Soy protein`s history, prospects in food, feed

429
FOOD TECHNOLOGY
Soy protein's history, prospects in food, feed
uring the early years of commercial processing, soy cake
or meal generally was regarded as a by-product of little value. Soy
protein cake and meal were used for
ceute feed or, occasionally, for fertilizer. In the late 1930s. the discovery
that soy meal rations could be fortified with vitamin 812, eliminating the
need to add animal proteins, did much
to advance soy as the preferred protein in poultry and swine diets. The
amino acids in soybean meal complement those of cereal grains. Soybean
meal is high in digestible protein and
low in fiber, making it highly desired
for commercial formulated feed manufacturing
and farm-mixed
feeds.
Additionally.
soybean meal is the
most economical high-quality protein
available from the viewpoint of feed
manufacturers and. thus. has assumed
a dominant role in the formulated
feed market
The late 1940s saw the development of "50 Meal" from dehulled soybeans. which raised the protein level
to 5{)% from 44%. This increased soy
meal consumption by poultry. which
have trouble digesting fiber. Over the
years, the protein level of high-protein
meal eroded 10 49%. and then to 48%
due to the lower protein contents of
the higher yielding varieties now
planted by most growers.
Today, poultry consume 40% and
swine 25% of all domestically produced soybean meal. Beef and dairy
cattle, sheep. fish. industrial
and
human consumption
make up the
other 35% (Table I). For the past 25
years.
human consumption
has
remained small but steady at about
2-3% of annual soy meal production.
Total soybean meal use in the United
States is estimated at 18.2 million
metric tons, accounting for about 75%
of all high-protein meals used in livestock feeds.
D
Early Western food uses
The earliest food uses for soybeans in
the West involved grinding whole soybeans to produce edible full-fat flour
and grits. The flour was "beany" in
taste due 10 lipoxygenase-catalyzed
This is the second pari of a review that chronicles the individuals and the historicol and economic factors noteworthy in the development of soy protein as
food and feed ingredients. The articles are by LA. Johnson. OJ. Myers and
OJ. Burden of the Center for Craps Utilization Research at Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa. The articles were peer-reviewed prior to publication. The previous article (INFORM 3:282) dealt with industrial uses. Technological
advances have mode soy protein available in many forms (whole seeds.fult-fat
and defatted flours, protein concentrates and isolates, spun fibers and textured
ingredients) thai have been used as ingredients in foods or as food ilSelf. Ollly
about 3% of the protein available from soybeans is used for food. The primary
reasons for this are unocceptobte flavor and inadequate functionality, although
th(' presenu of flosulence-promoting
sllgars and antinurritional factors also
ho\'e presented problems.
oxidation of its oil. Its use even in
small amounts produced foods with
undesirable taste. This flour had a
short shelf life, but, by 1942, was used
in small amounts (generally less than
0.5% of wheat flour) to bleach bread
by the active lipoxygenase action on
wheat carotenoids (I). Later, screwpressed and solvent-extracted
meals
were ground into edible flours.
German scientists developed methods for milling and extracting bitter
substances from whole soybeans as
early as 1925 (2). A few years later.
the Shellebarger Grain Products Company patented a steam and hydrochloric acid process for debittering the
beans under vacuum (I). These processes produced a yellow full-fat flour
containing 40% protein, called "full
soya" or "pure soya." Even at that
time. full-fat Oour was compared to
meat, milk and eggs and was used to
prepare soups, mixed cocoa drinks.
TABLE I
Soy Meal Consumplion in the United
States
u~
Amount
(million metric IonS)
Market
("')
Poultry
7.8
41.1
Swine
Beer ceure
'.2
0.6
0.1
27.4
9.0
9.0
9.'
3.2
0.'
18.9
99.7
Dairy ceule
Other livestock
Human food
Industrial
Total
1.7
1.7
1.8
biscuits. and vegetable cutlets (3).
Full-fat soy flour played an important
role in feeding Gennan troops in the
19305 and 1940s, with a ready supply
of soybeans being available in Germany, Austria. Poland and the Balkan
countries.
In the United States. it was recognized by the late 19305 that soy flour
could substitute for substantial portions of wheat flour in bakery products. Soy flour First was available in
health-food stores. Bread, macaroni.
sausages, biscuits, crackers, pancakes
and sweet goods soon were targeted
for protein supplementation with edible soy flour (4).
Nutritional advantages of supplementing cereal products with soy protein were recognized quite early. Cereals are relatively low in protein and
poorly balanced in essential amino
acids. Adding soy flour increases the
protein level and improves the balance
of essential amino acids. Today, most
edible soy floor comes from dehulled
solvent-extracted soybeans and. unless
refaued or lccithinated, contains over
52% protein. This was a substantial
improvement to the respective 41 %
and 44% protein contents of screwpressed and solvent-extracted
whole
soybeans.
As early as 1940. the National Tea
Company in Chicago. Illinois. began
to market bread supplemented with
soy flour in its chain of grocery stores
(5). The protein content of this bread
was increased to 13% from about
10%. and the calcium content was
increased 15-fold (6). However. the
INFORM. VOl. 3. no. .4 (April 1992)
430
FOOD TECHNOLOGY
early soy proteln-supptememed
breads were fraught with low volume and poor texture. Later it was
learned thaI incorporation
of
small amounts of sodium sreroyl2-13Cly131C would
restore
mulated with soy. In 1965.4.5 million pounds were sold. primarily in
Central and South America (16).
the vol-
PEA S
ume. texture and palatability thai
previously had been lest when
incorporating soy flour (7). This
eventually would enable bakers \0
replace up to 15-25% of the
wheat flour in bakery products
while maintaining good eating
'o.y
qualities (8),
~
During World War II, the U.S.
Army used soy protein in K
rations. pork link sausage. and
macaroni (9). From full-fat and
dcfaucd flours 10 dehulled. debittered and chipped soy meats. U.S.
Army rations were fortified with
soy products. During this period.
soup bases. one known as "Pea
Soya Soup" (Fig. I), were made
with green peas. soy flour, dried
skim milk and other ingredients
(10). These formed an important
....G.l. Pea Soya Suup(IO)_
part of the War Food Administranow pan of the A.E. Staley Manufaction's reserve food stocks 10 feed
turing Company.
starving war refugees.
In the mid-1960s.
a number of
From the beginning of soybean utiworld hunger-relief agencies devellization. users have contemplatcd
oped low-cost nutritious foods using
using lower-cost soy proteins as subsoy products for protein fortification,
stitutes for more expensive animal
Probably the most widely accepted
proteins. such as those in eggs, milk
product was corn-soya-milk
blend
and meal. Many early soy protein
products were developed for use as (CSM) developed for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, as part of the
whipping agents to simulate the functional properties of milk and cgg pro- Food for Freedom (known as Food for
Peace outside the United States) proteins (II). In 1939. the Soy Products
gram (15). CSM was a dry mix comDivision
of Glidden
introduced
posed of gelatinized cornmeal. either
"Albusoy," the first edible soy protein
product (12). This enzyme-modificd
full-fat or defatted soy flour. nonfat
isolated protein was marketed as a dry milk. refined soy oil. and mineral
and vitamin mixes. CSM contained
whipping agent. In 1944, the Soybean
20% protein and was used as a gruel or
Products Company of Chicago. illias a protein supplement for culturally
nois, introduced "Soyco,' a hydrolyzed soy protein whipping agent to accepted foods. It was especially popular as a supplemental protein source
replace more expensive egg whites
for preschool children. Within the first
(13). A year later, Rich Products Corp.
year. over 1.2 billion pounds were
in Buffalo. New York, introduced
shipped to a number of developing
"Rich's Whipped Topping" based on
countries. "lncuparina," developed for
soy protein as a substitute for whipped
INCAP (Institute of Nutrition of Cencream (12), In 1947, the Borden Comtral America and Panama) and used in
pany followed suit by introducing
"Soyco" (14): ADM, "Nutriwhip"
Central America. was used to feed
impoverished and malnourished popu(14); and the Central Soya Company.
lations. It originally was formulated
"Soy Albumin" (14), which later
with cononseed flour. then later reforbecame the Gunther Products line.
•
·5-.........U..
,.ownt':.
..... ,:w;;.,::· .....
*****
tNFORM.Vol. 3. no. 4 (Apfil1992)
Soy Ilour and grtts
Most edible soy flours and grits
are made from dehulJed and defatted soy meal, and contain over
52% protein on an "as is" basis
(6-8% moisture)
or 56% on a
moisture-free basis (mfb). If the
flour is lecithinated or refatted. the
protein content may be as low as
40% (vas is"). Heat exposure
denatures proteins. often adversely
affecting their functional properties, Thus a variety of heat treatments can be applied during processing to tailor soy proteins to
specific applications. The advent
of the flash dcsolventizer in the
late 1960s did much to reduce protein denaturation lind to facilitate
production of highly soluble protein ingredients (17). The meal is
ground to line powder for flours.
Larger particle sizes for grits are
achieved by coarse grinding and
particle-size classification. More than
80% of the soy flours and grits produced today are used in food-primarily breads, cakes. cookies, crackers. pancake mixes and other baked
goods. They also are used as ferrnentat ion media in processed meats and
as carriers for spices and Flavors.
Protein concentrates and isolates
Protein concentrates (18) and isolates
(19) lire purified from soy meal. Soy
protein concentrates should contain
70% protein (mfb) to meet the standards set in sever a l U.S. federal regulations. (The Codex Alimentarius subcommittee on vegetable protein has
recommended that soy protein concentrate contain at least 65% protein
(mfb), but this has not been officially
adopted.) Protein isolates must contain at least 90% protein (mfb), Obviously, as purity increases, so do processing costs (Table 2).
Protein concentrates lire produced
by washing out soluble sugars from
soybean meal (Fig. 2). Concentrates
first were offered in food-grade form in
1959 by Griffith Laboratories of Chicago, Illinois (12). The first industrial
grade protein concentrate was pro-
432
FOOD TECHNOLOGY
duced for a short period by Mead
Johnson and Company of Evansville,
Indiana, in the 19305 by using the
Bonate process (extraction in dilute
sulfurous acid) (I). Three different
methods have been used to prepare
food-grade concentrates. Washing the
meal with water at pH 4.5 or with
60-70% ethanol arc the preferred
methods today. Swift & Company of
Chicago, Illinois. used the thermal
denaturation method. but only for a
short period.
In 1960. the Central Soya Company
marketed the first edible. nonenzyme
hydrolyzed, protein isolate. Protein
isolates are produced by mild alkali
extraction, followed by acid precipitation. removing both acid-soluble sugars and insoluble fiber (Fig. 3), About
one-third of the starting meal is recovered as a spray-dried powder.
In the mid-l 970s. K.C. Rhee and J.
Lawhon at the Food Protein R&D
Center of Texas A&M University in
College Station, Texas. pioneered
aqueous processing and membrane
isolation of soy protein (20). In aqueous processing (Fig. 4), whole soybeans were ground and extracted with
alkali. The slurry/emulsion was taken
to a three-phase centrifuge to separate
the protein solution. oil emulsion and
residual fiber. The emulsion was broken. and crude oil recovered. The protein was then recovered, sometimes
fractionated. and concentrated with
ultrafiltration membranes. Although
there were numerous advantages. the
process is nor being used commercially today. The emulsion was difficult to
break cleanly: the process was less
efficient in oil recovery than hexane
extraction of flakes.
During the late 1970s. steam-injection cooking was developed to alter
the functional properties of soy concentrates and isolates. Controlling
high-temperature (120-150'"Q exposure for short periods (5-60 sec) alters
disperslbllhy
and other important
functional properties of protein (21).
Concentrated and isolated soy proteins are used primarily as functional
ingredients in meets. In comminuted
luncheon or emulsified meats, soy
proteins are used to promote emulsification, gelation, and far- and waterbinding. Whole meat cuts can be augINFORM, Vol. 3.
no.
<1 (AprIl 1992)
TABLE:
2
Protein Content and Typical Selling Prices for Soy Protein Ingredients
u'"
Protein content (%)0
Soy flours and grits
56CQ
56CQ
Textured flours
Concentrates
Textured concentrates
0.15-0.20
0.35
0.50-0.60
70
70
Isolates
Spun fibers
Q
COSI (S/Ib)
0.60
1.20-1.25
90
90
1.50
Moisture-free basis.
Defatted Soy Rakes
or ROUT
l
Aqueous
pH4.6
Water Leaching
•
•
I Denaturallon
Moist He.ilt I
Alcohol Leaching
I
I Water LeachingJ
!
I Soy Protein Concentrate]....-J
FIG. 2. Processes for making soy protein concentrates.
IS
0)
Centrifuge
",",p
Spell' FlU ..
Sodium-IIOY
Proteinate
FIG. 3. Process for making soy protein isolates.
mented with soy protein by using
techniques for cured-meal preparation.
This usually involves injection of
meal with. or tumbling of meat in. a
slurry of protein isolate or concentrate, salt and water.
Soy protein concentrates are used
breakfast cereals,
and calf milk substitutes. Protein coocemrates may be textured for use as
meat extenders. Protein isolates also
are often used in dairy analogs, baby
in baked products,
434
FOOD TECHNOLOGY
Ground Soybeana
(~-,
"""
~lcdf"""
RO memInno)
foods, infant formulas and for spinning into edible fibers.
Oil Emulsion
7-~""
Exu.aiool
'"
=
FIG. 4. Aqueous processing and membrane processing soy proteins.
nG. S. Soy beverages become popular.
INFORM, Vol. 3, no,.4 (Aprl1992)
",,",p
Dairy analogs
There has always been keen interest in
underdeveloped nations to use soy
protein as dairy analogs in feeding
infants. In developed countries, soy
protein formulas are recommended for
infants and elderly persons who arc
allergic to milk protein as well as for
persons who have lactose intolerance
or lactase deficiency.
In 1936. H. Miller returned from
China. having spent many years as a
missionary medical doctor supported
by the Seventh Day Adventists (22).
While in China, he learned the Chinese
system of making soy milk for use in
feeding infants and sick adults. Upon
returning \0 the United States, he
immediately established the International Nutrition Laboratory in MI. Vernon, Ohio. and ser about perfecting the
use of soybeans as a replacement for
milk in infant formulas. He received
the first patent for a soy infant fonnula
and produced a product called "Soya
Lac" (23). The successor company.
Lama Linda Foods. remained in operation for many years and at one time
was the largest U.S. producer of
scymilk-based infant formulas.
An infant formulation known as
"Mull-Soy" was introduced in [936
by the Borden Company of Bainbridge, New York. "Mull-Soy" was
made with soy flour, soybean oil.
sugar and salt and marketed in retorted canned form (24), "Mull-Soy" was
intended for the estimated
2% of
infants allcrglc to cow's milk.
In the 19505 the soymilk market
developed on a large scale in Hong
Kong. Introduced as a bottled soft
drink and with the most popular one
being "vltasoy" (25), such products
quickly spread throughout East Asia.
In the Philippines.
a carbonated
soymilk was marketed as "Philscy."
The introduction of aseptic packaging
and the "Tetra-Brick aseptic" canon to
soymilk production in the late 1960s
led to greater distribution and consumption. Aseptic packaging could
provide up to six months shelf life
without refrigeration. By the 1970s,
the soymilk craze spread 10 Japan
(Fig. 5). In 1983, the Japanese product
437
FOOD TECHNOLOGY
..... ......!-./"----...
Soluble Soy
Ilcooftrrifqed
$duIIIt Soy
Acid
Alkali
Supply
~
FIG. 6. Spun protein process.
"Endensoy"
was introduced
into
North America. By 1987. as much as
650.000 gallons were imported into
this country.
Soy flour was used in many second-generation nondairy infant fcrmulas and quickly was followed by protein isolates. In 1952. the first soymilk
derived from soy protein isolate.
"Soyamel." was introduced
by
Wor-
thington Foods of Columbus. Ohio
(12). "Prosobee" was another popular
soy-based infant formula marketed by
the Mead Johnson Company. In 1959.
Griffith Laboratories introduced the
first food-grade soy protein concen-
trate for use in vegetable
dairy
prod-
ucts (12).
Today. dairy antilogs represent a
large potential market for soy isolates.
Isolates improve the color, flavor and
odor of finished products and do not
contain flatutence-promorlng
sugars.
Approximately
10% of the formulafed infants in the United States consume products containing soy protein
isolates (26). About 92% of all
soymilk consumed
in the United
States is made from soy isolate and is
used for feeding infants (27). Some
dry and liquid coffee whiteners and
whipped toppings are made with soy
isolates. Rising dairy prices resulting
from government buy-out programs
are spurring new interest in soy-based
dairy analogs.
In 1951. Rich Products Corp. introduced the first frozen dessert using
soy protein isolate "Chill-Zert" (28).
In recent years, tofu has been used to
make a popular ice cream-like frozen
dessert known as "Tofutti." This product was developed by the deli operator. D. Mintz. marketed by HaagenDaas. and was sold by Bloomingdales
department stores. In 1984. annual
sales of tofu-based frozen desserts
approached $9 million (28). Shortly
thereafter. Gloria Vanderbilt's Glace
Tofu Frozen dessert was offered by
Frusen Glaje Ltd .. which is affiliated
with Dolly Madison Ice Cream.
Soy protein concentrates are used
as milk replacers for baby animals.
such as calves,
lambs and pigs.
because they cause little gastrointestinal
disturbance
and lower
irnmunogenicity. The proteins aid the
formation of emulsions to incorporate high-energy fat into the formula
and to provide high-quality protein
for nutrition.
Spun fibers
R. Boyer, working for the Ford MOlar
Company. acquired the first patent for
spinning protein into fibers in 1945
(29). The original Boyer patent and
his related 1954 patent (30) provided
the basis for the meat-analog industry.
His process (Fig. 6) involved solubilizing soy isolate in alkali and forcing
the solution through a spinneret into
an acid bath, coagulating the protein.
The fibers were stretched to the size
and strength desired. Many individual
fibers were then combined to form a
tOW.This, in tum, was formed into a
matrix for meat analogs. Various
binders, fats. Flavorings and colors
were combined into the matrix. and
then the binders were heat-set to form
the finished meat analog. The resulting fibrous texture simulates that of
meat muscle fiber bundles. One early
widely
promoted
product
was
"Ternptein"
(Fig. 7) marketed by
Miles Laboratories, Inc. (31).
In 1957, Worthington
Foods
licensed the 1954 Boyer patent and, in
1960, introduced a meatless chickenFlavored drumstick called "Fri-Chik,"
along with other meatless entrees
aimed at the vegetarian market (32).
INfORM. Vol. 3. no. 4 (Aj:ri 1992)
438
FOOD TECHNOLOGY
.
--....
12mptein
--::
....
.....
-.
FIG, 7. An example or a popular spun soy protein product (31).
Other products soon followed. Shortly
thereafter, General Mills of Minneapolis. Minnesota. introduced its "80ntrue" line of texturized foods based on
spun soy fibers (33). "Bontrae" meal
analogs were used in meat pies.
casseroles. seasoned vegetables and
"Sloppy Joe" sandwich fillings. In
1966. General Mills launched its meatless. bacon-flavored "Bac=O's' made
from spun soy protein fiber (34). In
1969. the finn introduced its secondgeneration bacon analog "Bac-DiBits"
(Fig. 8) made from textured soy flour
(12). "Bac-GiBits" has become a successful salad garnish. but imitation
bacon bits are now made by thermoplastic extrusion of soy protein.
In 1974, Miles LaboratoriesfWorthington Foods launched the "Morningstar Farms" line of meal analogs
based on spun soy protein fiber (12).
some of which are still marketed
today. However. none of these products has become as successful as initially projected. Their retail prices are
quite high, comparable to the meats
they replace. Primarily. these products
are consumed by individuals who, for
religious, personal or health reasons,
prefer a vegetarian diet.
Textured soy protein and
.iiiIiii!
FIG. 8. Two other examples of spun soy protein products,
INFORM.
Vol.
3.
no.
4 (Ap41t 1992)
meat analogs
In 1970, W. Atkinson of the Archer
Daniels Midland Company was issued
a patent (35) for a "meal-like protein
food product," which was sold under
the trade name "TVP" (for textured
vegetable protein). Most TVP was.
and continues to be, produced by thermoplastic extrusion of soy flour,
During 1971-1974. General Mills
sold frozen "Bontrae" meat analogs to
the food-service trade. The process
used cooker-extruders to tum out continuous slabs of textured protein suitable for CUlling into various shapes
and sizes. producing, ham-, beef- and
chicken-like entrees (34),
In 1971, USDA's Food and Nutrition Service released a special specification, FNS Notice 219, making
hydrated vegetable protein allowable
for meat alternate reimbursement credII, The minimum
PER (protein
efficiency ratio) requirement was 1.8
on the basis of 2.5 for casein (36);
most texturized soy proteins average
FOOD TECHNOLOGY
2.1. The National School Lunch Program allowed a maximum of 30%
hydrated texturized vegetable protein
to be mixed with beef, poultry and
fish. During the first year (1971-72
school year) of such use. 23 million
pounds of hydrated textured vegetable
protein or 8.5 million pounds (dry
weight) was used (37). Nearly 88 million pounds dry weight
were sold by
1987. Schools purchased dry texturized soy protein for less than 40 cents
a pound. which translated into 16
cents a pound for the hydrated ready-
lo-use form. In 1973, prompted by
escalating meat prices. U.S. supermarkets sold a blended ground meal package consisting of 75% ground beef
mixed with 25% hydrated textured
vegetable protein. The blend sold for
60-70% of the unblended beef price.
General Mills launched "Burger
II." a blend of ground beef and steamtextured soybean product, but shortly
thereafter changed the name to "Juicy
Blend II" in response to action by the
USDA. according to R. Spaeth (38).
At the height of popularity. about 25%
of ground meat sales were blends containing soy protein (39). When hamburger sold for $1 a pound, the 30nO
blend sold for about 75 cents a pound
(37). In 1980. soy protein products
were approved for use as beef extenders by the U.S. Department
of
Defense (12).
Nutritional
advances in
soy products
Stepan
I"
Stepan Company, 100 Y\9st HUnter Ave., Maywood,
(201) 845-3030
Fax: (201) 845-6754
For InfonnoHon circle *168
INFORM. Vol. 3, no. 4 (April 1992)
NJ 07607
In 1917. Osborne and Mendel first
published data from studies with rats
that showed poor nutritional properties of raw soybeans (40). However.
they also demonstrated that nutritional
properties
improved greatly after
cooking the beans. The growthdepressing properties of raw soybeans
became the focus of attention by protein chemists for the next 60 years. In
1944, Ham and Snndsredr (41) discovered the presence
of protease
inhibitors in soybeans. Much has been
learned about the types of proteins in
soybeans. but much remains to be
learned to enhance their functional
properties and to develop additional
uses for them (42.43).
There are at least seven different
protease inhibitors (44); two account
for most of the inhibition activity in
raw soybeans. Consequently, soy protease inhibitors have been studied
extensively. In 1946. Kunitz discovered the major protease inhibitor (45).
and in 1%3. Birk discovered the second important inhibitor (46). These
two protease inhibitors are responsible
for most of the antinutritional activity
of raw soybeans. In 1973. the amino
acid sequences of both the Kunitz and
the Bowman-Birk
inhibitors were
determined (47.48). In the early years.
the aruinurritiona! activity of soybeans
INFORM. Vol. 3.
no. 4
(April 1992)
442
FOOD TECHNOLOGY
was attributed
solely to trypsin
inhibitors. bUI il is now recognized
thaI trypsin inhibitors account for
only about 40% of the growth
inhibi-
tion observed in raw soybeans (49).
Native soy proreln is resistant 10
enzymatic attack unless denatured by
heat (50). Although the significance
of soy trypsin inhibitors has been
controversial during the past 40 years,
trypsin inhibitors arc of little practical
consequence
in edible
ucts today;
utilization
protein
prod-
researchers
have learned how \0 process soybeans
for maximum nutritional quality. In
1971. Carroll at the University of
Ontario in Toronto. published the first
study showing
thur even in fat-free
diets animal proteins increase. while
soy proteins decrease. serum cbolestcrottevets
(51). Kritchcvsky at the
wister Institute in Philadelphia. Pennsylvania. and others have confirmed
these results (52). Probably no other
protein source has been studied as
thoroughly for its nutritional properties as has soy protein.
Today's world soybean and
soy protein production
Although the technologies for isolates.
concentrates and texturizcd soy products originally were developed in the
United States. these products are now
manufactured
and sold in Japan.
China. India, southeast Asia, Latin
America. Israel and Europe. Current
U.S. production of soy protein products for human consumption is esu_ mated at I billion pounds (equivalent
to 1.9 billion pounds on 52% protein
flour basis) or about 4--5 pounds per
capita (53). This is 3boUI 2.1 % of the
American daily protein intake (53).
compared with 13% by the Japanese
(54). Today. use of soy protein in U.S.
foods is based largely on its functional
properties as an ingredient for emulsificarion. whipping, water- and fatbinding. etc. (55.56). rather than for
supplementing dietary protein. There
are many potential markets for new
product lines. but aggressive. creative
marketing strategies and competitive
pricing are needed 10 overcome product stereotypes and couruermarketing
by established products and brands.
There has been much consolidation
in the soy protein industry since 1950
tNFORM. Vol. 3.
no. 4
(Aprfl1992)
(Table 3). Today. there are five major
manufacturers of edible soy protein
ingredients compared to at least 24 in
1950. In recent years. the Glidden
Company sold its soy protein processing plants to the Central Soya Company. In 1980. the Archer Daniels Midland Company purchased a soy protein isolate plant from the Central
Soya Company. Then in 1985. the
Central Soya Company purchased the
Griffith Laboratories line of protein
products. This was followed by the
Central Soya Company's 1986 acquisition of the A.E. Staley Manufacturing Company's protein lines except
for the Gunther enzyme-hydrolyzed
proteins. In 1987, the Ralston Purina
Company of St. Louis. Missouri.
established the wholly owned subsidiary Protein Technologies International to focus on marketing soy proteins as food ingredients and for industrial applications. Current producers
manufacture about 800 million pounds
of edible flours and grits. 150 million
pounds of concentrates and 100 million pounds of isolates. Annual market
growth rates have been estimated at
5.4% for all soy protein products, with
soy isolates growing fastest at 7%. versus 4.5% for soy flour (53).
Future for soy protein products
What is the future of soy protein utilization and its role in supplying the
world and its people with food, feed
and industrial products? During 1947.
the peak of soy protein indusu-inl
usage. about 10% of domestic soy
meal production was used in food and
industrial applications. compared with
about 3% today (57). Cheap petroleum immediately after World War II
did more to displace soy protein, as
well as soy oil. from industrial markets than any other factor. However,
limes have changed. In 1974. the
value of one bushel of soybeans was
equal to that of one barrel of petroleum: by 1982, when petroleum prices
reached $30 per barrel. 5.5 bushels
equated to one barrel of oil. The Persian Gulf War rekindled oil price
volatility. All forecasts indicate that
petroleum prices will continue to
TARLE J
Uniled States Protein Suppliers
1948-1950
Allied Mills Inc.
Archer Daniels Midland Co.
aantc Creek Food Co.
The Borden Co.
Buckeye Coeron Oil
Curgill Inc.
Central Soya Co .• Inc.
in 1948-1950, Versus 199(tQ
1990
Archer Daniels Midland Co.
CargiJllnc.
Central Soya Co.. Inc.
EI Molina Mills
1be Drackeu Co.
Fern Soya Foods
General Mills Inc.
The Glidden Co.
Griffith Laboratories
MocDoweli Bros.
Natural Food rnsmure
Pillsbury Mills Inc.
Rulston Purina Co.
Protein Techoology InL
Shcllebarger Soybean Mills
Spencer Kellogg and Sons
Soya Corporation of America
A.E. Staley Mfg. Co.
Swift & Co.
Thompson Soya Mill
A.E. SUIleyMfg. Co.
a Industrial and edible Ilours. concentrates. lind isolates.
escalate raster than prices or soybeans
well into the next century.
Soy processing
technology
has
been applied to many other oilseed
proteins,
from tomato 10 jojoba ,
peanut, colton and sesame: however.
due 10 higher production and processing costs, these proteins are n01 likely
to be price competitive. Other plant
proteins. such as wheat gluten. com
zein and distillers' dried grains occasionally compete with soy protein for
food protein markets.
Soybeans are by far the most productive source of edible protein on a
per-acre basis. A steer grazing on an
acre of grass will yield 58 pounds of
edible meat that can sustain a person
for 77 days: that same acre planted to
soybeans will produce 584 pounds of
protein that can sustain an individual
for more than 2.200 days. This has led
many to conclude soybeans inevitably
will provide an ever-increasing amount
of protein in human diets as population
growth strains protein supplies.
However. the universal concern of
the 1960s about an impending worldwide protem crisis was unfounded.
Today's usage of soy protein is based
largely on functional ingredients and
the extension
of animal proteins
ruther than total replacement for nutrition. Furthermore. with growing concern over diet and health issues and
the low cost of soy protein relative 10
animal proteins. soy-basedrood products and supplements are becoming
more attractive to both consumers and
the processed-food industry.
The "green
revolution"
and
increased agricultural productivity in
developing countries have allowed
per capita food production to increase
significantly during the past 30 years.
Advances in biotechnology
seem
poised \0 increase food production
and. ultimately, to make it possible to
tailor functional proteins within the
growing plant to end-use products and
industries. In addition, natural products are renewable. environmentally
friendly. and domestically produced.
If the American agrocommunity is to
continue to compete on the world
stage. current utilization technologies
must be improved. and research must
be expanded to develop new markets
for growers. This requires new prod-
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atech Inc.• Bar Harbor. Maine. 1947.
38. Spaeth. R.S .• Food Product On.
p.73.
8(5):41 (1974).
15. Teeter, H.M .• and W.C. Schaefer.
39. Brudnak. J.A., Cereal Sci. Today
Soybean Dig. 30(/):16 (1969).
19(10):447 (1914).
16. Anonymous. Food Technol. 2/(2):
40. Osborne, T.B .• and L.B. Mendel, J.
177(1967).
Bioi. Chern. 32:369 (1911).
Acknowledgments
17. Becker. K.W .. 1. Am. Oil Chem. Soc.
41. Ham. W.E.. and R.M. Sandstedt. Ibid.
The authors
found
bibliographic
48:299 (1971).
/54:505 (1944).
materials
(12.58) prepared
by the
18. Campbell, M.F .. C.W. Kraut. W.C.
42. Wolf W.J., 1. Am. Oil Chem, Soc.
Soy foods Center of Lafayette,
CaliYackel and H.S. Yang, in New Pro54:112A (1971).
fornia, 10 be invaluable
in preparing
tein Foods, Vol. 5. Seed SlOrage Pro43. Nielson. N., in New Protein Foods,
this manuscript.
reins, edited by A.M. Altschul and
Vol. 5. Sud Storage Proteins, edited
H.L. Wilke. Academic Press. New
by A.M. Altschul and H.L. Wilke.
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Academic Press, New York. New
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W.• and A. Aoyagi. in
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DC,
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Ordering IMtrudioM: To order !his or
34. Moroso. S .• Plant History, Cedar
51. Haytowhz, D.B., and R.H. Mathews,
My AOCS book. plclI5e contacl: Orders
Rapids. Iowa. General Mills, Inc.,
in Composition 0/ Foods: Legumes
Depal'tmcnl,AOCS. PO Bolt 3489. OwnMinneapolis, Minnesota. 1988.
and Legum~ Products, Agriculture
paign.IL 61826--3489 (phone: 217 359·
35. Atkinson,
W.T.,
U.S.
Patent
Handbook 8·16, U.S. Department of
2344; fa..: 2t7 351-8(91). Add S5.OO
3,488.770(1970).
Agriculture.
Human Nutrition Ser5hippingftlandlins ctw-ses per boot with36. U.S. Department
of Agriculture.
in the U.S.: olllside the U.S .• $15.00 per
vice. Washington, OC, 1986, p. 143.
book for surfllCt mail; and $25.00 per
Food and Nutrition Service. Accept.
!i8. Shunleff. W" and A. Aoyagi. Bibli.
book for linnlil. Illinois residc:nl5add
able Texturized Vege/able Products,
ograph)' of Industrial Utilization 0/
7"'1. Wes IU.
Washington. DC, 1972.
Soybeans.
Scyfoods
Center.
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•
(1914).
Olive Oil
INFORM. Vol. 3, no. 4 (Aprl1992)