaging
0.5%
Dry baits*
House sparrows
Grackles
Cowbirds
Rusty blackbirds
Starlings
3
Restricted Use Pesticides for use in, on, or in the area of
structures, nesting, feeding, and roosting sites
0.5%
Dry bait*
House sparrows
Grackles
Cowbirds
Rusty blackbirds
Starlings
Pigeons
1
Restricted Use Pesticide for use in, on, or in the area of
structures, nesting, feeding, loafing, and roosting sites
G-20
4-ANIMOPYRIDINE (Avitrol) (Continued)
0.5%
Dry bait*
Pigeons
1
structures, feeding, nesting, loafing, and roosting sites
0.8%
Dry bait*
Starlings
1
feedlots, structures, nesting, feeding, and roosting sites
1.0%
Dry bait*
House sparrows
Grackles
Cowbirds
Rusty blackbirds
Starlings
1
feedlots, structures, nesting, feeding, and roosting sites
1.0%
Dry bait*
Crows
1
structures, feeding, nesting, and roosting sites
25%
Concentrate
powder to
be mixed*
Herring gulls
1
Restricted Use Pesticide to be applied at, in, or near
sanitary landfills
50%
Concentrate
powder to
be mixed*
Starlings
1
Restricted Use Pesticide to be used in or near feedlots
* Prebaiting is recommended
REPELLENTS
CAPSICUM (Ground red peppers)
Conc.
Product Form
Species
12%*
Granulars
Horned larks
House finches
Unspecified sparrows
Starlings
No. of
Products
2
For use on certain fruit, vegetable, and grain crops
(specific crops claimed as sites differ between labels)
* Also contains 5% ground garlic
Conc.
Product Form
Species
0.065%*
Liquid
Unspecified birds
No. of
Products
1
Taste repellent used to protect seeds or bulbs
LINDANE
Conc.
Product Form
Species
No. of
Products
25.08%
Powder
Pheasants
1
Seed treatment for various agricultural crops
75.0%
Powder
Pheasants
1
Seed treatment for various agricultural crops
* Also contains 12.5% captan and “related derivatives.”
NAPHTHALENE
Conc.
Product Form
Species
100%
Flakes
Unspecified birds
No. of
Products
1
Attics, floor and wall voids
PETROLEUM NAPHTHENIC OILS
Conc.
Product Form
Species
No. of
Products
79.65%*
Aerosol
Pigeons
Starlings
House sparrows
1
For treating ledges where birds roost or land
86.0%**
Paste
Pigeons
Starlings
“Nuisance birds”
1
For treating ledges where birds roost or land, and trees
and shrubs
* Also contains 1.65% polyisobutlyenes
** Also contains 2.0% polyisobutlyenes
G-21
POLYBUTENES
Conc.
Product Form
Species
42.8%
Semi-liquid
Starlings
House sparrows
Pigeons
1
For use on buildings and adjacent inanimate structures
49.0%
Liquid
Pigeons
House sparrows
Starlings
Grackles
Cowbirds
Common crows
Ring-billed gulls
Herring gulls
California gulls
1
For interior use on beams, girders, struts, supports, and
other places where birds roost or land
49.7%
Paste
Pigeons
Starlings
House sparrows
Gulls
1
For treating ledges where birds roost or land
80%
Paste
Pigeons
House sparrows
Starlings
Grackles
Cowbirds
Common crows
Ravens
Ring-billed gulls
Herring gulls
California gulls
1
For use on structures where birds roost or land
90.0%
Paste
Pigeons
1
For use on buildings and adjacent inanimate structures
93.5%
Paste
Pigeons
House sparrows
1
For treating structures where birds roost or land
NOTE:
No. of
Products
The heading “Polybutenes” is applied here to a variety of related compounds which are used to discourage birds from perching on treated
areas due to the tackiness and other irritating tactile properties of these substances.
Table 23. Pesticide federally registered to repel snakes.
SULFUR
Conc.
Product Form
Species
28.0%*
Dry mixture
Rattlesnakes
Checkered garter snakes
* Also contains 7.0% naphthalene
Editors
Scott E. Hygnstrom
Robert M. Timm
Gary E. Larson
G-22
No. of
Products
1
For use in areas around houses, cabins, trailers, garages,
utility houses, barns, wood piles, sand piles, trash cans,
and flower beds
DESCRIPTION OF
ACTIVE INGREDIENTS
Compiled by Robert M. Timm
The following pages contain information concerning the active ingredients commonly found in pesticides registered for
control of wildlife damage. In general, each description follows a standard format that includes information about the
compound’s use, history, physical and chemical properties, pharmacology, and toxicity.
Toxicity is defined using the following abbreviations:
For toxicity by oral exposure,
LDL0 = lowest dose reported to be lethal to an animal
LD50 = dose lethal to 50% of the animals tested
LD100 = dose lethal to 100% of the animals tested
MLD = minimum lethal dose, or LDL0.
Doses are typically reported as mass of compound per mass of animal (mg/kg).
For toxicity by inhalation,
LCL0 = lowest concentration reported to be lethal to an animal
LC50 = concentration lethal to 50% of the animals tested
TCL0 = lowest concentration, for any given period of time, reported to produce any toxic effect.
A toxicity expressed as LC50 = 300mg/m3/30M signifies that 50% of the population can be expected to die when exposed
to a concentration of 300 mg per cubic meter of air for 30 minutes.
For certain compounds, much of the descriptive information has been taken from the Vertebrate Pest Control Handbook
(1986) as revised by Jerry P. Clark, and from the 1975 edition of the same publication compiled by Dell O. Clark. Both
volumes were published by the California Department of Food and Agriculture, Sacramento. I thank Jerry Clark and Dell
Clark for permission to use this material. Other references used are listed under “For Additional Information” following
the description of many compounds, and under “References” at the end of this section. The publications by Spencer (1981),
Sweet (1993), and Worthing (1991) were particularly helpful. Rex E. Marsh (University of California-Davis) and Kathleen
Fagerstone (USDA-APHIS-Denver Wildlife Research Center) reviewed a draft of this section and provided many helpful
comments, additions, and corrections. Additional review was provided by Bill Erickson (US-EPA); Ed Schafer, Jr., Peter
Savarie, and Paul Woronecki (USDA-APHIS-Denver Wildlife Research Center); Russ Mason (Monell Chemical Senses
Center, University of Pennsylvania); Scott Hygnstrom (University of Nebraska-Lincoln), and Gary Larson (USDA-APHISAnimal Damage Control). I greatly appreciate their help in improving the accuracy and usefulness of this section.
Wildlife Committee
G-23
ACROLEIN
Chemical Name
Acrolein, 2-propenal, acrylaldehyde
Trade Name
Magnacide®
Use
Developed originally as an aquatic
herbicide, it is useful in the control of
submerged and floating weeds in
freshwater ponds and other impoundments.
History
The original research leading to registration of acrolein as an aquatic herbicide was conducted by Shell Chemical
Co., which patented the material in
1959 in the United States. Baker Performance Chemicals received a California
Special Local Needs 24(c) registration
for acrolein as a burrow fumigant for
control of ground squirrels in 1993.
Properties
Acrolein is a colorless, highly volatile
liquid with a pungent odor. It is moderately soluble in water at 20oC. It is
miscible in the lower alcohols, ethers,
hydrocarbons, acetone, and benzene.
At room temperature, it is noncorrosive to iron or steel. At low doses, it irritates the throat and eyes, thus
serving as its own warning agent.
Toxicity
Skin contact causes chemical burns in
humans. A concentration of 1 ppm in
air produces detectable eye and nose
irritation in 2 to 3 minutes and is intolerable after 5 minutes.
G-24
Oral LD50 values for acrolein have
been reported as follows:
Species
Mouse
Rat
Rabbit
Acute Oral
LD50 (mg/kg)a
40 mg/kg
46 mg/kg
7 mg/kg
Toxicity by inhalation has been reported as follows:a
Species
TCL0
LCL0
Mouse
Rat
Human
LC50
66 ppm/6H
8 ppm/4Hb
300 mg/m3/30M
1 ppm
aSweet (1993), unless otherwise noted
bLewis and Sweet (1985)
For Additional Information
Lewis, R. L., and D. V. Sweet. 1985. Registry of
Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. 198384 Supplement. US Dep. Health and Human
Serv., Public Health Serv., Centers for
Disease Control, Nat. Inst. Occupational
Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio.
O’Connell, R. A., and J. P. Clark. 1992. A study
of acrolein as an experimental ground
squirrel burrow fumigant. Proc. Vertebr. Pest
Conf. 15:326-329.
153 ppm/10M
ALUMINUM PHOSPHIDE
Chemical Name
Aluminum phosphide
Trade Names
Phostoxin®, Detia® Rotox®, Fumitoxin®, Gastoxin®, PhosTek®
Use
A fumigant for certain burrowing rodents and moles, it is also used to control insects in stored products.
History
Aluminum phosphide was introduced
as a fumigant for stored products in
the early 1930s by Dr. Werner Freyberg, Chemische Fabrik. Its formulation into molded tablets or pellets is a
rather recent development. This material was registered for mammal control
in 1981, although the compound has
been used for this purpose in some
other countries for a much longer time.
Properties
Aluminum phosphide forms dark gray
or yellowish crystals. For mammal
control, it is formulated into 3-g tablets
or 600-mg pellets. A typical formulation contains 56% to 57% active ingredient plus 26% ammonium carbamate,
3% paraffin, and 14% to 15% aluminum oxide. Aluminum phosphide
reacts with atmospheric moisture to
release phosphine (PH3) gas, the active
ingredient. Phosphine is colorless and
has a slight carbide-like odor. At some
concentrations it is flammable or
explosive. In formulations which contain ammonium carbamate, this compound hydrolyzes to release CO2 and
ammonia. Aluminum phosphide
should be stored in its original metal
container until used.
Toxicity
Phosphine gas is a potent mammalian
toxicant. At a concentration of 1,000
ppm, it is lethal to humans after a few
breaths. At 400 ppm, it is lethal in 30
minutes.a It is immediately dangerous
to life or health at 200 ppm.b At a concentration of 1 ppm, it can be lethal to
some rats within 24 hours.c
The following toxicity values are given
for phosphine gas:
Species
Inhalation
LCL0d
Mouse
Cat
Human
380 mg/m3/2H
70 mg/m3/2H
1000 ppm/5H
Baker, R. O. 1992. Exposure of persons to
phosphine gas from aluminum phosphide
application to rodent burrows. Proc. Vertebr.
Pest Conf. 15:312-321.
Lewis, R. J., Sr., ed. 1979. Registry of toxic effects
of chemical substances, 1978 ed. Nat. Inst.
Occupational Safety Health, Centers for
Disease Control, Public Health Serv., US
Dep. Health, Education and Welfare,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Salmon, T. P., W. P. Gorenzel, and W. J. Bentley.
1982. Aluminum phosphide (Phostoxin) as a
burrow fumigant for ground squirrel control.
Proc. Vertebr. Pest Conf. 10:143-146.
aSpencer (1981)
bBerg (1983)
cLewis (1979)
dSweet (1993)
For complete citations, see References at the
end of this section.
G-25
ANTICOAGULANTS
Chemical Names
See below
Trade Names
See below
Use
Anticoagulants are a group of widely
used rodenticides; an estimated 95% of
all commensal rodent control is conducted with anticoagulants. They are
separated into two functional groups,
first-generation and second-generation
anticoagulants. Those of the second
generation have the ability to control
warfarin-resistant rats and house mice,
and they are also considered singlefeeding anticoagulants.
First generation anticoagulants are also
used for the control of certain field
rodents, including ground squirrels,
pocket gophers, and voles. Some field
rodent and rabbit registrations are specific to local needs of various states,
and they are extensively used to protect agricultural crops and forest trees.
At present, none of the second generation anticoagulants are registered for
control of field rodents or rabbits.
History
Warfarin, the first anticoagulant
rodenticide, had its beginning in 1943
when Dr. Karl Paul Link and his
co-workers of the Biochemistry
Department, University of Wisconsin,
were attempting to determine the
cause of “Sweet Clover Disease” in
cattle. Moldy sweet clover hay was
found to contain a powerful anticoagulant. The first result of the research
was the development of dicumarol,
which is used to prevent the formation
of blood clots in humans. Dr. Link’s
staff continued the line of research and
synthesized warfarin (Compound 42)
which is a much more potent anticoagulant than dicumarol. In April 1948,
J. A. O’Connor described the first successful use of an anticoagulant compound, dicoumarin, for controlling
rats under field conditions.
G-26
Pindone, coumafuryl, and valone soon
followed warfarin on the market, with
diphacinone and chlorophacinone
marketed somewhat later. The last two
compounds were, by far, more toxic
than the earlier materials; hence, the
concentration in baits was reduced by
some fivefold. Of the earlier anticoagulants, coumafuryl (Fumarin®)
and valone (PMP®) are no longer
marketed.
The second generation anticoagulants,
bromadiolone and brodifacoum, were
developed some years later specifically
to combat warfarin resistance. The
newest of the second-generation anticoagulants, difethialone, has been in
development for a number of years
and is nearing registration in the
United States.
Characteristics
Anticoagulants used as rodenticides
are chemically separated into two general groups: the hydroxycoumarins
(such as warfarin) and the indandiones
(pindone, valone, diphacinone, and
chlorophacinone). The second generation materials (bromadiolone, brodifacoum, and difethialone) are closely
akin to the hydroxycoumarin group.
Table 1 lists the anticoagulants in current use or about to be registered in
the United States.
All first-generation anticoagulants,
also known as multiple-dose rodenticides, relied on their cumulative toxic
effect. They were substantially more
toxic if consumed in small doses over
a period of several days than if consumed in one large amount (for instance, the 5-day cumulative LD50 is
substantially lower than the acute
LD50). The baits are formulated so that
rodents have to feed a minimum of 3
to 5 days before a lethal dose is
achieved; death follows after several
additional days.
In order to achieve this multiple feeding, the bait must be made available on
a continuous basis until the desired
control is reached. Prior to the development of anticoagulants, all rodenticides were acute (single dose)
materials; hence, the introduction of
warfarin required a whole new concept of bait application. Bait trays or
bait boxes had to be designed to hold
substantial amounts of bait and strategically located so that all rodents in an
area had access to ample bait for
repeated feedings until death.
Bromadiolone, brodifacoum, and
difethialone, all second generation
materials, are much more potent, with
relatively low acute LD50s for rodents,
making them effective for the control
of warfarin-resistant rats and mice.
When formulated at their current concentrations, they have the ability to kill
a high percentage of the rodent population in a single feeding, hence their
designation as single-feeding anticoagulants. The effects of these compounds are also cumulative and will
result in death after several feedings of
even small amounts.
As in the case of all anticoagulants,
death is delayed for several days following the ingestion of a lethal dose.
This delayed action has a decided
safety advantage because it provides
time to administer the antidote and
save pets, livestock, and of course,
people who may have accidentally
ingested the bait. Vitamin K1 is the antidote for anticoagulants and, if administered soon enough after intake, can
reverse the action of the anticoagulant.
Diphacinone, chlorophacinone, and all
of the second-generation materials
Table 1. Anticoagulants used in the United States.
Chemical Name
Usual Types of Formulations
Food
Tracking
Bait
Liquid Powder
Percent
Active Ingredient
Used in Food Bait
3-(α-acetonylbenzyl)-4-hydroxycoumarin
X
0.025
3-[3(4'-bromo[1,1’biphenyl]-4-yl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro1-naphthalenyl]-4-hydroxy-2H-1-benzopyran-2-one
X
Bromadiolone (Maki®
Contrac®)*
3-[3-(4'-bromo[1,1’biphenyl]-4-yl)-3-hydroxy-1phenylpropyl]-4-hydroxy-2H-1-benzopyran-2-one
X
0.005
Difethialone*
[(bromo-4’-[biphenyl-1-1’]-yl-4)3-tetrahydro-1,2,3,4napthyl-1]3-hydroxy-4,2H-1 benzo-thiopyran-2-one
X
0.0025
Chlorophacinone (RoZol®)
2-[(p-chlorophenyl)phenylacetyl]-1,3-indandione
X
X
0.005
Diphacinone (Ramik®,
Contrax-D®)
2-diphenylacetyl-1,3-indandione
X
X
0.005
Pindone (Pival®,
Pivalyn®, Contrax-P®)
2-pivalyl-1,3-indandione
X
Common Name and
Typical Trade Names
Hydroxycoumarins
Warfarin (d-Con and others)
Brodifacoum (Talon®,
Havoc®)*
X
0.005
Indandiones
X
0.025
*Second-generation anticoagulants especially useful for the control of warfarin-resistant rats and mice.
persist in animals and will often
require prolonged veterinary or medical treatment.
The slow action of anticoagulant baits
has another great advantage in that the
target animal is unable to associate its
illness with the bait eaten. Therefore,
bait shyness or toxicant shyness does
not occur.
Most of the anticoagulant baits used
today are commercial ready-to-use
baits; very few individuals prepare
their own baits from concentrates as
they commonly did 20 years ago.
Ready-to-use bait increases the cost of
rodent control but avoids past problems of incorrect bait concentrations
and poor bait formulation, which often
led to poor control.
Some anticoagulants are available as
tracking powders and others as
sodium salts that are water-soluble,
allowing their use as water baits.
In the early 1960s the practice began of
mixing anticoagulant grain baits with
melted paraffin and molding it into
cans or cartons to form block-type paraffin baits. These became commercially
available a few years later and were
promoted for sewer rat control or for
other rodent-infested areas with moisture and high humidity. Now there are
molded or extruded paraffin-type baits
made from most of the current anticoagulants. Block-type baits have several advantages: they confine multiple
feedings of bait into one unit; if permitted by the label, they can be placed in
strategic locations where bait boxes
with loose grain or pelleted bait would
be difficult to place; and bait deterioration from insects and molds is
retarded.
Anticoagulant Resistance
The resistance of rats to warfarin was
first noted in Scotland in 1958, some
years following its repeated use.
Shortly thereafter, anticoagulant resistance was identified in both rats and
house mice in other European countries. It was identified somewhat later
in the United States, where it has since
been demonstrated in many regions
and major cities. All three species of
commensal rodents are implicated.
Resistance has not been found in field
rodents.
Resistance arises from genetic mutation or recombination, sometimes of a
single gene, and levels of resistance
vary among individual animals. A
high degree of resistance will render
control with warfarin virtually impossible. Rats and mice that are resistant
to warfarin also show some resistance
to all first generation anticoagulants.
Where resistance is apparent, switch to
a second generation anticoagulant or
to another rodenticide with a different
mode of action.
Whether resistance will eventually
extend to all second-generation anticoagulants remains to be seen; some
isolated instances of resistance to
bromadiolone have been reported.
Pharmacology
All anticoagulants have two actions;
they reduce the clotting ability of the
blood and cause damage to the capillaries (tiny blood vessels). The rate of
blood clotting gradually decreases and
blood loss leads to an apparently painless death.
Animals killed by anticoagulants often
have no color in the skin, muscles, or
viscera. Evidence of hemorrhage may
be found in any part of the body, but
usually only in one location. The blood
that remains in the heart and vessels is
very thin and forms a poor clot or no
clot. The animal exhibits increasing
weakness though appetite and body
weight are not specifically affected.
Hematoma (a local swelling or tumor
filled with blood) formation beneath
the skin is often more common than
free hemorrhage.
G-27
Repeated daily doses of the anticoagulants greatly increases their effective
toxicity. Feeding does not have to be
on consecutive days, but several
feedings should occur within a 10-day
interval with no longer than 48 hours
between feedings. Plenty of bait must
be made available at all times to
achieve adequate control.
Toxicity
The susceptibility to anticoagulants
varies considerably among species and
among anticoagulants. For this reason,
generalizing often leads to erroneous
conclusions. Since all anticoagulants
are cumulative in toxicity, they have
the ability to kill any warm-blooded
animal if consumed in sufficient
amounts for a long enough period.
Materials with the highest toxicity and
the longest half-lives present the greatest lethal potential with fewer feedings. Compounds with the longest
half-lives need not be consumed daily;
a lapse of several days between
feedings will not alter the outcome.
Many drugs increase the effects of
anticoagulants; among these are the
broad-spectrum antibiotics, the barbiturates, and the salicylates. Observations of rats treated with chlordane
and DDT show the opposite effect;
they stimulate the metabolism of warfarin, thus decreasing its toxicity. Susceptibility to anticoagulants seems to
increase with age.
Anticoagulants tend to accumulate in
the liver and gradually dissipate over a
period of time, depending on the initial accumulations and successive
does. Where large doses of anticoagulants are ingested, substantial amounts
may pass through the animal
unassimilated.
Precautions should be taken to prevent
children, pets, and livestock from gaining access directly to anticoagulant
bait. Baits should be placed in areas
inaccessible to nontarget animals or in
tamper-resistant bait stations. A single
substantial ingestion of diphacinone,
chlorophacinone, or any of the secondgeneration anticoagulant baits may, for
example, place a dog in jeopardy,
requiring veterinary attention. When
G-28
used according to label instructions,
there is little potential hazard to nontarget species.
Secondary hazard associated with
predator or scavenger animals consuming rodent carcasses is minimal in
commensal rodent control. It can be of
somewhat greater concern when anticoagulants are used for field rodent
control. Occasionally a farm dog is
known to consume fresh vole or
ground squirrel carcasses over several
days and begin to show signs of anticoagulant intoxication. With quick and
proper veterinary attention, the dog
can usually be saved. Although secondary poisoning has been demon-
strated in the laboratory for various
species, its occurrence in the wild
appears very low, with few documented cases where use recommendations were followed.
Toxicity information for many animals
is not readily available. A man with
suicidal intent induced serious illness
by ingesting 1.7 mg warfarin per kg
per day for 6 consecutive days. This
corresponds to eating almost 1 pound
of bait (0.025% warfarin) per day. All
signs and symptoms were caused by
hemorrhage, and following multiple
small transfusions and massive doses
of vitamin K, recovery was complete.a
The following toxicity data have been reported:
Brodifacoum
Species
House mouse
Norway rat
Roof rat
Meadow vole
Pine vole
Rabbit
Pig
Dog
Cat
Chicken
Bromadiolone
Species
House mouse, albino
Norway rat, albino
Rabbit
Chlorophacinone
Species
Vampire bat
House mouse
White (lab) rat, on meat
Norway rat, albino
Roof rat
Deer mouse
Rabbit
Mallard
Ring-necked pheasant
Red-winged blackbird
Acute Oral
LD50 (mg/kg)b
0.4 - 0.86
0.27
0.65 - 0.73c
0.72d
0.36d
0.29
0.5 - 2.0
0.25 - 1.0
~25
10 - 100
Acute Oral LD50
(mg/kg)d,e
1.75
1.125
1.0
LD50 (mg/kg)
(presumably from single
oral dose)a
7.5
1.06d
2.1
2.1 - 20.5d
15.0
0.49
50d
>100
>100
430
Difethialone
Acute Oral LD50
(mg/kg)f
Species
House mouse (wild)
Norway rat (wild)
Roof rat (wild)
Pig
Bobwhite quail
Diphacinone
Species
House mouse
Mouse
Rat
Rat
Rabbit
Dog
Coyote
Cat
Pig
Pindone
Species
Acute Oral LD50
(mg/kg)
141 - 340d
340g
1.9d - ~3h
3 - 17g
35k
0.8 - 15d,h,i
0.6 j
5 - 15d
150h
Acute Oral LD50
(mg/kg)
Species
Chronic Oral LD50
(mg/kg/day)
(lab rat) 0.1h
0.25 for 14 daysd
Chronic Oral LD50
(mg/kg/day)
0.52 for 7 daysd
2.5h
Acute Oral LD50
(mg/kg)
Mouse
Rat
Rat
Rabbit
Swine
Dog
Cat
Cat
Ruminants
Chicken
374d
3.0d
50-100l
800d
3l
d
20 - 50l
6 - 40d
5 - 50l
1,000d
aClark (1986)
Dubock, A. C., and D. E. Kaukeinen. 1978.
Brodifacoum (Talon rodenticide), a novel
concept. Proc. Vertebr. Pest Conf. 8:127-137.
Greaves, J. H. 1985. The present status of
resistance to anticoagulants. Acta Zool.
Fennica 173:159-162.
280d
50d
Rat
Rat, albino
Rabbit
Dog
Warfarin
0.47
0.51
0.38
2-3
0.264
Chronic Oral LD50
(mg/kg/day)
daysa
0.6 for 3 - 9
0.4 for 4 - 15 daysa
1 for 5 daysl
30.0 for 6 - 15 daysa
0.05 for 7 daysl
5 for 5 - 15 daysl
3.0 - 5.0 for 10 daysa
1 for 5 daysl
200 for 12 daysl
Hadler, M. R., and A.P. Buckle. 1992. Forty-five
years of anticoagulant rodenticides—past,
present and future trends. Proc. Vertebr. Pest
Conf. 15:149-155.
Kaukeinen, D. 1982. A review of the secondary
poisoning hazard potential to wildlife from
the use of anticoagulant rodenticides. Proc.
Vertebr. Pest Conf. 10:151-158.
Kaukeinen, D. E., and M. Rampaud. 1986. A
review of brodifacoum efficacy in the U.S.
and worldwide. Proc. Vertebr. Pest Conf.
12:16-50.
Lechevin, J. C., and R. M. Poché. 1988. Activity
of LM2219 (difethialone), a new anticoagulant rodenticide, in commensal
rodents. Proc. Vertebr. Pest Conf. 13:59-63.
Murphy, M. J., and D. F. Gerken. 1989. The
anticoagulant rodenticides. Pages 143-146 in
R. W. Kirk, ed. Current veterinary therapy X:
small animal practice. W. B. Saunders Co.,
Philadelphia.
Poché, R. M. 1986. The status of bromadiolone in
the United States. Proc. Vertebr. Pest Conf.
12:6-15.
Richards, C. G. J., and L. W. Huson. 1985.
Towards the optimal use of anticoagulant
rodenticides. Acta Zool. Fennica 173:155-157.
Savarie, P. J., D. J. Hayes, R. T. McBride, and J. D.
Roberts. 1979. Efficacy and safety of
diphacinone as a predacide. Pages 69-79 in
E. E. Kenaga, ed. Avian and mammalian
wildlife toxicology. ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub.
693. Am. Soc. Testing Materials,
Philadelphia.
Woody, B. J. 1992. Clinical approach to the
diagnosis of diseases and disorders in pets
and domestic animals sometimes mistaken
for anticoagulant toxicosis. Proc. Vertebr.
Pest Conf. 15:199-203.
bTalon Technical Bulletin, ICI Americas, Inc., (1987)
cDubock and Kaukeinen (1978)
dHone and Mulligan (1982)
eMaki Technical Bulletin, Chempar Chemical Co. Inc. (no date)
fLechevin and Poché (1988)
gHumphreys (1988)
hSpencer (1981)
iTechnical Bulletin, Velsicol Chemical Co. (1977)
jSavarie et
al. (1979)
kHumphreys (1988)
lOsweiler et
al. (1985)
For complete citations, see References at the end of this section.
G-29
AVITROL®
Chemical Name
4-aminopyridine
Trade Name
Avitrol®
Use
Avitrol® is a bird management
chemical registered for use as a flockfrightening repellent. It is usually formulated as a grain bait. Treated bait is
diluted with untreated bait so that
only a few birds in a flock ingest a
treated particle of bait. Affected birds
emit distress cries and/or perform
visual displays that often frighten the
other birds in the flock, causing them
to leave.
Avitrol® has been used for feral
pigeons, house sparrows, and for certain blackbirds and cowbirds in and
around structures. In agricultural situations, crows, starlings, grackles, cowbirds, and blackbirds are most
frequently the targeted species.
Avitrol® products are for use by or
under the supervision of government
agencies or certified control operators.
Avitrol® is not for sale to the public.
History
Avitrol® is the registered trademark of
the Avitrol Corporation for the chemical 4-aminopyridine. The synthesis of
G-30
this chemical was first reported in
1931, and its unique action on birds
was reported in 1964 by Goodhue. Its
utility for controlling damage by birds
in some situations was demonstrated
in 1965 by Goodhue and Baumgartner.
Characteristics
4-aminopyridine is a white crystalline,
odorless, water-soluble material. It is
stable in light and melts at 159oC.
Pharmacology
Avitrol® is an acutely toxic substituted
pyridine that affects the nervous system in a manner similar to that of
organophosphates and carbamates;
however, Avitrol® is not a cholinesterase inhibitor. In most bird species, a
lethal dose of Avitrol® is necessary to
produce distress behavior.
Toxicity
Birds and mammals appear equally
sensitive to Avitrol® intoxication.
LD50 values are generally less than
10 mg/kg.
Birds ingesting the material become
disoriented, emit distress calls, and
exhibit erratic flight, tremors, and convulsions before death. Distress usually
begins in about 15 minutes and lasts 20
to 30 minutes in most species. Some
species, such as pigeons, do not emit
distress calls.
In mammals, the following symptoms
are produced: hyperexcitability, salivation, tremors, muscular incoordination, convulsions, cardiac or respiratory arrest, and death. Initial effects are
usually noted in 10 to 15 minutes and
death often occurs 15 minutes to 4
hours later. Occasionally the tremor
and/or convulsive stages are accompanied by audible vocalizations produced by strong, involuntary contractions of the diaphragm.
Documented reports of secondary poisoning following Avitrol® use have
been very limited. When birds are
offered undiluted Avitrol® baits, there
may be potential hazards to dogs, cats,
and raptors that consume unassimilated Avitrol® in gut contents. In field
use, only individual scavengers such
as magpies and crows appear to be
have been impacted.
Toxicity Table for Avitrol®a
Species
Acute Oral LD50
(mg/kg)a,b
Acute Oral LD50
(mg/kg) for HCl* a,b
20
28 - 32.5
17.8
11.9
MAMMALS
White rat
Hog
Dog
3.7 - 4.0
BIRDS
Mallard
American kestrel
Domestic chicken (2-3 wk. old)
Coturnix quail
Ring-necked pheasant (4 wk. old)
Ring-billed gull
Common pigeon
White-winged dove
Mourning dove
American robin
Starling
Black-billed magpie
Common crow
Yellow-billed magpie
Boat-tailed grackle
Brown-headed cowbird
Common grackle
Shiny cowbird
Tricolored blackbird
House finch
Golden-crowned sparrow
House sparrow
White-crowned sparrow
4.22
5.62
15
7.65 - 8.05
5.62 - 7.50
Besser, J. F., D. J. Brady, T. L. Burst, and T. P.
Funderberg. 1984. 4-Aminopyridine baits on
baiting lanes protect sunflower fields from
blackbirds. Agric. Ecosystems and Environ.
11:281-290.
Schafer, E. W., Jr., R. B. Brunton, and D. J.
Cunningham. 1973. A summary of the acute
toxicity of 4-aminopyridine to birds and
mammals. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 26:532538.
Schafer, E. W., Jr., W. A. Bowles, Jr., and J.
Hurlbut. 1983. The acute oral toxicity,
repellency and hazard potential of 998
chemicals to one or more species of wild and
domestic birds. Arch. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol. 12:355-382.
8
20
7.5
8.10 - 8.50
4.22
4.90 - 6.0
2.37
2.37
2.37
1.7 - 7.1
4.22
2.37
1.78 - 8.50
< 1.00
4.22
5.62
5.62
3.00 - 7.50
5.62
14
3.2
* HCl = Hydrochloride salt of 4-aminopyridine.
aSchafer et al. (1973)
bSchafer et al. (1983)
G-31
BONE TAR OIL
Trade Name
Magic Circle Deer Repellent®
Use
As an area (odor) repellent to protect
trees, shrubs, and other plant materials
from deer.
History
Developed as a deer repellent at State
College Laboratories, Pennsylvania,
during the 1950s. Magic Circle Deer
G-32
Repellent® was registered and marketed by State College Laboratories, a
division of J. C. Ehrlich Chemical
Company until 1993.
Properties
The active ingredient, bone tar oil (also
called bone oil), is a dark, viscous liquid with a distinct odor. It is produced
by the destructive distillation of animal
bones. The commercial product contains 93.75% active ingredient.
Toxicity
The human oral LDLO is 500 mg/kg.
The oral LDL0 for rats is 800 mg/kg.a
aSweet (1993)
BROMETHALIN
Chemical Name
N-methyl-2,4-dinitro-N-(2,4,6-tribromophenyl)-6-(trifluoromethyl) benzenamine
Other Name
Bromethalin
Trade Names
Assault®, Vengeance®, Trounce®
Use
A single-dose rodenticide developed
for the control of Norway rats, roof
rats, and house mice.
History
The toxic nature of certain classes of
diphenylamines was researched by Eli
Lilly Research Laboratories in the
1970s. Laboratory and field research
on bromethalin progressed into the
early 1980s, at which time it was registered by EPA.
Properties
Bromethalin is a pale yellow, odorless
crystalline solid. Its melting point is
151oC. Bromethalin is insoluble in water but is soluble in many organic solvents.
are reversible if administration of the
toxicant is discontinued.
Experiments in the physiological and
biochemical mechanisms of action suggest that bromethalin uncouples oxidative phosphorylation in central
nervous system mitochondria. This
could lead to a decreased production
of ATP, a diminished activity of Na +
/K + ATP-ase, and a subsequent fluid
buildup manifested by fluid-filled
vacuoles between the myelin sheaths.
This vacuole formation in turn leads to
an increased cerebrospinal fluid pressure and increased pressure on nerve
axons, yielding a decrease in nerve
impulse conduction, paralysis, and
death.
No secondary hazard is known.
Rodents consuming a sublethal dose
are not reported to become bait shy.
Pharmacology
Both acute and chronic effects can occur following ingestion. Acute effects
include tremors, one or two episodes
of clonic convulsions, prostration, and
death usually within 18 hours. These
effects occur when technical bromethalin is administered in a soluble form
and given at a dose two-fold or greater
than the LD50, or by generous bait consumption.
Chronic effects, which include lethargy, hind-leg weakness, loss of
muscle tone and paralysis, occur with
a single dose equal to the LD50, with
multiple smaller doses, or with sublethal dietary administration. Several
acute and dietary studies have shown
that, at sublethal doses, these effects
Toxicity
The toxicity of bromethalin is as follows:
Species
Laboratory mouse
Laboratory rat
(Norway)
Roof rat
Rabbit
Dog
Cat
Monkey
Adult quail
Acute Oral LD50
(mg/kg)a
5.25 - 8.13
Bait placement and timing are crucial
in achieving effective rodent control
with bromethalin bait. Bait should be
renewed at intervals of several days.
Continuous bait availability (as with
anticoagulants) is not required, but
bait needs to be exposed long enough
to allow all animals in the area to feed.
Bait quantity will be about one-third
that used with anticoagulants, since an
animal ingesting a lethal dose does not
feed again.
Dorman, D. C. 1992. Bromethalin rodenticide
toxicosis. Pages 175-178 in R. W. Kirk and J.
D. Bonagura, eds. Current veterinary
therapy XI: small animal practice. W. B.
Saunders Co., Philadelphia.
Jackson, W. B., S. R., Spaulding, R. B. L. Van Lier,
and B. A. Dreikorn. 1982. Bromethalin—a
promising new rodenticide. Proc. Vertebr.
Pest Conf. 10:10-16.
Spaulding, S. R., and H. Spannring. 1988. Status
of bromethalin outside the United States.
Van Lier, R. B. L., and L. D. Ottosen. 1981.
Studies on the mechanism of toxicity of
bromethalin, a new rodenticide. Toxicol.
1(1):114.
2.01 - 2.46
6.6
13.0
4.7
1.8
5.0
4.6
Chronic Oral LD50a
Quail
Mallard
210 ppm
620 ppm
aJackson et al. (1982)
G-33
CAPSAICIN
Chemical Name
8-methyl-n-vanillyl-6-nonenamide
Trade Name
Hot Sauce Animal Repellent®
Use
Properties
Toxicity
Capsaicin is the material that makes
peppers (red, jalapeño, and others)
hot. It is also the active ingredient in a
repellent used to protect ornamental
trees and shrubs, dormant fruit and
nut trees, and nursery stock. It is registered for controlling damage by deer,
rabbits, and meadow and pine mice. It
is also registered as an active ingredient in several dog repellents (Halt®,
Dog Shield®) and is frequently used by
mail carriers and meter readers to
ward off aggressive dogs. It has
recently been proposed for federal registration to repel attacking bears and
moose.
Capsaicin (from oleoresin of capsicum)
is a liquid with a boiling point of
220oC. It is soluble in vegetable oil and
in various solvents. The repellent
formulation is a brown to reddish
homogeneous liquid at room temperature, containing natural fats and
waxes.
The acute oral LD50 for the mouse is
reported to be 47.2 mg/kg.a
History
Developed as a repellent by Miller
Chemical and Fertilizer Corporation,
capsaicin was federally registered by
the EPA in 1980.
G-34
Pharmacology
Capsaicin is an extreme irritant to skin,
eyes, and other tissues. Exposure to
skin causes dermal irritation. Exposure
to eyes can cause superficial keratitis
and conjunctivitis. Ingestion can cause
severe irritation to the stomach or
lungs. When handling the concentrate,
use rubber or plastic gloves and a face
shield.
aSweet (1993)
Mason, J. R., N. J. Bean, P. S. Shah, and L. Clark.
1991. Taxon-specific differences in
responsiveness to capsaicin and several
analogues: correlates between chemical
structure and behavioral aversiveness. J.
Chem. Ecol. 17(12):2539-2551.
Rogers, L. L. 1984. Reactions of free-ranging
black bears to capsaicin spray repellents.
Wildl. Soc. Bull. 12:59-61.
ALPHA-CHLORALOSE
Chemical Name
1,2-0-(2,2,2-trichloroethylidene)-α-D-glucofuranose
Other Names
chloralose, glucochloralose, A-C
Trade Names
Alphakil®, Murex, Somio
Use
This compound has recently been
approved in the United States for use as
an immobilizing agent for waterfowl,
coots, and pigeons. It is not classified as
a pesticide, but rather as a drug. Federal
approval for its use by USDA-APHIS
personnel and their trained designees
was granted by the US Food and Drug
Administration in 1992.
History
Alpha-chloralose has been used in
baits for stupefying pigeons and house
sparrows in the United Kingdom since
1959. It has also been employed in
colder climates of European countries
as a rodenticide. It has been formulated at about 0.5% in grain baits for
birds, but up to 4% active ingredient as
a rodenticide against house mice.a The
compound has also been used as a
general anesthetic in laboratory animals, and as an activating agent in
electroencephalography in humans.
Properties
This compound is a crystalline powder
with a melting point of 187oC. It is
soluble in ether and in glacial acetic
acid. Its solubility in water is 1 g in 225
ml at 15oC.
Pharmacology
Alpha-chloralose is a centrally active
drug with both stimulant and depressant properties on the central nervous
system. In birds, alpha-chloralose acts
as a hypnotic, rendering birds easier to
capture. In rodents, it retards metabolism, lowering body temperature to a
degree that may be fatal to small mammals such as house mice in cold climates (below 15oC.).
In mice, ataxia occurs in 5 to 10 minutes following first ingestion, and feeding ceases within 20 minutes. Mice
may recover at air temperatures above
15oC. Birds will recover if left alone.d
In small doses, the compound
increases motor activity and causes
myoclonic movements, which may
progress eventually to deep anesthesia
as dosage increases. It selectively
depresses the normal arousal
response. The electroencephalogram
(EEG) of anesthetized animals, however, suggests that cortical neurons are
in a “subconvulsive state.”a
Alpha-chloralose is metabolized to
chloral, which is converted to trichlorethanol, a central nervous system
depressant. Hepatic formation of a
glucuronide then occurs to form pharmacologically inactive urochloralic
acid, which is excreted in the urine.b
Early clinical effects are mild ataxia followed by hyperexcitability. Some cats
may become quite aggressive. In
severe poisoning, the early signs rapidly give way to posterior weakness,
prostration, increased salivation, shallow respiration, weak pulse, and hypothermia. Affected animals appear to
lose sensitivity to pain but have
increased reactivity to touch, sound, or
electrical stimulus.c A sort of “psychic
blindness” is described in dogsb, in
which affected animals do not respond
to normal stimuli or familiar surroundings. Fatally poisoned animals
appear to die of respiratory failure.c
Toxicity
Birds are generally less resistant than
mammals to alpha-chloralose. Under
experimental conditions, cats have
refused to voluntarily consume baits
containing the compound, while dogs
have eaten 4 g/kg without lethal
effects.b The following toxicity values
have been reported:
Acute Oral LD50
(mg/kg)
Species
House mouse
Norway rat
Cat
Goose, canada
Mallard
Coot
Pigeon
Crow
Starling
190d - 300e
300d - 400e,f
100e - 250f
54g
42d,f
47 - 58h
178d,f - 215g
42e
75e
aSpencer (1981)
bLees and Pharm (1972).
cHayes (1982)
eOsweiler et
al. (1985)
fSweet (1993)
gWoronecki (1992)
hWoronecki, unpubl.
Cornwell, P. B. 1969. Alphakil—a new rodenticide
for mouse control. Pharmaceut. J. 202:74-75.
Lees, P., and Y. Pharm. 1972. Pharmacology and
toxicology of alpha-chloralose: a review. Vet.
Rec. 91:330.
Woronecki, P. P., R. A. Dolbeer, and T. W. Seamans.
1990. Use of alpha-chloralose to remove
waterfowl from nuisance and damage situations. Proc. Vertebr. Pest Conf. 14:343-349.
Woronecki, P. P., R. A. Dolbeer, and T. W.
Seamans. 1992. Alpha-chloralose efficacy in
capturing nuisance waterfowl and pigeons
and current status of FDA registration. Proc.
G-35
CHLOROPICRIN
Chemical Names
Chloropicrin, trichloronitromethane, nitrochloroform
Trade Names
Larvacide®, Chlor-o-pic®, and others
Use
Toxicity
Chloropicrin is a fumigant for controlling rats and mice in structures or burrows. It has been found to be an
effective area repellent for house mice.
It is also used as a fumigant for insect
control in soil and stored grain and
cereal products.
Acute oral LD50 for Norway rats is 250
mg/kg.b The following toxicities for
inhalation of the compound have been
reported:
Tigner, J. R., and W. A. Bowles. 1964.
Chloropicrin tested as an area repellent for
house mice. J. Wildl. Manage. 28:748-751.
History
Its first use as an insecticide was suggested in 1908. It was widely used in
chemical warfare (tear gas) from 1916
to 1918.
Properties
Chloropicrin is a heavy colorless liquid
with a boiling point of 112oC. It is not
flammable. It is soluble in water and
miscible with various organic solvents.
Chloropicrin is easily detected at very
low concentrations because of its characteristic odor and tear gas effect.
Hence, it is used as a warning agent in
other fumigants. Because of this effect,
it may drive rodents out of structures
or burrows before they receive a lethal
amount.
Pharmacology
The compound is very irritating to
mucous membranes, causing tear production. Chloropicrin injures the
medium and small bronchi. Pulmonary edema is the cause of death.a
Because of its irritating properties, it is
not usually lethal to humans as long as
an escape route exists.
G-36
Species
LCL0
Mouse
Human
2,000 mg/m3/Mb
aOsweiler
LC50
66 mg/m3/4Hb
(1985)
bSweet (1993)
CHOLECALCIFEROL
Chemical Name
9,10-seocholesta-5,7,10(19)-trein-3 betaol
Other Names
Cholecalciferol, Vitamin D3
Trade Names
Quintox®, Rampage®
Use
Cholecalciferol is a single-dose or
multiple-dose rodenticide.
History
Laboratory and field research of this
compound as a rodenticide was conducted relatively recently, although
rodenticidal properties of calciferol, a
related compound, have been known
for some time. Registration as a rat
and mouse bait was granted to Bell
Laboratories in late 1984 and Motomco
Ltd. in early 1985.
Properties
In pure form, cholecalciferol is a light
brown resin with a melting point of
84o to 85oC. It is not soluble in water
but will dissolve in some organic solvents.
Pharmacology
Cholecalciferol is metabolized in the
liver to 25-hydroxycholecalciferol and
then in the kidney to 1-alpha, 25dihydroxycholcalciferol. It causes
mobilization of calcium from the bone
matrix to plasma. Victims die from
hypercalcemia. Time to death is 3 to 4
days after receiving a lethal dose. Bait
shyness is said not to occur. Once a
rodent consumes a lethal dose, all food
intake is claimed to cease. This effect is
unlike that of anticoagulants, in which
rodents continue to consume bait after
they have ingested a lethal dose.
Toxicity
Originally, the acute oral LD50 for
laboratory mice was reported as 42.5
mg/kg; for laboratory rats, 43.6 mg/
kg.a For dogs, the reported acute oral
LD50 was 80 mg/kg.b More recent information based on use of formulated
products suggests the LD50 values for
rats and for dogs are in the range of 10
to 15 mg/kgc, or perhaps lower. Dogs
and cats are more susceptible to this
compound than are some rodents, and
precautions must be taken to prevent
their direct access to the bait. Secondary toxicity from feeding on poisoned
rodents has not been demonstrated.
Beard, M. L., G. O. Maupin, A. M. Barnes, and
E. F. Marshall. 1988. Laboratory trials of
cholecalciferol against Spermophilus
variegatus (rock squirrels), a source of
human plague (Yersinia pestis) in the
southwestern United States. J. Environ.
Health 50(5):287-289.
Brown, D. L., and E. F. Marshall. 1988. Field
evaluation of Quintox® (cholecalciferol) for
controlling commensal rodents. Proc.
Dorman, D. C., and V. R. Beasley. 1989.
Diagnosis of and therapy for cholecalciferol
toxicosis. Pages 148-152 in R. W. Kirk, ed.
Current veterinary therapy X: small animal
practice. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia.
Livezey, K. L., D. C. Dorman, S. B. Hooser, and
W.B. Buck. 1991. Hypercalcemia induced by
vitamin D3 toxicosis in two dogs. Canine
Practice 16(5):26-32.
Twigg, L. E., and B. J. Kay. 1992. Evaluation of
Quintox® for control of feral house mice.
J. Wildl. Manage. 56:174-185.
aTechnical Release, Bell Laboratories Inc. (1983)
bSweet (1993)
cPersonal communication, William Erickson
G-37
DENATONIUM SACCHARIDE
Chemical Name
Benzyldiethyl ([2,6-xylylcarbamoyl]methyl) ammonium saccharide
Trade Name
Ro-pel®
Use
Ro-pel® is a repellent in a liquid formulation, for application to surfaces to
prevent animal feeding or gnawing.
Ro-pel® is currently registered for use
against deer, beaver, rats, mice, tree
squirrels, birds, dogs, and cats. The
formulated product contains as active
ingredients 0.065% denatonium saccharide and 0.035% thymol. Ro-pel® is
described to be “extremely bitter and
vile tasting.”
History
Denatonium saccharide was developed in the 1980s as a chemical agent
by Burlington Scientific for the US
government, for potential use in making food crops inedible or rendering
drug-producing plants useless.
G-38
It is chemically related to denatonium
benzoate (trade name: Bitrex®),
another bitter-tasting compound
which is currently registered as a dog
and cat repellent, and which has
recently been incorporated into some
commensal rodent baits as a safety
precaution to prevent their ingestion
by children.
Toxicity
No toxicity data for denatonium
saccharide is available, although the
toxicity appears to be low to both birds
and mammals. For denatonium benzoate (Bitrex®), the acute oral LD50 for
the rat is 584 mg/kg, and for the rabbit, 508 mg/kg.a
aSweet (1993)
Davis, S. F., C. A. Grover, C. A. Erickson, L. A.
Millere, and J. A. Bowman. 1987. Analyzing
aversiveness of denatonium saccharide and
quinine in rats. Perceptual Motor Skills
64:1215-1222.
Kaukeinen, D. E., and A. P. Buckle. 1992.
Evaluations of aversive agents to increase
the selectivity of rodenticides, with emphasis
on denatonium benzoate (Bitrex®) bittering
agent. Proc. Vertebr. Pest Conf. 15:192-198.
Payne, H. A. 1988. Bitrex—a bitter solution to
safety. Chem. Ind. Nov. 21 issue. pp. 721-723.
EGG SOLIDS, PUTRESCENT
Trade Names
Deer-Away®
Use
A repellent for protecting conifers, ornamental trees and shrubs, nonbearing
fruit trees, and bearing fruit trees before flowering and leafing out and after harvest, from deer and elk.
History
Developed by researchers at the
Weyerhaeuser Company during the
1970s, and later manufactured and
marketed by McLaughlin Gormley
King Company. Deer-Away® is currently marketed by IntAgra, Inc.
Properties
The product is formulated as a concentrate for making a liquid solution, and
as a powder. The concentrate consists
of two parts. Concentrate 2103 is a
brownish paste-like slurry with a slight
fermented egg odor. It contains 37%
putrescent whole egg solids and 63%
inert ingredients. Formula 2104 is a red
liquid that contains only inert ingredients. The concentrates have a shelf life
of more than 1 year. When combined
and diluted, they result in a ready-touse spray.
Toxicity
Palmer, W. L., R. G. Wingard, and J. L. George.
1983. Evaluation of white-tailed deer
repellents. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 11:164-166.
A repellent concentrate containing 15%
putrescent whole egg solids and 85%
inert ingredients was found to have an
acute oral LD50 for rats of 34,600 g/kg.
It had an acute dermal LD50 for rabbits
of 3,000 mg/kg. No apparent acute or
chronic effects were seen in penned
deer exposed to the product for several years.a
Andelt, W. F., K. P. Brunham, and J. A. Manning.
1991. Relative effectiveness of repellents for
reducing mule deer damage. J. Wildlife
Manage. 55:341-347.
Conover, M. R. 1984. Effectiveness of repellents
in reducing deer damage in nurseries. Wildl.
Soc. Bull. 12:399-404.
The product may cause browning and
drop of old needles on some species of
conifers.
aTechnical Report, Deer-Away (no date)
G-39
FATTY ACIDS
(various compounds)
Chemical Names
a) Ammonium soaps of higher fatty acids
b) Sodium salts of mixed fatty acids
Trade Names
a) Hinder®, Repel
b) Bye Deer®
Use
History
Properties
Repellents for protection of various
plants from animal feeding. Hinder® is
registered as a deer and rabbit repellents for use on fruit trees and vines,
vegetables and field crops, ornamentals, nursery stock, forage crops, grain
crops, and noncrop areas. This product contains 15% active ingredient.
Label directions instruct dilution with
water prior to application.
The product now sold as Hinder® was
originally developed in the 1950s by
Leffingwell Chemical Co. as a
spreader-sticker for use on citrus. Its
value as a deer repellent was noted by
citrus growers. Field tests to evaluate
“Spreader Sticker 268” were conducted by Leffingwell in the late 1960s
and early 1970s. It was first registered
in California as a repellent in 1969
under the trade name “Repel.” It
received Special Local Needs registration in many states under the trade
name “Hinder®” and full federal registration in 1981.
Ammonium soaps of higher fatty
acids, as a concentrate, is a brown
liquid with an odor of ammonia. It is
soluble in water.
Bye Deer® contains 85% active ingredient, and is labeled for use to “protect
established and new plantings of
shrubs, small trees, and flowers from
damage caused by white-tailed deer.”
Bye Deer® received federal registration
as a deer repellent in April 1993.
G-40
Toxicity
For ammonium soaps of higher fatty
acids, the acute oral LD50 for rats is > 5
g/kg. For rabbits, the acute dermal
LD50 is > 2 g/kg.a
aHinder® Technical Data Sheet, Agricultural
Chemicals, UNIROYAL Inc.
Fargione, M. J., and M. E. Richmond. 1992. The
effectiveness of soap in preventing deer
browsing. Proc. Eastern Wildl. Damage
Control Conf. 5:68-74.
FENTHION
Chemical Name
0,0-dimethyl 0-[3-methyl-4-(methylthio)phenyl] phosphorothioate
Trade Names
Rid-A-Bird® 1100, Baytex, Queletox, Tiguvon, and others
Use
Fenthion is used in Rid-A-Bird®
perches as a contact toxicant for birds
(starlings, house sparrows, and pigeons). It has also been used as an insecticide.
Species
Acute Oral LD50
(mg/kg)
MAMMALS
Mouse
Rat
Rabbit
88a
a
180 - 615b
150a
History
BIRDS
The compound was developed by
G. Schrader and E. Schegk and introduced in 1957 as an experimental
insecticide by Farbenfabriken Bayer. It
has been used to control Quelea quelea,
a weaver bird, in Africa by spray
applications to roosts and nesting
colonies.
Canada goose
12.0c
Duck
5.9a
American kestrel
1.0 - 1.33d
Bobwhite
< 4.0c
Quail, Coturnux
17.8b,d
Quail, California
15.0c
Pheasant
17.8c
Chicken
15 - 28b
Pigeon
1.78d - 4.63a,c
Mourning dove
2.37d - 2.5c
Black-billed magpie
4.22 - 5.62d
American robin
5.62d
Starling
5.30d - 17.8b
House sparrow
5.62b - 22.7c
Red-winged blackbird 1.78b - 3.50d
Common grackle
4.21b - 7.50d
House finch
~10c - 13.3d
Properties
In pure form, it is a colorless liquid.
The technical material is a yellow to
brown oily liquid with a weak garlic
odor. It is soluble in water and in most
organic solvents.
Pharmacology
Fenthion is an organophosphate
compound; the toxic action of these
compounds is caused by their inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. Fenthion is
readily absorbed through the skin.
Death can occur within minutes but
normally takes from 2 to 12 hours,
depending on the level and mode of
exposure.
Toxicity
Fenthion is moderately toxic to mammals but highly toxic to birds. The
symptoms of intoxication include
lacrimation, salivation, congestion,
ataxia, immobility, toxic or chronic
convulsions, and death. The toxicity is
as follows:
Jackson, W. B. 1978. Rid-A-Bird® perches to
control bird damage. Proc. Vertebr. Pest
Conf. 8:47-50.
domestic birds. Arch. Environm. Contam.
Toxicol. 12:355-382.
Acute dermal LD50 values are reported as follows: mouse, 500 mg/kg;
rat, 330 mg/kg; duck, 44 mg/kg.a
The potential for secondary hazards
associated with the use of fenthiontreated perches was documented for
avian predators and scavengers in 1969.
Because of the low mammalian toxicity,
the potential hazard for mammalian
scavengers or predators is much less.
Secondary poisoning of raptors and owls
following exterior use of perches in the
winter has been reported.
aSweet (1993)
bHone and Mulligan (1982)
cHudson et al. (1984)
dSchafer et al. (1983)
G-41
GAS CARTRIDGES
Chemical Components
Variable, depending on type of gas cartridge.
Trade Names
US Department of Agriculture Gas Cartridge, Giant Destroyer®, Smoke’Em®, Gopher Gasser®, Dexol Gasser®, and others.
Use
Gas cartridges are incendiary devices
designed to give off carbon monoxide
and other poisonous gases and smoke
when ignited. They are used to fumigate burrows of certain rodents and
other mammals.
History
Gas cartridges were developed by the
former Bureau of Biological Survey
more than 30 years ago. One type is
manufactured and supplied by the
Pocatello Supply Depot, USDAAPHIS-Animal Damage Control,
Pocatello, Idaho. Other types were
developed and are manufactured and
sold by private commercial establishments.
Properties
The current USDA gas cartridge was
developed for control of woodchucks,
ground squirrels, prairie dogs, and
pocket gophers. It contains sodium
nitrate, charcoal, and inert ingredients.
A similar cartridge was developed and
registered by USDA for fumigating
coyote dens.
G-42
Most gas cartridges are made of cardboard or paper and are ignited with a
fuse. Care should be taken to avoid
fire hazards at locations of use. Dry
grasses, and methane or natural gas,
which may be present in or around
structures, can make the use of gas cartridges a potential fire hazard.
Toxicity
Two hundred parts per million of carbon monoxide in inhaled air may produce symptoms of poisoning in a few
hours, and 1,000 ppm can cause unconsciousness in 1 hour and death in 4
hours.a
aClark (1986)
Pharmacology
Gas cartridges give off smoke and
toxic gases when ignited. Carbon monoxide gas is a major product. In
humans, the first stage of carbon
monoxide poisoning produces a feeling of tightness across the forehead,
headache, throbbing at the temples,
dizziness, weariness, nausea, vomiting, collapse, and unconsciousness. In
the second stage, the blood pressure
falls, muscular control is lost, intermittent convulsions may occur, and the
victim’s breathing becomes shallower,
slower, and finally stops. Presumably,
carbon monoxide acts similarly on
other animals.
Dolbeer, R. A., G. E. Bernhardt, T. W. Seamans,
and P. P. Woronecki. 1991. Efficacy of two
gas cartridge formulations in killing
woodchucks in burrows. Wildl. Soc. Bull.
19:200-204.
Matschke, G. H., and K. A. Fagerstone. 1984.
Efficacy of a two-ingredient fumigant on
Richardson’s ground squirrels. Proc. Vertebr.
Pest Conf. 11:17-19.
Savarie, P. J., J. R. Tigner, D. J. Elias, and D. J.
Hayes. 1980. Development of a simple twoingredient pyrotechnic fumigant. Proc.
METHYL ANTHRANILATE
Chemical Names
Methyl anthranilate; 0-aminobenzoic acid methyl ester; 0-carbomethoxyaniline
Trade Name
ReJeX-iT®
Use
Because methyl anthranilate is broadly
(if not universally) repellent to birds, it
has many potential applications. The
development of several of these applications has begun, and the formal registration of a few is imminent. The
manufacturer (PMC Specialties Group)
anticipates the registration of methyl
anthranilate as a bird repellent additive to standing water at airports. The
company also anticipates registration
of methyl anthranilate as a bird repellent additive to Concover® (Newastecon, Inc.), a product designed as a
thin cover for landfill operations. Gulls
and crows refuse to forage in areas
sprayed with Concover®/methyl
anthranilate. The next anticipated use
for the compound is application to turf
and cover crops as a goose repellent;
this registration is expected in 1994.
History
Methyl anthranilate is a GRAS (generally recognized as safe) food flavoring
that is approved by the Food and Drug
Administration as an additive to both
human and livestock feeds. This
chemical occurs naturally and is the
characteristic odor of Concord grapes.
The major US producer is PMC
Specialties Group. The company synthesizes the chemical as a precursor
ingredient for the manufacture of
calcium and sodium saccharin.
The first publication on the bird
repellency of methyl anthranilate
appeared in Poultry Science (Kare and
Pick 1960). The following year, methyl
anthranilate was patented as a bird
repellent. For reasons still not completely understood, methyl anthranilate is a chemical irritant to birds,
much as ammonia, formaldehyde, and
black pepper are irritants to mammals.
Every avian species tested to date,
including laughing gulls, ring-billed
gulls, starlings, sparrows, waxwings,
red-winged blackbirds, grackles, cowbirds, mallards, Canada geese, snow
geese, crows, chickens, guinea fowl,
pheasants, bobwhite quail, and turkeys
will avoid normally preferred foods
when these foods are adulterated with
methyl anthranilate at concentrations
ranging from 0.5% to 1.0% by weight.
Pharmacology
Properties
aSweet (1993)
Methyl anthranilate at room temperature is an oily yellowish liquid. It has a
fruity or grapelike odor and occurs in
neoli, ylang-ylang, bergamont, jasmine, other essential oils, and in grape
juice. It can be obtained synthetically
by esterifying anthranilic acid with
CH3OH in the presence of HCl.
Methyl anthranilate is only slightly
soluble in water but is freely soluble in
alcohol or ether. It has a boiling point
of 256oC, a melting point of 24oC, and
a specific gravity of 1.168. It has a
vapor pressure of 1 mm at 20oC.
According to the Materials Data Safety
Sheet, the pure substance may be
harmful if inhaled, ingested, or
absorbed through the skin. The vapor
or mist from the concentrated compound can be irritating to the eyes,
mucous membranes, and upper respiratory tract. It can cause skin irritation.
Toxicity
Methyl anthranilate is not fundamentally toxic to mammals or birds. It
may, however, be moderately toxic to
fish. The acute oral LD50 for this compound is reported as follows: mouse,
3,900 mg/kg; rat, 2,910 mg/kg; guinea
pig, 2,780 mg/kg. For dimethyl anthranilate, the reported LDL0 for the rat is
3,380 mg/kg.a
Cummings, J. L., D. L. Otis, and J. E. Davis, Jr.
1992. Dimethyl and methyl anthranilate and
methiocarb deter feeding in captive Canada
geese and mallards. J. Wildl. Manage. 56:349355.
Kare, M. R., and H. L. Pick. 1960. The influence
of the sense of taste on feed and fluid
consumption. Poultry Sci. 39:697-706.
Mason, J. R., M. L. Avery, J. F. Glahn, D. L. Otis,
R. E. Matteson, and C. O. Nelms. 1992.
Evaluation of methyl anthranilate and
starch-plated dimethyl anthranilate as bird
repellent feed additives. J. Wildl. Mange.
55:182-187.
G-43
METHYL BROMIDE
Chemical Name
Methyl bromide
Trade Name
Brom-o-gas®
Use
Pharmacology
Methyl bromide is used as a fumigant
for rats and mice, insects, certain soil
pests, and for treating agricultural
commodities. It is sometimes formulated to include a small amount of
chloropicrin as a warning agent.
Methyl bromide is harmful by inhalation of the vapors; injury may occur by
eye or skin contact with the liquid.
History
Methyl bromide was first described by
Perkin in 1884. Its early use was
medicinal. It was later used in the
preparation of methyl compounds
employed in the manufacture of
aniline dyes and still later as a fire
extinguishing agent.
Methyl bromide was first used in
California as an insecticide in 1935 by
D. B. Mackie, then chief of the Bureau
of Entomology and Plant Quarantine,
California State Department of Agriculture.
In 1938, C. E. Berry reported success in
killing ground squirrels in California
by injecting methyl bromide into their
burrow systems at the rate of 10 cm3
per burrow opening. In the same year,
it was reported that all life stages of
fleas in the rodent burrows could be
killed at this same dosage. This was
important from the standpoint of
plague control.
Properties
Methyl bromide is a colorless liquid
which boils at 4.5oC. At ordinary temperatures it is a nonflammable gas, 1
pound of which occupies 3.98 ft3
(0.25 m3/kg). Methyl bromide is 3.5
times heavier than air. It has a burning
taste and slight chloroform-like smell.
Some formulations contain a small
amount of chloropicrin as a warning
agent.
G-44
In acute exposures by inhalation, the
effects are on both the respiratory and
central nervous systems. These effects
may be somewhat delayed, but rarely
for longer than 24 hours in the case of
respiratory symptoms, and seldom
over 48 hours for symptoms in the central nervous system. The delay in onset
of symptoms of intoxication makes
toxic exposure to methyl bromide
possible before the hazard is appreciated. Repeated exposures to low
concentrations will seldom have pulmonary effects, but central nervous
system manifestations may occur days
or weeks after the initial exposure.
Methyl bromide will act as a lung irritant in the respiratory system. Effects
may vary from mild bronchitis to
pulmonary edema and respiratory failure. Signs and symptoms may include
coughing, chest pain, difficult or painful breathing, and eventually “wet”
breathing often complicated by
bronchopneumonia.
Central nervous system symptoms
usually accompany or follow the
respiratory effects by several hours.
Signs and symptoms include intense
nausea and vomiting, dizziness,
blurred vision, staggering gait, and
slurred speech. Convulsions are an
ominous sign. Following excitation,
central nervous system depression
may occur. Muscle weakness and
respiratory paralysis may also occur.
Exposure to methyl bromide may produce permanent neurological
disburbances such as muscular pain,
diplodia, dizziness, or even mental
deterioration. Persons surviving for
more than 48 hours may experience
nausea and vomiting for as long as a
week and permanent neurological
damage.
Since methyl bromide has a very low
boiling point, evaporation takes place
very rapidly and within seconds it can
entirely disappear from the surface of
the skin. However, if methyl bromide
is spilled on clothing, gloves, or shoes,
such coverings may become saturated,
and contact with the skin is prolonged.
No particular sensation is produced by
such skin contact and the individual
may be unaware that exposure has
occurred. As a result, burns similar to
thermal burns may occur. Leather
goods such as shoes that become contaminated with methyl bromide
should be destroyed.
No person should be permitted to
handle methyl bromide while wearing
gloves or close fitting clothes. Methyl
bromide will penetrate ordinary rubber gloves, so these should not be
worn. Where methyl bromide has been
spilled on clothing, such clothing
should be removed and carefully
aerated before being reworn.
Severe corneal burns may result from
splashes of the liquid material in the
eye. Vapor exposures to the eye will
cause irritation, but burns are unlikely.
Toxicity
For humans, the reported inhalation
LCL0 is 60,000 ppm for 2 hours, and
the reported TCL0 is 35 ppm.a Single
exposures of 1,000 ppm for 30 to 60
minutes are dangerous to life.
Repeated exposures of 100 ppm for 7
hours per day can produce serious
poisoning.b Humans should wear
appropriate respirators whenever the
concentration in the air exceeds 17
ppm.c
Lewis, R. L. Sr., and D. V. Sweet. 1985. Registry
of toxic effects of chemical substances. 198384 Supplement. US Dep. Health Human
Serv., Centers for Dis. Control, Nat. Inst.
Occupational Safety Health. Cincinnatti, OH.
For rats, the reported LC50 is 302 ppm
for 8 hoursa, and the reported LCL0 is
3,120 ppm for 15 minutesd.
Methyl bromide is phytotoxic. Plants
with roots in the vicinity of fumigated
rodent burrows may be injured or
killed.
aSweet (1993)
bClark (1986)
cSpencer (1981)
dLewis and Sweet (1985)
G-45
NAPHTHALENE
Chemical Name
Naphthalene
Use
An insecticidal fumigant of limited
usefulness and somewhat low
potency. Because of its pungent odor,
it is sometimes used as a mammal
repellent, in paticular for repelling
unwanted animals from beneath
houses or from attics. It is currently
registered for rabbits, squirrels, bats,
dogs, and birds and is one of two
active ingredients in a registered snake
repellent.
History
Naphthalene has long been used as a
fumigant and repellent for the clothes
moth.
Properties
Colorless, flaky crystals with a melting
point of 80oC. Insoluble in water;
slightly soluble in alcohol; soluble in
ether, chloroform, and other organic
solvents.
G-46
Pharmacology
Prolonged inhalation may cause headache, nausea, vomiting, and sweating,
followed by anemia, haematuria, and
optic neuritis. Skin contact may cause
local irritation and occasionally
dermatitis. In accidental ingestions,
naphthalene is rapidly absorbed from
the gastrointestinal tract of children.
Ingestion causes abdominal pain,
diarrhea, rapid pulse and respiration,
fever and rigors, and excitement leading to unconsciousness, coma, and
convulsions.
Some individuals, particularly males
with a Mediterranean or African
ancestry, may have a severe hemolytic
crisis which may be delayed for
several days after exposure. Dermal
absorption of naphthalene from
blankets has been reported to have
caused deaths in extremely young
Greek infants.
Toxicity
The acute oral LD50 of naphthalene for
mice is reported to be 533 mg/kg; for
rats, 490 mg/kg. The acute oral LDL0
for cats is reported as 100 g/kg; for
dogs, 400 mg/kg; and for a human
child, 100 mg/kg.a
aSweet (1993)
RED SQUILL
Other Names
Squill, scilliroside glycosides (active ingredients)
Use
Red squill powders and extracts have
been used primarily for the control of
Norway rats. Red squill can be used
successfully with all food baits that can
be finely ground and mixed thoroughly. It is not satisfactory in cubed
fruits or vegetables because these
materials will not take up enough
squill to kill rats.
History
Red squill, often referred to as the sea
onion, is a perennial onionlike plant
(Urginea maritima), belonging to the lily
family and native to countries around
the Mediterranean Sea. The bulbs,
weighing 5 to 6 pounds each, are
sliced, dried, and ground to a fine reddish powder. Red squill has been used
since ancient times in the Mediterranean area to combat rats. Until 1945 it
was difficult to obtain red squill powders of uniform toxicity. Then a
method of fortification was developed
whereby “weak” squill powders could
be made more toxic and still retain the
emetic qualities possessed by the original powder.
Properties
Red squill has been available in powdered form, as a liquid extract, and in
a paste. The powder is hygroscopic—it
absorbs water from the atmosphere
and cakes and hardens if exposed to
the air. The powder is extremely irritating to the skin, only slightly soluble,
has low toxicity, is not cumulative, is
not absorbed by the skin, and is relatively safe to humans and nontarget
animals that can vomit such as dogs,
pigs, and sometimes cats. Its most
desirable quality is this natural emetic
aciton which causes vomiting in most
animals. Since rats are unable to vomit,
they are unable to get rid of the bait
through emesis.
Red squill has a sharp, unpleasant, bitter taste but is fairly well accepted by
Norway rats initially, if not used in
proportions greater than 10% of the
finished bait material. Most species of
domestic animals will reject baits containing red squill. Its bitter taste can be
a major disadvantage, however,
because it may cause bait shyness in
rats consuming a sublethal dose in the
initial feeding. Also, red squill bulbs,
powders, or extracts deteriorate in ratkilling ability when subjected to temperatures over 80oC. The powder
slowly loses toxicity when it remains
in contact with the air and retains only
one-half of its original potency when
stored for 4 years under ordinary
warehouse conditions. Toxicity is preserved when the material is kept in
hermetically sealed containers.
Pharmacology
The toxic action of red squill depends
on the presence of a rodent-toxic glycoside, scilliroside, in the plant. It kills
by a digitalis-like action that causes
heart paralysis. Most rats die within 12
hours of eating a lethal dose.
Toxicity
Male rats are considerably more resistant to squill than are females. The toxicity of red squill has been reported as
follows:
Species
Mouse
Norway rat (female)
Norway rat (male)
Cat
Dog
Pig
Goat
Cattle (juvenile)
Cattle (adult)
Acute Oral LD50
(mg/kg)
50a
200 - 250b
490c
100c
145c
200c
500c
100c
250c
Red squill is considered essentially
nontoxic to poultry.
aSweet (1993)
bBartik and Piskac (1981)
cClarke et al. (1981)
Bartik, M., and A. Piskac, eds. 1981. Veterinary
toxicology. Elsevier Sci. Pub. Co.,
Amsterdam, Oxford, and New York. 346 pp.
Clarke, M. L., D. C. Harvey, and D. J.
Humphreys. 1981. Veterinary toxicolgy. 2nd
ed. Bailliere Tindall, London. 328 pp.
Verbiscar, A. J., T. F. Banigan, and H. S. Gentry.
1986. Recent research on red squill as a
rodenticide. Proc. Vertebr. Pest Conf. 12:5156.
G-47
SODIUM CYANIDE
Chemical Name
Sodium cyanide
Use
Properties
Sodium cyanide has been used as a
fumigant to kill insects or mammals in
burrows. Currently it is used in the
M-44® device for control of coyotes,
foxes, and feral dogs that depredate
livestock and poultry or that depredate federally designated threatened
or endangered species. One product is
also registered for use to control vectors of communicable diseases (such as
canids that may be carrying rabies).
Sodium cyanide is a colorless solid
with a melting point of 564oC. It
readily absorbs moisture from the air
and is very water soluble in water.
When in contact with carbon dioxide
or acids, it forms hydrogen cyanide
(HCN) gas, which is extremely toxic.
History
Sodium cyanide has been used in
predator control in the United States
since the invention of the Coyote
Getter in the 1930s. This device, a precursor of the current M-44® device,
utilized a dose of sodium cyanide
propelled into the mouth of a coyote
by a .38-caliber shell containing a
primer. All predacidal uses of sodium
cyanide were cancelled by the EPA in
March 1972. Sodium cyanide was
re-registered for use in the M-44®
device in 1975.
G-48
Pharmacology
Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) is highly and
quickly toxic by contact, ingestion, or
inhalation of vapors. It poisons the
cytochrome-oxidase system of all cells.
Unconsciousness occurs rapidly, followed by convulsions and death
within 5 minutes. Extreme caution
must be used.
Toxicity
The acute oral LD50 of sodium cyanide for rats is 6.44 mg/kg. The
reported human acute oral LDL0 is
variously reported as 2.86 mg/kg or
6.56 mg/kg.a The acute oral human
TDL0 is reported to be 0.7 mg/kg.a For
HCN, the threshold limit value/time
weighted average is 10 ppm for
humans.b It is immediately dangerous
to life or health at 50 ppm.c A concentration of 200 ppm will quickly kill a
human.b An antidote kit containing
amyl nitrate is available and effective if
used quickly following exposure.
aSweet (1993)
bSpencer (1981)
cBerg (1983)
Connolly, G. 1988. M-44 sodium cyanide
ejectors in the animal damage control
program, 1976-1986. Proc. Vertebr. Pest
Conf. 13:220-225.
Shult, M. J., C. W. Ramsey, and W. G.
Klussmann. 1976. Using the M-44 in coyote
control. Texas Agric. Ext. Serv. Pub. MP1181, College Station, Texas.
SODIUM FLUOROACETATE
Chemical Name
Sodium monofluoroacetate
Other Names
Compound 1080®, 1080, Fluoroacetate
Use
Compound 1080 is a single-dose toxicant currently registered for use in the
Livestock Protection Collar for control
of coyotes that are depredating sheep
or goats in fenced pastures only. It was
formerly registered for use against
commensal rodents and certain field
rodents in some states. It was also formerly used in large meat draw stations
for the control of coyotes and other
canids.
History
Polish scientists discovered that an
organic fluorine compound from
“ratsbane” (Dichapetalum toxicarium), a
West African poisonous plant, had
possibilities as an economic poison.
The information was disclosed in 1942
to British scientists who sent samples
of the compound to the United States.
It received the designation “1080”
from the invoice number given to it at
the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center,
where it was first tested as a rodenticide in June 1944. When the compound
appeared promising, the remainder
was forwarded to the (then) US Fish
and Wildlife Service Denver Wildlife
Research Center for further testing and
development. More recently, the compound was researched for use in the
Livestock Protection Collar, a 1080filled rubber bladder placed around
the neck of a goat or sheep, designed
to kill an attacking coyote.
Properties
Sodium monofluoroacetate is a white,
stable, water soluble, practically tasteless, crystalline compound. It has a
faint acetate odor and a mild acid-salty
taste. When the powdered material is
exposed to air, it takes up water and
becomes gummy. It decomposes at
approximately 200oC and is unstable
above 110oC. The material is extremely
soluble in water and relatively insoluble in many organic solvents and in
vegetable fats and oils. A black dye has
often been added to the compound
during manufacturing to distinguish it
from substances like sugar and flour.
Degradation. Salts of monofluoroacetic
acid are readily absorbed by root tissues and other cellulosic materials, and
are decomposed adaptively by soil
bacteria, apparently of the genus
Pseudomonas. Therefore, any sodium
monofluoroacetate leached into the
soil will likely be held in the upper layers rich in microorganisms, and
decomposed by bacteria. In tests conducted in England the compound
either exhibited no measurable toxicity
from the start or exhibited no measurable toxicity within two weeks,
depending upon the soil type, when
applied to soils at 10 ppm; it exhibited
no measurable toxicity within 11
weeks when applied to soils at 50
ppm.
Translocation. Sodium monofluoroacetate leached into the soil may be
taken up by plants. However, only a
small amount is translocated upward
to the leaves; the rest remains
adsorbed in the roots. Plants can
decompose the compound. In one
experiment plants had decomposed
29% of the absorbed sodium monofluoroacetate after 48 hours of incubation.
Pharmacology
Sodium monofluoroacetate is very
rapidly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms of poisoning may
appear in 15 to 45 minutes and death
may occur some later time but usually
within 24 hours. The compound is not
accumulative to any practical degree.
Demonstration of symptoms varies
widely among species.
In the body, sodium monofluoroacetate, like other monofluoroacetates,
is metabolized to highly toxic fluorocitrate. Fluorocitrate blocks the Krebs
cycle, the major mechanism for releasing energy from food. The resulting
buildup of citrate blocks glucose
metabolism, another mechanism for
releasing energy from food. The blockage of these processes causes the
energy supply to be reduced to a point
where cellular permeability barriers
are destroyed, resulting in a loss of
function and finally cellular death.
Eventually, gross organ or organ system disorders are manifested. Death
results from cardiac and/or central
nervous system failure.
The primary pharmacological action of
Compound 1080 may be either in the
central nervous system or the heart —
or a combination of the two —
depending on the subject involved.
Central nervous system symptoms are
characterized by initial intermittent
convulsions followed by depression.
The heart symptoms appear later, and
in primates, heart action terminates in
ventricular fibrillation. There is no
practical antidote for 1080 poisoning;
treatment is symptomatic. Once fibrillation begins, death is assured.
Compound 1080 is slower in its action
than strychnine. A dog poisoned with
1080 becomes extremely excited, frequently howls, and exhibits running
fits, nonrecognition of human presence, and action suggestive of fearful
hallucinations or hysteria. The terminal
phase of 1080 poisoning in a dog
G-49
involves a tonic spasm (continuous
muscular contractions) followed by
running movements executed in a
prone position. The course of tonic
spasms may subside at times and the
dog may appear normal, but ultimately, repeated convulsive anoxic
assaults on the respiratory center lead
to death through respiratory paralysis.
Death is seldom attributable primarily
to action on the heart.
Secondary poisoning can be demonstrated under some conditions with
sodium monofluoroacetate. However,
simple dilution and the fact that animals can metabolize 1080 to nontoxic
metabolites and/or excrete a large
quantity of a dose prior to death considerably reduces the hazard of acute
poisoning via secondary sources.
Toxicity
An outstanding characteristic of the
toxicity of Compound 1080 is the
extremely wide variation in susceptibility between different species of animals. Dogs have been killed with a
dosage of 1080 as small as 0.06 mg/kg,
but a Norway rat may require 8.0 mg/
kg. Species vary considerably in their
response, with primates and birds the
least sensitive, and carnivores and
rodents generally the most susceptible.
The amount necessary to produce
lethal effects often varies in different
strains of the same species. The LD50 is
2.5 to 8 mg/kg for Rattus norvegicus
and 1 to 4 mg/kg for Rattus rattus.a In
general, birds are more tolerant of 1080
than are most mammals, although
there are exceptions.
Dogs and coyotes are particularly sensitive to Compound 1080. Dogs, with
an LD50 of 0.06 mg/kg, and coyotes at
0.12 mg/kg, can be poisoned secondarily by eating 1080-killed rodents.
Chickens and birds in general are not
very susceptible to poisoning from
Compound 1080, having an LD50 in
the range of 5 to 10 mg/kg. Compound 1080 is not hazardous to fish;
tests have shown fingerling bream and
bass to live indefinitely without discomfort in a concentration of 370 ppm.
Judging from fatal and near-fatal cases,
the dangerous dose to a human is 0.7
to 2.1 mg/kg.a
G-50
Toxicity Table
Acute Oral LD50
(mg/kg)b
Species
MAMMALS
Carnivores
Bear, Ursus sp.
Domestic cat
Coyote, Canis latrans
Dingo, Canis familiaris dingo
Dog, Canis familiaris
Desert kit fox, Vulpes macrotis
Domestic ferret, Mustela putorious
Rodents
Ground squirrels
Fisher’s, Spermophilus beecheyi fisheri
Pocket gophers: Northern, Thomomys talpoides
Rats
Norway (lab), Rattus norvegicus (male)
Rattus norvegicus (female)
Norway (wild), Rattus norvegicus
Alexandrine, Rattus rattus alexandricus
Black, Rattus rattus sp.
Cotton, Sigmodon hispidus litteralis
Woodrat, Neotoma intermedia
Mice
Deer mouse, Peromyscus sp.
House mouse, Mus musculus
Miscellaneous spp.
Meadow vole, Microtus pennsylvanicus
Prairie dog, Cynomys ludovicianus
Lagomorphs
Black-tailed jackrabbit, Lepus californicus
European rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus
0.5 - 1.0
0.4 - 0.5d
0.12e
0.11d
0.05 - 1.0d
0.22d
1.41
0.3
0.33c
2.1*
2.2*
3.0
0.5
0.1
0.1
1.5
4.0
4.0 - 17.0d
0.92
0.3
5.55
< 0.8d
*Research has shown much variation between strains of laboratory rodents.
aClark (1986)
bValues as reported by Atzert (1971) except as otherwise noted
cDenver Wildlife Research Center, USDA, files
eConnolly (1980)
Precautions
First Aid Treatment for Dogs
Sodium monofluoroacetate should be
used by trained personnel only, and
then under conditions that afford
maximum security against accidental
poisoning. Users of the Livestock Protection Collar are required to complete
thorough training prior to certification.
The 1080 solution may escape from
collars that are punctured or otherwise
damaged. Protective safety measures
should always be taken when 1080
solutions are handled.
Lloyd (1983) notes that in practically
all cases, treatment of poisoned dogs is
ineffective, and the prognosis of
poisoned animals is grave. If a
practitioner has the opportunity to
treat an affected dog, the best that can
be hoped for is palliation or
symptomatic relief. Intravenous
injections of barbiturates q.s. to control
convulsions have been used. Injections
of calcium gluconate solutions have
also been employed to control tetany,
which is thought to be caused by a
lactic acidemia. Attempts to decrease
the concentration of citrate have
involved the administration of acetate.
Monoacetin (glyceryl monoacetate) has
been given intramuscularly in doses of
0.55 gm/kg. Additionally, solutions
containing 50% alcohol and 5% acetic
acid have been given orally in doses of
8.8 ml/kg (Lloyd 1983).
Atzert, S. P. 1971. A review of sodium
monofluoroacetate (Compound 1080) — its
properties, toxicology, and use in predator
and rodent control. Bur. Sport Fish. Wildl.,
Div. Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep.-Wildl. No.
146, US Dep. Inter., Washington, DC. 34 pp.
Calver, M. C., and D. R. King. 1986. Controlling
vertebrate pests with fluoroacetate: lessons
in wildlife management, bio-ethics, and coevolution. J. Biol. Educ. 20(4):257-262.
Connolly, G. E. 1980. Use of Compound 1080 in
livestock neck collars to kill depredating
coyotes; a report on field and laboratory
research, November 1978 — March 1980. US
Dep. Inter., Fish Wildl. Serv., Denver,
Colorado. 125 pp and append.
Connolly, G., and R. J. Burns. 1990. Efficacy of
Compound 1080 livestock protection collars
for killing coyotes that attack sheep. Proc.
Kun, E. 1982. Monofluoroacetic acid
(Compound 1080), its pharmacology
and toxicology. Proc. Vertebr. Pest Conf.
10:34-41.
Lloyd, W. E. 1983. Sodium fluoroacetate
(Compound 1080) poisoning. Pages 112-114
in R. W. Kirk, ed. Current veterinary therapy
VIII: small animal practice. W. B. Saunders
Co., Philadelphia.
Rammell, C. G., and P. A. Fleming. 1978.
Compound 1080. An. Health Div. Minist.
Agric. Fisheries, Wellington, New Zealand.
112 pp.
Wade, D. A. 1977. Standard guideline for the
use and development of sodium
monofluoroacetate (Compound 1080) as a
predacide (ASTM designation E 590- 76).
Pages 157-170 in W. B. Jackson and R. E.
Marsh, eds., Test methods for vertebrate pest
control and management materials. ASTM
STP 625, Am. Soc. Testing and Mater.
Philadelphia.
Howard, W. E., and R. H. Schmidt. 1984.
Biological rationale for 1080 as a predacide.
G-51
STARLICIDE®
Chemical Name
3-chloro-p-toluidine hydrochloride
Other Names
3-chloro-4-methyl benzylnamine hydrochloride, CPTH, DRC-1339
Use
Starlicide® is a slow-acting avicide
registered for the control of starlings,
blackbirds, pigeons, gulls, ravens,
crows, and magpies.
History
This chemical, originally coded DRC1339 and evaluated by the Denver
Wildlife Research Center, was found
to be an excellent toxicant for starlings
and blackbirds when formulated as a
Starlicide® pellet. It received federal
registration in 1967 for feedlot uses.
Starlicide® is manufactured and distributed by the Purina Mills Company.
Registration of a DRC-1339 concentrate has been maintained by USDAAPHIS for use against starlings,
blackbirds, and gulls, with additional
approvals granted for use against
pigeons in 1992 and against ravens,
crows, and magpies in 1993. Use of the
DRC-1339 concentrate is restricted to
USDA-APHIS personnel.
Properties
The technical compound is a pale yellow, crystalline solid material that is
very soluble in water and other highly
polar solvents; it sublimes at 220oC. If
formulated with many grains, potency
of the compound may decline significantly when stored. Commercial
Starlicide® pellets retain their potency
for 6 to 12 months.
Pharmacology
Starlicide® is a slow-acting and apparently painless toxicant in birds and
mammals. In sensitive bird and mammal species, death results primarily
from uremia (a buildup of uric acid in
the blood). Death occurs without convulsions or spasms, and is the result of
generalized circulatory impairment in
the liver and kidney, and congestion of
the major organs. At death, victims’
feathers are usually fluffed and their
feet tucked inside the feathers of the
lower breast.
In most mammals and nonsensitive
birds, death results from methemoglobinenemia (a buildup of methemoglobin in the blood). Mammals become
listless and comatose before death.
Birds and mammals appear to metabolize or excrete Starlicide® completely
within a matter of hours, and the
metabolites are also excreted. Known
metabolites are nontoxic to birds and
mammals. Because the Starlicide® and
its metabolites are excreted while birds
are still alive, there is no secondary
toxicity to any scavengers eating dead
birds.
Toxicity
In birds, the average time between
ingestion and death is 36 to 60 hours,
depending on the amount ingested.
Even when the lethal dose level is
exceeded many times, death still takes
many hours. In most mammals, death
occurs in 3 to 12 hours.
The toxicity of Starlicide® varies considerably between bird species. Starlings, blackbirds, and crows are among
the most sensitive birds; house sparrows and hawks are nonsensitive.
Mammals are generally not sensitive
to the toxic effects of Starlicide®.
Toxicity Tables
Species
Acute oral LD50
(mg/kg)a,d
BIRDS
Mallard
Blue-winged teal
Pintail
Cooper’s hawk
Golden eagle
Marsh hawk
Kestrel
Ring-necked pheasant
Coturnix quail
Domestic turkey
Domestic chicken
White-winged dove
Mourning dove
Pigeon (rock dove)
Barn owl
Blue jay
Scrub jay
Black-billed magpie
Common raven
Common crow
American robin
Starling
House sparrow
Tricolored blackbird
Boat-tailed grackle
Common grackle
Cassin’s finch
House finch
White-crowned sparrow
Species
17.8
31.6
> 32
562
> 100
100
> 320
10
2.24 - 10
5.62
4b
4.22
3.16 - 7.50
17.8
4.22
10
1.78
5.6 - 17.7
5.62
1.33 - 1.78
3.16
3.16 - 4.11
320 - 448
2.41
2.74
1.00
1.00
> 100
> 225
> 320
Acute oral LD50
(mg/kg)c
MAMMALS
Mouse
White mouse
White rat
Rat
Dog
Sheep
Cow
2,000
960
1,170 - 1,770
655b
> 100
ca 400
> 10
aDeCino et al. (1966)
bSweet (1993)
cClark (1986)
dSchafer et al. (1983)
G-52
Besser, J. F., W. C. Royall, Jr., and J. W.
DeGrazio. 1967. Baiting starlings with DRC1339 at a cattle feedlot. J. Wildl. Manage.
31:48-51.
DeCino, T. J., D. J. Cunningham, and E. W.
Schafer. 1966. Toxicity of DRC- 1339 to
starlings. J. Wildl. Manage. 30:249-253.
Knittle, C. E., J. L. Guarino, P. C. Nelson, R. W.
DeHaven, and D. J. Twedt. 1980. Baiting
blackbird and starling congregating areas in
Kentucky and Tennessee. Proc. Vertebr. Pest
Conf. 9:31-37.
Knittle, C. E., E. W. Schafer, and K. A.
Fagerstone. 1990. Status of compound DRC1339 registrations. Proc. Vertebr. Pest Conf.
14:311-313.
domestic birds. Arch. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol. 12:355-382.
Sterner, R. T., D. J. Elias, and D. R. Cerven. 1992.
The pesticide reregistration process:
collections of human health hazards data for
3-chloro-p-toluidine hydrochloride (DRC1339). Proc. Vertebr. Pest Conf. 15:62-66.
G-53
STRYCHNINE
Chemical Name
2,4a,5,5a,7,8,15,15a,15b,15c-dechydro-4,6-methano-6H,14H-indolo (3,2,1-ij)oxepino(2,3,4-de)pyrrolo(2,3-h)quinolin-14-one
Use
Pharmacology
Toxicity
Strychnine is a widely used toxicant
registered for use in controlling certain
rodent and depredating bird species.
In the past, strychnine was commonly
used for controlling rodents, depredating birds, and mammals such as
skunks and coyotes. Aboveground
uses were halted by court action in
1988, but it remains registered and
used belowground for control of
pocket gophers and, in some states,
other species.
Strychnine acts the quickest of the
commonly used rodenticides. It is not
stored in body tissues nor absorbed
through normal intact skin. It has a
very slight odor, very high toxicity,
and acts somewhat variably on target
animals. Strychnine enters the blood
very rapidly and acts on the central
nervous system. The time of action
depends on whether the stomach is
empty or full and the nature of the
food present. Animals with little in
their stomachs react more quickly to
strychnine than those that have fed
recently. Symptoms may appear from
5 to 30 minutes after ingestion.
LD50 values range between a low of
0.70, 0.75 and 1.5 mg/kg for coyotes,
desert kit foxes, and black-tailed prairie dogs, respectively, to a high of 27.0
mg/kg for nutria; and between 16.0
mg/kg for chukar partridge and 24.7
mg/kg for ring-necked pheasants.
LD50s for mallards, Canada geese,
golden eagles, and house sparrows fall
within an approximate range of 3.0 to
5.0 mg/kg.
History
Strychnine is one of the alkaloids processed from raw dried ripe seed of
Strychnos nux vomica, a small tree native to India, North Australia, Vietnam, and Ceylon. This alkaloid was
discovered by Pelletier and Caventon
in 1817. There is 2.0% to 2.7% total
alkaloid found in the seeds, which
were used to kill dogs, cats, and birds
in Europe at least as early as 1640.
Properties
Strychnine, a white crystalline powder,
is currently available in an alkaloid
form; the sulfate form previously used
is no longer registered. Strychnine has
a bitter taste. It is almost entirely insoluble in water and very stable; however, it is subject to acid-salt formation,
which renders it water soluble and
subject to leaching in acid soils.
G-54
Intoxicated animals have frequent
tetanic convulsions interspersed with
quiescent periods. Ultimately these
convulsions lead to death through respiratory failure.
Strychnine is not assimilated into tissues or bone; however, residues in the
gastrointestinal tract of animals poisoned with lethal doses are known to
be potentially hazardous if the gastrointestinal tract is consumed. With its
current belowground application pattern, secondary poisoning is unlikely.
Livestock are about as sensitive to
strychnine as rats.a Horses, hogs,
geese, and ducks show no hesitation in
eating strychnine baits. Cattle and
sheep are more reluctant to accept
baits. Gallinaceous game birds and
most domestic poultry, however, are
less susceptible to strychnine than
most rodents.
Antidote
The use of general antidotes is feasible
and often successful if treatment is initiated soon after exposure. Sodium
pentobarbital and sodium amytal both
act to reduce the severity of convulsions in humans (see J. Am. Med.
Assoc. 100:548-551). Emetics such as
1% to 2% tannic acid are useful but
should only be used after the convulsive stage is past. Prompt administration of methocarbamol is useful in
treating poisoned dogs. Prognosis: if
the patient lives for 24 hours, he or she
will probably recover.
Strychnine Alkaloid
Acute Oral LD50
(mg/kg)
MAMMALS
Carnivores
Cat
Coyote
Dog
Desert kit fox
Rodents
Squirrels
California ground squirrel
Black-tailed prairie dog
Pocket gophers
Northern pocket gopher
Rats & Mice
Rat
Norway rat (wild)
White mouse (lab)
White rat (male)
White rat (female)
Black rat
Polynesian rat
Miscellaneous Rodents
Banner-tailed kangaroo rat
California meadow mouse
Meadow vole
Nutria
Lagomorphs
Black-tailed jackrabbit
Ungulates
Cow
Mule deer
Horse
Sheep
Swine
Swine
Primates
Human
Human
Human
0.5f - 2.0c
0.7b
0.5f - 1.2b
0.7b
19.9 - 28.0b
1.5b
Osweiler, G. D. 1983. Strychnine poisoning.
Pages 98-100 in R. W. Kirk, ed. Current
veterinary therapy VIII: small animal
practice, W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia.
Palmateer, S. D. 1990. Registration status of
vertebrate pesticides with emphasis on 1080
and strychnine. Proc. Vertebr. Pest Conf.
14:113-115.
Schafer, E. W., Jr. 1984. Potential primary and
secondary hazards of avicides. Proc. Vertebr.
Pest Conf. 11:217-222.
8.3b
3 - 6e
12.0b
9.3b
14.0b
5.8b
10.1b
6.8b
3.7b
22.2b
6.8b
27.0 - 42.0b
4.4a
15.0b
17.0 - 24.0d
2.0b
7.5b
0.5 - 1.0c
10.0b
1c
15 - 30c
30 - 60e
AMPHIBIANS
Bullfrog
2.2d
BIRDS
Ducks and Geese
Mallard
Canada goose
Raptors
Golden eagle
Galliformes
Chicken
Chukar
Coturnix (Japanese quail)
Pheasant
California quail
Pigeons and Doves
Pigeon (rock dove)
Passerines
House finch
Robin
English sparrow
2.3d - 2.9c
4.0a
4.8 - 8.1d
5.0c
16.0d
22.6d
24.7d
112d
21.3d
5.6b
> 10.0a
4.2d
aClark (1986)
bDenver Wildlife Research Center, USDA, files
cHone and Mulligan (1982)
dHudson et al. (1984)
ePinto and Spear (1980)
fSweet (1993)
G-55
THIRAM
Chemical Name
Tetramethylthiuram disulfide
Other Names
TMTD, Arasan
Use
Pharmacology
Toxicity
A fungicide which also has been used
as a repellent to protect plants from
deer, rabbits, rodents, and moles.
The toxicity of thiram is as follows:
Properties
Thiram is of relatively low mammalian
toxicity but is reported to cause skin
irritation. As a repellent, it is presumed to work by taste, not odor. In
some animals, a learned aversion may
occur. For humans, ingestion may
cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and
anorexia, followed by ataxia, hyperexcitability, and hypothermia. Hypotonia may progress to flaccid paralysis
and respiratory failure. Skin contact or
inhalation may cause irritation of the
nose, throat, or skin and may induce
an allergic dermatitis.
A colorless crystalline material with a
melting point of 155o to 156oC. Its solubility in water is 17.4 mg/l. It is slightly
soluble in alcohol and in ether; it is
soluble in chloroform and in acetone.
A related compound, tetraethylthiuram disulfide (Antabuse) blocks
the in vitro oxidation of ethanol at the
acetaldehyde stage and is used for the
treatment of chronic alcoholism.
History
Developed for fungicidal use in 1931
by E. I. duPont de Nemours and Company. The DuPont trade name,
Arasan, is no longer used since other
companies are now involved in manufacture and formulation of the fungicide.
Persons handling or using thiram
should avoid ingestion of alcohol
before or after use.
G-56
Species
Acute Oral LD50
(mg/kg)
Mouse
Rat
Rabbit
Sheep
Pheasant
Poultry
Mallard
1,350a
560 - 780a,b
210a
225c
673d
~1,000c
>2,800d
aSweet (1993)
bBerg (1983)
cHumphreys (1988)
dHudson et al. (1984)
Radwan, M. A. 1969. TMTD wild animal
repellents: review and current status. For.
Sci. 15:439-445.
ZINC PHOSPHIDE
Chemical Name
Zinc phosphide
Use
Zinc phosphide, at concentrations of
0.75% to 2.0% on grain, fruit, or vegetable baits, has been used successfully
against such species as meadow mice,
ground squirrels, prairie dogs, Norway rats, Polynesian rats, cotton rats,
and nutria. In some areas, zinc phosphide baits have been partially or completely rejected by ground squirrels
and meadow mice and at times control
has been erratic.
History
Zinc phosphide appears to have been
first synthesized by Marggral in 1740
and was first used as a rodenticide by
the Italians in 1911. Extensive use of
zinc phosphide in the United States
did not occur until 1942, when the
availability of strychnine became
uncertain due to the war.
Properties
Zinc phosphide is a heavy, finely
ground gray-black powder that is
practically insoluble in water and alcohol. When exposed to moisture, it
decomposes slowly and releases phosphine gas (PH3). Phosphine, which is
highly flammable, may be generated
rapidly if the material comes in contact
with dilute acids. Zinc phosphide concentrate is a stable material when kept
dry and hermetically sealed.
Although zinc phosphide baits have a
strong, pungent, phosphorous-like
odor (garliclike), this characteristic
seems to attract rodents, particularly
rats, and apparently makes the bait unattractive to some other animals. For
many uses of zinc phosphide formulated on grain or grain-based baits,
prebaiting is recommended or necessary for achieving good bait acceptance.
In general, zinc phosphide is less toxic
than Compound 1080 or strychnine
and is slower-acting than either of
these compounds.
There is only a small amount of deterioration of zinc phosphide on baits
due to the evolution of phosphine gas;
therefore, dry baits must be considered to be toxic indefinitely and must
be used accordingly. Lecithin-mineral
oil, added to zinc phosphide to adhere
it to grain bait, offers protection
against moisture, and therefore may
increase its stability. Under field conditions, zinc phosphide baits may remain
toxic for several months until baits are
eroded by weathering, the carrier decomposes, or the grain is removed by
insects. Physical erosion does not seem
to occur rapidly. In one instance, zinc
phosphide-treated bait exposed in the
field for 2 to 3 months and subjected to
10 to 12 inches (25 to 30 cm) of rain
continued to maintain some toxicity.
When zinc phosphide is dusted onto
wet baits, such as meats or cubed fresh
fruits and vegetables, it breaks down
within a few days and the baits soon
lose their attractiveness.
In soil, zinc phosphide breaks down
rapidly to phosphine, which is either
released into the atmosphere or converted to phosphates and zinc complexes.
Translocation of phosphine gas has
been demonstrated, but it is rapidly
converted to harmless phosphates.
There is no evidence that hazards exist
via this route when grain baits are
used in growing vegetables.
Pharmacology
When zinc phosphide comes into contact with dilute acids in the stomach,
phosphine (PH3) is released. It is this
substance that probably causes death.
Animals that ingest lethal amounts of
bait usually succumb overnight with
terminal symptoms of convulsions,
paralysis, coma, and death from
asphyxia. If death is prolonged for several days, intoxication occurs that is
similar to intoxication with yellow
phosphorous, in which the liver is
heavily damaged. The surface of the
liver will be spotted and discolored.
Prolonged exposure to phosphine can
produce chronic phosphorous poisoning.
Early symptoms of zinc phosphide
poisoning are nausea, vomiting (yielding black stomach contents and the
smell of phosphine), abdominal pain,
chest tightness, excitement, and a feeling of coldness. In fatal cases, there is
liver, kidney, and heart damage. The
time between ingestion and death is
frequently about 30 hours. Victims
who are alive after 3 days are said to
recover completely. Mild poisoning
from breathing minute amounts of
phosphine gas can be mistaken for
food poisoning because of the diarrhea
and stomach pains produced.
Zinc phosphide-poisoned rats show no
signs of distress until a short terminal
death agony occurs. They typically die
in a prone position with their legs and
tails outstretched.
Because zinc phosphide is not stored
in muscle or other tissues of poisoned
animals, there is no secondary poisoning with this rodenticide. The bait,
however, remains toxic up to several
days in the gut of a dead rodent. Other
animals can be poisoned if they eat
enough of the gut content of rodents
recently killed with zinc phosphide.
G-57
Toxicity
Zinc phosphide is poisonous to some
degree to all animals. Supposed safety
factors such as the odor and dark color
may be of little deterrence in some
situations. As little as a teaspoonful of
bait containing zinc phosphide could
cause toxic symptoms in a child to
whom the color and odor may not be
disagreeable. Therefore, around dwellings, bait should be exposed only in
situations that will prevent pets and
children from coming into contact with
it.
Use extreme care in handling zinc
phosphide concentrate and treated
bait. If zinc phosphide baits are prepared in the open air, phosphide generated from the moist bait offers little
hazard. When quantities of bait are
prepared within a bait mixing plant,
safeguards against continued exposure
to low concentrations of phosphide
must be taken. Zinc phosphide dust
created by the preparation or handling
of baits is also hazardous. Personnel
working indoors should wear appropriate respirators and work under
exhaust fans. Zinc phosphide baits
should not be mixed or distributed
with the bare hands. Oils, liquid or
semisolid, are used in some preparations. Because phosphorous is soluble
in certain fatty oils, it may be absorbed
in small amounts through the skin.
Continued exposure to phosphorous
absorption may result in toxic manifestations at some later time. Rubber or
synthetic gloves are preferrable when
handling dry zinc phosphide bait formulations but cotton or leather gloves
are acceptable.
Zinc phosphide can be used for rat
control on almost any food product;
however, it (or any other acute toxicant) should not be used on bait materials recognizable as food in the home
environment. Do not use on such
foods as tomatoes, apples, oranges, or
bread, unless they are made unrecognizable by rolling or cubing them.
G-58
Toxicity Table 1.a,b
Species
Acute Oral LD50
(mg/kg)
MAMMALS
Carnivores
Cat and dog
Desert kit fox
Rodents
Squirrels
California ground squirrel
Black-tailed prairie dog
Pocket gophers
Northern pocket gopher
Rats
Norway rat (wild)
White rat
Black rat
Roof rat
Polynesian rat
Mice
Mouse
Deer mouse
Meadow vole
California meadow mouse
Other Rodents
Banner-tailed kangaroo rat
Muskrat
Nutria
Woodrat (LD100)
Other Mammals
Black-tailed jackrabbit
Cow
Human (estimated MLD*)
Human, female (LDL0)
Pig 20 - 40c
20 - 40c
93.0
33.1
18.0
6.8
27 - 40c
55.5
21.0
2.9 - 40.5
23.0
40d
40.5
18.0
15.7
8.0
29.9
5.55
25.0
8.25
50.0
40.0
80d
BIRDS
Ducks & Geese
Mallard
Snow goose
White-fronted goose
Galliformes
Chicken
California quail
Partridge
Pheasant
Other Birds
Mourning dove
*MLD is minimum lethal dose or LDL0
13.0 - 35.7c
8.8
7.5
20 - 40c
13.5
26.7
8.8 - 26.7
34.2
23.7
Toxicity Table 2.a,b
Zinc Phosphide Acute Oral Toxicity
(mg/kg)
Hood, G. A. 1972. Zinc phosphide—a new look
at an old rodenticide for field rodents. Proc.
Species
LDL0
LD50
LD100
Snow geese
White-fronted geese
Mallards
Pheasant
Quail
Dove
5-10
0-5
5-10
0-10
5-10
10-20
8.75
7.5
13.0
8.8
13.5
34.25
5-10
10-15
10-20
10-15
10-20
10-50
Marsh, R. E. 1988. Relevant characteristics of
zinc phosphide as a rodenticide. Proc. Great
Plains Wildl. Damage Control Workshop
8:70-74.
Tietjen, H. P. 1976. Zinc phosphide—a control
agent for black-tailed prairie dogs. US Dep.
Inter. Fish Wildl. Serv., Wildl. Leaflet 509.
aClark (1986) unless otherwise noted
bHood (1972) unless otherwise noted
cHone and Mulligan (1982)
dSweet (1993)
G-59
ZIRAM
Chemical Name
Zinc dimethyldithiocarbamate
Other Name
Zerlate
Use
Properties
Toxicity
Currently this compound is used as
the active ingredient in one rabbit repellent.
Ziram is a white, odorless powder
with a melting point of 246oC. It is not
soluble in water slightly soluble in alcohol and in ether; moderately soluble
in acetone; and soluble in dilute alkali,
chloroform, and in carbon disulfide. It
is stable under ordinary conditions but
is decomposed by acids.
The acute oral LD50 for rats is reported
to be as low as 267 mg/kg.a The acute
oral LD50 to mice is 480 mg/kg, and to
rabbits 400 mg/kg.a Dogs reportedly
tolerated 25 mg/kg per day for one
month but not for one year; they ingested 5 mg/kg per day for one year
without ill effects.b
History
Ziram was originally developed as an
accelerator in rubber vulcanization. It
has been used as a fungicide since the
early 1930s and later received use as a
rodent, rabbit, and bird repellent.
Pharmacology
Ziram’s repellency is presumably due
to taste or physiological discomfort following ingestion. Ziram may irritate
the skin and mucous membranes. Persons handling or using ziram should
avoid ingestion of alcohol before or after use.
G-60
aSweet (1993)
bSpencer (1981)
REFERENCES
Berg, G. L., ed. 1983. Farm chemical handbook.
Meister Pub. Co., Willoughby, Ohio.
Clark, J. P. 1986. Vertebrate pest control
handbook. Div. Plant Ind., California Dep.
Food Agric. Sacramento.
Hayes, W. J., Jr. 1982. Pesticides studied in man.
Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore. 672 pp.
Hone, J., and H. Mulligan. 1982. Vertebrate
Pesticides. Sci. Bull. 89, Dep. Agric. New
South Wales, Australia. 130 pp.
Hudson, R. H., R. K. Tucker, and M. A. Haegele.
1984. Handbook of toxicity of pesticides to
wildlife, 2d ed. US Dep. Inter. Fish Wildl.
Serv., Resour. Publ. 153. Washington DC.
90 pp.
Humphreys, D. J. 1988. Veterinary toxicology,
3d ed. Bailliere Tindall, London. 356 pp.
Kidd, H., and D. R. Jones, eds. 1991. The
agrochemicals handbook, 3d ed. The Royal
Soc. Chem. Cambridge, England.
Lewis, R. L. Sr., and D. V. Sweet. 1985. Registry
of toxic effects of chemical substances. 198384 Supplement. US Dep. Health Human
Serv., Centers for Dis. Control, Nat. Inst.
Occupational Safety Health. Cincinnatti, OH.
Osweiler, G. D. 1986. Toxicology of rodenticides
and bird toxicants. Pages 165-169 in R. W.
Kirk, ed. Current veterinary therapy IX:
small animal practice. W. B. Saunders Co.,
Philadelphia.
Osweiler, G. D., T. L. Carson, W. B. Buck, and G.
A. Van Gelder. 1985. Clinical and diagnostic
veterinary toxicology, 3d ed. Kendall/Hunt
Pub. Co., Dubuque, Iowa. 494 pp.
Pinto, L. J., and P. J. Spear. 1980. Technical data
for pesticides. Nat. Pest Control Assoc.
Vienna, VA. 124. pp.
Savarie, P. J. 1991. The nature, modes of action,
and toxicity of rodenticides. Pages 589-598 in
D. Pimentel, ed. CRC handbook of pest
management in agriculture, vol. II. CRC
Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida.
Spencer, E. Y., ed. 1981. Guide to the chemicals
used in crop protection, 7th ed. Agric.
Canada, Res. Branch, Pub. 1093. 595 pp.
Sweet, D. V., ed. 1993. Registry of toxic effects of
chemical substances, January 1993. Prepared
for the Nat. Inst. Occupational Safety and
Health by CAELUM Res. Corp., Silver
Spring, Maryland. US Dep. Health Human
Serv., NIOSH Publ. No. 93-101-2. Microfiche.
Worthing, C. R., ed. 1991. The pesticide manual:
a world compendium, 9th ed. British Crop
Prot. Counc., Farnham, Surrey, United
Kingdom.
Editors
Scott E. Hygnstrom
Robert M. Timm
Gary E. Larson
G-61
G-62
Blaine (Jess) Benson
POISON CONTROL
CENTERS
The Poison Center
Children’s Hospital
Omaha, Nebraska 68114
Poison control centers (poison centers)
are an excellent starting point in the
event of a pesticide mishap. The
specially trained nurses, pharmacists,
and physicians who staff these 24-hour
emergency telephone services assess
the severity of the pesticide exposure,
make treatment recommendations,
and often provide valuable information for spill containment and cleanup.
When hospital treatment is required,
the poison center contacts the receiving hospital and provides the
emergency department with the most
current treatment information available. During large-scale pesticide
accidents (hazardous material incidents) many poison centers assist first
responders with selection of proper
protective gear, determination of
proper decontamination techniques,
and development of triage guidelines
for victims.
There is no charge for using a poison
center. Usually state, county, or city
taxes support this public service. In
some states private hospitals or
industries sponsor the program.
Access to poison control centers varies
across the United States. A current list
of centers and their telephone numbers
accompanies this section. When in
doubt, readers should consult the front
of their telephone book for the number
of their poison control center or should
contact their local telephone information operator. There is no single poison
center designated for the United
States. Instead, a regional network of
poison centers exists. The advantage of
this arrangement is that local poison
centers know the capabilities of hospitals and first response crews in their
region and are better able to guide
poison victim treatment. When
changes occur within the service
region, such as a hospital closure, the
local poison center is quickly able to
adapt to the change.
Not all poison centers are equal.
Thirty-six US poison centers have been
credentialed as regional poison centers
by the American Association of Poison
Control Centers (AAPCC). In order to
be designated as a regional poison
center by AAPCC, the center must
meet criteria regarding accessibility,
population base, staff, qualifications,
medical direction, public and professional outreach, protocol development,
knowledge of service area capabilities,
and data collection. In general,
AAPCC regional poison centers serve
larger population bases, have larger
call volumes, and access more extensive information resources than
nonregional centers. Not surprisingly,
several studies suggest that AAPCC
regional centers handle calls more
proficiently than nonregional poison
centers.
Calling a poison center during a pesticide mishap will further broaden our
understanding of pesticide toxicology.
Most poison centers in the United
States contribute their case experience
to the Toxic Environmental Surveillance System (TESS), a national poisoning database developed and
maintained by the American Association of Poison Control Centers. Each
year, the American Journal of
Emergency Medicine publishes an
abstracted version of the TESS data so
that the entire medical community can
learn more about poisoning trends.
With over 1.5 million poisonings being
recorded on an annual basis, it is
possible to use the data to precisely
target poison prevention efforts,
optimize treatments for specific poisonings, and identify problematic
drugs, pesticides, and household
products. In a sense, each poison
center caller contributes to improved
care for the next caller.
For Additional
Information
Geller, R. J., J. G. Fisher III, J. D. Leeper, J. D.
Tooson, and S. Ranganthan. 1990. Poison
centers in America: how well do they
perform? Vet. Hum. Toxicol.: 32:240-245.
Thompson, D. F., H. L. Trammel, N. J.
Robertson, and J. R. Reingan. 1983.
Evaluation of regional and nonregional
poison centers. N. Engl. J. Med.: 308:191-194.
Editors
Scott E. Hygnstrom
Robert M. Timm
Gary E. Larson
Wildlife Committee
G-63
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF POISON CONTROL CENTERS
Certified Regional Poison Centers
ALABAMA
University of California, Davis, Medical Center
Regional Poison Control Center
Regional Poison Control Center
2315 Stockton Blvd.
Sacramento, CA 95817
Emergency Phones: (916) 734-3692
(800) 342-9293 (Northern CA only)
The Children’s Hospital of Alabama
1600 7th Ave. S
Birmingham, AL 35233-1711
(800) 292-678 (AL only)
(205) 933-4050
COLORADO
Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Center
ARIZONA
Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center
Arizona Health Sciences Center, Rm. 3204-K
1501 N. Campbell Ave.
Tucson, AZ 85724
Emergency Phones: (800) 362-0101 (AZ only)
(602) 626-6016
Samaritan Regional Poison Center
Teleservices Dept.
N. 12th St.
Phoenix, AZ 85006
Emergency Phone: (602) 253-3334
CALIFORNIA
Fresno Regional Poison Control Center of Fresno
Community Hospital and Medical Center
2823 Fresno St.
Fresno, CA 93721
(209) 445-1222
645 Bannock St.
Denver, CO 80204
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
National Capital Poison Center
Georgetown University Hospital
3800 Reservoir Rd., NW
(202) 784-4660 (TTY)
FLORIDA
The Florida Poison Information Center at Tampa
General Hospital Post
Box 1289
Tampa, FL 33601
Emergency Phones: (813) 253-4444 (Tampa)
(800) 282-3171 (Florida)
GEORGIA
San Diego Regional Poison Center
UCSD Medical Center 8925
200 W. Air Dr.
San Diego, CA 92103-8925
(800) 876-4766 (in 619 area code only)
San Francisco Bay Area Regional Poison Control
Center
San Francisco General Hospital
1001 Potrero Ave., Bldg. 80, Rm. 230
San Francisco, CA 94122
Santa Clara Valley Medical Center Regional Poison
Center
S. Bascom Ave.
San Jose, CA 95128
(800) 662-9888 (CA only)
G-64
Georgia Poison Center
Grady Memorial Hospital
80 Butler St. SE
Box 26066
Atlanta, GA 30335-3801
Emergency Phones: (800) 282-5846 (GA only)
(404) 616-9000
INDIANA
Indiana Poison Center
Methodist Hospital of Indiana
1701 N. Senate Blvd.
Box 1367
Indianapolis, IN 46206-1367
Emergency Phones: (800) 382-9097 (IN only)
(317) 929-2323
MARYLAND
MISSOURI
Maryland Poison Center
Cardinal Glennon Children’s Hospital
20 N. Pine St.
Baltimore, MD 21201
(800) 492-2414 (MD only)
Regional Poison Center
1465 S. Grand Blvd.
St. Louis, MO 63104
(800) 366-8888
National Capital Poison Center (DC suburbs only)
3800 Reservoir Rd., NW
(202) 784-4660 (TTY)
MASSACHUSETTS
Massachusetts Poison Control System
300 Longwood Ave.
Boston, MA 02115
(800) 682-9211
MICHIGAN
Blodgett Regional Poison Center
1840 Wealthy, SE
Grand Rapids, MI 49506-2968
Emergency Phones: (800) 632-2727 (MI only)
(800) 356-3232 (TTY)
Poison Control Center
Children’s Hospital of Michigan
3901 Beaubien Blvd.
Detroit, MI 48201
MONTANA
Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Center
645 Bannock St.
Denver, CO 80204
NEBRASKA
Blaine (Jess) Benson
The Poison Center
Childrens Hospital
Omaha, NE 68114
Emergency Phones: (402) 390-5555 (Omaha)
(800) 955-9119 (NE)
NEW JERSEY
New Jersey Poison Information and Education
System
201 Lyons Ave.
Newark, NJ 07112
NEW MEXICO
New Mexico Poison and Drug Information Center
MINNESOTA
Hennepin Regional Poison Center
Hennepin County Medical Center
701 Park Ave.
Minneapolis, MN 55415
Petline: (612) 337-7387
(612) 337-7474 (TDD)
Minnesota Regional Poison Center
St. Paul-Ramsey Medical Center
640 Jackson St.
St. Paul, MN 55101
University of New Mexico
Albuquerque, NM 87131-1076
(800) 432-6866 (NM only)
NEW YORK
Hudson Valley Poison Center
Nyack Hospital
160 N. Midland Ave.
Nyack, NY 10960
(914) 353-1000
Long Island Regional Poison Control Center
Winthrop University Hospital
259 First St.
Mineola, NY 11501
Emergency Phones: (516) 542-2323, 2324, 2325, 3813
G-65
New York City Poison Control Center
N.Y.C. Dept. of Health
455 First Ave., Rm. 123
New York, NY 10016
(212) P-O-I-S-O-N-S
(212) 689-9014 (TDD)
OHIO
TEXAS
North Texas Poison Center
5201 Harry Hines Blvd.
Box 35926
Dallas, TX 75235
Emergency Phones: (214) 590-5000,
(800) 441-0040 (Texas Watts)
Texas State Poison Center
Central Ohio Poison Center
700 Children’s Dr.
Columbus, OH 43205-2696
(800) 682-7625
(614) 228-2272 (TrY)
(614) 461-2012
Cincinnati Drug and Poison Information Center
and Regional Poison Control System
231 Bethesda Ave., M. L. 144
Cincinnati, OH 45267-0144
(800) 872-5111 (OH only)
OREGON
The University of Texas Medical Branch
Galveston, TX 77550-2780
Emergency Phones: (409) 765-1420 (Galveston)
(713) 654-1701 (Houston)
UTAH
Utah Poison Control Center
410 Chipeta Way, Suite 230
Salt Lake City, UT 84108
(800) 456-7707 (UT only)
VIRGINIA
Blue Ridge Poison Center
Oregon Poison Center
Oregon Health Sciences University
3181 S. W. Sam Jackson Park Rd.
Portland, OR 97201
(800) 452-7165 (OR only)
Box 67
Blue Ridge Hospital
Charlottesville, VA 22901
(800) 451-1428
National Capital Poison Center (Northern VA only)
PENNSYLVANIA
Central Pennsylvania Poison Center
University Hospital
Milton S. Hershey Medical Center
Hershey, PA 17033
3800 Reservoir Rd., N. W.
(202) 784-4660 (TrY)
WEST VIRGINIA
The Poison Control Center
serving the greater Philadelphia metropolitan area
West Virginia Poison Center
One Children’s Center
Philadelphia, PA 19104-4303
3110 MacCorkle Ave. S. E.
Charleston, WV 25304
Emergency Phones: (800) 642-3625 (WV only)
(304) 348-4211
Pittsburgh Poison Center
3705 Fifth Ave.
Pittsburgh, PA 15213
RHODE ISLAND
Rhode Island Poison Center
593 Eddy St.
Providence, RI 02903
G-66
WYOMING
The Poison Center
8301 Dodge St.
Omaha, NE 68114
Emergency Phones: (402) 390-5555 (Omaha)
(800) 955-9119 (NE)
SPECIMEN LABELS
Compiled by Scott E. Hygnstrom
This section contains specimen labels of various products used for controlling wildlife damage. Products included here
were selected as examples of registered vertebrate pesticides. Space limitations make it impossible to include labels from
every available product. Inclusion of trade names, proprietary products, or company names does not imply endorsement
by the University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension, USDA-APHIS-Animal Damage Control, or the Great Plains Agricultural Council. Similarly, no discrimination is intended against products or companies not included.
Since pesticide labels change frequently, be sure to obtain, read, and follow current label directions when using any pesticide. Check with appropriate federal and state authorities to find out if a particular product is registered in your state.
CONTENTS
Birds
Frightening Agents
4-aminopyridine (Avitrol®, CORN CHOPS)
Repellents
Methyl anthranilate (ReJex-iTTM AG-36, TP-40, and AP-50)
Polybutene ( TANGLEFOOT® Bird Repellent)
Stupefying Agents
Alpha-chloralose (ALPHA-CHLORALOSE—USDA-APHIS)
Toxicants
Fenthion (Rid-A-Bird® Perch 1100 Solution)
Starlicide (PURINATM STARLICIDETM COMPLETE, COMPOUND DRC-1339 98% CONCENTRATE -Feedlots
Pigeons, Gulls, Livestock Depredations — USDA-APHIS)
Mammals
Repellents
Ammonium soaps of higher fatty acids (HINDER® DEER AND RABBIT REPELLENT)
Capsaicin (MILLER® HOT SAUCE® ANIMAL REPELLENT)
Denatonium saccharide (RO-PEL® ANIMAL, RODENT AND BIRD REPELLENT, RO-PEL® GARBAGE
PROTECTORTM)
Methyl nonyl ketone (BONIDE® DOGZIT Dog and Cat Repellent)
Naphthalene (SudburyTM, Chaperone® SQUIRREL and BAT REPELLENT)
Polybutene (EATON’S® 4 THE SQUIRRELTM REPELLENT)
Putrescent whole egg solids (DEER-AWAY® Big Game Repellent)
Thiram (Gustafson THIRAM 42-S Repellent, NOTT CHEW-NOT ANIMAL REPELLENT)
Tobacco Dust (F & B® rabbit and dog chaser)
Ziram (EARL MAY® RABBIT SCAT)
Wildlife Committee
G-67
Toxicants
Anticoagulants
Brodifacoum (Talon®-G RODENTICIDE BAIT PACK PELLETS)
Bromadiolone (Contrac® Ready-to-Use Place Pac, maki® MINI-BLOCK, PURINATM MOUSE-A-RESTTM
PELLETS)
Chlorophacinone (EATON’S® AC90TM FORMULA PLACE PACK RODENTICIDE, ROZOL® RAT AND
MOUSE KILLER, ROZOL® POCKET GOPHER BAIT)
Diphacinone (Ditrac® TRACKING POWDER, Ditrac® RAT & MOUSE BAIT, EATON’S® ALL-WEATHER
BAIT BLOCKS®, Liqua-Tox II®,RAMIK® GREEN BAIT PACKS, Rodere Parafinized Rat Bait, EATON’S®
ANSWERTM FOR THE CONTROL OF POCKET GOPHERS)
Pivalyl (EATON’S®A-C50TM)
Warfarin (Final® RAT & MOUSE BAIT, PURINATM RAT CONTROL PELLETS, RODEXTM BLOXTM-1)
Other Toxic Baits
Bromethalin (PURINATM ASSAULT RAT PLACE PACK)
Cholecalciferol (Quintox® RAT & MOUSE BAIT)
Sodium Cyanide (M-44 CYANIDE CAPSULES—USDA-APHIS)
Sodium Fluoroacetate (SODIUM FLUOROACETATE (COMPOUND 1080) LIVESTOCK PROTECTION
COLLAR—USDA-APHIS)
Strychnine (0.5% STRYCHNINE S.R.O. POCKET GOPHER BAIT FOR USE IN BURROW BUILDERS—
USDA-APHIS, PETERSEN’S Pocket Gopher Killer I, WILCO GOPHER GETTER AG BAIT)
Zinc Phosphide (BONIDE® MOLETOX II, BONIDE® ORCHARD MOUSE BAIT, RIDALL-ZINCTM
TRACKING POWDER, ROBAN II AG, ZINC PHOSPHIDE ON WHEAT FOR MOUSE CONTROL
USDA-APHIS, ZINC PHOSPHIDE CONCENTRATE FOR MUSKRAT AND NUTRIA CONTROL—
USDA-APHIS, Zinc Phosphide Prairie Dog Bait—USDA-APHIS, ZP® Rodent Bait AG, ZP® Rodent Bait
Place Pac, ZP® TRACKING POWDER)
Fumigants
Aluminum Phosphide (DEGESCH Phostoxin®)
Chloropicrin (CHLOR-O-PIC®)
Methyl Bromide (BROM-O-GAS®)
Gas Cartidge (THE GIANT DESTROYER®, GAS CARTRIDGE—USDA-APHIS, GAS CARTRIDGE FOR
COYOTES—USDA-APHIS)
Reptiles
Repellents
Sulfur (Dr. T’s SNAKE-A-WAY® SNAKE REPELLENT)
Editors
Scott E. Hygnstrom
Robert M. Timm
Gary E. Larson
G-68
G-69
G-70
G-71
G-72
G-73
G-74
G-75
G-76
G-77
G-78
G-79
G-80
G-81
G-82
G-83
G-84
G-85
G-86
G-87
G-88
G-89
G-90
G-91
G-92
G-93
G-94
G-95
G-96
G-97
G-98
G-99
G-100
G-101
G-102
G-103
G-104
G-105
G-106
G-107
G-108
G-109
G-110
G-111
G-112
G-113
G-114
G-115
G-116
G-117
G-118
G-119
G-120
G-121
G-122
G-123
G-124
G-125
G-126
G-127
G-128
G-129
G-130
G-131
G-132
G-133
G-134
G-135
G-136
G-137
G-138
G-139
G-140
G-141
G-142
G-143
G-144
G-145
G-146
G-147
G-148
G-149
INDEX
Chemical and Trade Names
(All page numbers refer to Section G)
0,0-dimethyl-0-(4-[methylthio]-m-tolyl) phosphorothioate
0-aminobenzoic acid methyl ester
43
0-carbomethoxyaniline
43
1,2-0-(2,2,2-trichloroethylidene)-α-D-glucofuranose
41
35
2,4a,5,5a,7,8,15,15a,15b,15c-dechydro-4,6-methano-6H,14H-indolo (3,2,1-ij)oxepino(2,3,4-de)pyrrolo(2,3-h
quinolin-14-one
54-55
2-(diphenylacetyl)-1,3-indandione
6, 26, 28, 29, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114
2-isovaleryl-1,3-indandione
5
2-[(p-chlorophenyl)phenylacetyl]-1,3-indandione
5, 26-28, 105, 106, 107
2-pivalyl-1-3-indandione
6, 26, 27, 29, 115
3-[3-(4’-bromo[l,l’-biphenyl]4-yl)-1,2,3,4-tetra-hydro-l-naphthalenyl]4-hydroxy-2H-l-benzopyran-2-one
5, 26-29, 101
3-[3-(4’-bromo[1,1’-biphenyl]-4-yl)-3-hydroxy-1-phenylpropyl]-4-hydroxy-2H-l-benzopyran-2-one
5, 26-29, 102, 103, 104
3-(α-acetonylbenzyl)-4-hydroxycoumarin
7, 26-29, 116, 117, 118
3-chloro-4-methyl benzylnamine hydrochloride
52-53, 80-81, 82-83, 84
3-chloro-p-toluidine hydrochloride
52-53, 79, 85-86
4-aminopyridine
20, 21, 30-31, 69
4-the squirrel
94
8-methyl-n-vanillyl-6-nonenamide
34
9,10-seocholesta-5,7,10(19)-trein-3 betaol
1080
6, 37
49-51, 122
AC50
115
AC90
105
All-weather bait blocks
110
Alpha-chloralose
35, 74-77
Aluminum phosphide
4, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 19, 25, 138-139
Ammonium soaps of higher fatty acids
18, 19, 40, 87-88
Anise, oil of
15
Anticoagulants
26-29
Assault®
7, 33, 119
Avitrol®
20, 21, 30-31, 69
Benzyldiethyl [(2,6-xylylcarbamoyl) methyl] ammonium benzoate
38
Benzyldiethyl [(2,6-xylylcarbamolyl) methyl] ammonium saccharide
38, 90, 91
Bitrex®
16, 38
Bone tar oil
18, 32
Brodifacoum
5, 26-29, 101
Bromadiolone
5, 26-29, 102, 103
Bromethalin
7, 33, 119
[(bromo-4'-[biphenyl-1-1']-yl-4)3-tetrahydro-1,2,3,4-napthyl-1]3-hydroxy-4,2H-l benzothiopyran-2-one
Brom-o-gas®
8, 44-45, 142-144
Bye-Deer®
40
26, 27, 29
G-151
Capsaicin
10, 11, 14, 16, 18, 19, 34, 89
Capsicum
21
Chaperone®
93
Chew-not
98
Chlorophacinone
3, 5, 26-28, 105, 106, 107
Chlor-o-pic®
8, 36, 140-141
Chloropicrin
8, 36, 140-141
Cholecalciferol
6, 37, 120
Contrac®
27, 102
Contrax-D®
26, 28, 29
Coumafuryl
26
CPTH
52-53
Deer-Away®
18, 39, 95
Denatonium benzoate
38
Denatonium saccharide
3, 8, 14, 15, 18, 21, 38
Detia®
25
Dexol Gasser®
42
Difethialone
26, 27, 29
Diphacinone
3, 6, 26, 28, 29, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114
Ditrac®
6, 108, 109
d-limonene
15
Dogzit
92
DRC-1339
20, 52-53, 80-81, 82-83, 84, 85-86
Eaton’s® Answer
3, 114
Fenthion
20, 41, 78
Final®
116
Fumarin®
26
Fumitoxin®
25
Gas cartridges
4, 8, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 19, 42, 145-146, 147, 148
Gastoxin®
25
Giant Destroyer®
42, 145-146
Gopher Gasser®
42
Gopher getter AG bait
125
Havoc®
27
Hinder®
18, 40, 87-88
Hot Sauce Animal Repellent®
10, 11, 14, 16, 18, 19, 34, 89
Larvacide®
36
Lindane
21
Liqua-Tox II
111
M-44 cyanide capsules
48, 121
Magic Circle®
18, 32
Maki®
5, 103
Methyl anthranilate
43, 70-72
Methyl bromide
8, 44-45, 142-144
Methyl nonyl ketone
15, 92
Moletox II
126
Mouse-a-rest
104
Naphthalene
14, 15, 17, 21, 46, 93, 99
Nitrochloroform
36
N-methyl-2,4-dinitro-N-(2,4,6-tribromophenyl)-6-(trifluoromethyl) benzenamine
G-152
7, 33, 119
Orchard mouse bait
127
Peterson’s pocket-gopher killer I
124
Petroleum naphtemic oils
21
PhosTek®
25
Phostoxin®
8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 19, 25, 138-139
Pindone
6, 26, 27, 29
Pivalyl®
6, 26, 27, 29, 115
PMP®
5, 26
Polybutenes
14, 22, 73, 94
Putrescent whole egg solids
18, 39, 95
Quintox®
6, 37, 120
Rabbit Scat
100
Ramik®
6, 26, 28, 29, 112
Rampage®
37
Red squill
8, 47
ReJeX-iT®
43, 70-72
Rid-a-bird® 1100
20, 41, 78
Ridall-zinc
128
Roban II AG
129
Rodere parafinized rat bait
113
Ro-pel®
3, 8, 14, 15, 18, 21, 38, 90, 91
RoZol®
3, 5, 26-28, 106, 107
Scilliroside glycosides
47
Smoke’Em®
42
Snake-a-way®
149
Sodium cyanide
16, 48, 121
Sodium fluoroacetate
16, 49-51, 122
Sodium monofluoroacetate
49-51
Starlicide®
20, 52-53, 79
Strychnine
3, 19, 54-55, 123, 124, 125
Sulfur
22, 149
Talon®
5, 27, 29, 101
Tanglefoot®
73
Tetramethylthiuram disulfide
56, 96-97, 98
Thiram
10, 13, 18, 19, 56, 96-97, 98
Tobacco dust
15, 19, 99
Trichloronitromethane
36
Trounce®
33
Valone
26
Vengeance®
33
6, 37
Vitamin D3
Warfarin
7, 26-29, 116, 117, 118
Zinc phosphide
4, 8, 9, 11, 12, 57-59, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130-131, 132-133, 134, 135, 136, 137
Ziram
19, 60, 100
ZP® Rodent bait
136
ZP® Rodent bait AG
135
ZP® Tracking powder
137
G-153
G-154
INDEX
Target Species
(All page numbers refer to Section G)
Bats
Bears
Beavers
Birds
Blackbirds
2, 17, 46, 93
34
2, 3, 38, 90
2, 20-22, 30, 38, 41, 43, 46, 54, 69, 70-72, 73, 74-77
20-22, 30, 43, 52, 69, 79, 80-81
Cats
Chipmunks
Coots
Cowbirds
Coyotes
Crows
2, 15, 38, 90, 91, 92
2, 13
35, 74-77
20, 30, 43, 69, 71, 80-81
2, 16, 42, 48, 49, 121, 122, 148
21-22, 30, 43, 52, 85-86
Deer
Dogs
2, 18, 32, 34, 38, 39, 40, 56, 87-88, 89, 90, 95, 96-97, 98
2, 15-16, 34, 38, 46, 48, 90, 91, 92, 99, 121
Elk
2, 18, 39, 95
Finches, house
Foxes
21
2, 16, 48, 121
Geese
Gophers, pocket
Grackles
Gulls
35, 43, 70, 71, 72
2, 3-4, 25, 26, 42, 54, 107, 114, 123, 124, 125, 126, 135, 136, 145-146, 147
20-22, 30, 43, 69, 80-81
20-22, 43, 52, 71, 72, 84
Hares
Horned larks
2, 19
21
Magpies
Marmots
Mice, deer
Mice, house
Mice, meadow
Mice, pocket
Mice, white-footed
Microtus spp.
Moles
Muskrats
52, 85-86
13, 25
2, 9-10
2, 5-8, 26, 33, 36, 37, 38, 44, 90, 91, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 115, 116,
117, 118, 120, 128, 136, 137, 138-139, 140-141, 142-144
9-10, 34, 57, 98, 127, 135
2, 9-10
2, 9-10, 130-131, 135
9-10, 129, 130-131, 135
2, 19, 25, 56, 126, 145-146
2, 11, 132-133
Nutria
2, 11, 57, 132-133
Peromyscus spp.
Pheasants
Pigeons
Porcupines
Prairie dogs
9, 10, 135
21, 43
20-22, 30, 35, 41, 52, 73, 74-77, 78, 82-83
2, 11, 89
2, 11, 25, 42, 57, 134, 135, 138-139, 147
G-155
Rabbits
Rats, cotton
Rats, kangaroo
Rats, Norway
Ravens
Rodents
2, 19, 26, 34, 40, 46, 56, 60, 87-88, 89, 96-97, 98, 99, 100
2, 12, 57, 129, 135
2, 12, 135
2, 5-8, 26, 33, 36, 37, 90, 91, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 116, 117, 118,
119, 120, 129, 136, 138-139, 140-141, 142-144, 145-146
2, 9, 57, 129, 135
2, 5-8, 25, 26, 33, 37, 38, 44, 47, 57, 90, 91, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115,
116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 129, 135, 136
23, 52, 85-86
2, 5-8, 25, 26-29, 33, 36, 37, 42, 44, 54, 56, 96-97, 138-139, 140-141, 142-144
Skunks
Snakes
Sparrows, house (English)
Squirrels, ground
Squirrels, tree
Starlings
2, 17, 42, 145-146
2, 22, 46, 149
20-22, 30, 41, 43, 69, 73, 78
2, 12, 25, 26, 42, 57, 135, 138-139, 145-146, 147
2, 14, 38, 46, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94
20-22, 30, 41, 43, 52, 69, 71, 73, 78, 79, 80-81
Voles
2, 9-10, 26, 34, 89, 127, 129, 130-131, 135
Waterfowl
Woodchucks
Woodrats
35, 43, 71, 72, 74-77
2, 13, 25, 42, 145-146, 147
2, 12
Rats, Polynesian
Rats, roof
G-156

vertebrate pesticides - Internet Center for Wildlife Damage

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