“Environmental Impact Assessment of Ground Water Quality of

Transcription

“Environmental Impact Assessment of Ground
Water Quality of Mhadei River Basin with respect
to Microbiological, Chemical and Geological
Parameters”
MAJOR RESEARCH PROJECT
F. No. 39-340/2010 (SR)
FINAL REPORT
(2011-2014)
Funded By:
University Grants Commission
Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg
New Delhi-110 002
Submitted By:
Dr. Yasmin Modassir
Principal Investigator
Dhempe College of Arts & Science
Miramar, Goa- 403 001
“Environmental Impact Assessment of Ground Water Quality of
Mhadei River Basin with respect to Microbiological, Chemical and
Geological Parameters”
MAJOR RESEARCH PROJECT
F. No. 39-340/2010 (SR)
FINAL REPORT
(2011-2014)
Funded By:
University Grants Commission
Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg
New Delhi-110 002
Submitted By:
Dr. Yasmin Modassir
Principal Investigator
Dhempe College of Arts & Science
Miramar, Goa- 403 001
PROJECT DETAILS
TITLE OF THE PROJECT: Environmental Impact Assessment of Ground Water Quality of
Mhadei River Basin with respect to Microbiological, Chemical and Geological Parameters.
DURATION: 3 years.
FUNDING AGENCY: University Grants Commission
TOTAL GRANT SANCTIONED: Rs. 12,47,058/GRANT RECEIVED:
1st Installment: Rs. 7, 91,800/2nd Installment: Rs. 3, 85,832/3rd Installment: Rs. 69,426/NAME OF PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Dr. (Mrs.) Yasmin Modassir
NAMES OF CO-INVESTIGATORS:
Mrs. Varsha Virginkar (Chemistry Department)
Dr. Manoj Ibrampurkar (Geology Department)
Mrs. Suchana Amonkar (Zoology Department)
NAME OF RESEARCH ASSISTANT: Ms. Arati M. Rane Sardessai
CONTENT
Sr. No.
Title
Page
No.
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
General Introduction
1-2
Groundwater Status in the World
3-10
1.1.1
Importance of Groundwater
1.1.2
Silent Revolution
1.1.3
Utilization of Groundwater
1.1.4
Depletion of Aquifer
1.1.5
Climate Change & Groundwater Recharge
1.1.6
Groundwater Management
1.1.7
Measures to Recharge Aquifer
1.2
Groundwater Status in India
1.2.1
Hydrogeological Setup of India
1.2.2
Aquifers in India
1.2.3
Groundwater Quality
1.2.4
Depth to Water Level as of November 2012
1.2.5
Utilization of Groundwater
1.2.6
Groundwater Management
1.2.7
The Stage of Groundwater Development
11-20
1.3
Groundwater Status in Goa
1.3.1
Aquifers in Goa
1.3.2
Occurrence of Groundwater &Aquifers Characteristics of various formations
1.3.3
Groundwater Monitoring in Goa
1.3.4
Major Groundwater Problems & Issues
1.3.5
Groundwater Conservation in Goa
1.3.6
Groundwater Recharging in Goa
1.4
27
About Study Area
1.5
Objectives of the Study
2
2.1
About Goa
2.1.1.1
Total Area
2.1.1.2
Population
2.1.1.3
Climate
2.1.2
Geological Setting
2.1.2.1
Geology of Goa
2.1.2.2
Rock Groups
2.1.2.3
Hydrogeology of Mhadei Watershed
2.1.3
2.1.3.1
27-30
MATERIALS & METHOD
The State of Goa
2.1.1
21-27
Types of Soil
Soil types & their features
31-38
2.1.4
Drainage System
2.1.4.1
Pattern
2.1.4.2
Flow of River
2.1.4.3
Rivers in Goa
2.1.4.4
River Basins in Goa
Study Area – Mhadei River Basin in Goa
2.2
2.2.1
About Study Area
2.2.2
Mhadei River in Goa
2.2.3
Mhadei River in Karnataka
2.3
Sample Collection
2.4
Methodology of Chemical Analysis
2.4.1
Field Analysis
2.4.2
Laboratory Analysis
2.5
3.1
3.1.1
3.2
43
Methodology of Microbiological Analysis
3
39-42
43-45
46-47
OBSERVATION & RESULTS
Observation Well Network
Well Location
Physico-Chemical Parameters
48-49
3.2.1
General Introduction
3.2.1.1
Temperature (°C)
3.2.1.2
pH
3.2.1.3
Electrical Conductivity (EC) (µS/cm)
3.2.1.4
Alkalinity (mg/L)
3.2.1.5
Turbidity (NTU)
3.2.1.6
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)
3.2.1.7
Total Suspended Solid (mg/L)
3.2.1.8
Total Dissolved Solid (mg/L)
3.2.1.9
Acidity (mg/L)
3.2.1.10
Chlorides (mg/L)
3.2.1.11
Total Hardness as CaCO3(mg/L)
3.2.1.12
Calcium as CaCO3(mg/L)
3.2.1.13
Magnesium as CaCO3(mg/L)
3.2.1.14
Iron (mg/L)
3.2.1.15
Sodium (mg/L)
3.2.1.16
Potassium (mg/L)
3.2.1.17
Silica (mg/L)
3.2.1.18
Nitrate (mg/L)
3.2.1.19
Sulphate (mg/L)
3.2.1.20
Manganese (mg/L)
3.2.1.21
Cadmium (mg/L)
3.2.1.22
Chromium (mg/L)
3.2.2
3.2.2.1
Observation Table
Temperature
50-55
56-99
3.2.2.1.1
Temperature (°C) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.1.2
Temperature (°C) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.2
pH
3.2.2.2.1
pH data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.2.2
pH data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.3
3.2.2.3.1
EC(µS/cm)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.3.1
EC(µS/cm)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.4
Alkalinity(mg/L)
3.2.2.4.1
Alkalinity(mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.4.2
Alkalinity(mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.5
Turbidity (NTU)
3.2.2.5.1
Turbidity (NTU) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.5.2
Turbidity (NTU) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.6
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (mg/L)
3.2.2.6.1
DO (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.6.2
DO (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.7
Total Suspended Solid (TSS) (mg/L)
3.2.2.7.1
TSS(mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.7.2
TSS(mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.8
Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) (mg/L)
3.2.2.8.1
TDS (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.8.2
TDS (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.9
3.2.2.9.1
Acidity (mg/L)
Acidity (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.9.2
3.2.2.10
Acidity (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Chlorides (mg/L)
3.2.2.10.1
Chlorides (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.10.2
Chlorides (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.11
Total Hardness (TS) as CaCO3(mg/L)
3.2.2.11.1
TSas CaCO3(mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.11.2
TSas CaCO3(mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.12
Calcium(Ca)as CaCO3(mg/L)
3.2.2.12.1
Caas CaCO3(mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.12.2
Caas CaCO3(mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.13
Magnesium (mg/L)
3.2.2.13.1
Magnesium (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.13.2
Magnesium (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.14
Iron (mg/L)
3.2.2.14.1
Iron (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.14.2
3.2.2.15
Sodium (mg/L)
3.2.2.15.1
Sodium (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.15.2
Sodium (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.16
Potassium (mg/L)
3.2.2.16.1
Potassium (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.16.2
Potassium (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.17
Silica (mg/L)
3.2.2.17.1
Silica (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.17.2
Silica (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.18
Nitrate (mg/L)
3.2.2.18.1
Nitrate (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.18.2
Nitrate (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.19
Sulphate (mg/L)
3.2.2.19.1
Sulphate (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.19.2
Sulphate (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.20
Manganese (mg/L)
3.2.2.20.1
Manganese (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.20.2
Manganese (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.21
Cadmium (mg/L)
3.2.2.21.1
Cadmium (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.21.2
Cadmium (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.22
Chromium (mg/L)
3.2.2.22.1
Chromium (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.2.22.2
3.2.3
Graphical Representation
3.2.3.1
Temperature
3.2.3.1.1
Temperature (°C) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.1.2
3.2.3.2
Ph
3.2.3.2.1
pH data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.2.2
pH data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.3
3.2.3.3.1
EC(µS/cm)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.3.1
EC(µS/cm)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
100-198
3.2.3.4
Alkalinity(mg/L)
3.2.3.4.1
Alkalinity(mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.4.2
Alkalinity(mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.5
3.2.3.5.1
3.2.3.5.2
3.2.3.6
Turbidity (NTU)
Turbidity (NTU) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Turbidity (NTU) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (mg/L)
3.2.3.6.1
DO (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.6.2
DO (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.7
Total Suspended Solid (TSS) (mg/L)
3.2.3.7.1
TSS(mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.7.2
TSS(mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.8
Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) (mg/L)
3.2.3.8.1
TDS (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.8.2
TDS (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.9
Acidity (mg/L)
3.2.3.9.1
Acidity (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.9.2
Acidity (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.10
Chlorides (mg/L)
3.2.3.10.1
Chlorides (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.10.2
Chlorides (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.11
Total Hardness (TS) as CaCO3(mg/L)
3.2.3.11.1
TSas CaCO3(mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.11.2
TSas CaCO3(mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.12
Calcium(Ca)as CaCO3(mg/L)
3.2.3.12.1
Caas CaCO3(mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.12.2
Caas CaCO3(mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.13
Magnesium (mg/L)
3.2.3.13.1
Magnesium (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.13.2
Magnesium (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.14
Iron (mg/L)
3.2.3.14.1
3.2.3.14.2
3.2.3.15
Sodium (mg/L)
3.2.3.15.1
Sodium (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.15.2
Sodium (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.16
Potassium (mg/L)
3.2.3.16.1
Potassium (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.16.2
Potassium (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.17
Silica (mg/L)
3.2.3.17.1
Silica (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.17.2
Silica (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.18
Nitrate (mg/L)
3.2.3.18.1
Nitrate (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.18.2
Nitrate (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.19
Sulphate (mg/L)
3.2.3.19.1
Sulphate (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.19.2
Sulphate (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.20
3.2.3.20.1
Manganese (mg/L)
Manganese (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.20.2
3.2.3.21
Manganese (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Cadmium (mg/L)
3.2.3.21.1
Cadmium (mg/L)data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.21.2
Cadmium (mg/L)data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
3.2.3.22
Chromium (mg/L)
3.2.3.22.1
3.2.3.22.2
3.3
Microbiological Parameters
3.3.1
Observation Tables
3.3.1.1
Pre Monsoon Season 2011
3.3.1.2
Post Monsoon Season 2011
3.3.1.3
3.3.1.4
3.3.1.5
3.3.1.6
3.3.2
Graphical Representation
3.3.2.1
3.3.2.2
3.3.2.3
3.3.2.4
3.3.2.5
3.3.2.6
3.3.3.6
199-200
201-206
4
DISCUSSION
4.1
Physico – Chemical Parameters
207-217
4.2
Microbiological Parameters
218-219
5
INFERENCE
6
REFERENCE
220-221
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Top 10 Groundwater Abstracting Countries (2010)
Table 2: Estimation of Global Groundwater Abstraction
Table 3: Formation-wise Aquifer Parameters.
Table 4: Number of Groundwater monitoring wells of Central Ground Water Board (as on
31/03/2009)
Table 5: Groundwater Exploration Data
Table 6: River Basin Details
Table 7: Instruments Used/Methods followed for Physico-Chemical Analysis
Table 8: Well Location Data
Table 9: Drinking Water Quality Standards
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Groundwater Development Stress-Indicator at Country Level.
Figure 2: Population of Goa as of 2011.
Figure 3: A Schematic Vertical Section of an Unconfined Laterite Aquifer
Figure 4: A Generalised Vertical Section of a Confined Aquifer in Alluvial Valley Fills
Figure 5: A Generalised Vertical Section of a Confined Aquifer in Iron Ore Bodies.
Figure 6: Instruments used for Chemical Analysis.
Figure 7: Zones of pH value where free CO2, Bicarbonate, Carbonate and hydroxide alkalinities
prevail.
Figure 8: Trilinear diagram (Piper, 1944) used to classify chemical types of groundwater samples of
post monsoon season from Mhadei Watershed.
Figure 9: Mechanism controlling chemistry of groundwater (after Gibbs, 1970)
LIST OF MAPS
Map 1: Hydrogeological Map of India.
Map 2: Aquifer Systems of India.
Map 3: Political Map of Goa.
Map 4: River Map of Goa.
Map 5: Mhadei River Basin
Map 6: Area with Location of Wells.
Map 7: Mhadei River Basin in Goa and Karnataka
Map 8: Study Area with well location.
Introduction
1.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the most important of all natural resources known on Earth. Water is extremely
essential for survival of all living organisms. Life cannot exist without water. It is needless to
emphasize the importance of water in our life. It is important to all living organisms, most ecological
systems, human health, food production and economic development (Postel et al., 1996).
Water sources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful. Uses of water include
agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities.
Ninety-seven percent of the water on the Earth is salt water in the form of oceans. Only three
percent is fresh water; slightly over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polarice caps. The
remaining unfrozen fresh water is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present
above ground in the form of rivers and lakes or in the air.
Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is steadily
decreasing. Water demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the world and as the world
population continues to rise, so too does the water demand.
Sub-surface water, or groundwater, is fresh water located in the pore space of soil and rocks. It is
also water that is flowing within aquifers below the water table.
The natural input to sub-surface water is seepage from surface water. The natural outputs from
sub-surface water are springs and seepage to the oceans.
Few years ago, the common perception was that water was an infinite resource. At this time, there
was fewer than half the current number of people on the planet. They required a third of the volume
of water we presently take from rivers. Today, the competition for water resources is much more
intense. In future, even more water will be needed to produce food because the Earth's population is
forecast to rise to 9 billion by 2050.
An assessment of water management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by the International
Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to see if the world had sufficient water to provide food for
its growing population. It assessed the current availability of water for agriculture on a global scale
and mapped out locations suffering from water scarcity. It found that a fifth of the world's people,
more than 1.2 billion, live in areas of physical water scarcity, where there is not enough water to
meet all demands. One third of the world’s population does not have access to clean drinking water.
A further 1.6 billion people live in areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where the lack of
investment in water or insufficient human capacity makes it impossible for authorities to satisfy the
demand for water.
The progressive increase in groundwater consumption and the consequent over drafting, together
with deterioration of water quality is now considered as one of the most serious environmental
concern in India. Groundwater is the prime source of water for domestic, agricultural and industrial
uses in many parts of our country. Degradation of groundwater quality occurs either by geogenic
sources or anthropogenic sources. Sea water intrusion is also a matter of serious concern in the
coastal states of the country. The geogenic pollutants such as arsenic and fluoride have affected
groundwater in several parts of India. Anthropogenic contamination derived from industrial
effluents, fertilizers, domestic waste water and landfills has also caused water quality deterioration in
various parts of the country. Pollution of groundwater often remains undetected due to removal of
most of the preliminary characteristics of pollution like color, taste, odor and turbidity through
filtration by soil, weathered mantle and geological formations. High nitrate content coupled with
higher chloride content indicates contamination of groundwater from human waste and is likely to
have bacteriological contamination also.
The chemical composition of groundwater is controlled by many factors, including the
composition of rainfall, mineralogical composition of the rocks and soils through which it percolates
into the ground and the geological processes within the aquifer. The interaction of all these factors
leads to various water types. Generally, quality of groundwater is consistent over an area. The
understanding of the chemistry of the groundwater is important for a sustainable development of the
groundwater resources.
Though groundwater is relatively less vulnerable to pollution compared to the surface water
resources and is usually of high bacteriological purity, contamination of groundwater is a common
phenomenon in various parts of our country. The tiny, beautiful, coastal state of Goa is also not an
exception to this fact.
1.1 GROUNDWATER STATUS IN THE WO RL D
Groundwater – containing by far the largest volume of unfrozen fresh water on Earth – is a hugely
important natural resource. However, what the general public and most decision-makers know and
understand about groundwater is usually very little. Today, knowledge of groundwater around the
world, its functions and its use is increasing rapidly – and views about the many ways in which
groundwater systems are linked with other systems are changing accordingly. Within the past
decades the interest in groundwater has increased considerably due to water shortage problems on
local, regional and even global levels.
In our rapidly changing world where there are many challenges regarding water, it is necessary to
pay ample attention to groundwater and its role in securing water supplies and in coping with waterrelated risk and uncertainty. However, focusing on groundwater certainly does not imply that
groundwater systems are self-contained, or that they can be understood and managed on the basis of
hydrogeological information only. On the contrary, it cannot be overemphasized that groundwater is
one component in the hydrological cycle – a component that interacts closely with other components
in the cycle at various temporal and spatial levels.
Groundwater is also involved in a number of other cycles – such as chemical cycles (solute
transport) and biochemical cycles (biosphere) – and it is affected by climate change caused by
changes in the carbon cycle. In addition, groundwater interactions and interdependencies are not
limited to physical systems, such as surface waters, soils, ecosystems, oceans, lithosphere and
atmosphere, but are also related to socio-economic, legal, institutional and political systems. Hence,
groundwater is entrenched in a web of interdependencies. On a global level, the key issues that need
to be addressed to ensure the sustainability of groundwater resources are the depletion of stored
groundwater (dropping water levels) and groundwater pollution.
1.1.1 Importance of Groundwater
Measuring the importance of groundwater by comparing its recharge rate, withdrawal and
stored volume to those of surface water is gradually being replaced by more economically
and/or ecologically oriented valuing approaches that are focused on ‘added value’ produced
by groundwater. For example, studies in Spain (Llamas and Garrido, 2007) and India (Shah,
2007) have shown that when compared to surface water, groundwater produces higher
economic returns per unit of water used in irrigation. The explanation is that groundwater
usually presents considerably less water shortage risk than dose surface water, as a result of
the buffer capacity of its relatively large stored volume. Consequently, groundwater’s share
in the overall socio-economic benefit derived from abstracted water tends to be higher than
its volumetric share in total water abstraction.
1.1.2 The Silent Revolution
The groundwater abstraction, across the world, increased drastically during the 20 th century.
This was followed by increased population growth, advancement in science and technology
leading to economic development, which in turn led to the increase in need for food and
income. Large volumes of groundwater abstraction, is a result of irrigation for agricultural
purpose.
The boom in groundwater development for irrigation started in Italy, Mexico, Spain and the
United States as far back as the early part of the century (Shah et al., 2007). A second wave
began in South Asia, parts of the North China Plain, parts of the Middle East and in northern
Africa during the 1970s, and this still continues today. The cited authors perceive a third
wave of increasing abstractions in many regions of Africa, and in some countries such as Sri
Lanka and Vietnam. This worldwide boom in groundwater abstraction is largely the result of
numerous individual decisions by farmers – decisions made without centralized planning or
coordination. Therefore it has been called the ‘silent revolution’ (Llamas and MartínezSantos, 2005; Llamas and Martínez-Cortina; 2009).
1.1.3 Utilisation of Groundwater
The recent years’ groundwater degradation is mainly related to intensification of agriculture,
the unreasonable use of chemical fertilisers, the overexploitation of aquifers for irrigation
purpose and the intense urbanization which lacks the necessary infrastructure. (Champidi et
al., 2011).
Stored groundwater enables the functions or services of a groundwater system to go beyond
the withdrawal of water for direct consumptive and productive use (provisioning services)
and to include a number of in situ services (mostly regulatory services) as well. One of these
in situ services is the reservoir function of groundwater systems, which allows dry periods to
be bridged and – at a very large time scales – non-renewable groundwater to be available in
areas where groundwater recharge is currently negligible (Foster and Loucks, 2006). Other in
situ services are the support of ecosystems and phreatophytic agriculture, the maintenance of
spring flows and base flows, the prevention of land subsidence and seawater intrusion, and
the potential for exploiting geothermal energy or storing heat.
Based on recent estimates at country level (IGRAC,2010; Margat; 2008; Siebert et al., 2010,
AQUASTAT, n.d.; EUROSTAT, n.d.), the world’s aggregated groundwater abstraction as
per 2010 is estimated to be approximately 1,000 km3 per year, of which about 67% is used
for irrigation, 22% for domestic purposes and 11% for industry (IGRAC, 2010)2. Two-thirds
of this is abstracted in Asia, with India, China, Pakistan, Iran and Bangladesh as the major
consumers (see Table 1 &2 and Figure 1).
Sr. No.
Country
Abstraction (km3/year)
1
India
251
2
China
112
3
USA
112
4
Pakistan
64
5
Iran
60
6
Bangladesh
35
7
Mexico
29
8
Saudi Arabia
23
9
Indonesia
14
10
Italy
14
Table 1. Top 10 Groundwater Abstracting Countries (2010)
Figure 1: Groundwater Development Stress – Indicator at Country Level
(Based on groundwater abstraction estimates for 2010)
Compared to Total Water
Abstraction
Groundwater Abstraction *
Continent
Total
Abstraction **
km3/yr
Share of
Groundwater
%
15
524
27
14
1
149
9
6
26
3
182
14
37
16
76
8
497
15
27
15
2
44
4
196
23
Asia
497
116
63
676
68
2257
30
Oceana
4
2
1
7
1
26
25
World
666
212
108
986
100
3831
26
Total
Irrigation
km3/yr
Domestic
km3/yr
Industrial
km3/yr
km3
/yr
%
North America
99
26
18
143
Central
America & The
Caribbean
5
7
2
South America
12
8
Europe
(including
Russian
Federation)
23
Africa
2
Table 2. Estimates of Global Groundwater Abstraction
*Estimated on the basis of IGRAC (2010), AQUASTAT (n.d), EUROSTAT (n.d.), Margat (2008)
and Siebert et al. (2010).**Average of the 1995 and 2025 ‘business as usual scenario’ estimates
presented by Alcamo et al. (2003).
1.1.4 Depletion of Aquifer
Prominent aquifers that are characterized by very significant long-term groundwater level
declines are almost all located in arid and semi-arid zones. In North America, they include
the Californian Central Valley (Famiglietti et al., 2009) and the High Plains aquifer
(McGuire, 2009; Sophocleus, 2010) as well as many aquifers scattered across Mexico,
including the Basin of Mexico aquifer (Carrera-Hernández and Gaskin, 2007). In Europe, the
following aquifers (all of which belong to Spain) should be mentioned: the aquifers of the
Upper Guadiana basin, the Segura basin aquifers and the volcanic rocks of Gran Canaria and
Tenerife. (Custodio, 2002; Llamas and Custodio, 2003; Molinero et al., 2008). Various zones
in the huge non-renewable North-Western Sahara Aquifer System (Mamou et al., 2006; OSS,
2008) and the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System in North Africa (Bakhbakhi, 2006) are
affected by significant reductions in groundwater levels. On the Arabian Peninsula, there are
unprecedented trends of strongly declining groundwater levels in the Tertiary aquifer system
of the Arabian Platform, mainly in Saudi Arabia (Abderrahman, 2006; Brown, 2011) and in
the Yemen Highland basins (Van der Gun et al., 1995). Further east, the Varamin, Zarand
and many other mountain basins in Iran suffer from steadily declining groundwater levels
(Vali-Khodjeini, 1995; Motagh et al., 2008), as do parts of the extensive aquifer systems of
the Indus basin, especially in the Indian states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and
Delhi (Rodell et al., 2009; Centre for Water Policy, 2005). The North China Plain aquifer has
become notorious for its severe drop in groundwater levels (Jia and You, 2010; Kendy et al.,
2004; Sakura et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2001; Endersbee, 2006). Finally, continuous
groundwater outflow through numerous artesian wells has produced groundwater level
declines in excess of 100 m in some zones of the Australian Great Artesian Basin
(Habermehl, 2006).
1.1.5 Climate Change and Groundwater Recharge.
Climate change modifies groundwater recharge. Globalhydrological models have recently
produced estimatesof mean annual global groundwater recharge rangingfrom 12,700 km3 per
year (Döll and Fiedler, 2008) to15,200 km3 per year (Wada et al., 2010) – which is atleast
three orders of magnitude smaller than the estimatedtotal groundwater storage.
To a large extent, ongoing and predicted sea level riseis caused by climate change, but
progressive groundwaterdepletion contributes to it as well. Konikow and Kendy (2005) argue
that the oceans are the ultimatesink for groundwater that’s removed from the aquifers
bydepletion. Accordingly, Konikow (2011) calculates thatgroundwater depletion in the
United Sates contributed2.2 mm to sea level rise during the twentieth century, while the
contribution of total global groundwater depletionduring the same period would have been
9.3 mm.The total volume of fresh groundwater stored on earth is believed to be in the region
of 8 million km3 to 10 million km3 (Margat, 2008), which is more than two thousand times
the current annual withdrawal of surface water and groundwater combined.
Not only will climate change alter mean annual groundwater recharge and mean annual
surface water flow, it is also expected to affect their distribution in time. Wet episodes may
become shorter in many regions, while dry periods are expected to become longer. In relation
to groundwater, the main impact of sea level rise is the intrusion of saline water into coastal
aquifers. Worldwide, sea water intrusion is a real threat to coastal aquifers and may have
huge repercussions because a large percentage of the world’s population lives in coastal
zones.
A series of papers in a recent issue of Hydrogeology Journal provides a geographic overview
of saltwater-freshwater interactions in coastal aquifers (Barlow and Reichard, 2010;
Bocanegra et al., 2010; Custodio, 2010; Steyl and Dennis, 2010; White and Falkland, 2010).
A recent study on the impact of sea level on coastal groundwater in The Netherlands (Oude
Essink et al., 2010) concluded that the expected sea level rise will affect the Dutch coastal
groundwater systems and trigger saline water intrusion, but only in a narrow zone within 10
km of the coastline and main lowland rivers.
1.1.6 Groundwater Management
The time when groundwater used to be explored and exploited as an isolated resource is long
past. Although the advantages of using groundwater and surface water in combination were
recognized at least as far back as the 1950s (Todd, 1959), the notion of joint management of
these resources has been embraced much more recently.
Groundwater governance is complex and needs to be tailored to local conditions. In terms of
making a contribution to securing water availability and groundwater-related environmental
values, managing groundwater resources sustainably is of vital importance to society and the
environment. Nevertheless, there are situations where sustainable exploitation of
groundwater is unlikely to be achieved. Such situations include, for example, cases of tapped
non-renewable groundwater resources, and many of the intensely exploited renewable
groundwater systems in arid and semi-arid zones. Such cases should be identified and the
population of the areas concerned should be prepared in good time to adapt effectively to a
future when these resources will be exhausted.
Shallow alluvial aquifers in arid and semi-arid zones form a special category. Because of
their limited storage capacity, they are affected by seasonal rather than long-term depletion
problems. Increasing abstraction rates shorten the period between the recharge season and the
moment during the season when wells run dry. The groundwater depletion risks tend to be
insignificant for groundwater systems in humid climates. The control of groundwater levels,
however, may still be very important in these climates, especially to prevent undesired
environmental impacts, such as sea water intrusion, other induced changes in groundwater
quality, land subsidence and wetland degradation. The two basic options for controlling the
decline of groundwater levels are augmenting the groundwater resource and restricting its
discharge. Resource augmentation measures are technical in nature and include artificial
recharge techniques and land use management. Once decided upon, their implementation is
relatively straightforward.
1.1.7 Measures to Recharge Aquifers
The first type of measure is enforcing regulations such as licensing well drilling and
groundwater abstraction.
A second type of measure is discouraging groundwater abstraction selectively, e.g. by
financial disincentives, by restricting energy supply or by enhancing people’s awareness of
sustainability problems.
A third type of measure for restricting groundwater outflow is to reduce water losses at the
well-head and during transport or where it is being used (for example, by enhancing
irrigation efficiency or recycling used water). Although resource augmentation is highly
relevant and interesting, controlling groundwater abstraction is often essential for preventing
or stopping undesired groundwater level declines.
1.2 GROUNDWATER STATUS IN INDIA
Groundwater has rapidly emerged to occupy a dominant place in India’s agriculture and is therefore
critical to food security. It has become the main source growth in irrigation over the past three
decades and now accounts for over 60 percent of the irrigated area in the country (Gandhi and Roy,
2010). India’swater resources, particularly in the context of agriculture, are facing extreme stress.
The country sustains 16 percent of the world’s human population and 20 percent livestock
population with just 3 percent of the world’s water. With changing lifestyles and rising water
consumption in urban areas, water for agriculture is under threat from other users. Conflicts over
access and control of water sources are becoming common, not only among people, but also among
states within the country (FAO – India 2011). Drinking water quality has always been a major issue
in many countries, especially in developing countries. India is no exception to this. India receives
rainfall to the tune of about 4,000 cubic kms, the average rainfall being to the tune of 1,160 cubic
kms, which is highly divergent. India has a wide temporal and spatial variation of rainfall. India has
more than twenty rivers, most of them being perennial (Nadkarni & Somasundaram, 2012).
Groundwater has played a significant role in the maintenance of India’s economy, environment, and
standard of living. India is now the biggest user of groundwater for agriculture in the world (Shah,
2009). The estimate prepared by CGWB (Central Ground Water Board) of the total replenishable
ground water resources of India is estimated at 1122 cubic kms, the total utilizable being to the tune
of 668 cubic kms (Central Ground Water Board, 1999).
1.2.1 Hydrogeological Setup of India
India is a vast country with varied hydrogeological situations resulting from diversified geological,
climatological and topographic setups (Map 1). The rock formations, ranging in age, from Archaean
to Recent period, which control the occurrence and movement of ground water, widely vary in
composition and structure. Physiography varies from rugged mountainous terrains of Himalayas,
Eastern and Western Ghats and Deccan plateau to the flat alluvial plains of the river valleys and
coastal tracts, and the aeolian deserts in western part. Similarly rainfall pattern also shows
regionwise variations.
The following categories have been evolved to describe the ground water characteristics of various
rock types occurring in the country: (Report of Groundwater Resource Estimation Committee, 2009)
1. Porous rock formations
(a) Unconsolidated formations.
(b) Semi - consolidated formations.
2. Hard rock/consolidated (Fissured Formations) formations.
(a) Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks Excluding Volcanic and Carbonate Rocks
(b) Volcanic Rocks
(c) Consolidated Sedimentary Rocks excluding carbonate rocks
(d) Carbonate Rocks
1. Porous Rock Formations
(a) Unconsolidated formations
Unconsolidated formations consist of alluvial sediments of river basins, coastal and deltaic
tracts. These are by far the most significant ground water reservoirs for large scale
development in the high rainfall and recharge areas. They are not prolific in desert conditions
with less rainfall recharge. The mode of development of ground water is primarily through
dug wells, dug cum bore wells, tube wells, and cavity wells. Thousands of tube wells have
been constructed during the last few decades. With regard to groundwater potential, there are
aquifers having enormous fresh ground water reserve down to 600m depth in the IndoGanga-Brahmaputra basin. This ground water reservoir gets replenished every year and is
being used heavily. In coastal areas there are reasonably extensive aquifers but these are at a
high risk of saline water intrusion
(b) Semi-consolidated formations
Semi-consolidated formations normally occur in narrow valleys or structurally faulted basins.
The Gondwanas, Lathis, Tipams, Rajahmundry, Cuddalore Sandstones and their equivalents
are the most extensive productive aquifers in this category. Under favorable situations, these
formations give rise to free flowing wells. In selected tracts of northeastern India, these
water-bearing formations are quite productive. (Report of Groundwater Resource Estimation
Committee, 2009)
2. Hard Rock/Consolidated/Fissured Formations.
The consolidated formations occupy almost two-third of the country. The consolidated
formations, except vesicular volcanic rocks, have negligible primary porosity. From the
hydrogeological point of view, fissured rocks are broadly classified into four types viz. Igneous
and metamorphic rocks excluding volcanic and carbonate rocks, Volcanic rocks, Consolidated
sedimentary rocks and Carbonate rocks.
(a) Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks Excluding Volcanic and Carbonate Rocks.
The most common rock types are granites, gneisses, charnockites, khondalites, quartzites,
schists and associated phyllites, slates, etc. These rocks possess negligible primary porosity but
develops secondary porosity and permeability due to fracturing and weathering. Ground water
yield also depends on rock type and possibly on the grade of metamorphism.
(b) Volcanic Rocks
The predominant types of the volcanic rocks are the basaltic lava flows of Deccan Plateau. The
contrasting water bearing properties of different flow units controls ground water occurrence in
Deccan Traps. The Deccan Traps have usually poor to moderate permeabilities depending on
the presence of primary and secondary porespaces.
(c) Consolidated Sedimentary Rocks excluding carbonate rocks
Consolidated sedimentary rocks occur in Cuddapahs, Vindhyans and their equivalents. The
formations consist of conglomerates, sandstones, shales, slates and quartzites. The presence of
bedding planes, joints, contact zones and fractures control the ground water occurrence,
movement and yield potential.
(d) Carbonate Rocks
Limestones
in the
Cuddapah,
Vindhyan and Bijawar
group of rocks are the
important carbonate rocks other than the marbles and dolomites. In carbonate rocks, the
circulation of water creates solution cavities, thereby increasing the permeability of the
aquifers. The solution activity leads to widely contrasting permeabilities within short distances.
(http://wrmin.nic.in/index3.asp?sslid=336&subsublinkid=827&langid=1)
Map 1: Hydrogeological Map of India
(Source: CGWB 2009)
1.2.2 Aquifers in India
Aquifer is a subsurface layer of permeable formation that can store as well as yield groundwater
economically to the well tapping it. In India, broadly two groups of rock formations, viz. porous
formations and fissured formations have been identified as aquifers, depending on their
characteristically different hydraulics of ground water (CGWB, 2010, Ground Water Scenario of
India 2009-2010) (Map 2). Porous formations have primary porosity from the time of deposition,
while fissured formations have secondary porosity developed through to various geological and
tectonic processes.
Map 2: Aquifer Systems of India
(Source: CGWB 2012)
1.2.3 Groundwater Quality
The ground water in most of the areas in the country is fresh. Brackish ground water occurs in the
arid zones of Rajasthan, close to coastal tracts in Saurashtra and Kutch, and in some zones in the east
coast and certain parts in Punjab, Haryana, Western UP etc., which are under extensive surface water
irrigation. The fluoride levels in the ground water are considerably higher than the permissible limit
in vast areas of Andhra Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan and in some places in Punjab, Uttar
Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In the north-eastern regions, ground water with iron content
above the desirable limit occurs widely. Pollution due to human and animal wastes and fertilizer
application have resulted in high levels of nitrate and potassium in ground water in some parts of the
country. Ground water contamination in pockets of industrial zones is observed in localised areas.
The over-exploitation of the coastal aquifers in the Saurashtra and Kutch regions of Gujarat has
resulted in salinisation of coastal aquifers. The excessive ground water withdrawal near the city of
Chennai has led to sea water intrusion into coastal aquifers. (Report of Groundwater Resource
Estimation Committee, 2009).
1.2.4 Depth to Water Level as of November 2012 (Groundwater Level Scenario in India,
CGWB, 2012).
The ground water level data for the November 2012 indicates that in Sub-Himalayan area, north of
river Ganges, eastern coast of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Gujarat, Maharastra, Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, entire northeast and Coastal Tamil Nadu states generally the
depth to water level varies from 2-5 meter below ground level. About 37 % wells are showing water
in the depth range of 2-5 m bgl. Shallow water level less than 2 m bgl have also been observed in
west Maharastra, Assam, North Bihar, Orissa and coastal area of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
states. In major parts of north-western states depth to water level generally ranges from 10-20 m bgl.
In the western parts of the country deeper water level is recorded in the depth range of 20-40 m bgl
and more than 40 m bgl. In North Gujarat, part of Haryana and western Rajasthan water level more
than 40 m bgl is recorded. In the west coast water level is generally less than 5 m and in western
parts of Maharashtra State isolated pockets of water level less than 2 m has also been observed. In
the east coast i.e. coastal Andhra Pradesh, shallow water level of less than 2 m have been recorded.
In eastern states, water level in general ranges from 2-5 m bgl. However south-eastern part of West
Bengal recorded water level in the range of 10-20 m bgl and 5-10 m bgl. In south India water level
generally varies between 5-10 m bgl, except in isolated pockets where water level more than 10 m
bgl has been observed.
Out of total monitored wells 19% wells are showing water level less than 2 m bgl, 36 % wells are
showing water in the depth range of 2-5 m bgl, 27% wells are showing water level in the depth range
of 5-10 m bgl, 14% wells are showing water level in the depth range of 10-20 m bgl, 3% wells are
showing water level in the depth range of 20-40 m and remaining wells are showing water level
more than 40 m bgl.
1.2.5 Utilisation of Groundwater
Groundwater in India is a vital resource, accounting for over 65% of irrigation water and 85% of
drinking water supplies (World Bank, 2010). India utilizes 61% of its annual replenishable ground
water resource and is the largest user of groundwater in the world. However, on current trends it is
estimated that 60% of groundwater sources will be in a critical state of degradation within the next
twenty years (World Bank, 2010). In the most seriously affected north-western states, recent satellite
measurements indicate an average decline of 33 cm per year from 2002 to 2008 (Rodell et al, 2009).
Local observations of annual water table decline exceeding 0.4 meters are common throughout India
(GoI, 2010).
Groundwater irrigation has been expanding at a very rapid pace in India since the 1970s. The data
from the Minor Irrigation Census conducted in 2001 shows evidence of the growing numbers of
groundwater irrigation structures (wells and tube wells) in the country. Through the construction of
millions of private wells, there has been a phenomenal growth in the exploitation of groundwater in
the last five decades. Their number stood at around 18.5 million in 2001, of which tube wells
accounted for 50%. In places where surface water is available but unsafe for drinking or farming—
more than 70% of India’s surface water resources are polluted by human waste or toxic chemicals
(GoI, 2009)—groundwater has often been seen as a safe alternative (Chakraborti et al, 2011).
The government has no direct control over the groundwater use of millions of private well owners,
both in rural and urban areas. In an indirect way, groundwater use is also sometimes limited through
power shedding with limited hours of electricity supply, especially in rural areas. The combination
of changing climatic conditions along with man-made pressures has driven India’s farmers,
households, and industry to increasingly depend on groundwater rather than surface water resources.
But this dependence is leading to a rapid deterioration of the nation’s groundwater resources.
Widespread groundwater pollution could render the resource useless before it is exhausted. It also
must be noted that indiscriminate abstraction of groundwater aggravates the quality problems, and
thus a more integrated approach to the resource quality and quantity is needed. The problems are
only going to get worse unless urgent changes occur. Aside from the physical absence of the
resource, the state of groundwater quality in India is a critical health issue (Chakraborti et al, 2011).
As wells are drilled deeper in pursuit of the falling water table, the water which is extracted
frequently displays higher levels of arsenic, fluoride, and other harmful chemicals. The attendant
health effects have been well documented throughout India (Mandal et al, 1996); (Chakraborti et al,
2011).
1.2.6. Groundwater Management
Environmental public goods typically require some form of government regulation to change the
incentives of users and produce socially optimal outcomes. In India, however, it would seem almost
impossible for the national government to manage the estimated 25 million groundwater extraction
structures already in existence(Shah, 2011); this is particularly the case given that India’s
government institutions require significant strengthening and responsibility for groundwater
management is fragmented throughout different official departments (World Bank, 2010). Both
underground aquifers and above-ground rivers traverse the borders of Indian states; competition over
water use is already a major source of inter-state conflict, as well as between users at a local level
(World Bank, 2010). To date, the difficulties of regulation and collective management of India’s
groundwater resources have been overwhelming, and are a fundamental cause of the state of
crisis(Briscoe et al, 2005); (World Bank, 2010).
a. The National Project on Aquifer Management
The National Project on Aquifer Management is a flagship program of the Ministry of Water
Resources, Government of India, for mapping and managing aquifer systems in India. The objective
is to identify and map aquifers at the micro level, to quantify the available groundwater resources,
and to propose plans appropriate to the scale of demand and aquifer characteristics, and institutional
arrangements for participatory management. The project involves central and state agencies,
researchers, and the local people. To establish a methodology for the National Project on Aquifer
Management, the Central Ground Water Board has undertaken a pilot study of 6 areas in different
hydrogeological terrains. The methodology integrates multiple disciplines and scientific approaches,
including remote sensing, hydrogeology, geophysics, hydrochemistry, drilling, groundwater
modeling, and management approaches.
b. Aquifer Mapping
Aquifer mapping is a multi-disciplinary holistic scientific approach for aquifer characterization. It
leads to aquifer-based groundwater management. Mapping of aquifers helps determine the quantity
and the quality of groundwater in a particular area, including:
i)
Vertical and lateral extent of aquifers
ii)
Depth to water level/ piezometric surface in the aquifers
iii)
Productivity of the aquifers, Concentration of various chemical constituents in
groundwater in different aquifers
iv)
Current stage of groundwater development in various aquifers
v)
Identification of recharge and discharge areas of the aquifer
vi)
Delineation of vulnerable areas with regard to exploitation and contamination.
Benefits of aquifer mapping:
All such information is required to develop a strategy of sustainable groundwater management. The
benefits of aquifer mapping include the following:
i)
Identifying zones for drilling productive wells.
ii)
Understanding of aquifer vulnerability
iii)
Identification of streams at risk for reduced base flows as a result of heavy groundwater
use
iv)
Formulation of effective aquifer management plans.
v)
Identification of areas for groundwater development, rainwater harvesting and
groundwater recharge.
vi)
Information sharing with stakeholders.
1.2.7 The stage of ground water development
The stage of ground water development in the country is 61%. The status of ground water
development is very high in the states of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan, where the Stage of
Ground Water Development is more than 100%, which implies that in the states the annual ground
water consumption is more than annual ground water recharge. In the states of Gujarat, Tamil Nadu
and Uttar Pradesh and UTs of Daman & Diu, Lakshadweep and Puducherry, the stage of ground
water development is 70% and above. In rest of the states / UTs the stage of ground water
development is below 70%. The ground water development activities have increased generally in the
areas where future scope for ground water development existed. This has resulted in increase in
stage of ground water development from 58% (2004) to 61% (2009). (Ground Water Year Book –
India 2011-12).
1.3 GROUNDWATER STATUS IN GOA.
Groundwater is a replenishable resource. It gets recharged during monsoon. The opportunity for
ground water recharge is enormous in Goa State due to copious annual rainfall which ranges from
2500mm (2.5meter) in the coastal areas to over 4500mm (4.5meter) in the Western Ghat areas.
However this resource is not uniformly distributed and it is restricted in space and time.
1.3.1 Aquifers in Goa.
Under ground water exploration program of CGWB, in the state of Goa, attempt has been made to
study aquifer geometry & parameters through drilling of exploratory bore wells. The selection of
sites of all such bore wells was done based on detailed hydrogeological investigations and
geophysical surveys. The major aquifers encountered in the state during exploratory drilling are in
granite, granite gneiss, metabasalts, metasedimentaries and alluvium. Formation wise aquifer
parameters recorded during exploratory drilling are given in the table below:Sr.
Formation / Aquifers
No.
Yield
Drawdown (m)
(lps)
Sp. Capacity
Transmissivity
(m3/d/m)
(m2/day)
1
Granites &Gneisses
0.34 – 8.8
17.68 – 34.61
0.27 – 43.00
0.2 – 30.6
2
Metabasalts
0.18 – 9.9
1.9 – 33.78
0.46 –141.20
0.2 – 232
3
Metasedimentaries
0.22 – 10
1.32 – 34.40
0.47 – 159.60
0.12 – 346
4
Alluvium
1.8 – 2.5
0.87 – 9.1
27 - 200
21 - 1776
Table 3: Formation-wise Aquifer Parameters.
(Source: Groundwater Booklet for North & South Goa, CGWB)
1.3.2 Occurrence of ground water and aquifer characteristics of various formations.
(A) In Goa the major water bearing formations are Laterite, Alluvium, Granite, Granite Gneiss, Meta
volcanics and Meta sedimentaries (CGWB, 2009).
1. Laterites
Laterites are the important water bearing formations. Laterites are of two types, viz. insitu,
occurring in plateau areas or of detrital origin generally occupying valley portions. Besides
inherent porosity, the laterites are highly jointed and fractured, which control their water bearing
capacity. The topographic settings of laterites control its ground water potential. The thickness of
laterites extends up to 30 m. Ground water occurs under water table condition in lateritic
formation. In the plateau area and high grounds, depth of wells range from 9.40 to 26.60 m bgl
and depth to water level varies between 8.20 – 21.90 m bgl, whereas wells located in topographic
lows range in depth from 3.10 – 11.95 m bgl and depth to water level varies from 1.5 – 8.40 m
bgl. Specific capacities varies between 1.73 to 3205 m3/day/m. Promising ground water bearing
areas are located near Malpen and Tuem in Pernem taluka, Advalpal and Mayem in Bicholim
Taluka of North Goa district and Kasapural area in Sanguem and Arelm area in Salcete taluka of
South Goa district.
2. Alluvium
Alluvium constitutes good aquifers and is restricted to banks of rivers, viz. Zuari and Mandovi.
Thickness of the coastal alluvium varies from 5 – 22m, and comprise of fine to coarse sand with
intercalations of sandy loam, silt and clay. Depth range of 1.42 to 7.7 m bgl is being tapped by
dug wells. Exploratory tube wells constructed in alluvium vary in depth from 15.50 – 22m.
Depth to water level in these formations varies from 1.4 to 5.85 m bgl. The discharges recorded
from these aquifers are between 1.88 – 3 lps. Specific capacities vary between 27.10 & 200.78
m3/day/m and transmissivity varies from 25.44 – 177.50 m2/day.
3. Granite and Granite Gneiss
Ground water occurs under unconfined, semi – confined and confined conditions in weathered
and fractured zones of granite and granite gneiss. Depth to water level in these formations in
open wells varies from 3.8 to 6.25 m bgl, and specific capacities between 14.4 to 77.30
m3/day/m. Exploratory bore holes drilled in granite and granitic gneiss are in the depth range of
70.70 to 124 m bgl. Discharge recorded is between 0.77 to 8.8 lps. Specific capacities in
exploratory wells recorded, vary from 2.27 to 43 m3/day/m and transmissivity from 0.87 to34.60
m2/day.
4. Metavolcanics
In unaltered state, metavolcanics are very poor in ground water. However, ground water is found
to occur in zones having secondary porosity and permeability imparted due to weathering, joints
and fractures. Ground water occurs both under water table and confined conditions. Water
bearing zones extend up to depth of 40 to 100 m.
Irrigation dug wells having diameter from 2.2 to 6.1 m are found to tap the weathered zone up to
9.25 m bgl. Depth to water level in dug wells varies from 1.48 to 6.26 m bgl. Specific capacity
varies from 10.60 to 228.70 m3/day/m.
Exploratory wells and deposit wells drilled by CGWB in this formation range in depth from
37.20 to 200.75 m bgl and the discharges recorded range from 0.18 to 25 lps. Productive zones
were encountered even up to 119 m bgl. Specific capacities recorded from boreholes tested
varied from 0.46 to 988.47 m3/day/m and transmissivity varied from 0.25 to 346.10 m2/day.
Studies have indicated that bore holes drilled in metavolcanics with thick lateritic cover in the
plateau areas and close to lineaments have yields ranging from 2 to 5 lps.
5. Metasedimentaries
Metasedimentaries comprise shales, phyllites, schists, metagreywackes, argillites and quartzites.
The irrigation dug wells tapping weathered zones extending from 8.5 to 19.85 m bgl in these
rock units with varying well diameters from 2.2 to 6.1 m. Depth to water level during post and
pre – monsoon periods are recorded respectively in the range between 0.48 to 12.06 m bgl and
1.79 to 14.88 m bgl with fluctuations between 0.86 to 8.0 m. Specific capacities vary from 0.85
to 82.80 m3/day/m.
(B) Depth to Water Level.
The depth to water level recorded in the state of Goa by CGWB, during November 2012 ranged
from 0.21 m bgl in North Goa to 14.65 m bgl in South Goa. It is observed that out of 40 stations
monitored during the month, 22% wells have less than 2 m bgl water level, 45% wells have 2 to 5 m
bgl water level, 25% wells have 5 to 10 m bgl water level and 8% wells have 10 to 20 m bgl water
level.
Water levels of November 2012 when compared to water level of November 2011 in the state of
Goa indicate that about 46% of the wells analyzed have recorded a fall in water level and all these
wells are in the range of 0 to 2 m. The remaining 54% wells have shown rise in water level, out of
this 51% wells have recorded rise in the range of 0 to 2m.
The fluctuation of water level during November 2012 when compared with the average water levels
of past decade (Decadal mean November 2002-2011) indicates in general there is decline and rise of
water level in entire state. About 42% of monitored wells have registered decline in water level. The
decline of 0-2 m has been observed in all 42% monitoring wells analyzed. About 58% of wells
analyzed have shown rise in water levels. Rise in the range of 0-2 m has been recorded in 51% of
monitored wells; Water level rise in order of 2-4m has been recorded 5% of wells analyzed. About
3% of wells shows rise in water level in more than 4 m range.
1.3.3 Groundwater Monitoring in Goa.
The work done by the Central Ground Water Board in Goa is tabulated below (Table 4). The State
groundwater board
Taluka
Dug Wells
Peizometers
North Goa
22
27
South Goa
19
34
Table 4: Number of Groundwater monitoring wells of Central Ground Water Board (as on
31/03/2009)
Sr.
No.
1
Items
North Goa
South Goa
(a) Exploratory Drilling Programme
(a) 24 EW; 8 OW; Total – 32
(a) 30EW; 11 OW; Total - 41
(b) Deposit well construction (Under
CaborajNiwas& Western Ghat
Development Programme of Goa
State)
(b) 12
(b) 12
(c) 22
(c) 27 PZ
(a) 17.60 – 184.25 m bgl
(a) 12.40 - 202 m bgl
State)
(b) 22.05 – 79.0 m bgl
(b) 28.20 – 126.50 m bgl
(c) 28.00 to 100.00
(c ) 42.70-100
(a) 0.05 – 13.50 lps
(a) 0.18 – 10.0 lps
CaborajNiwas& WesternGhat
State)
(b)1.00 – 25.00 lps
(b) 0.35 – 7.80 lps
(c) <1.00 to 6.10
(c )<1.00-6.73
Number of wells drilled
(c) Hydrology Project Phase - II
2
Depth Range (m bgl)
(c ) Hydrology Project-II
3
Discharge (litres per second)
4
Sp. Capacity (m3/day/m)
(a) 0.47 – 988.47
(a) 0.46 – 200.78
State)
(b) – Not computed
(b) – Not computed
(c )4.14 to 21.25 lpm/m/dd
(c ) 3.26-31.48 (lpm/m/dd)
(a) 0.12 – 346.10
(a) 0.19 - 1216
State)
(b ) Not computed
(b) Not computed
(c )4.66- 28.85
(c) 3.99-27.0
5
Transmissivity (m2/day)
Table 5: Groundwater Exploration Data
Source: Groundwater Information Booklet, North Goa District, Goa State, March 2013, Ministry of
Water Resources, CGWB, GoI and Groundwater Information Booklet, South Goa District, Goa
State, March 2013, Ministry of Water Resources, CGWB, GoI
1.3.4 Major Groundwater Problems &Issues
The major groundwater problems and issues in the state of Goa are listed below:
a) Scarcity of Groundwater during Summer: Scarcity of ground water is observed during
summer months as a result of high sub – surface and surface run off due to hilly topography and
highly permeable nature of phreatic aquifer system. This results in lowering of water levels or
drying of wells in some areas in summer months.
b) Seawater Ingress: Ground water in dugwells &bore wells inareas around Baga & along Chapora
River isbrackish to saline due toseawater ingress. Water table aquifers around Marmugao,
especially locations close to and in the vicinity of creeks show high electrical conductivity &
chloride indicating brackish to saline nature of groundwater.
c) Salinity: In areas confined to the vicinity of creeks of Sal River, ground water is brackish and
unsuitable for drinking. Salinity is more pronounced during May when fresh water flow is
minimum, and maximum seawater ingress takes place.
d) Domestic Sewage: Ground water in areas adjacent to stream course in north east of Panjim and
some other towns, is polluted due to domestic sewage.
e) Industrial Effluents: Contamination of groundwater due to industrial effluents in some
industrial estates has been reported by some workers.
1.3.5 Groundwater Conservation in Goa.
The best possible water conservation structure suitable for topographical and hydrological setup of
Goa is open type weirs across the stream. During monsoon gates are kept open to allow heavy flow
and are closed after December so as to store dry weather flow of water within river banks. This has
delayed draining of groundwater in to the streams resulting in conservation of surface and
groundwater.
Other suitable water conservation structures for improving water resources potential in the upper
reaches could be percolation tanks where ever feasible which would improve dry weather flow in
minor streams and provide prolonged groundwater recharge beyond monsoon. (Nadkarni and
Somasundaram, 2012)
1.3.6 Groundwater Recharging in Goa.
Rainfall in Goa is copious but bulk of rainfall is restricted to four months from June to September.
Rain water harvesting potential is enormous. Rain water can be harvested and used during monsoon
for various purposes. Cost of structures for storing rain water for a period of 200days (for the use
during non-monsoon period) is prohibitive and site specific solutions should be evolved to make the
same economical and effective. Groundwater recharge takes place everywhere but the quantum of
water recharged during monsoon depends on various factors, like, intensity of rainfall, infiltration
capacity of the soil, geomorphology of the area and slope of the terrain. (Nadkarni and
Somasundaram, 2012)
1.4 About the Study Area
The study area, Mhadei River Basin, lies between latitudes N 15°22 ’ 14.85” and N 15°42’ 8.3”
longitudes E 74°02’ 25.6” and
E 74°25’ 00”. Mhadei River and Khandepar River are the two
major tributaries of Mandovi River, which drains into the Arabian Sea. The Mhadei River Basin
extends over a total area of 899 km2 and partly lies in Goa and partly in Karnataka.
1.5 Objectives of the Study
1. To establish a network of groundwater monitoring station in the Mhadei river watershed.
2. To carry out physical and chemical analysis of ground water of Mhadei watershed for premonsoon and post-monsoon season.
3. To study microbiological load of water bodies in order to assess presence and absence of
pollution.
4. To analyse the quality of ground water in the watershed and identify the extent of pollution if
any.
5. To study the causes and extent of pollution in the ground water.
6.
To study variation in course of three years so that impact of anthropogenic activities and
environmental impact assessment can be done.
Targets achieved
1st year (2011-12)

A thorough survey of Mhadei river watershed was done and a base map was prepared. The
geographical location of the wells was marked. 25 wells were identified/selected for the analysis
representing the Mhadei river basin and receiving water due to percolation of water from the
surrounding Mhadei watershed. The dimensions and the longitude and latitude of the wells were
determined.

A thorough literature survey for the chemical and microbiological analysis of the water samples
was done and the standard methods of analysis were found out.The simple and standard
laboratory methods for some of the chemical parameters like free CO2, acidity, total hardness,
calcium, magnesium, sulphate, iron, turbidity etc. were taken from the standard books. The
standard books were referred for the analysis of microorganisms like E-coli, Staphylococcus,
pseudomonas and total microbial count.

After a thorough study of the area our target was to collect the well samples for the analysis. The
sampling was carried out with utmost precaution following the standard sample collection
methodology. The well water samples for the 1st year pre-monsoon and post-monsoon were
collected and examined for the trend in change in the physicho-chemical and microbiological
quality of water.
2nd year (2012-13)

The samples for second year pre-monsoon and post-monsoon were collected till now.

The chemical and microbiological analysis was carried out for the same.

The data obtained was compared with the first year’s data.

The physicho-chemical and microbiological analysis have been compared with that of WHO and
BSI standards.

Effect of monsoon on the well water quality was found out.
3rd year (2013-14)

The samples for 3rd year pre-monsoon and post-monsoon were collected and the chemical and
microbiological analysis has been carried out for the same.

A thorough comparative study of all three years pre-monsoon and post-monsoon data with
respect to each parameter was carried out.

The trend in the changes if any, due to the surrounding environment and anthropogenic activities
was noted down.

The Final project report is prepared on this comparative basis. Any miscellaneous change in the
quality of well waters of the area is identified and recorded.
Materials
&
Methods
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. The State of Goa
2.1.1. About Goa
Goa is the smallest state of India with a population of 1,347,668 as per census 2001
and an area of 3,702 sq. km. It is situated between latitudes N 14o 53’ 57” to E 15o
47’ 59 and longitudes E 73o 40’ 35” to E 74o 20’ 11” and it lies along the West coast
of India between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats. Distance between North to
South is 105 km while East to West it is hardly 50 kms. It is located in a very
strategic location between Arabian Sea to the West and Western Ghats to the East.
(Map 3)
Maharashtra
Map 3: Political Map of Goa
2.1.1.1.
Population
As per details from Census 2011, Goa has population of 14.59 Lakhs, an increase
from figure of 13.48 Lakh in 2001 census. Total population of Goa as per 2011
census is 1,458,545 of which male and female are 739,140 and 719,405 respectively.
In 2001, total population was 1,347,668 in which males were 687,248 while females
were 660,420. (Fig 2).
(http://www.census2011.co.in/census/state/goa.html)
Fig 2: Population of Goa as of 2011
2.1.1.2.
Climate
Goa is located on the western coast of the country and is grouped under
Western Zone Agro-Climatic region of India, which has a warm and humid
maritime climate. It is situated along the windward direction of the Western
Ghats and flanked by Arabian sea in the west, hence its climate is warm and
humid with an average rainfall of about 3200mm. Due to maritime influence,
the diurnal range of temperature during the day is not large. Relative humidity
during the monsoon period is high to the order of 90 to 95% and for the rest of
the year it ranges between 80 to 85%.
The diurnal range is the least being 4°C to 6oC during monsoon season and
increase to the maximum of 10 oC to 20oC during December & January. The
average minimum temperature in the winter is to the tune of about 18°C and
reaches to a maximum of 36°C in summer. May is the hottest month where
the mean daily temperature increases to 30°C. January is the coolest with
mean daily temperature of about 23°C. It is noted that the day temperature is
the lowest in monsoon months of July and August and not in the cool winter
months of December and January. The temperature is highest (around 33°C)
in pre – monsoon months of April & May and again in post monsoon months
of November & January.
Due to proximity to the Arabian Sea, humidity throughout the year is more
than 60% with range from 80 to 90% during monsoon period. As a result of
orographic influence, rainfall increases towards the Western Ghat and the
State receives its rainfall chiefly during the south west monsoon season (June
to September). Over 90% of annual rainfall occurs during monsoon months of
June to September. About 32% of the annual rainfall is received during July.
2.1.2. Geological Setting
2.1.2.1.
Physiography of Goa
Physiographically, Goa can be divided roughly into 3 physiographic divisions,
the Western Ghats, the Midlandregion and the Coastal plains/alluvial flats.
Goa's 12 talukas are divided according to these categories with Western Ghat
talukas, Midland talukas and Coastal talukas. Though the 4 coastal talukas of
Bardez, Tiswadi, Mormugao and Salcett cover an area of only 24% of the
total geographical area, they support 59% of Goa’s population. The 4 Midland
talukas of Pernem, Bicholim, Ponda and Quepem cover 30% area with a
population of 29%, whereas Western Ghat talukas covers an area of 46% and
are home to only 12% of Goa's population.
2.1.2.2.
Geology of Goa
The rocks of the Goa group belonging to Dharwar Supergroup of Archaean to
Proterozoic age is dominantes the state, except for a narrow strip along the
north eastern corner occupied by Deccan Trap of Upper Cretaceous to Lower
Eocene age.
The Goa group is consisting of green schist facies of the
metamorphic rocks and is divided into Barcem, Sanvordem, Bicholim and
Vageri formations in the ascending order of superposition. The Goa group of
rocks have been intruded by granite gneiss, feldspathic gneiss, hornblende
gneiss and porphyritic granite, followed by basic intrusives. During the recent
period the rocks have been subjected to lateritisation of varying thickness.
Coastal alluvium occurring along the coastal plains consists of fine to coarse
sand with intercalations of sandy loam, silt and clay.
The Goa group of rocks is disposed in a general NW-SE (North west - South
East) direction throughout the territory except in south western part where
they have WNW-ESE (West North West – East South East) trend. The rock
types indicate three cycles of folding. Western Ghats which extends in NS
(North South) to NNW-SSE (North North West – South South East) direction
represent a prominent fault zone. Even though the rock types of Goa group
have suffered considered faulting, all the faults are not exposed on surface
owing to the extensive cover of laterite. (Gokul et. al, 1985).
2.1.3. Types of Soil
2.1.3.1.
Soil type & their features
Most of Goa's soil cover is made up of laterites which are rich in
ferricaluminium oxides and reddish in colour. Further inland and along the
riverbanks, the soil is mostly alluvial and loamy. The soil is rich in minerals
and humus, thus conducive to plantation.
Soils widely vary in their characteristics and properties. Understanding the
properties of the soils is important in respect of the optimum use they can be
put to and the best management requirements for their efficient and productive
use.
Soils of the Goa are classified by CGWB into 4 types namely:
i.
Laterite soil
Lateritic soil is the major soil type in the state. It is highly porous & permeable,
slightly acidic with low pH values, low in organic matter, Calcium and Phosphorus.
ii.
Saline soil
Saline soils occur in the flood plains of Zuari and Mandovi Rivers in Tiswadi, Bardez
and Ponda talukas. It also occurs in Pernem taluka, Sal, Saleri, Talpona and Galgibag
rivers in Salcete, Marmugao, Quepem and Canacona talukas. It also occurs to a very
limited extent in Sanguem taluka. The soil is deep, poorly drained and less permeable.
It is saline, high in pH and contains humus and organic matter.
iii.
Alluvial soil
Alluvial soil occurs as very thin strip along the coastline towards western part of the
state. It is reddish brown to yellowish, coarse grained and confined to narrow valleys
of rivers. It is well drained, acidic with low pH and organic content
iv.
Marshy soil
Marshy soil occurs to a large extent in Salcete taluka and towards the western part of
Canacona taluka.It also occurs in Marmugao taluka. This type of soil occurs in lowlying water logged and tidal affected areas. (Ground water information booklet, 2010,
Ministry of water resources, Central ground water board (CGWB) GoI)
2.1.4. Drainage System
The state of Goa covering 3702 km2 area is bestowed with variety of drainage
patterns and the river system does not follow complete youthful, mature and old
stages as usual. Eustatic changes of sea levels and uplifting (Geo-tectonic
movements) during Cenizoic Era has resulted in deep cutting of the rivers at
midlands, formation of estuaries and tidal water enters several kilometers inland.
Basically all major rivers originate in Western Ghats, most of them within the state
and flows towards west to join the Arabian Sea.
2.1.4.1.
Pattern
Sub dendritic drainage pattern with moderate drainage density are restricted to
foot hill region of Western Ghats, whereas in the midlands (Intermediate
Zones) rivers have cut the midland topography and flow at abnormally deeper
sections.
2.1.4.2.
Flow of river
The drainage density in midland and coastal areas is poor. Streams in Priol
area in Ponda taluka show poor drainage density and deep cuttings of second
order streams. Deep cut valleys have far reaching impact on dynamic ground
water resources which migrate faster. Upland valleys and upland plains are
drained by misfit rivers. Plains were developed due to tidal action when sea
level was up. Present day streams are smaller in size when compared to size of
valley. Most of the rivers join the sea through estuary and the key estuaries are
Mandovi and Zuari.
2.1.4.3.
Rivers in Goa
There are nine major rivers in Goa flowing from East (Western Ghat) to West
(Arabian Sea) except Sal River. Terekhol, Chapora, Baga, Mandovi, Zuari,
Sal, Saleri, Talpona, Galgibag are the main nine rivers of Goa(Map 4). Among
these rivers Mandovi and Zuari drain 2553 Sq. Km, about 69% of the total
geographical area of Goa. The Zuari and the Mandovi are the lifelines of Goa,
with their tributaries draining 69% of its geographic area. The total navigable
length of Goa's rivers is 253 km.out of the 9 rivers, 3 originate outside the
state boundaries. River Terekhol and Chapora originate in Maharashtra state
while Mandovi originates in Karnataka. These rivers form an integral part of
Goan life because of their portability, irrigation facilities, agriculture and
coastal resources, transportation of mining ores, etc.
Map 4: River Map of Goa
2.1.4.4.
Tidal Influence.
Tidal influence travels across the state boundary in Terekol River, almost up
to the State boundary in Chapora River, over 35km inland in Mandovi and
Zuari rivers and about 12km in Sal River besides to minor extent in all the
other rivers (Table 6).
Discharges in the rivers vary widely between monsoon period and lean season
flow. Most of the streams and tributaries are perennial with meagre discharge
in summer. Most of the streams are effluent and dry weather flow is
essentially from contribution of ground water in the form of springs and
ground water seepage.
Sr.
No.
River Basin
Length
Length within
within the
the Salinity
Basin Area
State
Zone
(Sq. km)
(km)
(km)
Terekol
26
26
71
1
Chapora
32
32
255
2
Baga
10
10
50
3
Mandovi
52
36
1580
4
Zuari
145
42
973
5
Sal
40
14
301
6
Saleri
11
5
149
7
Talpona
32
7
233
8
Galgibag
14
4
90
9
Table 6: River Basin Details
2.2. Study Area – Mhadei River Basin in Goa.
2.2.1. About Study Area
The study area, Mhadei River Basin, lies between latitudes N 15°22 ’ 14.85” and N 15°42’
8.3” longitudes E 74°02’ 25.6” and E 74°25’ 00”(Map 5). This area is included in survey of
India (SOI) Toposheets No. 48 I/2, 48 I/3, 48 I/6 and 48 I/7 on 1:50,000 scale.
Map 5: Mhadei River Basin
2.2.1.1 Mhadei River in Goa
Mhadei River and Khandepar River are the two major tributaries of Mandovi River, which
drains into the Arabian Sea. The other minor tributaries of Mandovi River include the
Valvanti River, the Mapusa River and the Sinquerim River. The Mhadei River Basin extends
over a total area of 899 km2 and partly lies in Goa and partly in Karnataka. Mhadei River is
a short westerly flowing river that originates in the Western Ghats and drains into the
Arabian Sea through Mandovi River.
2.2.1.2 Mhadei River in Karnataka
The Mhadei River originates at Degaon village in Khanapur taluka of Belgaum district in
Karnataka, at a height of 1026m amsl (above mean sea level). The Nanode nadi, the Kotrachi
nadi and the Ragda nadi are the major tributaries of Mhadei River. A number of smaller
streams like Bail nadi, Kotni nadi, Doli nadi and Bhandura nadi also join the Mhadei River.
2.2.1.3 Physiography of Mhadei Watershed
The Mhadei River Basin can be topographically divided into three parts, the western part of
the basin lies in the Central midland region of Goa, this region consists of elongated hills
having elevations below 400m amsl, the central part of the basin comprises of the Western
Ghats ranging in elevation from 500m to 1000m amsl and the eastern part of the basin lies in
the plateau region of Karnataka (Map 6).
Map 6: Mhadei River Basin in Goa and Karnataka
2.2.2 Hydrogeology of Mhadei Watershed
The important aquifers occurring in the Mhadei watershed are Laterite and valley fill deposits.
Ground water predominantly occurs in unconfined condition in these rocks. However, ground
water occurs in semiconfined condition in the fractured and weathered metamorphic rocks at
depths. Laterite occurs as an extensive layer capping the low lying area of the watershed that
comprises of the etch-plain and the low elongated hills (Fig 3). However, it is often absent on
the higher hills and the denudational hills of the Western Ghats. Generally, the thickness of
the laterite is maximum, reaching over 30m in the western region of the watershed and
diminishes progressively towards the Western Ghats. Nevertheless, the thickness varies
depending on the type of lithology over which it has developed. The phyllites and schists
show maximum lateritisation (Ibrampurkar & Chachadi, 2012).
The intermountain valley fills consisting of alluvial and colluvial deposits also behave as
important ground water reservoirs (Fig 4). The narrow valleys occurring between the low
denudational hills in the watershed are often filled by gravel mixed silty unconsolidated
deposits. These deposits being unconsolidated and superficial have high porosity and thus
store groundwater under unconfined condition. Weathered basalts occurring on the Karnataka
plateau also form an important aquifer. The Deccan basalts occupying a large area in the
north-eastern region of the watershed consists of massive, vesicular and fractured lava flows.
The fractured and vesicular flows are inherently porous in nature. The top flows that are
subjected to tropical weathering are invariably altered to clays or even weakly lateritised.
Groundwater occurring in the weathered basalts is under water table condition and is the only
source of fresh water for the people living in this region. Some wells dug on the hill slopes tap
groundwater from the fractured and weathered schistose rocks. These aquifers are of semiconfined to confined nature depending on the thickness and nature of the overlying laterite
cover and occurrence of the groundwater in fractures (Ibrampurkar & Chachadi, 2012).
Few iron ore deposits occur in the western region of the watershed. The iron ore bodies occur
in a typical geological setup composed of complex folds and embedded in clay layers all
around
(Fig 5). The ore bodies show considerable porosity and are saturated with fresh
water. Invariably these confined ore bodies are laterally limited due to numerous altered dykes
composed of impervious clays. During mining they are intersected and fresh water is drained
out to provide dry working conditions. Sometimes these ore bodies get recharge from
percolating rain water through overlying laterites (Pahala Kumar et al, 1994).
Figure 3: A Schematic Vertical Section of an Unconfined Laterite Aquifer
Figure 4: A Schematic Vertical Section of an Unconfined Aquifer in Alluvial Valley Fills
Figure 5: A Generalised Vertical Section of a Confined Aquifer in Iron Ore Bodies
(Source: Ibrampurkar M. M. and Chachadi A. G., 2012)
2.3
Sample Collection
The water samples were drawn from the wells and then transferred into plastic collection cans.
Before transferring the water into the respective cans it was made sure that the cans were
rinsed with the sample water. After collecting the water, the cans were stoppered and made
ready for transport.
2.4
Methodology of Chemical Analysis
2.4.1 Field Analysis
The physicochemical parameters such as Temperature, pHand Electrical Conductivity were
analyzed on the field using digital Combo Tester.Alkalinity was determined by titrimetric
method using phenolphthalein indicator.
2.4.2 Laboratory Analysis
Specific reagents were used for the analysis and double distilled water was used for preparation
of solutions. The physicochemical parameters such as Turbidity, Dissolved Oxygen(DO), Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS), Acidity,Chloride (Cl -),Total Hardness (TH), Calcium (Ca2+),
Magnesium (Mg2+), Iron, Sodium, Potassium, Silica, Nitrate, Sulphate, Manganese, Cadmium
and Chromium were determined using standard methods. The methods used for estimation of
various physicochemical parameters both in the field and in the laboratory are tabulated below
(Table 7 & Figure 6).
Sr.
Parameters
No.
Instruments Used / MethodsFollowed
1
Temperature
Combo Tester
2
pH
Combo Tester
3
Electrical Conductivity
Combo Tester
4
Alkalinity
Titrimetric method (methyl-orange&phenolphthalein indicator)
5
Turbidity
Digital Turbidimeter
6
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Digital DO meter
7
Total Solid Content
By Filtration method
8
Acidity
Titrimetric method (phenolphthalein indicator)
9
Chlorides
Volumetric titration (By silver nitrate method)
10
Total Hardness
Volumetric titration (By EDTA- Titrimetric method)
11
Calcium Estimation
12
Magnesium Estimation
13
Iron Estimation
UV-Visible Spectrophotometer (By Thiocyanate method)
14
Sulphate Estimation
Turbid meter/ UV-Visible Spectrophotometer
15
Sodium
Flame photometer
16
Potassium
Flame photometer
17
Silica
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS)
18
Nitrate
19
Manganase
20
Chromium
21
Cadmium
Table 7: Instruments Used/Methods followed for Physico-Chemical Analysis
UV-Visible spectrophotometer
D.O. meter
Turbidimeter
pH & EC meter
Figure 6: Instruments used for Chemical Analysis
2.5
Methodology of Microbiological Analysis
Microbiological testing includes the presence/absence and enumeration of various
microorganisms. Water quality analysis was based on the most probable number of colony
forming units (cfu) per 100 ml for the Total coliform and Escherichia coli bacteria. Results of
the tests were compared with the prescribed World Health Organization desirable limits. A
household survey and field observations were conducted to assess the hygienic conditions and
practices, in and around the water sources during sample collection.
A pre-sterilised sample bottle was being collected from the laboratory prior the collection of
the sample. The sample was transported to the laboratory promptly and was stored in the
refrigerator between 4- 6 oC. Water samples were collected in 250 mL sterile bottles that were
fitted with screw caps, labeled and kept in a cooler before the analysis. The samples were
analyzed within six hours of collection.
2.5.1 Isolation of micro-organisms
Membrane filtration technique was used to isolate the microorganisms present in the
water samples. The funnel of the membrane filtration unit with a capacity of 50ml was
used for the purpose. The funnel was mounted on a receptacle which was fixed to the
vacuum pump which allowed the water to flow over the porous sterile membrane filter
(0.45μm). Aseptically, the membrane filters were placed on each microbial growth
medium using sterile forceps after passage of 100ml of water sample. The following
media (McConkey agar, Plate count agar, Pseudomonas agar base) were prepared and
autoclaved at 1210C for 15 minutes at 15Ib before being inoculated with membrane
filters. (APHA, 1992).
2.5.1.1 Isolation of total bacteria
Water sample (100ml) was filtered with a sterile membrane filter (0.45/μm). It was
then placed aseptically in an empty sterile Petri-dish by pour-plate method using
plate count agar incubated at 370C for 24hrs (APHA, 1992: Balogun, 2000).
2.5.1.2Isolation of Escherichia coli
Water sample (100ml) was drawn and filtered with sterile membrane filter (0.45um).
The filter membrane was then placed on McConkey agar aseptically and the plate
was incubated at 450C for 22hrs (APHA 1992; Balogun, 2000).
2.5.1.3 Isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa
then placed aseptically on Pseudomonas agar base and incubated at 42 0C for 48hr
(APHA, 1992: Balogun 2000).
2.5.1.4 Isolation of Staphylococcus aureus
then placed aseptically on the Baired-parker agar and then incubated at 370C for
24hrs (APHA, 1992: Balogun, 2000).
Observations
&
Results
3. Observation and Results.
3.1. Observation Well Network
A survey work was conducted for the identification of sampling wells and the current quality
conditions for groundwater sources of this region. The selection of wells was done in order to
represent the entire Mhadei River watershed which will give a clear picture of the water
quality conditions of this region. In the present investigation for the Mhadei River watershed,
25 open dug wells were selected as the source for the ground water quality study (Table 8).
The water level below ground was recorded using a measuring tape. All other details such as
total depth, height of the measuring point, well diameter, length and width were also
recorded.
3.1.1 Well Location
The base map of Mhadei River Basin was prepared in a GIS environment and the
watershed boundary was delineated using the toposheets of Survey of India (SOI)
Toposheets No. 48 I/2, 48 I/3, 48 I/6 and 48 I/7 on 1:50,000 scale. The details of
the well locations and dimensions of the wells were also recorded and the field
data was transferred on the base map(Map 7).
Map 7: Study Area with Location of Wells
Well No.
Place
Latitude
Longitude
V1
Nr. Mosque, Thane Rd, Valpoi
N 15° 32' 08.1"
E 74° 08' 17.2"
V2
Govt. Well, Coparde
N15° 33' 34.6"
E74° 07' 32.6"
V3
Nr. Navdurga Temple, Thane
N15° 36' 03.9"
E74° 08' 34.9"
V4
Govt. Well, Charvane
N15° 37' 29.1"
E74° 07' 44.7"
V5
Govt. Well, Hivre - Budruk
N15° 37' 44.5"
E74° 08' 50"
V6
Shaikh’s Well, Hatikade, Nagre - Valpoi
N15° 31' 27.7"
E74° 07' 13.3"
V7
Brahmakarmali Temple Spring
N15° 34' 07.2"
E74° 09' 47.7"
V8
Nr. Shantadurga Temple Ambede
N15° 33' 22.3"
E74° 09' 38.7"
Junction
V9
Ambede
N15° 33' 37.5"
E74° 09' 56.3"
V10
Nirankarachi Rai - Maloli
N15° 34' 05.5"
E74° 11' 14.6"
V11
Nanoda - Bambar
V12
Nanoda
N15° 34' 53.5"
E74° 11' 57.2"
V13
Dhave
N15° 32' 55.5"
E74° 10' 30.5"
V14
Sonal Tar
N15° 31' 55.5"
E74° 10' 25.3"
V15
Sonal
N15° 32' 14.8"
E74° 11' 23.5"
V16
Sonal Spring
V17
Karambali
V18
Karambali
N15° 30' 45.4"
E74° 10' 52.7"
V19
Khotade
V20
Malpona
N15° 26' 41.5"
E74° 10' 37.5"
V21
Govt. Well, Bolcorem
N15° 26' 04.2"
E74° 11' 30.7"
V22
Govt. Well, Bolcorem
N15° 25' 41.6"
E74° 11' 35.1"
V23
Bolcorem
N15° 25' 24.9"
E74° 11' 45.1"
V24
Surla
N15° 25' 05.4"
E74° 11' 51.1"
V25
Satpal
N15° 24' 36.4"
E74° 12' 06.9"
Table 8: Well Location Data
3.2 Physico – Chemical Parameters
3.2.1 General Introduction: Physico – Chemical Parameters
3.2.1.1 Temperature
Temperature measurements are useful in detecting an unsuspected source of
pollution.
3.2.1.2 pH
The pH of most natural waters, fall within the range of 4 to 9. Most of the waters
are slightly alkaline due to the presence of carbonates and bicarbonates. The
desirable pH range for drinking water is 7.0 to 8.5.
Based on the pH values, natural waters can be divided into three distinct classes:
a) Those which contain carbonates with or without bicarbonates. They do not
have free carbonic acid. The pH of these waters is always above 8.
b) Those which contain no carbonates but contain bicarbonates and carbonic
acid. The pH of these waters ranges from 4.5 to 8. Most natural waters fall
under this category.
c) Those which contain free acid in addition to carbonic acid. They do not
contain carbonates or bicarbonates. The ph value of these waters is 4.5 or
below 4.5.
3.2.1.3 Electrical Conductivity
Electrical Conductivity (EC) is a measure of a water capacity to convey electric
current. EC of water is directly proportional to its dissolved mineral matter
content (Dissolved gases also contribute to EC but silica and organic matters do
not contribute).
3.2.1.4 Alkalinity
Alkalinity is the quantitative capacity aqueous media to react with hydrogen
ions. The alkalinity of natural or treated waters is normally due to the presence
of bicarbonate, carbonate and hydroxide compounds of calcium, magnesium,
sodium and potassium. Borates, phosphates and silicates also contribute to
alkalinity (Figure 7).
Fig 7: Zones of pH value where free carbon dioxide, bicarbonates,
carbonates and hydroxide alkalinities prevail.
3.2.1.5 Turbidity
Turbidity is an important parameter for characterizing water quality. In most
waters turbidity is due to colloidal and extremely fine dispersions. Suspended
matter such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter, plankton
and other microorganisms also contribute to turbidity.
Turbidity is an important consideration in public water supplies because of the
following reasons:a) Aesthetically turbidity is objectionable.
b) Filtration of water is rendered more difficult when turbidity increases. Since
turbidity shortens the filter runs, satisfactory operation of filter beds
becomes impossible.
c) There are chances for the pathogenic organisms to be enclosed in the
turbidity causing particles and they may not be exposed to the disinfectants.
3.2.1.6 Dissolved Oxygen
Oxygen is dissolved in most waters in varying concentrations. Solubility of
oxygen depends on temperature, pressure and salinity of water.
3.2.1.7 Total Solid Content
Total solid is the residue that includes both dissolved solids and suspended
solids. The amount and nature of dissolved and undissolved matter occurring in
liquid material vary considerably. Potable waters contain mostly inorganic
mineral matter in dissolved condition and small amounts or none of organic
matter, whereas waste waters such as sewage and industrial effluents contain
considerable amount of undissolved matter.
3.2.1.8 Acidity
Acidity is not a specific pollutant, and it is a measure of the effects of
combination of substances and condition of the water. It may be defined as the
power of the water to neutralize the hydroxyl ions and is expressed in terms of
calcium carbonate.Acidity is usually caused by the presence of free carbon
dioxide, mineral acids such as sulphuric, and weekly dissociated acids. Iron and
aluminium salts hydrolyze in water to release mineral acidity. Surface waters
and ground waters attain acidity from humic acid, from industrial wastes such as
picking liquors, and from acid mine drainage.
3.2.1.9 Chloride
Chloride is a common anion found in water and sewage. The concentration of
chloride in natural waters varies from a few milligrams to several thousand
milligrams per liter. Higher concentrations of chlorides may be due to the
contamination by sea water, brines, sewages, or industrial effluents such as those
from paper works, galvanizing plants, water softening plants and petroleum
refineries.
3.2.1.10
Total Hardness
Hardness is deemed to be the capacity of water for reducing and destroying the
lather of soap. Hardness in water is due to the natural accumulation of salts from
contact with soil and geological formations or it may enter from direct pollution
by industrial effluents. Calcium and magnesium are theprinciple cations causing
hardness. Iron, aluminium, strontium and zinc also cause hardness but to a
relatively little extent or to a negligible amount. The term ‘total hardness’
indicates the concentration of calcium and magnesium only. However, if present
in significant amounts, the other metallic ions should also be included. The total
hardness is expressed in terms of calcium carbonate.
3.2.1.11
Calcium
The presence of calcium in water is mainly due to its passage through or over
deposits of lime stones, dolomite, gypsum and other gypsiferous materials.
Calcium and magnesium are the two major scale-forming constituents in most
raw water supplies. Calcium is usually determined for potable and industrial
waters only but not on sewages. When it is necessary to determine calcium in an
industrial effluent, the organic matter present in it should be destroyed first by
evaporation and ignition.
3.2.1.12
Magnesium
Magnesium salts occurs in significant concentration in natural waters. Sea
waters and estuary contain high amounts of magnesium (about 1400p.p.m). The
industrial and commercial uses of magnesium salts are numerous and the
occurrence of magnesium in industrial waste waters is common. The
determination of magnesium is usually required only for raw and potable waters
and not for polluted waters and other waste waters.
3.2.1.13
Iron
Iron usually exists in natural water both in ferric and ferrous forms. The form of
iron however may be altered as a result of oxidation or reduction or due to the
growth of bacteria in sample during storage. Usually the ferric form is
predominant in most natural waters. Iron in waters may be either in truesolution, or in colloidal state or in the form of relatively coarse suspended
particles.
3.2.1.14
Sodium
Sodium is present in most natural waters from negligible to appreciable
concentrations. It is of importance when salinity or total dissolved solids are a
consideration in the use of the water.
3.2.1.15
Potassium
Though potassium ranks 7th among the elements in the order of abundance, its
concentration in most drinking water is trivial. Potassium is an essential nutrient
element, but in excessive amounts it acts as a cathartic. Though low
concentrations of potassium in irrigated water is essential for plant nutrition, it
must be maintained in proper balance with other mineral nutrients for good plant
development.
3.2.1.16
Silica
Silica is the most common constituent of natural and treated waters.
3.2.1.17
Nitrate
Nitrate occurs generally in trace quantities in surface waters. High
concentrations of nitrates in ground waters are not uncommon. In addition to the
naturally occurring nitrates, it is also contributed to water sources by the
application of fertilizers to lands. Wastes from chemical and fertilizer
manufacturing plants are also important.
3.2.1.18
Sulphate
Sulphates occur naturally in waters as result of leachings from gypsum and other
common minerals. In addition, Sulphate may enter into water systems in several
treatment processes. The Sulphate content in municipal water supplies is usually
increased during clarification by alum. Sulphates contribute the total solid
content and the determination of Sulphates is useful in many ways.
3.2.1.19
Manganese
Manganese occurs in soils and rocks as manganese dioxide and can be dissolved
in natural waters by the action of anaerobic bacteria. Under reducing conditions,
manganese can be leached from the soil and occur in considerable
concentrations in ground water.
3.2.1.20
Cadmium
Cadmium salts are usually found in wastes from electroplating industries, textile
printing, pigments works, lead mines and chemical industries. These effluents
when discharged into water courses, contribute cadmium.
3.2.1.21
Chromium
Chromium compounds are used extensively in industrial processes such as metal
pickling, electroplating, aluminium anodising, leather tanning and in
manufacture of paints, dyes, paper, explosives and ceramics. In addition
chromates are frequently added to cooling water for corrosion control.
Discharge of these wastes,add chromium to water supplies. Chromium exists in
hexavalent and trivalent forms. The latter being rare in appearance. (Chromates
and dichromates are hexavalent chromium compounds).
3.2.2 ObservationTables of the Physico – Chemical Parameters.
3.2.2.1 Temperature
3.2.2.1.1 Temperature (°C) data for Pre Monsoon Seasonfor 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
30
28
29
29
V2
29
28
30
29
V3
30
28
29
29
V4
29
27
28
28
V5
30
28
29
29
V6
29
26
28
27.7
V7
28
27
29
28
V8
28
28
30
28.7
V9
30
29
29
29.3
V10
30
26
29
28.3
V11
28
29
28
28.3
V12
32
29
30
30.3
V13
31
28
29
29.3
V14
28
28
29
28.3
V15
30
29
30
29.7
V16
30
28
29
29
V17
30
28
30
29.3
V18
30
28
29
29
V19
30
28
30
29.3
V20
30
28
29
29
V21
30
27
28
28.3
V22
30
27
29
28.7
V23
30
27
29
28.7
V24
30
27
28
28.3
V25
29
29
30
29.3
3.2.2.1.2
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
24
23
27
24.7
V2
24
24
26
24.7
V3
25
24
26
25
V4
24
25
26
25
V5
25
23
27
25
V6
23
24
24
23.7
V7
24
25
27
25.3
V8
24
25
26
25
V9
23
24
25
24
V10
23
23
25
23.7
V11
25
23
26
24.7
V12
28
24
26
26
V13
24
24
26
24.7
V14
23
25
25
24.3
V15
24
24
26
24.7
V16
24
23
27
24.7
V17
24
23
22
23
V18
24
23
25
24
V19
26
25
27
26
V20
28
25
26
26.3
V21
26
24
25
25
V22
28
25
27
V23
25
23
24
26.7
24
V24
27
23
26
V25
27
24
25
25.3
25.3
3.2.2.2 pH
3.2.2.2.1 pH data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
5.48
5.39
5.43
5.4
V2
6.63
6.23
6.43
6.4
V3
6.03
5.86
5.98
6.0
V4
5.53
5.56
5.58
5.6
V5
6.36
6.04
6.52
6.3
V6
6.9
6.12
6.09
6.4
V7
6.73
5.98
6.82
6.5
V8
6.34
5.95
6.34
6.2
V9
5.89
5.46
5.72
5.7
V10
6.08
5.81
6.21
6.0
V11
6.11
5.68
5.87
5.9
V12
7
5.14
6.89
6.3
V13
5.69
5.17
5.83
5.6
V14
5.26
5.49
5.86
5.5
V15
5.76
5.42
6.35
5.8
V16
5.52
5.52
5.74
5.6
V17
8.3
8.6
8.7
8.5
V18
7.36
6.22
7.21
6.9
V19
6.99
6.06
6.12
6.4
V20
5.43
5.31
5.45
5.4
V21
6.01
5.5
6.2
5.9
V22
5.68
5.92
6.01
5.9
V23
5.22
5.09
5.63
5.3
V24
6.1
5.4
5.97
5.8
V25
6.85
6.05
6.6
6.5
3.2.2.2.2 pH data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
4.89
4.68
4.58
4.7
V2
6.12
5.94
5.85
6.0
V3
5.49
5.58
5.6
5.6
V4
5.13
5.12
5.16
5.1
V5
4.36
5.79
6
5.4
V6
4.5
5.83
5.71
5.3
V7
4.56
5.45
6.07
5.4
V8
4.62
5.37
6.04
5.3
V9
5.12
5.12
5.22
5.2
V10
4.63
5.28
5.71
5.2
V11
4.15
5.32
5.3
4.9
V12
5.34
4.85
4.91
5.0
V13
4.85
4.79
4.53
4.7
V14
4.92
4.96
5.4
5.1
V15
4.25
5.04
5.73
5.0
V16
4.46
5.18
5.38
5.0
V17
5.87
6.15
6.29
6.1
V18
5.46
5.48
5.38
5.4
V19
5.14
5.37
5.41
5.3
V20
5.21
4.99
4.89
5.0
V21
5.24
5.07
5.47
5.3
V22
5.73
5.29
5.33
5.5
V23
4.65
4.53
4.38
4.5
V24
5.18
5.01
5.1
5.1
V25
5.07
5.44
5.34
5.3
3.2.2.3 Electrical Conductivity
3.2.2.3.1 Electrical conductivity (µS/cm) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of
Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0.06
0.08
0.07
0.07
V2
0.09
0.1
0.08
0.09
V3
0.14
0.17
0.12
0.14
V4
0.13
0.13
0.11
0.12
V5
0.15
0.17
0.16
0.16
V6
0.12
0.11
0.13
0.12
V7
0.11
0.13
0.12
0.12
V8
0.1
0.14
0.09
0.11
V9
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.07
V10
0.12
0.09
0.11
0.11
V11
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.08
V12
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.04
V13
0.05
0.03
0.04
0.04
V14
0.05
0.06
0.06
0.06
V15
0.08
0.08
0.07
0.08
V16
0.06
0.07
0.05
0.06
V17
0.14
0.15
0.13
0.14
V18
0.13
0.17
0.16
0.15
V19
0.09
0.13
0.11
0.11
V20
0.06
0.05
0.07
0.06
V21
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.05
V22
0.13
0.12
0.11
V23
0.04
0.05
0.05
V24
0.09
0.07
0.08
V25
0.11
0.1
0.09
0.12
0.05
0.08
0.1
3.2.2.3.2 Electrical conductivity (µS/cm) data for Post Monsoon Seasonfor 3 years of
Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0.05
0.06
0.43
0.18
V2
0.07
0.05
0.44
0.19
V3
0.12
0.13
0.69
0.31
V4
0.12
0.11
0.58
0.27
V5
0.13
0.14
0.7
0.32
V6
0.1
0.09
0.39
0.19
V7
0.08
0.1
0.66
0.28
V8
0.09
0.11
0.54
0.25
V9
0.06
0.05
0.33
0.15
V10
0.07
0.06
0.41
0.18
V11
0.5
0.06
0.38
0.31
V12
0.02
0.03
0.15
0.07
V13
0.03
0.02
0.46
0.17
V14
0.04
0.04
0.36
0.15
V15
0.06
0.05
0.37
0.16
V16
0.04
0.06
0.3
0.13
V17
0.11
0.12
0.11
0.11
V18
0.13
0.13
0.12
0.13
V19
0.09
0.09
0.07
0.08
V20
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.04
V21
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.03
V22
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.08
V23
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.03
V24
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.05
V25
0.08
0.08
0.07
0.08
3.2.2.4 Alkalinity
3.2.2.4.1 Alkalinity (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
124
64
42
76.7
V2
24
34
56
38
V3
56
68
79
67.7
V4
90
108
51
83
V5
40
32
98
56.7
V6
20
48
71
46.3
V7
10
60
97
55.7
V8
20
52
73
48.3
V9
15
100
38
51
V10
15
60
63
46
V11
15
120
54
63
V12
5
68
72
48.3
V13
5
36
31
24
V14
20
36
43
33
V15
15
100
45
53.3
V16
10
36
36
27.3
V17
10
16
19
15
V18
5
108
86
66.3
V19
10
136
77
74.3
V20
20
160
89
89.7
V21
10
28
32
23.3
V22
30
36
53
39.7
V23
5
36
31
24
V24
10
68
48
42
V25
5
24
22
17
3.2.2.4.2 Alkalinity (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
44
58
36
46
V2
18
30
44
30.7
V3
28
60
64
50.7
V4
46
86
44
58.7
V5
28
28
88
48
V6
24
38
60
40.7
V7
44
54
88
62
V8
12
46
64
40.7
V9
40
92
28
53.3
V10
36
56
52
48
V11
60
108
48
72
V12
60
62
51
57.7
V13
44
32
20
32
V14
28
30
36
31.3
V15
54
88
36
59.3
V16
30
28
20
26
V17
16
14
15
15
V18
40
96
25
53.7
V19
32
120
36
62.7
V20
44
148
66
86
V21
28
26
25
26.3
V22
44
34
37
38.3
V23
36
30
41
35.7
V24
32
64
59
51.7
V25
28
20
29
25.7
3.2.2.5 Turbidity
3.2.2.5.1 Turbidity (NTU) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0.2
0.5
0.3
0.3
V2
0.5
0.8
0.6
0.6
V3
0.9
1.1
1
1.0
V4
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.6
V5
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.3
V6
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.7
V7
0.6
0.9
0.8
0.8
V8
1
1.5
1.3
1.3
V9
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.6
V10
1
0.8
0.9
0.9
V11
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.6
V12
1.7
1.4
1.6
1.6
V13
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.2
V14
2
1.7
1.9
1.9
V15
1
1.3
1.1
1.1
V16
1.1
1
1
1.0
V17
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.4
V18
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.3
V19
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.4
V20
1
1.4
1.2
1.2
V21
1.6
1.8
1.7
1.7
V22
1.2
1.5
1.4
1.4
V23
1.2
0.9
1.1
1.1
V24
2.1
1.7
2
1.9
V25
2.1
2
2.2
2.1
3.2.2.5.2 Turbidity (NTU) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.2
V2
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.4
V3
0.6
0.9
0.7
0.7
V4
1.6
1.4
1.5
1.5
V5
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
V6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.5
V7
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.7
V8
0.8
1.1
0.9
0.9
V9
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.3
V10
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.5
V11
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.4
V12
1
0.8
0.9
0.9
V13
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.8
V14
1.1
0.8
1
1.0
V15
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.8
V16
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.6
V17
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
V18
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.2
V19
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.2
V20
0.7
0.8
0.6
0.7
V21
1.4
1.5
1.3
1.4
V22
0.9
1.1
0.8
0.9
V23
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.5
V24
1.2
0.9
1.7
1.3
V25
1.9
1.5
1.9
1.8
3.2.2.6.1 Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
4.58
4.6
4.62
4.6
V2
5.8
5.92
5.86
5.86
V3
5.48
5.74
5.63
5.62
V4
5.44
5.48
5.5
5.47
V5
5.66
5.62
5.7
5.66
V6
5.48
5.38
5.57
5.48
V7
5.41
5.64
5.74
5.60
V8
5.47
5.46
5.39
5.44
V9
5.78
5.72
5.81
5.77
V10
5.82
5.86
5.89
5.86
V11
5.34
5.52
5.54
5.47
V12
4.67
4.65
4.72
4.68
V13
4.66
4.72
4.76
4.71
V14
5.31
5.38
5.4
5.36
V15
5.29
5.4
5.33
5.34
V16
5.53
5.6
5.64
5.59
V17
4.71
4.84
4.91
4.82
V18
4.86
5.07
5.1
5.01
V19
5.02
5.06
5.1
5.06
V20
5.8
5.59
5.76
5.72
V21
5.54
5.61
5.73
5.63
V22
5.17
5.21
5.19
5.19
V23
4.86
5.02
5.21
5.03
V24
5.17
5.24
5.3
5.24
V25
4.99
5.62
5.37
5.33
3.2.2.6.2 Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
4.65
4.66
7.25
5.52
V2
5.96
6.02
6.94
6.31
V3
5.92
6.18
7.6
6.57
V4
5.56
5.62
7.64
6.27
V5
5.79
5.85
7.63
6.42
V6
5.61
5.54
7.78
6.31
V7
5.73
5.87
7.71
6.44
V8
5.56
5.58
7.54
6.23
V9
5.97
6.08
6.87
6.31
V10
6.05
6.14
7.73
6.64
V11
5.96
6.25
7.37
6.53
V12
4.8
4.83
4.91
4.85
V13
5.12
5.21
7.49
5.94
V14
5.72
5.78
7.51
6.34
V15
5.83
6.05
7.52
6.47
V16
6.15
6.18
7.34
6.56
V17
5.24
5.19
5.22
5.22
V18
5.36
5.48
5.42
5.42
V19
5.18
5.27
5.23
5.23
V20
5.97
5.88
5.93
5.93
V21
5.74
5.83
5.79
5.79
V22
5.28
5.36
5.23
5.29
V23
5.22
5.41
5.32
5.32
V24
5.37
5.67
5.52
5.52
V25
5.45
5.75
5.6
5.6
3.2.2.7 Total Suspended Solids
3.2.2.7.1 Total Suspended solid (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Seasonfor 3 years of Project
V1
Pre-monsoon
2011
120
Pre-monsoon
2012
130
Pre-monsoon
2013
140
V2
140
140
150
143
V3
110
150
140
133
V4
140
160
150
150
V5
110
120
130
120
V6
50
40
40
43
V7
40
50
50
47
V8
30
20
30
27
V9
40
70
50
53
V10
40
30
50
40
V11
160
140
150
150
V12
240
220
230
230
V13
230
210
220
220
V14
220
230
220
223
V15
140
190
160
163
V16
540
520
530
530
V17
430
460
450
447
V18
380
410
400
397
V19
530
540
520
530
V20
400
420
410
410
V21
420
440
430
430
V22
440
470
460
457
V23
440
480
470
463
V24
400
430
420
V25
440
460
450
417
450
Sample No.
Average
130
3.2.2.7.2 Total Suspended solid (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Seasonfor 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Postmonsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
170
190
180
130
V2
160
170
180
143
V3
190
210
200
133
V4
230
240
250
150
V5
140
160
150
120
V6
80
80
90
43
V7
110
100
90
47
V8
60
70
70
27
V9
120
150
130
53
V10
70
70
60
40
V11
230
220
240
150
V12
270
260
270
230
V13
280
260
270
220
V14
290
280
270
223
V15
220
240
230
163
V16
670
650
660
530
V17
510
570
550
447
V18
480
490
470
397
V19
580
610
600
530
V20
490
530
520
410
V21
520
510
530
430
V22
530
530
540
457
V23
560
580
570
V24
470
490
480
V25
490
520
510
463
417
450
3.2.2.8 Total Dissolved Solids
3.2.2.8.1 Total Dissolved solid (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Seasonfor 3 years of
Project
Sample No.
Premonsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
80
60
70
70
V2
20
10
20
16.7
V3
80
60
70
70
V4
80
70
90
80
V5
60
50
50
53.3
V6
50
30
40
40
V7
70
40
60
56.7
V8
70
60
50
60
V9
40
30
30
33.3
V10
60
50
70
60
V11
40
50
50
46.7
V12
30
30
40
33.3
V13
30
20
20
23.3
V14
10
20
20
16.7
V15
60
40
50
50
V16
10
10
20
13.3
V17
20
10
20
16.7
V18
10
10
10
10
V19
10
20
10
13.3
V20
20
30
20
23.3
V21
10
10
10
10
V22
20
10
30
20
V23
30
20
20
23.3
V24
20
20
20
20
V25
20
30
30
26.7
3.2.2.8.2
Total Dissolved solid (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Seasonfor 3 years of Project
Sample
No.
Postmonsoon
2011
Postmonsoon
2012
Postmonsoon
2013
Average
V1
90
80
80
83.3
V2
30
30
30
30
V3
110
100
100
103.3
V4
100
90
110
100
V5
90
90
80
86.7
V6
60
50
60
56.7
V7
80
60
90
76.7
V8
90
80
80
83.3
V9
60
60
60
60
V10
90
100
100
96.7
V11
70
80
90
80
V12
40
50
60
50
V13
30
30
40
33.3
V14
40
30
50
40
V15
70
60
70
66.7
V16
20
30
40
30
V17
30
20
30
26.7
V18
20
10
10
13.3
V19
30
30
30
30
V20
40
50
50
46.7
V21
20
30
20
23.3
V22
50
30
40
40
V23
50
40
50
46.7
V24
40
30
40
36.7
V25
50
50
50
50
3.2.2.9 Acidity
3.2.2.9.1 Acidity (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
20
22
22
21.3
V2
4
6
4
4.7
V3
8
12
12
10.7
V4
16
14
12
14
V5
8
10
10
9.3
V6
8
12
10
10
V7
16
20
18
18
V8
28
32
30
30
V9
12
16
18
15.3
V10
16
20
18
18
V11
16
24
20
20
V12
4
8
6
6
V13
12
18
16
15.3
V14
28
30
26
28
V15
12
14
14
13.3
V16
8
10
10
9.3
V17
12
14
8
11.3
V18
12
16
14
14
V19
12
14
10
12
V20
32
34
30
32
V21
20
22
20
20.7
V22
36
32
34
34
V23
20
26
28
24.7
V24
28
30
26
28
V25
12
14
16
14
3.2.2.9.2 Acidity (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
28
25
26
21.3
V2
8
8
8
4.7
V3
12
14
16
10.7
V4
24
18
22
14
V5
12
14
16
9.3
V6
16
18
16
10
V7
28
24
26
18
V8
28
35
34
30
V9
18
20
22
15.3
V10
24
24
24
18
V11
32
30
28
20
V12
8
10
8
6
V13
24
22
20
15.3
V14
36
35
34
28
V15
28
26
24
13.3
V16
16
20
14
9.3
V17
16
18
12
11.3
V18
22
26
20
14
V19
24
24
22
12
V20
42
40
42
32
V21
28
32
26
20.7
V22
48
40
46
34
V23
36
40
38
24.7
V24
38
38
34
28
V25
18
22
22
14
3.2.2.10 Chloride
3.2.2.10.1 Chloride (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
5.9
7.4
6.2
6.5
V2
8.9
9.5
9.2
9.2
V3
11.9
13.1
12.3
12.4
V4
8.9
10.4
9.4
9.6
V5
11.9
12.5
11.5
11.97
V6
14.9
15.5
15.2
15.2
V7
11.9
13.4
12.8
12.7
V8
14.9
16.4
15.7
15.7
V9
11.9
13.1
12.4
12.5
V10
8.9
10.7
9.7
9.8
V11
16.4
17.3
14.9
16.2
V12
13.4
14.3
12.8
13.5
V13
16.4
16.7
16.2
16.4
V14
14.9
15.5
15.1
15.2
V15
14.9
16.1
12.9
14.6
V16
14.9
15.5
15.2
15.2
V17
13.4
13.7
13.5
13.5
V18
14.9
16.1
15.8
15.6
V19
16.4
17.3
17.2
16.97
V20
14.9
15.5
16.2
15.5
V21
10.4
11.3
10.9
10.9
V22
11.9
13.7
12.5
12.7
V23
14.9
16.7
15.5
15.7
V24
13.4
13.7
13.2
13.4
V25
14.9
15.5
13.8
14.7
3.2.2.10.2 Chloride (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
4.4
6.6
5.8
5.6
V2
7.4
9
8.1
8.2
V3
10.4
12.3
11.7
11.5
V4
7.7
10.2
10.5
9.5
V5
9.5
11.7
9.7
10.3
V6
12.5
15
13.6
13.7
V7
10.4
12.6
11.9
11.6
V8
11.9
15.3
14.4
13.9
V9
9.5
12.9
13.4
11.9
V10
7.4
9.9
8.3
8.5
V11
14.9
16.5
16.2
15.9
V12
11.9
13.2
12.6
12.6
V13
15.5
15.3
15.4
15.4
V14
12.5
13.8
12.8
13.03
V15
13.1
14.4
15.8
14.4
V16
11.9
14.7
13.7
13.4
V17
11.9
12.3
12.4
12.2
V18
12.5
15.6
13.4
13.8
V19
14.9
15.9
15.6
15.5
V20
13.7
14.1
12.9
13.6
V21
8.9
10.2
9.6
9.6
V22
10.7
12.6
11.7
11.7
V23
14.6
15
14.6
14.7
V24
11.9
12.6
12.1
12.2
V25
12.5
14.4
15.9
14.3
3.2.2.11 Total Hardness as CaCO3
3.2.2.11.1 Total Hardness as CaCO3data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of
Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
14.4
16.9
15.24
17.88
V2
25.6
26.9
25.8
18.9
V3
57.6
62.5
59.61
28.95
V4
19.6
22.5
21.35
21.66
V5
57.6
62.5
61.24
32.6
V6
67.6
69.7
68.87
30.2
V7
67.6
72.9
71.23
34.92
V8
48.4
52.9
51.89
34.83
V9
14.4
16.38
15.6
11.5
V10
25.6
29.58
27.36
19.2
V11
19.6
23.1
22.38
22.1
V12
12.1
13.46
12.14
14.5
V13
4.9
5.78
5.52
7.7
V14
6.4
8.1
7.87
13.1
V15
14.4
16.9
15.7
18.44
V16
3.6
4.9
3.9
10.03
V17
62.5
67.6
66.57
51.76
V18
72.9
76.18
75.19
35.2
V19
40
78.4
66.49
24.4
V20
14.4
16.38
15.38
11
V21
6.4
8.46
7.66
13.74
V22
12.1
12.54
12.15
14.5
V23
3.6
4.1
3.8
7.7
V24
32.4
36.1
35.12
31.72
V25
40
90
72
37.04
3.2.2.11.2 Total Hardness as CaCO3data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of
Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
21.9
15.38
19.35
17.96
V2
28.25
23.1
26.51
17.7
V3
40.1
52.9
51.47
28.66
V4
23.7
16.38
22.37
21.32
V5
87.9
48.4
78.47
31.65
V6
87.85
61.5
76.85
29.07
63.5
79.62
35.16
V7
81.12
V8
53.07
38.42
47.27
34.96
V9
16.45
10.82
14.64
10.13
V10
35.6
21.9
33.29
18.14
V11
110.62
13.46
99.24
21.63
V12
22.15
7.74
21.72
14.05
V13
15.5
2.7
14.82
9.31
V14
16.6
4.62
11.25
13.13
V15
18.75
10.82
16.57
17.42
V16
5.57
2.7
4.2
8.69
V17
71.57
62.5
68.71
46.42
V18
80.3
51.98
79.35
32.91
V19
43.75
62.5
58.76
23.30
V20
16.95
9.22
12.55
11.87
V21
8.85
4.1
9.61
12.96
V22
12.37
7.06
10.33
13.78
V23
8.25
2.5
7.12
6.801
V24
39.9
24.34
29.62
22.71
V25
60.8
62.5
61.36
34.58
3.2.2.12 Calcium as CaCO3
3.2.2.12.1 Calcium as CaCO3data for data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of
Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
16
18
16
16.67
V2
16
16.8
16.2
16.33
V3
24
24.8
24.2
24.33
V4
20
21.6
20.4
20.67
V5
28
29.6
28.6
28.73
V6
24
25.6
24.2
24.6
V7
30
30.4
30
30.13
V8
32
34
31.4
32.47
V9
8
10
9.3
9.1
V10
16
17.6
16.8
16.8
V11
20
22
21.4
21.13
V12
12
14
13.3
13.1
V13
6
7.2
6.8
6.67
V14
12
12.8
12.4
12.4
V15
16
18.4
17.8
17.4
V16
8
10.4
9.4
9.27
V17
40
60
50
50
V18
30
31.2
30
30.4
V19
18
20
18.4
18.8
V20
8
9.6
8.4
8.67
V21
12
14
12.8
12.93
V22
12
13.6
13.2
12.93
V23
6
7.2
6.9
6.7
V24
30
32
30
30.67
V25
32
34
34
33.33
3.2.2.12.2 Calcium as CaCO3data for data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
17
17.2
17
17.07
V2
16.5
15.6
16
16.03
V3
25.5
23.2
24.2
24.3
V4
21.5
20
20.4
20.63
V5
29.5
26.8
28.6
28.3
V6
26.5
23.2
25.2
24.97
V7
32
28.8
31.4
30.73
V8
35.5
31.2
33
33.23
V9
9.5
8
8.4
8.63
V10
17
16
16
16.33
V11
21
20.4
20
20.47
V12
14
11.6
12
12.53
V13
10.5
5.6
8.8
8.3
V14
14
10.8
12.6
12.47
V15
17
16.8
16
16.6
V16
8.5
8
8.2
8.23
V17
42
48
44
44.67
V18
31.5
28.8
30
30.10
V19
19.5
18
18.5
18.67
V20
12
7.2
10.8
10
V21
13.5
11.6
12.2
12.43
V22
14.5
10.8
11.8
12.37
V23
6.5
6
6
6.17
V24
31.5
4.8
27.5
21.27
V25
34
31.2
32
32.4
3.2.2.13 Magnesium
3.2.2.13.1 Magnesium as CaCO3data for data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
1.95
0.11
1.58
1.21
V2
3.94
0.99
2.64
2.52
V3
5.86
3.68
4.32
4.62
V4
1.95
0.09
0.94
0.99
V5
4.88
3.21
3.52
3.87
V6
6.83
4.3
5.6
5.58
V7
5.36
4.15
4.85
4.79
V8
2.92
1.84
2.33
2.36
V9
3.94
0.62
2.68
2.41
V10
3.94
1.17
2.1
2.4
V11
1.95
0.11
0.92
0.99
V12
2.44
0.05
1.64
1.38
V13
1.92
0.14
0.94
1
V14
0.97
0.48
0.76
0.74
V15
1.95
0.15
1.02
1.04
V16
0.97
0.54
0.78
0.76
V17
2.44
0.74
2.1
1.76
V18
5.85
4.39
4.26
4.83
V19
5.68
5.7
5.4
5.59
V20
3.94
0.66
2.44
2.35
V21
0.96
0.54
0.92
0.81
V22
2.44
0.1
2.3
1.61
V23
1.44
0.3
1.31
1.02
V24
1.46
0.4
1.3
1.05
V25
1.52
5.47
4.12
3.7
3.2.2.13.2 Magnesium as CaCO3data for data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
1.43
0.18
1.08
0.9
V2
2.56
0.73
1.79
1.69
V3
5.63
2.9
4.54
4.36
V4
0.99
0.35
0.71
0.68
V5
4.58
2.11
3.35
3.35
V6
4.62
3.74
3.94
4.1
V7
4.98
3.39
4.92
4.43
V8
2.76
0.7
1.73
1.73
V9
3.13
0.27
1.09
1.5
V10
2.97
0.58
1.86
1.8
V11
1.43
0.68
1.38
1.16
V12
2.12
0.38
2.04
1.51
V13
1.62
0.28
1.13
1.01
V14
0.78
0.6
0.62
0.67
V15
0.97
0.58
0.92
0.82
V16
0.42
0.52
0.44
0.46
V17
2.15
1.42
1.69
1.75
V18
3.56
2.26
2.61
2.81
V19
5.17
4.34
4.38
4.63
V20
3.06
0.2
2.34
1.87
V21
0.39
0.73
0.46
0.53
V22
2.25
0.37
1.62
1.41
V23
0.84
0.34
0.72
0.63
V24
1.12
1.91
1.29
1.44
V25
1.25
3.05
2.25
2.18
3.2.2.14 Iron
3.2.2.14.1 Iron (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0.104
0.106
0.102
0.104
V2
0.104
0.102
0.102
0.103
V3
0.104
0.104
0.104
0.104
V4
0.104
0.108
0.104
0.105
V5
0.104
0.1
0.11
0.105
V6
0.098
0.102
0.096
0.099
V7
0.096
0.094
0.092
0.094
V8
0.098
0.104
0.096
0.099
V9
0.098
0.102
0.092
0.097
V10
0.1
0.106
0.11
0.105
V11
0.108
0.104
0.106
0.106
V12
0.094
0.092
0.09
0.092
V13
0.096
0.094
0.098
0.096
V14
0.094
0.096
0.096
0.095
V15
0.098
0.104
0.102
0.101
V16
0.096
0.104
0.098
0.099
V17
0.096
0.094
0.096
0.095
V18
0.094
0.092
0.094
0.093
V19
0.094
0.09
0.094
0.093
V20
0.088
0.086
0.088
0.087
V21
0.096
0.092
0.092
0.093
V22
0.096
0.106
0.098
0.1
V23
0.096
0.088
0.086
0.09
V24
0.096
0.092
0.092
0.093
V25
0.092
0.086
0.088
0.089
3.2.2.14.2 Iron (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0.112
0.11
0.116
0.113
V2
0.108
0.106
0.104
0.106
V3
0.108
0.106
0.102
0.105
V4
0.112
0.114
0.11
0.112
V5
0.108
0.116
0.114
0.113
V6
0.108
0.108
0.106
0.107
V7
0.098
0.1
0.096
0.098
V8
0.114
0.112
0.116
0.114
V9
0.112
0.116
0.114
0.114
V10
0.114
0.118
0.116
0.116
V11
0.108
0.112
0.11
0.110
V12
0.098
0.096
0.1
0.098
V13
0.112
0.104
0.116
0.111
V14
0.1
0.102
0.104
0.102
V15
0.114
0.114
0.116
0.115
V16
0.112
0.114
0.116
0.114
V17
0.098
0.096
0.102
0.099
V18
0.098
0.102
0.104
0.101
V19
0.096
0.096
0.09
0.094
V20
0.094
0.094
0.096
0.095
V21
0.098
0.096
0.096
0.097
V22
0.112
0.116
0.114
0.114
V23
0.098
0.098
0.098
0.098
V24
0.098
0.098
0.096
0.097
V25
0.094
0.096
0.092
0.094
3.2.2.15 Sodium
3.2.2.15.1 Sodium (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
2.1
1.9
2
2
V2
6.2
5.6
5.8
5.87
V3
3.2
3
2.8
3
V4
1
1
1
1
V5
5.3
5
5.4
5.2
V6
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.5
V7
5.5
5.6
5.4
5.5
V8
8.6
8
8.2
8.3
V9
3.6
3.4
3.2
3.4
V10
6.8
6.5
6.6
6.6
V11
4.1
3.8
3.9
3.9
V12
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.6
V13
3.6
3.2
3.4
3.4
V14
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.4
V15
1.2
1.1
1
1.1
V16
5.1
4.8
4.92
4.9
V17
4.5
4.2
4.3
4.3
V18
5.4
5.2
5.4
5.3
V19
7.5
6.8
7.2
7.2
V20
5.6
5.4
5.8
5.6
V21
3
3.5
3.2
3.2
V22
4
3.8
3.6
3.8
V23
3
3.2
3.4
3.2
V24
2
2.4
2.2
2.2
V25
5.2
5.3
5
5.2
3.2.2.15.2 Sodium (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
1.4
1.5
1.2
1.4
V2
4.2
4.9
4.7
4.6
V3
2.6
2.5
2.4
2.5
V4
0.8
0.7
0.9
0.8
V5
3.8
4.5
4.2
4.2
V6
4.2
4.2
4
4.1
V7
4.2
5.2
4.6
4.7
V8
6.1
7.5
7.2
6.9
V9
2.5
2.8
2.6
2.6
V10
5.4
5.9
5.6
5.6
V11
2.8
3.4
3.2
3.1
V12
4.2
4.1
4.3
4.2
V13
2.8
2.8
2.9
2.8
V14
3.4
2.7
3.2
3.1
V15
0.9
0.8
0.85
0.9
V16
4.2
3.9
3.8
4
V17
3.3
3.6
3.4
3.4
V18
4.5
4.7
4.6
4.6
V19
5.7
6
5.8
5.8
V20
4.2
4.6
4.4
4.4
V21
3.3
2.7
2.8
2.9
V22
2.4
2.9
2.7
2.7
V23
3.1
2.5
2.8
2.8
V24
2.1
1.8
2
2
V25
4.9
4.5
4.6
4.7
3.2.2.16 Potassium
3.2.2.16.1 Potassium (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.37
V2
2.1
2
2.2
2.1
V3
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.3
V4
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.23
V5
2.4
2.4
2.1
2.3
V6
0.6
0.5
0.8
0.63
V7
3.8
4.2
4
4
V8
3.5
2.8
3
3.1
V9
2.3
2.6
2.4
2.43
V10
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.73
V11
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.6
V12
0.8
1.5
1.2
1.17
V13
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.43
V14
0.9
1.2
1.1
1.07
V15
1.4
1.2
1.2
1.27
V16
1.5
1.4
1.5
1.47
V17
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.5
V18
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.3
V19
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.73
V20
1.2
1
0.7
0.97
V21
0.2
0.6
0.3
0.37
V22
0.9
0.7
0.8
0.8
V23
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.43
V24
3.1
0.4
2.8
2.1
V25
0.7
0.9
0.7
0.77
3.2.2.16.2 Potassium (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.13
V2
0.7
1.8
1.9
1.47
V3
0.1
0.08
0.09
0.09
V4
0.9
0.7
0.9
0.83
V5
2.1
2.1
1.9
2.03
V6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.27
V7
4
3.9
4.2
4.03
V8
1.8
2.5
2.2
2.17
V9
2.4
2.2
2.6
2.4
V10
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.53
V11
0.4
0.2
0.8
0.47
V12
1.2
1.1
1
1.1
V13
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.13
V14
1
0.9
0.8
0.9
V15
0.9
0.7
0.9
0.83
V16
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.27
V17
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.5
V18
0
0.09
0.08
0.06
V19
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.47
V20
0.7
0.7
1
0.8
V21
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.43
V22
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.43
V23
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
V24
3.1
3.1
0.8
2.33
V25
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.57
3.2.2.17 Silica
3.2.2.17.1 Silica (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
4.12
6.14
5.37
5.21
V2
5
7.2
6.8
6.3
V3
1.3
2.1
2.1
1.8
V4
2.5
3.95
3.24
3.23
V5
6.1
9.24
8.6
7.98
V6
1.9
16.42
17.4
11.91
V7
26.3
18.5
24.7
23.17
V8
6.3
9.8
7.9
8
V9
2.3
8.64
6.8
5.91
V10
5.2
6.7
5.7
5.87
V11
1.6
2.49
2.3
2.13
V12
6.3
10.5
7.4
8.1
V13
3.68
5.76
4.83
4.8
V14
2.4
4.17
3.21
3.26
V15
2.9
8.12
6.93
5.98
V16
9.52
21.7
19.76
16.99
V17
10.5
15.6
13.2
13.1
V18
19.4
25.4
22.4
22.4
V19
8.6
19.75
17.3
15.22
V20
7.5
13.52
12.6
11.21
V21
6.3
11.41
10.76
9.49
V22
2.3
9.7
6.5
6.17
V23
4.25
8.32
7.81
6.79
V24
5.6
10.82
9.07
8.50
V25
4.9
9.21
7.6
7.24
3.2.2.17.2 Silica (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Postmonsoon
2012
Postmonsoon
2013
Average
V1
10.06
9.8
9.91
9.92
V2
12.14
11.5
12.4
12.01
V3
5.8
5.5
5.6
5.63
V4
8.7
6.95
7.8
7.82
V5
15.2
12.5
13.2
13.63
V6
22.51
25.65
23.8
23.99
V7
20
15.8
17.4
17.73
V8
18.42
16.5
17.8
17.57
V9
14.35
18.6
15.8
16.25
V10
12.64
14.52
13.5
13.55
V11
7.84
9.6
8.9
8.78
V12
20
19.7
18.6
19.43
V13
14.74
18.12
16.48
16.45
V14
9.46
12.56
11.87
11.30
V15
16.42
19.32
17.22
17.65
V16
34.52
28.53
31.4
31.48
V17
25.8
22.6
23.5
23.97
V18
34.74
38.46
33.29
35.50
V19
28.49
35.5
34.2
32.73
V20
20.36
26.74
25.45
24.18
V21
16.82
20.12
17.88
18.27
V22
12.5
16.53
15.45
14.83
V23
11.58
14.22
13.22
13.01
V24
18.96
21.3
19.95
20.07
V25
15
17.5
17.59
16.7
3.2.2.18 Nitrate
3.2.2.18.1 Nitrate (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0.9
1.1
1
1
V2
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
V3
0.3
0.45
0.35
0.4
V4
1.5
1.6
1.4
1.5
V5
0.95
0.9
0.92
0.92
V6
1.03
1.1
1.07
1.07
V7
1.3
2.5
2.1
2
V8
1.44
1.38
1.48
1.43
V9
5.7
5.5
5.2
5.5
V10
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.7
V11
3.8
3.5
3.8
3.7
V12
1.2
0.9
1.1
1.1
V13
1.2
1.1
1
1.1
V14
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.8
V15
1.6
1.8
1.7
1.7
V16
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.4
V17
1.2
1
1.1
1.1
V18
1.95
1.8
1.89
1.88
V19
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6
V20
1.5
1.4
1.4
1.4
V21
1.2
1.02
1.18
1.13
V22
0.5
0.86
0.76
0.71
V23
1
1.13
1.1
1.1
V24
1.8
1.94
1.84
1.86
V25
2.9
2.6
2.8
2.8
3.2.2.18.2 Nitrate (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0.95
0.85
0.89
0.9
V2
0.3
0.4
0.35
0.35
V3
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.4
V4
1.3
1.5
1.5
1.4
V5
0.6
0.56
0.58
0.58
V6
0.9
0.97
0.94
0.94
V7
3.23
2.78
3.19
3.07
V8
1.07
0.98
1.04
1.03
V9
5.1
4.95
4.5
4.85
V10
0.2
0.45
0.36
0.34
V11
2.6
2.7
2.5
2.6
V12
0.6
0.46
0.5
0.52
V13
0.71
0.69
0.66
0.69
V14
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.5
V15
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.5
V16
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.2
V17
0.6
0.7
0.5
0.6
V18
0.71
0.65
0.69
0.68
V19
0.3
0.46
0.4
0.39
V20
1.1
0.85
0.9
0.95
V21
0.48
0.75
0.68
0.64
V22
0.7
0.54
0.45
0.56
V23
0.84
1.02
0.94
0.93
V24
1.5
1.62
1.5
1.54
V25
1.6
1.4
1.5
1.5
3.2.2.19 Sulphate
3.2.2.19.1 Sulphate (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
17.4
17
16.9
17.1
V2
10.6
10.5
10.2
10.4
V3
27
26.2
26.9
26.7
V4
7.8
8.4
8.2
8.1
V5
6.9
6.7
6.8
6.8
V6
23
22.5
23.2
22.9
V7
15.7
15
14.9
15.2
V8
18.5
18.2
18
18.23
V9
7.4
6.8
7.1
7.1
V10
9.2
9.4
9.5
9.4
V11
6.5
6.2
6.7
6.5
V12
21.3
20.5
22
21.3
V13
8.1
7.6
7.9
7.9
V14
12.9
12
12.3
12.4
V15
20.9
22.8
21.4
21.7
V16
15.6
14.5
15.1
15.07
V17
9.2
8.5
9.1
8.9
V18
30.6
28.2
29.8
29.5
V19
32.2
31.8
32
32
V20
16.8
16.2
16.5
16.5
V21
11.4
10.7
11.2
11.1
V22
18.9
16.9
17.6
17.8
V23
6.3
7
6.6
6.63
V24
14.7
13.5
14.5
14.23
V25
25.9
23.5
24.6
24.67
3.2.2.19.2 Sulphate (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
16
16.2
15.7
15.97
V2
10.2
9.8
9.6
9.87
V3
24.6
22.6
23.3
23.5
V4
8.2
8
7.8
8
V5
6.4
5.8
5.3
5.83
V6
20.1
18.6
19.7
19.47
V7
12.5
11.4
11.2
11.7
V8
17.4
17.2
17.3
17.3
V9
5.4
4.9
5.5
5.27
V10
9
8.7
8.9
8.87
V11
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.5
V12
18.4
16.4
17.8
17.5
V13
4.4
5.2
4.7
4.8
V14
10
8.5
9.6
9.4
V15
22.6
21.8
20.7
21.7
V16
11.7
10.2
10.9
10.93
V17
6
5.5
5.9
5.8
V18
26
22.5
25.6
24.7
V19
31.4
30.4
31.1
30.97
V20
14
12.9
13.2
13.37
V21
7.8
5.6
6.8
6.73
V22
14
12.5
13.8
13.43
V23
6.9
6.5
6.1
6.5
V24
12
10.8
11.9
11.57
V25
21
19.8
20.7
20.5
3.2.2.20 Manganese
3.2.2.20.1 Manganese (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0
0
0
0
V2
0.019
0
0
0.006
V3
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.017
V4
0
0
0
0
V5
0
0
0
0
V6
0.16
0.02
0.11
0.097
V7
0.01
0
0
0.003
V8
0.01
0
0
0.003
V9
0
0
0
0
V10
0
0
0
0
V11
0.14
0.05
0.04
0.08
V12
0.001
0
0
0.0003
V13
0.026
0.01
0.021
0.019
V14
0
0
0
0
V15
0.023
0
0
0.008
V16
0.01
0
0
0.003
V17
0.08
0.02
0.04
0.047
V18
0
0
0
0
V19
0.034
0.01
0.02
0.021
V20
0
0
0
0
V21
0
0
0
0
V22
0.04
0.01
0.02
0.023
V23
0
0
0
0
V24
0.08
0.02
0.05
0.05
V25
0.25
0.08
0.1
0.143
3.2.2.20.2 Manganese (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0
0
0
0
V2
0
0
0
0
V3
0
0
0
0
V4
0
0
0
0
V5
0
0
0
0
V6
0
0
0
0
V7
0
0
0
0
V8
0
0
0
0
V9
0
0
0
0
V10
0
0
0
0
V11
0
0
0
0
V12
0
0
0
0
V13
0
0
0
0
V14
0
0
0
0
V15
0
0
0
0
V16
0
0
0
0
V17
0
0
0
0
V18
0
0
0
0
V19
0
0
0
0
V20
0
0
0
0
V21
0
0
0
0
V22
0
0
0
0
V23
0
0
0
0
V24
0
0
0
0
V25
0
0
0
0
3.2.2.21 Cadmium
3.2.2.21.1 Cadmium (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0.01
0.01
0
0.007
V2
0.01
0
0
0.003
V3
0.02
0
0
0.007
V4
0.01
0.01
0
0.007
V5
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.013
V6
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.020
V7
0.01
0
0
0.003
V8
0.02
0.01
0
0.010
V9
0.03
0
0
0.010
V10
0.01
0
0
0.003
V11
0.02
0.01
0
0.010
V12
0.02
0
0
0.007
V13
0.01
0
0
0.003
V14
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.013
V15
0.01
0
0
0.003
V16
0.01
0.01
0
0.007
V17
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.013
V18
0.03
0
0
0.010
V19
0.01
0
0
0.003
V20
0.01
0
0
0.003
V21
0.02
0.01
0
0.010
V22
0.01
0
0
0.003
V23
0.02
0.01
0
0.010
V24
0.01
0
0
0.003
V25
0.02
0.01
0
0.010
3.2.2.21.2 Cadmium (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0.01
0
0
0.003
V2
0.01
0
0
0.003
V3
0
0
0.01
0.003
V4
0.01
0
0
0.003
V5
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.013
V6
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.013
V7
0
0
0.01
0.003
V8
0.02
0
0.01
0.010
V9
0.01
0
0
0.003
V10
0.01
0
0
0.003
V11
0.01
0
0
0.003
V12
0
0
0
0
V13
0
0
0.01
0.003
V14
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.013
V15
0
0
0
0
V16
0.01
0
0
0.003
V17
0.02
0.01
0
0.010
V18
0.01
0
0
0.003
V19
0
0
0
0
V20
0.01
0
0
0.003
V21
0
0
0
0
V22
0
0
0
0
V23
0.02
0
0
0.007
V24
0
0
0
0
V25
0.01
0
0
0.003
3.2.2.22 Chromium
3.2.2.22.1 Chromium (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Pre-monsoon
2011
Pre-monsoon
2012
Pre-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0
0
0
0
V2
0.01
0
0
0.003
V3
0
0
0
0
V4
0
0
0
0
V5
0.01
0.01
0
0.007
V6
0.01
0.01
0
0.007
V7
0
0
0
0
V8
0
0
0
0
V9
0
0
0
0
V10
0
0
0
0
V11
0
0
0
0
V12
0
0
0
0
V13
0
0
0
0
V14
0
0
0
0
V15
0
0
0
0
V16
0
0
0
0
V17
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
V18
0
0
0
0
V19
0.01
0
0
0.003
V20
0
0
0
0
V21
0
0
0
0
V22
0
0
0
0
V23
0
0
0
0
V24
0
0
0
0
V25
0.01
0.01
0
0.007
3.2.2.22.2 Chromium (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sample No.
Post-monsoon
2011
Post-monsoon
2012
Post-monsoon
2013
Average
V1
0
0
0
0
V2
0
0
0
0
V3
0
0
0
0
V4
0
0
0
0
V5
0
0
0
0
V6
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
V7
0
0
0
0
V8
0
0
0
0
V9
0
0
0
0
V10
0
0
0
0
V11
0
0
0
0
V12
0
0
0
0
V13
0
0
0
0
V14
0
0
0
0
V15
0
0
0
0
V16
0
0
0
0
V17
0.01
0
0
0.003
V18
0
0
0
0
V19
0
0
0
0
V20
0
0
0
0
V21
0
0
0
0
V22
0
0
0
0
V23
0
0
0
0
V24
0
0
0
0
V25
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
3.2.2 Graphical Representation of the Physico – Chemical Parameters.
3.2.2.1 Temperature (°C)
3.2.2.1.1 Temperature (°C) graph for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
Temperature (°C) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
35
Post-monsoon 2011
30
Temperature (°C)
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
V9 V10 V11 V12 V13 V14 V15 V16 V17 V18 V19 V20 V21 V22 V23 V24 V25
Well No.
35
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
30
Temperature (°C)
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
35
30
Temperature (°C)
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.2 pH
3.2.2.2.1 pH graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Pre-monsoon 2011
pH data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2012
9
Pre-monsoon 2013
8
7
6
pH
5
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.2.2 pH graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Post-monsoon 2011
pH data for Post Monsoon Season
9
Post-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2013
8
7
6
pH
5
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.2.3 pH graph for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
pH data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
9
Post-monsoon 2011
8
7
6
pH
5
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2012
9
Post-monsoon 2012
8
7
6
pH
5
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2013
9
Post-monsoon 2013
8
7
6
pH
5
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.3 Electrical Conductivity(µS/cm)
3.2.2.3.1 Electrical Conductivity (µS/cm) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Electrical conductivity (µS/cm) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2011
Pre-monsoon 2012
0.8
Pre-monsoon 2013
Electrical conductivity (µS/cm)
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.3.2 Electrical Conductivity (µS/cm) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Electrical conductivity (µS/cm) data for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2012
0.8
Post-monsoon 2013
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.3.3 Electrical Conductivity (µS/cm) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Electrical conductivity (µS/cm) data for Pre & Post Monsoon 2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2012
0.8
Post-monsoon 2012
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
0.8
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V9 V10 V11 V12 V13 V14 V15 V16 V17 V18 V19 V20 V21 V22 V23 V24 V25
Well No.
3.2.2.4 Alkalinity (mg/L)
3.2.2.4.1 Alkalinity (mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Alkalinity (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
180
Post-monsoon 2011
160
140
Alkalinity (mg/L)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Well No.
180
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
160
140
Alkalinity (mg/L)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
180
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
160
140
Alkalinity (mg/L)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.5 Turbidity (NTU)
3.2.2.5.1 Turbidity (NTU) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Pre-monsoon 2011
Turbidity (NTU) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2012
2.5
Pre-monsoon 2013
Turbidity (NTU)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No
3.2.2.5.2 Turbidity (NTU) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Post-monsoon 2011
Turbidity (NTU) data for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2013
2.5
Turbidity (NTU)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Well No.
3.2.2.5.3 Turbidity (NTU) graph forPre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Turbidity (NTU) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
2.5
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
Turbidity (NTU)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Well No.
3.2.2.5.4 Turbidity (NTU) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2012
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
2.5
Turbidity (NTU)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.5.5 Turbidity (NTU) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2013
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
2.5
Turbidity (NTU)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.6.1 Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Pre-monsoon 2011
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2012
8
Pre-monsoon 2013
7
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.6.2 Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2012
8
Post-monsoon 2013
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Well No.
3.2.2.6.3 Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.7 Total Suspended Solids (mg/L)
3.2.2.7.1 Total Suspended Solids (mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Pre-monsoon 2011
Total Suspended solid (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2012
800
Pre-monsoon 2013
700
Total Suspended solid (mg/L)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.7.2
Total Suspended Solids (mg/L) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Post-monsoon 2011
Total Suspended solid (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season
800
Post-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2013
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.7.3 Total Suspended Solids (mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Total Suspended solid (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season
2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Well No.
2012
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
2013
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.8 Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L)
3.2.2.8.1 Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Total Dissolved solid (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2011
Pre-monsoon 2012
120
Pre-monsoon 2013
Total Dissolved solid (mg/L)
100
80
60
40
20
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.8.2 Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Total Dissolved solid (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2012
120
Post-monsoon 2013
100
80
60
40
20
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.8.3 Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Total Dissolved solid (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season
2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
2012
120
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
100
80
60
40
20
0
V1
V2 V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8 V9 V10 V11 V12 V13 V14 V15 V16 V17 V18 V19 V20 V21 V22 V23 V24 V25
Well No.
2013
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.9 Acidity (mg/L)
3.2.2.9.1 Acidity (mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Acidity (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2011
Pre-monsoon 2012
50
Pre-monsoon 2013
45
40
Acidity (mg/L)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.9.2 Acidity (mg/L) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
50
Acidity (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2012
45
Post-monsoon 2013
40
35
Acidity (mg/L)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Well No.
3.2.2.9.3 Acidity (mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Acidity (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
50
45
40
Acidity (mg/L)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
50
45
40
Acidity (mg/L)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
50
45
40
Acidity (mg/L)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.10 Chloride (mg/L)
3.2.2.10.1 Chloride (mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Chloride (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2011
Pre-monsoon 2012
20
Pre-monsoon 2013
18
16
Chloride (mg/L)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.10.2 Chloride (mg/L) graph forPost Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Chloride (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2012
20
Post-monsoon 2013
18
16
Chloride (mg/L)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.10.3 Chloride (mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Chloride (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
20
18
16
Chloride (mg/L)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
20
18
16
Chloride (mg/L)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
20
18
16
Chloride (mg/L)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.11 Total Hardness as Ca(mg/L)
3.2.2.11.1 Total Hardness as CaCO3 (mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Total Hardness as CaCO3 (mg/L) for Pre Monsoon Season
Total Hardness as CaCO3 (mg/L)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
V9 V10 V11 V12 V13 V14 V15 V16 V17 V18 V19 V20 V21 V22 V23 V24
Well No.
3.2.2.11.2 Total Hardness as CaCO3 (mg/L) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Total Hardness as CaCO3 (mg/L) for Post Monsoon Season
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.11.3 Total Hardness as CaCO3 (mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Total Hardness as CaCO3 (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon
Season 2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
V1 V2
V3 V4
V5
V6 V7 V8
Well No.
Season 2012
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Season 2013
120
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
100
80
60
40
20
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.12 Calcium as CaCO3(mg/L)
3.2.2.12.1 Calcium as CaCO3(mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Calcium as CaCO3 (mg/L) for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2011
Pre-monsoon 2012
60
Pre-monsoon 2013
Calcium as CaCO3 (mg/L)
50
40
30
20
10
0
Well No.
3.2.2.12.2 Calcium as CaCO3(mg/L) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Post-monsoon 2011
Calcium as CaCO3 (mg/L) for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2012
60
Post-monsoon 2013
50
40
30
20
10
0
Well No.
3.2.2.12.3 Calcium as CaCO3(mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Calcium as CaCO3 (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season
2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Well No.
2012
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
2013
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Well No.
3.2.2.13 Magnesium (mg/L)
3.2.2.13.1 Magnesium (mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Magnesium (mg/L) for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2011
Pre-monsoon 2012
7
Pre-monsoon 2013
6
Magnesium (mg/L)
5
4
3
2
1
0
Well No.
3.2.2.13.2 Magnesium (mg/L) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Magnesium (mg/L) for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2012
7.00
Post-monsoon 2013
6.00
Magnesium (mg/L)
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
V1 V2 V3
V4 V5 V6
V7 V8 V9 V10 V11 V12 V13 V14 V15 V16 V17 V18 V19 V20 V21 V22 V23 V24 V25
Well No.
3.2.2.13.3 Magnesium (mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Magnesium (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
7.00
6.00
Magnesium (mg/L)
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
7
6
Magnesium (mg/L)
5
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
7
6
Magnesium (mg/L)
5
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.14 Iron (mg/L)
3.2.2.14.1 Iron (mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Pre-monsoon 2011
Iron (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2012
0.12
Pre-monsoon 2013
Iron (mg/L)
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.14.2 Iron (mg/L) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Post-monsoon 2011
Iron (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2012
0.12
Post-monsoon 2013
0.1
Iron (mg/L)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.14.3 Iron (mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Iron (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
0.12
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
0.1
Iron (mg/L)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
0.12
0.1
Iron (mg/L)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
0.12
0.1
Iron (mg/L)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.15 Sodium (mg/L)
3.2.2.15.1 Sodium (mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
9
Sodium (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2011
Pre-monsoon 2012
Pre-monsoon 2013
8
7
Sodium (mg/L)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Well No.
3.2.2.15.2 Sodium (mg/L) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Post-monsoon 2011
Sodium (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2012
9
Post-monsoon 2013
8
7
Sodium (mg/L)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.15.3 Sodium (mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Sodium (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
9
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
8
7
Sodium (mg/L)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
9
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
8
7
Sodium (mg/L)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
9
8
7
Sodium (mg/L)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.16 Potassium (mg/L)
3.2.2.16.1 Potassium (mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Pre-monsoon 2011
Potassium (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2012
4.5
Pre-monsoon 2013
4
Potassium (mg/L)
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.16.2 Potassium (mg/L) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Post-monsoon 2011
Potassium (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2012
4.5
Post-monsoon 2013
4
3.5
Potassium (mg/L)
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.16.3 Potassium (mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Potassium (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
4.5
4
Potassium (mg/L)
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
4.5
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
4
3.5
Potassium (mg/L)
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
4.5
4
Potassium (mg/L)
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.17 Silica(mg/L)
3.2.2.17.1 Silica(mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Silica (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2011
Pre-monsoon 2012
35
Pre-monsoon 2013
30
Silica (mg/L)
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.17.2 Silica(mg/L) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Silica (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2011
35
Post-monsoon 2012
30
Post-monsoon 2013
Silica (mg/L)
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.17.3 Silica(mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Silica (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
35
30
Silica (mg/L)
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
35
30
Silica (mg/L)
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
35
30
Silica (mg/L)
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.18 Nitrate (mg/L)
3.2.2.18.1 Nitrate (mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Nitrate (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2011
Pre-monsoon 2012
6
Pre-monsoon 2013
5
Nitrate (mg/L)
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.18.2 Nitrate (mg/L) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Nitrate (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2012
6
Post-monsoon 2013
5
Nitrate (mg/L)
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.18.3 Nitrate (mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Nitrate (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
6
5
Nitrate (mg/L)
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
6
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
5
Nitrate (mg/L)
4
3
2
1
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well no.
Pre-monsoon 2013
6
Post-monsoon 2013
5
Nitrate (mg/L)
4
3
2
1
0
Well No.
3.2.2.19 Sulphate (mg/L)
3.2.2.19.1 Sulphate (mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Pre-monsoon 2011
Sulphate (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2012
35
Pre-monsoon 2013
30
Sulphate (mg/L)
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.19.2 Sulphate (mg/L) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Sulphate (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2012
35
Post-monsoon 2013
30
Sulphate (mg/L)
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.19.3 Sulphate (mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Sulphate (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
35
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
30
Sulphate (mg/L)
25
20
15
10
5
0
Well No.
35
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
30
Sulphate (mg/L)
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
35
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
30
Sulphate (mg/L)
25
20
15
10
5
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.20 Manganese (mg/L)
3.2.2.20.1 Manganese (mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Manganese (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2011
Pre-monsoon 2012
0.3
Pre-monsoon 2013
0.25
Manganese (mg/L)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Well No.
3.2.2.21 Cadmium (mg/L)
3.2.2.21.1 Cadmium (mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Cadmium (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2011
Pre-monsoon 2012
0.035
Pre-monsoon 2013
0.03
Cadmium (mg/L)
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.21.2 Cadmium (mg/L) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Cadmium (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2012
0.035
Post-monsoon 2013
0.03
Cadmium (mg/L)
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
3.2.2.21.3 Cadmium (mg/L) graph for Pre& Post Monsoon Season 2011
Cadmium (mg/L) data for Pre & Post Monsoon Season 2011
Pre-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2011
0.035
0.03
Cadmium (mg/L)
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2012
Post-monsoon 2012
0.035
0.03
Cadmium (mg/L)
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Well No.
Pre-monsoon 2013
Post-monsoon 2013
0.035
0.03
Cadmium (mg/L)
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
Well No.
3.2.2.22 Chromium (mg/L)
3.2.2.22.1 Chromium (mg/L) graph for Pre Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Pre-monsoon 2011
Chromium (mg/L) data for Pre Monsoon Season
Pre-monsoon 2012
Pre-monsoon 2013
0.012
0.01
Chromium (mg/L)
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
Well No.
3.2.2.22.2 Chromium (mg/L) graph for Post Monsoon Season for 3 years of Project
Chromium (mg/L) data for Post Monsoon Season
Post-monsoon 2011
Post-monsoon 2012
0.012
Post-monsoon 2013
0.01
Chromium (mg/L)
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
Well No.
3.3 Microbiological Parameters
3.3.2
Observation Tables of Microbiological Parameters
3.3.2.1 Pre-Monsoon Season 2011
SR.
NO.
MICRORGANISMS
LUXURIANT
GROWTH
POOR
GROWTH
NO
GROWTH
1
Total Microbial Count
15
10
0
2
3
Escherichia coli
Salmonella typhinurium
6
3
12
13
7
9
4
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
5
13
7
5
Staphylococcus Aures
6
11
8
POOR
GROWTH
3
0
NO
GROWTH
5
0
3.3.2.2 Post-Monsoon Season 2011
SR.
NO.
1
2
Escherichia coli
LUXURIANT
GROWTH
17
25
3
7
17
1
4
8
6
11
5
9
7
9
3.3.2.3
MICRORGANISMS
Pre-Monsoon Season 2012
SR.
NO.
MICRORGANISMS
LUXURIANT
GROWTH
POOR
GROWTH
NO
GROWTH
1
12
8
5
2
3
4
5
Escherichia coli
11
5
7
5
10
10
14
13
4
10
4
7
3.3.2.4
Post-Monsoon Season 2012
SR.
NO.
1
2
3
4
5
3.3.2.5
3.3.2.6
MICRORGANISMS
Escherichia coli
LUXURIANT
GROWTH
16
23
6
6
8
POOR
GROWTH
3
2
14
8
5
NO
GROWTH
5
0
5
11
12
SR. NO.
MICRORGANISMS
LUXURIANT
GROWTH
POOR
GROWTH
NO
GROWTH
1
12
7
6
2
Escherichia coli
9
11
5
3
4
12
9
4
5
Staphylococcus aures
6
8
13
12
6
5
SR. NO.
MICRORGANISMS
LUXURIANT
GROWTH
POOR
GROWTH
NO
GROWTH
1
2
3
Escherichia coli
15
24
6
4
1
16
6
0
3
4
7
8
10
5
6
6
13
3.3.2 Graphical Representation of Microbiological Parameters
3.3.2.1
Microbiological Data Analysis for 1st Year Pre-Monsoon 2011
30
25
No Growth
No. of Petri Plates
20
Poor Growth
Luxuriant Growth
15
10
5
0
Escherichia coli
Salmonella
typhinurium
Microorganism under study
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
3.3.2.2
Microbiological Data Analysis for 1st Year Post-Monsoon 2011
25
No. of Petri Plates
20
No Growth
15
Poor Growth
Luxuriant Growth
10
5
0
Escherichia coli
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
3.3.2.3
30
Microbiological Data Analysis for 2nd Year Pre-Monsoon
2012
25
No. of Petri Plates
20
No Growth
Poor Growth
15
Luxuriant
Growth
10
5
0
Total Microbial
Count
Escherichia coli
Salmonella
typhinurium
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
Staphylococcus
Aures
3.3.2.4
Microbiological Data Analysis for 2nd Year Post-Monsoon 2012
30
25
No Growth
No. of Petri Plates
20
Poor Growth
Luxuriant
Growth
15
10
5
0
Escherichia coli
Salmonella
typhinurium
Mcroorganisms under study
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
3.3.2.5
Microbiological Data Analysis for 3rd Year Pre-Monsoon 2013
30
25
No Growth
No. of Petri Plates
20
Poor Growth
Luxuriant Growth
15
10
5
0
Escherichia coli
Salmonella
typhinurium
Microorganisms under study
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
Staphylococcus aures
3.3.2.6
Microbiological Data Analysis for 3rd Year Post-Monsoon 2013
30
25
No Growth
No. of Petri Plates
20
Poor Growth
Luxuriant
Growth
15
10
5
0
Escherichia coli
Salmonella
typhinurium
Microorganisms under study
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
Discussion
4. DISCUSSION
The quality of ground water is the resultant of all the processes and reactions that act on the
water from the moment it is condensed in the atmosphere to the time it is discharged by a
well or spring and varies from place to place and with the depth of the water table. Ground
water is particularly important as it accounts for about 88% safe drinking water in rural areas,
where population is widely dispersed and the infrastructure needed for treatment and
transportation of surface water does not exist.
Standard desirable limits of water quality parameters in drinking water prescribed by
different agencies are shown in Table 9.
WHO
ISI
ICMR
BIS
Parameters
HDL
MPL
HDL
MPL
7.0-8.5
6.5-9.5
6.5-8.5
-
TDS(mg/L)
-
-
500
2000
500
1500
500
2000
Ca(mg/L)
-
75
-
75
-
-
-
75
Chloride(mg/L)
-
250
-
250
-
250
-
250
200
600
300
600
300
600
200
600
-
120
200
600
-
-
200
600
pH
TH(mg/L)
Alkalinity(mg/L)
HDL
MPL
HDL
7.0-8.5 6.5-9.0 7.0-8.3
Table 9: Drinking water quality standards
(HDL - Highest Desirable Level; MPL - Maximum Permissible Level;
BIS - Bureau of Indian Standard; ICMR - Indian Council of Medical Research;
WHO - World Health Organisation; ISI-Indian Standard Institute)
MPL
8.5-9.0
4.1. Physico-Chemical Parameters
The results of Groundwater resources from 25 open dug wells from Mhadei river
watershed and the seasonal variation (for pre-monsoon and post-monsoon season) for
various physico-chemical parameters is shown in table 3.2.2.1 – 3.2.2.22. The well water
quality significantly varied with season and location. The changing trends in the analysis
of three years of the samples for each parameter in comparision to the WHO standards
have been discussed further.
4.1.1 Temperature
Water temperature regulates the metabolism of the aquatic ecosystem. During the present study
temperature values were in the range of 27-.30.3oC and 23-26.7oC for the well water samples
in pre-monsoon and post-monsoon season respectively.
4.1.2 pH
pH is a measure of the acidic or basic (alkaline) nature of a solution.The mean pH value of
the water samples was found in the acidic range with more acidity in post-monsoon season
(range 4.5-6.1) than the pre-monsoon season (range 5.3-8.5) which implies that some of the
samples require treatments that would adjust their pH values to the acceptable levels.
4.1.3 Electrical Conductivity
The electrical conductivity was obtained below 1 µS during all the six times of sampling for
the study. The electrical conductivity values of these samples which gave the measures of the
ionized substances in the samples at a particular temperature ranged from 0.04 to 0.16μS/cm
for pre-monsoon and 0.03-0.32 µS/cm for post-monsoon season for all 3 years of project
period.
This implies that these samples probably did not contain much ionized metals especially
those that could pose serious health hazards.
4.1.4 Alkalinity
During the present study, the alkalinityvaried between 15 to 89.7 mg/L in the pre-monsoon
season, and 15-62mg/L for post-monsoon. The values obtained were below the maximum
permissible limit of WHO.
4.1.5 Turbidity
During the present study, the samples were found to be visibly transparent with the turbidity
values below 3 NTU. The values ranged from 0.3-2.1NTU, 0.2-1.8NTU for pre-monsoon
and for post-monsoon respectively for the 3 years.
4.1.6 Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen analysis measures the amount of gaseous oxygen (O 2) dissolved in an
aqueous solution. The total dissolved gas concentration in water should not exceed 13-14
mg/l). The present study showed dissolved oxygen in the range of 4.5-5.92 mg/L in premonsoon season, with higher concentrations ranging between 4.65-7.78 in the post-monsoon
season.
4.1.7 Total Suspended Solid (TSS)
TSS values were in the range of 20-540 mg/L and 60-670 mg/L in pre-monsoon and postmonsoon season respectively.
4.1.8 Total Dissolved Solid (TDS)
The values were in the range of 10-90 mg/L and 10-110 mg/L in pre-monsoon and postmonsoon season respectively.
4.1.9 Acidity
During the study, the post-monsoon water samples showed slightly more acidity in the range
of 8-46 mg/L as compared to pre-monsoon water samples that ranged between 8-48 mg/L.
4.1.10 Chloride
The chloride level ranged from 5.9 to 17.3 mg/L for pre-monsoon season and 4.4-16.5mg/L
for post-monsoon season in the study area. The values obtainedare low and fall within the
WHO standards of 250 mg/L for potable water.
4.1.11 Total Hardnessas CaCO3
It is a measure of the capacity of water to precipitate soap. The WHO drinking water
guideline value for total hardness is 500.00 mg/L asCaCO3 (WHO, 1984). A total hardness
value in the range 2-110 mg/L CaCO3 was obtained during this study period.
4.1.12 Calciumas CaCO3
For the water samples under the study the calcium content was found out in terms of calcium
carbonate which was observed to be well within the limit.
4.1.13 Magnesiumas CaCO3
During the present study, all the water samples showed low magnesium content in the range
of 0.1-7 mg/L and 0.18-6 mg/L for the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon season respectively.
4.1.14 Iron
The post-monsoon samples of well water contained more iron (range 0.094-0.118 mg/L) than
pre-monsoon samples (range 0.088-0.11mg/L) which may be attributed to leaching but still
none of the samples showed above 0.2 mg/L and were well within the permissible limit by
WHO.
4.1.15 Sodium
Sodium content was observed to be diluted in well water in the post-monsoon season. For
pre-monsoon season, the sodium content was found to be in the range of 1-8.6 mg/L and for
post-monsoon season it was in the of 0.8-7.5 mg/L.
4.1.16 Potassium
The potassium content in the well water samples of Mhadei river watershed was found to be
well within the limit with reduced content in post-monsoon (range 0-4.2 mg/L) than the premonsoon season (range 0.2-4.2 mg/L) due to dilution.
4.1.17 Silica
The amount of silica content was found to be well within the permissible limit of WHO in
both the seasons. Post-monsoon samples were found to contain more silica (range 5.5-38.46
mg/L) than the pre-monsoon season (range 1.3-26.3 mg/L).
4.1.18 Nitrate
The nitrate content in water samples was found to be generally diluted in post-monsoon
season compared to the pre-monsoon season. The nitrate contents of the samples ranged from
0.3-5.7mg/L in the pre-monsoon season and between 0.1-5.1mg/L in the post-monsoon
season. These values were in agreement with the standard value of 50 mg/L limit set by
WHO (2004).
4.1.19 Sulphate
Sulphates occur naturally in drinking water and health concerns regarding its level have been
linked with diarrhoea due to its laxative effects. The sulphate contents of the water samples
in this study ranged from 6.2-32.2 mg/L for pre-monsoon season and from 4.4-31.4mg/L for
post-monsoon season. None of the samples had levels above the WHO limit of 250mg/L for
this ion. The post-monsoon well water samples were observed to contain less sulphate
content compared to pre-monsoon season.
4.1.20 Manganese
The manganese content was completely absent in all the post-monsoon samples analysed. It
was observed only in the pre-monsoon water samples in the range of 0.00-0.25 mg/L. The
manganese content observed was well within the permissible limit of WHO.
4.1.21 Chromium
The chromium contents of the water samples in this study were 0.01 ± 0.00 mg/. These levels
were also below the highest limit set by WHO.
During the present study and from the results obtained for the well water samples, none of
the samples had any objectionable appearance, odor, color or taste. Toxic metals pollution is
not predominant in the Mhadei River watershed as the toxic metals were found within the
acceptable limit for open dug well water. From the present physicochemical study of the
water quality of this region, it can be concluded that the condition of the well water is stable
at present but may be affected by the nearby mining work in the region, ongoing dam
construction projects and climatic changes in future.
Hydrochemistry(Modassir, Ibrampurkar, Virginkar & Jyai, 2012).
Groundwater occurs under phreatic condition over most part of the Mhadei River watershed.
Open dug wells of depths ranging from 3m to 15m are used to draw water for domestic and
agricultural purposes.
The pH of groundwater in the study area is acidic in nature. The data was found to be ranging
from 4.7 to 5.3 during the post-monsoon season which marginally increasesto 5.4 to 6.5
during the pre-monsoon season.Mandrekar and Chachadi have explained following four
possible geochemical reactions for low pH of groundwater in Goa (Mandrekar & Chachadi,
2013):
1. When ferrous iron combines with water in the presence of oxygen to precipitateiron oxide
hydroxide (goethite), the reaction releases hydrogen ion resulting in lowering of pHof
water.
4Fe+2+ O2+ 6H2O → 4FeO(OH)+ 8H+
2. Manganese oxidation also releases hydrogen ion.
2Mn+2+ O2+ 2H2O → 2MnO2+ 4H+
3. Non-availability of Ca and Mg in abundance which are buffering agents in moderating
pH; thus the pH remains low.
4. Nitric acid (HNO3) formed due to organic nitrate in soil zone releases H+ which reduces
pH.
In the present study area, the presence of laterites rich in iron and clays rich in
manganesepromote for the first two reactions stated above. The carbonate rocks in Goa are
almost absent thereby no contribution of Ca and Mg into the percolating water. Due to thick
vegetal cover in the study area large amount of organic matrix is available in the soil zone
which in turn facilitates rainwater being enriched in hydrogen ions during percolation
through soil zone.The slightly more acidic water during post-monsoon is an evidence of
percolating rainwater getting enriched with free hydrogen ions which are contributing in
lowering the pH. During non-rainy season, as there is no percolation the availability of free
hydrogen ions is less therefore the pH is slightly raised during pre-monsoon season.
The total hardnessof groundwater varies from7.7 to 51.76 mg/l in pre -monsoon season and
from7.1 to 55.56 mg/l in post -monsoon season. Though majority of the wells have soft
water, some wells, viz., well no. 5, 6, 7, 11 and 18 have moderately hard water during the
post-monsoon season. However, water becomes soft in most of these wells during the premonsoon season indicating ion exchange andadsorption of ions on clay particles in the
aquifer.
TDS generally varies from 13.3 to 103.3 mg/l during post monsoon suggesting low
mineralisation of the groundwater in Mhadei watershed.However the TDS reduces during
pre-monsoon season ranging between 10 – 80mg/l.
According to Douglas and Leo, three sets of major relationships exist between cations and
anions in the chemistry of groundwater (Douglas & Leo, 1987). These are:
1. The highly competitive relationships between ions having same charge but a different
valence number e.g. Ca+2 and Na+1.
2. The affinity between ions having different charges but same valence number e g. Na +1 and
Cl-1.
3. The non-competitive relationship between ions having the same charge and the same
valence number e.g. Ca+2 and Mg+2.
The ions in Mhadei groundwater shows following relationships:
1. The highly competitive relationships: Mg+2 with Na+1 (0.40) has significant positive
correlation. Ca+2 with Na+1 (0.23); Ca+2 with K+1 (0.27) and SO4-2 with Cl-1 (0.17) have low
positive correlation.
2. The affinity ions relationships: Mg+2 with SO4-2 (0.43) has significant positive correlation.
Ca+2 with SO4-2 (0.24); Na+1 with Cl-1 (0.22) and Na+1 with HCO3 -1 (0.28) have low positive
correlation.
3. The non-competitive relationships: Ca+2 with Mg+2 (0.35) and HCO3-1 with Cl-1 (0.14)
have low positive correlation.
Fig. 8. Trilinear diagram (Piper, 1944) used to classify chemical types of groundwater
samples of post-monsoon season from Mhadei River watershed
Among the cations, the order of abundance in the groundwater samples is Ca>Na>Mg>K
while for the anions the order of abundance is HCO 3>SO4>Cl.The classification of
hydrochemical facies of groundwater from the Mhadei River watershed has been done using
Piper’s Trilinear diagram(Fig.8) by taking the average of all three years data (Piper A.P.,
1984).All the samples lie in field 1 of the diamond shaped field of the Piper’s diagram
indicating predominance of alkaline earth over alkali elements both during post-monsoon as
well as pre-monsoon season.Samples are distributed between fields 3 and 4 of Piper’s
diagram during post-monsoon season indicating equal abundance of weak and strong acids.
However, most of the samples move to field 4 of the diagram during the pre-monsoon season
indicating increase in strong acids over weak acids as the water flows through the aquifers.
Calcium-bicarbonate type is the most common groundwater quality type in the watershed
during the post-monsoon season followed by Calcium-magnesium-chloridetype. However,
the groundwater becomes completely Calcium-bicarbonate type towards the onset of
monsoon season suggesting precipitation of magnesium salts or adsorption of magnesium on
clay particles in the aquifer by ion exchange. Alkalis (Na+K) and chloride are
insignificantsuggesting absence of sea water ingress in the watershed.Silica is present in
significant quantities suggesting dissolution of silicate rocks in the watershed.
Fig. 9. Mechanism controlling chemistry of groundwater (after Gibbs, 1970)
Gibbs (1970) suggested that plots of TDS versus the weight ratio of Na/ (Na+Ca) and Cl/
(Cl+HCO3) could provide information on the relative importance of three major natural
mechanisms controlling water chemistry:
1) Atmospheric precipitation
2) Rock weathering
3) Evaporation and fractional crystallization (Gibbs R.J., 1970).
The composition of the groundwater in Mhadei watershed falls dominantly in the
precipitation domain and partially in the rock weathering domain (Fig. 9), suggesting that the
ion concentration of the water also change during its passage through the soil zone and the
unsaturated zone.
Drinking water quality
All the major cations and anions are well within the prescribed drinking water quality
standards by BIS and WHO (BIS, 2003 & 2005). However, the groundwater is highly acidic
in nature. Low pH can facilitate dissolution of metals in water.
Nitrate is present in negligible amount in the groundwater suggesting that there are no
anthropogenic and natural processes contributing nitratein the analysed samples of the
groundwater. Manganese is below detectable limit during the post-monsoon period.
However, manganese is present in most of the samples during the pre-monsoon season
suggesting reduction of MnO2 formed during water percolation in the soil zone torelease Mn.
Water from Well no. 25 located at Satpal village contains highest Mn content (0.25 mg/l)
which is below the permissible limit prescribed by WHO.Manganiferous clays that occurs
intercalated with phyllites and BHQ’sof Bicholim Formation are likelyto be the source of
manganese in Mhadei watershed.
Cadmium is another heavy metal that occurs in some of the water samples. According to the
WHO and BIS, the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for cadmium is 0.01 mg/l. It is
observed that 6 wells of the total 25 wells in the Mhadei watershed contain cadmium at or
above the desirable limit and therefore the water is toxic.These wells are located in Budruk,
Nagre, Ambede, Sonal Tar, Carambolim, and Bolcornem villages. Cadmium can cause itaiitai disease, gastro-intestinal diseases and hypertension. It can also affect cardio-vascular
system and kidneys. The source of cadmium could be both, natural (lithogenic) or
anthropogenic. Cadmium occurs naturally in lead, zinc, copper and other ore minerals which
can serve as sources to groundwater, especially when in contact with soft, acidic water.
However, the main sources of cadmium in water are industrial activities as the metal is
widely used in electroplating, pigments, plastic, stabilizers and battery industries. In the
present study area, anthropogenic sources of cadmium contamination are unlikely since there
are no industries in the watershed. Therefore, the source of cadmium may be lithogenic.
Classification of groundwater for irrigation purpose
High salt content in irrigation water leads to formation of saline soil and affect the soil
structure and permeability. This affects the water intake capacity of the plants through their
roots and therefore the plant growth. According to the Salinity Laboratory of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) can be considered to determine
the suitability of water for irrigation purpose. Sodium adsorption ratios are measure of
relative activity of sodium ion in the exchange reaction with soil. It measures the alkali
(sodium) hazard for cropsand is estimated by the formula:
SAR= Na / ((Ca+Mg)/2)0.5
where the concentrations of all the constituents are expressed in milliequivalents per litre.
SAR of all the groundwater samples in Mhadei watershed ranges from 0.07 to 0.7 with
mean values of 0.29 in post-monsoon season and 0.38 in pre-monsoon season. Thus,
thegroundwater in Mhadei watershed as per Richards’s classification (Richards L.A., 1954)
can be classified as low sodium waterand hence is of good quality for irrigation purpose.
Wilcox in the year 1995 has classified groundwater for irrigation purposes based on percent
sodium which is expressed as:
%Na= (Na+ K) 100/ (Ca+Mg+Na+K)
where the concentrations of all the constituents are expressed in milliequivalents per litre.
The values of percent sodium in the analysed samples range from 10 to 51 with mean
values of 21 in post-monsoon season and 31 in pre-monsoon season.It is observed that
during the post-monsoon season, 44% of the water samples fall in the excellent class, 48%
fall in good class while 8% fall in permissible class. Whereas for the pre-monsoon season,
32% samples fall in the excellent class, 36% fall in the good class while 32% fall in the
permissible class. Hence, the groundwater from the study area is suitable for irrigation
purpose.
4.2 Microbiological Parameters
The 25 well water samples from Mhadei river watershed were also examined for its
microbiological quality. The purpose of this study was to determine whether pathogenic E.
coli, Salmonella, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus were present in
water sources used by rural communities residing in Mhadei river watershed for their daily
water needs. Such information may allow us to determine to what extent the water sources
may influence infection and disease in the community. The results are given in table 3.3.2.13.3.2.6. The occurrence of various pathogens in water samples during pre-monsoon and
post-monsoon season was observed, which is discussed further.
Bacteriological analysis showed that the selected wells at Mhadei area were polluted. Total
coliform in water in this area is an indication of fecal contamination. This shows that
substances which are present in waste matter leaches to groundwater and are transported in
it.Dillion 1997 asserted that in areas where the waste matter is not properly disposed, for
example a pit latrine, the liquid soaks away through the base and sides of the pit. From the
table it is evident that most of the wells are contaminated with the pathogens like E. coli,
Salmonella, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureusand also denotes the potential
public health hazards. The quality of water is deteriorated by the presence of bacterial
population.
E. coli is used as bio-indicators of aquaticecosystem and determination of theiroccurrence
helps to assess the water quality.Presence of coliforms organisms in water regarded
asevidence of faecal contamination as their origin in theintestinal tract of human and other
warm bloodedanimals.The presence of fecal coliform in water poses a great danger to
human health. Contamination of water by human waste deposit; constitute the most
common mechanism for transmission of micro-organisms to humans (WHO, 1985). These
pathogenic organisms are responsible for the infection of the intestinal tracts and the
diseases caused include, diarrhea, cholera, bacillary dysentery, typhoid, hepatitis and so on.
The incidence of water borne diseases can therefore be attributed to untreated or poorly
treated groundwater that contains pathogens.Since many samples during this study showed
luxuriant growth of microorganisms, they were unfit for portability because they could also
contain other microorganisms implicated in gastro-intestinal water borne diseases.The
bacterialgenera such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcu sp, were predominant in the
water samples and may be due to various human activities. The bacterialpopulation was
found to be having higher densities in the post monsoon season water samples compared to
the pre-monsoon ground water samples.Hence, the data shows that the water is consideredto
be unfit for drinking purposes.
Inference
5. INFERENCE
In the Mhadei river watershed area under study, groundwater remains the main water supply
source for the people residing in this area.
They receive drinking water directly from
uncovered or covered boreholes and wells, by which the groundwater is consumed by the
people without any purification. The potential health problem posed by the consumption of
polluted water from groundwater sources must not be underestimated. It has long been
known that cholera is a waterborne disease that is transmitted via water (Huges et al, 1982).
The quality of groundwater is governed by many factors such as physico-chemical
characteristics of soil, rainfall, organic content, weathering of rocks, cation-anion exchange
reactions, human and agricultural wastes and industrial effluents.The groundwater in Mhadei
watershed is generally low in mineral content with all the major ions well within the
permissible limits for drinking water. However, the pH of the groundwater is low. The
decrease in total hardness and total dissolved solids from post-monsoon to pre-monsoon
season indicate that the bases are lost by ion exchange during the flow of groundwater
through the aquifer.Calcium-bicarbonate type is the most common groundwater quality type
in the watershed.Gibb’s plot indicates that atmospheric precipitation and rock weathering are
the principal mechanisms controlling the groundwater chemistry in Mhadei watershed.Small
amounts of sodium and chloride indicate absence of sea water ingress in the watershed. Low
nitrate content suggests that there is no anthropogenic pollution in the groundwater in
Mhadei watershed.The low SAR and percent sodium indicates that the groundwater from the
entire Mhadei watershed is suitable for irrigation purpose. However, the presence of
cadmium in some of the wells renders the groundwater toxic for drinking purpose in these
areas.
The bacteriological counts in the well water samples make the water unfit for human
consumption. All the water samples collected from ground water sources over a period of 3
years for pre-monsoon and post-monsoon season tested positive for the pathogens. An
analysis of the water samples obtained from the drinking water sources (wells) resulted in the
isolation of presumptive E. coli during the study period. The study revealed that the
prevalence of pathogenic E. coli was more implicated in post-monsoon season than the premonsoon season for groundwater sources.
The present study, showed the challenges for health and water resources in Mhadei river
watershed. A prompt and regular well water quality assessment should be carried out in order
to know the extent of contamination of water used by the local communities. The quality of
the water may be improved by cleaning of the groundwater sources, the removal of organic
and sediment from the water, the addition of a disinfectant or the boiling of drinking water
before use. The provision of potable water for rural communities is important in order to
satisfy their basic needs and it is easily seen as crucial for assessing social development in
developing countries (Forch & Bremann, 1998). The study recommends regular monitoring
of drinking water sources in the Mhadei area for the presence of pathogenic bacteria.
Educating people about pathogenic waterborne bacteria and enlightening them aboutthe
dangers of consumption of untreated water from shallow wells by the government, is also
recommended. This will control pollution and prevent the depletion of the quality of well
waters.
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“Environmental Impact Assessment of Ground Water Quality of

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