Issue 58 - New Concepts in Global Tectonics

Transcription

New Concepts in Global Tectonics
NEWSLETTER
No. 58, March, 2011
ISSN: 1833-2560 Editor: Dong R. CHOI ([email protected])
www.ncgt.org
Editorial board
Ismail BHAT, India ([email protected]); Peter JAMES, Australia ([email protected]);
Leo MASLOV, Russia ([email protected]); Cliff OLLIER, Australia ([email protected]);
Nina PAVLENKOVA, Russia ([email protected]); David PRATT, Netherlands ([email protected]);
N. Christian SMOOT, USA ([email protected]); Karsten STORETVEDT, Norway ([email protected]);
Yasumoto SUZUKI, Japan ([email protected]); Boris I. VASILIEV, Russia ([email protected])
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
CONTENTS
From the Editor Japanese seismic crisis in March 2011: an urgent call for forming an international,
multidisciplinary team for earthquake study and prediction from a new perspective………………………….….……..2
Letters to the Editor
Lyttleton letter, Colin LAING…………………………………………………………………………………………….3
Solar cycles and earthquakes in the north-western Apennines, Italy, Valentino STRASER………………….…………..3
NCGT Newsletter and earthquake prediction, Alan HAYMAN………………….……………………….………………8
Articles
Continental rocks in the Indian Ocean, Takao YANO, Boris I. VASILIEV, Dong R. CHOI, Seiko MIYAGI,
Alexander A. GAVRILOV and Hisao ADACHI……………………………………………………………………..…9
The occurrence of continental rocks at 32 localities in the Indian Ocean is reviewed. Almost all of them were found in
rises, plateaus, and ridges situated in the marginal ocean basins. To understand the ocean-floor processes, the thermal and
compositional inhomogeneity and low fluidity of the mantle are important constraints.
9/56 year cycle: Californian earthquakes, David McMINN……………………………………………………………..29
This paper examines the prospect of a 9/56 year cycle in the timing of major earthquakes in California - Nevada - Baja
California. The 9/56 year seismic cycle was hypothesised to arise from tidal triggering by the Moon and Sun. Most sigfinicant
are ecliptical positions of the Sun, lunar ascending node and apogee.
Short Notes
Depth (endogenous) energy issues, Sergey ANIKEEV and Vladimir DUNICHEV……………………………………..41
Lithosphere plate issues, Sergey ANIKEEV and Vladimir DUNICHEV………………………………………………..42
Essay
The Lake Titicaca enigmas, Peter JAMES………………………………………………………………………………44
Discussion
Scientific logic behind surge tectonics hypothesis, M. Ismail BHAT, Christian SMOOT and Dong R. CHOI…………50
Publications
How plate tectonics may appear to a physicist, Raymond A. LYTTLETON and Hermann BONDI…………………….64
Atmospheric masses of four solar system solid bodies, Gennady KOCHEMASOV…………………………………….66
Two deepest geoid minima on Earth (Indian) and the Moon (South Pole-Aitken basin), Gennady KOCHEMASOV….68
Cold Sun, John CASEY………………………………………………………………………………………………….70
Global volcanism and oceanizaion of the Earth and planets, Vyacheslav ORLENOK.....................................................71
News
Global Cooling: Space and Science Research Corporation Press Release nos. 1, 2 & 4, John CASEY...........................74
Geoeruption before the Great East Japan Earthquake in March 2011, Zhonghao SHOU................................................78
Conferences: IDPD-2011 Indian Workshop; IGC34 Brisbane; Earth expansion; History of Geological Map...............78
Documentary film on “Alternative geoscience”: an appeal, Alan HAYMANN.................................................................80
Financial contribution........................................................................................................................................................81
Advertisement ClimateStat, Bruce LEYBOURNE............................................................................................................82
________________________________________________________________________________________
For contact, correspondence, or inclusion of material in the Newsletter please use the following methods: NEW CONCEPTS IN GLOBAL
TECTONICS. 1. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], or [email protected], each file less than 5 megabytes; 2. Fax (small amount of
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format); 4. Telephone, +61-2-6254 4409. DISCLAIMER: The opinions, observations and ideas published in this newsletter are the responsibility of
the contributors and do not necessary reflect those of the Editor and the Editorial Board. NCGT Newsletter is an open, refereed quarterly international
online journal and appears in March, June, September and December.
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New Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletter, no. 58, March, 2011
FROM THE EDITOR
Japanese seismic crisis in March 2011: an urgent call for forming an international,
multidisciplinary team for earthquake study and prediction from a new perspective
A
nother historic magnitude 9.0 earthquake hit northeast Japan on 11 March. This monstrous earthquake
(Sendai Earthquake - now officially called Great East Japan Earthquake) is of special interest for us – not
only because of its extraordinary magnitude and the devastating tsunami that followed, but also because of its
connection with the forces exerted by the Sun and the Moon.
Geologically speaking, the mainshock is situated at the junction of the NNE-SSW outer arc trend and the
perpendicular, younger WNW-ESE trough. The northern block of the trough is the well-known Paleozoic massif Kitakami Mountains, where I spent many years carrying out geological mapping. On land the trough boundaries
are occupied by Quaternary volcanoes. Like many other major earthquakes in the Pacific margins, here too the
available data indicate dominant vertical crustal movement – the rise of the island arcs and subsidence of the
Pacific Ocean, an ongoing tectonic process since Mesozoic time. The well-publicized plate subduction story
claimed to be the cause of this disaster is again irrelevant.
I carried out a preliminary examination of the deep links of this shallow quake based on Blot’s energy
transmigration law. At least three deep forerunners are involved; one in southwest Japan and two in the Russian
Far East. They occurred in 2006 to 2007 – years corresponding to solar cycle 23’s declining period. Energy
convergence has occurred. In addition, the romping (hopping-around) occurrence and regional extent of pre- and
aftershocks throughout the central to northern Japan imply that the intensive thermal accumulation occurred in the
upper mantle and the lower crust in the wide area in accordance with Tsunoda’s volcanic-earthquake (VE)
process. These data imply that the Earth’s core has been discharging unusually strong energy since the declining
period of solar cycle 23 and the arrival of solar cycle 24.
On the other hand, the Great East Japan quake has provided valuable information about the Sun-Earth-Moon
interaction in considering the earthquake triggering mechanism: There were two very powerful solar flares
(coronal mass ejections) several days prior to the mainshock, and the Moon was closest to the Earth around the
fatal day. Kolvankar et al. (NCGT nos. 56 & 57) discussed the Moon’s position and phase, which strongly affect
shallow earthquake occurrence in particular. Additionally, Shou found a precursory earthquake cloud or
geoeruption which appeared on 23 February 2011, 16 days before the main event, near the epicenter (see page 78
of this NCGT issue).
Maslov and I (NCGT no. 57) have clarified the relationship (anti-correlation) between the solar cycles and
earthquake frequency. The period from 2010 to 2014 corresponds to the troughs of the 44-year and 86-year solar
cycles too – the time when seismic and magmatic activities are expected to increase. This is verified by the
increased earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in many parts of the Pacific margins in recent years. Casey of the
Space and Science Research Corporation (see pages 70 & 74-78) argues that the next 20 to 30 years are
synchronous with the major troughs of the 200-year and 400-year cycles – the former being Dalton and the latter
Maunder Minima – periods with low solar activity or “solar hibernation”. He warns of the arrival of a lengthy
cool period with heightened tectonic and magmatic activities. The Great East Japan Earthquake can be considered
one of the harbingers of this trend.
Given the unimaginable destruction and tragedy caused by every devastating earthquake, we, as scientists, have a
responsibility to make earthquake prediction feasible on a sound scientific basis. For this we need the right
understanding of: 1) tectonic processes occurring inside the Earth, 2) local and regional geological/tectonic
settings and seismic/volcanic history, and 3) earthquake generation and triggering mechanisms including solar
and planetary influences. We have accumulated a fair amount of data in recent years in these fields and also know
that there are unmistakable precursory signals prior to all major quakes. A well-funded, well-organized
international, multidisciplinary team for earthquake study and prediction from a new perspective is now urgently
needed, especially in the light of the arrival of a cool period with heightened tectonic and magmatic events.
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LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Dear Editor
I
came across in my files a letter to me from the late professor Lyttleton FRS. Also enclosed is a copy of a
paper by him and Sir Hermann Bondi FRS (reproduced in p. 64-66) originally intended for Nature but
published in the Journal of British Astronomical Association after Nature refused to publish it. The letter is
significant as it gives evidence for a change of the moment of inertia of the Earth from 1875 BC and
suggesting that the radius of the Earth has shrunk.
Colin LAING
[email protected]
Dear Dr. Laing,
I was most heartened to get your letter of 14 September. It must have come by sea mail as I only got it a day or
two ago. Bondi, Gold, and myself have seen the shallowness of continental drift for many years, but only went
into print recently. As you probably know Harold Jeffreys was a lifelong opponent of it (he lived to 97). I
enclosed a copy of the article we wrote in the B.A.A. Journ. Maddox, the editor of NATURE declined to publish
it as he is completely sold on plate-tectonics. My book “The Earth & Its Mountains” was published in 1982 by
Wiley and there must be copies in libraries in Australia. I am sorry to learn that suppression also goes on in
Australia. Have you heard of the Dort shell of 100,000,000,000 comets? It is completely rot but hundreds of
papers are published on its alleged properties, while Dort himself maintains a tight-lipped silence! I pointed out
the error in M.N. (Monthly Note) shortly after it was published by Dort in his own journal, A.A.N. (Astronomical
Association Note).
I was pleased to hear that a large body in the U.S.A. is getting wise to the absurdity of plate-tectonics. Could you
name a few and give me references. I enclose a few items that may interest you. I have several problems requiring
my attention, but I am ailing with ME (myalgic encephalomyolitic postviral fatigue syndrome) and can only
do a few hours a day 4 or 5 days a week from 9 to 12. My life is plagued by bogus theories and mistaken work.
The only U.S. person I know that is anti-continental drift is Tommy Gold. He would like myself be much
interested in your work: he has proved that if the Indian plate bashing into the Asian plate the Himalayas so
produced would be less than 0.1 inch high. I enclose a card quoting Medawar. I suggest you copy it and send it
your tect-boys. I had a number of papers in Proc. Roy. Soc. that I am sure you have access to. The last, about 1986,
shows that the radius of the Earth is decreasing on average at a rate of 0.1 mm per year. But a lot can get done in
3000 million years since the Ramsey collapse. Do keep in touch and I will send you anything of interest. With
kindest regards, Your sincerely.
Raymond A. LYTTLETON
12 October, 1992
Cambridge, England
********************
Dear Editor
SOLAR CYCLES AND STRONG EARTHQUAKES IN THE
NORTH-WESTERN APENNINES, ITALY
C
hoi and Maslov in the latest NCGT Newsletter (no. 57) reaffirmed the direct link between the cycle of
sunspots and terrestrial seismicity. The authors have underlined the close relationship between the solar
maxima and minima and strong intensity seisms on a global scale and, in particular, with the depth of the
respective epicentres. Choi and Maslov’s observation is further supported by the work of other authors
(Odintsov et al., 2007; Gousheva et al., 2003), which showed a concomitance between sunspot cycles and
the Earth’s seismicity.
To verify the validity of the hypothesis formulated by Choi and Maslov (2010), the concept “from global to
local” was transposed by examining the seismic zone of the North-western Apennine territory near Parma, in
Italy (Fig. 1), which is characterized by rarely destructive seisms that do not exceed an intensity, I>8 and,
almost never with a magnitude, M>5.
4
The relationship (or better ‘anti-relationship’) between decennial solar cyclicity and the number of seisms on
a global scale, was studied in the period 1973 – 2010, using data deriving from the catalogues of the SIDC
(International Sunspot Number) and the NEIC (National Earthquake Information Centre).
In diagram Fig. 2, it can be seen, especially in the first two cycles and the last one, that the increase in the
number of global earthquakes corresponds to a low number of sunspots and that, on the contrary, the
decrease in global seisms occurs during the solar maximums. The concept is bolstered in the subsequent
diagram (Fig. 3) by the “trend line” between the two independent variables.
An analogous trend has also been found for earthquakes with a magnitude M>6.5 on a global scale, again in
the period 1973 – 2010, in relationship to the number of sunspots (Fig. 4).
Instead, on a local scale (North-western Apennines – Italy), data were obtained from catalogues and
scientific articles (Petrucci et al., 1996; Work Group CPTI, 1999), relating to the last two centuries, since we
only have precise and accurate data on the number of sunspots from 1848 onwards.
In the analysis it was not possible to establish a relationship between the solar maxima and minima with the
depth of the epicentres, since the “Seismic Line of the Taro River” is characterized (Bernini and Papani,
1987) by seisms with epicentres that seldom exceed 30 kilometres in depth, i.e. below a magnetic basement
upon which lies a part of the structure of the North-western Apennine chain (Bernini and Lasagna, 1988).
Fig. 1. Index map
170
2400
160
2300
150
2100
Sunspot Number
130
120
2000
110
1900
100
1800
90
1700
80
1600
70
60
1500
50
1400
40
1300
30
1200
20
1100
10
0
1970
Overall Earthquake Number
2200
140
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
1000
2010
Year
Fig. 2. Sunspot number vs. overall earthquake number (courtesy of Maximum Teodorani)
5
170
160
150
140
Yearly Sunspot Number
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
Yearly Overall Earthquake Number
Fig. 3. Trend Line: sunspot number vs. overall earthquake number
180
160
Yearly Sunspot Number
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
20
30
40
50
60
70
Yearly Earthquake Number with M > 6.5
Fig. 4. Trend line: sunspot number vs. yearly earthquake number with M ≥ 6.5
Table 1 shows the years when earthquakes occurred with an intensity I>6, and a magnitude of M>4, and the
respective correspondence of the sunspot phases (maximum, decreasing phase, minimum and increasing
phase).
In general, the times when sunspots appear, even though following a clear cyclicity, are not often regular,
but vary from 9 to 13 years while the mean is around 11.1 years.
“The number of spots reaches a maximum; then over seven and a half years the figure reaches its
minimum; it then takes three and a half years to reach its new maximum. The period therefore lasts
eleven and one tenth years. But this can also vary, sometimes changing by a year or two less or more.
Each maximum is therefore closer to the previous minimum.” (Bendandi, 1931).
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Table 1. Earthquakes with intensity I>6 and magnitude M>4, during the period 1931 – 2010 in the North-western
Apennine area near Parma (Parmense), Italy, obtained from Petrucci et al. (1996), indicated with the letter “a”, and
from the Parametric Catalogue of Italian Earthquakes, indicated in the table with the abbreviation “CPTI”.
No.
Year
Intensity or Magnitude Sunspot Phase
Epicentre
Source
1
1831
I=7
Decreasing phase
Parmense
CPTI
2
1834
I=7
Minimum
Parmense Ap.
CPTI
3
1835
I=6-7
Minimum
Cisa Pass
CPTI
4
1849
I=6-7
Maximum
Val di Taro
CPTI
5
1857
I=6-7
Minimum
Parmense
CPTI
6
1886
I=7
Decreasing phase
Parma East
a
7
1897
I=7-8
Decreasing phase
Langhirano
a
8
1898
I=7
Decreasing phase
Calestano
a- CPTI
9
1906
I=6
Decreasing phase
Compiano
a- CPTI
10
1927
I=7
Decreasing phase
Bedonia
a
11
1934
I=6
Minimum
Borgo Val di Taro
a- CPTI
12
1934
I=6
Minimum
Corniglio
a
13
1937
I=6
Maximum
Parma West
a- CPTI
14
1946
I=6
Minimum
Pione (Bardi)
a- CPTI
15
1958
I=6
Maximum
Collecchio
a
16
1959
I=5-6
Maximum
Santa Maria del Taro CPTI
17
1965
I=6
Minimum
Corniglio
a
18
1971
I=8
Decreasing phase
Parma West
a- CPTI
19
1972
I=6-7
Decreasing phase
Calestano
CPTI
20
1983
I=7
Decreasing phase
Parma South-west
a- CPTI
21
1995
M=4,2
Minimum
Parmense
CPTI
22
1996
M=4,1
Minimum
Parmense
CPTI
23
2007
M=4,2
Decreasing phase
Parma-Piacenza
CPTI
24
2008
M=5,1
Minimum
Parma- Reggio E.
CPTI
From a reading of the data reported in Table 1, quasi-regular intervals of time can be seen, lasting on
average around 11-12 years, with regard to the earthquakes of greatest intensity. Examples of the intervals of
time between earthquakes are represented by: 1834-1857, 1849-1886, 1886-1898, 1898-1934, 1934-1946,
1946-1958, 1959-1971, 1971-1983, 1983-1995, 1995-2007, and 1996-2008. Moreover, from the table it can
be noted that the strong earthquakes in the territory of Parma (North-western Apennines – Italy), never
occurred during the increasing sunspot phase (i.e. during the three and a half years between the minimum
and maximum), but always in the period between the maximum and the successive minimum.
A direct link between the sunspot cycle and earthquakes remains an open question, despite the credible
degree of correlation found to date. Only through interdisciplinary work will it be possible to clarify in the
future how the decennial sunspot cycle acts directly on the terrestrial physics via a cause/effect mechanism.
In the area under examination, the mechanism that might be hypothesized could be the one linked to the
conductivity of the rocks and, in particular, to the abundance of argillaceous formations, good conductors of
electrical charges and capable of acting on the mobility of ions as well as the underground.
The amount of solar energy flux absorbed over time (in this case, a period of about 12 years) by the
argillaceous rocks, might trigger a perturbation in the rocks’ condition of equilibrium and, as the mechanism
gradually proceeds, “…the agitation is produced more rapidly than it subsequently decreases to return to a
state of normality and immobility, as the ebb and flow of the sea teaches us” (Bendandi, 1931).
To venture beyond the idea of a purely statistical analysis, the causes of seismic cyclicity in the Parmense
region (North-western Apennines) ought to be sought in the geological peculiarities of the area under
investigation. The seismic line of the Taro River is characterised by a magnetic basement, lying at a depth of
around 30 km, where sedimentary marine formations of the Dominio Ligure may be found, consisting in
7
part of argillaceous formations, fragments of an ancient oceanic crust, flysch, and ophiolite rocks. The whole
formed by various tectonic units, characterised by a Mesozoic-Tertiary sedimentary succession, torn apart at
plastic levels and superimposed one on another (Ghelardoni and Zanzucchi, 1993).
In hypothesizing a link between seismic and solar cyclicity it may be surmised that the conductivity of the
rocks plays a key role. With this in mind, we might turn to the field studies carried out into this area of study
using electrical tomography, which aimed to analyze geological sections in zones subject to deep
gravitational movement. The values measured have shown that electrical conductivity is a function of the
lithological, chemical and hydro-chemical nature of the ground.
In general, Conductive Units are those referable to materials with fine granulometry, for the most part
argillaceous. Intermediate Units are instead associable with intermediate situations in which the resistance
value is generally a function of the argillaceous fraction and the degree of saturation of underground waters.
Resistive Units refer to formations consistent with a calcareous, calcareous/marly or arenaceous nature.
In general, more compact rocky masses present higher values of resistance, while more dispersed materials,
if associated with an argillaceous matrix or containing saturation water, have a lower resistance. If we
consider the parameter of electrical resistance as a unifying element that explains the superimposition of
seismic recurrences and solar cyclicity, it is necessary to bear in mind yet other factors, such as porosity, the
percentage of water content, the salinity of the water, and the presence of a fine matrix.
The following table summarizes the resistance values [Ω], in relation to the type of ground, measured during
geological surveys.
--------------------------------------------------------------Type of ground
Resistance of ground [Ω]
--------------------------------------------------------------Marshland
from 5 to 40
Soil, clay, humus
from 20 to 200
Sand
from 200 to 2,500
Gravel
from 2,000 to 3,000
Pebbles
generally lower than 1,000
Sandstone
from 2,000 to 3,000
Granite
up to 5,000
Moraine
up to 30,000
---------------------------------------------------------------From the table it can be seen that clays possess conductivity several degrees greater than other rocks and
other rocky materials. As a result, clays may well perform a determinant role in carrying charges
underground.
Instead, at a deeper level, we may hypothesize a mechanism comparable to a “capacitor effect” that arises
between the various geological formations. Experiments on this capacitor effect have provided encouraging
results, above all when linked to the presence of water, as Massimo Teodorani (2008) has observed, over
and above the laboratory simulations carried out by Joshua Warren of the L.E.M.U.R research group to
interpret earthlight phenomena in the Brown Mountains.
In the absence of direct proof, we can transpose the laboratory experience to the real scenario. A key role in
interpreting the phenomena may be played by the deep-lying magnetic basement, which also seems to
constitute, in a physical sense, the limit of the hypocentres of the Taro Valley seismic zone (Petrucci et al.,
1996; Straser, 2007).
Conducting layers, such as magnetite, and dielectrical ones like quartz, can store the energy produced by
both piezoelectricity generated by quartz when under tectonic strain, and charges coming from the surface
induced by the solar flux. The capacitor effect in the zones subject to stress in tectonically active zones can
8
therefore accumulate enough energy to create significant perturbations in the conditions of equilibrium of
underground rocks.
The capacitor effect hypothesized in this study may also explain the appearance of anomalous atmospheric
phenomena (BLs and EQLs), both during the run-up to and the triggering phase of an earthquake. On a
purely hypothetical level, it may be reckoned that in the ascendant phase of the solar cycle (lasting on
average 3.5 years) a sizeable charge accumulates underground, carried by the rocky mass, and especially the
clay complexes. Then, once the solar cycle has reached its maximum, this amount of new energy can affect
the critical level of the rock’s resistance, and consequently, its condition of equilibrium, with the possibility
of favouring the triggering of a seismic event. At that point, after the triggering effect of the earthquake, the
mechanism enters a new cycle, respecting more or less the same intervals of time, dependent also on solar
cyclicity.
References
Bendandi, R., 1931. Un Principio fondamentale dell’Universo. Osservatorio Bendandi – Faenza,
Società Tipografica Editrice in Bagnacavallo, v. 1, p. 322.
Bernini, M. and Lasagna, S., 1988. Rilevamento geologico e analisi strutturale del bacino dell’Alta Val
Magra tra M. Orsaro e Pontremoli (Appennino Settentrionale). Atti Soc. Tosc. Sc. Nat. Mem. Anno
1988. Serie A, v. XCV, p. 139-183, fig. 16, tavv. F.t. 1.
Bernini, M. and Papani, G., 1987. Alcune considerazioni sulla struttura del margine appenninico emiliano
tra il T. Stirone e il T. Enza. Ateneo Parmense, Acta Nat., v. 23, 4. Atti del Meeting <Bridle deformation
analysis in Neotectonics> Firenze, 17 aprile 1986.
Choi, D., and Maslov, L. 2010. Earthquakes and solar activity cycles. New Concepts in Global Tectonics
Newsletter, no. 57, p. 84-97.
Ghelardoni, R. and Zanzucchi, G., 1993. Lo schema geologico dell’Italia. Museo del Petrolio di Vallezza, Società
Petrolifera Italiana, p. 375 -411.
Gousheva, M. N., Georgieva, K. Y., Kirov, B. B. and Atanasov, D., 2003. On the relation between
solar activity and seismicity. RAST: Proceedings of the International Conference on Recent
Advances in Space Technologies, held November 20-22, 2003, in Istanbul, Turkey.
Gruppo di Lavoro CPTI, 1999. Catalogo Parametrico dei Terremoti Italiani. ING, GNDT, SGA, SSN, Bologna,
1999, 92p.
Odintsov, S.D., Ivanov-Kholodnyi, G.S. and Georgieva, K., 2007, (Abstract), published in Izvestiya
Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk. Seriya Fizicheskaya, 2007, v. 71, no. 4, p. 608–610.
Petrucci, F., Careggio, M. and Conti, A., 1996. Dinamica dei versanti e della pianura della Provincia di
Parma. Ateneo Parmense, Acta Nauralia, v. 32, p. 1-39.
Straser, V., 2007. Precursory luminous phenomena used for earthquake prediction. The Taro Valley,
Northwesterm Apennines, Italy. New Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletter, no. 44, p. 17-31.
Teodorani, M., 2008. Sfere di Luce: Grande Mistero del Pianeta e Nuova frontiera della Fisica. Scienza &
Conoscenza, Macro Edizioni, 192p., ISBN 88-6229-008-X.
WEBSITES
http:// sidc.oma.be/
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/
Valentino STRASER
94, Località Casarola – 43040 Terenzo PR, Italy
[email protected]
********************
Dear Editor,
I
have actually been reading through all of the NCGT newsletters from the beginning (I'm on the fifth or
sixth now), and it is a good reminder to me that, although the discussion of how the Earth really works is
compelling enough, I should not under-emphasize earthquake prediction and the other items of current
importance. This is not just a discussion of how science could benefit from more open-mindedness, but has
actually become an urgent matter of survival. …. Are we actually to the level where we can predict what
areas are going to be hit, and when? I suppose I will have my answer soon enough as I continue my
research.
Alan HAYMAN
[email protected]
9
ARTICLES
CONTINENTAL ROCKS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN
Takao YANO*, Boris I. VASILIEV**, Dong R. CHOI***, Seiko MIYAGI****,
Alexander A. GAVRILOV** and Hisao ADACHI*****
*
Department of Environment Science, Faculty of Regional Science, Tottori Univ., Tottori, 680-855, Japan.
[email protected]
**
Pacific Oceanological Institute, Far East Branch, Russian Academy of Science, Vladivostok, 690041, Russia.
[email protected]; [email protected]
***
Raax Australia Pty Ltd., 6 Mann Place, Higgins, ACT 2615, Australia. [email protected]
****
Tokyo Metropolitan Kitazono Senior High School, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo, 173-0004, Japan. [email protected]
****** Tokyo Metropolitan Nerima Senior High School, Nerima-ku, Tokyo, 179-8908, Japan. [email protected]
Abstract:
This paper reviews the occurrence of continental rocks at 32 localities in the Indian Ocean. Almost all of them were
found in rises, plateaus, and ridges situated in the marginal ocean basins.
In the world oceans – the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans – ancient continental rocks have been discovered at a
total of 78 localities. Type A rocks (continental rocks located in continental margins deeper than the ocean-floor depth)
indicate that part of the continent has submerged and turned to ocean floor – a phenomenon recognized by all proposed
ocean-formation hypotheses. Type B rocks (continental rocks located in mid-oceanic ridges and ocean basins) and
Type C rocks (rocks characterized by continental geochemical signatures) located in mid-oceanic ridges and ocean
basins are incompatible with the hypothesis of ocean-floor spreading, but they provide powerful supporting evidence
for the oceanization and microexpansion hypotheses.
The two gigantic ring structures – the Dupal anomaly belt and the circum-Pacific mobile belt – indicate that the
Earth’s mantle is rather inhomogeneous in chemical composition and is not so active and fluidal as generally believed.
The keys to future ocean-formation debates are Type B and C rocks. To understand the ocean-formation processes, the
thermal and compositional inhomogeneity and low fluidity of the mantle are important constraints.
Keywords: continental rocks, Indian Ocean, ocean-floor spreading, oceanization, microexpansion, Dupal anomaly,
circum-Pacific mobile belt, Earth’s dichotomy
INTRODUCTION
D
espite the great significance of the numerous continental rocks discovered in the world ocean floors in
recent years, their occurrence and distribution patterns have not been given serious attention by
geoscientists. This review paper follows those by Vasiliev (2006) and Yano et al. (2009), which described
the continental rocks discovered in the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans, respectively, and introduces our
readers to the occurrence of continental rocks in the Indian Ocean. It also tabulates, analyzes, and evaluates
their significance from the perspective of the formation of world oceans.
CONTINENTAL ROCKS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN
Although the Indian Ocean is smaller than the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, it is most complex geologically
(Luyendyk and Davies, 1974). In this section we present an overview of the ocean-floor topography, and
describe and classify the continental rocks discovered in the Indian Ocean.
1. Ocean-floor morphology
Three oceanic ridges are present in the Indian Ocean: the Central Indian Ridge, Southwest Indian Ridge and
Southeast Indian Ridge – they meet at the Rodrigues triple junction (Fig. 1, RTJ). The Central Indian Ridge
extends to the Carlsberg Ridge, which connects to Aden Bay and the Red Sea. The Southwest Indian Ridge
has a complex structure, is dissected by NNE-SSW fracture zones and covered by thick sedimentary layers.
The Southeast Indian Ridge stretches southeastward for a long distance and connects to the Antarctic-
10
Australian Discordance (AAD), which in turn links to the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge (Luyendyk and Davies,
1974). The AAD is a segment about 500 km in length (120o – 128o E) and up to 4,500 m in depth. The ridge
area is 500 m deeper than the western and eastern extensions and it has numerous fractures (Weissel and
Hayes, 1971).
The Indian Ocean is separated into three compartments – West, South and Northeast – bounded by central
ridges (Udintsev, 1990). The areas with thick sediments (> one second in two-way travel time) are located in
the offshore areas of East Africa and South Asia with uplifted mountains: 1) the Somali basin and
Mozambique basin and Natal Valley (WSB+ESB, MZB, and NTV) in the western Indian Ocean, and 2) the
Ganges Cone-Indus Fan in the northern Indian Ocean (Fig. 1). Whereas the sediments are relatively thin in
the South Indian Ocean, the Central Indian Basin (CIB) and the Wharton Basin (WTB) (Ewing et al., 1969).
In the marginal areas of the Indian Ocean there are many plateaus, ridges and rises, forming a complex
ocean-floor topography – many of these are often block faulted with an offset of over 1,000 m (Udintsev,
1990). The crustal thickness of these rises ranges from 15 to 25 km – intermediate between continental and
oceanic crusts. They are covered with and/or penetrated by post-Cretaceous mafic rocks. Their origin has
been disputed: Do the rises consist of accumulated basaltic lavas or are they microcontinents?
Figure 1. Bathymetric features of the Indian Ocean. Compiled from Interactive Maps
http://topex.ucsd.edu/WWW_html?mar_topo.html, Shipboard Scientific Party (2006), Dercourt (2000) etc. 1) MIDOCEANIC RIDGE. Rodrigues Triple Junction: RTJ, Australian-Antarctic Discordance: AAD; 2) OCEAN BASIN.
Australian-Antarctic Basin: AAB, Arabian Basin: ABB, Argo Basin: AGB, Agulhas Basin: ALB, Central Indian Basin:
CIB, Cuvier Basin: CVB, Crozet Basin: CZB, Enderby Basin (African-Antarctic Basin): EDB, East Somali Basin:
ESB, Gascoyne Basin: GSB, Mascarene Basin: MCB, Madagascar Basin: MDB, Mozambique Basin: MZB, Natal
Valley: NTV, Perth Basin: PTB, South Australian Basin: SAB, West Somali Basin: WSB, Wharton Basin: WTB; 3)
EDIFICE. Agulhas Plateau: ALP, Aphanasey Nikitin Rise: ANR, Broken Ridge: BKR, Chagos Ridge: CGR, Conrad
Rise: CRR, Corzet Plateau: CZP, Davie Ridge: DVR, Elan Bank: ELB, Exmouth Plateau: EMP, Kerguelen Plateau:
KGP, Laccadive Ridge: LCR, Mascarene Ridge: MCR, Mozambique Ridge: MZR, Naturaliste Plateau: NRP,
Ninetyeast Ridge: NER, Seychelles Bank: SCB, South Tasman Rise: STR, Wallaby Plateau: WLP; 4)
ISLAND/ARCHIPELAGO. Amsterdam: AT, Comoro: CM, Heard: HD, Kerguelen: KG, Marion: MR, Mauritius: MT,
Rodrigues: RD, Reunion: RN. St. Paul: SP.
11
2. Continental rocks
As far as we know, a total of 32 occurrences of continental rocks have been reported from the Indian Ocean
(Fig. 2). Almost all of them were found in the rises distributed in the marginal areas of the ocean. We
believe there are many more references that we are unaware of.
Below we describe continental rocks clockwise from the West Indian Ocean. All of them are considered to
be non-ice-rafted dropstones in origin and have been judged to be in-situ. The encircled numbers below
correspond to the localities in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Continental rocks in the Indian Ocean floor. Oceanic plate age after Dercourt (2000). See the text for
87
86
1 to ○
32 . Dupal anomaly rocks ( Sr/ Sr ≥ 0.7038) from 1: Dupré and Allègre (1983), 2-3:
continental rocks ○
Tatsumi and Nohda (1990), 4: Baxter et al. (1985), 5: Mahoney et al. (1989), 6: Dupré and Allègre (1983), 7-10:
Mahoney et al. (1992), 11: Hamelin and Allègre (1985), 12: Mahoney et al. (1992), 13: Dupré and Allègre (1983),
14: Dupré and Allègre (1983) & Hamelin et al. (1986), 15: Hamelin et al. (1986), 16: Barling et al. (1994), 17:
Mattielli et al. (1999), Frey et al. (2000), 18: Davies et al. (1989) & Weis et al. (1989), 19: Hilton et al. (1995) &
Weis and Frey (2002), 20: Neal et al. (2002), 21: Frey et al. (2002), 22-24: Davies et al. (1989) & Weis et al.
(1989), 25-26: Frey et al. (2002), 27-28: Neal et al. (2002), 29-30: Mahoney et al. (1995), 31-32: Weis and Frey
(1991), 33-34: Dupré and Allègre (1983), 35: Weis and Frey (1991), 36: Tatsumi and Nohda (1990).
Western Indian Ocean
The West Indian Ocean floor is divided into many basins by rises and volcanic bodies (Fig. 1). Continental
rocks have been found in these rises.
1 Granitic rocks in the Seychelles Islands
○
The Seychelles Islands lie at the northwest end of Mascarene ridge (MCR). The Seychelles Bank (SCB:
42,000 km2, water depth less than 60 m) underlying the islands consists of continental crust with the Moho at
12
33 km depth (Matthews and Davies, 1966). The Seychelles Islands are composed of about 100 islands
surrounded by coral reefs, and 25 of the islands have exposures of granitic rocks (Ashwal et al., 2002).
Two facies are recognized in the granitic rocks – main (grey and pink) and marginal phases (gneissose and
porphyritic). Among isotopic ages (809-570 Ma), those between 750 and 755 Ma are considered reliable
(Suwa et al., 1994; Plummer and Belle, 1995; Torsvik et al., 2001; Ashwal et al., 2002). At the CretaceousPaleocene boundary doleritic-gabbroic intrusives (73-62 Ma) and alkaline ring complexes (73-60 Ma)
penetrated. The Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic data indicate clear mixing of continental material (Dickin et al., 1986).
2 Arkose sandstone, granite-gneiss xenoliths in the Comoro Islands
○
The Comoro Islands (CM) form a WNW-ESE-extending volcanic island chain with a length of 300 km, and
are located in the southern margin of the Somali Basin (WSB). The chain is composed of MioceneQuaternary alkaline basaltoids with an active volcano, Karthla Mountain. On two islands of the chain, three
localities yielded numerous orthoquartzite xenoliths (maximum 30 to 40 cm in diameter), and one locality
arkosic sandstone xenolith (max. 5 mm in diameter) (Flower and Strong, 1969). According to older records,
these islands also produced granite and quartzite xenoliths (Vienne, 1900) and quartz monzonite and
granodiorite xenoliths (Lacroix, 1922). These imply the presence of quartz (-feldspar) clastics and granitegneiss under the southernmost Somali Basin.
3 –○
5 Granite-gneiss basement rocks in the Davie Submarine Ridge
○
The NNE-trending Mozambique Strait, with a width of 400 to 900 km and a depth of 2,000 to 3,000 m,
separates the African continent from Madagascar Island. The Davie Submarine Ridge (DVR; Fig. 1) runs
through the axial part of the Strait in a N-S direction, a little oblique to the axis; the ridge itself is a long
narrow ridge measuring 50 x 600 km – a tilted block with a steeper eastern slope.
Dredgings in the northern part of the ridge yielded: 1) gneiss and meta-arkose sandstone, argillaceous
3 , water depth 2,450 m, 84DR05], 2) arkose sandstone [○
4 , water depth 1,875 m, 84DR06], 3)
semischist [○
5 , water depth 850 m, 84DR09].
arkose sandstone, calcareous sandstone, and quartzose turbidite sandstone [○
Some of the samples show shear deformation and metamorphism in the green schist phase (Bassias, 1992).
There is no possibility that the dredged samples from the Davie Submarine Ridge are dropstones from
icebergs, because all the dredge stations are at the exposed acoustic basements and range from 14° S to 19°
S.
These continental rocks are covered or penetrated by Late Cretaceous alkaline basaltoids. The Davie Ridge
is veneered by Coniacian (in the southern part) and Eocene to Quaternary calcareous ooze – indicating
northward deepening from the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene.
In addition, there are reports of exposed granite on Juan de Nova Island (Pepper and Everhart, 1963; Flower
and Strong, 1969; Fig. 2). To summarize the above, the northern part of the Davie Submarine Ridge is
underlain by continental basement consisting of granite-gneiss and Lower Cretaceous arkosic covers.
6 –○
8 Metamorphic rocks in the Mozambique Submarine Ridge
○
The Mozambique Ridge (MZR) is a NNE-SSW rise (100-200 km x 700 km; depth of the top 1,500-3,000
m), with a crust up to 20 km thick (Mougenot et al., 1991). The Natal Valley (NTV) separates the
Mozambique Ridge from the African continent. The eastern steep slope of the ridge, 2,000 to 3,000 m high,
is a long fault scarp along the Mozambique fracture zone, and the western gentle slope runs down to the
Natal Valley.
6 , MD60DR3) from an exposed
Mougenot et al. (1991) dredged anorthosite, gneiss and metagabbro (○
basement at the eastern scarp in the middle of the Ridge. Other teams (Hartnady et al., 1992; Ben-Avraham
et al., 1995) hauled granite, “kinzigite”, and tholeiitic basalt from a steep cliff at the southwestern end of the
Ridge. “Kinzigite” is a garnet-quartz-feldspar-biotite crystalline schist of granulite phase – it is a
13
characteristic rock in the 1-Ga old metamorphic belts in Mozambique and Madagascar (Mougenot et al.,
1991).
The Mozambique Ridge is covered by Early Cretaceous (Hauterivian-Barremian) terrestrial-shallow marine
basaltic flows. A transgression produced deposition of terrigenous siltstone in an oxygen-depleted
environment, and then in the Late Cretaceous (Coniasian-Santonian) the region subsided to become a deep
ocean (Girdley et al., 1974).
9 –○
12 Felsic metamorphic rocks in the Agulhas Plateau
○
The Agulhas Plateau (ALP) is a rise (400 x 700 km) with a depth of 2,000 to 2,500 m. The top of the
acoustic basement is situated at 3,000 to 5,000 m below sea level. Due to the WNW-ESE faults the northern
part of the plateau forms a complex block structure with a deeper acoustic basement. But the central and the
southern parts have a flat top and a flat surface of acoustic basement with a shallower depth. The crustal
thickness of the plateau is 20 km on average (24 km maximum). The 5.8-6.4 km/s layer (4.3 to 7.7 km thick)
in the central to southern part is considered continental crust (Tucholke et al., 1981).
While the central to southern part of the plateau has an extensive cover of deep-sea sediments, plenty of
9 - RD25, ○
11 – RD27,
continental rocks have been dredged at acoustic basements on marginal fault cliffs (○
12 – RD26) and at an acoustic basement exposed through submarine erosion (○
19 - RD28). The collected
○
rocks are angular to subangular (10 to 60 cm across), and a large number have ferro-manganese coatings
11 ) strong tension acted on to the bucket cable and many rock samples had
(several mm thick). At RD27 (○
fresh surfaces just broken.
The dredged specimens are felsic metamorphic rocks of greenschist to granulite facies (crystalline schist,
gneiss and granulite) and fine-grained arkosic greywacke sandstone and rhyolite. Biotites of two
metamorphic rock samples (DR25-3 and DR28-2) yielded K-Ar ages of 1,074 Ma and 478 Ma (Allen and
Tucholke, 1981). In addition, pillow basalts and dolerites were hauled from the Plateau.
As stated above, the central to southern Aghulhas Plateau is composed of continental crust. Extensive
basaltic magmas intruded and erupted along the whole stretch of the Plateau, particularly in its northern part,
in the Early Cretaceous (Tucholke and Carpenter, 1977; Tucholke et al., 1981). The flat acoustic basement
top is considered a subaerial erosional plane of Late Jurassic age. The region deepened after basaltic igneous
activities in the Early Cretaceous and is covered by latest Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) nannochalk.
Southern Indian Ocean
The South Indian Ocean consists of three basins: the Crozet, Enderby and Australian-Antarctic Basins (CZB
EDB, AAB). They are divided by the Crozet-Conrad Plateau (CZP-CRR) and Kerguelen Plateau (KGP)
(Fig. 1). The Antarctic margin, framed by a broad deep shelf (up to 360 km in width, 500 to 600 m in depth),
slopes down a rather gentle continental slope.
13 Continental ultramafic xenoliths in the Kerguelen Islands
○
The Kerguelen Plateau (KGP) is a huge plateau (450-700 km x 2,500 km) extending in a NW-SE direction.
The Plateau rises from the surrounding seabed at a relative height of 2 to 3 km, and has a crustal thickness of
15 to 25 km. The smooth top is 1,000 m or shallower in the north, deeper in the south where the top depth is
2,000 m. It is separated by a 3,700 m deep saddle from Antarctica (Fig. 1).
The Kerguelen Island (KG, 130 km x 110 km) situated in the north of the Plateau has had volcanic activity
continually from 45 Ma to the present; its magmatism shifted from tholeiitic to alkaline basalt with time.
The Re-Os age and Sr-Nd-Pb isotope composition of ultramafic xenoliths (11 samples, harzburgite,
lherzolite and wehrlitic-dunitie) in alkaline basaltic lavas gave an age of 0.58 to 1.36 Ga, and indicated that
the xenoliths were derived from the continental lithospheric mantle (Hassler and Shimizu, 1998; Mattieli et
al., 1999).
14
14 Fluvial conglomerate and felsic tuff in the Elan Plateau
○
A western branch of the central Kerguelen Plateau is called the Elan Bank (ELB). It is a narrow ridge
measuring 200 to 300 km x 800 km; its flat top lies at a depth of 1,000 m and stretches for 600 km. The
crustal thickness reaches 15 km or more; its seaward-dipping uppermost reflectors are basaltic lavas and the
middle to lower section (6.8 km/s p-wave velocity) is considered continental (Charvis et al., 1997;
Nicolaysen et al., 2001; Borissova et al., 2000).
ODP site 1137 drilled at 1,004.5 m water depth with a drilled depth from the seabed of 371.2 m recovered
terrestrial basaltic lava flows below late Campanian shallow-water sediments (glauconite- and shell-bearing
calcareous sandstone) and Late Eocene-Quaternary pelagic sediments. These facts testify that the region
became a deep ocean in Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene time (Fig. 3; Shipboard Scientific Party, 2000;
Weis et al., 2001).
Out of the seven basaltic lava units, two boundaries yielded seams of braided-river conglomerate (26.2 m
thick) and felsic tuff (16.6 m). The conglomerate has gravels of boulder to pebble size and gravels are made
of alkaline basalt, rhyolite, trachyte, granitoids, garnet-biotite gneiss (Fig. 4; Ingle et al., 2002b). Biotite in
gneiss yielded a 40Ar/39Ar isotope age of 550 Ma, zircon 796, 836 and 938 Ma (207Pb/206Pb), and detrital
zircon and monzonite 533, 686, 937 and 2,457 Ma (207Pb/206Pb), with an overall range from 533 to 2,457 Ma
(Nicolaysen et al., 2001).
Felsic tuff consists of sanidine-quartz crystalline-glassy tuff. The 40Ar/39Ar isotope age of sanidine
phenocryst was 109 Ma. Pringle and Duncan (2000) consider that the acidic volcanic activities which
produced felsic tuff and rhyolitic gravels took place simultaneously. The Sr-Nd-Pb isotope data imply that
the magma which produced the tuffaceous layer and trachyte/rhyolite was derived from partial melting of
the upper continental crust and did not originate from the flood basalt magmas at ODP site 1137 (Weis et al.,
2001; Ingle et al., 2002b).
As indicated above, the mid-Cretaceous Elan Bank was a lava plain of terrestrial flood basalts, on which
braided rivers developed. The high variation in gravel species, isotope age and garnet composition (Reusch
and Yates, 2003), as well as large gravel diameters, testifies that the Elan Bank had high-relief mountains
nearby which were composed of Proterozoic gneiss-granitoids and felsic volcanoes. Therefore the Bank
undoubtedly has ancient continental rocks at shallow depth, which were covered by basaltic layers (Ingle et
al., 2002b; Frey et al., 2003).
Figure 3. Lithostratigraphic section of the core and ratios of minor and isotope elements at ODP Site 1137A, Elan
Bank (Weis et al., 2001).
15
Figure 4. Polished surface of a conglomerate core from the Elan Bank (ODP Site 1137A), the Kerguelen Plateau, after
shipboard Scientific Party (2000).
Figure 5. Nd-Sr isotopic plot for basaltic rocks from the Kerguelen Plateau and the Broken Ridge (partly modified
after Frey et al., 2003).
15 Dupal anomaly basalt in the Elan Plateau
○
The seven units of basalt lava recovered from ODP Site 1137 on the Elan Bank (ELB) have rather high
87
Sr/86Sr isotope ratios and extremely low 143Nd/144Nd ratios, which are not as extreme as those in the
southernmost Kerguelen Plateau (ODP Site 738) (Fig. 5; Weiss et al., 2001; Ingle et al., 2002a; Frey et al.,
2003). Unit 10 at the bottom horizon shows the maximum anomaly (Fig. 3) and is estimated to have
assimilated 5 to 7% continental material, given the composition of the garnet-biotite gneiss gravel drilled at
the site (Ingle et al., 2002a).
The unusually high values of the Dupal anomaly of the Elan Plateau basalts and the above-mentioned felsic
volcanic activity suggest the assimilation and partial melting of the underlying continental crust (Weis et al.,
2001; Ingle et al., 2002a; Frey et al., 2003). This is inferred primarily from realistic data on the source
material (Weis et al., 2001), and differs from the views of, for example, Dupré and Allègre (1983), who
attribute the Dupal anomaly to convecting materials, including sedimentary rocks, continental lithosphere,
continental crust etc. in the deep mantle.
16 Gneiss and granitoids in the Labuan Basin and the subsidence process of the Kerguelen Plateau
○
The northeastern slope of the Kerguelen Plateau is steep and forms a linear fault scarp (Fig. 1). The southern
half of this northwestern slope is bounded by the Labuan Basin, which is over 4,000 m deep. In this basin
there are two to three discontinuous rows of tilted crustal blocks bounded by normal faults. On their summits
basement rocks are exposed (Rotstein et al., 1991). From one of the basement exposures along the faults
15 ), gneiss-granitoids rocks have been dredged – their ages being 0.5 to 1 Ga (Montigny et
(MD67, Fig. 2, ○
al., 1993; Gladczenko, 2001).
Mid-Cretaceous (Albian-Aptian) terrestrial flood basalt lavas have been recovered from many drill holes on
the Kerguelen Plateau (Frey et al., 2003). Sedimentary layers between basalt lavas contain tree fragments,
16
pteridophyte and conifer fossils, which indicate the presence of forests nearby (Francis and Coffin, 1992;
Frey et al., 2002). Though showing some difference from block to block, the deepening process of the
northwestern Plateau along the A-B profile was reconstructed as shown in Fig. 6 (Shipboard Scientific
Party, 1989).
A vast land, 400 x 2,000 km in area, became a submerged plateau with a depth of 1,000 to 2,000 m. If the
sedimentary units are removed, the amount of subsidence reaches 3,000 to 4,000 m. The block movement
formed the Labuan Basin with a depth over 4,500 m, while the highs of the tilted blocks exposed the
Proterozoic granitic basement.
17 Dupal anomaly basalts in the southernmost Kerguelen Plateau
○
ODP Site 738 (2,252 m of water) in the southernmost Kerguelen Plateau (KGP) revealed a section of
Oligocene-Maastrichtian nanno ooze-chalk, Campanian-Turonian shallow-water limestone, and terrestrial
tholeiitic basalt lava (27.2 m long) in descending order (Alibert, 1991; Bohrmann and Ehrmann, 2006). This
core stratigraphy testifies that, after the Early Cretaceous terrestrial flood basalt eruption, a transgression
occurred in the Turonian, and the Plateau became deep in the Maastrichtian.
The basalts have extremely high 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.70901 – 0.70984) and extremely low 143Nd/144Nd ratios
(0.51206 – 0.51211). These isotope values imply the assimilation of continental lithospheric material
(probably continental crust) and prove the presence of continental lithosphere or continental crust under the
southernmost part of the Plateau (Alibert, 1991; Mahoney et al., 1995; Frey et al., 2003).
Figure 6. Subsidence history of the Kerguelen Plateau, after Shipboard Scientific Party (1989). The early Late
Cretaceous neritic environment became subaerial, according to the drilling results.1: subaerial eruption of basalt lavas,
2: neritic sedimentation on an open shelf, 3: tilted uplifting and subaerial erosion of the northern part, 4: block faulting
and deepening with accumulation of calcareous nanno ooze, 5: climatic cooling and an overlay of diatomaceous ooze.
See Fig. 2 for the profile line A-B.
17
Northeastern Indian Ocean
The northern margin of the northeastern Indian Ocean is bounded by the continental margins of AustraliaSunda Arc-Indian Peninsula (Fig. 1). The ocean is divided into many basins by submarine rises that extend
in N-S and WNW-ESE directions.
18 Semischists and conglomerates in the South Tasman Rise
○
The South Tasman Rise (STR) is an 800 km-southward protrusion from Tasmania Island. There is a saddle
between Tasman Island and the Tasman Rise. The rise has a 1,500 – 2,000 m-deep top, with a summit depth
of 730 m and a long, narrow dome-like morphology. The Rise is surrounded by over 4,000 m-deep basins
bounded by steep cliffs.
DSDP Site 281 (1,591 m deep) is located on the southwestern slope of the summit of the Rise. The
recovered cores are: Quaternary-Miocene nanno-foraminiferal ooze, Oligocene-Eocene glauconitic quartzite
with basal conglomerate in descending order. Below the unconformity, quartz-muscovite-chlorite semischist
appeared (The Shipboard Scientific Party with additional contribution from Wilson, 1975). The semischist
is of green schist facies with a whole-rock K-Ar age of 306 Ma (Oenshine et al., 1975). The basal
conglomerate layer (2 m thick) consists of sandy pebble-sized conglomerate with detrital grains of
semischist and quartz rock mixed with quartzite, glauconite, chert and granite (Andrews et al., 1975). These
facts testify that the Tasman Rise is a continental submarine rise (Ovenshine et al., 1975), an extension of
Hercynian foldbelt of eastern Australia (Udintsev, 1990).
Unit 2 at the base of the Miocene (9.5 m in thickness) is the transitional facies from the Eocene-Oligocene
shallow environment to the Miocene-Quaternary deep environment – indicating that the Rise deepened in
the Early Miocene (The Shipboard Scientific Party with additional contribution from Wilson, 1975).
19 -○
23 Continental rocks at the foot of the continental slope of Australia’s southern margin
○
The southern continental margins of Australia continue to the South Australian Basin (SAB) after passing
steep continental slopes (4,000 to 5,000 m in depth). Continental rocks have been dredged from several
localities at the foot of the continental slope and the basin margins (Fig. 1; Choi, 1997).
On the southwestern continental slope of Tasmania the foot of the southern half forms a long fault scarp
with a NNW trend. The scarp is of continuous steep cliffs up to 2,500 m high and lacks cover sediments.
19 , water depth 1,800 to
Crystalline schists, gneiss, granitoids and pegmatites were dredged there (Fig. 2, ○
3,750 m); their Kr-Ar ages ranged from Ordovician (444 – 469 Ma) to Early Carboniferous (344 – 355 Ma)
(Hinz and Shipboard Party, 1985; Exon et al., 1996). The slopes in the area therefore consist of Paleozoic
basement rocks which are unconformably overlain by neritic clastics of Upper Cretaceous to Paleogene age,
18 .
similar to the stratigraphy at locality ○
The continental slope south of Adelaide is occupied by a gigantic Cretaceous basin (Otway Basin) with a
bottom depth of over 9,000 m. The basement of the Cretaceous basin crops out at the northern margin of the
20 ,
South Australian Basin (SAB) – metasediments including metaquartzite were dredged there (Fig. 2, ○
21 , water
water depth 4,500 to 4,800 m; Exon and Lee, 1987) and also grey-green to black shale (Fig. 2, ○
depth 4,500 m; Exon et al., 1987). A comparison with land geology suggests that these rocks were
Proterozoic to Paleozoic.
22 , water depth 2,070-2,500 m) granodiorite (Davies, 1988), and
In the west of the continental slope (Fig. 2, ○
23 ; M110-DR07) gneisses of amphibolite to granulite facies with a
in the westernmost lower slope (Fig. 2, ○
minor amount of granitoids (Borissova, 2002; Beslier et al., 2004; Direen et al., 2007) were dredged from
acoustic basements.
24 -○
25 Dupal anomaly basalts in the Naturaliste Plateau
○
The Naturaliste Plateau is rectangular (200-250 x 400 km) and protrudes westward from the Naturaliste
Peninsula at the southwestern tip of the Australian continent. The top of the plateau is 2,100 to 3,000 m
18
deep, separated from the continent by a saddle. The crustal thickness is 22 km, but decreases to 12 km under
the saddle (Petkovic, 1975). The plateau is separated from surrounding basins over 5,000 m deep by steep
slopes, of which the southern slope and a part of the western margin form linear fault scarps.
A basaltic cobble (DSDP264-15cc) extracted from the Pre-Albian volcanoclastic conglomerate at the bottom
24 ) and the basaltic rocks Elt 55of the hole at DSDP Site 264 in the southeastern part of the Plateau (Fig. 2, ○
87
86
25 , six samples) dredged from acoustic basement in the northwestern Plateau yielded high Sr/ Sr
12 (○
ratios (0.71298 and 0.70992 to 0.71302, respectively) and large negative ε Nd values (-12.9 and -7.3 to -12.8),
and are rather depleted in Nb and Ta. These isotope and minor element data indicate the assimilation of
continental materials, suggesting the presence of continental crust or lithosphere under the Plateau
(Mahoney et al., 1995).
26 -○
28 Gneiss and granitoids in the Naturaliste Plateau
○
26 , MD110-DR11) the
From a steep cliff at the southwestern end of the Naturaliste Plateau (NRP) (Fig. 2, ○
following rocks with a total weight of 77 kg have been dredged: granitoids, gneiss (quartz, kali-feldspar,
biotite and garnet gneisses), gabbro, diorite, dolerite, and basalt – proving that at least part of the Plateau is
continental and is covered and penetrated by mafic volcanic rocks (Beslier et al., 2004). From two localities
27 , SS09/05DR18; ○
28 , SS09/05DR21, water depths 3,900 to 3,100 m),
further west of the above site (Fig. 2, ○
gneiss and granitoids have been hauled (Hapin et al., 2008). These rocks yielded numeric ages of 1,230 to
1,290 Ma and had experienced low-grade metamorphism 515 Ma ago.
These continental rocks came from an acoustic basement in seismic profiles. Because the acoustic basement
with the same chaotic reflectors distributes throughout the southern margin of the Plateau, the southern
Naturaliste Plateau is considered to be composed of continental rocks (Borissova, 2002). Direen et al.
(2007), on the basis of a synthesis of geological and geophysical data, speculated that most of the Plateau is
underlain by an attenuated continental crust (12.5 to 16 km thick), and is overlain by Cretaceous basaltic
rocks (a few km thick).
The Naturaliste Plateau is veneered by Quaternary to Middle Albian hemipelagic sediments. DSDP Site 258
(2,793 m depth) recovered glauconite sandstone and terrigenous claystone below the hemipelagic sediments
– implying the deepening of the Plateau in the Albian time (The Shipboard Scientific Party, 1974b).
29 -○
30 Dupal anomaly basalts in Broken Ridge
○
Broken Ridge (BKR) is a narrow ridge extending WNW-ESE (100-200 x 1,000 km). The top of the ridge is
around 2,000 m deep, and the crustal thickness is 18 km. It shows features of tilted blocks with a gentle
northern slope (less than 2 degrees) and a linear, steeper southern slope (over 10 degrees) (Mahoney et al.,
1995).
29 , M-D8) hauled two
Dredgings from the acoustic basement at the eastern end of the southern slope (Fig. 2, ○
basalts, which produced unusually high 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.70702 and 0.70729), low 206Pb/204Pb ratios (17.997
and 17.982), and negative ε Nd values (-2.6 and -2.7), and are relatively depleted in Nb and Ta. These isotope
and minor element data indicate that the M-D8 basalt is contaminated by continental material (Mahoney et
30 , ODP Site 1142), terrestrial
al., 1995). On the southern slope of the ridge, 100 km further west (Fig. 2, ○
basaltic lava has been drilled. It was divided into six units, the upper five units being alkaline and the bottom
(sixth) unit theoleiitic basaltic andesite. Unit 6 has a very low 206Pb/204Pb ratio and high ∆ 8/4
(=[(208Pb/204Pb)DS – (208Pb/204Pb)NHRL]100; DS = given data set, NHRL = Northern Hemisphere reference
line; Hart, 1984), and is relatively depleted in Nb and Ta. These signatures indicate the assimilation of
continental materials (Mahoney et al., 1995; Neal et al., 2002; Frey et al., 2003).
The terrestrial basalt lava from Site 1142 yields a whole-rock 39Ar/40Ar age of 94 to 95 Ma (Duncan, 2002).
The lava was overlain by reefal calcareous sediments during a Santonian transgression. After undergoing a
northward tilting movement and subaerial erosion, the region became a littoral environment. It was finally
19
covered by pelagic foraminiferal ooze in the Oligocene to Miocene. The deepening therefore took place
around the Eocene-Oligocene boundary (The Shipboard Scientific party, 1974a).
31 Continental Triassic system in the Exmouth Plateau
○
The Exmouth Plateau (EMP) forms a NE-trending rectangular Plateau (300 – 400 km x 600 km) with a top
depth of 800 to 2,500 m. A saddle called the Kangaroo Basin (1,000 m deep) separates the Exmouth Plateau
from the northwestern Australian continental shelf. The northeastern and southwestern Plateau margins are
separated from surrounding basins (5,000 to 7,000 m of water) by linear steep scarps. The northeastern part
of the Plateau is extensively block-faulted.
The Plateau’s crustal thickness is 20 km, its upper half being Phanerozoic sedimentary layers (Exon et al.,
1992). A comparison with land geology led us to surmise that the lower half of the sedimentary layers is
Permian in age, whereas the upper half (5 to 6 km thick) is Triassic to Quaternary on the basis of
hydrocarbon exploration and DSDP well data. Mesozoic rocks are terrestrial to neritic sediments. Deepening
occurred in the Latest Cretaceous to Paleocene. Cenozoic sediments consist of chalk and nanno ooze.
Among the Mesozoic rocks, Middle to Upper Triassic ones are composed of fluvio-deltaic deposits with the
hinterlands being a transitional continental to cratonic interior. Trachytic volcanic rocks appeared in the
Upper Triassic. Jurassic-Cretaceous rocks consist of coal-bearing layers and shelf carbonates (Ito et al.,
1992).
Although no crystalline basement has been sampled from the Exmouth Plateau, the above-described factual
data imply the presence of attenuated continental crust. The subsidence of the presumed pre-Permian
unconformity reaches 11 to 12 km (Gradstein and Rad, 1991; Exon et al., 1992).
32 Aphanasey Nikitin Rise
○
The Aphanasey Nikitin Rise (ANR), occupying an area of 100 km x 250 km, stands on the over 5,000 m
deep-sea floor in the Central Indian Basin (Fig. 1). The Rise has many volcanic cones, the highest summit
being 1,549 m below sea level. The 90-75 Ma volcanic activity which formed the Rise is divided into: 1)
initial phase – olivine-basalt volcanic cones, 2) main phase – a vast shield volcano of tholeiitic plagioclase
basalt, and 3) final phase – summit volcanic cones of subalkaline trachytic basalt-trachyte (Almukhmedov et
al., 1993; Borissova et al., 2001).
The two pillow lava samples dredged from the 2,000 to 3,000 m deep water (CD28: Mahoney et al., 1996)
and the 36 samples (9, 18 and 10 samples respectively) from each of the three phases mentioned above
(Brissova et al., 2001) have been analyzed geochemically. All the samples were recovered from exposed
acoustic basements and were located from 3°0’S to 3°10’ S. So there is no possibility that they are
dropstones from icebergs.
All the signatures of the former two and latter nine samples analyzed, including high 87Sr/86Sr ratios
(0.70641, 0.70662, and 0.703678-0.706670, respectively), and low 206Pb/204Pb ratios (16.77, 16.80) or
143
Nd/144Nd ratios (0.512117-0.512817), depletion in Ta and Nb, and enrichment in Pb and Ba, indicate the
assimilation of continental materials into basaltic rocks, thus suggesting an underlying continental
lithosphere (Mahoney et al., 1996; Borisova et al., 2001).
3. Classification of continental rocks
The continental rocks in the Indian Ocean described above can be classified into the following groups – as
adopted from Yano et al. (2009).
(1) Type A: Continental crust-mantle blocks in the continental margins, situated deeper than the sea floor
depth (2,000 to 6,000 m).
20 , ○
21 , ○
31
A1 (basement blocks beneath deep sedimentary basins): ○
18 , ○
19 , ○
22 , ○
23 , ○
26 , ○
27 , ○
28
A2 (subsided fault blocks): ○
20
(2) Type B: Continental rocks in ocean basins
1 ,○
3 ,○
4 ,○
5 ,○
6 ,○
7 ,○
8 ,○
9 ,○
10 , ○
11 , ○
12
B1 (100 km-size block): ○
2 ,○
14 (conglomerate), ○
16
B2 (rock body, rock mass, or mineral grain): ○
(3) Type C: Rocks with geochemical characteristics originating from continental crust-mantle
13
C1 (rocks originating from continental lithospheric mantle): ○
14 (tuff), ○
15 , ○
17 , ○
24 , ○
25 , ○
29 ,
C2 (rocks originating from partial melting or assimilation of continental rocks): ○
30 , ○
32
○
14 is included in B2, and felsic tuff in C2. If
In the above classification, conglomerate in the Elan Bank ○
26 to ○
28 in Naturaliste Plateau can be included
continental crust terminates in the eastern part of the saddle, ○
in B1 instead of A2 as classified above.
SIGNIFICANCE OF CONTINENTAL ROCKS IN THE OCEAN FLOORS
In the earlier summary review by Meyerhoff and Meyerhoff (1974), continental rocks were recorded from 9
localities in the world oceans. Today the number is at least 78 (Fig. 7 and Table 1; Vasiliev, 2006; Vasiliev
and Yano, 2006; Choi, 2007; Vasiliev and Yano, 2007; Yano et al., 2009; Yano et al., 2009; this report).
The density of ocean-floor geological surveys varies from one area to another. A map of the world deepocean drilling sites (http://iodp.tamu.edu/scienceops/maps.html) shows that low-density areas are the South
Pacific Ocean, the central and northern parts of the North Pacific, the South Atlantic, the Antarctic margins
and the Arctic Ocean. Even considering these variations, the ancient continental rocks discovered in the
Pacific Ocean are far fewer in number (Table 1). Our compilation is based on Vasiliev’s summary review
(2006). Even if we make allowance for data we have missed, the overall picture will probably remain the
same. The paucity of ancient continental rocks is due to the composition of the Pacific Ocean crust – it is
predominantly mafic (Vasiliev, 2006 & 2009).
The formation of oceans gives rise to the Earth’s dichotomy. In this regard, various hypotheses have been
proposed: “permanent ocean”, “ocean-floor spreading”, “oceanization” and “microexpansion”. However,
since the ocean floors are known to have been the site of tectonomagmatic activities in Meso-Cenozoic time,
the permanent ocean hypothesis has to be abandoned. In this section, we will consider the significance of the
continental rocks recovered from ocean floors in relation to the formation of oceans, with emphasis on
global-scale circular structures.
Table 1. Ancient and continental rocks in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans.
21
1. Type A
This is the group of continental rocks located in continental margins deeper than the ocean-floor depth – 14
localities in the Atlantic and 10 localities in the Indian Ocean. Their presence is explainable either by:
stretched and attenuated continental margin blocks that formed during rifting in the ocean-floor spreading
theory (Whitmarsh et al., 2001; Rosenbaum et al., 2008, for example), subsided continental fragments in the
oceanization theory (Beloussov 1960 & 1990), and the differential rise between the continent and ocean in
the microexpansion theory (Hoshino, 1983, 1998 & 2010).
Type A continental rocks prove that the region was once part of an adjacent continent. The phenomenon that
part of a continent can turn into ocean floor has been accepted by all three proposed ocean-formation
theories, with a vast amount of factual data coming from hydrocarbon exploration and deep-sea drillings.
2. Type B
This group occurs in mid-oceanic ridges and/or ocean basins: 18 localities in the Atlantic Ocean, 14 in the
Indian, and 4 in the Pacific. There are slightly different features in their occurrence in the Atlantic and
Indian Oceans.
Atlantic Ocean
In the Atlantic Ocean, Type B rocks are widely distributed from mid-oceanic ridges to basins (Fig. 7).
Whereas localities of subtype B1 are few, those of subtype B2 are far more common (Table 1).
To explain Type B continental rocks plate tectonics has had to introduce additional mechanisms, such as
non-spreading blocks, multiple ridge jumping, and oscillatory spreading. But these mechanisms have little
factual evidence to support them and the mechanisms themselves are not clearly understood (Yano et al.,
2009).
However, Type B rocks provide strong factual support for the oceanization and microexpansion theories.
Indian Ocean
A unique feature of the Indian Ocean is that it has many large-scale submarine rises in its margins
2 ), all Type B rocks occur
(Beloussov, 1990). B1 is more common than B2 (Table 1). Except for xenolith (○
in submarine rises. In contrast to the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, Type B rocks have not so far been
discovered in the Indian mid-oceanic ridges (Figs. 2 and 7).
The many discoveries of continental rocks in the submarine rises in the Indian Ocean forced the ocean-floor
spreading theory proponents to propose that Gondwanaland fragments formed during the slow-speed
spreading-rifting period along extinct spreading axes (Fig. 2; Storey, 1995; Todal and Eldholm, 1998; Frey
et al., 2003, etc.).
Oceanization supporters regard Type B rocks as relics of continents that once existed in the present-day
oceans. The microexpansion theory explains them as exposures of basalt-covered continental crust
(Hoshino, 2010).
22
Figure 7. Ancient and continental rocks in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, complied from Vasiliev, 2006,
Yano et al., 2009 and this paper.
Pacific Ocean
In the Pacific Ocean subtypes B1 and B2 are scarce in mid-oceanic ridges and basins (Fig. 7; Table 1). No
explanation has been given for the presence of Type B continental rocks by the theory of ocean-floor
spreading. However, for oceanization and microexpansion supporters, these rocks provide precious hard
evidence for clarifying the structure of the Pacific Ocean.
23
3. Type C
Type C rocks are characterized by continental geochemical signatures. They are known to occur at 8
localities in the Atlantic Ocean and 9 localities in the Indian Ocean.
Subtype C1
This rock type is continental ultramafic. In the Atlantic Ocean it is exposed in fracture zones near the midoceanic ridge or buried by sediments in the basin margins (Yano et al., 2009). In the Indian Ocean, it occurs
13 ).
as volcanic xenoliths (Fig. 2; ○
Ocean-floor spreading proponents have tried to explain them away as fragments of stretched continental
lithosphere formed during rifting (Whitmarsh et al., 2001) like Type A rocks, or have invented new
mechanisms, as for Type B rocks (Kepezhinskas and Dmitriev, 1992; Hassle and Shimizu, 1998; Mattielli et
al., 1999). However, others have admitted that the finds are “not easily explainable” (Bonatti and Honnorez,
1970).
On the other hand, the oceanization and microexpansion hypotheses explain Type C1 rocks as exposures or
xenoliths of underlying continental lithosphere.
Subtype C2
This subtype is derived from the partial melting or assimilation of continental rocks. Plate tectonics traces its
origin to old sedimentary rocks, oceanic crust, continental rocks recycling in the mantle, or to underlying
continental fragments. Whereas oceanization and microexpansion regard it as originating from concealed
continental crust and mantle.
In the Indian Ocean the composition of isotopes and minor elements varies largely throughout mid-oceanic
ridge basalt and oceanic island basalt, and volcanic rocks with isotope signatures high in 87Sr/86Sr and low in
206
Pb/204Pb and 143Nd/144Nd are widely distributed (Dupré and Allègre, 1983; Mahoney et al., 1998). Among
17 ; ODP site 738) and the Elan Bank
them, Subtype C2 rocks in the southernmost Kerguelen Plateau (Fig. 2, ○
15 ; ODP site 1137) point to the presence of continental rocks underneath.
(○
Although not 100% certain, many rocks with a conspicuous Dupal anomaly (87Sr/86Sr ≥ 0.7038; Mahoney et
al., 1989) have been discovered in the submarine rises (Fig. 2). They are considered to have assimilated
underlying continental materials (Barling et al., 1994; Davies et al., 1989; Frey et al., 2002; Hilton et al.,
1995; Mahoney et al., 1989, 1992 & 1995; Mattielli et al., 1999; Neal et al., 2002). If this assumption is
correct, Subype C2 rocks would increase by several dozens in the Indian Ocean. This would mean that
ocean-floor spreading could apply only to limited areas of the Indian Ocean, whereas it would boost the
oceanization and microexpansion theories.
4. Gigantic ring structures
The most critical key to the ocean-formation debate is rocks of Types B and C. We will have to wait for the
further clarification of their distribution and petrographic characteristics by future advances in marine
geology. In this regard one of the clues to understanding the solid Earth structure is represented by two
gigantic ring structures.
One of the ring structures is the distribution of the Dupal anomaly (Hart, 1984). This anomaly distributes
along a small circle from the equator to 60° S latitude with a center at around 30° S latitude (Fig. 8). That
the symmetry axis of the Dupal anomaly is close to the Earth’s rotation axis means that the Earth’s rotation
has controlled the solid Earth structures for a long time and imposes strong constraints on mantle convection
(Hart, 1984). After Hart’s study many researches have been published on the Dupal anomaly – they
discussed inhomogeneous upper mantle structures (Nevel et al., 2007; Machida et al., 2009, for example).
Based on published data, the present authors presume that there will be a similar Dupal anomaly belt in the
northern hemisphere at around 30° N latitude and in the Arctic region.
24
Another great ring structure is the circum-Pacific mobile belt (40,000 km in length), which develops along a
great circle. In this belt since after Late Triassic time, Yanshan-Hiroshima, Bonin, Green Tuff and island arc
movements (Fujita, 1990) have occurred. According to plate tectonic theory, the Yanshan-Hiroshima mobile
belt comprises zones of active continental margins that are the site of independent subduction zones
developed along western and southeastern Gondwanaland, the northern margin of the eastern Tethys, etc.
They claim that after travelling continuously for 1,000 to 10,000 km over a time span of 200 Ma, the
continuous volcano-seismic belts have aligned accidentally in the form of a great circle at the present
moment in Earth history. This explanation is unacceptable – it is too fortuitous and unrealistic (Yano and
Adachi, 2006; Yano and Wu, 2006). The circum-Pacific mobile belt has existed stably for 200 Ma and
forms the largest circular structure on the Earth today. Naturally it should have imposed strong constraints
on the tectonic movement of the solid Earth.
Figure 8. Distribution of the Dupal anomaly belt (after Hart, 1984 with the permission of Nature Publishing Group
[Licence no. 2602940653531]) and the circum-Pacific mobile belt (after Yano and Adachi, 2006). Baffin Island and
West Greenland lavas after Jackson et al. (2010).
These two gigantic ring structures suggest that the mantle composition is not homogenous and that the
movement in the mantle is not so active and fluidal as generally believed. The inhomogenous, slow-moving
mantle has been well characterized by recent studies by Jackson et al. (2010) and Graham (2010) on
primordial mantle relics (4.55-4.45 Ga), the source for the Baffin Island-Western Greenland lava (60-62 Ma;
Fig. 8) and by Peslier et al. (2010) on the water-poor tectosphere which allowed rigid continental massifs to
retain long-term stability. Although seismic tomography has opened up a new era in the study of the Earth’s
interior, it should be noted that the seismic velocity structures depicted in profiles reflect differences not
only in temperature but also in chemical compositional (Nishimura, 1995).
Indirect observations based on geophysical data have been a major driving force in marine research.
However, the data represent averaged features with no constraints on time and quality (Vasiliev, 2006).
Although still in an early stage, direct observation and analysis of the geology and rocks in the vast ocean
floors are now possible, and have led to the discovery of continental rocks of several different types. We
25
have entered a new era in which more meaningful discussions can be developed based on rocks from ocean
floors, against the background of an inhomogeneous and slow-moving mantle.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has reviewed finds of continental rocks in the Indian Ocean, assessed the meaning of ancient
continental rocks in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, and examined their implications for oceanformation hypotheses. The findings can be summarized as follows:
1) Continental rocks have been reported from 32 localities in the Indian Ocean (Table 1; Type A – 10, Type
B – 14, and Type C – 9). Almost all of them occur in the rises, plateaus, and ridges situated in the marginal
basins. However no occurrences are known from the mid-oceanic ridges in contrast to the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans (Fig. 2).
2) A total of 85 ancient continental rocks have been discovered in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans
(Fig. 7; Table 1). Type A rocks indicate that part of a continent has submerged and turned to ocean floor, a
phenomenon recognized by all ocean-formation hypotheses. Type B and C rocks distributed in mid-oceanic
ridges to ocean basins are incompatible with the hypothesis of ocean-floor spreading, but they provide
powerful supporting evidence for the oceanization and microexpansion hypotheses.
3) The two gigantic ring structures – the Dupal anomaly belt and the circum-Pacific mobile belt (Fig. 8)
indicate that the mantle has an inhomogeneous, slow-moving structure. The keys to future ocean-formation
debates are Type B and C rocks. To understand ocean-formation processes, the thermal and compositional
inhomogeneity and low fluidity of the mantle are important constraints.
Acknowledgements: We sincerely thank Hiroo Kagami for his permission to produce this English version
of the Japanese article that appeared in MAGMA, and we also thank him and Atsushi Tanase for their
instructive comments on the Japanese version. We thank David Pratt for his invaluable editing of the English
version. Kanji Sato and Tomoyoshi Kosaka encouraged us to prepare our papers on continental rocks in the
oceans. Several figures are gratefully reproduced with the permission of Nature Publishing Group, in
accordance with the applicable permission systems.
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29
9/56 YEAR CYCLE: CALIFORNIAN EARTHQUAKES
David McMINN
Independent cycle researcher
Twin Palms, Blue Knob, NSW 2480, Australia
[email protected]
Abstract: This paper examines the prospect of a 9/56 year cycle in the timing of major earthquakes in California Nevada - Baja California. These important events tended to cluster within this grid, far more than could be expected by
chance. Hawaiian quakes were also assessed and showed similarities with seismic episodes in south western North
America. Furthermore, record seismic quakes appeared selectively within the 9/56 year cycle and included such key
historical events as the 1700 Great Cascadia quake, the 1906 San Francisco quake and the 1980 Mt St Helens eruption,
as well as the record quakes for Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona and Hawaii. Seasonality was another crucial factor as
seismic events tended to occur around the same months of the year within various 9/56 configurations.
The 9/56 year seismic cycle was hypothesised to arise from tidal triggering by the Moon and Sun. What seemed
most significant were the ecliptical positions of the Sun, lunar ascending node and apogee. This implied that the angles
between these factors and the spring equinox point may offer clues as to how this cycle actually functions. The siting of
the Moon on the ecliptical circle should also have relevance, although no supportive evidence could be offered in the
paper.
Key words: earthquake, cycle, 56 year, California, Nevada
Introduction
9/56 year cycle was first established in the timing of major financial panics in US and Western
European history (Funk, 1932; McMinn, 1986, 1995 & 2006) and then extrapolated to seismic events
by McMinn (1994 & 2004). This cycle consists of a grid repeating the interval 56 years vertically and 9
years horizontally. The 56 year columns have been called sequences and the 9 year horizontal rows subcycles. Major seismic episodes in California - Nevada - Baja California were found to bunch within this
grid, a situation that also applied to major Hawaiian quakes. Record earthquakes in south western North
America were also considered in relation to the 9/56 year cycle.
A
The plane of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun is represented by the 360 degree ecliptical circle, with 00 E°
being sited at the spring equinox point. The abbreviation E° was used to denote longitudinal degrees on the
ecliptic and was equivalent to the angle made to the spring equinox point. The 56 year sequences have been
numbered in accordance with McMinn (1995), with 1817, 1873, 1929 and 1985 being designated Sequence
01, 1818, 1874, 1930, 1986 as Sequence 02 and so forth. The full numbering was presented by McMinn
(Appendix 2, 2002).
9/56 Year Seismic Cycle
The US Geological Survey listed major quakes (mag => 6.9) occurring in California, Nevada and Baja
California for the 1800-2000 period, with post 2000 events being inserted by the author (see Appendix 1).
This compilation gave 31 events, of which 10 took place in the 12 months beginning April 15 of those years
in Table 1. This compared with 2.5 that could have been expected by chance. Table 1 comprised five 56
year sequences or about 9% of the complete 9/56 year grid. However, it contained:
* 36% of all major Californian earthquakes.
* 58% of all major Californian earthquakes taking place in October to December.
Crucially, four 56 year sequences in Table 1 (Sqs 25, 34, 43 & 52) experienced many record events.
*
Sqs 25 & 43 – First and second rank quakes in Baja California (mag 7.2. Apr 4,
2010 & mag 7.1 Nov 21, 1915).
*
Sq 34 – Record northern Californian quake (San Francisco. mag 8.25. April 18,
1906).
*
Sq 34 – Record New Mexico quakes happened on July 16 and November 15 in
30
*
*
*
*
*
1906 (both mag 5.8).
Sq 34 - Equal first rank Arizona quake (Flagstaff. mag 6.2. Jan 25, 1906).
Sq 43 - Record quake for Nevada (Pleasant Valley. mag 7.7. Oct 3, 1915).
Sq 52 - Record quake for western USA (Great Cascadia. mag 9.0. Jan 26, 1700).
Sq 52 - Record quake for Hawaii (mag 7.9. Apr 2, 1868).
Sq 52 - Record US volcanic eruption (ex Alaska) (Mt St Helens, May 18, 1980).
The notable exception was the record event for southern California (Fort Tejon, mag 8.25. Jan 9, 1857).
Sq
25
Table 1
9/56 YEAR CYCLE: MAJOR QUAKES IN
CALIFORNIA – NEVADA – BAJA CALIFORNIA 1800 – 2010 (mag => 6.9)
Year beginning April 15
Sq
Sq
Sq
34
43
52
Sq
05
1803
+9
1812
Dec 08
Dec 21
1868
Oct 21
+9
1821
+9
1877
1841
+9
1850
+9
1859
+9
1897
+9
1906
Apr 18
+9
+9
1924
+9
1933
1953
+9
1962
+9
1915
Oct 03
Nov 21
1971
+9
1980
Nov 08
+9
1989
Oct 18
2009
Aug 03
2010
Apr 04
Years in bold contained quakes (mag => 6.9) in the year beginning April 15.
Moderate Californian Earthquakes
The US Geological Survey listed some 45 moderate earthquakes (=> 6.5 to =< 6.8 mag) for California –
Nevada – Baja California during the period 1800 to 2010 (see Appendix 2). Of this figure, 17 occurred in an
18/56 year pattern (see Table 2), where as chance would dictate about 5.6.
Table 2
Sq
10
1826
1882
1938
1994
#*
18/56 YEAR CYCLE: MODERATE QUAKES IN CALIFORNIA –
NEVADA – BAJA CALIFORNIA 1800 – 2010 (mag 6.5 to 6.8)
Year beginning January 1
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
28
46
08
26
44
06
1804
1822
1806
1824
1842
1860
1878
*
1844
1862
1880
1898
1916
1934
**
#**
1900
1918
1936
1954
1972
1990
#*
#*****
1956
1974
1992
2010
*
##**
##**
2012
31
The 56 year sequences are separated by an interval of 18 years.
# Denotes major earthquakes => 6.9 mag in this table.
* Denotes moderate earthquakes => 6.5 to =< 6.8 mag.
Source of Raw Data: US Geological Survey.
Major earthquakes (mag => 6.9) in south western North America happened preferentially in a 9/56 year
pattern shown in Table 1. However, the lesser events mainly took place in an 18/56 year grid and in a
different sector of the complete 9/56 year grid.
Seasonality
Sequences 43, 52 & 05 in Table 1 contained 7 major quakes in the 2.7 months to December 21, whereas
only 0.5 could have been expected by chance. Such seasonality also showed up in other 9/56 year patterns.
In the following grid, four important Californian quakes occurred in the 1.5 months to January 31, including
the 1700 Great Cascadia and the 1857 Great Fort Tejon earthquakes.
Sq 52
1700
Jan 26
1756
1812
Sq 05
Sq 14
Sq 23
Sq 32
Sq 41
Sq 50
1765
1821
1774
1830
1783
1839
1792
1848
1810
1866
1868
1877
1886
1895
1904
1801
1857
Jan 09
1913
1924
1933
1932
Dec 21
1989
1942
1951
1960
1969
1998
2007
2016
2025
1980
1922
Jan 31
1978
In Sequences 12 & 21, two major Californian quakes happened in the month to June 15.
Sq 12
1884
1940
May 19
1996
+9
+9
+9
Sq 21
1893
1949
2005
Jun 15
The 1906 San Francisco earthquake and the 1980 Mt St Helens eruption took place in the month to May 18.
Sq 34
1850
1906
Apr 18
1962
+9
+9
Sq 43
1803
1859
1915
+9
+9
+9
+9
1971
+9
Sq 52
1812
1868
1924
1980
May 18
2009 & 2010 Baja California Quakes
The August 3, 2009 Baja California earthquake (mag 6.9) showed seasonality, as three major earthquakes
(mag => 6.9) occurred in the 1.3 months ended August 20.
32
1823
1879
1935
1991
Jul 12
Aug 17
+9
+9
+9
+9
1832
1888
1944
2000
+9
+9
+9
+9
1841
1897
1953
2009
Aug 03
The April 4, 2010 Baja Californian event (mag 7.2) occurred in the following 9/56 year grid together with
two other major April quakes (mag => 6.9). The Californian earthquake of 1992 was anomalous as it
happened mid year. The earthquakes on October 22, 2010 (Baja California) and December 16, 1954
(California) took place late in the year.
1806
1862
1918
Apr 21
1974
1815
1871
1927
1824
1880
1936
1833
1889
1945
1983
1992
Apr 25
Jun 28
2001
1842
1898
1954
Dec 16
2010
Apr 04
Oct 22
Hawaiian Earthquakes
Hawaiian earthquakes often occurred within a similar section of the complete 9/56 year grid, as recorded for
California in Table 1. The US Geological Survey listed 15 major quakes for the island of Hawaii (see
Appendix 3). Of this figure, 8 took place in the 12 months ended August 31 of those years in Table 3,
whereas 1.6 could have been expected by chance.
Table 3
Sq 34
Sq 43
9/56 YEAR CYCLE: HAWAIIAN QUAKES
Year ended August 31
Sq 52
1868
Mar 28
Apr 02
Sq 05
Sq 14
Sq 34
1877
1886
1895
1906
1915
1924
1933
1942
Sep 25
1962
Jun 27
1971
1980
1989
Jun 25
1998
1951
Apr 22
Aug 21
2007
2006
Oct 15
The 56 year sequences are each separated by an interval of 9 years.
Years in bold contained major Hawaiian earthquakes in the 12 months ending August 31
of those years in the table.
Five Hawaiian quakes occurred in the 3 months ended June 27 of those years in Table 3, while coincidence
would give about 0.4. The record quake for Hawaii (Apr 2, 1868) also fell in Sequence 52 and thus within
the same 9/56 year sector as did most record earthquakes in south western North America (Sqs 25, 34, 43 &
52).
Discussion
To the author’s knowledge, the timing of solar and lunar eclipses cannot be correlated to the timing of
earthquakes. However, eclipse cycles are vitally important, because they give the repeating angles between
Moon-Sun factors that determine the tidal forces on the Earth’s surface. Importantly, tidal triggering is the
hypothetical mechanism for activating major earthquakes within the 9/56 year grid.
33
Very similar angles between the Moon, the Sun, ascending node and apogee repeat every 223 synodic
months (or one 18.0 year Saros), while the Earth - Moon distance will also be the same. These angles will
also recur in similar ecliptical positions - plus about 11 degrees anticlockwise on the ecliptical circle every
223 synodic months (see Table 4). This repetition of angles is a property of the 223 synodic month interval
that is separate from eclipse phenomena.
223 synodic months divided by two gives the Half Saros of 111.5 synodic months. Every 9.0 tropical years,
the Moon repeats the same angle to the ascending node, with the Sun 180 degrees on the opposite side of the
angular circle. The apogee - Sun angle is similar, while the apogee – Moon angle changes in multiples of 60
degrees.
Every 1385 synodic months (or one 112 year eclipse cycle), the ecliptical positions of the Moon, Sun and
ascending node repeat closely, giving rise to similar angles between these factors. Every 112 years, apogee
will be sited plus about 240 degrees further anticlockwise on the ecliptic. Thus, the relative angles of apogee
to the Moon, Sun and ascending node will increase by about 240 degrees.
On the same date every 56 years, the ascending node is located a further 3 E° clockwise on the ecliptical
circle (eg: as on July 1: 1761 - AN at 48 E°; 1817 - 45 E°; 1873 - 42 E°; 1929 - 39 E°; 1985 - 36 E°) (see
Appendix 5). This reflects a close alignment between the 18.6 year lunar nutation cycle and the solar year.
Every 692.5 synodic months (or one 56.0 year cycle), the Sun forms the same angle to the ascending node
with the Moon 180 degrees on the opposite side of the angular circle. The relative angles of apogee to the
Moon, Sun and ascending node change in multiples of 60 degrees.
The 9/56 year cycle arises because the intervals of 111.5 and 692.5 synodic months give the angles of 0 and
180 degrees between the Moon, Sun and ascending node that recur very closely.
Angles involving apogee repeat in multiples of about 60 degrees. 111.5 synodic months interval is
equivalent to the 18.0 year Saros divided by two, while 692.5 synodic months is derived by dividing the 112
year eclipse cycle by two (see Appendix 4). Both the 18 year Saros and the 112 year cycle were listed by
Robert van Gent in his extensive coverage of key Moon-Sun eclipse cycles.
The importance of 0, 60, 120 and 180 degree angles in these cycles probably involves the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 6th
harmonics.
Table 4
Date
Nov 16, 1906
Nov 26, 1924
Dec 08, 1942
Dec 18, 1960
Nov 16, 1906
Nov 21, 1915
Nov 26, 1924
Dec 01, 1933
Dec 08, 1942
Dec 13, 1951
Dec 18, 1960
Nov 29, 1682
Nov 22, 1794
9/56 YEAR ECLIPSE CYCLES AND THE ECLIPTICAL
POSITION OF MOON-SUN FACTORS
Phase
Moon
Sun
Asc Node
Apo
E°
E°
E°
E°
223 Synodic Month Interval (One Saros)
NM
233
233
126
074
NM
244
244
138
087
NM
255
255
149
101
NM
267
267
160
115
111.5 Synodic Month Interval (One Half Saros)
NM
233
233
126
074
FM
058
238
312
081
NM
244
244
138
087
FM
069
249
323
095
NM
255
255
149
101
FM
081
261
334
108
NM
267
267
160
115
1385 Synodic Month Interval (One 112 Year cycle)
NM
248
248
138
321
NM
241
241
132
198
34
Nov 16, 1906
Nov 07, 2018
NM
233
233
126
074
NM
225
225
120
310
692.5 Synodic Month Interval (One 56 Year cycle)
Nov 29, 1682
NM
248
248
138
321
Nov 25, 1738
FM
064
244
135
079
Nov 22, 1794
NM
241
241
132
198
Nov 19, 1850
FM
057
237
129
316
Nov 16, 1906
NM
233
233
126
074
Nov 11, 1962
FM
049
229
123
192
Nov 07, 2018
NM
225
225
120
310
This table was presented to provide an example of how the Half Saros and 56 year cycle
function in relation to ecliptical positions of the Moon, the Sun, ascending node and
apogee.
Abbreviations: NM New Moon; FM Full Moon
Lunar Ascending Node Any events falling with significance in a 9/56 year pattern will always have the
ascending node sited in two sectors approximately opposite in the ecliptical circle. For example, all 10
Californian earthquakes in Table 1 occurred with the lunar ascending node in two narrow segments of the
ecliptical circle:
*
285 – 325 E o - a 40 degree segment.
*
135 – 145 Eo - a 10 degree segment.
Events in an 18/56 year grid will have the ascending node in the same ecliptical sector. All 17 moderate
events in the 18/56 year grid (see Table 2) happened with the ascending node located between 250 and 320
Eo, a 70 degree ecliptical segment. No exceptions arose for either pattern, a factor very unlikely to occur by
chance.
Apogee. Major earthquakes in California (see Table 1) and Hawaii (see Table 3) occurred with apogee sited
in one of three sectors on the ecliptical circle: 050 – 095 Eo (7 events), 175 – 210 Eo (6) and 290 – 335 Eo (5)
with no exceptions. Any phenomena occurring preferentially in a 9/56 pattern will have the apogee point
grouped into three segments 120 degrees apart on the ecliptical circle.
Apogee and the lunar nodes are strongly associated with Moon-Sun tidal effects and these forces may help
explain why Californian and Hawaiian earthquakes fall within 9/56 and 18/56 year patterns.
Aphelion – Perihelion. In a heavenly bodies’ orbit around the Sun, aphelion is the point where its distance
to the Sun is greatest, while perihelion gives the least distance. For the Earth, the Sun is at aphelion on about
July 4 and at perihelion on about January 4. On the latter date, Sun’s tidal effect would be strongest and this
may have relevance to the timing of October to January Californian earthquakes in Table 1. No evidence
can be offered to support this conjecture.
Conclusions
Major earthquakes (mag => 6.9) in California – Nevada – Baja California fell preferentially within the 9/56
year pattern as shown in Table 1. This particularly applied to events in the 2.7 months ended December 21.
Four 56 year sequences (Sqs 25, 34, 43 & 52) also contained many record quakes in south western North
America. Strangely, the major earthquakes (mag => 6.9) tended to group within one sector of the complete
9/56 year grid, where as moderate earthquakes happened in an 18/56 year grid (see Table 2) and in a
different sector of the 9/56 year grid. It was assumed that both major and moderate quakes would occur in
the same 9/56 year configuration, but this was not observed. Interestingly, Hawaiian earthquakes often took
place within a similar sector of the complete 9/56 year grid – Sequences 34, 43, 52 & 05 in Table 1 for
Californian quakes also appeared in Table 3 for Hawaiian quakes.
Any events clustering in a 9/56 year configuration will always have the lunar ascending node in two narrow
segments approximately opposite in the ecliptical circle. For events in an 18/56 year grid, the ascending
35
node will always be located within one segment of the ecliptic. Furthermore, the 9/56 year grid will always
give the apogee point in restricted ecliptical segments 120 degrees apart. Seasonality was found to be
relevant, as seismic events often happened around the same months within 9/56 patterns. Overall, the 9/56
year seismic cycle is speculated to arise from the varying angles between the Sun, lunar ascending node,
apogee and the spring equinox point. The Moon should also have significance, although no supportive
evidence was presented in the paper. Other factors may be important, such as diurnal cycles, the horizontal
plane, perihelion and so forth, but this remains conjectural.
The findings strongly suggest that Moon-Sun tidal triggering activates major earthquakes, causing them to
happen within 9/56 year patterns. It implies that the Moon-Sun effect in seismology may be much stronger
than previously considered possible. How these forces actually function remains the great unknown.
Hopefully this paper offers some insights that will assist the design of much needed follow up research. If
the Moon-Sun mathematics can ever be deciphered, accurate predictions could be given for windows when
major quakes were most likely to occur. Such a breakthrough could potentially save many lives.
References
Funk, J.M., 1932. The 56 Year Cycle in American Business Activity. Ottawa, IL.
McMinn, D., 1986. The 56 Year Cycles & Financial Crises. 15th Conference of Economists. The Economics
Society of Australia. Monash University, Melbourne. Aug 25-29.
McMinn, D., 1994. Mob Psychology & The Number 56. The Australian Technical Analysts Association
Newsletter, p 28. March.
McMinn, D., 1995. Financial Crises & The 56 Year Cycle. Twin Palms Publishing.
McMinn, D., 2004. Market Timing By The Number 56. Twin Palms Publishing.
McMinn, D., 2006. Market Timing By The Moon and The Sun. Twin Palms Publishing.
McMinn, D., 2002 9/56Year Cycle: Financial Crises. www.davidmcminn.com/pages/fcnum56.htm
US Geological Survey. Californian Earthquake History: 1769 to Present.
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/sca/ca_eqs.php
US Geological Survey. http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/earthquakes/destruct
van Gent, R., A Catalogue of Eclipse Cycles. www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/calendar/eclipsecycles.htm
Acknowledgements: The author wishes to thank the editor Dong Choi and the reviewer for their many helpful
suggestions during the revision of the original manuscript. Their input was most appreciated.
Year
1812
1812
1838
1857
1868
1872
1892
1899
1906
1915
1915
1918
1922
1923
1927
1932
1934
Appendix 1
MAJOR EARTHQUAKES IN CALIFORNIA - NEVADA
- BAJA CALIFORNIA 1800 – 2010 (mag => 6.9)
Mth
Dy
Mag
Location
12
08
7.0
Wrightwood
12
21
7.0
Santa Barbara Channel
06
00
7.0
San Francisco Peninsula
01
09
8.25
Great Tejon earthquake
10
21
7.0
Hayward Fault
03
26
7.6
Owens Valley
02
24
7.0
Laguna Salada, BC
04
16
7.0
West of Eureka
04
18
8.25
Great San Francisco quake
10
03
7.3
Pleasant Valley, Nevada
11
21
7.1
Volcano Lake, BC
04
21
6.9
San Jacinto
01
31
7.3
West of Eureka
01
22
7.2
Cape Mendocino
11
04
7.3
South West of Lompoc
12
21
7.2
Cedar Mountain, Nevada
12
31
7.0
Colorado River
36
1940
1952
1954
1980
1989
1991
1992
1992
1994
1999
2005
2009
2010
2010
05
07
12
11
10
08
04
06
09
10
06
08
04
10
19
26
16
08
18
17
25
28
01
16
15
03
04
22
7.1
7.7
7.1
7.2
7.1
7.1
7.2
7.3
6.9
7.2
7.2
6.9
7.2
6.9
Imperial Valley
Kern County
Fairview Peak, Nevada
West of Eureka
Loma Prieta
West of Crescent City
Cape Mendocino
Landers
Mendocino Fracture Zone
Hector Mine
Offshore Northern California
Baja California
Mexicali, Baja California
Baja California
(a) Includes quakes in California, Nevada and Baja California (mag => 6.9).
Events in bold occurred in the 12 months beginning April 15 of those years in Table 1.
Main Source: US Geological Survey Californian Earthquake History: 1769 to
Present. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/sca/ca_eqs.php
Appendix 2
MODERATE QUAKES IN CALIFORNIA, NEVADA & BAJA CALIFORNIA 1800 –
2010 (mag => 6.5 to =< 6.8)
Year
Mth
Day
Mag
Location
1800
11
22
6.5
San Diego region
1836
6
10
6.75
Hayward Valley
1852
11
29
6.5
Volcano Lake, BC
1860
3
15
6.5
Carson City, Nevada region
1865
10
8
6.5
S. Santa Cruz Mountains
1872
3
26
6.75
Owens Valley
1872
4
11
6.75
Owens Valley
1873
11
23
6.75
Crescent City
1887
6
3
6.5
Carson City, Neveda region
1890
2
9
6.5
San Jacinto or Elsinore fault
1892
4
19
6.5
Vacaville
1892
5
28
6.5
San Jacinto or Elsinore fault
1898
3
31
6.5
Mare Island
1898
4
15
6.5
Mendocino
1911
7
1
6.5
Calaveras fault
1903
1
24
6.6
1910
8
5
6.6
W. of Crescent City
1915
12
31
6.5
W. of Eureka
1918
7
15
6.5
W. of Eureka
1934
7
6
6.5
W. of Eureka
1934
12
30
6.5
Laguna Salada, BC
1941
2
9
6.6
1942
10
21
6.5
Fish Creek Mountains
1948
12
4
6.5
Desert Hot Springs
1954
7
6
6.6
1954
8
24
6.8
Stillwater, Nevada
1954
11
25
6.5
1954
12
16
6.8
Dixie Valley, Nevada
1954
12
21
6.6
E. of Arcata
1956
2
9
6.8
San Miguel, BC
1968
4
9
6.5
Borrego Mountain
1971
2
9
6.5
San Fernando
1979
10
15
6.5
Imperial Valley
1983
5
2
6.5
Coalinga
1984
9
10
6.7
1987
11
24
6.6
Superstition Hills
1992
4
26
6.5
Cape Mendocino
1992
4
26
6.6
Cape Mendocino
1994
1
17
6.7
Northridge
1995
2
19
6.6
W. of Eureka
2003
12
22
6.6
San Simeon
2005
6
17
6.6
Offshore northern California
2006
1
4
6.5
Santa Rosalia BC
2010
1
10
6.5
Offshore northern California
2010
10
21
6.5
La Paz BC
(a) Includes quakes in California - Nevada - Baja California (mag => 6.5 to =< 6.8).
Events in bold occurred in the year beginning January 1 of those years in Table 2.
Main Source: US Geological Survey Californian Earthquake History:
1769 to Present. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/sca/ca_eqs.php
Appendix 3
MAJOR HAWAIIAN QUAKES: 1865-2007
Year
Mar 28, 1868
Apr 2, 1868
Oct 5, 1929
Sept 25, 1941
May 29, 1950
Apr 22, 1951
Aug 21, 1951
May 23, 1952
Mar 30, 1954
June 27, 1962
Apr 26, 1973
Nov 29, 1975
Nov 16, 1983
June 25, 1989
Oct 15, 2006
Mag
6.5-7.0
7.5-8.1
6.5
6.0
6.2
6.3
6.9
6.0
6.5
6.1
6.2
7.2
6.6
6.1
6.6
Region
Mauna Loa south flank
Mauna Loa south flank
Hualalai
Kaoiki
Mauna Loa southwest rift
Kilauea
Kona
Kona
Kilauea south flank
Kaoiki
Honomu
Kilauea south flank
Kaoiki
Kilauea south flank
Offshore west side of the island
Years in bold contained major Hawaiian earthquakes in the 12 months ending August 31
of those years in Table 3.
Source of Raw Data: US Geological Survey
37
38
Appendix 4
9 & 56 YEAR LUNISOLAR CYCLES
18.0 Year Saros
Days
6,574.36
6,585.78
6,585.32
6,584.51
6,585.35
6,585.55
9.0 Year Half Saros
Days
3,287.18
3,292.89
3,292.66
3,292.26
3,292.68
3,292.77
112.0 Year Cycle
Days
40,906.88
40,901.16
40,899.89
40,900.44
40.899.94
40,900.12
56.0 Year Cycle
20,453.44
20,450.58
20,449.94
Years
18.00
18.03
18.03
18.03
18.03
18.03
Years
9.00
9.02
9.02
9.01
9.02
9.02
Years
112.00
111.98
111.98
111.98
111.98
111.98
56.00
55.99
55.99
Lunisolar cycles
18.0 Tropical Years
19.0 Nodical Years
223.0 Synodic Months
(One Saros)
241.0 Tropical Months
242.0 Nodical Months
239.0 Apogee Months
Lunisolar Cycles
9.0 Tropical Years
9.5 Nodical Years
(One Half Saros)
119.5 Apogee Months
Lunisolar Cycles
112.0 Tropical Years
118.0 Nodical Years
(One 112 Year Cycle)
1484.33 Apogee Months
56.0 Tropical Years
59.0 Nodical Years
(One 56 Year Cycle)
20,450.23
55.99
20,449.97
55.99
20,450.06
55.99
742.17 Apogee Months
Synodic Month (or Lunar Month) is the interval between successive new Moons and is
equal to 29.5306 days.
Tropical Year (or Solar Year) is the time taken for the Sun to complete one cycle of the
ecliptic from spring equinox to spring equinox and is equal to 365.2422 days.
Tropical Month is the time taken for the Moon to complete one cycle of the ecliptic from
spring equinox to spring equinox and is equal to 27.3216 days.
Nodical Month (or Draconic Month) is the time taken for the Moon to complete one cycle
from ascending node to ascending node and is equal to 27.2122 days.
Nodical Year (or Eclipse Year) is the time taken for the Sun to complete one cycle from
ascending node to ascending node and is equal to 346.6201 days.
Apogee Month (or Anomalistic Month) is the time taken for the Moon to complete one
cycle from apogee to apogee and is equal to 27.5546 days.
Source: McMinn, 1995.
Appendix 5
39
MOON-SUN BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Apogee
Apogee is the point in the lunar orbit, where the Moon is the greatest distance from Earth, while perigee is the least
distance. In the lunar apse cycle, the apogee – perigee axis (apsides) rotates counter clockwise around the ecliptical
circle, with apogee passing from spring equinox to spring equinox every 8.8474 tropical years. The apsides axis is very
important in oceanic tides on Earth. When the full/new Moon is at apogee, the amplitude of tides in New York Harbor
is 50% lower than when the full/new Moon is at perigee. Apogee could be expected to play a key role in any Moon-Sun
seismic effect.
9.0 divided by the 8.8474 year apse cycle yielded 1.02, while 56.0 divided by the apse cycle gave 6.33 (6 plus one
third). Thus, every 9.0 years in the 9/56 year grid, apogee will be sited about 6 degrees further anticlockwise on the
ecliptical circle. Every 56.0 years, apogee will be located 120 degrees further anticlockwise on the ecliptical circle. In
the 9/56 year grid, apogee will therefore always located in three segments approximately 120 degrees apart on the
ecliptical circle. For example, Table A gives the apogee position as on July 1 of those years in a 9/56 year grid. Apogee
is always located in the following three segments 120 degrees apart 335 – 013 Eo; 095 – 135 Eo and 215 – 250 Eo with
no exceptions.
Table A
9/56 YEAR CYCLE & THE POSITION OF APOGEE
Ecliptical Degree of Apogee on July 1
Sq 32
Sq 41
Sq 50
Sq 03
Sq 12
1763
1772
000
007
1792
1801
1810
1819
1828
100
106
113
119
126
1848
1857
1866
1875
1884
219
225
231
237
244
1904
1913
1922
1931
1940
337
344
350
356
002
1960
1969
1978
1987
1996
096
102
108
115
121
Sq 21
1781
013
1837
131
1893
250
1949
008
2005
127
Apogee takes 5.995 tropical years to complete one cycle ascending node to ascending node. The 18.0 year Saros
eclipse cycle divided by 6 produced the integral number three and the 9 year Half Saros divided by 6 gave 1.5 (one plus
a half). The 56 year cycle divided by 6 gave 9.3333 tropical years (9 plus one third). Thus the angle between the
ascending node and apogee oscillates by about 180 degrees every 9.0 years and by about 120 degrees every 56.0 years.
This is illustrated on the same date in Table B, which gives ascending node – apogee angles grouping 60 degrees apart
in the angular circle with no exceptions.
Table B
9/56 YEAR CYCLE: ANGLE BETWEEN
THE ASCENDING NODE & APOGEE
Angle btn Ascending Node and Apogee on July 1
Sq 32
Sq 41
Sq 50
Sq 03
Sq 12
1763
1772
341
162
1792
1801
1810
1819
1828
282
102
283
103
283
1848
1857
1866
1875
1884
044
224
044
224
046
1904
1913
1922
1931
1940
165
346
166
346
168
1960
1969
1978
1987
1996
287
107
287
108
288
Sq 21
1781
342
1837
103
1893
225
1949
346
2005
108
40
Equinoxes
These points are sited where the plane of the Earth’s equator projected out into the sky (celestial equator) cuts the plane
of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun (ecliptic). At these points, the equatorial ascending node is where the Sun crosses
the celestial equator from south to north at 0 E° (0 Aries - vernal or spring equinox at around 20 March). The equatorial
descending node is where the Sun crosses the celestial equator from north to south at 180 E° (0 Libra - autumnal
equinox at around 22 September).
Lunar Ascending Node
The lunar nodes are imaginary points in the heavens, where the plane of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun (the ecliptic)
is cut by the plane of the Moon’s orbit around the Earth. The ascending (north) node is where the Moon crosses the
ecliptic from south to north, where as the descending (south) node is where the Moon crosses from north to south. In
the lunar nutation cycle, it takes 18.62 years for the ascending node to complete one cycle from spring equinox to
spring equinox.
Table C shows the ecliptical position of the lunar ascending node as on July 1 in a 9/56 year grid. This point is always
found in two segments approximately 180 degrees apart in the ecliptical circle with no exceptions.
Table C
9/56 YEAR CYCLE &
THE POSITION OF THE ASCENDING NODE
Ecliptical Degree of Ascending Node on July 1
Sq 32
Sq 41
Sq 50
Sq 03
Sq 12
1763
1772
019
205
1792
1801
1810
1819
1828
178
004
190
016
202
1848
1857
1866
1875
1884
175
001
187
013
199
1904
1913
1922
1931
1940
172
358
184
010
196
1960
1969
1978
1987
1996
169
355
181
007
193
Sq 21
1781
031
1837
028
1893
025
1949
022
2005
019
41
SHORT NOTES
(The following two short submissions by authors Sergey Anikeev and Vladimir Dunichev present some radical views
of the machinations of geological processes and perhaps will stimulate discussion from readers of NCGT.)
DEPTH (ENDOGENOUS) ENERGY ISSUES
Sergey ANIKEEV and Vladimir DUNICHEV
Sakhalin State University, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Russia
I
t is believed that rocks are highly heated at depths of tens of kilometers. This energy is called depth or
endogenous energy. What facts support this? No device has been installed at such depths. Hence, the
direct data about presence of depth energy are absent. It is not surprising that physicists do not allocate such
kinetic energy. There are mechanical, thermal, gravitational and other kinds of kinetic energy, but there is no
depth energy.
If there is no direct evidence, let’s consider indirect data.
1. Increasing temperature in the lithosphere, with depth, indicates the presence of a heat source at depth. It is
an incorrect statement. It would be correct if the heat gain increased progressively. However, heat
measurements in wells show a regressive, decelerating, gain in temperature, at depth: at 1 km the rate of
increase is 3°С per hundred meters, at a temperature value of 30°С; at 2 km the gain is 2.9°С, with a
temperature 59°С; at 3 km the figures are 2.7°С per 100 km, with a temperature of 86°С. This does not
necessarily indicate a source in the depths.
2. There are basalts on the surface of the globe. There is coarse-crystalline granite at depth underlying
crystalline slates and medium-grained gneisses. The distance between atoms is wider in amorphous
substances than in crystalline bodies. Therefore, amorphous substances are more energy-saturated than
crystalline. If there is depth energy, there would be high energy saturated basalt at depth, and crystalline
granite forming on the surface. But the opposite occurs. Again, this suggest no heat source at depth.
3. The fact of outflow of lava is used as the empirical (observable) fact of endogenous energy presence.
Molten lava evidently rises from the depth to the lithosphere surface., indicating extreme heat at depth, i.e. a
depth-energy presence. But such conclusion is unwarranted. We observe the glowing lava on the surface, but
we do not see or know what is beneath. A small analogy: if a number of men have left a room, one would
conclude that there would be less people left inside. Indeed, no people might remain in the room.
Outflowing lava indicates that thermal energy has risen and there is therefore less energy remaining in the
depth. Thus, there may not be enough to provide a (general) heat source in the depths.
So, neither direct nor indirect data prove the presence of endogenous energy at depth. It is a simulacrum – a
copy which does not have its origin in nature, but is sensual-evident (empirical) image created by man, the
fiction existing only in the human brain.
If there is no depth energy, what is the thermal energy that heats the lava? Here, solar energy on the
lithosphere surface has a role. The mechanism is as follows: granite, basalt, sandstone, limestone and other
rocks on the surface weather to fragments and to clay, absorbing solar radiation. The alteration products
accumulate solar energy in the form of potential free superficial energy, with internal energy the cause of
atoms spreading, when crystalline minerals change to the amorphous.
Alteration products, carried down to the bottom of the seas under gravity action, mix and average the
chemical compounds. Layers of clay and sand are formed as cover. Its structure = (granite + basalt)/2.
Overlapping by new layers leads to cementation, and then recrystallization of clays into argillites, slates,
42
gneisses, granites. There is a hydro-silicate solution of basalt composition between the granite crystals.
Potential free, superficial, internal energy transforms into kinetic thermal energy in the process of
recrystallization, which heats up a basalt solution. This, being less dense, rises to the surface as lava. Heat
comes from beneath, but this is not endogenous energy. It is solar energy accumulated in the clay and
released in course of its recrystallization into the granite.
********************
LITHOSPHERE PLATE ISSUES
Sergey ANIKEEV, Vladimir DUNICHEV
Sakhalin State University, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Russia
L
et's find out what a lithospheric plate is and whether it exists in a reality or represents a simulacrum – a
copy which does not have the original, and exists only in brain of a human. From a position of
geometry, a plate represents a rectangular parallelepiped or the tetrahedral prism, two lateral opposite faces
of which are much wider than two other lateral. Simple examples of plate models are books or cell phones.
A projection of a plate on a plane is a rectangle. It is believed that the length and width of lithospheric plates
are first thousands and hundreds of kilometers, respectively, with thickness up to 300 kilometers.
The plate is called lithospheric because it comprises the lithosphere or rock shell of the Earth. If you lean a
book or a cell phone against the globe – the model of the Earth – you will have the book contacting the
globe surface in one point and the rest of the book hanging in midair (Fig. 1). Here comes a conclusion: the
spherical form of the Earth does not allow for lithosphere plates to exist on the rock shell of the planet.
Fig. 1. Illustration of flat lithosphere plate location on the spherical Earth with one point of contact.
But, suppose, that the plate is bent to cover the lithospheric surface - although the plate is not rubber, but
rocky and cannot be bent. Here, you have an arch instead of a plate in the end. The length of the arch will be
the greatest on lithosphere surface, and will be reducing towards the center of the planet. A cone will result,
instead of plate (Fig. 2). The top of the sunken cone is recorded by an earthquake hypocenter, and the base
by an epicenter area of oval form.
Fig. 2. Model of gravitational cone on the globe (top – an earthquake hypocenter, base – an epicenter area).
43
There are numerous bases of sunken cones on the lithosphere surface in the form of ocean basins, gulfs and
bays in the coastal zone, plains of land and lakes on them. All these sunken structures have oval forms.
Taking into account spherical form of the Earth, any plunging solid body will be only a cone, but never a
plate.
Plates, even if they would exist, cannot move on a sphere. People move them on a flat surface of a physical
map. But the real surface of our planet is not flat, but spherical. Therefore, if the plates exist in reality, each
of them will contact the Earth surface in one point, and two plates will face far into the air (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Illustration of flat lithosphere plates contact on the spherical Earth.
It is impossible to move in a horizontal direction on a spherical surface. Movement of a solid body
is possible only in case of mechanical energy application with arm and point of bearing. There is
nothing to support such movement of lithospheric plates in nature. The plate would need to be
pushed, applied a movement impulse. The vector size relates to the multiplication of weight of the
plate to its speed and the weight of the plate would be unimaginably huge.
Gravity directed vertically downwards to the center of planet authentically effects on all bodies on
the lithosphere surface. The total vector movement, from a movement and gravity impulse, would
be inclined downwards (Fig. 4). Plates could not move on a horizontal surface: they would plunge
downwards at once.
So, lithospheric plates are an illustration of flat and motionless form of the Earth with ignoring of
gravity. This is not scientific view, but crazy idea stating things that actually do not occur in nature.
Fig. 4. Down-directed total vector of plate movement as result of horizontal drive and vertical gravity impulse.
44
ESSAY
THE LAKE TITICACA ENIGMAS
From an Armchair
Peter M. JAMES
[email protected]
Key words: Lake Titicaca origin, polar shifts, large sea level changes, extinctions
1
INTRODUCTION
or two centuries the origin of Lake Titicaca has posed something of a problem for geomorphology.
Located at almost 4000 m elevation on the high plains of the Andes cordillera, its saline water and relics
of oceanic fauna point to a one-time connection with the sea. But the question remains: how? This short
submission discusses the physical environment of the lake and the associated long chain of salt pans of the
Altiplano. It also deals with the peripheral geology of the Andes with the aim of presenting a case for
massive changes in sea level at the end of the Pleistocene, rather than uplift of the Altiplano since that time.
In turn, these sea level changes are explained as a direct consequence of polar wander and/or large
precessional wobbles in the mode of spin of the Earth. The hypothesis also provides a logical mechanism for
the extinction of whole genera that occurred at the end of the Pleistocene, in both North and South America.
F
2
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE ALTIPLANO
Lake Titacaca is the most northerly of a series of saline lakes and salt pans, present over a distance of some
1,500 km along the Altiplano of Bolivia1 and extending south into Chile and Argentina. Lake Titicaca is the
largest of the lakes, being some 200 km long, 55 km wide and almost 300 m in depth. Standing at an
elevation of 3820 m, it is also the most elevated. Its waters are brackish and, although not well stocked with
marine life, do contain oceanic-type mussels, crustacean and the only species of sea horse living outside the
oceans.
The lake is subject to occasional flooding from rivers that discharge into it from the north. At such times, the
lake drains out slowly to the south along two hundred and fifty meandering kilometres of the shallow
Desaguardero River, whose terminus is Lake Poöpo, at an elevation 40 m below than Lake Titicaca. The
very low hydraulic gradient that exists between the lakes – less than 1 in 600 - explains the slow rate of
drainage between the two bodies of water. In contrast to Lake Titicaca, Lake Poöpo is shallow, barely three
metres in depth, and it supports no aquatic life since its waters are too saline.
Lake Poöpo also drains seasonally - or seeps - under another low hydraulic gradient via the Laca Jahuir
River, to Lake Coipasa (El. 3760 m). This lake is located approximately100km to the west and forms a low
point in a salt pan of the same name. Just to its south is the extensive salt pan of Uyuni, 135 x 120 km in
area, at much the same elevation as the Coipasa salt pan. Continuing south from Uyuni, further chains of salt
pans and borax marshes extend across the southern border of Bolivia into Chile and Argentina.
The significant points about the Altiplano terrain are threefold. Firstly, the ambient Andean rocks are
predominantly crystalline, without deposits of halite (rock salt) which, on weathering, might have partly
accounted for the present day salt pans. Secondly, the salt composition of both the lakes and the salt pans is
typically identical with that of the present day oceans, reinforcing the indications of a marine connection.
Thirdly, the fauna in Lake Titicaca indicate that the marine connection must have been in operation in very
recent geological time. In other words, the unavoidable deduction is that the now almost 4000 m high
Altiplano was – in the not so distant past – an arm of the sea. Its northern limit would have been imposed by
1
The description of the Altiplano, or high plain of Bolivia, is taken from a chapter by J.B. Delair and E.F. Oppé in
Hapgood (1999).
45
the high mountains enclosing the northern side of Lake Titicaca, so that the sea connection appears to have
come from the south.
This sea connection is generally accepted in the literature. Disagreements arise, however, as to how it might
have been achieved. Basically, two explanations are available. The first, which has been favoured by a
majority of Earth scientists, is that South America has been dramatically uplifted in Recent times. The
second is that the elevation changes have been the result of changes in sea level. Let us look at each proposal
in turn.
3
THE OCEANIC CONNECTION
3.1
Uplift of the land
Uplift of South America sufficient to explain the oceanic connection would require the northern part of the
Altiplano to have been uplifted approximately 4000 m, with the southern end perhaps not much more than
50% of this. The uplift must have all occurred since the end of the Pleistocene, giving a rate of uplift in the
north of the order of 300 mm per year. Such a rate is a couple of orders of magnitude greater than other rates
of uplift presently recorded in active regions of the Earth's crust, like Rabaul. Admittedly, elevations of two
or three metres are not unknown in association with intermittent earthquake events, but these are localised
responses, not bodily elevation of a whole continent. A second major concern with the uplift proposal is:
what mechanism would be capable of such a rapid, massive, and widespread uplift? Earth scientists often
use the throw-away term "isostasy"2 to explain vertical oscillations of the crust and the postulate now has the
status of a scientific myth. (A scientific myth, like any myth, is the product of a culture and, by general
acceptance, purports to provide a total answer without the need for any further debate.) But if we look
critically at isostasy, it does not work. Analyses made by the author of the most intense crustal loading of the
lithosphere – a large seamount – shows that it is insufficient to cause any underlying creep deformation.
Moreover, if isostasy were a valid mechanism we should be seeing dramatic evidence of subsidence in
Antarctica, which has allegedly been under a polar ice cap for the best part of 15 Ma. However, parts of the
Trans-Antarctic Mountains only a million years old stand at elevations of 1 km, despite the ice cap. Both of
the above types of loading would have gravity on their side. Uplifts, on the other hand, have the added
burden of working against gravity. It should be stated here that we are not talking of fold mountain uplift,
which occurs in conjunction with compression and crustal shortening.
In any event, if violent uplift of South America has taken place, by isostasy or any other unknown
mechanism, it would surely have left its imprint on the present landscape. Unmistakeable evidence of recent
uplifts would be recognisable in stream profiles on either flank of the Andes cordillera. Instead, what is
found on either flank is evidence of long term stability, or at least stability since Tertiary times. Darwin
noted that Tertiary sediments were deposited against the Andean foothills along 1800 km of the western
(Pacific) side of the cordillera and over 2000 km along the Atlantic side. The deposits on the latter side are
over 1000 km wide and they grade very gently outwards from the foothills of the cordillera, typically from
elevations of no more than 300 m above sea level. On the Pacific side, the main valleys emanating from the
foothills of the cordillera exhibit shingle-covered terraces sloping down as continuous features from the
foothills to the plains. The stream profiles are without signs of major rejuvenation.
There is often a break in sedimentation between Tertiary and Recent times but the outer zones of the
Tertiary regimes appear to have been frequently covered by rudely stratified Recent deposits. These are now
dissected to leave isolated and elevated marine terraces, or tablazos, recorded at several elevations.
Examples include a thick bed of present-day shells forming an elevated terrace on Chiloe Island (Chile),
recorded by Darwin at just over 100 m elevation. A Peruvian example, also cited by Darwin at an elevation
of 25 m above present sea level, contained hard evidence of human occupation.
2
A concept introduced by the American geologist Dutton in the late 19th C, to explain the deep roots of fold
mountains.
46
Admittedly, the Tertiary history could conceivably be interpreted as an uplift of several hundred metres,
with the Recent tablazos providing perhaps 25 to 100 m of this. Such uplift, however, falls well short of the
4000 m required to explain the elevation of the salt lakes on the Altiplano. The uplift proposal is further
discredited by the lack of major disruptions between the cordillera and the Tertiary sediments on either
flank. Latterly, researchers such as di Celma (2005) speak of orbitally induced (e.g. glacio-eustatic) sea level
changes to explain the tablazos. This leaves the way open for the alternative interpretation of even more
massive sea level change(s).
3.2
Sea Level Change
If the Earth were a smooth spherical body, otherwise identical in size, mass, rate of spin, etc., the
distribution of a surface veneer of water would be given, to a first order of accuracy, by equating potential
and kinetic energy. Such a distribution is shown as curve A, in Figure 1: almost 12 km depth of water at the
equator and dry at the poles – at least for this specific volume of water. This may sound dramatic. However,
if the Earth were represented by a 500 mm diameter desk globe, the equatorial water depth would be
represented by a veneer approximately 0.5 mm thick – about the thickness of cartridge paper. Not at all great
in astronomical terms but very large in human terms.
The actual distribution of water around the Earth, excluding the land masses, is of course not as shown by
Curve A in the figure. A nearly constant depth of around 3.5 – 4 km exists from pole to pole, as illustrated
by the rectangular Curve B. By inspection, it might be seen that this actual volume of water on the earth's
surface is much less than in the case of Curve A. Returning to the hypothetical smooth, spinning Earth
sphere, a more realistic representation of the effects of the centripetal accelerations on the actual volume of
the water veneer would be given by Curve Ci: a little more than 6.5 km oceanic depth in the equatorial zone
and generally tending to be dry over the higher latitudes. Why such a distribution does not exist and why the
oceanic distribution is fairly constant across the latitudes is probably related to the fact that the Earth body
distorts quasi-hydraulically itself, with an equatorial bulge of similar magnitude to the equatorial water depth
in Curve Ci.
Taking this simplistic view, if the pole were now to shift some twenty degrees, the original distribution of
the water veneer, Curve Ci, should adjust to a position similar to that shown by Curve Cii. To us, quite large
changes in oceanic levels would be imposed, with depths increasing in those quarters of the globe that were
moved (by the equatorial shift) to lower latitudes, and depths simultaneously decreasing for the zones
moving to higher latitudes. However, little change might be noticed at the equator's nodal points.
The above descriptions apply to a hypothetical spherical Earth body. For the Earth spheroid, things are likely
to be more complex. For instance, areas along the former equatorial bulge could well be left high and dry by
small polar shifts, while former regions of polar flattening could be flooded.
This model is, of course, relevant to the instantaneous reaction of the oceans to any polar shift. If that polar
shift became a semi-permanent situation, however, one could expect that the Earth body to readjust its shape
gradually in order to suit the new pattern of centripetal accelerations, in which case something like the
previous distribution of the oceans, Curve B, might well be partly restored.3
We are left with the problem of how or why a polar shift might occur.
The Cambridge astronomer, Tom Gold, once calculated that if a continent the size of South America, located
at mid-latitudes, were to be uplifted by a mere 3 m, the change in centrifugal forces of the spinning Earth
would cause a polar shift in order to allow the uplifted continent to straddle the equator. A rate of polar shift
of one degree per ten thousand years was calculated, which is quite fast, geologically speaking.
What we appear to be dealing with in the present situation is, however, a much more rapid polar shift, which
might be explained by saying that Gold's example of a three metre uplift is probably a fairly innocuous
3
The effect on the crust of migration of major geoidal features, such as the equatorial bulge, has been dealt with by
the author in articles on geoid tectonics, NCGT Newsletter, nos. 49, 50 & 51.
47
disturbing force when compared to the uplift of the Andes, the Rocky Mountain or the Himalayan cordilleras
- or, indeed, to the movements of the ice caps during the last ice age.
For instance, the Arctic ice cap did not consist of a simple increase in area, spreading out evenly from the
North Pole. Instead, the thick ice fronts underwent large advances and retreats across N.W. Europe, leaving
Siberia warm at times. Similar advances and retreats occurred in the ice cap over Canada. Indeed, the
oscillations were complex enough to have so far denied any full resolution of their history, Frenzel (1973).
Figure 1. Hypothetical distribution of oceans in response to polar shifts
Curve A: Hypothetical distribution of a water veneer on a spherical Earth
Curve B: Actual distribution of oceans
Curve Ci: Distribution of actual ocean volume on a spherical Earth
Curve Cii: Hypothetical distribution in response of a 20 degree pole shift
Other circumstantial evidence of rapid polar shifts over the period of interest come from the large
paleomagnetic variations recorded by Creer (1981) or Verosub (1982), while field evidence from Greenland,
Dawes and Kerr (1982), also reveals that the patterns of cold weather and sea level fluctuations were
anything but regular during the period of the ice age. Finally, physical evidence points to a North Pole
within Baffin Island, around 14,000 years ago. This position is some 30 degrees distant from the present
pole position and would have meant an associated equator depressed an equal amount over South America.
In which case, the location of Lake Titicaca would have been quite tropical, particularly if accompanied by
large sea level rises there.
There is yet another factor to be included in this prognostication. If large changes in polar locations are to
occur, then the movements from an original pole to a new one is unlikely to be a simple, linear, shift. A
more likely scenario would be a sort of spiralling approach to reach centripetal equilibrium. Whatever the
wander path, one could nonetheless expect the polar wander to be accompanied by large precessional
wobbles in the Earth's mode of spin. If so, difficulties arise in differentiating between the effects of the polar
movements and the effects of the precessional wobbles, since precession alone would also have the capacity
to produce quite violent changes in sea level. For a start, the principle of conservation of angular momentum
would require some reduction in the rate of spin of the Earth to accompany such wobbles, possibly
facilitating a spread of the oceans away from the equatorial zone. At the cessation of any period of large
precessional wobble, the Earth's rate of spin would increase once more, as anyone who has spun tops would
know. Both the reduction and the increase in the rate of Earth spin would influence oceanic distributions.
48
In summary, the factors that control the distribution of our oceans are indeed complex. But, on the positive
side, allowance for sea level flexibility should help rescue the Earth sciences from the annoying habit of
explaining certain enigmas with unrealistic claims, for instance: explaining elevated wave cut platforms in
rock as the result of transient tsunamis; or explaining submarine valleys – present in all oceans as impressive
canyons excavated in hard crystalline rocks, often with large abyssal sediment fans - as having been formed
by intermittent, superficial, turbidity current activity.
4
OTHER ENIGMAS
4.1
The Lake Titicaca Strand Line
Just above the present lake level a white strand line, obviously representing an earlier lake level, has been
surveyed as a continuous feature for a distance of some 375 miles (600 km) to the south. It then disappears
under the salt pans. Over the measured distance, the elevation of the strand line drops 800 feet
(approximately 240 m), giving an average inclination of just over two feet per mile.
This sloping strand has been cited as evidence that the uplift of the northern parts of South America has been
greater than in the south. But there is an alternative. If we have the actual sea level at or near the level of
Lake Titicaca, combined with the possibility of a nearby equator, then there would be no reason to suppose
that the sea level "horizontal" under those conditions would be the same as the sea level "horizontal" of
today. Perhaps this view requires further analysis.
4.2
The Terraced Mountain Sides
Terraced slopes are to be found above Lake Titicaca and, indeed, on the slopes of the Altiplano from Peru to
Bolivia, sometimes continuing up beyond the snow line. These are interpreted as being the relics of early
Indian cultivations. Darwin also records the finding that, between Potosi and Oruro (Bolivia), ruins of Indian
dwellings are also present up to the tops of the fringing mountains where the landscape is now desolate.
The terraced areas and former habitations are more elevated that any agricultural cultivations or habitations
of today, and the features have, again, been cited as evidence of massive uplift of the land. However, had the
sea level once been as high as Lake Titicaca, as discussed above, the terraced cultivations would have been
only nominally above that sea level, probably basking in a tropical environment. Climate change in the
extreme!
4.3
Depths of Salt in the Salt Pans
The author has no information on the depth of the salt pans that extend south from Lake Titicaca. Titicaca
itself is some 300 m deep but is kept filled by the rivers flowing into it from the north, no doubt causing
dilution of the original saline conditions. The rainfall further to the south is sparse and so one could
speculate that, if the numerous salt pans were the result of evaporation of sea water, some of the salt pans
could be very deep.
The reason for suggesting this is that fold mountains, by their mode of formation through thrust faulting,
often incorporate long stretches of valley land between the high cordillera spines, as seen today in the Rocky
Mountain cordillera just north of the Canadian border. In the Andes, the internal valley zone has been
infilled as a result of marine incursions inducing both sedimentation and salt deposition, eventually
producing the present relatively flat topography of the Altiplano, a topography that incidentally loses
elevation in the southerly direction. Bedrock, beneath the Antiplano could be quite deep in places - at least
away from the protruding bedrock "islands". Incidentally, Darwin remarks that one such salt deposit, just to
the east of Santiago in the Valle del Yeso, has a depth of salt of 2000 ft, or 600 m.
4.4
Massive Extinctions
At the end of the Pleistocene, mega fauna suffered decimation over three fifths of the Earth's land surface,
Scott (1937). In North America at this time, Hibben (1946) estimates that some 40 million animals died in a
period of no more than a few centuries between 15,000 and 12,000 years ago. The period of extinction is
likely to have been even shorter than this, to judge from the whole arrays of bones of mammoths,
49
mastodons, giant beaver, sabre-toothed tiger, giant sloth, bison, woolly rhinoceros, bear, camel and horse
that have been found packed in the Alaska muck by Yukon gold fossickers, with finds including fragments
of skin, hair, flesh, toenails ligaments, trees and even some human remains. The same arrays of fossils have
been recorded in the gravels of New Jersey, in terraces in Texas (dated 12,600 BP), in the tar pits of Los
Angeles and in the mass graveyards of South America, stretching from Caracas to Patagonia, from to
elevations of 4000 m in Bolivia to sea level in the south.
These findings led Darwin to wonder what catastrophe has exterminated whole genera. Modern
traditionalists have tended to put the blame on overkill by bands of hunter-gatherers migrating down the two
continents at the end of the Pleistocene. But, as Darwin pointed out, such an explanation might conceivably
cover the loss of large quadrupeds, but the fossil arrays also include small animals, like mice. Moreover, the
fossil graveyards sometimes contain evidence of early humans caught up in the same catastrophe.
Massive sea level changes of the type discussed above would be an obvious and widespread extinction
mechanism. It is not a new concept; geologists have long been aware of a nexus between extinctions of the
past and sea level incursions and/or regressions. The more radical approach presented herein is that the large
sea level changes have their origin in polar mobility. The winnowing effects of sea level changes would also
tend to concentrate bones, etc., in banks or mud strands as, indeed, are many of the late Pleistocene fossils so
concentrated.
The relevance of the Missoula Floods (USA) may be cited here. These floods, that produced the widespread
"scablands" over Washington State in north west of the country, emanated from the Missoula Basin some
14,000 years ago. The generally accepted explanation for them is the (repeated) failure of an "ice dam" 600
m high, located at the mouth of the Clarke Fork River at the lowermost end of the basin. Leaving aside the
viability of such a high ice structure and its water holding capabilities, the author made traverses of the basin
and peripheral areas in 2008, as described in NCGT #48. This inspection revealed the unusual situation of
five relatively low passes in the Rocky Mountain Cordillera, all directed into the basin. All the passes
showed evidence of being sculpted by large volumes of flowing water, while relic lake features in the upper
parts of the basin stood at elevations much higher than the hypothetical ice dam at the mouth of the Clarke
Fork River. Again, the topographical features made the concept of transient high sea level incursions the
most plausible interpretation for the writer.
REFERENCES
Cantalamessa, G. and Di Celma, C., 2004. Origin and chronology of marine terraces of the Isla de la Plata.
Jour. S. Amer. Earth Sc., v. 16, p. 633-648
Creer, K.M., 1981. Long period geomagnetic secular variation since 12000BP. Nature, July 16, p. 208-212.
Darwin, C., 1840-1845. The Voyage of the Beagle. White Star Publ. version, Italy, 2006.
Dawes, E.R. and Kerr, J.W. (eds.), 1982. Nares Strait and the Drift of Greenland, a conflict in plate tectonics.
Geoscience 8, Mendeleser on Gronland
DeVries, T.J., 1988. The geology of late Cenozoic marine terraces (tablazos) in northwestern Peru. Jour. South Amer.
Earth Sc., v. 1, no. 2, p. 121-136
Di Celma, C., 2005. Basin physiography and tectonic influence on sequence architecture and stacking pattern:
Pleistocene stacking of the Canoa Basin (Equador). Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., v. 117, nos. 9/10, p. 1226-1241
Frenzel, B., 1973. Climate Fluctuations of the Ice Age. Case WesternUniv. Publ
Gold, T., 1955. Instability of the earth's axis of spin. Nature, v. 175, p. 526.
Hapgood, C., 1999. Path of the Pole. Adventures Unlimited Publ., Illinois
Hibben, F.C., 1946. The Lost Americans. Crowell, N.Y.
James, P.M., 1992. Very large changes in sea level. 6th Aus/NZ Geomech. Conf., N.Z.
James, P.M., 1994. The Tectonics of Geoid Change. Polar Publ., Calgary
James, P.M. – On Isostasy, see NCGT Newsletter nos. 42 – 45
James, P.M., 2008. The massive Missoula floods. NCGT Newsletter, no. 48, p. 5-22.
Peltier, W.R., 1981. Ice age geodynamics. Earth & Planetary Sc., v. 9, p. 199-225
Scott, W.B., 1937. A History of the Land Mammals in the Western Hemisphere. Macmillan N.Y.
Verosub, K.L., 1982. A paleomagnetic record from the Tangle Lakes, Alaska: large scale secular variation.
Geophys. Research Letters, v. 9, p. 823-826
50
DISCUSSIONS
SCIENTIFIC LOGIC BEHIND SURGE TECTONICS HYPOTHESIS
M. Ismail BHAT
[email protected]
Christian SMOOT
[email protected]
Dong R. CHOI
[email protected]
R
ecent issues of the NCGT Newsletter carried criticism of the surge tectonics. The critiques are either
half attempts (Karesten Storetvedt) or superficial (Peter James). While our response to Storetvedt
should equally apply to James’ comment, we would however very briefly address his comment separately.
Using this opportunity we shall also ask a question or two to those who advocate oceanization. And finally,
we present a little puzzle for expanding Earth proponents.
Karesten Storetvedt – Criticism off the mark
Storetvedt (NCGT issue no. 57) denounced surge tectonics -- in favor of his wrench tectonics -- as unable to
account for geological history. Our intention here, however, is not to pick holes in wrench tectonics or to
defend surge tectonics. That is for the readers and time. We would instead argue what we believe is the
scientifically most logical basis for enunciation of surge tectonics.
Storetvedt writes “As I see it, the [surge tectonics] hypothesis has ignored too many data that didn't fit the
box (just as has been the situation for Wegenerian drift and plate tectonics). To me many of the arguments
sounded strained and constructed for the purpose.” But, except for one (tropical-subtropical conditions in
Antarctica; see below), he neither identifies those “ignored” data nor tell the reader what arguments sound
“strained” or “constructed for the purpose.” Isn’t that truly unscientific?
Anyhow, one can’t be more off the mark. Surge tectonics isn’t being proposed as a model which is then
beefed up and confirmed by data (something Storetvedt seems to prefer); instead it evolves from known
data. Here is the story for those who haven’t read or heard about it.
The evolution of surge tectonics happened through a series of articles by Arthur A. Meyerhoff and his coworkers that began in 1972 and culminated in the first presentation of the concept in 1989 at a conference
sponsored by the Smithsonian Institute and Texas Tech University. The proceedings of the conference,
including the surge tectonics concept, were later published in 1992. In 1995 Journal of Southeast Asian
Earth Sciences published its application under the title ‘Surge-tectonic evolution of southeastern Asia: a
geohydrodynamics approach’ as a single paper issue. So, it was not just the enunciation of a concept but its
testing as well. The year 1996 saw the consolidation and publication of the whole idea and its application in
book form with one additional topic on magma floods.
The book has just six chapters including a very short one on conclusions. It begins with a brief discussion of
former and current concepts of Earth dynamics, including Earth contraction concept, which incidentally
provides the basic framework for the surge tectonics. Pros and cons of each concept are presented,
concluding with why there is need for a new hypothesis. Next it presents a short description of the history
and evolution of techniques for data gathering. It is followed by a long discussion of 29 data sets that remain
unexplained by all the current geodynamic models. The spread of these data sets is worth noting: from the
smallest (like dip and strike, joints and lineations) through hydrothermal manifestations, linear anorogenic
51
belts, distribution of world evaporites, vortex structures, deep continental roots, morphology and seismic
characters of different tectonic elements (rift zones, ocean ridges, island arcs, mountain belts), ocean floor
bathymetry, oceanic basement, heat and microearthquake bands, Benioff zones, antipodal arrangement of
oceans and continents, continental margin phenomena, seismotomography and convection, magma floods to
presence or absence of certain tectonic elements in particular parts of globe (like island arcs and ocean island
chains). The basic data in all these cases is sourced from published literature, predominantly by plate
tectonicists. Does the whole spectrum look like “constructed for the purpose?”
What is most significant here is the identification of a common denominator that defines all these 29 tectonic
elements and how it lays the foundation for a new concept. That common denominator is the presence in the
lithosphere of magma channels at various depths rising from asthenosphere across all tectonic elements and
across all plate tectonic settings – rift, ridge, subduction zone and mountain belts. The magma channel is
shown to be either active or fossilized with characteristic P-wave velocity range of 7.0 to 7.8 km/s.
Next comes the construction of surge tectonics hypothesis. It begins with a discussion of the seismic velocity
structure of the Earth and evidence for deep continental roots. Then we have discussion of eleven pieces of
geological and geophysical evidence for a differentiated, cooling Earth, one of which also provides a neat
explanation for the existence of asthenosphere: “As the Earth cools, it solidifies from surface downward.
Because stress states in cooled [lithosphere] and uncooled [strictosphere, i. e. mantle below asthenosphere]
parts are necessarily opposite one another, compression above and tension below, the two parts must be
separated by a surface or zone … called the level of no strain.”
This is followed by discussion of why the original contraction hypothesis fails as a viable geodynamic
concept and how the presence of surge channels in an environment of compressive stresses of lithosphere
does away with all the valid objections to the Earth contraction concept. That is to say, the contraction
concept is revived in a new form that addresses all the known objections to its original form. Also, evidence
for the flow of fluid (magma) under each tectonic element is presented and shown to control and define
structural and morphological features of all the data sets.
We then have the introduction of surge channel concept. In order not to give any impression of ownership to
the idea of surge channels and give due credit to where it belongs to, literature review of the concept of
surge and related concepts in Earth-dynamic theory is presented. Geotectonic cycle of surge tectonics is also
briefly introduced here followed by geophysical and other evidence for the existence of surge channels, their
geometry, demonstration of tangential flow, mechanism of eastward flow, their classification, geophysical/
geological criteria for their identification and their examples in different tectonic settings as well as how
their variable thickness are controlled are presented and discussed.
Next we see application of surge tectonics hypothesis to SE Asia and origin of magma floods.
Quoting from the surge tectonics book -- Meyerhoff et al. 1996 -- and ignoring references to the cited
literature as well as figures/tables, the broad framework of the hypothesis is thus: “Surge tectonics is based
on the concept that the lithosphere contains a worldwide network of deformable magma chambers (surge
channels) in which partial magma melt is in motion (active surge channels) or was in motion at some time in
the past (inactive surge channels)… The presence of surge channels means that all of the compressive
stresses in the lithosphere are oriented at right angles to their walls. As this compressive stress increases
during a given tectonic cycle, it eventually ruptures the channels that are deformed bilaterally into kobergens
[bilaterally deformed foldbelts]…
“Surge tectonics involves three separate but interdependent and interacting processes. The first process is the
contraction or cooling of the Earth. The second is the lateral flow of fluid, or semifluid, magma through a
network of interconnected magma channels in the lithosphere [the cooled outer shell]. We call these surge
channels. The third process is the Earth’s rotation. This process involves differential lag between the
lithosphere and the strictosphere (the hard [still hot but cooling] mantle beneath the asthenosphere and lower
crust), and its effects – eastward shifts.” No other geodynamic concept touches this aspect.
52
Again quoting from the surge tectonics book, and ignoring references to the cited literature as well as
figures/tables, here is how geotectonic cycle is envisaged under surge tectonics:
“The asthenosphere alternately expands (during times of tectonic quiescence) and contracts (during
tectogenesis). Thus when the asthenosphere is expanding, the surge channels above it, which are supplied
from the asthenosphere, also are expanding; and when tectogenesis takes place, the magma in surge channels
is expelled. Tectogenesis is triggered by collapse of the lithosphere into the asthenosphere along 30o-dipping
lithosphere Benioff zones. The following is [the] interpretation of the approximate sequence of events during
a geotectonic cycle.
1. The strictosphere is always contracting, presumably at a steady rate, because the Earth is cooling.
2. The overlying lithosphere, because it is already cool, does not contract, but adjusts its basal circumference
to the upper surface of the shrinking stictosphere by (1) large-scale thrusting along lithosphere Benioff
zones, and (2) normal-type faulting along the strictosphere Benioff zones. These two types of deformation,
one compressive and the other tensile, are complementary and together constitute an example of NavierCoulomb maximum shear stress theory.
3. The large-scale thrusting of the lithosphere is not a continuous process, but occurs only when the
lithosphere’s underlying dynamic support fails. That support is provided mainly by the softer asthenosphere
and frictional resistance along the Benioff fractures. When the weight of the lithosphere overcomes the
combined resistance offered by the asthenosphere and Benioff-zone friction, lithosphere collapse ensues.
Because this process cannot be perfectly cyclic, it must be episodic; hence tectogenesis is episodic.
4. During anorogenic intervals between lithosphere collapses, the asthenosphere volume increases slowly as
the lithosphere radius decreases. The increase in asthenosphere volume is accompanied by decompression in
the asthenosphere.
5. Decompression is accompanied by rising temperature, increased magma generation, and lowered viscosity
in the asthenosphere, which gradually weakens during the time intervals between collapses.
6. Flow in the asthenosphere is predominantly eastward as a consequence of the Earth’s rotation (Newton’s
Third Law of Motion). Magma flow in the surge channels above the asthenosphere also tends to be
eastward, although local barriers may divert flow in other directions for short distances. Coriolis force also
must exert an important influence on asthenosphere and surge-channel flow, which by its nature is Poiseuille
flow. Therefore, the flow at the channel walls is laminar and is accompanied by viscous, or backward drag.
The viscous drag produces the swaths of faults, fractures, and fissures (streamlines) that are visible at the
surface above all the active tectonic belts. These bands or swaths are example of Stokes’ Law (one
expression of Newton’s Second Law of Motion).
7. During lithosphere collapse into the asthenosphere, the continentward (hanging wall) sides of lithosphere
Benioff zones override (obduct) the ocean floor. The entire lithosphere buckles, fractures, and founders.
Enormous compressive stresses are created in the lithosphere.
8. Both the lithosphere and strictosphere fracture along great circles at the depth of the strictoshere’s upper
surface. Only two partial great circle fracture zones survive on the Earth today. These include the fairly
extensive, highly active Circum-Pacific great circle and the almost defunct Tethys-Mediterranean great
circle.
9. When the lithosphere collapses into the asthenosphere, the asthenosphere-derived magma in the surge
channels begins to surge intensely. Whenever the volume of the magma in the channels exceeds their
volumetric capacity, and when compression in the lithosphere exceeds the strength of the lithosphere that
directly overlies the surge channels, the surge-channel roofs rupture along the cracks that comprise the faultfracture-fissure system generated in the surge channel by Poiseuille flow before the rupture is bivergent,
whether it forms continental rifts, foldbelts, strike-slip zones, or midocean rifts. The fold belts develop into
kobergens, some of them alpinotype and some of them germanotype. The tectonic style of a tectonic belt
depends mainly on the thickness and strength of the lithosphere overlying it.
53
10. Tectogenesis generally affects an entire tectonic belt and, in fact, may be worldwide, the worldwide
early to late Eocene tectogenesis is an example. This indicates that the lithosphere collapse generates
tectogenesis and transmits stresses everywhere in a given belt at the same time. Thus Pascal’s law is at the
core of tectogenesis. Sudden rupture and deformation of surge channels may therefore be likened to what
happens when someone stamps a foot on a tube full of tooth paste. The speed or rapidity of tectogenesis,
then, is related to the number of fractures participating in the event, as well as to the thickness of lithosphere
involved, the size of the surge channels or surge-channel system, the volume and types of magma involved,
and related factors.
11. Once tectogenesis is completed, another geotectonic cycle or subcycle sets in, commonly within the
same tectonic belt.”
Summarising, surge tectonics views the Earth as “a very large hydraulic press. Such a press consists of three
essential parts – a closed vessel, the liquid in the vessel, and a ram or piston. The collapse of the lithosphere
into the asthenosphere is the activating ram or piston of tectogenesis. The asthenosphere and its overlying
lithosphere surge channels – which are everywhere connected with the asthenosphere by vertical conduits –
are the vessels that enclose the fluid. The fluid is magma generated in the asthenosphere. The magma fills
the lithosphere channels. When the piston (lithosphere collapse) suddenly compresses the channels and the
underlying asthenosphere, the pressure is transmitted rapidly and essentially simultaneously through the
worldwide interconnected surge-channel network, the surge channels burst and the tectogenesis is in full
swing. The compression everywhere of the asthenosphere compensates for the fact that the basaltic magma
of the surge channels is non-Newtonian.”
In conclusion, it is evident that the evolution and enunciation of surge tectonics as a viable geodynamic
concept follow the most appropriate scientific approach – from basic data to process to encompassing
framework (hypothesis). And, most importantly, that the concept “draws on well-known laws of physics,
especially those related to the laws of motion, gravity, and fluid dynamics,” which are discussed throughout
the text and again presented and explained in the appendix. As to its application to the geological past, that
needs working out time-series information about increase in lithospheric thickness.
Having said this, we do not claim surge tectonics to be the panacea for geodynamic problems. As Donna
Meyerhoff-Hull wrote in her editor’s postscript (Meyerhoff et al., 1996), “He encouraged his colleagues to
continue thinking about the hypothesis and wanted them to continue to improve it with their own data and
idea”. However, we strongly believe, it addresses nearly every geological and geophysical piece of data
currently available. After the enunciation of surge tectonics in 1992 and his death in 1994, numerous
evidence supporting surge tectonics have continually emerged, many of which have been documented in our
own platform, NCGT Newsletter: The data mainly come from field geological data, earthquake study,
satellite altimetry and seismic tomography. They provide much clearer picture of surge tectonics. Some
salient points are:
1) The outer core-sourced energy possibly in the form of heat, volatiles, or electromagnetics rises to the
shallow Earth and transmigrates laterally along major fractured and porous zones – tectonic zones and
orogenic belts, which trigger volcanic eruptions and major earthquakes by heating magmas and the upper
mantle/lower crust. The well-tested and proven Blot’s energy transmigration phenomena (1976) and
Tsunoda’s VE process (2009) testify to the presence of energy migration channels or surge channels.
2) Seismo-tomographic profiles across the Pacific Ocean show the correlation between the distribution of
Jurassic and Cretaceous basins and that of faster mantle velocity down to 330 km depth, which in turn is
underlain by slow mantle (Choi and Vasiliev, 2008; Fig. 1), while the continents are generally underlain by
fast mantle through to the core-mantle boundary. These facts are in harmony with the cooling of the shallow
mantle model – already cooled lithosphere and cooling strictosphere. Cooling of the Earth surface is also
supported by earthquake focal mechanism studies; compressional in the shallow quakes and tensional in
intermediate to deep quakes (Suzuki, 2001; Tarakanov, 2005).
54
Figure 1. Mantle profile across the Pacific Ocean from Russia to South America (Choi and Vasiliev, 2008) compiled
from tomographic images by Kawakami et al. (1994). Note the coincidence between the Mesozoic basin distribution
and that of the fast shallow mantle (to 330 km), suggesting the cause-effect relationship between the cooling of shallow
mantle and subsidence. There are numerous indisputable data that the oceanic areas had formed land until Mesozoic.
K-K TZ = Korea-Kamchatka Tectonic Zone; T-K TZ = TanLu-Kamchatka Tectonic Zone; A-H line = AleutianHawaiian Islands Line.
Stroretvedt states that “surprisingly low heat flow, the problem of finding anticipated magma chambers, a
nearly complete lack of active volcanism, predominantly low-temperature mineral alteration, and a frequent
occurrence of serpentized peridotites” along ocean ridges are “'deadly weapons' against seafloor spreading
as well as surge tectonics.” No, these are not the data that discount either sea floor spreading or surge
tectonics; indeed, also not expanding Earth. It is discomforting to see surge tectonics being clubbed with the
concept that it is anti-thesis of. His statement is based both on denial of evidence and misunderstanding.
Denial because, as stated above, there is a whole range of evidence that are marshalled (and cited with full
publication details) for the existence of magma channels both under ocean ridges and elsewhere. Also,
relevant literature gives data for heat flow exceeding 55 mW/m2; again, this includes ocean ridges. No
concepts including plate, expanding and surge tectonics advocate 24x7 magma eruption along ocean ridges.
Per year spreading rates given by plate tectonicists (and used also by expansionists) does not mean magma is
erupting on daily or even yearly basis. These are supposed to be averages reduced to annual basis from those
that are inferred from dating of magnetic stripes. As to low temperature mineral alterations, this problem has
been discussed by several publications. We would specifically recommend the paper by W.S.D. Wilcock
and J.R. Delaney (1996, Mid-ocean ridge sulfide deposits: Evidence for heat extraction from magma
chambers or cracking fronts? Eearth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 145, p. 49-64). Although they use
plate tectonics framework, it is more important to notice the conditions and processes they envisage remain
broadly applicable irrespective of their broader tectonic model
Yes, ST doesn't talk of evolutionary history but where does it come in the way of its application to that
question. We would challenge Storetvedt to explain just a few of the data sets that we have listed – like, e.g.,
morphology of the ocean ridges, steamlines, 7.0-7.8 km/s anomalous layer, formation of asthenosphere,
geographic distribution of island arcs, angular difference in lithospheric and strictospheric Benioff zones –
using his wrench tectonics.
55
Returning to Storetvedt’s comments. He laments surge tectonics ignoring “mention of the protracted
tropical-subtropical conditions in Antarctica.” Climatic conditions -- current or past -- are not primarily a
direct consequence of Earth dynamics but can be thought of as proxy for certain processes (e.g., erosion) and
physiographic features of the Earth. Therefore, expecting a geodynamic model to be erected on such data is
too much of a misplaced expectation. However, for the sake of completeness, it needs be mentioned that in
the same year (1996) when book on surge tectonics was published, Meyerhoff et al. (1996) published a
monumental piece of work tiled ‘Phanerozoic faunal and floral realms of the Earth; the intercalary relations
of the Malvinokaffric and Gondwana faunal realms with the Tethyan faunal realm.’ It was published by the
Geological Society of America as GSA Memoir 129. As can be gauged from the title, this publication
discusses all available faunal and floral data – including from Antarctica -- to discount any mobilistic
concept.
We have already stated that we do not intend to criticize Storetvedt’s “Wrench Tectonics theory – which [he
believes] is an attempt to unify the various facets of Earth history.” Again, that is for readers and time.
However, before any one worries about testing his theory against Earth’s history, we would draw
Storetvedt’s attention to one current, existing fact. On page 45 of the latest NCGT Newsletter (Issue #57) he
presents a 3-D satellite view of “two tectonic 'whirlpool' junctions on the East Pacific Rise”. Though he
doesn’t name the two “whirlpools,” the bigger one is the Easter Island and the smaller one is Juan Fernandez
Island, both located on the East Pacific Rise in the eastern part of the central Pacific. Easter Island’s
geological feature has been fairly well researched and discussed. Without describing their geological or
geophysical characters, Storetvedt explains them away as the products of interaction of Easter Fracture Zone
and Chile ridge with the East Pacific Rise. He writes: “It looks as if shear stress has produced a torque
ripping off micro-blocks at the two cross-cutting junctions, after which the detached crustal units have been
subjected to tectonic rotation.” (Notice the wishful language!)
You can’t imagine a more simplistic approach when actual facts are taken into consideration. Figure 2
shows the structural geometry, deduced from side-sonar images and high-pass GEOSAT altimetry data.
Notice the vortical morphology; it shows the Easter Island like an elliptical ring on the ocean bottom. And
notice the feature is enveloped within the two axes of the East Pacific Rise – the “overlapping spreading
centers” of plate tectonics. Some plate tectonics literature describes the Easter Island as rotating microplate.
Some descriptions include: “Enclosing the core of microplate, the inner pseudofaults form a pattern
resembling the meteorological symbol for a hurricane” (Larson et al., 1992); and “The result is a feature that
appears much like a geological “hurricane” embedded in the crust of the earth” (Bird and Naar, 1994;
Leybourne and Adams, 2001). Surge tectonics calls such structures as vortex structure.
One might say there is so far no apparent conflict with wrench tectonics if Storetvedt’s wrench tectonics can
produce the observed structural geometry. But that ends when you consider a complete gradation in form
and style between overlapping spreading centers (incipient vortices of surge tectonics) and fully developed
vortices so well documented in the surge tectonics book. More importantly, what would be the wrench
tectonics explanation for similar overlapping spreading center-like structure like, e. g. the East African Rift
Valley system (Fig. 3) or full-blown vortices like Dasht-i-Lut (Fig. 4) or Banda Sea vortex (Fig. 5)? Which
of the intersecting fracture zones or ridges or shear belts would be invoked in these cases?
56
Figure 2. Vortex structure in the Easter Island (for source reference see Meyerhoff et al., 1996). A typical symbol of
atmospheric hurricane in the Earth’s crust.
Figure 3. East African rift-valley system (for source reference see Meyerhoff et al., 1996). Another example of a
continental tectonic vortex along a continental rift geostream.
57
Figure 4. Dasht-i-Lut vortex structure, Iran (for source reference see Meyerhoff et al., 1996), a typical continental
vortex along a fold belt. The orientation of the structures show that motions beneath the vortex were counterclockwise.
Figure 5. Bathymetry (left) and 3-D bathymetric view of Webber Deep in the Banda Sea (Leybourne and Adams,
1999).
Storetvedt writes: It is my opinion that the only way into the future is through application of well-established
facts, primarily based on rock evidence and various other surface data1. But to go from there to aspects of
real understanding we need a functional thought construction – a Theory! And a theory is an invention,
invented for the purpose of explaining the diversity of observations and phenomena – and their interrelationship2. Therefore, a successful theory of the Earth will automatically establish an extensive
phenomenological prediction confirmation sequence, spanning at least a major part of geological history.
The ability of such a system must be its capacity to evolve in one direction only – from the characteristics of
the Archaean to the features of the modern Earth3 for which uplift of mountain ranges worldwide probably
58
stands out as the most prominent event. Such an irreversible self-organizing development scheme is what
my Global Wrench Tectonics is thought to delineate.” (Italics and superscript numbers by us.)
With reference to the italicized point no. 1, we would say if Storetvedt did not find this approach in surge
tectonics, for sure he has either not read it or he is definitely not talking about geological/geophysical facts.
As to point no. 2, well, we have given a sampling of the 29 data sets. If they do not represent diversity of
“observations and phenomena -- and inter-relationship”, again, for sure these very words must mean
something unknown to us. Finally point 3: Let us wait to see how Global Wrench Tectonics explains the
question we ask in relation to his “whirlpools” before we worry about how this “Theory” fares in Archaean.
Peter James – superficial criticism
With this we now turn to Peter James’ comments (NCGT issue no. 56). He writes: "Another recent
development in the literature has been the concept of surge tectonics and its derivatives. So far, the thesis
appears to be based on morphological-type interpretations. That is, if it looks ok – particularly on a computer
screen – then it is ok. But such reasoning requires the next step: some quantitative analyses based on
evaluation of the relevant stresses; the origin of such stresses; their effectiveness in a crustal environment
where shear strength parameters are reasonably well established."
Whether surge tectonics is based on just morphological-type interpretation is, we hope, addressed already in
the preceding text, but to castigate it as "if it looks ok – particularly on a computer screen – then it is ok" is a
severe unscientific aberration. We would limit ourselves by saying that it very obviously indicates that
James hasn’t read surge tectonics. The day he would read it, he would not remain so ignorant as to ignore
that every interpretation is in the light of established physical laws (mentioned in the preceding), and that
even figures are not computer drawn (of course no problem if they were), let alone interpretations.
Oceanization – reversal of established process
It is something that has puzzled us all through. How can its advocates ignore energy requirements for such a
process? If Earth scientists of any hue or affiliation can agree on any one thing, it is about Earth’s cooling
that has resulted its shell structure via elemental differentiation – heavier towards the core, lighter towards
the surface. A reverse process (that is what oceanization in effect is) should need heat input. What is the
likely source for such heat? Invoking high magma temperature for assimilating continental crust, the
problem is how much continental crust it can assimilate. Importantly, will it still produce basaltic crust with
mineralogical, chemical and isotopic composition and density and seismic characteristics that mark the
ocean floor? Wherever there is evidence (chemical/isotopic, rarely half-digested xenoliths) of crustal
assimilation by basaltic magmas (remember it is only from continental settings), deduction is always for
very, very minuscule amounts that get reflected in few trace elements and isotopic characters, never in
mineralogy and never for wholesale assimilation. Even if one assumes basaltic magma swamping
continental crust the compositional, density and seismic problems would remain. Evidence so far available is
for basaltic magma “underplating” continental crust, not for assimilating and converting it into basaltic crust.
The questions that need answering: a) How much heat, which, in turn, means what volumes of magma, is
(are) required to assimilate and convert several km thick continental crust into ocean floor? And b) Do we
have any evidence of such huge magmatism or is there any other source for such heat?
Expanding Earth – a small puzzle
Most of the Earth tectonic hypotheses involve the midocean ridges (MORs) in one way or another (Fig. 6).
The MORs are a series of mountain ranges on the ocean floor, more than 84,000 kilometers (52,000 miles)
in length, extending through the North and South Atlantic, the Indian Ocean, and the South Pacific. Several
smaller ones, such as the Juan de Fuca Ridge, also add to that total. According to the plate tectonics and
various expansion tectonic hypotheses, volcanic rock is added to the sea floor as the MOR spreads apart.
Thus, the age of the rocks on the MOR are “0," aging away from the ridge until about 200 Ma.
59
Figure 6. Stick figure diagram of the world’s midocean ridges. Note that most are not in the middle of the basins, nor
do they circle Earth.
Where this new ocean floor goes is open to discussion. In the plate hypothesis it disappears or is taken up in
the collision margins or trenches. In the expansion model, it merely adds to the circumference of the Earth.
The expansionists advocate an Earth about 35% smaller about 200 Ma ago.
The present circumference of Earth is 24,901.55 miles (40,075.16 km) at the equator and 24,859.82 miles
(40,008 km) around the poles. Taking a mean, Earth’s circumference would have necessarily been 35% less
200 million years ago, or about 26,000 km when all the continents were locked into one supercontinent
according to a general consensus. Therefore, the circumferential growth appears to have been, for these past
200 Ma on the order of 14,000 km for a growth rate of 7 cm/yr at the equator. It would be less at this
latitude, more on the order of 6 cm/yr.
Most of the plate spreading rates appear to be 3-5 cm/yr (the range is 1-10 cm/yr). However, expansionists
apparently use the magnetic anomalies to show this expansion rate. Due to the fallacies previously shown
elsewhere, they are dealing in a dream world of made-up, fictitious figures that belie even themselves.
But, for the sake of the argument, since many actually incorporate expansion into “newer” hypotheses, real
ocean floor data will give real figures; that is, if one even believes in seafloor spreading by expansion or
whatever means. To that end the present information that may directly affect any and all of the proposed
tectonic hypotheses.
Bathymetric information based on total coverage, multibeam sonar survey data from the Ocean Survey
Program of the US Naval Oceanographic Office should suffice. The line spacing was enough to ensure total
coverage, and overlap in some deeper areas, such that a sonar bottom map could be created leaving no room
for doubt as to the geomorphology of the region in question.That region is in the middle of the North
Atlantic Ocean basin on the Hayes Fracture Zone (HFZ; Fig. 7). It is defined at the extremes by the Corner
Rise/Seamount group on the west (centered at about 36oN, 51oW; Fig. 8) and the Atlantis/Cruiser/ Great
60
Meteor platform on the east (centered at about 32.5oN, 28oW; Fig. 9) separated by a distance of some 1150
miles/2130 km. The feature straddles the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The time constraint is provided by the
magnetic anomaly 33y (c74.5 Ma) and some of the ages of the Corner Seamounts (80-76 Ma) and the
Cruiser Plateau (76 Ma).
Figure7. Stick figure diagram of the North Atlantic Ocean basin showing the locations of the major seamount provinces
and fracture zones. Small boxes show locations of Figures 8 and 9.
Figure 8. Bathymetry of the Corner Seamount group at a 100-fm contour interval. The magnetic anomaly pattern is
shown for the observed (bold dots) and the rotated anomalies (short-dashed lines). Ages taken from the DNAG. The
southern two lines approximate the Hayes Fracture Zone location, and the northern that of the Oceanographer Fracture
Zone.
61
Figure 9. Multibeam sonar bathymetry at a 100-fm contour interval of the Cruiser/Irving/Hyeres platform lying in the
eastern region of the Hayes megatrend. The attendant E-W trending seamount chain to the north lies between the
Hayes FZ and the Oceanographer FZ, also part of the Hayes Megatrend. Otherwise, the dots and dashes are the same
as those described on Figure 8.
These features were selected based on the bathymetry of the inner walls and general morphology of the
features. Resetting them to 74.5 Ma along the HFZ gives an exact fit, especially along the relatively steep
inner walls of the adjoining edifices (Fig. 10). Also, the seamount provinces on the northern extreme; that is,
the northwesterly-trending group of the Corner Seamounts and the Atlantis/Piglet Group north of Cruiser
form a perfect in-line sequence bathymetrically.
This led to the construction of the original idea in the first place, as one of us (Smoot) did the in-house
contouring of both features and was on the lookout for possible guyots. His further work with Brian
Tucholke of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute led to the addition of the magnetics information (Smoot
and Tucholke, 1986).
62
Because of the expansion parameters, this fits exactly into that plan. We have two features that possibly used
to be part of the same paleo-plateau. We have the same fracture zone passing through both features. And, we
have the exact same magnetic anomalies passing through the two different edifices-lagniappe, or serendipity,
at its best. All we have to do is figure the expansion/spreading rate to settle many arguments.
And, that value is 0.000029 km/yr, or 2.9 cm/yr.
A problem exists because expansion apparently does not occur in continental crust. At this latitude the only
oceanic crust available for expansion is the Pacific. The Indian Ocean does not exist at this latitude, the
northern limit being about 25oN. The East Pacific Rise stops at about 22oN with only the Juan de Fuca
Ridge, a relatively minuscule center, to the north of that. Therefore, for the expansion idea to work, the
Pacific Basin must be growing by some other means.
One has to ask: “how did the earlier, in fact, all of the expansionists come up with that growth size in the
first place?” Someone please take the time to give us a reasonable explanation based on some kind of
scientific facts-please.
Figure 10. Resetting the bathymetry of Figures 8 and 9 by the use of the primary megatrend axis and the magnetic data
brings the Corner Seamounts snuggly into the notch of the Cruiser and Irving platforms. All of the guyot/seamount
studies show lower angled flanks toward the ocean floor due to sediment drape with the possible exceptions of slumps
and these two features. At 100% bathymetric coverage by one-degree sonar beam width, this could not be a better fit
and is an excellent region for a study of ocean floor "spreading." Less than 3-cm/yr it is.
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El Nina Southern Oscillation. MTS Oceans ’99 Conference, Seattle, Sept 1999, p. 955-966.
Leybourne, B.A. and Adams, M.B., 2001. El Nino tectonic modulation in the Pacific basin.
In: Proceedings of the OCEANS, 2001. MTS/IEEEConference and Exhibition, Honolulu, HI, USA, 5 – 8 Nov, 2001, v. 4,
p. 2400-2406 doi: 10.1109/OCEANS.2001.9683.
Meyerhoff, A.A., Taner, I., Morris, A.E.L. and Martin, B.D., 1992. Surge tectonics. In, Chatterjee, S. and Hotton, N.,
III, eds., “New concepts in global tectonics”. Texas Tech Univ. Press, Lubbock, p. 309-409.
Meyerhoff, A.A., Taner, I., Morris, A.E., Agocs, W.B., Kamen-Kaye, M., Bhat, M.I., Smoot, N.C. and Choi, D.R.,
edited by Meyerhoff-Hull, D., 1996. Surge tectonics: A new hypothesis of global geodynamics. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht. 323p.
Meyerhoff, A.A., Boucot, A.J., Meyerhoff-Hull, D. and Dickins, J.M., 1996. Phanerozoic faunal and floral realms of
the Earth: The intercalary relations of the Malvinokaffric and Gondwana faunal realms with the Tethyan faunal
realm. Geol. Soc. America Mem. 189, 69p.
Smoot, N.C. and Tucholke, B., 1986. Multi-beam sonar evidence for evolution of Corner Rise and Cruiser Seamount
Groups, Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, v. 67, no. 44, p. 1221.
Storetvedt, K., 2010. Facts, mistaken beliefs, and the future of global tectonics. NCGT Newsletter, no. 57, p. 3-10.
James, P.M., 2010. New concepts and the paths ahead. NCGT Newsletter, no. 56, p. 3-5.
Suzuki, Y., 2001. A geotectonic model of South America referring to the intermediate-deep earthquake zone. NCGT
Newsletter, no. 20, p. 17-24.
Tarakanov, R.Z., 2005. On the nature of seismic focal zone. NCGT Newsletter, no. 34, p. 6-20.
Tsunoda, F., 2009. Habits of earthquakes. Part 1: mechanism of earthquakes and lateral thermal seismic energy
transmigration. NCGT Newsletter, no. 53, p. 38-46.
63
64
PUBLICATIONS
HOW PLATE TECTONICS MAY APPEAR TO A PHYSICIST
Raymond A. Lyttleton, Institute of Astronomy, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HA
Hermann Bondi, Churchill College. Cambridge, CB3 0DS
(This paper originally appeared in Jour. British Astron. Soc., v. 102, no. 4, p. 194-195, 1992. Reproduction permitted
by British Astron. Assoc., London on 7 Feb., 2011)
M
uch enthusiasm has been associated with the hypothesis of plate tectonics and the notion of
continental drift but most of the discussion seems to flout Mcdawar’s dictum that the intensity of
conviction felt for a hypothesis has no bearing on whether it is true or not.
It would be wrong to dismiss some of the benefits of the plate tectonics theory but for the fact that it
involves certain assumptions that are more than just difficult to accept by those of us brought up principally
on mathematical physics. For example, we regard it as little more than fortuitous that the coastlines of the
continents of South America and Africa should roughly fit together. (There is in fact a misfit of about 13°,
though it is believed the fit is better when the margins of the continents are replaced by the continental
shelves.) A number of authors have discussed this. For example, Lyustikh (1967) has shown that numerous
examples of such similarities of form are found elsewhere on the Earth’s surface. It is difficult to see any
sign of even an approximate fit in the northern hemisphere.
Pro-drifters and anti-drifters can each select items of evidence that favour their views. What are really
needed are incontrovertible data.
Such data may be provided by considering the time periods associated with plate-tectonic movements,
apparently 108 to 2 x 108 years. The latest estimates of the age of the Earth are around 4.6 x 109 years
(Tayler, 1990). Thus plate tectonics tells us nothing about the history of the Earth for its first 44 x 108 years.
The mechanism of colliding continental plates to explain mountain building has been examined by Professor
T. Gold (1984), in particular the case of the Himalayas. Energy considerations show that the height of the
Himalayas produced by the Indian plate, moving at a few centimeters a year, colliding with the Asian plate
would be about 30 nanometres. Nor as will be pointed out later, can the hypothetical driving force of plate
movements account for mountain building. These theories also fail to give any account of numerous earlier
eras of mountain formation (Holmes, 1944 & 1965) during the past 2000 million years (see table). On the
other hand, a phase-change interpretation of the core region of the Earth, based as it is on the lifetimes of
radioactive elements, offers a mechanism with a halflife of 4000 million years that is still active today
(Lyttleton, 1982). Radioactivity in the interior of the Earth, initially solid and cool throughout, leads after
about 1000 million years to the sudden so-called Ramsey collapse, which in turn leads to the onset of a
phase change to a liquid metallic core of initial radius 2042 km followed by a gradual increase to the present
radius of 3473 km (Ramsey, 1948).
Evidence for the rate of change of the Earth’s moment of inertia (C) comes from analysis of ancient eclipse
data (Lyttleton, 1982 & 1986). The rate of change of C bears a simple relation to the couples exerted on the
Earth by lunar and solar tides, which in turn are related to the apparent angular accelerations of the Moon
and Sun (Muller and Stephenson, 1976). The original data, which go back to 1875 BC, yield the important
result that during the past 3900 years, C has been decreasing at an average rate of 1.67 x 1027 g cm2 s-1. An
independent calculation of the same quantity can be made from the change of moment of inertia of an
initially all-solid Earth to the present situation, giving 1.72 x 1027 g cm2 s-1, the two figures are remarkably
similar. A whole series of models may be calculated (Muller and Stephenson, 1976) from the time of the
Ramsey collapse, which has been estimated to have taken place 3000 million years ago, to the present time.
Calculations show that the radius of the Earth would have diminished by almost exactly 300 km. Here we
65
have a straightforward cause of mountain-building that has affected the Earth repeatedly since the time of
the Ramsey collapse.
A further difficulty with the plate-tectonic hypothesis is the absence of even a notional causative force for
the plate movements. Convection in the solid mantle is a conceptual possibility but we are unaware of any
quantitative analysis giving results to justify such an explanation. In any convective system, horizontal
currents are secondary and easily deflected by obstacles. To ascribe the repeated eras of mountain building
to the alleged continuous push of horizontal elements of convection loops is contrary to any analysis of
convection and the energy that could thus be released by this means.
The question may be asked, ‘What of the other terrestrial bodies - Venus, Mars, Mercury and the Moon?’
The mass of Venus is not much less than the Earth’s so it would be expected to have similar mechanical
properties. Recent radar mapping has verified the existence of mountain formations at its surface. In
contrast, Mars, with surface gravity only about 0.3 that of the Earth, is entirely free of surface features that
resemble folded and thrusted mountains. This is also true of Mercury and the Moon, which are even smaller.
In Mars, the internal pressures are far lower than at corresponding depths within the Earth, at Mars’s centre
the pressure is only 0.17 that at the centre of the Earth. It is precisely because of the low pressure that no
phase change can occur and thus no general contraction of the planet. The same argument applies to
Mercury and the Moon.
Where the shapes of the continental margins are concerned, there have been numerous ice ages in which
several thousand feet of ice covered large areas of the globe. The ice can only have come ultimately from the
oceans. The configurations of the land masses in these past eras may have been very different from their
present shape and no guide to their subsequent development.
However, the absence of an identifiable driving force and a quantitative analysis of the source of the alleged
motions remains, in our view, the biggest gap in the plate tectonics theory. The primary cause must be
vertical movement, driven not by a feeble horizontal component force of convection but by imbalances
between gravitation and pressure gradients which are potentially of adequate magnitude to account for the
recurrent eras of mountain building. We have explored this possibility and have found no evidence against
such a hypothesis.
Less episodic and far smaller vertical motions are those that plate-tectonics invoke in support of the analysis
of mid-ocean ridges. Much is made of the notion of sea-floor spreading as giving some support to the
phenomenon of magnetic stripes. However it is not at all clear what driving mechanism could account for
these ridges and such oceanic features as the Mariana Trench and the Tuscarora Deep whose dimensions are
comparable with those of the Himalayan Mountains.
In physics, however, when there is a single piece of evidence in accord with an otherwise unsupported
hypothesis, it is usual to search for alternative explanations. By the process of studying a variety of options,
the currently accepted theories of physics have been refined to justify their status. It is the lack of study of
alternatives to plate tectonics that reduces its plausibility in the eyes of a physicist.
References:
Gold, T., 1984. Intern. Stop Cont. Drift. Soc., v. 5, no. 1, p. 12
Homes, A., 1944 & 1965. Principles of physical geology. Ronald Press Co.
Lyustickh, H.N., 1967. Geophys. Jour. Royal Astro. Soc., v. 14, p. 347.
Lyttelton, R.A., 1982. The Earth and its mountains. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Lyttleton, R.A., 1986. Dynamical theory of the rotation of the Earth. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. A.,
v. 408, p. 267-275.
Muller, P.M. and Stephenson, F.R., 1976. NASA Lunar Program Office.
Ramsey, W.H., 1949. Monthly Note. Royal Astro. Soc. Geophys. Suppl., no. 5, p. 409.
Ramsey, W.H., 1948. Monthy Note. Roy. Astron. Soc., v. 108, p. 406.
Ramsey, W.H., 1950. Monthy Note. Royal Astro. Soc., v. 110, p. 325 & 444.
Tayler, R.J., 1990. Quart. Journ. Royal Astro. Soc., v. 31, p. 294.
66
The main eras of mountain-building on the Earth over the last 2000 million years. Approximate dates
are given in millions of years before the present. (After Holmes1944 & 1965)
Cycle
North America
Mainly Europe
Ⅸ
CIRCUM-PACIFIC
1-70 My
Ⅷ
Younger APPALACHIAN
200-230 My
Ⅶ
Older APPALACHIAN
350 My
Ⅵ
Lake Superior
550 My
ALPINE (incl. Asiatic extensions)
20-70 My
HERCYNIAN (Central Europe-S. of
Ireland)
200-250 My
CALEDONIAN (Norway-British Isles)
310-320 My
- Base of Cambrian
CHARNIAN (England) (Katanga,
Central Africa, 600My)
Ⅴ
KILLARNEAN (Lake Superior)
750 My
Ⅳ
LAURENTIAN (St Lawrence)
1050 My
Ⅲ
Great Bear Lake (Canada) and Black
Hills of S. Dakota) 1350 My
(Western Australia, 1250 My)
Ⅱ
Older Black Hills
1600 My
MAREALBIAN (White Sea)
1600 My
Ⅰ
Manitoba
1750 My
KARELIAN (Lapland-L. Ladoga & SE
Norway) 850 My
SVECOFENNIAN (S. FinlandStockholm)
1050 My
Conglomerates containing pebbles of oldest known granite
*******************
ATMOSPHERIC MASSES OF FOUR SOLAR SYSTEM SOLID BODIES (VENUS,
EARTH, MARS, TITAN) IN RELATION TO THEIR TECTONIC GRANULATIONS
Gennady G. KOCHEMASOV
[email protected]
EPSC Abstracts, v. 5, EPSC2010-25, 2010. European Planetary Science Congress
O
nly four solid bodies of the Solar system have significant atmospheres (Figs. 1-4). Their compositions
reflect processes of outgassing and evolution of solid geospheres. Main atmospheric components are at
Titan N2 and CH4, Mars CO2, Earth N2 and O2, Venus CO2. Minor components mainly give them
spectacular colors: orange, red, blue, and white. An important regularity concerns masses of atmospheres.
They are inversely proportional to sizes of wave tectonic granulations of solid bodies and are also influenced
by other physico-chemical conditions as temperature, gravity, and planetary masses. Relief ranges of solid
bodies increase with increasing tectonic granule sizes (Kochemasov, 2009); atmospheric masses, on the
contrary, increase with diminishing granule sizes (Kochemasov, 2006). Thus, intensity of “sweeping” out
volatiles of planets increases with frequency of their wave “shaking” that is in an inverse correlation with
their orbital frequencies.
Planetary atmospheres as inseparable parts of planetary geospheres have close structural and compositional
ties with underlying solid formations. Atmospheres are produced by solid bodies as a result of their
67
outgassing (“sweeping out” volatiles) that apparently is tied to their oscillations and tectonic granulations
(Kochemasov, 2004 & 2006). The comparative wave planetology having stated that “orbits make structures”
finds that two fundamental properties of all celestial bodies are most important for their structurization:
movement and rotation. All bodies move in non-circular keplerian elliptic (and parabolic) orbits that imply
periodic acceleration changes and appearance of inertia-gravity forces producing warping waves. In rotating
bodies (but all celestial bodies rotate!) these waves are ordered in four ortho- and diagonal directions.
Having stationary character and various lengths they interfere producing positive (+), negative (-) and
neutral (0) tectonic blocks (Kochemasov, 1998).
The fundamental wave 1 long 2πR gives ubiquitous tectonic dichotomy, the first overtone wave 2 long πR
makes tectonic sectoring. Individual for any body waves whose lengths are inversely proportional to their
orbital frequencies produce tectonic granules: higher frequency – smaller granule, lower frequency – larger
granule. The following row shows increasing granule sizes (a half of a wavelength): Titan πR/91, Sun’s
photosphere πR/60, Mercury πR/16, Venus πR/6, Earth πR/4, Mars πR/2, asteroids πR/1(Kochemasov,
1998, 2006 & 2009). One may say that Venus is tectonically “fine-grained”, Earth “medium-grained”, Mars
“coarse-grained”. The wave produced granulation and known atmospheric masses indicate that fine-grained
Venus is more thoroughly shaken out and released of its volatiles (degassed) than Earth and Mars. The
atmospheric masses increase from Mars through Earth to Venus as ~ 0. 01 : 1 : 90. This is proved not only
by its massive atmosphere containing a large amount of nitrogen but also by a very low ratio of radiogenic to
primordial argon (Venus 1, Earth 300, Mars 3000) (Pollack and Black, 1979). The smaller volatile rich
satellite Titan with high orbital frequency has an important atmosphere - probably only a remnants of what
was totally outgassed during eons (Kochemasov, 2006).
Most outgassed planets having transferred important part of their angular momentum to gaseous envelope
and farther out were forced to slow down their rotation rate. Thus, there are slowly rotating Venus, Mercury,
and Sun, moderately rotating Earth and Mars, and fastly rotating outer gaseous giant planets.
Fig. 1. Titan, PIA09858, “Orange”, Natural color view, imaged by Cassini SC from distance of 2.3 mln. km.
Fig. 2. Mars, PIA11029, “Red Planet”, Mars Global Surveyor’s image. Olympus Mons at center.
Fig. 3. Earth, PIA10120, “Blue Planet”, MESSENGER Space craft’s image.
Fig. 4. Venus, PIA 10124, “White Planet”, MESSENGER SC’s image.
References
Kochemasov, G.G., 2009. A regular row of planetary relief ranges connected with tectonic granulations of celestial bodies.
New Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletter, # 51, p. 58-61.
Kochemasov, G.G., 2006. Outgassing of planets in relation to their orbital frequencies. EUROPLANET-2006. Sci. Conference,
Sept. 22-26, 2006, Berlin, EPSC Abstracts, v. 1, EPSC2006-A-00043, CD-ROM.
Kochemasov, G.G., 2004. Terrestrial planets: volatiles loss & speed of rotation. 35th COSPAR Sci. Assembly, Paris, France,
18-25 July 2004, Abstract # COSPAR04-A-00913, CD-ROM.
Kochemasov, G.G., 1998. Tectonic dichotomy, sectoring and granulation of Earth and other celestial bodies. Proceedings of
international symposium on new concepts in global tectonics (’98 TSUKUBA)”, Tsukuba, Japan, Nov. 1998, p. 144-147.
Pollack J.B. and Black D.C., 1979. Implications of the gas compositional measurements of Pioneer Venus for the origin of
planetary atmospheres. Science, v. 205, #4401, p. 56-59.
Images credit: Figure 1 - NASA/JPL/ Space Science Inst.; Figure 2 – NASA/JPL-Caltech; Figures 3-4 – NASA/Johns Hopkins
University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington.
68
TWO DEEPEST GEOID MINIMA ON EARTH (INDIAN) AND THE MOON (SOUTH
POLE-AITKEN BASIN) ARE DEEMED HAVING DIFFERENT ORIGINS BUT
SURPRISINGLY SIMILAR BY THEIR TECTONIC POSITIONS
GennadyG. KOCHEMASOV
[email protected]
Translated from: “Planet Earth” system: 300 anniversary of the M.V. Lomonosov birthday. 1711-2011.
Monograph., Moscow: LENAND, 2010. 480p. (p. 394-396) (In Russian)
E
arth and its satellite both are well studied topographically and gravimetrically. It turned out that at both
bodies there are solitary unique planetary scale objects, origin of which puzzles scientists. Geophysicists
know about existence of a unique depression in the geoid form on the Indian Ocean deep –112 m but its
origin is mysterious. According to the prevailing theory plate tectonics the basin of the Indian Ocean was
formed as a result of moving apart core blocks around a triple junction of the middle-ocean ridges. Such
interpretation of the present tectonics contradicts to a real disposition of different ages planetary geologic
blocks around the Indian minimum (Fig. 4, Kochemasov, 2009) and does not explain its profound nature.
The minimum occurs at the axe “b” of three main Earth’s moments of inertia and thus is a fundamental part
of its rotation figure (Liu amd Chao, 1991).
Lunar Basins and Marea, as it is known, are traditionally considered as traces of impacts of giant cosmic
bodies during an earlier bombardment (3 to 4 Ga ago). Even their regular symmetric disposition on the
surface is neglected (Kochemasov, 1997). However, serious difficulties recently arise in concordance of
their supposed ages with ages of “impact” breccias and relations between them. But the supporters of
impacts stand firm on their opinion and do not accept alternatives. The South Polar-Aitken basin is
considered as the largest impact basin in the Solar system; its depth is about 8 km with the total lunar relief
range about 16 km.
Comparative planetology could help in solution of the question. It turns out that both considered planetary
structures occupy analogous positions in a wave structure of their bodies (Figs. 1-3). They are deeply
subsided sectors (πR-structures) on their respective uplifted continental highland segments-hemispheres
(2πR-structures) (Kochemasov, 1998). Such regular arrangement on two globes makes dubious their
interpretation according to the hypotheses of plate tectonics and impacts (Kochemasov, 1998 & 2010). The
central position of the Indian geoid minimum at the eastern hemisphere (segment) is shown in Fig. 4, where
one can see symmetry of structures by their superposition under 180˚ rotation of the structural scheme of
Fig. 4 about the minimum center. Outside the Fig. 4 scheme are two most famous symmetric objects of
Earth – the subsided Arctic block and uplifted Antarctic block. The wave planetology thus throws light upon
this “mysterious” phenomenon.
Fig. 1. Lunar geoid. Center-down (dark blue) – SPA basin (moontopogeoidusgs_farside.jpg).
Fig. 2. Earth’s geoid. Center-down (dark blue) – Indian minimum (832e4f812d1e.jpg).
69
3
Fig. 3. Schemes of different levels (+, ++, -, --) tectonic sectors on continental segments-hemispheres of the Moon (left)
and Earth. The sectors are grouped around the Mare Orientale and the Pamirs-Hindukush mountain massif. Black – the
most subsided sectors: SPA basin and Indian geoid minimum.
Fig. 4. Earth’s tectonic granules (Congolese, Indian, Indonesian radial-concentric πR/2-structures) and tectonopairs around the
Indian geoid minimum. 1. Tangential weakness zones; 2-7. Congolese superstructure and its superposition with rotation at 180˚ on
Indonesian one; 2. Radial weakness zones, 3. Congo River and Borneo outlines, 4. Archean greenshist belts and Malay island arc, 5.
Rifts in the craton frame and sea troughs, 6. Benoue trough, 7. Afar depression; 8-14. Indian superstructure: 8. Geoid isolines, m, 910. Radial weakness zones ( according to surface features-9, geoid anomalies-10), 11. Underwater ridges, 12. Grabens, 13. Folds in
oceanic crust, 14. Closepet granit; 15-28. Tectonopairs: 15. Himalayas – “Anti-Himalayas”, 16. Altyn-Tagh – SW Indian Ridge, 17.
Yangzi platform (Emeishan basalts) – Mascarene basin, 18. Tibet – Madagascar basin, 19. Tarim – Crozet basin, 20. Tian-Shan –
elevated bottom between Isls. Kerguelen and St. Paul, 21. Central Kazakhstan – Kerguelen Plateau, 22. Gobi – Crozet Plateau, 23.
Persian Gulf & Mesopotamia – basins off SW Australia, 24. AR cratons; South African – Sino-Korean, 25. Angola basin –
Philippine plate, 26. Walvis Ridge – Ryukyu-Japan Isls., 27. Fracture zones; Zagros – Diamantina, 28. Archean cratons: West
African – North Australian [1].
70
References
Kochemasov, G.G., 1997. The wave planetology against the impact and plate tectonics ones // Regularities and symmetry in the
Earth’s structure. Proceedings of the I-III scientific seminars TRINITI RAS-MSU, 1994-1996. ROST, Moscow, 1997, 151
p. 5-17 (In Russian).
Kochemasov, G.G., 1998. The Moon: Earth-type sectoral tectonics, relief and relevant chemical features. Abstracts of the papers
submitted to the 3rd international conference on Exploration and utilization of the Moon, Oct. 11-14, 1998, Moscow, Russia. Eds.
Galimov, E.M., Polyakov, V.B. and Sidorov, Yu.I., p. 29.
Kochemasov, G.G., 2009. Geometric tectonic regularities in the Eastern hemisphere of Earth. MatGeoS’09. Geosciences from
Earth to Space. 2nd workshop on mathematical geosciences, 07 to 08 December 2009, Freiberg, Germany.
Kochemasov, G.G., 2010. Well known outstanding geoid and relief depressions as regular wave woven features on Earth (Indian
geoid minimum), Moon (SPA basin), Phobos (Stickney crater), and Miranda (an ovoid). EGU Congress, Vienna 2010, Abstract
# EGU2010-A-4044.
Liu, H.S. and Chao, B.F., 1991. The Earth’s equatorial principal axes and moments of inertia. Geophys. Jour. Intern., v. 106, no. 3,
p. 699-702.
********************
Published by: Trafford Publishing Company, 1663 Liberty Drive, Suite 300, Bloomington, IN, 47403,
USA. The book is being submitted to a publisher. For enquiries please contact John Casey
[email protected]
From the book: Mr. John L. Casey, a former White House space program advisor, space shuttle engineer,
and consultant to NASA headquarters and Congress, tells us about his desperate quest. He is trying to alert
the world about the next climate change, one that has potentially life altering consequences for everyone on
the planet.
In April 2007, Mr. Casey, independently discovered important cycles of the Sun that govern our climate. He
then became the first researcher in the United States to accurately predict in advance, some of the most
71
significant events in the history of climate science followed by a highly public campaign to notify the
people, the US government and the media.
His predictions included the end of global warming, a long term drop in the Earth‘s temperature, a historic
reduction in the Sun‘s output - what he has named a ―solar hibernation and the start of 30 years of record
cold weather producing the world‘s worst subsistence crisis in history. He extended the ill-effects of this
hibernation of the Sun in May 2010 with his forecast for record earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
This is not solely a telling of his amazing discovery but rather a forecast for the future that all will have to
endure in the dangerous years ahead. His urgent message: Prepare!
********************
GLOBAL VOLCANISM AND OCEANIZATION
OF THE EARTH AND PLANETS
Monograph
Author: Vyacheslav ORLENOK
I. Kant State University of Russia Press
14, A. Nevsky St., Kaliningrad, 236041
For book order, contact: [email protected]
Price: U$40
ANNOTATION
In this monograph the author develops his work on theoretical issues concerning the
Earth and planets, the origin and evolution of the World Oceans, and the structure
of the Earth’s crust. He presents numerous calculations of endogenously produced
water and photolytic losses in the hydrosphere during different stages of geological
history as well as examining initial (Katarchean) and recent (Cenozoic) periods in
global volcanism, their influence on the generation of the sialic basement and the
Earth’s oceanization. The volume and masses of indigenous materials and water
pouring out onto the Earth’s surface have been calculated. The apparatus for
photolysis making developed by the author made it possible to assess the hydrosphere’s conditions throughout the Precambrian and Phanerozoic. A relationship
has been found between the life spans of the ocean basins and their areas, water
masses and solar conditions. Our planet has never had available resources for
making and retaining (for hundreds of millions of years) a deep-water ocean. Even a shallow ocean which
could cover 80 % of the Earth’s surface due to photolytic water dissipation could disappear in just a few tens
of millions of years. The author has determined substantial reductions in the radius of the Earth and planets
and in other conditions such as volume, territories, masses and average density for 4.5 · 109 years, examined
the characteristics of early volcanism and the hydrosphere regime on the surface of planets which belong to
terrestrial group, and the planets-giants.This manual is intended for specialists in the field of Earth sciences
as well as students, postgraduates of geographical and geological faculties of universities and other higher
educational establishments.
CONTENTS
Preface
Introduction
System and non-system units of measurement used in this work
Acknowledgements
Chapter I. Contemporary Structure and Dynamics of the Oceanic Floor
§ 1. Oceanic Floor Relief, Seismotectonics and Volcanism
§ 2. Modern Views on the Nature of the Ocean
Chapter II. Geological History of the Late Mesozoic Seas
72
§ 1. Distribution of the Precambrian Granite-Metamorphic Rocks in Ocean Areas
§ 2. Paleogeography of Sea Basins in the Late Phanerozoic
§ 3. Paleogeography of the Cenozoic Ocean
Chapter III. Cenozoic Global Volcanism and Oceanization of the Earth
§ 1. Evidence of the Grand Subsidence of the Ocean Floor
§ 2. Determination of the Ocean Floor Subsidence Rate
§ 3. Estimation of the Endogenous Water Inflow in the last 70 Ma
§ 4. The Estimation of the Photolytic Constant of Hydrosphere Dissipation
§ 5. The Estimation of Hydrosphere Photolytic Losses in the Geological History
§ 6. New Equation of the Water Balance
Chapter IV. The Causes of Earth Oceanization
§ 1. Processes of Dehydration and Deserpentinisation of the Earth’s Crust
§ 2. Causes of the Cenozoic Global Volcanism
§ 3. Heat and Water Balance in the Oceanization Process
§ 4. The Impact of the Endogenous Water Supply on Ocean Level Change over the Past 140 Years
Chapter V. Future of Terrestrial Oceans
§ 1.Determination of the Amount of Water on the Earth
§ 2. Why is a Proterozoic Ocean Impossible?
§ 3. How Long will the Present-day Ocean Exist?
Chapter VI. Katarchean Global Volcanism and Formation of the Sialic Complex
§ 1. Pre-Geological Earth
§ 2. Evolution of the Sun
§ 3. Radius Reduction and Heat Loss Variations on the Earth and Other Planets
§ 4. Initial Global Volcanism
§ 5. The role of Short-Living Radioactive Isotopes in the Initial Volcanism
§ 6. The Precambrian Decline in Volcanism
Chapter VII. Initial Volcanism and Water Generation on Other Planets
§ 1. Geological Aspects of the Problem Analysis
§ 2. Terrestrial Planets
§ 3. Giant Planets
§ 4. Titan, Triton and Galilean Moons of Jupiter
Conclusions
Bibliography
SYNOPSIS
In the geological history of the Earth new and little-known events and processes have allowed to make an
essential review or updating current scientific hypotheses on the origin of world oceans, formation of the
Earth’s hydrosphere and its losses, history and energetic sources of volcanism, and processes of terrestrial
crust formation.
Two major stages of global volcanism have been revealed; the first stage, Katarchean which resulted in the
granite-metamorphic complex forming the continental and oceanic platforms (sial), and the second,
Cenozoic, covering 2/3 of the Earth’s surface with modern deep world oceans.
Based on the newly discovered important geological processes, an algorithm of quantitative estimation of a
volcanism and the volume of escaped water at different stages of the Precambrian and Phanerozoic in the
Earth and other planets was established. It shows that the initial volcanism occurred on the Earth and other
planets was caused by a single energy source, which could be made only by short-life radionuclides such as
235
U. The avalanche of these elements covered upper ground in the final accretion of the planets. Thus, in the
Earth and terrestrial planets favourable conditions for vast, shallow ocean basins were created.
Shallow-water sediments of late Mesozoic-Jurassic, Cretaceous and Palaeogene discovered by the “Glomar
Challenger” drilling program in the world oceans allowed the author to calculate the empirical ocean floor
subsidence rate in the last 165 Ma.
73
At the same time the subsidence rate drastically increased (more than once) at the turn of Mesozoic and
Cenozoic eras, from 25-30 mm per 1000 years in the Late Jurassic and Cretaceous, up to 200—800 mm per
1000 year in Palaeogene to Quaternary.
As a result of approximation of the graph V(t) it was obtained exponential change in subsidence rate of the
Ocean floor:
V(t) = aet/c + b
Coefficients a and b can be defined easily in the graph V(t) below (See Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Rate of endogenous water escape to the Earth’s surface in the last 165 Ma.
The graph on the right: 0 — water; 2 — floor; 3 — deep water sediment; 4 — shallow-water sediment; 5 — basalts;
A — wells in the Pacific and Indian Oceans; B — wells in the Atlantic Ocean (Orlenok, 1985 & 1998).
An average subsiding rate of the ocean floor has been determined too for the last 70 Ma. It makes 100 mm
per 1000 years that corresponds to 0.1 km/106 years. At the same time subsidence amplitude of the ocean
floor at the basement surface is 7 km.
In a modern ocean and offshore (hydrosphere of the land, glacier, atmosphere etc.) there is 1.6·109 km3 of
water which is 0.7·109 km3 less than the volume of endogenous water escaped to the Earth’s surface during
Cenozoic time. Then a question arises — where has this huge amount of water being half of the total volume
of the present-day oceans escaped?
Only one reason can be found — this volume has been lost through the photolysis and dissipated into the
space. The calculation shows the annual loss being ~ 1016 g or ~10 km3/year. If we divide this value by an
average area of the ocean which has been formed since Late Cretaceous up to today (320 · 106 km2), we obtain
a constant of photolysis in hydrosphere equaling to Fn = 3.1 ± 0.4 · 107 g/km2 /year. Using this constant we can
calculate irrevocable loss of hydrosphere in the geological history of the Earth.
As a result we can determine that during the Precambrian and Phanerozoic times the amount of generated
water was equal to twice the volume of the present oceans (3.14 · 109 km3), 2/3 of which (2.24 ~ 109 km3)
formed in Cenozoic during oceanization process and only 1/3 (0.84 · 109 km3) in the Precambrian and most
of the Phanerozoic.
74
NEWS
GLOBAL COOLING!!
The following three press releases are from Space and Science Research Center (SSRC; now Space and Science
Corporation), Orlando, Florida disclosing that the solar activity has entered a deep trough period, much deeper than
initially expected - warning that this will possibly lead to a prolonged global mini-ice age. Several NCGT colleagues
have joined the SSRC as Supporting Researchers.
Press release 1-2011. SPACE AND SCIENCE RESEARCH CENTER
P.O. Box 607841, Orlando, FL 32860, USA www.spaceandscience.net
NASA DATA CONFIRMS SOLAR HIBERNATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE
TO COLD ERA
Tuesday, January 25, 2011, 3:00 PM.
T
he Space and Science Research Center (SSRC) announces today that the most recent data from NASA
describing the unusual behavior of the Sun validates a nearly four year long quest by SSRC Director
John L. Casey to convince the US government, the media, and the public that we are heading into a new cold
climate era with 20 to 30 years of record setting cold weather.
According to Director Casey, “I’m quite pleased that NASA has finally agreed with my predictions which
were passed on to them in early 2007. There is no remaining doubt that the hibernation of the Sun, what
solar physicists call a ‘grand minimum’ has begun and with it, the next climate change to a prolonged cold
era.
When I first called Dr. Hathaway and told him the NASA and NOAA estimates for the Sun’s activity were
“way off” in both sunspot count and in which solar cycle the hibernation would begin (cycle 24 vs. cycle 25),
he was polite but dismissive. Since that time both NASA and NOAA have been revising their sunspot
estimates for solar cycle 24 lower every year and with each year their numbers have been getting closer to
mine and the few other scientists around the world who had similar forecasts. The January announcement by
NASA is now virtually identical to mine made almost four years ago.”
NASA’s solar physics group headed by Dr. David Hathaway at the Marshall Space Flight Center, alerted the
solar physics community on January 3, 2011 that the latest sunspot prediction for our current solar cycle 24
had been adjusted downward by a significant amount from recent years to a value of 70 ± 18 and an
estimated peak of 59 sunspots during solar maximum in the June-July 2013 time frame. This number
compares with their prediction of a much larger 2006 estimate of a very active Sun with 145 sunspots at
peak. Many of the measures by which the Sun’s activity is measured like sunspot counts, have since set
record low levels. Casey’s 2007 forecast however, came during the height of the man-made global warming
movement at a time when any mention of a reduction in the Sun’s energy output much less a new cold
climate, was political and scientific heresy.
As Casey recounts, “Once I made my forecast for the Sun’s reversal in phase from global warming to global
cooling and the start of a new cold climate period I was immediately attacked from all sides. Regrettably,
that is the history of new scientific discoveries when anyone says the opposite of a belief that is well
entrenched in conventional thinking. My prediction also ran into political roadblocks since at that time both
presidential candidates were trying to woo the ‘green’ vote in what all knew was going to be a close election
where every vote counted. Both Republicans and Democrats were saying manmade global warming was real
and something should be done about it. Despite my strong space program credentials, what I was saying then
was a message no one wanted to hear. Both liberal and conservative web sites launched attacks to discredit
my research. Fortunately, the Sun has been on my side and it is a powerful ally. At long last, NASA has now
come out with their own data that confirms my past predictions.
75
After I had completed my original research and notified NASA, I tried to find others who had come to the
same conclusion about the Sun and the next climate change. I want to take the time today to mention some
of these prominent researchers who made the courageous step forward back then and went public with their
predictions. The list is also posted at the SSRC web site. They include in the US: Dr.’s Ken Schatten, D. V.
Hoyt, and W. K. Tobiska; in Europe and Russia: Dr.’s Habibullo Abdussamatov, Oleg Sorokhtin, Boris
Komitov, Vladimir Kaftan, O. G. Badalyan, V. N. Obridko, J. Sykora, and J. Beer; in Australia: David
Archibald, Dr.’s Ian Wilson, I. A. Waite, Bob Carter and Peter Harris; in China: Dr.’s Y.T. Hong, H.B. Jiang,
L.P. Zhou, H.D. Li, X.T. Leng, B. Hong, X.G. Qin, L. Zhen-Shan and Sun Xian, and in Mexico: Dr. Victor
M. V. Herrera. I also want to express my thanks to and hope to soon add the many more researchers to this
partial list who have supported the position that the Sun drives climate change, not mankind, and that we
have begun the transition to the next cold climate.”
As to the linkage of the new cold era with this now confirmed solar hibernation by NASA, Director Casey
clarified, “NASA is not the primary source for US government weather and climate forecasts. With the
exception of NASA Goddard, that’s NOAA’s area of responsibility though we all rely on the data from
weather satellites that NASA launches into orbit around the Earth and the Sun. But don’t ask any of the
NASA or NOAA scientists to agree with the end of global warming and the now confirmed start of the next
solar hibernation or for that matter a cold climate change. That would be career suicide given the measures
the current administration goes to in order to preserve the myth of manmade global warming. In any case,
decades of extreme cold weather always follow these hibernations of the Sun as the research shows going
back 1,200 years or more. This next one has begun right on schedule, just as I predicted. We should
therefore expect the same climate change to a long cold period just like it has done before. The last three
record cold and long winters around the globe along with the lack of growth in the planet’s average
temperature for the past twelve years, and a new long term downward trend in global temperatures are solid
enough signals to prove that global warming ended as and when I predicted and that the Earth is rapidly
proceeding into a long cold era.
NASA’s announcement is clearly vindication for those of us who have spoken out for years against
conventional climate science thinking, false statements and misleading reports of the UN and US
government climate science officials, and had to endure slander and ridicule from AGW extremists. Now we
need to prepare for what has arrived; twenty to thirty years of record setting, crop destroying cold weather.
We should stop wasting precious resources on the past climate phase of Sun-caused global warming, bury
this hubris of man-made climate change and listen to what the Sun is telling us. We need to do so
immediately.”
******************
Press Release 2-2011
GLOBAL COOLING BEGINS AND GLOBAL WARMING ENDS WITH RECORD DROP
IN TEMPERATURES
Friday, February 4, 2011 5:00 PM.
T
he Space and Science Research Center (SSRC) announces today that the most recent global temperature
data through January 31, 2011 using NASA and NOAA weather satellites supports the previous forecast
from the SSRC that a historic drop in global temperatures is under way and that the previously predicted
climate change to one of a long and deep global cooling era has begun.
SSRC Director John L. Casey explains, “Based on the data from the AMSR-E instrument on board the
NASA Aqua satellite, sea surface temperatures just posted this week showed their steepest decline since the
satellite was made operational in 2002. This major drop from the warm temperature levels seen in 2010 is
also echoed by a dramatic decline in atmospheric temperatures in the lower troposphere, where we live, with
the data coming from NOAA satellites. At present rates of descent, both ocean and atmospheric
temperatures are likely to soon surpass the temperature lows set in the 2007-2008 period. Even with a small
correction that is usually seen after such a rapid drop, there is no doubt that the Earth is entering a prolonged
76
global cooling period and will soon set another record drop in temperatures by the November-December
2012 time frame as was forecast in the SSRC press release from May 10, 2010.”
As to the long term implications, of this significant drop in global temperatures, Director Casey clarifies by
adding, “While we always see a reduction from a previous El Nino high, this time the decline is different,
very different. What is happening now is the effect of the natural La Nina cooling is being overpowered and
accelerated by a once every 206 year solar cycle that has entered its cold phase. In 2007 after discovering
this cycle, I was the first to announce to the White House, Congress, and the main stream media that this
cycle would produce a “solar hibernation,” a major reduction in the output of the Sun which in turn would
bring a new climate change to a cold era lasting 20-30 years. This hibernation also called a grand minimum
was recently verified by NASA data using sunspot measurements and was announced in another SSRC press
release January 25th of this year. In quick succession here in early 2011 we have seen two of the strongest
possible validations of the global cooling phase of the 206 year cycle and the “Relational Cycle Theory” of
climate change which I developed to account for the pattern of alternating cold and warm periods that we
have seen for over two hundred years now. Although we will continue to see highly variable weather, the
punishing winters the world has seen the past few years including the on-going record setting winter of
2010-2011, are just a sample of what is to come.
Though the conclusions of my research and that of many others around the world has shown a new and
potentially dangerous cold weather period is coming, the recent NASA data about the Sun going into
hibernation and this week’s global temperature figures have provided critical evidence for our leaders and
the public to finally see that the next cold climate era is here.
It is also important to recognize that there has been no effective growth in the Earth’s temperatures for
twelve years now and according to my calculations, the statistical peak of the long term curve of the past
Sun-caused global warming was probably between 2005 and 2007. Global temperatures have suddenly
returned to the same level they were in 1980 and are expected to drop much further. Given the momentum of
the solar hibernation, it is now unlikely that our generation or the next one will return to the level of global
warming that we have just passed through. Again, global warming has ended. It was always caused by the
Sun and not mankind. The global cooling era has begun.
The SSRC has a track record for accuracy in climate predictions that is among the best. It remains the only
independent research organization in the US that has been consistently warning the US government, the
media and the public that this new cold weather is upon us and that we need our people to prepare. As stated
many times before, this solar hibernation will bring the worst cold in over 200 years and will likely cause
substantial damage to the world’s agricultural systems. Here at the SSRC we will continue to post these
releases with new updates so our citizens are well informed.”
The satellite temperature data is available through several NASA and NOAA sources including Remote
Sensing Systems, (RSS) out of Santa Rosa, California (www.remss.com), with both sea and atmospheric
temperature charts available from the University of Alabama, Huntsville (UAH) via the web site of UAH’s
Dr. Roy Spencer. (www.drroyspencer.com).
********************
Press Release 4-2011
JAPANESE EARTHQUAKE A FOREWARNING OF MORE RECORD EARTHQUAKES
AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
Monday, March 14, 2011 8:00 AM
T
he historic 8.9 earthquake and tsunami that struck off the coast of northwestern Japan shortly after 2:46
PM local time, on Friday, March 11, may be a forewarning of more and larger geophysical upheavals
yet to come according to research done at the Space and Science Research Corporation, (SSRC).
77
Re-stating a warning issued in May of 2010, SSRC President Mr. John Casey highlighted the growing
concern for quakes and tsunamis like that which has caused the Japanese people devastating loss of life,
immense property damage and huge collateral effects like the threat of nuclear power plants going into
meltdown, releasing deadly radioactive particles into the air.
Casey elaborated by saying “In May of 2010, I issued a specific warning for record earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions tied to the Sun’s activity. Our research report released at that time cited the strong
correlation between the largest recorded earthquakes in the USA and volcanic eruptions globally, all tied to
the advent of major declines in solar activity, what we call ‘solar hibernations.’ These hibernations are
marked by dramatically reduced energy output of the Sun and last two to three decades or more. Now, here
we are ten months later and the fifth largest recorded earthquake in the last 100 years strikes Japan. It was no
surprise. Nor will be the ones to follow.
Unfortunately, this massive earthquake and deadly tsunami that has caused catastrophic damage and loss of
life in many coastal communities on the northeast coast of Japan may be just a sample of what is to come,
not just for Japan but around the world.
The last time we had a solar hibernation called the Dalton Minimum (1793-1830) it brought a worldwide
subsistence crisis because of a record cold climate change that destroyed crops. To add to the difficult times
then, some of the largest ever earthquakes and volcanic eruptions also took place. For example, here in the
US we had the incredibly large New Madrid earthquakes that produced three 8.0 quakes between 1811 and
1812. These were the most powerful series of US quakes in our country’s history. Globally, we had several
large eruptions including the largest volcanic eruption in modern history when Mt. Tambora in Indonesia
exploded in 1815. All of these events took place during a solar hibernation. The research posted in May
2010 said we should once again expect historically large earthquakes and volcanic eruptions worldwide now
that another hibernation of the Sun has started. The strength of this correlation was so striking that after the
research was completed, I immediately notified US authorities, local government offices and media outlets
in some of the most vulnerable zones in the US.”
Adding to Mr. Casey’s comments are other supporting researchers for the SSRC. Dr. Fumio Tsunado and
Dr. Dong Choi, are highly respected scientists and each have decades of research into seismic activity,
especially in the area surrounding Japan. They view the Sendai quake as another signal of the interrelation of
the Sun and Moon which respectively exert tidal and geomagnetic forces on the Earth. These forces can
bring the strongest quakes to the surface though originating from deep within the Earth. Plate tectonics
theory they say, which focuses in part on the movement of upper mantle layers and subduction zones, is not
the only causal factor in the largest earthquakes and associated volcanic activity. For those we must look
deeper.
Speaking for both, Dr. Choi explained their assessment of the Sendai quake this way. “This extraordinary
earthquake is the result of the convergence of deep-Earth derived energy at shallow depth (30 to 16 km).
Heat was accumulated in the upper mantle and the lower crust, and uplifted to the overlying crustal blocks in
the wide area offshore of northeast Japan in accordance with the volcanic-earthquake (VE) process
developed by Dr. Tsunoda.
There is no doubt today that the Earth’s core has been discharging very strong energy since the declining
period of solar cycle 23 and the arrival of solar cycle 24. The increased earthquakes and volcanic activities
worldwide in the last few years testify to this – an alarming trend which will further accelerate as the solar
hibernation deepens.”
************
The Space and Science Research Corporation, (SSRC), in Orlando, Florida has been conducting important
research since 2008 into the effects upon the Earth’s climate changes and related frequency and intensity of
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions brought on during dramatic reductions in the Sun’s energy output.
Studies of these ‘solar hibernations’ by the SSRC has made it possible for the SSRC to make highly accurate
climate change and geophysical predictions for record events in advance of their occurrence. The SSRC is
78
the leading organization in the US advocating use of solar cycles to predict climate change, earthquake and
volcanic activity and has been the most outspoken voice in the US for the need to prepare for the extreme
cold and record earthquakes and volcanic eruptions it predicts during the current solar hibernation. The
research reports of Dr. Tsunoda, pertaining to this press release are available at the NCGT Newsletter, no.
54, 2010. (www.ncgt.org). The SSRC Research Report 1-2010 “Correlation of Solar Activity Minimums
and Large Magnitude Geophysical Events” is available at the SSRC web site (www.spaceandscience.net).
********************
A PRECURSORY GEOERUPTION BEFORE THE DISASTROUS JAPANESE
EARTHQUAKE
T
he following picture is the geoeruption and earthquake cloud which appeared on 23 February 2011 - 16
days before the M9.0 Great East Japan Earthquake mainshock on 11 March, 2011.
Zhonghao SHOU
[email protected]
http://www.earthquakesignals.com/zhonghao296/images2009/201102230000Jap8.9d.jpg
********************
EDPD-2011 INDIAN WORKSHOP
21 to 25 September, 2011
Vivekananda Kedra, Kanyakumaari, Tamil nadu, India
The last date for registering as participant in EDPD-2011 is 30th April 2011 and the deadline for abstracts
submission is 10th May 2011. Find the following links helpful in registering and submitting your papers.
http://www.transect.in/edpd/registration_edpd.aspx
http://www.transect.in/edpd/abstracts.aspx
If you have not registered yet, kindly complete the above processes as soon as possible as it will
help us plan and manage the event comfortably. If you have any questions, feel free to get in touch.
Biju LONGHINOS
[email protected]
********************
IGC34 BRISBANE, AUSTRALIA
5 to 10 August 2012
T
he NCGT session has been requested to the IGC34 organizers on 21 February, 2011 as follows:
Name of Symposium:
Communicating Convenor Full name:
Email address:
Co-convenors Full names and email addresses:
Pursuit of a new global geodynamic paradigm
<50 word Symposium
Description:
The session will critically examine accumulated geological and
geophysical data from many corners of the globe, and on its
basis discuss most plausible geodynamic systems – alternatives
to plate tectonics. A wide range of topics will be included:
continental rocks from ocean floors, deep Earth structure,
earthquakes, Sun-Earth interaction, etc.
Estimate Duration:
e.g. ½ day 1 day
1 and ½ to 2 days
79
Dong R. Choi
[email protected]
M. Ismail Bhat, India. [email protected]
Karsten M. Storetvedt, Norway. [email protected]
You can get more details of the IGC34 by visiting: www.34igc.org.
********************
The 37th Interdisciplinary Workshop
"THE EARTH EXPANSION EVIDENCE: A CHALLENGE FOR GEOLOGY,
GEOPHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY"
will be held on October 4-9, 2011 in the "Ettore Majorana Foundation and Centre for Scientific Culture"
in Erice, Sicily, Italy. Please, inform all your colleagues interested in the Expanding Earth conceptions about this
event.
The organizers invite you to participate in the workshop with oral or poster contributions. You will find all the
information, registration form, extended abstract guidelines and other additional materials on the web page of
INGV (http://www.ingv.it/eng/) into the section 'Conferences and seminars'
http://portale.ingv.it/portale_ingv/servizi-e-risorse/archivio-congressi/convegni- 2011/expandingearthworkshop.it%20/view
The Director of the Erice International School of Geophysics Prof. Enzo Boschi and the Directors of the
workshop Stefan Cwojdzinski and Giancarlo Scalera would like to ask you filling in the registration form,
and mail it to the local secretary of the meeting:
Silvia Nardi ([email protected]); Giancarlo Scalera ([email protected])
This will serve us for a better planning, to get an idea about the number of participants, and how many of them
are students. All registered participants will be added to the mailing list in order to receive the next circulars.
Don't hesitate to contact the local secretary if you have any questions.
Important Dates
Workshop registration deadline: Friday, April 15, 2011
Abstract submission deadline: Friday, April 15, 2011
Deadline for arrival/departure communication: Friday, September 16, 2011
_____________________________________________________________________
37th Course of the International School of Geophysics.
The Earth expansion evidence: a challenge for Geology, Geophysics and Astronomy
(EMFCSC, Erice, Sicily, 4 - 9 October, 2011)
The last century was the time for Theories: relativistic, quantum, cosmological, and Earth sciences ones. Earthsciences followed this fashion by proposing the principles of plate tectonics. Expanding Earth, on the contrary,
80
was not developed as a theory in the sense of a commonly accepted paradigm, but had the characteristics of a
field open to new investigations, new interpretations, and new results. This situation, which can be positively
considered, is evident in the differing interpretations of the paleogeographical evolution of the Pacific and Indian
oceans, in the cosmological or incidental motor of expansion still to be identified, in the different estimates of the
radial expansion rates of the Earth, and this is a sign of a vitality: these ideas are not to be crystallized in a few
postulates from which to deduce all the answers, and to which all the data have to be constrained.
In the expanding planet schema a common explanation can be found of several outstanding problems coming
from paleontology, paleomagnetism, geology and climatology.
The interdisciplinary conference will collect contributions - oral and poster - in any scientific field relevant to
the solution of the outstanding problems of a framework that albeit supported by compelling evidence, still is
lacking of a definite cause of the expansion. Besides topics about Geology, Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geodesy,
Paleogeography, Paleobiogeography, contributions about the links Expanding Earth has with Astronomy,
Cosmogony of the Solar system, Cosmology, Foundations of Physics are especially welcome. We will try to
achieve that all the different versions of the expanding Earth could be represented.
********************
CONFERENCE ON “HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS AND RELATED
GEOLOGICAL IMAGES IN THE WORLD”, AND “HISTORY OF SEISMOLOGY,
VOLCANOLOGY AND GEOTECTONICS”
2-10 August, 2011, Japan
W
e, Japanese members of INHIGEO (International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences)
are preparing the annual meeting at Aichi University, central Japan from 2 to 10 August, 2011. Oral
and poster presentations in addition to field excursions are included. The themes of the symposia are
"History of Geological Maps and Related Geological Images in the World", and "History of Seismology,
Volcanology and Geotectonics". Both oral and poster presentations are welcome.
Please visit http://www.inhigeo-jp.org/index.html for more information.
We look forward to meeting you at Toyohashi, Aichi Prefecture in central Honshu, Japan.
Yasumoto SUZUKI
[email protected]
********************
DOCUMENTARY FILM ON ALTERNATIVE GEOSCIENCE: AN APPEAL FOR
TRAVEL FUND SUPPORT AND RESOURCES
T
he media is the central nervous system of society, and whenever something disastrous happens like the
recent Sendai earthquake, it begins buzzing like a hand touching a hot stove. All of the sudden, folks
everywhere look to Geologists for their answers. They tend to take for granted the advancements made in
every other science, like those made in medicine and cosmology, as if Geology is expected to be just as far
along in its pursuits of meaningful knowledge of the universe. It comes as quite a shock to them when they
are told that tectonic activity is still largely unpredictable.
What is missing from the discussion is the voice of the many scientists, some of whom have risked their
careers to discover, analyze and interpret information that is critical to our understanding of the Earth. Also
missing is an understanding of the politics of science or, for that matter, science education. These and many
other things that are holding Geology back as a science are the reason I am so compelled to produce a film
on the subject.
I recently graduated from the University of Arizona with a BFA in Film Production, and I would like to use
what I've learned to make a documentary about alternative concepts in Geology. The film will look at
criticisms of Plate Tectonic theory as well as arguments for alternatives, present a detailed history of the
81
science, and investigate how such things are taught – or not taught – in schools. There is a right way to
practice and teach science, and this film just may illustrate this method and show that, even in our modern
times, we still have a lot to learn.
I am looking to attend the Earth Dynamics, Perceptions and Deadlocks conference in India later this year,
along with my colleague, Jon Sears. There, we will conduct interviews with any willing participants in
attendance, as well as network and get references. Attending this conference will be a critical first step
toward obtaining the material we need, and we are looking for any and all donations to help get us there, as
well as a few other places of significance. We are also on the lookout for any relevant media which may be
of significance to Geology history (esp. concerning the tectonic debates of the 50's and 60's). Such media
could be an interview, speech, educational video or press release that may be located at the campus or
organization of their origin and would be invaluable archive footage to include in the film.
Anyone who wishes to learn more, make a donation, suggest resources or express their interest in
participating may visit www.altgeologydoc.blogspot.com. Anyone who is interested in being interviewed
for the film or who has any questions or comments can email me as well at [email protected].
Alan HAYMAN
[email protected]
_______________________________________________________________________________________
FINANCIAL SUPPORT
F
ollowing suggestions from many readers, NCGT Newsletter has become an open journal. Now anyone can access
all issues without log in. This will increase the number of readers dramatically. This means we have to rely on
good-will, voluntary donations from readers as well as commercial advertisements to defray the journal’s running costs.
We welcome your generous financial contributions. Hard copy subscription fee; US$140/year (or equivalent euros)
plus postage. Advertisement fee structure: Premium position (back cover). Half page - U$60/issue, U$220/year; Full
page – U$100/issue, U$360/year (or equivalent euros). Other positions, 10% discount. For more information, please
contact [email protected].
If you have a PayPal account, please send the payment to the following account (PayPal accepts payment by credit
cards; Visa and MasterCard – we encourage everyone to use this method; http://www.paypal.com/cgi-bin/):
Account name: New Concepts in Global Tectonics
E-mail: [email protected] (NOT [email protected])
If you pay by bank draft or personal cheque, make them payable to: New Concepts in Global Tectonics,
and mail to: 6 Mann Place, Higgins, ACT 2615, Australia.
Bank account details for those who send money through a bank:
Name of bank: Commonwealth Bank (Swift Code: CTBAAU2S), Belconnen Mall ACT Branch (BSB 06 2913).
Account no. 06 2913 10524718.
Name of account holder: New Concepts in Global Tectonics.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
ABOUT THE NCGT NEWSLETTER
This newsletter was initiated on the basis of discussion at the symposium “Alternative Theories to Plate Tectonics” held
at the 30th International Geological Congress in Beijing in August 1996. The name is taken from an earlier symposium
held in association with 28th International Geological Congress in Washington, D. C. in 1989.
Aims include:
1. Forming an organizational focus for creative ideas not fitting readily within the scope of Plate Tectonics.
2. Forming the basis for the reproduction and publication of such work, especially where there has been censorship or
discrimination.
3. Forum for discussion of such ideas and work which has been inhibited in existing channels. This should cover a very
wide scope from such aspects as the effect of the rotation of the earth and planetary and galactic effects, major theories
of development of the Earth, lineaments, interpretation of earthquake data, major times of tectonic and biological
change, and so on.
4. Organization of symposia, meetings and conferences.
5. Tabulation and support in case of censorship, discrimination or victimization.
82
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Issue 58 - New Concepts in Global Tectonics

Transcription

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5-Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics

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STEM and Project-Based Learning: What`s All the Excitement About?

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