Astrid Cordier Mtech Photography 2011 forweb

Transcription

THE INFLUENCE OF 1950S FASHION PHOTOGRAPHERS,
RICHARD AVEDON AND IRVING PENN,
ON PHOTOGRAPHERS
MATTHEW ROLSTON AND STEVEN MEISEL.
ASTRID CORDIER (NEE ARNDT)
2011
THE INFLUENCE OF 1950S FASHION PHOTOGRAPHERS,
RICHARD AVEDON AND IRVING PENN, ON PHOTOGRAPHERS
MATTHEW ROLSTON AND STEVEN MEISEL.
By
Astrid Cordier (Nee Arndt)
Submitted in partial compliance with the requirements for the
Degree, Magister Technologiae in Photography, in the
Department of Applied Design, Faculty of Music, Art and Design,
Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University.
December 2011
Supervisor: Mr G. M. Meyer (MA)
Co-supervisor: Mr B. S. Cadle (H. N.Dip Graphic Design)
2
CONTENTS
DECLARATION
7
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
8
ABSTRACT
9
LIST OF FIGURES
10
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
12
1.2 Richard Avedon
15
1.3 Irving Penn
18
1.4 Matthew Rolston
21
1.5 Steven Meisel
22
1.6 Aims of the study
23
1.7 Objectives of study
24
1.8 Problem statement
24
1.9 Methodology
25
1.9.1 Written component
25
1.9.2 Practical component
27
1.10 Delimitations
29
1.11 Terminology
29
1.12 Chapter overview
29
CHAPTER 2
PAUL MARTIN LESTER’S METHOD OF VISUAL ANALYSIS
2.1 Introduction
31
2.2 Different methods of visual analysis
31
2.2.1 Content analysis
32
2.2.2 Visual anthropology
32
2.2.3 Cultural studies
33
2.2.4 Semiotics
34
2.2.5 Iconography
35
2.3 Lester’s method of visual analysis
36
2.3.1 Four basic visual cues
37
2.3.2 Six perspectives of visual analysis
41
3
2.4 Synopsis of chapter 2
46
CHAPTER 3
A VISUAL ANALYSIS OF THE WORK OF RICHARD AVEDON AND IRVING PENN
3.1 Introduction
47
3.2 Avedon - Dovima with elephants
47
3.2.1 Analysis of four basic visual cues
48
3.2.2 Lester’s six perspectives
51
3.3 Avedon - Dovima with Sacha
55
56
58
3.4 Penn - Cocoa-coloured Balenciaga dress
62
63
65
3.5 Penn - Dior wasp-waist dress
69
70
72
75
CHAPTER 4
A VISUAL ANALYSIS OF THE WORK OF CONTEMPORARY PHOTOGRAPHERS
STEVEN MEISEL AND MATTHEW ROLSTON
4.1 Introduction
76
4.2 Meisel - And god created woman
76
78
80
4.3 Meisel - Modern and classic
83
84
86
4.4 Rolston - Lift and separate
89
90
91
4.5 Rolston - Dream girl
94
4
94
96
98
CHAPTER 5
A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE WORK OF RICHARD AVEDON, IRVING PENN,
5.1 Introduction
100
5.2 Meisel - Modern and classic and Penn - Lisa Fonssagrives in Marcel
Rochas mermaid dress
100
101
102
5.3 Rolston - Dream girl and Penn - Black and white idea
103
104
105
5.4 Avedon - Dorian Leigh photographed for Robert Piguet and Meisel And god created woman
107
108
109
110
CHAPTER 6
A VISUAL ANALYSIS OF THE WORK OF ASTRID CORDIER
6.1 Introduction
112
6.2 Cordier - Model wearing fur
113
113
114
6.3 Cordier - Lady behind fountain
116
117
118
120
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CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
7.1 Summary and conclusion
122
7.1.1 Summary of preceding chapters
122
7.1.2 Contribution of the study
128
7.1.3 Further research
128
7.1.4 Closing comments
129
REFERENCES
8.1 Books
130
8.2 Magazines
134
8.3 Video
134
8.4 Websites
135
8.5 List if figures
137
8.6 Addendums of researcher’s images
142
8.6.1 Addendum A: Images inspired by Richard Avedon
142
8.6.2 Addendum B: Images inspired by Irving Penn
148
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DECLARATION
I, Astrid Cordier 20530793, hereby declare that the dissertation for the Degree,
Magister Technologiae in Photography, is my own work and that it has not previously
been submitted for assessment or completion of any postgraduate qualification to
another University or for another qualification.
Astrid Cordier
Official use:
In accordance with Rule G4.6.3,
4.6.3 A treatise/dissertation/thesis must be accompanied by a written declaration on
the part of the candidate to the effect that it is his/her own work and that it has
not previously been submitted for assessment to another University or for
another qualification. However, material from publications by the candidate
may be embodied in a treatise/dissertation/thesis.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the following individuals for their support:
First and most importantly I would like to thank God for giving me the talent, the
passion and commitment to complete my studies. Without You Lord I am nothing!
I would like to thank my loving mother, Zenda Arndt, for supporting me financially,
emotionally and for always being there for me during the hard times. To my loving
husband, Juan Cordier, you are such a positive inspiration to me, thank you for your
love, friendship and trust. To my sisters, Arielle Arndt and Renate Arndt, thank you
for your help and support throughout this journey. To my new mother and father,
Gerda and Kobus Cordier, thank you for your love and support.
Secondly I would like to thank my supervisor, Glenn Meyer, for all his help, patience
and commitment to my project. I would also like to thank the co-supervisor, Bruce
Cadle, for his guidance and support. Thank you to my language editor, Colin Bartle,
for all your time and effort.
I would like to thank my models, Arielle Arndt, Renate Arndt, Melissa Botha,
Chantelle le Roux, Cathy Mather, Chris Rademan, Este Swanepoel, Francois
Swanepoel, Susan Swanepoel and Elsabe van Zyl for always being professional.
Thank you to my hair, make-up and wardrobe stylists for their contributions to the
photographic sessions.
I have had the privilege of taking photographs at picturesque venues. Thank you to
Grillers Diner for allowing me to use the diner as a setting. Thank you to Eleanor
Sharp and Anton van der Watt at the South African Air Force Museum for their
assistance and enthusiasm.
I would like to thank Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University for the Post Graduate
bursary.
Astrid Cordier
http://www.astridcordier.com/
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ABSTRACT
Photography has been used to record and document periods in time, which Wells
(2001:19) acknowledges by stating that, “…photographs are records and documents
which pin down the changing world of appearance”. Richard Avedon and Irving
Penn made a significant contribution to fashion photography during the 1950s but
this has seldom been explored in a scholarly way. By defining the characteristics of
Avedon and Penn’s work, a possible understanding of their influence on
contemporary fashion photographers, Matthew Rolston and Steven Meisel may be
determined and so expand on the understanding of the contribution of Avedon and
Penn to contemporary fashion photography. Avedon, Penn, Rolston and Meisel’s
fashion photographs will be visually analysed to show the similarities and the
relevance of 1950s fashion photography to contemporary fashion photography. Paul
Martin Lester’s (2003) method of visual analysis will be used as the basis for this
analysis. The reason for choosing Lester’s methods of visual analysis is that it can
be applied to all fields of visual art and design. Contemporary fashion photography
draws on many different stylistic devices and periods in history for its re-invention, so
it is important to understand what constitutes the defining characteristics of a stylistic
period in history to be able to revisit it in contemporary photography.
KEYWORDS
Fashion photography, Richard Avedon, Irving Penn, Matthew Rolston, Steven
Meisel, fashion photography in the 1950s, contemporary fashion photography, visual
analysis of fashion photography, Paul Martin Lester.
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Picasso, P. 1937. Guernica.
20
Figure 2.1: Lester, P.M. 2003.Visual communication’s circle.
40
Figure 3.1: Avedon, R. 1955. Dovima with elephants.
48
Figure 3.2: Avedon, R. 1955. Compositional analysis of Dovima with elephants. 49
Figure 3.3: Hart, R. 1994. Avedon’s 8 x10 and lighting gear.
52
Figure 3.4: Avedon, R. 1955. Dovima with Sacha.
55
Figure 3.5: Avedon, R. 1955. Compositional analysis of Dovima with Sacha.
57
Figure 3.6: Avedon, R. nd. Self portrait of Richard Avedon.
59
Figure 3.7: Penn, I. 1950. Cocoa-coloured Balenciaga dress.
63
Figure 3.8: Penn, I. 1950. Compositional analysis of cocoa-coloured Balenciaga
dress.
64
Figure 3.9: Penn, I. 1950. Irving Penn’s studio, Paris.
66
Figure 3.10: Penn, I. 1948. Self portrait, Cuzco Studio.
67
Figure 3.11: Penn, I. 1950. Dior wasp-waist dress.
70
Figure 3.12: Penn, I. 1950. Compositional analysis of Dior wasp-waist dress.
71
Figure 4.1: Meisel, S. 2010. And god created woman, Louis Vuitton.
77
Figure 4.2: Meisel, S. 2010. Compositional analysis of And god created woman,
Louis Vuitton.
78
Figure 4.3: Meisel, S. 2010. Modern and classic.
83
Figure 4.4: Meisel, S. 2010. Compositional analysis of Modern and classic.
84
Figure 4.5: Penn, I. 1950. Lisa Fonssagrives in mermaid dress.
87
Figure 4.6: Rolston, M. 2008. Lift and separate.
89
Figure 4.7: Rolston, M. 2008. Compositional analysis of Lift and separate.
90
Figure 4.8: Rolston, M. 2008. Dream girl.
94
Figure 4.9: Rolston, M. 2008. Compositional analysis of Dream girl.
95
Figure 5.1: Meisel, S. 2010. Modern and classic.
100
Figure 5.2: Penn, I. 1950. Lisa Fonssagrives in mermaid dress.
100
Figure 5.3: Rolston, M. 2008. Dream girl.
104
Figure 5.4: Penn, I. 1950. The black and white idea.
104
Figure 5.5: Avedon, R. 1950. Dorian Leigh photographed for Robert Piguet in 1950.
107
Figure 5.6: Meisel, S. 2010. And god created woman, Louis Vuitton.
107
10
Figure 6.1: Cordier, A. 2010. Model wearing fur.
112
Figure 6.2: Cordier, A. 2010. Compositional analysis of Model wearing fur.
113
Figure 6.3: Cordier, A. 2010. Lady behind fountain.
116
Figure 6.4: Cordier, A. 2010. Compositional analysis of Lady behind fountain.
117
Figure 6.5: Avedon, R. 1955. Dovima with elephants.
118
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
By collecting pieces of information through photography, fashion, society and
political influences, the essence of that time can be rediscovered. Photography has
been used to record and document periods in time, which Wells (2001:19)
acknowledges by stating that, “…photographs are records and documents which pin
down the changing world of appearance”. Photography is, therefore, a tool used to
form an understanding about a specific era. Watson (2008:7) states that, “It [fashion]
lives and exists not only as one of the most ravishing and compelling of
entertainments but as the surest indicator of [a period in] time”.
Fashion photography can be defined as a specific genre of photography dedicated to
displaying clothing and other fashion items. This study will focus on the 1950s. This
specific era has been chosen because of the way fashion photographers captured
the essence of the era with their elegant fashion images. If it were not for the
fashion photographers, Richard Avedon and Irving Penn, the change in fashion
would not have been documented as accurately as it was. “Fashion photography
was a document of their time” (Ross et al 1994:106).
Richard Avedon and Irving Penn were the two leading fashion photographers of that
time (Devlin 1979; Harrison 1991; Ross et al 1994; Howell 1979). Numerous books
on these highly regarded photographers have been published and they have had
several solo exhibitions. They worked for the leading fashion magazines of the time,
including Vogue and Harpers Bazaar (Harrison 1991:7). These magazines explored
fashion as a reflection of culture and were sought after by women. In this regard,
Harrison (1991:7) states, “... long before the invention of photography, the language
of dress and adornment had grown into a richly varied sign system, transcending the
notion that clothing evolved solely to protect us from extremes of temperature, or as
a token of modesty”.
These photographers managed to capture the essence of the 1950s by incorporating
subtle signs and unspoken codes to portray the ‘post-war dream’ of a perfect life.
Harrison (1991:7) concurs that, “The outward signs we portray through the way we
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dress, announce our character and values without speech or touch. Fashion
photography reflects the diverse cultural codes that are created by the sign language
of dress”.
After the end of World War Two, society flourished in America and Europe and new
opportunities rose from the ashes of the war. In trade and industry business
improved, companies prospered and the economy grew. This was followed by the
baby-boom which started the “American dream” of the perfect family with the stay-athome wife (Mulvey & Richards 1998:118).
Based on the growing sense of change and opportunity, the end of World War Two
also had a significant impact on the fashion of the 1950s. During the war the fashion
had characteristic qualities of the war, such as the dark sombre colours with military
structures. Watson explains that there were new words to describe fashion,
“austerity, rational and utility” (2008:64). The designs were inspired by masculine
characteristics. The textile industry came to a halt because of the lack of finance
and workers, so there was no colouring of fabrics. Only basic colours like black,
grey, brown and white were used. “With dye in short supply, colour was dull and
practical” (Watson 2008:70). In comparison to the dull colours of wartime, the postwar 1950s re-introduced the pastel colour palette into fashion.
The birth of the New Look in fashion design was a reaction to the austerity of
wartime fashion. “Dior’s New Look was equal parts fashion and social revolution”
(Watson 2008:210). In relation to this, Chenoune & Bernard (2008: 48) notes that, “It
was not that Dior detested the masculine shape of wartime fashions, he also wanted
to restore a damaged ideal of French femininity, to repair it with the New Look as
one might restore a damaged painting or heal a wounded face”. Dior was fixated
with every last detail of a woman’s outfit, “He believes that everything that touches a
woman ought to carry a suggestion of her” (Bertin 1956:200). He designed
accessories including bags, jewels, gloves and even perfume, to perfect and
complete the look of the female form.
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The most influential fashion designers of the time were Christian Dior and Christóbal
Balenciaga (Chenoune & Bernard 2008; Harrison 1991; Rhodes 2006; Bamford
2003, Faure 1991; Howell 1979). “Balenciaga created the most enduring examples
of perfection” (Watson 2008:162). Vogue noted that Balenciaga’s designs would
always transcend time. From the time Balenciaga entered the fashion scene he
dominated the world trends, creating them long before his fellow couturiers. “Here in
Paris people often say that it is Christóbal Balenciaga who sets the fashion” (Bertin
1956:225).
In comparison to the structured warlike clothing designs of the 1940s, the 1950s had
allowed for a revival of femininity.
There are moments when fashion changes fundamentally. When it is more than a
matter of differences in detail. The whole fashion attitude seems to change – the
whole structure of the body. This [1950s] is one of those moments (Watson 2008:
74).
Women embraced their curves and fashion designers explored the female form with
different designs like the high waist pencil skirt and the full flare skirt (Chenoune &
Bernard 2008:13). Women could now afford to buy accessories to match every
outfit. They started to pay attention to small details such as delicate gloves, hats in
all colors and shapes, scarves, handbags, matching shoes and most importantly,
pearls in every shape and size. The finished image of female elegance had to be
flawless (Chenoune & Bernard 2008:40).
Renowned photographer Richard Avedon played a significant role in capturing the
values and characteristics of the time. Indeed, Alexander Brodovitch, the art director
at Harpers Bazaar saw the unique quality Richard Avedon possessed to create
images with a natural, yet stylised appearance. Ross (cited in Ross, Livingston &
Gropnik 1994:110) expressed the opinion that, “It is not for their grace, some have
said, that makes them matter, not their underlying anxiety. Not anxiety, [or] grace:
but anxiety seen as grace – that’s Avedon’s manner”.
Taking the above information into consideration, a study of the leading fashion
photographers of that time, Richard Avedon and Irving Penn was done. The
historical context for the research was based upon the 1950s period. The
researcher explored the same subject matter as these photographers, namely
fashion photography. They refused to be bound by the limitations and prescriptions
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of commercial needs, which were only to represent the garment in a commercial
way, lacking creativity and unique style. They were driven to create everlasting work
that would be remembered and used as a basis to measure the works of all future
fashion photographers. Helen Whitney, director of the documentary video based on
Avedon’s career named American Masters, Richard Avedon: Darkness and light,
(1996) says that: “Today [Avedon’s] images are everywhere, some have become
iconic in our culture”.
Both these photographers had definite characteristics that separated them from the
average fashion photographer of that time, and both had stylistic elements that made
their work unique and memorable for years to come. “Penn and Avedon swept away
the gentled salon, they reshaped the parameters of post-war fashion photography,
setting standards against which all subsequent work would be measured” (Harrison
1991:98).
Fashion photographers from the 1950s have inspired contemporary fashion
photographers for several years. The inspiration can be noted by the contemporary
photographers’ use of 1950s methods and stylistic characteristics to create images
that show similarities to the 1950s fashion images. Contemporary fashion
photographers, Steven Meisel and Matthew Rolston are both photographers that
have drawn from 1950s stylistic characteristics in their contemporary fashion
photographs.
A background will now be provided on 1950s fashion photographers, Richard
Avedon and Irving Penn and this will be followed by a background to contemporary
fashion photographers Steven Meisel and Matthew Rolston.
1.2 Richard Avedon
Richard Avedon (15 May 1923 – 1 October 2004) was given a Rolleiflex camera by
his father in 1942 and thus his love affair with photography started. Avedon had a
special quality that was rare and priceless. Whitney (1996) says that, “His pictures
burst off a page, they had vitality that had tremendous shock value”.
15
He changed the whole mood of fashion photography. Whitney (1996) says: “...
before Avedon, models were posed as statues. Dick [Avedon] moved and the
models reacted”. Avedon’s influence was drawn from several factors. The
photographer, Martino Locatchi, photographed, “athletic women striding across a
beach, vital, alive” (Whitney 1996). These images of women in motion also inspired
Avedon to capture his models in motion. This was a deliberate means to interject a
sense of animation within the frame. “This was his metaphor for the life force, driven
to fix on [camera] film” (Squires & Aletti 2009:22). Avedon used his camera to
capture motion, like Cinematographers capture motion on film.
Avedon conceived photographs in which clothing and accessories were only part of
what he wanted to show and express about women and the culture around him.
Harpers Bazaar was the perfect publisher because they supported new visions and
unconventional aesthetics. Squires & Aletti (2009:17) explains, “Avedon was a part
of a endeavour that featured contemporary culture as well as fashion”.
“Avedon was a man of his time, he was always tuned into social, political, economic
and cultural changes” (Squires & Aletti 2009:17). His images became a regular
vision. He used restaurants, cafés, clubs, streets and vistas of the city as a
backdrop to his dynamic and dazzling images. His Paris work of this era [1950s]
memorably expresses the effervescent elegance of his youthful vision. This had an
immense impact on fashion photography and trans-atlantic cross-cultural exchange.
His Paris images of the Christian Dior’s New Look couture, “... became the
contrasted paradigms of contemporary [1950s] fashion” (Squires & Aletti 2009:19).
He injected undiluted energy and glamour into these street scenes. “He created an
aspirational metaphor of beauty and desire, fashion as seductive ideal, [a] distillation
of the actual into the fabulous”.
Avedon was inspired by the “ephemeral magic” of the performing arts. His images
had an element of constant surprise. He anticipated the movement precisely and
captured the moment by the interchanging relationship between him and his models
(Whitney 1996). Squires & Aletti (2009:20) states, “His fashion images became even
more pertinent elements in an on-going multifaceted tableau of the vanity and paths
of human dreams and ambitions”. He had a gift for creating typologies of beauty and
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style that imposed themselves with a constant authority. This is aptly described by
the Squires & Aletti (2009:158) statement, “Avedon is capable of creating fashion”.
Avedon’s art director, Alexey Brodavitch of Harper’s Bazaar, was like a father figure
to him. Brodavitch said, “Avedon’s first pictures have a freshness and individuality,
and they showed enthusiasm and a willingness to take chances” (Squires & Aletti
2009:158; Whitney 1996). Avedon learned much from Brodavitch. He is on record
as having said, “He was my teacher, I learned from his impatience, his arrogance,
his dissatisfaction”. Squires & Aletti explained that in a short time Avedon and
Brodavitch formed one of the most fruitful creative teams in the history of magazine
publishing.
Avedon had unique characteristics and qualities that made his work stand out from
his competition. One of these characteristics was the use of soft focus in some parts
of an image. Avedon said that, “The details in the background always distracted
me”. That is the reason he created his own method of printing through tissue paper
in the darkroom. He wanted to convey the aura of luxury, rather than including
details that would distract the viewer. According to Squires & Aletti (2009:159) this
was, “Permitting just the impression of glittering, romantic light to envelop the
image”. These images were influenced by Brodavitch’s images of ballet. The way
that the slow shutter speeds recorded the dancers was seductive to Avedon.
Another characteristic of Avedon’s work was his understanding of society. Avedon
wanted to convey the culture of the time; therefore models in his photographs are
shown holding lit cigarettes and drinking sherry. “Throughout the 1950s, Avedon’s
affinity for new development in popular culture was reflected in his fashion
photography” (Squires & Aletti 2009:175).
Avedon used lines of architecture and nature to compose his photographs. He
would drive through a city and see the lines. “No one dictated the locations to
Avedon, he did what he fancied”. Squires & Aletti (2009:165) notes that for Avedon,
“Paris was a city of visual fascination”. As an American he made a social
observation of post-war France. His aim was not only to show the world the rebirth
of fashion but also the rebirth of post-war France.
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Another characteristic of Avedon’s photographs was his use of gestures,
expressions and poses. Squires and Aletti (2009:159, 167) point out that, “Avedon
began experimenting with more casual poses and variable focus ...” and, “Avedon
introduced ... playful, amused expressions into the fashion vocabulary”. Avedon was
intent on pushing the very distinct limitations on the ways high fashion could be
depicted as Whitney (1996) explains in the documentary video “Real people move,
they bear with them the element of time - not time in a sense of aging, but time in a
sense of motion”. The challenge of showing women in a more candid or more
expressive moment clearly inspired Avedon. One of his favourite sayings was, “All
photographs are accurate but none of them are the truth”.
1.3 Irving Penn
The other photographer that made a dramatic impact on 1950s fashion photography
was Irving Penn (16 June 1917 – 7 October 2009). Irving Penn studied at the
Philadelphia Museum School of Industrial Art under Alexey Brodavitch. Penn
founded his own studio in 1953 and worked for one of the leading fashion
magazines, Vogue USA.
On the pages of Vogue, where Penn’s photographs are published, women are
constructed and desirable. Fashion through Penn’s eyes would have appeared as
an on-going theatre where the great European collections of the immediate post-war
years were translated to an affluent America (Holborn 1998:introduction).
Penn was one of the first photographers to pose models against grey or white
backgrounds so as to isolate the model. Penn called this de-contextualisation. He
used crisp white backgrounds and high contrast lighting to create his signature style
as seen on the covers of Vogue throughout the 1950s (Harrison 1991:56). “Penn
sees the language of outline, silhouette and profile as if he was constantly sketching
the world” (Holborn 1998: introduction).
His attention to detail set him apart from the other fashion photographers. Each
element of the styling, the model’s scarf, the pose and structured angles of the
garment, all contributed to his vision of simplicity and elegance. Characteristics of
Penn’s work include the model’s penetrating gaze, lack of theatrics, hard-edge acuity
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and a simple studio setting that was lit by northern light from his studio window. He
photographed women with great dignity and integrity, “I [Penn] felt I was recording
the essence of a complete woman” (Harrison 1991:56).
Penn had a specific quality of light in his photographs, a key to a personal statement
different to the accepted unreality of the fashion photography of the period:
overburdened backgrounds and theatrical lighting. “Penn reacted by re-creating
luminous tents in which objects and the models acquired a clear stillness. These
images were new, a revelation” (Arrowsmith, Majocchi & Liberman 1991:5).
Alexander Liberman, art director at Vogue USA in the 1950s, channelled his passion
for art into his vision for Vogue. “He sought to do away with the staged, artificial
photography favoured in fashion magazines in the 1940s and 1950s, and worked to
bring such noted photographers as Irving Penn and Richard Avedon to the pages of
Vogue” (Bercovici Nd:4).
Liberman noted that Penn’s compositions were, “... simple, direct, classical, and
modern in their economy - no tricky design” (Arrowsmith et al 1991:5). Penn’s work
showed a struggle to absolute perfection and visual impact. His images “stood out”
and created strong reactions from the public, good and bad. Penn had a clear
concept of exactly what he wanted; therefore he could move from still life, to fashion,
to portraits.
As described by Liberman, “Penn’s visual purity gave drama and glamour to
American women” (Arrowsmith et al 1991:7). After the war, American women had to
re-create their personas; they had to find their femininity again. The repetition of
these images in Vogue helped create a real impact and change in the behaviour of
readers. American women started to view themselves through Penn’s eyes. “Penn
looks at women with, again, an American man’s vision – there are no titillating frills or
cute poses” (Arrowsmith et al 1991:7).
Penn had an obsession with authenticity. “He has built in parameters: the studio,
strobes in fixed positions regardless of subject...” (Arrowsmith et al 1991:7). Penn
had a specific way of working; he had resistances and hesitations before taking a
19
photograph. He had to have full control of the subject and the whole environment
before he could create.
Penn’s visual signature is revealed in his unusual, unique, graphic way of
photographing. Liberman says, “The structure of the picture, the pose, has the
excitement of lettering in a cubist composition” (Arrowsmith et al 1991:8). An interest
for design dominated his photographs. Penn had the talent to “Americanize” all
subjects he photographed with his modern vision. Liberman comments, “Penn uses
contrast and light to imprint the spectator’s mind: deep, black shadows, luminous
highlights. He is influenced by the black and white tones and shading of Guernica”
(Arrowsmith et al 1991:8).
Figure 1.1: Guernica (Picasso 1937)
Guernica (see figure 1.1), painted by Pablo Picasso in 1937, was created to bring
the world's attention to the bombing of the Basque town of Guernica. The German
air force, in support of Franco’s nationalists, bombed Guernica during the Spanish
Civil war (van Hensbergen 2009:5). Guernica is made up of black, white and grey
tones. The painting uses symbolism through composition of graphic shapes to
convey the meaning. Penn draws from this concept to communicate his vision in
photography.
20
Therefore, photographs created by Penn are not only seen as images in the pages
of Vogue, but as works of art. “Penn can release a string of suggestions and in so
doing demonstrate that photographing fashion, like fashion itself, can be transformed
from design into art” (Holborn 1998:introduction).
1.4 Matthew Rolston
Matthew Rolston (born 1 March 1955) fell in love with the glamour photography on
his grandfather’s medical office walls. In the American Photo magazine the author
wrote that Rolston’s grandfather’s clients, that were Hollywood stars from the 1950s,
were showcased on these walls (American Photo 2006:90).
Rolston studied drawing and painting at the Art Centre College of Design in
Pasadena. Here he learned the basics of composition and light, which lead him to
photography.
Rolston does not believe in the division of art versus commercial, rather he believes
they can support each other. Rolston (2008:introduction) elaborates on this belief by
stating that: “Somewhere on a shoot I am going to take photographs that I want to
take that means something to me”.
Some of the virtues that describe Rolston are curiosity and perfectionism; he was
meticulous with every last detail of a photo session (American Photo 2006:90). “On
every production Rolston turns his eye to, whether photography or film, the
performers and settings come alive through a stunning mix of the grand and intimate
moments that he creates and captures” (Rolston 2012:10).
Rolston’s method of creating a photograph is as follows: firstly he pre-visualises
images via writing, this is followed by sketching, storyboarding, to the photography
session set, and finally the editing room. Renowned for his influential lighting
techniques, Rolston has photographed for several magazines including, Harper’s
Bazaar, Vogue, W, GQ, Esquire as well as major brands including Campari, Revlon,
L’Oreal, Estee Lauder, Clairol, Polo and Burberry just to name a few (Rolston
2012:¶15
21
“I want the viewer to gasp and then laugh”, Rolston explains when talking about the
emotion in his images. His images walk the line between idealism and realism, with
the aim to thrill the audience (Rolston 2008:introduction).
Rolston’s brilliant use of light, highlights and shadows made celebrities look like
“waxed fruit” as he puts it. He idealises perfection and heightened fashion
consciousness. Rolston (2008:introduction) explains that: “I wanted to travel back in
time and actually be there in the shadows of the MGM photo gallery”
(2008:introduction). His work is a combination of nostalgic imitation and the present.
His images look back not only to Hollywood’s golden past but also to the
photographers in the 1950s as well (American Photo 2006:90). Rolston’s
(2008:introduction) theory on light defines his style, as he explains: “What’s the stuff
that dreams are made of? Well in a photograph that would be light, light is beauty,
beauty is light”.
1.5 Steven Meisel
Steven Meisel (born 1954) is a contemporary fashion photographer working for the
leading fashion brands including Prada, Dolce & Gabbana, Valentino, Mulberry,
Lanvin and Versace. Meisel has photographed every cover and lead fashion
editorial of Italian Vogue for the past decade (Beckett 2008:1).
Meisel studied at the High School of Art and Design, and at the Parsons New School
for Art and Design where he attended different courses but, as affirmed in an
interview for Vogue France, he finally majored in fashion illustration (Art+Commerce
2012:¶1).
Meisel has been the leading fashion photographer since 1980s. With his prolific and
innovative approach to fashion and culture, he not only visualises fashion trends but
actually creates them though his photography (Steven Meisel: Modern Fashion
Inspiration 2008:¶3).
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Like a true image-maker, Meisel captures the essence of fashion, not only depicting
fashion but also defining it. “He gives fashion a cultural resonance”, Harriet Beckett
explains in her article Steven Meisel: Modern Fashion Inspiration (2008:¶2).
Meisel has a way of scripting a storyline, pouring emotion and presence into the
images. He is very meticulous about selecting models for a brand or campaign.
Meisel is known for his controversial layouts, juxtaposing fashion and politics and
social standards. Meisel is greatly influenced by 1950s fashion photographers
Richard Avedon and Irving Penn (Art+Commerce: Steven Meisel Bio 2012:¶2).
1.6 Aims of the study
In this study the value of the work that 1950s fashion photographers Richard Avedon
and Irving Penn produced was examined as fashion photographs to show that they
are still relevant to contemporary fashion photography. As Susan Sontag (1977:104)
explains, “The greatest fashion photograph is more than a photograph of fashion”.
Notable contemporary fashion photographers, Matthew Rolston and Steven Meisel,
(Rolston 2008) have both used 1950s techniques and methods to create bodies of
work that have been inspired by the 1950s fashion photographers.
Contemporary photography draws on many different stylistic devices and periods in
history for its re-invention, so it was important to understand what constitute the
defining characteristics of a stylistic period in history to be able to revisit it in
contemporary photography.
It must be noted that during the course of the working lifetime of photographers, they
may embrace varied stylistic approaches. However, for the purposes of this study
the time period under investigation is set to the fashion photography produced by
Avedon and Penn in the 1950s and to the fashion photography produced by Rolston
and Meisel in the 2010s. This study determined the defining characteristics of 1950s
fashion photography by the most notable photographers of that era (Avedon and
Penn), and ascertained which of these characteristics could be applied to
contemporary fashion photography, as seen in the work of Rolston and Meisel.
23
To understand the defining characteristics of 1950s fashion photography, a visual
analysis was done to discern the methods used to accomplish the 1950s style
fashion photographs by Avedon and Penn. Paul Martin Lester’s (2003) method of
visual analysis was used as the basis for this analysis (to follow in Chapter two).
The reason for choosing Lester’s method of visual analysis is that it could be applied
to all fields of visual art and design. This was relevant to the study because it could
be applied specifically to the photography of fashion design of the 1950s.
1.7 Objectives of the study
The intention of this study was to create a contemporary photographic body of work
(see Chapter six) that was inspired and informed by approaches of the 1950s
fashion photographers Avedon and Penn, by recreating 1950s approaches via the
utilisation of contemporary tools and technologies.
1.8 Problem statement
Consequently the following problem statement was formulated: Richard Avedon and
Irving Penn made a significant contribution to fashion photography during the 1950s
but this has seldom been explored in a scholarly way. By defining the characteristics
of their work, a possible understanding of their influence on contemporary fashion
photographers Matthew Rolston and Steven Meisel was determined and so expand
on the understanding of the contribution of Avedon and Penn to contemporary
fashion photography.
From this problem statement the following sub-problems were compiled:
•
The first sub-problem was to study Lester’s method of image analysis in order
to enable the analysis of fashion photography.
•
The second sub-problem was to apply Lester’s method of visual analysis
to selected works of Avedon and Penn, in particular photographs of the work
of fashion designers Balenciaga and Dior, to determine the defining
characteristics of the fashion photography of the 1950s.
•
The third sub-problem was to apply Lester’s method of visual analysis to
24
selected works of contemporary fashion photographers Rolston and Meisel in
order to determine the defining characteristics of their work.
•
The fourth sub-problem was to draw parallels between the analysis of the
1950s photographers Avedon and Penn, and contemporary photographers
Rolston and Meisel in order to determine possible influence of 1950s fashion
photography on contemporary fashion photography.
•
The last sub-problem was to apply Lester’s method of visual analysis to
selected works of the studio component of the researcher’s study in order to
discuss the inclusion of defining 1950s characteristics in contemporary
fashion photography as a case study.
These sub-problems were addressed to show the significance of the study, which
lies in the understanding that there are very few texts on the influence of 1950s
fashion photographers (in this case, Avedon and Penn) on contemporary fashion
photographers. This dissertation will, therefore, add to the texts in the field of
fashion design and fashion photography. This study explored this specific method of
visual analysis. The characteristics of 1950s fashion photography were determined
in a scholarly way.
1.9 Methodology
1.9.1 Written component
The written component was addressed first because the written component had to
inform the studio component later. The first step to starting the research was to
gather information from the primary and secondary sources.
The primary source of information was obtained through an in-depth literature study.
The research design used was literature-based research. By exploring library
databases, academic books, journals and published articles, information was
gathered. Academic data was used to gather information directed to the research
fields of photography, fashion photography in particular, contemporary fashion
photography and 1950s fashion photography. The history of fashion, specifically
1950s fashion, culture and fashion design was investigated. Richard Avedon and
25
Irving Penn’s fashion photography was studied, to reveal the structured criteria that
illustrate the character of 1950s fashion photography.
Secondary sources included documentary video’s and other printed media such as
magazines. Other sources of research were gained from high-end fashion
magazines such as Harpers Bazaar, Vogue (French, Italian, American and British).
Photography magazines were used such as American Photo. The final step was an
analysis of the research. Because this is a document-based research (weighted
50%), with a final studio based practical outcome (weighted 50%), the research
gathered was from archival and published materials. These were examined through
a textual analysis.
Analysed research addressed each of the five sub-problems. Each sub-problem
was studied and the conclusions made were supported by academically based
literature, which supported the studio-based component of the dissertation. Each
sub-problem used textual evidence that was supported by images to visually
demonstrate the evidence provided.
Sub-problem one: Research was dedicated to studying Paul Martin Lester’s methods
of visual analysis (Lester 2003:230). The six perspectives of visual analysis were
studied to determine the criteria that was used to visually analyse photographs.
Sub-problem two: Research was dedicated to visually analyse the work of Irving
Penn and Richard Avedon. This sub-problem of the dissertation had a comparative
nature.
Sub-problem three: Research was dedicated to visually analyse the work of Steven
Meisel and Matthew Rolston. This sub-problem of the dissertation had a
comparative nature.
Sub-problem four: The derived criteria from sub-problem two and three was applied
to compare the work of Richard Avedon and Irving Penn, with the work of Matthew
Rolston and Steven Meisel.
26
Sub-problem five: The last sub-problem was to apply Lester’s method of visual
analysis to selected works of the studio component of the researcher’s study in order
to discuss the inclusion of defining 1950s characteristics in contemporary fashion
photography as a case study.
The final stage was devoted to using the findings of the visual analysis, and to reflect
it in the studio-based component, which led to a 1950s-style, influenced
contemporary fashion photography portfolio.
1.9.2 Practical component
Planning the photographic session
Step 1: Decide on concept
The dissertation’s practical concept was based on 1950s fashion photography. A
mind map and notebook was used to document the different themes and settings
needed to create the concept. At first glance each image appears as a normal
commercial advertisement, as seen printed on glossy paper in women’s magazines.
Once the viewer explores the intricate detail of each section in the image, the
knowledge gained from the visual analysis will be noticeable in the photograph. The
knowledge gained from the visual analysis from the written component supports the
studio component. The visual analysis of Irving Penn and Richard Avedon’s work
has inspired a contemporary 1950s styled fashion photography portfolio.
Step 2: Make a storyboard
After deciding on the concept, a storyboard was created that explored the different
images needed for the concept. Sketches were made of the images that were
captured. The different settings, poses, lighting, and camera angles were sketched.
This gave a clear idea of what would be achieved by the photographic session.
27
Step 3: Create lists of what is needed
Lists were made to keep track of the equipment, different lenses and lighting
needed. The different models, clothing, accessories, hair and make-up needed were
noted. A list of suitable locations and settings was made.
Step 4: Create a plan of action
The date and time was scheduled for each photographic session. The time schedule
was arranged for models, hair stylists, make-up artists, assistant and location.
Based on the storyboard in step two, the concepts of the drawn images were used.
Step 5: Follow and revise the plan
After the plan was followed and revised, all problems that may have occurred were
dealt with. A back-up plan was also set in place in case of location change due to
weather or models.
Step 6: Finalise the photographic session schedule
The final session schedule was composed, including all lists and tasks. Three days
before the session, the models were contacted as well as make-up artists and hair
stylists to finalise the schedule.
Step 7: Day of the photographic session
The storyboard was revised. The photographic session equipment was set up. The
schedule of the photographic session was recapped with everyone to ensure a
successful photographic session.
Step 8: Post-production
Images were selected from the photographic session. Chosen images were
retouched by using Adobe Photoshop. The photographs were done in monochrome,
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printed onto large format photographic paper. These high quality prints were
mounted and exhibited.
By undertaking the study the potential understanding of the influence of Avedon and
Penn on the contemporary practice of fashion photography was noted. The written
dissertation informed and influenced the studio component. The work of Richard
Avedon and Irving Penn was reflected in a contemporary interpretation of 1950s
style fashion photography and this was presented in a portfolio and exhibition,
serving as acknowledgment of the significance and influence that these two
photographers have had on the researcher’s own work.
1.10 Delimitations
This study did not consider social, cultural or gender-based issues regarding fashion.
The study did not focus on the change in tools and technology used by
photographers. No ethical considerations influenced this research because it was a
literature-based study.
1.11 Terminology
Fashion Photography
Fashion photography is a specific genre of photography dedicated to displaying
clothing and other fashion items. Fashion photography is mostly used to advertise
fashion garments and accessories in magazines.
1.12 Chapter overview
The dissertation comprises of the following chapters:
Chapter One: Introduction to the study.
Chapter Two: A study of Paul Martin Lester’s method of visual analysis that can be
used to visually analyse photographs of Avedon, Penn, Meisel and Rolston.
29
Chapter Three: Applying Paul Martin Lester’s method of visual analysis to analyse
the work of Richard Avedon and Irving Penn.
Chapter Four: Applying Paul Martin Lester’s method of visual analysis to analyse
the work of Steven Meisel and Matthew Rolston.
Chapter Five: Applying Paul Martin Lester’s method of visual analysis to analyse
and compare the work of Steven Meisel and Matthew Rolston, to Richard Avedon
and Irving Penn.
Chapter Six: Deals with the visual analysis of the researchers portfolio by using
Paul Martin Lester’s method to analyse the photography portfolio. The analysis of the
researcher’s contemporary 1950s-style fashion photography portfolio was based on
the findings of the analysis of Avedon and Penn.
Chapter Seven: Conclusion.
In the next chapter the method of visual analysis described in Lester’s book, Visual
Communications: Images with messages (2003) will be outlined.
In this chapter the introduction and purpose of the study was given. This was
followed by a background study of Richard Avedon, Irving Penn, Matthew Rolston
and Steven Meisel. The aims and objectives of the study were given, followed by the
problem statement and methodology. Lastly the delimitations and terminology was
delft with and the chapter concluded with the chapter overview.
The purpose of the following chapter is to study the method of visual analysis
described in his book, Visual Communications: Images with messages (2003) and to
apply it to the analysis of fashion photography.
30
CHAPTER 2
PAUL MARTIN LESTER’S METHOD OF VISUAL ANALYSIS
2.1 Introduction
It is crucial to analyse, explore and question what we see to thoroughly understand
the message that is communicated. In this regard Berger (1972:7) says, “The
relationship between what we see and what we know is never settled”.
Paul Martin Lester, Ph.D., is a professor of communications at California State
University in Fullerton, California. He is the author and editor of several books
specialising in this field. His research interests include mass media ethics, new
communications technologies and visual communications. The purpose of this
chapter is to study the method of visual analysis described in his book, Visual
Communications: Images with messages (2003) and to apply it to the analysis of
fashion photography. The reason for using this method of visual analysis is that it
can be applied to all fields of visual media including typographic, graphic, motion
picture and photographic images (Lester 2003).
Lester’s method of visual analysis is based on the principle of six perspectives: the
personal, historical, technical, ethical, cultural and critical perspectives. In this
chapter these perspectives will be examined and then used to analyse fashion
photographs in Chapter three, four, five and six. However, before doing this, a
number of other methods of visual analysis will be highlighted, so as to show why the
specific method of Paul Martin Lester was selected as a basis for the analysis.
2.2 Different methods of visual analysis
Lester (2003: vii) explains that since visual messages are the simplest to remember,
they are most influential in informing, persuading and educating individuals and (the)
broader culture. Berger (1972:9) used the expression “ways of seeing” to refer to the
fact that, “We never look just at one thing; we are always looking at the relation
between things and ourselves”. Barthes (in Culler 2002:64) theorised that, “For what
there is meaning, there is a system”. From these statements, one can see that there
are different perspectives on visual analysis, not all of which can be applied to the
31
analysis of single fashion images. The following are various systems of visual
analysis, the examining of which will place the decision of choosing Lester’s method
in perspective.
2.2.1 Content analysis
Content analysis investigates the way mass media represents social issues (van
Leeuwen & Jewitt 2008:2). It is considered an important method of analysis because
it addresses the social issues and hidden messages in visual imagery. Content
analysis can be applied to images on the covers of magazines, in newspapers and
other publications seen in mass media. It is an empirical and objective procedure for
quantifying visual representation using reliable, explicitly defined categories (van
Leeuwen & Jewitt 2008:13). It is a systematic, observational method used for testing
a theory about ways in which the media represent people. It does not analyse
individual images, rather it considers eras and types of images. It is used to analyse
large numbers of images. Most characteristically it is used in relation to mass media
images found in newspapers and magazines or on television (Rose 2010:73).
Therefore it is not suitable for the study of the visual analysis of the 1950s fashion
photographs, which is the basis of my study.
Philip Bell (in van Leeuwen & Jewitt 2008:13) asserts that, “Content analysis alone is
seldom able to support statements about the significance, effects or interpreted
meaning of a domain of representation”. As content analysis is rather applied to
periods and types of images, it lacks the individual analysis of specific images. It
generalises images into a specific style instead of exploring each image’s
uniqueness. “Perhaps the method has been used because it seems like the
‘common sense’ way to research what the media shows, or because it appears to
require little theoretical analysis” (van Leeuwen & Jewitt 2008:13).
2.2.2 Visual anthropology
Visual Anthropology deals with the use of visual records for the description of the
present and past ways of life in specific communities. Malcolm Collier (in van
Leeuwen & Jewitt 2008:35) comments that, “This discussion assumes that
32
photography and other optical records of human experience may be both creations
and concrete reflections of what is visible within the scope of the lens and frame”.
Visual Anthropology can create an illusion that they [images] contain nothing beyond
their constructed content. Consequently Visual Anthropology is an unsuitable
method for the visual analysis for this study, as it does not explore the hidden
meanings beyond the constructed content.
2.2.3 Cultural studies
Cultural studies, as described by Lester and Liz Wells (in van Leeuwen & Jewitt
2008:2), “… is premised on the unprecedented importance of imaging and visual
technologies in contemporary society, and [is] concerned with all kinds of visual
information, its meanings, pleasures [and] consumption”. This method of analysis
focuses on the forms and practices of culture, their relationship to social groups and
the power relations between those groups as they are constructed and mediated by
[various] forms of culture. Lester and Wells (in van Leeuwen & Jewitt 2008:61,62)
explains that Cultural studies examines the way of seeing, imagining, classifying,
narrating, and other ways of investigating meaning in the world of experience that
cultural forms and practices provide.
The explosion of imaging and visual technologies has created a visual culture. Rose
describes visual culture as a, “… plethora of ways in which the visual is part of social
life” (Rose 2010:4). Owing to the rapid developing of technology and accessibility of
visual media to society, people are seeing and experiencing life through these visual
technologies and mediums like never before. This method of analysis draws from
semiotics, art history, the social history of media technology and the sociology of
culture (van Leeuwen & Jewitt 2008:63). The visual analysis method as formulated
by Lester, which will be used in this study, draws from the Cultural studies method of
analysis. In this sense it does contribute but not as a method on its own.
33
2.2.4 Semiotics
Roland Barthes was a follower of Ferdinand de Saussure’s theory of Semiotics.
“Barthes‘s acute awareness of messages in different media bombarding us from all
sides had led him to espouse the idea of the new science [semiotics]” (Moriarty
1991:73). The success of Semiotics can be ascribed to the fact that it can be
applied to all areas of academia, including art. “All subjects, including art, could now
be treated as sign systems and thus fell within the province of the new science of
semiotics” (Shukman 1977:11).
Barthes was an advocate for a, “… system that explored the science of signs” (in
Culler 2002:57). Semiotics is significant as an approach to interpreting the materials
of visual culture because it draws from the work of several major theorists whose
impact on the social sciences since the 1960s has been immense (Rose 2010:74).
This approach asks two fundamental questions: what do images represent and how,
and what the hidden meaning of the image is (what ideas and values do the people,
places and things represented in images stand for)?
In Barthesian visual semiotics, “… the key idea is the layering of meaning” (van
Leeuwen & Jewitt 2008:94). The first layer is the layer of denotation; what or who is
being depicted here? The denotation layer deals with the perceiving of photographs
and other art forms. In his book Methodologies, Barthes explains the term:
I am at the barber’s and a copy of Paris-Match is offered to me. On the cover, a
young man Negro in a French uniform is saluting, with his eyes uplifted, probably
fixed on a fold of the tricolor. All this is the ‘meaning’ of the picture (Barthes
1973:116).
The second layer is the layer of connotation; what ideas and values are expressed
through what is represented, and in which way is it represented? The connotation
layer deals with the broader concepts, ideas and values which the represented
people, places and things ‘stand for’, or are ‘signs of’. Only after the denotation layer
is applied, after the recognitions and interpretations have been drawn, can the
connotation layer be applied to find the second meaning, the symbolic meaning
(Rose 2010:87).
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Barthes (1973:100) explains that there is an unwritten ‘dictionary’ of fashion poses
which is known to everyone who is at all exposed to the mass media, and whose
‘entries’ again have the kind of broad and ideologically coloured meanings that are
typical of connotation. Barthes had a fascination with fashion and cultural messages
communicated through fashion. He claims that he is not speaking of fashion itself
but the language in which fashion is presented to readers of fashion magazines. He
does this because, as he points out, only language enables people’s thoughts to be
pointed in one direction (Thody 1977:105). Connotation, as Barthes (1977:44)
explains in his book, Image, Music, Text, can also come about through the style of
the art work or the techniques of photography, such as framing, distance, lighting,
focus, speed. He calls this phenomenon photogenia.
Semiotics also introduced the notion of the signifier and the signified, the latter
dealing with the combination of the concept, and the former being the sound-image
(Rose 2010:79). “What is expressed - the content - is intrinsic to the sign, in the
sense that without content we would not be dealing with a sign at all” (Moriarty
1991:78). A good example is given in the book The Fashion System (Barthes
1983:264, 266) where he says, “Objects of use are converted into signs of use: a
raincoat keeps the rain off but also functions as a sign of rain. So much so that the
signifying function can take over from utility altogether”.
In the defense of Semiotics, Mieke Bal and Norman Bryson (1991:174) state, “…
human culture is made up of signs, each of which stands for something other than
itself, and the people inhabiting culture busy themselves making sense of those
signs”. Semiotics restricts itself to textual criteria, to pointers within the image itself
and not contextual criteria. According to Barthes (1983: 81), “History is the history of
systems or forms, not of particulars”. This study will draw from the textual criteria as
used in the semiotic approach but will go further and include contextual criteria.
2.2.5 Iconography
The central subject to Iconography is that, “… pictures are said to carry meaning in
symbols and in narratives, and in general poses an articulated internal structure of
35
signs” (Elkins 2001:55). Iconography distinguishes three layers of pictorial meaning:
representational meaning, iconographical symbolism and iconological symbolism.
The idea of representational meaning is close to that of “denotation”. Panofsky
(1970:53) speaks of it as the “primary or natural subject matter”.
Iconographical symbolism deals with the ideas and concepts attached to the image.
Panofsky (1970:55) describes it as ‘secondary or conventional subject matter’.
Iconological symbolism can also be described as ideological meaning. Panofsky
explains that to analyse it is to ascertain those underlying principles which reveal the
basic attitude of a nation, a period, a class, a religious or philosophical persuasion.
Unlike Semiotics, Iconography uses both textual analysis and contextual research
(van Leeuwen & Jewitt 2008:101).
Iconography includes both intertextual comparison and documentary research to
support interpretations. Iconographers, as van Leeuwen & Jewitt (2008: 101,102)
explains, will find out as much as possible of the circumstances under which the
objects of their studies were created, collect and verify all available factual
information, read books on theology and mythology in order to identify the subject
matter and observe the interplay between the influences of literary sources and the
effect of self-dependant representational traditions, to establish a history of
iconographic formulae or “types”. Lester’s method of visual analysis draws from the
Iconography method of analysis.
2.3 Lester’s method of visual analysis
Lying hidden beneath the surface of an image are hidden meanings waiting to be
revealed. To discover the value of these hidden meanings the image has to be
visually analysed. Barthes (in Culler 2002:77) notes the importance of visual
analysis by stating that,
… for it is at the end of a very complex process combining biographical, historical,
sociological and neurotic elements (education, social class, childhood configuration
etc.) that I balance the contradictory interplay of (cultural) pleasure and (non-cultural)
ecstasy.
36
Lester (2003:9) states in his visual analysis theory that to comprehend visual
communication and to use it to the creator’s advantage, one must first understand
how images are seen and perceived. He explains that “visual communication relies
both on eyes that function and on a brain that makes sense of all the sensory
information received”.
In other words, to identify how visual messages communicate with the viewer, one
must understand how the brain functions.
The brain processes three types of visual messages:
•
Mental messages: messages that include thoughts, dreams and fantasies;
•
Direct messages: those that are seen without the intervention of media;
•
Mediated messages: those which are seen through print, type or onscreen
mediums like television or on a computer.
The mind uses all three types of visual messages to compile memories. Memory is
a product of a mind that uses images and words found from these three visual
messages. Several factors influence the strength of memories; these include
repetition (in media), personal experience and the way one sees (Lester 2003:1).
By knowing how one sees helps explain why one sees. The brain processes images
as four basic visual cues (colour, form, depth and movement). Each visual cue can
be described to better understand how and why one sees. As Lester (2003:32) puts
it, before one can understand the visual messages hidden in images, one must first
understand what is being seen. More complete explanations of these four basic
visual cues follow.
2.3.1 Four basic visual cues
2.3.1.a Colour
Webb (2010:60) says, “Understood and celebrated by every culture and every stage
of human development, our sense of colour is a primary visual force in our lives; it is
of critical importance to photographers”. Photographers use colour as a tool to
37
compose, focus attention and make a statement in their images. Colour can be
described objectively, comparatively or subjectively.
The objective description implies that colour is simply a result of various wavelengths
stimulating the cones along the retinas of the eyes. Three characteristics of colour
are identified: hue (name of colour); value/saturation (amount of colour
concentration) and brightness (amount of light emitted from a coloured object).
According to Rose (2003:39) hue “… refers to the actual colours in a image …”;
saturation “… refers to the purity of a colour in relation to its appearance in the colour
spectrum …” and brightness “… refers to the lightness or darkness of a colour …”.
The second way to describe colour is the comparative method. This method is
based on a comparison of a colour to an object. For example, red would be
compared to the colour of blood.
The third way to describe colour is the subjective method. This method is based on
the theory that a person’s mental state or association with a coloured object strongly
affects the emotional response to the message. For example, the colour blue is
associated with cold and the colour red with heat (Lester 2003:33).
2.3.1.b Form
Form defines the outside edges and the internal parts of an object. “Shape or form
is often the end result of boundaries created by lines” (Webb 2010:36). In
photography three-dimensionality is reduced to a two-dimensional plane therefore it
is crucial to be aware of the composition created by form.
2.3.1.c Depth
Depth has eight different cues: space, size, colour, lighting, texture, interposition
and perspective. A brief explanation of each of these is necessary.
Space is better understood in the division of positive and negative space. Negative
space is merely the absence of volume or mass. However, positive space plays a
38
more active role within the image. According to Webb (2010:42), “Space can reveal
a subject forcefully; it can create the impression of depth within an image”.
Size is an important tool in photographs to indicate depth. For example, by
photographing a large boat in the foreground of an image and the mountains in the
background, depth is acquired via the size of the boat in comparison to the
mountains.
The way in which lighting can create depth in an image, is when, for example, a
portrait with a dark background is photographed. In this way the shadows in the
background create depth.
Texture as a depth cue is in fact created in photographs by the use of light. “Without
light, texture cannot be seen, only felt. The synthetic effect of light on texture has the
strength to affect us deeply through the photographic medium” (Webb 2010:46).
From this one can see how crucial lighting is to the image-making process in
photography. “In the hands of a skilled photographer, the lighting allows subjects to
be rendered in high or low contrast; shadows can help to define the subject, or
reveal the subject’s positioning within the wider scene (Webb 2010:38).
Interposition deals with the placement of objects in the foreground, middle ground
and background. Depth is created by focusing the eye on the object’s placement in
front of another on a different level.
To determine how perspective can create depth, one must look at what it is.
According to Rose (2010:42) perspective is, “… the geometry of the rays of vision
…”. Your eye is central to that geometry. “The point where the rays of vision
converge is called the vanishing point” (Rose 2010:42).
2.3.1.d Movement
Movement in photography can create depth by focusing on the moving subject in the
foreground and the blur in the background. The sharply focused object draws the
viewer’s attention whereas the blurred background becomes less relevant.
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If the above points help one to understand how images are seen and perceived, then
it is now necessary to elaborate on the model Lester uses to show how visual
communication take place. The importance of visual messages is pointed out by
Lester (2003:6) when he says, “… [they] are objects that get their life from light. That
life comes not only from the light of day but also from the light of revelation, the light
of understanding, and the light of education”. He describes the communication by
means of what he calls a visual communication circle (Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1: Visual communication circle (Lester 2003:6)
Lester (2003:6) explains this model by saying that the more you know, the more you
sense, the more you sense, the more you select, the more you select, the more you
perceive, the more you perceive, the more you remember, the more you remember,
the more you learn, the more you learn, the more you know. This, thus completes
the circle. This, then is how communication takes place. The question, however, is
how does one discover the meaning of this communication. One does this by
making a visual analysis of the image. To make a visual analysis, a method has to
be used that can be applied to all visual media including typographic, graphic, motion
picture and photographic images. Herewith Lester’s six perspectives of visual
analysis.
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2.3.2 Six perspectives of visual analysis
David Lodge (1986:24) created a method to analyse work critically by using fourteen
different analytical perspectives. In his book, Small World, Lodge explains how he
analysed novels from every conceivable angle, “historical, biographical, rhetorical,
mythical, structural, Freudian, Jungian, Marxist, existentialist, Christian, allegorical,
ethical, phenomenological, archetypal”. From Lodge’s work, Lester (2003:6)
formulated a method of visual analysis of using just six different perspectives. These
are, personal, historical, technical, ethical, cultural and critical. To understand the
visual messages fully, all these perspectives must be applied to the image.
However, before applying these six perspectives of visual analysis to an image, one
should first analyse the graphic and content elements in the image. To do this one
needs to:
•
make an inventory-like list of all objects within the image frame;
•
actively document the image’s composition. Note the use of shadows and
lighting;
•
study the four visual cues: colour, form, depth and movement; and
•
answer the following questions: where was the image made, what is the
image’s purpose and what type of image is it; news, artistic, advertisement or
something else?
After completing the graphic and content element analysis one can proceed to apply
the six perspectives of visual analysis to the image. A description of each of the six
perspectives will now be given.
2.3.2.a Personal perspective
The personal perspective focuses on the personal conclusion, which the individual
viewer draws. Personal responses are important because they reveal a good deal
about the person’s judgements. A powerful image will evoke strong personal
reactions, positive or negative, and will also reveal elements of the culture from
which it was processed. However, the personal response only has a limited use
because of its subjectivity. Therefore, it is only a primary analysis and needs a
41
further in-depth analysis so that there can be the opportunity of perceiving the image
in a more meaningful way (Lester 2003:109).
2.3.2.b Historical perspective
The historical perspective is based on the medium (camera and equipment) used to
create the image in the historical timeline. By gaining knowledge of the history of the
medium, it allows one to understand the technology and philosophies of the past.
The knowledge gained from the technology and philosophies of the past influence
the future. Creative visual message production always comes from an awareness of
what has come before. The present applications will influence the future uses
(Lester 2003:111). Important questions to ask when analysing the historical
perspective are when the image was produced and whether it is in a specific style.
2.3.2.c Technical perspective
A complete critique of any image requires knowledge of how the creator generated
the image that one sees. To understand the image, the techniques involved in the
creation of the image must be examined (Lester 2003:111). The questions the
analyst must ask when exploring the image are how the image was produced, what
techniques were used in the process, and what its quality is.
2.3.2.d Ethical perspectives
There are six ethical philosophies that should be applied when analysing the ethical
perspective of an image. They are the following: categorical imperative,
utilitarianism, hedonism, the golden mean, the golden rule and the veil of ignorance
(Lester 2003:111). These principle theories have endured 2500 years of western
moral philosophy. Aspects of these theories are evident in political policies and
laws. A brief explanation of each follows.
In the early eighteenth century Immanuel Kant (Lester 2003:111; Paton 1947:20;
Miller et al 2009:67) established the concept of Categorical imperative, which means
that something is, “… unconditional, without any question of extenuating
42
circumstances, without any exceptions”. Right is right and that which must be done
must be under extreme conditions. The key to the categorical imperative philosophy
is consistency. Once the rule is established for a proposed action or idea, behavior
or opinions must be consistently and always applied in accordance with it. For
example, photojournalists will believe that they have to take a photograph because it
is their duty, whether it is published or not.
British philosophers, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, developed the theory of
utilitarianism (Lester 2003:111; Mill 1863:8). It states that, “… the greatest good
[should be] for the greatest number of people”. Mill specified that an individual’s
moral and legal rights must be met before applying the utilitarian perspective.
Although an act might not be favorable to a few individuals, it might result in helping
many.
The word Hedonism in Greek stands for pleasure. Barthes (Culler 2002: 76)
explained the Hedonism theory in the following way: “The text is an object of
pleasure. The challenge of literature is how this work can concern us, astonish us,
fulfil us?” The founder of Hedonism theory was a student of Socrates, Aristippus,
who died in Athens in 366 B.C (Lester 2003:112). This theory implies that people
should, “… act to maximize pleasure now and not worry about the future”. Of course
Aristippus referred to pleasures of the mind and intellect, not physical pleasures. In
photography this philosophy is applied when the image is only created for aesthetic
pleasure.
Aristotle’s Golden mean was formulated in the fourth century B.C. This theory refers
to finding the middle ground and compromise between two extreme points of view or
actions (Hans 1994:9). When faced with the choice between printing or
broadcasting a gruesome image or not, the golden mean approach will find an
alternative way to handle the situation (Lester 2003:112).
The Golden rule originates from Judeo-Christian tradition that teaches that people
should “love your neighbor as yourself” (Wattles 1996:3; Lester 2003:112). An
individual should be as humane as possible and never harm others. A good
example is when a producer does not show personal footage of a dying man for the
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sake of the family’s sorrow. John Rawls in (Peczenik 2009:86) articulated in 1971
that all people are equal. This supports an attitude of respect for all involved. No
one class of people is entitled to advantages over another (Lester 2003:113).
When analysing images according to the ethical perspective, Dr Deni Elliot, director
of the Practical Ethics Center at the University of Montana, advises that one should
ask the following questions (Lester 2003:113):
•
does the taking and displaying of this image fit the social responsibilities of the
professional involved;
•
has anyone’s rights been violated in the taking and displaying of the image;
•
does the displaying of the image meet the needs of the viewers;
•
is the picture aesthetically appealing;
•
does the professional’s choice reflect empathy for the subject’s experience;
•
could a professional justify the choice if they did not know which of the parties
(subject, photographer, or viewer) they would be;
•
does the visual message cause unjustified harm?
2.3.2.e Cultural perspective
Cultural analysis of an image involves identifying the symbols used in the image and
determining their meaning for society as a whole (Lester 2003:113; van Leeuwen &
Jewitt 2008:61, 62). Symbolism may be identified through the image’s use of villains
and heroes, the narrative structure, the style of the artwork, the use of words
accompanying the image and the attitudes about the subjects and culture
communicated by the visual artist. Cultural perspective is closely related to the
semiotic approach. The questions the analyst should ask when analysing the
cultural perspective are: what is the story and the symbolism involved in the
elements in the visual message and what do these symbols say about the current
cultural values?
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2.3.2.f Critical perspective
The critical perspective allows the viewer to use information learned from the
photographic medium used, the creator (the photographer) and the image produced,
to make more general comments about society that accepts or rejects the image.
The critical perspective redefines the personal perspective in terms of universal
conclusions about human nature. The question to be asked is: what do I think of
this image now that I have applied all perspectives to it?
The ultimate goal when analysing an image is to understand the viewer’s personal
reaction to it. According to Lodge (1986:24), “… analysis is ego-driven”. The main
reason for this is that analysis always reveals the person that is doing the analysis,
not really the piece itself. Through this analytical process the analyst reviews,
refines and renews his or her own personal reaction to the image. Analysis is
therefore a cyclic event, which moves the analyst from initial, emotional and
subjective personal reaction to a rational, objective and thoughtful personal
response. It teaches one to be critical and intellectual. By learning the skill of visual
analysis one will be more likely to create images that are meaningful to oneself and
to others (Lester 2003:114).
All images have messages to communicate. The maker created the image for a
reason, to convey a specific meaning. If the image is not analysed, the knowledge to
be gained will be lost and the ability to educate, discarded (Lester 2003:108). An
analysed image can affect a viewer’s interpretation of reality.
Visual analysis teaches two important lessons about the creation of a memorable
image: firstly the producer of the images must know the culture of the intended
audience and secondly, the symbols used in the image must be understood by that
culture (Lester 2003:108). If a photographer can visually analyse his or her own
images, it is possible for the photographer to create images that will transcend the
boundaries of visual content and move into the sphere of the conceptual.
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2.4 Synopsis of chapter two
In this chapter a study has been done on Lester’s method of visual analysis from his
textbook, Visual Communications: Images with messages (2003). The intention was
to adapt Lester’s method to be more specific to the analysis of fashion photography.
In the following chapter selected works of Avedon and Penn will be visually analysed
by the use of Lester’s method. The analysis will be used to determine the defining
characteristics of the fashion photography of the 1950s.
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CHAPTER 3
A VISUAL ANALYSIS OF THE WORK OF RICHARD AVEDON AND IRVING
PENN:
With specific reference to the work of fashion designers
Christian Dior and Christóbal Balenciaga.
3.1 Introduction
To better understand the 1950s fashion photographers, an analysis of their
photographs must be done to reveal the underlying characteristics and influences.
Fashion designers and fashion photographers have a very unique relationship.
McRobbie (2008:5) affirms this when he says, “The culture of fashion is forged
through image i.e. photography and media, rather than the fashion objects i.e. the
clothes themselves”. Therefore, by analysing specific photographs, taken by Avedon
and Penn in their unique style and way, a comparison between the two
photographers can be drawn.
The intention of this chapter is to apply Lester’s (2003) method of visual analysis to
selected works of Avedon and Penn, in particular those of fashion designers Dior
and Balenciaga, in order to identify what underlying characteristics and influences
exist. Four works will be analysed, two photographs by each photographer,
photographing garments of leading fashion designers of the 1950s Christian Dior
and Christóbal Balenciaga.
3.2 Avedon - Dovima with elephants (Figure 3.1)
The first image to be analysed is Avedon’s, Dovima with elephants (Figure 3.1). The
1950s Supermodel Dorothy Horan, best known as Dovima, is wearing an evening
dress designed by fashion designer Dior. The work was published in the September
edition of Harper’s Bazaar in 1955. The work was created at the Cirque d’ Hiver in
Paris, France (Harrison 1991:68).
Before applying the six perspectives of Lester’s analysis method, one should first
visually analyse the four basic visual cues within the frame of the image.
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Figure 3.1: Dovima with elephants (Avedon 1955)
In the work we see the model, Dovima, elegantly posed in the center of the frame
(see Figure 3.2 green line). The model is standing in a triangle created by the two
elephants legs (see yellow triangle Figure 3.2). On the left is an elephant facing
forward, spaced in a third of the frame’s composition. The elephant is fully shown in
the frame. On the right hand side there is another elephant, which is cropped off and
facing out of the frame. The model’s body is creating a curved oval shape (see
48
purple line) that is in direct contrast to the diagonal line (see cyan line) created by
her arm stretched to the right. The elephant on the left’s head and trunk creates a
round shape (see blue oval). The elephant on the right’s head creates half of a
round shape.
Figure 3.2: Dovima with elephants compositional
analysis (Avedon 1955)
The background appears to be similar to a canvas studio backdrop in a mid-grey
shade. On the floor, bottom of the frame, there is straw and the elephants are
chained by their feet to stay in position. On the far left we see another cropped
elephant and on the far right, another.
The model is wearing a Dior evening dress. The dress is black with long sleeves, an
A-line design that hangs to the ground. The dress has a white ribbon folded in the
middle of the model’s waist into a semi-bow. The model is posing with her right hand
touching the left elephant’s trunk; the right hand is stretched out toward the elephant
on the right.
49
The lighting used for this composition is dramatic Rembrandt lighting from a high
angle on the left hand side. Rembrandt lighting is characterized by an illuminated
triangle under the eye of the subject, on the less illuminated side of the face. The
name originated from the Dutch painter, Rembrandt who often used this type of
lighting. This is evident from the strong shadow on the right side of the elephant’s
body and underneath the model’s neck.
The photo session took place on a hot summer's day. Avedon later recalled that
when he entered the area where the elephants were kept, he saw that the animals
were beautifully lit by natural light. “I saw the elephants under an enormous skylight
and in a second I knew… there was the potential here for a kind of dream
image”(Clark 2010:1). This type of lighting is very flattering for fashion because it is
strong and bold. It also shows off the different textures and shapes of the fabric and
the animal’s skin. It is also flattering for the model’s physique and it hides skin
imperfections and flaws.
The colour usage is monotone. The model’s milky white skin and deep black dress
is contrasted against a background of different shades of grey of the elephants as
well as the backdrop. The smoothness and colour of the model’s skin is contrasted
with the rough textured grey skin of the elephants. The white ribbon detail on the
black dress also creates a very strong graphic pattern that is juxtaposed to the midgrey background and elephants. The formal structured quality of the garment also
forms a striking contrast against the natural earthy background. The smooth
textures of the fabric are contrasting with the rough skin of the elephants. This also
forms a contrast between the beauty (the model) and the beast (the elephants).
The work appears to have shallow depth of field, the main focus being on the model
wearing the evening dress and the elephants. It is not focusing on the background.
The background is slightly blurred and out of focus to visually draw attention to the
foreground were everything is sharp and in focus. Avedon uses this fashion
photography technique, which is characteristic of his work, to place the focus on the
garments and the models. The tight cropping gives a more condensed look, which
forces the eye to dwell on the image and not escape to the borders of the frame.
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The movement of the model stretching her arm towards the elephant is emphasized.
It appears to be posed in this way to act as a graphic element to lead the eye from
the model to the elephants and back. These compositional lines force the eyes
actively to move around the frame.
Now that the visual elements have been noted, the six perspectives developed by
Lester can be applied.
At first glance, Avedon’s image of Dovima with elephants (Figure 3.1) has a
glamorous fashion magazine feel. From a personal perspective the image moves
the female viewer because of how stylish and elegant the woman is portrayed and
how perfectly she is posed next to these splendid creatures, the elephants. This
image also appeals to the male audience because of the beautiful model and the
way she poses with her chin facing upwards, almost with the elevated attitude of a
goddess. She appears strong, independent and in control.
The historical timeline places Dovima with elephants (Figure 3.1) in 1955, where it
was taken in Paris, France for the magazine, Harper’s Bazaar.
The photographic medium Avedon used was 8” x 10” Deardorff large format view
camera (Hart 1994:81). He used a 360mm f/6.8 Sinar lens (see Figure 3.3). Dovima
with elephants (Figure 3.1) was photographed with the 8” x 10” Deardorff camera
because the setting could be more controlled as the photographs were taken inside
the circus with the elephants chained in place. Normally Avedon preferred his
51
Rolleiflex because of the mobility and freedom but decided on the 8” x 10” Deardorff
for the experience and challenge.
Figure 3.3: Avedon’s 8 x
10 and lighting gear (Hart
1994:80)
The film he used was the Kodak Tri-X E.I. 200. His negatives were very dense,
owing in no small part to his disregard for recommended development times (Hart
1994:88). According to his large-scale printer, Ruedi Hofmann, Avedon was
extremely specific about an emotional quality that he wanted in a print, “He’ll talk
about making a print angry or fiery or romantic or kind” (Hart 1994:83).
Andre Gremola developed this image in Avedon’s darkroom (Hart 1994:10). Avedon
gave all the direction about how much contrast he would like the print to have.
Gremola used darkroom techniques and skills he had learned from Avedon over the
years. He used burning and dodging techniques to create the strong contrast in the
model’s dress between the white ribbon and the black of the dress. Avedon was a
master of the darkroom and he knew exactly what he wanted to achieve before he
did it. In the 1950s there was no Photoshop software or any post- production
software with which the image could be digitally manipulated, unlike the 2010s. This
52
makes this image even more appealing because it is truthful. The model’s skin,
body and features have not been distorted and manipulated into the perfect idealistic
beauty.
The black dress that fashion designer Dior designed has a dreamlike quality to it.
Dior said, “My dresses are fantasies, but they are tamed fantasies, that have passed
from the realm of dreams into the world of everyday items that are meant to be worn”
(Chenoune & Bernard 2008:8). Dior had a very specific vision that he wanted to
create with this dress and Avedon used Dior’s vision and created this fantasy setting
by using animals to portray this vision that has captivated viewers for more than sixty
years.
Another characteristic of Dior’s black evening dress is the way it emphasizes the
model’s curves. It shows off her hourglass figure that strengthens the femininity of
the model. Chenoune & Bernard (2008:13) writes that Dior was the champion of
beauty, femininity and glamour. This black evening dress is a combination of Dior’s
fashion as Art de Vivre and cosmopolitan chic aura (Chenoune & Bernard 2008:40).
This specific style of the work was fashioned in Avedon’s distinctive theatrical style in
which he photographed fashion. The model was not just a mannequin draped in a
garment; she was the actress in a cinema veritè-like scene (Ross et al 1994:50).
Avedon also states that, “… the cinematic character of much of his work was quite
deliberate”.
Gopnik (Ross et al 1994:106) says, “Avedon is a director of pictures. All his
occasions are performances, all his subjects, actors, all his images, scenes. A
virtuoso theatrically unites his work”. Avedon posed Dovima like he would
choreograph ballerinas. He used her grace and spontaneity to create this perfectly
balanced composition.
3.2.2.d Ethical perspective
There are three ethical perspectives that can be applied to Dovima with elephants
(Figure 3.1): categorical, hedonism and the golden rule (Lester 2003:111). The
categorical perspective can be applied because Avedon took this image regardless
53
of whether the editor at Harper’s Bazaar was going to publish it or not. He felt
passionate about the composition, the graphic elements, as well as the model and
elephants, so he photographed the image the way he wanted to.
There is some aspect of the hedonism theory that can be applied to this work by
Avedon. He always photographed and created images first and foremost to bring
aesthetic pleasure to all who viewed them. For this reason the timelessness of this
image is reason enough for the hedonism theory to be applicable.
The reason that the golden rule can be applied to the image is that the taking or
displaying of this image harmed no one. The image is aesthetically appealing and
meets the viewer’s need (the readers of the Harpers Bazaar). The visual message
did not cause unjustified harm to the viewers or the model and elephants when it
was taken in 1955. If a photograph of chained animals appeared in a magazine
today, the readers would protest about the treatment of the animals and their rights.
This was not an issue at all in 1955; otherwise Avedon would not have been able to
create this image for Harpers’ Bazaar.
Fashion photographers in the 1950s used iconic models like Dovima, which they
idealised and with which they created the American dream of the perfect American
woman. She is elegant, wears designer dresses and expensive accessories. Her
nails are manicured and she has the perfect hairstyle. She stands out because of
her poise and beauty.
From this image one can see that one does not need post production and Photoshop
to create an iconic fashion image. Avedon in Dovima with elephants (Figure 3.1)
used the basic graphic elements and combined them with glamour and
sophistication to create an image that is still remembered and celebrated in the
2010s. Avedon nevertheless remained unsatisfied with it. Clark (2010:88) wrote on
the website, Amateur photographer, that Avedon is quoted as having said, “I look at
54
that picture to this day and I don't know why I didn't have the sash blowing out to the
left, to complete the line of the picture. The picture will always be a failure to me
because that sash isn't out there”.
The photograph represents a contrast of opposites: youth and age, strength and
frailty, grace and awkwardness, freedom and captivity. The picture's rich
combination of qualities elevates it beyond the standard fashion image and into the
realm of the intellectual. From the above discussion one can see how one can use
all the knowledge gained from an analysis using the six perspectives by Lester and
applying it to a contemporary 1950s styled body of work. In this way one can create
images that are not only used for a once-off purposes, like being published in a
magazine fashion editorial, but can become timeless images that will capture the
sophistication of the model and the garment.
3.3 Avedon - Dovima with Sacha (Figure 3.4)
Figure 3.4: Dovima with Sacha (Avedon 1955)
55
The second image that will be analysed is Avedon’s Dovima with Sacha (Figure 3.4).
1950's supermodel Dovima is wearing a suit and hat by Christóbal Balenciaga. She
is sitting at the famous Café Des Deux Magots in Paris. Next to her is a dog named
Sacha. Once again we need to first analyse the basic visual cues before discussing
the six perspectives.
The composition of the image consists of using two focal points, the model and the
dog’s head. If the frame is divided into thirds, Dovima and the dog are placed on
these lines. This deliberately balances the composition and divides the frame into
two. The table forms a graphic line specifically added to stop the eye from leaving
the frame at the bottom. This line is also there to create a base that carries the two
vertical lines of the model and the dog.
In the left foreground there is an aperitif glass on top of a tray. In the centre of the
table there is a packet of cigarettes and on the right there is portion of the backrest of
a chair protruding from behind the table surface. In the background there is another
coffee table with a seated man with light grey hair. The rest of the background is out
of focus.
The lighting is natural soft lighting from the top left side. The shadow underneath the
hat still has a lot of detail, which shows that the lighting is soft and diffused.
Perhaps it was a cloudy day in Paris or Avedon used an umbrella or diffuser to
diffuse the bright sunlight.
The colour palette is monotone. This type of palette suits the fashion image because
it places focus on the garment. The white hat also dramatically stands out against
the darker grey background, which also places focus on the hat and its detail instead
of the background The dog’s hair is also beautifully shown in the different tones of
grey. The texture of the fur complements the rough texture of the Balenciaga suit.
There are different shapes and forms in this image (see Figure 3.5). The model is
sitting with her one arm resting on the elbow, creating a triangular shape (see yellow
56
triangle). This draws the eye to the Balenciaga suit, from her head, to her left arm
and then to her right arm.
Figure 3.5: Dovima with Sacha, compositional analysis
(Avedon 1955)
The triangle has an oval shape on top of it, which is created by the shape of the hat
(see blue oval). The dog’s head and body also forms a triangular shape and the
rectangular shape of the table balances all these shapes to create a harmonious
base giving stability to the composition.
The depth of field in this image is very limited. Avedon uses this style of limited
depth in his fashion photography to create a focus area where the eye is drawn to
the garment and not to the surroundings and background. The background has
some detail of the café tables but there is just enough information to establish the
setting. The blurred background and in-focus foreground are juxtaposed to focus
attention onto the garment.
The eyes of the dog and the model look to the left side, out of the image, this creates
motion vectors (see pink arrows). Motion vectors create a movement dynamic that
draws the viewer’s eye out of the frame in that direction, and then back into the
frame again.
57
Forthwith an analysis of the photograph according to the six perspectives will be
done.
The personal perspective deals with the personal response of the viewer to the
image. When viewing Dovima with Sacha (Figure 3.3), the relationship between
Dovima and her dog is fascinating. The way that they are both comfortable with
each other and the way, in which they enjoy each other’s presence, is evident. In my
opinion, to place the model and the dog at the same visual level, is aesthetically a
challenge but it could be a joke on the fashion industry that both so beautifully
represent. The dog, Sacha, is very good in the sense that she has manners and is
posing as if she is the model instead of Dovima. The dog is well groomed and well
taken care of; she matches the high society lifestyle that Dovima is representing with
her garment and styling.
Avedon is famous for his characteristic realism, which he introduced to fashion
photography in the 1950s. Gopnik (Ross et al 1994:68) says, “He plays with the
ambiguity of the real, interjecting realism into fashion photography”. Avedon uses
the realistic setting of Café Des Deux Magots, and he introduces a dog into the
image, which brings the natural character of his style to the image. He does not use
a studio, only models. He opts for reality, living in the moment with his two models,
Dovima and Sacha.
The historical timeline places Dovima with Sacha (Figure 3.3), in the famous Café
Des Deux Magots. The image was taken in August 1955.
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Figure 3.6: Self portrait of Richard
Avedon with Rolleiflex medium
format camera (Avedon 1994)
Avedon used his Rolleiflex camera (see Figure 3.6) because he believed the
medium format camera seemed to lend itself best to his fashion work (Hart 1994:81).
He used this specific camera because it gave him the freedom to experiment with
different angles and capture a decisive moment that is un-posed and closer to
reality. In combination with his Rolleiflex twin-lens reflex camera he used the
standard 80mm f/2.8 lens. This camera can be quickly loaded and reloaded by his
assistants during a shoot. “The Rollei is Dick’s true love”, says Marc Royce,
Avedon’s first assistant, “He feels totally comfortable with it” (Hart 1994:81).
The image was later cropped to fit print media for the Harper’s Bazaar. The film he
used was 120 Kodak Roll film Plus-x rated at EI.180.
Avedon used natural outdoor lighting to illuminate the image. It appears that he also
used a reflector to bounce some light back into the shadow area underneath the
model’s hat. This shows the detail of the model’s make-up and hat. The natural
lighting is also slightly diffused, so it appears that it might have been a cloudy day.
59
Avedon created the precise contrast in the image. He did not use any postproduction editing like Photoshop software to manipulate the model’s skin, face or
body in any way. The image is reproduced exactly as the model is in reality.
The model is wearing a Balenciaga suit. Balenciaga has a characteristic style that
made him stand out from other fashion designers of the time (Jouvre & Demornex
1989:11). His garments had a lack of ornamentation; he focused on simplicity of line
and form and paid obsessive attention to detail. He paid attention to the harmony
between the line and shape, which resulted in an impeccable cut. The suit that
Dovima is wearing is a perfect example of what Balenciaga strived towards.
According to the author of the book Balenciaga, Jacqueline Demornex, “Balenciaga
was both a designer and craftsman. He retraced and remoulded the outlines of the
female form to create his own perfect system of proportions” (Jouvre & Demornex
1989:12). This suit creates the impression of slenderness and perfection.
The suit that Dovima is wearing in the image is a perfect example of his
characteristic Balenciaga suit:
It was with cadette in mind that he created the tailored suit with a slender waist and
round hips. Not all women conform to this shape, so the basques of the suits had to
be made fuller. The contours of the cadette’s hipbone, therefore, gave rise to the
fashion for hip padding. Her delicately stooping shoulders might even have been
original inspiration for the suits made in the 1950s. Demornex says, … these were
designed to appear concave at the front and bloused out at the back (Jouvre &
Demornex 1989:42).
As was the case in the previous photograph, there are three ethical philosophies that
can be applied to this work: categorical, hedonism and the golden rule (Lester
2003:111).
The categorical philosophy is applicable because Avedon would have taken the
photograph whether it was for publishing it in the Harpers Bazaar or for himself.
Avedon would not print an image if he was not totally satisfied with it. Gopnik (Ross
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et al 1994:68) says, “He takes pride in each image he creates whether it is for work
or personal gain”.
There is some part of the hedonism philosophy that can also be applied to Avedon’s
work, Dovima with Sacha. The reason is that Avedon always photographed and
created images to bring aesthetic pleasure to all that viewed them. The intriguing
relationship that he captured between Dovima and the dog, Sacha, is very incisive
and special. As such the aspect of hedonism can be applied to the photograph.
The golden rule philosophy applies to this image in that the taking or displaying of
this image harmed no one. The image is aesthetically appealing and meets the
viewers’ need (the readers of the Harpers Bazaar). The visual message did not
cause unjustified harm to the viewers or the models when it was taken in 1955.
Dovima with Sacha is an excellent example of the 1950s society as opposed to that
of the 2010s. On the left side of the table in the image, Dovima is sitting with a glass
of brandy. The shape of the glass can determine this. In the centre of the table
there is a box of cigarettes, opened on the left side with a few buds showing. When
one looks at the lighting, it appears that the light source, the sun, is very high. This
indicates that the photograph was taken around noon. In the 1950s it was part of
society’s custom to enjoy a brandy and a cigarette at that time of day. It was not
seen as inappropriate. In the 2010s it would be seen as highly inappropriate and
unsuitable for a lady to be sitting with cigarettes and a glass of brandy in the middle
of the day. The packet of cigarettes will also not be allowed to be photographed in
an advertisement in the 2010’s as the law has changed. Cigarettes may not be
advertised (in South Africa) in any form anymore. This was not a problem in the
1950s because it was part of the social norm to smoke. Furthermore, in the 1950s
pets were allowed in public places like coffee shops. This is not the case today.
Pets are mostly not allowed in public areas such as coffee shops and restaurants.
Dovima is also dressed in 1950s-styled Balenciaga suit and hat, with matching hair,
accessories and make-up. In the 2010s this outfit would make the model seem
overdressed and it would not be suited to the time of day.
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Avedon captivated the 1950s society with his new and unique way of photographing
fashion. In the 2010s his fashion photographs are still valued for their uniqueness,
freedom and flair. Avedon transcended the boundaries of a photograph; he captured
a decisive moment and made the unreal become real in his own exclusive way.
Amy Arbus says, “A lot of photographers are stopped by their fears, but nothing will
hold Avedon back from making a photograph. He’ll do whatever it takes to fulfill his
vision” (Hart 1994: 84). Avedon has inspired photographers to embrace their
creativity, push the limits and overcome their fears.
That concludes the visual analysis of two examples of Avedon’s works. By analysing
two of Irving Penn’s photographs, also using Lester’s method of visual analysis,
comparisons and similarities can be drawn.
3.4 Penn - Cocoa-coloured Balenciaga dress (Figure 3.7)
The first image of Penn that will be analysed is the Cocoa-coloured Balenciaga dress
(Figure 3.7). The model is Lisa Fonssagrives-Penn. The image was taken in Penn’s
Paris studio in 1950 and published in Vogue Magazine on the 15th September 1950.
The fashion designer whose garment is being showcased is Christóbal Balenciaga
(Harrison 1991:56).
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Figure 3.7: Cocoa-coloured Balenciaga dress (Penn 1950)
When viewing the composition it seems very simple and straightforward, with the
model posing in the centre of the frame. However, if you view it closely you will see
that the model is posed slightly to the left of the centre line (see green line) and that
the line created by the backdrop on the right-hand side balances this slightly offcentre composition. This off- centre balance creates a visual tension that is subtle
but effective.
The model is wearing an outfit designed by Balenciaga; this includes a hat with
chiffon veil effect, a dress, long sleeve gloves and a jacket. The model is cropped
just above the ankles so the shoes are not visible. This places more emphasis on
the rest of the outfit and gives a more detailed view of the garment.
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Figure 3.8: Cocoa-coloured Balenciaga
dress compositional analysis (Penn
1950)
When analysing the lighting used to create the image, one can see that it is very soft
and diffused, unlike the undiffused lighting used by Avedon. As Penn wanted a
studio which had natural light, an old photography school that had gone out of
business was rented in Paris. Even though it was a seven-floor walk-up, Penn
thought the site was ideal, with its romantic light softened by the decades of dirt on
the high windows. Penn’s studio was transformed into a big light tent. The lighting
angle is from above from the right-hand side. This lighting is very flattering because
it softens the features of the model and molds the garment, enhancing the textures in
the dress and hat.
The colour used in the image is monotone. The model’s textured dress, hat and
jacket is contrasted against the grey shaded backdrop. The backdrop also has a
painted texture that emphasizes the Balenciaga garment. The backdrop has
different tonal qualities, ranging from very dark at the top, shaded into a lighter midgrey in the centre, fading into a darker grey at the bottom. This creates the illusion of
depth rather than a flat wall surface.
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There are different forms that can be found in the composition. Penn was a master
of forming unique compositions. He was fascinated by the different shapes he could
combine to form a harmonious whole. The way the model is posed creates a
number of triangular shapes (see yellow triangles): the way the model’s arm is bent,
the shape the hat forms in combination with the model’s sharp jaw line and the way
that the jacket is being held by the model. These triangles create tension in the
seemingly plain composition. Furthermore, the way that the model’s body is curved,
creates a bow (see purple bow) that differs from the way that models in the 1950s
were normally posed. The inclined shoulders and hunched back was a pose that
Penn introduced to 1950s fashion photography.
The overall depth of the image is limited. The model is in sharp focus and the
backdrop is slightly blurred owing to the use of low light levels and a large lens
aperture. This is perfect depth of field to differentiate the garment from the backdrop
as it gives detail to the garment, placing emphasis on the texture of the different
materials used.
The image Cocoa-coloured Balenciaga dress (Figure 3.7) has a timeless quality to it.
When viewing it for the first time it is difficult to distinguish the timeline from the way
the model is dressed and posed. The image looks like it could have been taken in
the 2010s because of the austere style of the clean backdrop and the placing of the
model. This is characteristic of Penn’s minimalistic austere style. It was a radical
departure at a time when most fashion photographers posed their subjects with
props and in busy settings that tended to draw attention from the clothes themselves.
The model is placed on a plain backdrop which decontextualises the model from the
setting, isolating her and idealizing her. The image has hard edge acuity and a
directness that speaks to the viewer in a conscious and subliminal manner (Harrison
1991:56).
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The image was done for Vogue USA magazine. Vogue’s creative director,
Alexander Liberman, commissioned Penn to go to Paris and photograph Christóbal
Balenciaga’s clothing. Penn rented an old photography school on the Rue de
Vaugirard that had gone out of business and created a studio (see Figure 3.9) with
the perfect lighting to showcase the intricate detail of Balenciaga’s garments. “The
light was the light of Paris as I had imagined it, soft but defining”, said Penn
Penn used his wife, Lisa Fonssagrives Penn, to model the Balenciaga garments and
in collaboration they created the most extraordinary set of fashion images in just ten
days in Paris. Westerbeck says, “After his favorite model, his wife, Lisa
Fonssagrives Penn, changed into a Balenciaga dress and came out for the first
picture, he knew that nothing could go wrong” (1998). Penn’s stylistic austere
approach made him a star at Vogue magazine, where his work eventually appeared
on as many as 300 pages annually. Penn believed his success depended on
keeping the reader, rather than the model, in mind.
Figure 3.9: Irving Penn’s daylight studio, Paris (Penn 1950)
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The technical elements of Penn’s work are very interesting and precise. The
backdrop used for the image was an old discarded theatre curtain they had found.
The Balenciaga garments were rushed to the studio and back to the salons by
cyclists, so as to enable Penn to photograph them during the daylight (Arrowsmith et
al 1991:80). Balenciaga was amenable to having Penn decide how to photograph
the garments and which models to use.
Printing was another technical aspect of which Penn was a master. He was the
complete technician, known equally for the immaculate descriptive quality of his
minimalistic work and his masterly exploration of photographic materials. Neither
content with darkroom conventions nor the standard appearance of commercial
prints, he was willing to experiment with different chemicals and papers to create a
unique Penn print. He used three different printing techniques to create glossy
photographs.
Figure 3.10: Self-portrait, Cuzco Studio
(Penn 1948)
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Penn printed his work by using a process which required mixing chemicals and then
hand coating a sheet of drawing paper with them. Penn’s concern with the longevity
of his prints was one aspect of an enduring career. Not only was he the
photographer with the longest tenure in the history of Condé Nast Publishers, which
publishes Vogue, but he also created timeless images of fashion. In his catalogue
essay for a 1984 retrospective of Penn’s work at the Museum of Modern Art, John
Szarkowski (Westerbeck 1998:2), then the museum’s director of photography, wrote,
“The grace, wit, and inventiveness of his pattern-making, the lively and surprising
elegance of his line and his sensitivity to the character, the idiosyncratic humors of
light make Penn’s pictures, even the slighter ones, a pleasure for our eyes”. Penn
once said,
A beautiful print is a thing in itself, not just a halfway house on the way to the page.
Over the years I must have spent thousands of hours silently brushing on the liquid
coatings, preparing each sheet in anticipation of reaching the perfect print
Penn also experimented with different cameras in different formats. He used a
variety of equipment ranging from the Leica and Nikon cameras, 4" x 5" or 8" x 10"
Deardorff view cameras (see fig 3.9), Rolleiflex and Hasselblad cameras. For this
specific image taken in Paris he used the 8” x 10” Deardorff view camera.
There are three ethical philosophies that are of importance when analysing this
image. The first is the categorical one, as the question is whether Penn would have
taken Cocoa-coloured Balenciaga dress the way he did, not knowing whether it
would be published in the September issue of Vogue or not. One doesn’t really
know but in all his work Penn demonstrated an extraordinary capacity for versatility,
inventiveness and imagination.
There is also some part of the hedonism theory that can be applied to Penn’s work.
He created images first and foremostly to lead people to see the way he saw,
thereby creating images of aesthetic beauty. With a clarity and uncluttered vision of
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directness, he created this series of images in Paris to show Balenciaga fashion the
way he saw it.
Lastly, the golden rule philosophy is applicable to this image, as the taking or
displaying of it harmed no one. The image is aesthetically appealing and meets the
viewers’ need (the readers of the Vogue USA). The visual message does not cause
unjustified harm to the viewers or the model.
In Penn’s image the clothing is indicative of 1950s haute couture. The dress is tailor
made and fits the model like a glove. The styling of the dress with the high waist is
also characteristic of the time. The model is wearing a hat with chiffon veil, also
characteristic of the 1950s era. The earrings and gloves give the image an elegant
look.
The model’s gaze is also very powerful, communicating great dignity and integrity.
The model is used as a symbol of the perfect beauty, not as a symbol of a
personality. Penn claimed, “I felt I was recording the essence of a complete woman”
(Harrison 1991: 56).
“In photographing a woman you pour out adoration - which you of course genuinely
feel - at the same time that you’re being concerned about how the garment hangs,
as they say. One without the other is not going to work”, Penn explained in the
November issue of Vogue in 2004. In my opinion it is because of this adoration of
the model and garment that Penn has captivated audiences for years. Penn’s
stylistic clarity, simple direct compositions and soft lighting have earned him a place
amongst the masters of fashion photography.
3.5 Penn- Dior wasp-waist dress (Figure 3.11)
I turn my attention now to an analysis of a Penn image of a Christian Dior garment.
By visually analysing the image of the Dior garment, a comparison can be drawn
between the different photographers, Avedon and Penn as well as between the
different designers, Balenciaga and Dior. The image chosen for the analysis is Dior
wasp-waist dress (Figure 3.11), taken in 1950. The reason for choosing this specific
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image is the surreal quality of the wasp waist garment and the authenticity of the
image itself.
The image has been created by means of a very classical, simple, direct approach.
The background is white, with a luminous quality that creates a halo effect on the
model. The model is posed in the centre and she is wearing a black wasp-waist
dress designed by Dior. In addition to the dress, there are matching gloves, belt,
detailed bow around the neck and earrings. The model has a cigarette in her right
hand, on the left side of the composition and her chin is elevated.
Figure 3.11: Dior wasp-waist dress (Penn 1950)
The lighting used to create this image is a very brightly lit background and diffused
butterfly lighting from a high frontal angle to smooth out the model’s skin and create
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form on the black dress. Butterfly lighting is used in beauty photography to flaunt the
model’s features. The butterfly lighting can be seen in the soft shadow underneath
the model’s neck and butterfly shape underneath the nose. Although the
background is white and the model is wearing black, the dress is still fully detailed
and the face is not overly highlighted, showing how precise Penn’s lighting was. He
used strobes in fixed positions to light this specific image, regardless of the subject.
This background is unlike the previous image discussed (Arrowsmith et al 1991:7).
The image is monotone. Monotone photography was the norm in the 1950s. Colour
work only became popular later in the era due to its complexity.
The depth in the image is limited. The model and the garment are in full detail. The
edges of the model are slightly blurred because of the halo effect of the bright
background bouncing the light off the backdrop onto the model. This adds to the
detachment of the model from the background but does not remove the model from
the viewer (Arrowsmith et al 1991:9).
Figure 3.11: Compositional
analysis of Dior wasp-waist dress
(Penn 1950)
There is noticeable movement in the evaporating smoke from the cigarette and the
way the cigarette is held by the model creates a strong diagonal vector. There are
several different shapes that can be found in this simple composition. The
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composition is given a dynamic quality by the triangular shape (see yellow triangles)
created by the model’s arm on left, holding the cigarette and her other arm rested on
her hip on the right. These two triangles are perfectly balanced, creating a
harmonious tension. The shape of the model is separated into three circular shapes
(see blue circles) by the wasp-waist dress. The upper circle is rounded, whereas the
bottom shape is more oval because of the way the model is standing with her one
leg behind the other to create a slender effect. All of these shapes are spaced
balancing around the centre line (see green line) of the composition. The positive
space (the model) is slightly more than the negative space (the background). The
body language of the model signifies sophistication and supremacy.
When viewing the image, Dior wasp-waist dress (Figure 3.11), from a personal
perspective, many different emotions are evoked. Firstly, the image evokes a
curiousness and otherworldliness that captivates the viewer and forces the eye to
figure out why the image is so direct and confronting (Arrowsmith et al 1991:5).
Secondly, the simple, yet striking composition draws the eye into the frame and
demands the viewer’s full concentration to examine the image.
The image was created for the American Vogue April 1950 issue. The model he
used to advertise the wasp-waist dress was Dorian Leigh (born Dorian Elizabeth
Leigh Parker). The image was taken in Penn’s New York studio, commissioned by
the creative director of Vogue, Alexander Liberman.
Several technical elements were used to create this image. The studio had very
high windows, which gave soft, natural lighting. Penn used studio flashes aimed at
the white backdrop to create a bright white background that could make the model
stand out. “The process of isolating a model against a plain backdrop has been
described as “decontextualization” (Harrison 1991:56). This was the first time in
history that a photographer started using a crisp white background.
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Penn said,
It was a colleague, Leslie Gill, who first spoke to me of stroboscopic light and its
importance in the commercial studio. In spite of first misgivings I found myself
gradually taken by this form of illumination. It did have useful qualities: its colour
balance was predictable and repeatable; [and] models did not suffer from heat or
long poses (Arrowsmith et al 1991:118).
Penn used the 8” x 10” Deardorff view camera for his studio work for American
Vogue in New York. The image has been cropped vertically to fit the layout of the
magazine. Penn used the same black and white printing method as discussed in the
previous image, Cocoa-coloured Balenciaga dress (Figure 3.7).
Christian Dior designed the garment and it was part of his New Look campaign
launched just after World War Two ended. The fashion house of Dior was lifting
women’s spirits and hopes with their ultra-feminine haute couture designs, with hourglass silhouettes and designs using yards of fabrics. The New Look soon filtered
through to the high streets and the new shops in America, catering for the feminine
woman with this new silhouette. Everything about the New Look was feminine and
emphasised the hourglass figure.
The Dior wasp-waist dress (Figure 3.11) was a very tight dress with narrowly
corseted waist. The image of the Dior wasp-waist dress also shows off the practice
of fashion photographers of the time of pinning pencil skirts to fit the hips and legs as
tightly as possible. The model would have to be unpinned before she could walk.
There are three ethical philosophies that are of importance when analysing this
image. The first is the categorical philosophical perspective. As was the case with
the previous image, Penn created it, whether it was going to be published or not. As
an artist, Penn was very passionate and driven about his work, “Penn’s first
published works revealed his struggle for absolute perfection and visual impact”
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The second ethical perspective that can be applied is the hedonism theory. This
theory implies that the image was taken for the aesthetic pleasure of the artist, as
well as all who viewed it.
The third and last philosophy that is applicable to the ethical perspective is the
golden rule. The reason for this is that no one was harmed by the taking of this
image or by viewing it. The readers will not be harmed in any way by the publishing
of this image.
Culture in the 1950s was very different from acceptable societal values in the 2010s.
The model, Dorian Leigh, is holding a cigarette in her right hand, with smoke coming
out of her mouth and evaporating over her face. In 1950’s culture it was socially
acceptable for a lady to smoke as it was part of the norm. In the 2010s in South
Africa smoking has been banned from any advertising campaigns and publishing. It
is inappropriate in the 2010s to photograph a lady with a cigarette in her hand or
smoking it.
Another cultural difference can be seen in the design of the Dior wasp-waist dress
(Figure 3.11). During the war the fashion had characteristic qualities of the war,
such as the dark sombre colours with military structures. The designs were inspired
by masculine characteristics. In1950s there was an obsession within fashion design
to create the perfect hourglass shape for a woman, to create a more feminine body
shape. The birth of the New Look in fashion design was a reaction to the austerity of
wartime fashion. In relation to this Chenoune & Bernard (2008: 48) notes that,
It was not that Dior detested the masculine shape of wartime fashions, he also
wanted to restore a damaged ideal of French femininity, to repair it with the New
Look as one might restore a damaged painting or heal a wounded face.
Now that the image has been visually analysed in terms of the perspectives, one can
understand what Liberman meant when he wrote about Penn’s work, “It has to have
an unusual, unique, inherent secret - a visual signature” (Arrowsmith et al 1991:8).
The image Dior wasp-waist dress (Figure 3.11) is a perfect example of Penn’s
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ideology - it has immediacy, an impact and it communicates a clear signal of what it
is about. Liberman (in Arrowsmith et al 1991:8) states, “He [Penn] uses contrast of
light to imprint the spectator’s mind: deep black shadows, luminous highlights. “This
visual impact is powerful and it leaves the viewer changed after viewing it. As Penn
stated, "A good photograph is one that communicates a fact, touches the heart and
leaves the viewer a changed person for having seen it; it is in one word, effective”
(Liberman in Arrowsmith et al 1991:10).
3.6 Synopsis of chapter three
In this chapter the work of Avedon and Penn has been visually analysed by applying
Lester’s method. Chapter three showed that Avedon and Penn’s photos are unique
in each photographer’s own way and exhibit the following defining characteristics.
Avedon’s photographs revealed his dramatic style of lighting, use of shapes in
composition and conveying emotion through a model. The way Avedon poses a
model, with such elegance and sophistication, shows the strength of the woman in
her environment.
Penn’s images revealed his use of diffused lighting in Figure 3.7 and use of
undiffused lighting in Figure 3.11. The way that Penn captured both models, with a
staring gaze and haute couture pose is characteristic of his style. His use of plain
studio backgrounds with focus on the model is also typical of his work. Penn’s use
of central placement of the model in the composition is noted in both images as well
as different shapes within the composition.
The aim of chapter four is to visually analyse the photographs of contemporary
fashion photographers, Steven Meisel and Matthew Rolston, to reveal the underlying
characteristics and influences of their images. By applying Paul Martin Lester’s
(2003) method of analysis to selected works of these two photographers, a
comparison can be drawn between their work and the work of Richard Avedon and
Irving Penn.
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CHAPTER 4
A VISUAL ANALYSIS OF THE WORK OF CONTEMPORARY PHOTOGRAPHERS
4.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter the work of 1950s fashion photographers, Avedon and Penn,
were visually analysed by using Lester’s method. To better understand the influence
of the 1950s fashion photographers, Avedon and Penn, on the work of contemporary
fashion photographers, Steven Meisel and Matthew Rolston, an analysis of their
work must be done to reveal the underlying characteristics and influences. By
applying Lester’s (2003) method of visual analysis to selected works of Steven
Meisel and Matthew Rolston, a comparison can be drawn between their work and
the work of Richard Avedon and Irving Penn.
4.2 Steven Meisel - And God Created Woman (Figure 4.1)
The first image that will be analysed is Steven Meisel’s Louis Vuitton image from the
Autumn 2010 campaign called And God Created Woman. The name of the
campaign was inspired by the film of the same name directed by Roger Vadim in
1956, starring Brigitte Bardot and Sophia Loren (The Internet Movie Database
2011:¶1).
Three models born from three different decades - one in her 20s, one in her 30s and
one in her 40s - were chosen to model for the autumn 2010 campaign. They
represented three different eras of feminine beauty. The models were Karen Elson,
Natalia Vodianova and Christy Turlington. Marc Jacobs, the designer behind the
Autumn 2010 campaign, said, "This season we are working with three of the most
beautiful women, I think, in the world, blonde, brunette, and a redhead” (Fashion
Gone Rogue 2010:¶1).
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Figure 4.1: And God Created Woman, Louis Vuitton (Meisel 2010)
This work marked the fourth Louis Vuitton campaign captured by Steven Meisel. He
constructed a 1950s set in a New York studio space by using soft, sepia tones set to
resemble a movie star’s dressing room. The scene created an ambiance that
combined intimacy with cinematic glamour as the models posed in the season’s
garments, perfectly styled by Karl Templer. The whole campaign was aimed at a
celebration and indulgence in femininity and beauty.
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Figure 4.2: And God Created Woman
compositional analysis (Meisel 2010)
4.2.1 Analysis of four basic visual
When viewing the image for the first time, one sees that the framing and
compositional elements are very balanced and structured. If the image is divided into
thirds, all the main focus points are placed on the third lines (as illustrated by the red
lines in Figure 4.2).
The composition is made up of triangles (see yellow triagles) that balance the
composition. One triangle is created by the heads of the three models and the other
is created by the focus points - the Louis Vuitton shoes on the bottom left, the bag on
the bottom right and the gloves and broach in the middle worn by the model in the
centre. The aim of a triangular shape in a composition is to hold the eye within the
frame and not let it escape or wander from the focus points of the image. This image
definitely keeps the eye within the triangle formed around the three models.
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Other shapes that can be found within this composition are the bow shapes (see
purple bows in Figure 4.2). These shapes can be seen in the positioning of the
models’ bodies which are all positioned in a curved stance. The shoulders of the
model on the right are slightly curved and her back is rounded. This pose is very
curvaceous and feminine. The model on the left is also slanted into her chair, her
shoulders also slightly slanted forward in a haute couture pose of elegance. The
hips of the model in the centre are slightly to the left, also creating a womanly curve
that illustrates 1950s glamour and beauty. All of the curves created by the three
models flow towards one another and towards the centre, not out of the frame,
keeping the eye captured within the image boundries. There are also several other
shapes to be found within the image, like the spheres created by the lights and the
stripes on the chairs. The rectangular shoe boxes and the rectangular mirrors also
contrast with the curved natural lines created by the models’ figures.
When analysing the colour and the post-production treatment, one can see that the
image has a sepia, brownish, or yellowish look to it. This 1950s style is created by
the stages of post-production editing. The clothing of the models is also made-up of
a 1950s, vintage colour palette including deep reds, soft mauve pinks and greys,
with many browns, nudes and cream coloured accessories. The palette used is
more of a warm, 1950s yellowed palette.
The depth in the image is very limited. The models in the foreground are in full detail
while the background setting is out of focus. The eye is drawn to the important
details such as the shoes and bag in front of the models and just behind them, the
mirrors with the lights. Everything behind that is not important, therefore, it is blurred.
The positive and negative space is very balanced, one third is negative space and
two thirds are positive space.
There are different textures hidden in the image, all of which create contrast. The
smooth skin and hair of the models contrast with the frills, pleats and ruffles.The
texture of the paper also contrasts with the leather shoes and handbag.
The repetition of the pattern used on the dress on the left and the dress on the right
is also in contrast to the plain smooth skin against which it is set.
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The repetition of the lights also creates a halo pattern around the models, setting
them apart from the background.
At first glance the image is very appealing. The styling and colouring takes one back
to the 1950s era. The high-waist dresses, the perfect gloves to match the shoes and
the bag, even the tight ponytail are all reminiscent of the glamorous era where
feminine sophistication in the media was the norm.
As one starts to follow the visual cues, the image unfolds in a celebration of women.
The beautiful shape of the feminine form is captured in the image. The image brings
back the values of 1950s era, being proud of being a woman and celebrating beauty
through fashion.
Steven Meisel’s image was photographed for Louis Vuitton’s Autumn 2010
campaign.
The camera he used for this image was a Hasselblad H2 with 80mm lens and Phase
One P45 digital back, set on a tripod. The exposure was set at 1/125, f8, ISO 100.
The key light was an Elinchrom Octabank at f8, boomed six feet above the models
and slightly behind them. The fill light is a medium strip light at f5.6, positioned
horizontally six feet to camera right. The overall effect is relatively flat but glamorous
lighting conceals any imperfections and emphasizes the beautiful features of the
models and garments (Guess the Lighting 2010:¶2).
Pat McGrath was the make-up artist for the campaign and the hair stylist was Guido.
Incredible detail and attention were paid to the hair and make-up to recreate the
1950s period look. The beautiful full eyebrows, the liquid line above the lash and the
natural eye shadow are reminiscent of how make-up was done then. The full red lips
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and rosy cheeks round off the look. The hair is also very specifically styled into a
smooth, high ponytail. The hair of the blond and brunette are taken back completely,
while the red-haired model’s hair has a fringe that is slanted to the side, cropped
short and very neat, just like the 1950s (Italian Vogue 2010:¶2).
The garments that Marc Jacobs designed for the And God Created Woman range
are all re-interpretations of 1950s styled corseted waists and circle skirts. 1950s knits
and sweeping skirts are surrounded by stacks of shoe boxes from which the
collection’s charmingly 1950s bow-fronted pumps peep. In keeping with the ladylike
mood, the spotlight also falls on Louis Vuitton’s alluring re-invented Speedy
handbag, in alligator, waxed calf leather, or flocked and sequined Monogram canvas.
The models chosen for the campaign were more voluptuous than usual. The 2010
Louis Vuitton collection featured conservative clothes with the most revealing only
showing cleavage, most likely intended for more mature women. Marc Jacobs, chief
designer, commented,
Designers are always talking about how they design for women, and then you look at
our runways and they’re no girls over 20. This time, I set out to cast a variety of sexy
women – younger, older, thin, and voluptuous, from every ethnic background (New
Faces 2010:¶2).
There is some part of the hedonism theory that can be applied to Meisel’s work done
for the And God Created Woman campaign. The reason for this is that Meisel
always photographed and created images primarily to bring aesthetic pleasure to all
that viewed them. The timelessness of this image is reason enough why the
hedonism theory can be applied.
The golden rule theory also applies, as it states that no harm must come from the
creation or viewing of the image. The image is aesthetically appealing and meets
the viewers’ need (the Louis Vuitton clients). The visual message did not cause
unjustified harm to the viewers or the models.
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The cultural influences on the campaign And God Created Woman is evident in the
play on the 1950s core values and femininity. “The atmosphere was very 1950s,
very elegant”, Marc Jacobs related (Italian Vogue 2010:¶8). He created the
garments for this campaign to be re-inventive of the 1950s way of life. There is
something about the way women carried themselves in public, a set of core values
that were not taught but everyone knew and understood them. The way they
celebrated their beauty and elegance, the way they looked after themselves and how
proud they were of their bodies, motivated these images. These core values have
long since been strived for but never found. Meisel was trying to capture that which
epitomised being female and to showcase it in the campaign.
“The strength of Louis Vuitton is its almost magical ability to re-invent itself every
season”, says Artistic Director Marc Jacobs.
Last season was all about the idea of the New Age traveler. This season was a
manifesto for beautiful, ladylike clothes. Two different collections, two different
campaigns, but one Louis Vuitton (Italian Vogue 2010:¶5).
This quote by Marc Jacobs explains the brand and the aim of the campaign so well.
Louis Vuitton is a brand that wants to be new and innovative but will always return to
the roots of fashion and culture to find influences for collections. The 1950s was the
perfect place for Meisel to draw inspiration for the campaign with the beautiful 1950s
inspired clothing and accessories (Anakin 2010:¶3).
Meisel indeed succeeded in capturing and celebrating eternal femininity through his
images of the campaign. These feminine heroines will now inspire women around
the world to embrace their bodies and virtue. It will inspire them to strive towards the
1950s idealism of femininity and to truly understand what it means to be a “God
Created Woman”.
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Figure 4.3: Modern and classic (Meisel 2010)
4.3 Steven Meisel - Modern and classic (Figure 4.3)
The second image that will be visually analysed is Steven Meisel’s image from the
July edition of Italian Vogue 2010. This image was taken in Steven Meisel’s studio in
New York for the campaign called Modern and classic. Dolce Tracker, noted fashion
journalist, explained, “Model, Christy Turlington, finds artistry in chaos, photographed
in womanly poses that resonate for the ages” (Anne of Carversville 2010:¶7).
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Tracker clarifies that the way she is photographed in the formal classic poses used in
the 1950s, is still suitable in the 2010s. She is wearing a Dolce and Gabbana dress.
The collaboration between Christy Turlington and Steven Meisel created a modernday goddess effect that anchored the model in her surroundings (Anne of
Carversville 2010:¶1).
Figure 4.4: Modern and
classic: compositional
analysis (Meisel 2010)
The image has a high level of contrast but the delicate details in the black dress and
white skin are still captured. The monotone palette has captured the various tones
and all work together to create a perfectly exposed image.
The image is composed of different forms and shapes (see Figure 4.4). The
composition appears at first glance very basic and straightforward but once the
viewer examines all the different facets, the compositional elements unfold into a
structured but complicated composition.
The model is placed in the middle (see green centre line) of the frame, dividing the
space in two; this creates tension because the viewer does not know where the eye
should go at first glance. Once the viewer starts exploring the image the other
shapes reveal themselves. The three oval shapes (see blue ovals) created by the
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model’s head, arms and hips are balanced on top of a triangular shape (see yellow
triangle) created by the mermaid dress bottom. The ovals reinforce the model’s
curves and flaunt the tailored dress.
The model’s arms are leaning on a piece of wood which gives rise to two vertical
lines. These create a visual pillar to balance the weight of the model’s arms. In the
background a diagonal (see cyan line) piece of wood is slanted against the right side
of the wall. This creates tension in the background by drawing the eye away from the
positive space of the model, to the negative space of the background. The box and
chain in the foreground draws the eye back to the front of the image and then back
to the model. This causes the eye to travel within the image and prevents the viewer
from becoming bored with viewing it.
The depth is very limited in the image. The image is taken in a studio and, therefore,
the foreground, middle section and background flows within a five-metre space. This
means all the details within the image are in focus. The reason might be that the
photographer wanted to use the background of chaotic elements to emphasise the
beauty of the model posed within the rubble.
The lighting used in the image is very strong directional lighting; there are delineated
shadows on the right side of the model’s face indicating that the studio flashes were
used to create broad lighting coming from the left.
The background appears to have been lit separately because there is a more
diffused light on the wall. The different textures on the wall are emphasized by this
type of lighting. The lighting used on the model separates her from the background
and focuses the viewer’s attention on her first and then the background.
Some of the elements in the composition are also slightly highlighted and other
elements are more concealed in darkness. This creates a mystical lighting effect
that captures the viewer’s attention once the background details are examined.
Movement in the image relies on the statue-like quality of the model’s pose to
emphasise the sophistication that is being conveyed. She is a strong, independent
lady, sure of herself in her surroundings and who owns the positive space in which
she stands. The negative space is not overwhelming her.
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At first glance the image appears to have been taken during the 1950s because of
the styling of the hair, the make-up and the dress with floral graphic. The high
gloves and the way her body is positioned are all indications of 1950s fashion
photographs. The use of monotone is also reminiscent of the era.
The image elicits a strong personal response from the viewer because of the
dramatic lighting and composition. The 1950s influence is apparent and the model
chosen for the photograph suits this specific style perfectly.
The image leaves the viewer with several questions: why is the model photographed
in the ruins, why is this specific setting used for this haute couture dress and what
motivated the photographer to style the photo in 1950s styling and in monotone? As
the viewer explores and analyses the image, the six perspectives reveal the answers
to these crucial questions.
The historical timeline suggests that fashion photographer, Irving Penn, took the
photograph during the 1950s. The background, the styling, the undiffused lighting
and other stylistic characteristics lead one to think that this image was taken during
the 1950s.
However, this impression merely shows how Steven Meisel uses his artistic abilities
to capture the essence of a specific era in his photographs. The way he uses the
stylistic elements to create the look and feel of the 1950s is astonishing. One of his
main influences in his photography is Irving Penn and this is clearly seen in this
photograph. This photograph appeared in the July 2010 edition of Vogue Italia,
although it appears to be much older.
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Steven Meisel used the Hasselblad H2 with 80mm lens and Phase One P45 digital
back, which he set on tripod. An Elinchrom Octabank key light was used at f8, which
was boomed six feet above the model with the light falling on her face at an angle.
The fill light that was used to fill in detail on the background was softer and more
diffused. The image was set up in his studio (Guess the Lighting 2010:¶2).
Figure 4.5: Lisa Fonssagrives in mermaid
dress (Penn 1950)
The model’s hair, make-up and wardrobe were done in the specific style of the
1950s. The dress worn in this image is a Lungo fourreau di chiffon stampato, from
Dolce and Gabbana. Translated from Italian it refers to a long, chiffon-printed sleeve
(Italian Vogue 2010:¶2).
The dress is very similar to the dress that was photographed by Irving Penn for the
American Vogue, September 1950 issue (see Figure 4.5). The dress Lisa
Fonssagrives was wearing was also a black mermaid dress. Marcel Rochas, a
famous fashion designer of the 1950s era, created it. The other similarities will be
dealt with in the next chapter.
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4.3.2.4 Ethical perspective
There is some part of the hedonism theory that can be applied to Meisel’s work for
the Modern and classic campaign, for Italian Vogue 2010. The aesthetic pleasure of
the viewer and client is of upmost importance to the photographer.
Furthermore, as no harm was done to the viewer or creator by the creation of the
image, the golden rule theory can be applied. The client’s needs were met.
4.3.2.5 Cultural perspective
When analysing from the cultural perspective, the different symbols in the image
must be analysed to understand the meaning for society and history. The first
cultural symbol that can be deduced by the viewer is the way Christy Turlington is
portrayed as a woman of sophistication. Her posture, the way she carries herself,
the direct gaze at the viewer with strength and confidence, are all critical to the
Modern and Classic campaign for Italian Vogue. The slightly forward slanted
shoulders signify the feeling of haute couture glamour and sophistication. The model
is a symbol of femininity and womanly beauty. Her make-up and hair are an
indication of the 1950s style and influence. The cultural symbols of the 1950s
woman, the feminine elegance and grace can, therefore, be applied to the image.
The portrayal of the model within the chaotic setting can also symbolise the
difference between the feminine beauty and the decomposed background filled with
waste and dirt. The model stands from the setting as a woman stands out against a
crowd when wearing a beautiful piece of clothing. The comparison between the
smooth texture of the model’s skin and the chiffon dress and the rough texture of the
decayed background is also evident. This can symbolise the elevation and
glorification of the model as opposed to other women.
4.3.2.6 Critical perspective
The issues raised by this image transcend the 2010 timeline to the age of femininity
and beauty, the 1950s. The image re-introduces the values of the women of the
1950s and brings back the importance of the strength of women and the glorified
beauty of the female form.
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4.4 Matthew Rolston - Lift and separate (Figure 4.6)
Figure 4.6: Lift and separate (Rolston 2008)
The third image that will be analysed is Matthew Rolston’s image, Lift and separate
(see Figure 4.6), taken in Los Angeles at his studio in 1999. The image was
published in 2008 on the cover of his book, BeautyLight, but originally commissioned
by the New York Times Magazine for a story on Glamour through the ages 1999
(Rolston 2008: Introduction).
The model he used for this campaign is Salma Hayek, an actress and model.
Matthew Rolston worships glamour. Ingrid Sischy noted fashion journalist wrote (in
Rolston 2008: Introduction), “For more than two decades Rolston’s photographs
have walked the tightrope between idealism and realism”. She also goes on to say
that Rolston fell in love with shots of celebrities, the glamour and magic.
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This image embodies Rolston’s philosophy on his photography, “What’s the stuff that
dreams are made of? Well in photography, that would be light. Light is beauty.
Beauty is light” (Rolston 2008: Introduction).
The use of monotone is evident in the photograph. “The choice of black and white
was a subtle homage to the brilliant historical films that came out of the Hollywood
studios in the thirties - a period of time that has always fascinated and inspired me”
(Rolston 2008:Introduction).
Figure 4.6:
Compositional analysis
of Lift and separate
(Rolston 2008)
The image forms part of a campaign called Glamour through the ages. Rolston
explained in the magazine American Photo (2006:90), “To me, this story was an
opportunity to evoke a Hollywood version of history rather than history itself”. This
specific image is a re-creation of a 1950s lady wearing lingerie.
The different forms and shapes created by the image can be analysed in the
formation of the composition (see Figure 4.7). The model is placed slightly off centre
(see green centre line). This creates tension in the composition because the eye
tends to try and balance the two sides divided by the model’s body. The model’s
body is made up of three oval shapes (see blue ovals) balanced on top of one
another. The head forms the top oval, the torso the second oval shape and the hips
the third oval shape. These three shapes reinforce the curviness of the female form
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and emphasise the hourglass shape of the model. The model’s arms are placed
above the head, leading out of the frame. This strange cropping influences the
tension in the frame. Both arms are raised at the same angle, creating diagonal
lines (see cyan lines) leading upward and out of the frame. The left arm is cropped
off at the elbow whilst the right arm is cropped just before the wrist. The right arm
forms an imaginary vertical line that balances the main composition, which is slightly
off-centre to the left.
The depth used in the image is very limited. The model is in full detail in the
foreground while the background is slightly out of focus. The plain grey, gradientstudio backdrop is separated from the model by the plane of focus. This creates
tension between the positive and negative space. The model, which occupies the
positive space, takes up about a third of the space of the image canvas.
The lighting is soft, diffused lighting with a soft shadow on the left of the model’s face
and body. The light is placed slightly higher to create a flattering aura of beauty on
the model’s features. This type of lighting eliminates unflattering skin texture and
sculpts around the shape of the form.
There is an apparent sense of movement created by the model’s pose. The way the
arms are cropped at different angles of the arm creates tension. The viewer does
not know whether the model is holding onto something above her head, hanging
from it or whether the model is merely posing with her arms strangely above her
head. This strange way of cropping and sense of movement captures the viewer’s
attention when viewing the image for the first time.
At first glance the reaction to the image is curiosity. The model, which was used to
represent the 1950s, is a contemporary actress and model. This already makes the
viewer aware that the image was taken recently and not in the 1950s. The question
the viewer asks is, “Why did Rolston photograph the model in this specific style?”
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However, it is from this curiosity that the actual hidden meaning of the image starts
to unfold itself to the viewer. Rolston is recreating the glamour of the 1950s in
contemporary time. His aim is to use the social and cultural clues of the 1950s to
revive the glamourised culture of the 1950s.
From a historical perspective one sees that the style of lingerie garments worn by the
model is dated to the 1950s. The high-waisted bottom girdle and the vintage tailored
brassier and extenders are all reminiscent of the 1950s undergarment wardrobe.
These undergarments supported the women’s fashion garments and flaunted their
slim waists and curved hips.
The image was taken in 1999 but the viewer is led to believe that it was taken in the
1950s. Therefore, based on stylistic characteristics, the comparison between the
work of Irving Penn and this specific image of Matthew Rolston can be drawn.
The technical aspect of the image can be broken down into the following
components: the fashion garments, hair, make-up, the medium used to take the
image and the production of the image. The make-up is done in a 1950s style with
the extended liquid line just above the eye line, the thick black mascara and the full
lips with a strong curve in the centre. The hair is also done in the 1950s style. The
short-trimmed Audrey Hepburn-style fringe flows into a long bob that is curled at the
edges. This hairstyle was one of the most famous hairstyles of the era.
Matthew Rolston uses a Mamiya RZ67 medium-format with a 150mm f/3.5 telephoto
lens. The lighting he used was a 4000-watt/second strobe diffused with a soft box.
The post-production software used to retouch the model was Adobe Photoshop
(American Photo 2006: 90).
The ethical considerations are limited. No harm was done to the model or the viewer
by the production of the image. The hedonism theory applies because of the nature
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of the campaign, Glamour through the ages. Rolston is creating a photograph to
symbolise the glamour of the 1950s and therefore to strengthen the idea of the
timelessness of the era and its social standards.
The cultural perspective can be applied to the image by viewing all the different
symbols created by Rolston. These hidden meanings are clues to the 1950s culture
and the inclusion of them into the image introduces the 1950s culture to the
contemporary image.
The stylistic characteristics of the hair, make-up and garments are all cultural
messages that lead the viewer to identifying the 1950s era. The way the model is
posed with the one leg in front of the other, strengthening the curve of the female
body, also introduces the cultural symbols of the 1950s. Women in that era had to
have curves, they wore undergarments with tight corsets to make their waists
narrower and to emphasise their hips. This hourglass shape was the look of the
1950s woman. In contemporary times, the more curvaceous shape is not as popular
in fashion photography. Fashion designers tend to prefer the androgynous model,
which is built more like a man, with no hips and breasts. These designers prefer
models to be a size zero (the smallest clothing size), while in the 1950s the average
dress size of a model was a size twelve.
When analysing the critical perspective, the transcending issues unravel in the
image. The way the model is confronting the viewer, the direct gaze and selfconfidence is a 1950s quality that is brought forth in this contemporary rendering of
Glamour through the ages. The sophistication of the female form is emphasised and
celebrated in the image. Rolston was not only trying to mimic the 1950s, he wanted
to capture the essence of a woman of that time. The unspoken code of femininity
and panache are embodied in the model and the womanly grace created proves that
he succeeded in his attempt.
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Figure 4.8: Dream girl (Rolston 2008)
4.5 Matthew Rolston - Dream girl (Figure 4.8)
The last image to be analysed is Rolston’s image of Jennifer Hudson, titled Dream
girl (see Figure 4.8). This was taken in his studio in Los Angeles in 2006.
Jennifer Hudson is a singer, actress and model. In this image she is wearing a black
hat with netting over her face. She is wearing a black-cropped jacket with black fur
trim and a black dress. She wears a tight black, fur scarf around her neck. Her nails
are manicured with a deep plum colour and the length and shape are similar to the
manicures done in the 1950s. Her make up is done with a thick black liquid line and
full eyebrows. The eye shadow is slightly luminous in a natural golden tone. The
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black mascara and full, dark lips complete the vintage make-up style. The plum
coloured lipstick is repeated in the nail colour.
The use of colour in the image is natural but there is a slight green overtone to the
image. The background has a gradient of a greenish colour, ranging from a light
green at the bottom to a darker green tone at the top of the image. The model’s skin
colour is slightly yellowish which is caused by the green overtone. The colour cast
also gives the impression of a vintage photograph that has started to turn yellow
after several years of exposure to light.
Figure 4.9: Dream girl: compositional
analysis (Rolston 2008)
The different shapes and forms in the composition are a very complicated structure
(see Figure 4.9). The model is placed in the centre of the image (see green centre
line) but the symmetry of the pose is broken by the one hand placed higher on the
right and the other lower on the left. The composition consists of several triangles
(see yellow triangles) that create tension and keep the viewer’s eye interested in the
image.
The oval shape of the head (see blue oval) is balanced on the rectangular shape of
the scarf. The composition has a strong zigzag line (see cyan diagonal lines)
running through it, starting at the head following down the hand, through the
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shoulders and then down to the centre of the body. These lines create motion in a
still image, carrying the eye from the model’s head, through the body to explore
every part of the image.
The positive space that the model occupies is two-thirds of the total space and the
negative background space is just one-third of the composition. The close crop of
the image ensures a dominating view that grabs the viewer’s attention.
The depth in the image is limited. The model dominates the foreground and the
background is out of focus. The studio in the background is not of importance
therefore the focus is limited to the foreground. The background is composed of a
gradient that adds volume to the studio space. The perspective is limited because of
the close crop. The main focus is on the model’s face and especially her eyes. The
edges of the netting and the trim of her clothing are also slightly out of focus. This
draws the eye back to the in-focus parts of her face and clothing.
There is slight movement captured in the image by the way the model is posing. The
way that her right hand is stretched out towards her face seems to be an instinctive
movement that was captured by Rolston.
The personal perspective is captured in the way model is dressed in vintage clothing
and make-up. The viewer’s first reaction to the image is one of mystery. The viewer
wonders why this specific style was chosen and how it is of relevance today. The
image reminds the viewer of the 1950s but with a modern interpretation to it.
The historical perspective can be analysed by looking at the specific styling that was
applied to the model’s hair and make-up. The image was taken in 2006 with the title
Dream girl.
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The image appears dated and the only visual clue to the contemporary nature of the
image is that it is taken in colour. Most images taken during the 1950s were
monotone. The yellow colour cast also re-inforces the idea of a vintage image, as it
is an aged colour cast.
The technical perspective examines the medium used to capture the image. Rolston
has a specific workflow, which he uses to produce his images. The camera he used
was the Mamiya RZ67 medium-format with a 150mm f/3.5 telephoto lens. The
lighting was a 4000-watt/second strobe diffused with a soft box. The aperture was
set to f/22. The post-production software used to retouch the image was Photoshop
(American Photo 2006: 90).
The lighting he used to create this image was undiffused light, placed central and
above the model to create a flattering butterfly lighting that compliments the shape of
the model’s face. This type of lighting was generally used for close-up portraits of
models in the 1950s. As such, the influence of the 1950s photographers can be
clearly seen in this image.
The ethical consideration of this image is limited. The image causes no harm to the
creator or viewer and is produced for the viewing pleasure of the public.
The image appears to have been taken during the 1950s but there are certain
elements that confuse the viewer about the timeline of the image. The colour usage
is one of these elements as well as the use of a black model. In the 1950s black
models were seldom photographed because of racism. The fashion magazines of
the era, including Vogue and Harpers Bazaar, never published images with black
women or men in them. Therefore, this image of Jennifer Hudson posing in a 1950s
styled outfit confuses the viewer, as it appears to have been photographed in the
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1950s, which was impossible. This irony is one of the main societal issues that
would have been problematic in the era of glamour and femininity.
The issues of race transcend the boundaries of contemporary life. This image is a
celebration of how far society has come in sixty years. The black model stands
proudly, knowing that she owns her femininity and can have confidence in our day
and age. Rolston overcomes the restrictions of racism in the 1950s and creates an
image filled with parody that is testimony of our current racial diversity and freedom.
4.6 Synopsis of chapter four
In this chapter photography by Meisel and Rolston has been visually analysed by the
application of Lester’s method.
Chapter four looked at Rolston and Meisel’s photographs and reveals that there are
notable similarities between their work and the 1950s fashion photographers Avedon
and Penn. Their work exhibits the following defining characteristics.
Meisel’s photos have a distinct 1950s style that shows the influence from the 1950s
fashion photographers. Meisel’s soft diffused lighting in Figure 4.1 is similar to
Penn’s use of undiffused lighting in studio. The composition Meisel used in Figure
4.1 is very complicated and has a cinematic quality similar to compositions done by
Avedon in the 1950s. The way the models are posed and the expressions used are
very stark and similar to Penn’s way of posing a model. Figure 4.3 uses undiffused
lighting as seen in images photographed by Avedon in the 1950s. The background
with studio type setting is analogous to Penn’s studio backdrops. Therefore an
influence can be noted between Meisel’s contemporary work and 1950s fashion
photographers Penn and Avedon’s photographs.
In Figure 4.6 Rolston uses a studio setting similar to the white studio setting Penn
used for his photographs. He places the focus on the model instead of the
background. The lighting in Figure 4.6 is also similar to Penn’s soft diffused studio
lighting. The composition of Figure 4.6 is also very statuesque but the diagonal lines
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in the composition add implied movement also seen in images of Penn in the 1950s.
The way the model is staring at the viewer conveys a sense of empowerment and
femininity as seen in images of Penn and Avedon.
Figure 4.8 also uses a central composition as seen in 1950s fashion photographs of
Penn. The positioning of the head, looking down on the viewer, portrays
sophistication and liberation. These are characteristics of 1950s fashion
photography. The model is wearing a veil that is evocative and adds mystery to the
image, evident in images of Avedon in the 1950s. Rolston’s use of undiffused
lighting is similar to images of Avedon in the 1950s. Therefore it can be noted that
the influence of Avedon’s work is evident on Rolston’s photography.
In chapter five the work of contemporary fashion photographers, Steven Meisel and
Matthew Rolston, and 1950s fashion photographers, Avedon and Penn, will be
compared to reveal the similarities, characteristics and influences.
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CHAPTER 5
A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE WORK OF RICHARD AVEDON, IRVING PENN,
5.1 Introduction
A comparison between the works of Richard Avedon and Irving Penn, and Steven
Meisel and Matthew Rolston, will be done to better understand the influence of the
1950s fashion photographers on the work of fashion photographers working in the
2010s. By applying Paul Martin Lester’s (2003) method of visual analysis to selected
works of these four photographers, common stylistic characteristics will be
determined.
5.2 Steven Meisel - Modern and classic (Figure 5.1) and Irving Penn - Lisa
Fonssagrives in Marcel Rochas mermaid dress (Figure 5.2)
The first comparison will be between the contemporary image by Steven Meisel, in
the Modern and classic campaign (Figure 5.1) with Christy Turlington for the July
edition of Vogue Italia 2010 and Irving Penn’s image of Lisa Fonssagrives in Marcel
Rochas’ mermaid dress for American Vogue September 1950 (Figure 5.2).
Figure 5.1: Modern and classic
(Meisel 2010)
Figure 5.2: Lisa Fonssagrives in
mermaid dress (Penn 1950)
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The graphic and content analysis done in the previous chapter has brought forth
similarities in these images taken during different eras in time. One of the obvious
similarities is the use of monochrome. Both images are devoid of the use of colour,
both relying rather on the strong composition and subject matter to sustain the
image.
There is a slight difference in the actual composition but similarities are noted in the
way the models pose. Both models pose with arching shoulders and a curved body
stance.
Both images are taken in a constructed studio setting and in a controlled lighting
environment. Both backdrops have a certain worn and distressed appearance.
Steven Meisel’s image (Figure 5.1) has the peeling paint and other debris scattered
around, whereas Irving Penn’s image (Figure 5.2) has the same textured backdrop
and debris in the background. Irving Penn placed the discarded objects behind the
backdrop to show the imperfection of the setting against the perfection of the model.
Although the background of Penn’s image is cleaner and plainer, the stylistic
similarity is evident.
Both images have limited depth and the main focus falls on the model on the
foreground. Both images are full body images that are not cropped; both show the
full garment against a background. The lighting used for these images is similar.
Both images are lit by the use of undiffused light, falling at a high angle on the
models’ faces. This lighting has high contrast highlights and shadows that separate
the models from the setting. This type of lighting results in both models having high,
contrasting shadows around the face and well-defined cheekbones. Therefore, it
can be assumed that Meisel was influenced by Penn’s method of lighting.
Both images have a textured tonal gradient in the background, creating a threedimensional space with which the models can interact. The positive and negative
spaces occupied by both images are very similar. Both models take up one third of
the frame. Both of the models’ poses are very static and statuesque. The
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movement apparent in the images is created by the use of diagonal lines created by
the composition of the models’ pose.
The personal perspective one gains from viewing the images is very similar. Both
images are editorial images intended for magazine publishing, therefore, both are
meant to sell the fashion garments being worn. Both the models are wearing black
mermaid dresses and high black gloves. The hair of both models is made into a
hairstyle to suit the garments.
The difference in these images is evident when viewing them from a historical
perspective. Meisel’s image was taken in 2010, whereas Penn’s image was taken in
1950. There is a sixty-year difference between these two images but still they
appear to have been produced in the same era. As such it can be assumed that
Meisel may have been influenced by Penn to re-create the stylistic elements for his
image taken in 2010.
There is also a difference in the medium and technology used to create these
images. Meisel used a Hasselblad H2 with 80mm lens and Phase One P45 digital
back, set on tripod, whereas Penn used a large format 4” x 5” Deardorff with 150mm
lens. The lighting setup Meisel used was an Elinchrom Octabank whereas Penn
used the natural light falling from the top windows of his Paris studio. Another
difference is the post-production element. Meisel uses Photoshop to re-touch
images. Penn used a complicated darkroom developing and printing technique to
create his image (chapter three).
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The ethical perspective is the same for both images. Both images are created for
the purpose of presenting aesthetic beauty to the viewer. The Golden rule theory
applies to both images because no harm was done to the model, photographer or
the viewer by the production or viewing of the image.
At first glance the cultural perspective seems similar for both images but because of
the difference in the time the images were created, the social messages are slightly
different. The image that Penn created in the 1950s refers to the social role of
women of that era. Women of the 1950s had a specific way of carrying themselves.
They were ladylike and immaculately groomed. These characteristics are evident in
the way the model is dressed and posed.
The image by Meisel has the same stylistic characteristics as the Penn image and it
can therefore be concluded that the photographer is aiming at restoring the 1950s
ideal of the iconic women. The femininity and sophistication of a lady, which was the
standard for the 1950s era, was captured in this image. The self-confidence, posture
and composure are marked in this image. Consequently the influence of the cultural
codes of the 1950s is evident.
5.3 Matthew Rolston - Dream girl (Figure 5.3) and Irving Penn - Black and white
idea (Figure 5.4)
The next comparison will be made between the contemporary image of Rolston
called Dream girl (Figure 5.3) taken in 2006 and the iconic image of Penn, taken for
the editorial called Black and white idea (Figure 5.4) and used on the April 1950
American Vogue cover
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Figure 5.3: Dream girl (Rolston 2008)
Figure 5.4: Black and white idea
(Penn 1950)
The usage of monochrome is evident in the image of Penn; this lack of colour usage
was a characteristic of the 1950s style of magazine fashion photography. In
comparison to the 1950s image, the contemporary image of Rolston is in colour, with
a slight green-yellow cast. The use of colour introduces the modern element to the
image but the green-yellow cast refers back to the 1950s colour photographs with
the suggestion of 1950s faded colour.
The composition of both images varies but there are notable similarities. The central
placement of the model in the frame is evident in both images. This composition has
a strong impact on the viewer and captures the attention instantly. Both images are
closely cropped and make use of a minimalistic, plain background. The only
difference in the background of Penn’s image is that it is pure white and high key,
whereas the Rolston image has a tonal gradient, moving from a lighter shade at the
bottom to a darker shade at the top.
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In both images the model is placed facing the camera directly. This is also a very
dominant and confrontational pose showing self-confidence and strength. The
limited negative space and dominating positive space occupied by the models also
add to the confrontational aspect of the images. The depth is limited in both images.
The foreground (the models) is in focus and the background is out of focus to draw
the attention to the models only.
The dramatic and contrasting lighting used are also noticeable in both images. The
deep shadows and bright highlights were characteristically used in the 1950s; this
also gives an indication of the 1950s lighting influence on Rolston. This high angle
lighting commonly known as butterfly lighting is very flattering and was often used for
fashion photography in the 1950s. Both images are posed and lacking in movement.
Both images make use of the diagonal lines created by the composition to create
movement of the eye within the image.
From a personal perspective both images are very similar. Both images are taken
for fashion publications and both images capture and intrigue the viewer. When
viewing the Rolston image for the first time, the familiarity of the specific pose and
styling is noted. After thorough examination the Rolston image seems to be clearly
influenced by Penn’s image on the 1950s Vogue cover.
From a historical perspective there is obviously a difference between the two images
because the Penn image was taken almost sixty years before the Rolston one.
However, the stylistic elements in the images indicate otherwise. The resemblance
in the garments, the hats, netting, liquid eyeliner and dark lips is obvious in both
images. This confuses the viewer when viewing both images taking into account the
date difference.
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The technical perspective differs drastically in these two images. The medium and
post-production used in the creation of these images is different. The development
of technology has had a big influence on the process of image making. In the1950s
digital cameras and post-production software were not yet available. Photographers
in the 1950s used medium and large format film cameras and different darkroom
development techniques. Both processes, however, created iconic images.
Rolston uses Mamiya RZ67 medium-format with a 150mm f/3.5 telephoto lens. The
lighting he used was a 4000-watt/second strobe diffused with a soft box. Penn, on
the other hand, used the large format 4” x 5” Deardorff camera and 150mm lens.
Penn used strobe lighting to light this specific image. He also used darkroomprinting techniques (chapter three), whereas Rolston used Adobe Photoshop
software to re-touch his images.
The ethical perspective is the same for both images. No harm was done to the
models, photographers or viewers by the making of the images.
The cultural aspect is different for both images. In the 1950s image of Penn a white
model was used, whereas the 2006 image of Rolston has a black model. As
discussed in chapter four previously, American society in the 1950s did not publish
black models in leading fashion magazines such as Vogue. Therefore the cultural
difference is prominent between the two images.
Looking at the images from a critical perspective one can see that they have similar
meanings. Both images capture the essence of femininity and sophistication in
women. Both images celebrate the beauty of women. Penn’s image graced the
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cover of Vogue magazine, whereas Rolston’s image transcended the boundaries of
racial discrimination in fashion photography. This shows how society has
progressed and evolved as far as racism is concerned. In contemporary times all
women of all races are seen as beautiful.
5.4 Richard Avedon - Dorian Leigh photographed for Robert Piguet (Figure 5.5)
and Steven Meisel - And god created woman Louis Vuitton campaign (Figure
5.6)
The next two images that will be compared is Avedon’s image of Dorian Leigh
photographed for Robert Piguet in 1950 (Figure 5.5) and Meisel’s image of the
autumn 2010 Louis Vuitton campaign (Figure 5.6).
Figure 5.5: Dorian Leigh
photographed for Robert Piguet
(Avedon 1950)
Figure 5.6: And god created woman, Louis
Vuitton (Meisel 2010)
Avedon’s image of Dorian Leigh was photographed in Paris for the famous fashion
designer Robert Piguet. The classic evening gown was photographed in a
bathroom/dressing room setting.
In the image photographed by Meisel, he used three different models from three
different eras to showcase beauty through the decades. These models were, Natalia
Vodianova, Karen Elson and Christy Turlington (as discussed in chapter five).
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The colour usage differs in the two images. The contemporary image of Meisel is
photographed in colour but with a 1950s warm toned colour treatment applied to it.
The colour cast introduces the vintage element and is reminiscent of the 1950s
colour images. The image of Avedon is done in monotone, stereotypical of the
1950s era.
The compositional elements in both images differ but there are similarities in the
posing of the models. Meisel’s image for Louis Vuitton has the model on the right in
a standing pose with her hand on her hip and facing the mirror. Her face profile is
clear and her shoulders are arched slightly forward. Avedon’s image has the model
posed in the same way. This clearly shows the influence the work of Avedon has on
Meisel’s work.
The image is in focus in the foreground and out of focus in the background. This
guides the viewer’s eye to the models rather than the background. The same depth
is evident in the image photographed by Avedon.
The lighting Avedon used to create the image of Dorian Leigh is diffused and
reflected lighting. Backlighting streams through the back window, creating an
atmospherical haze in the background. Soft lighting flaunts the garment and sculpts
the model’s face and body. The lighting used in Meisel’s image is also soft and
diffused. The background also has backlighting provided by the light bulbs of the
mirrors. There is a clear similarity in the lighting used for both images.
Both images are taken in a setting and not a normal studio with plain backdrop. The
setting serves to enhance the garments, which have been photographed. The
background also introduces the element of reality. The reason is that such a
background seems familiar to the viewer, therefore, making it more personal and
appealing. A studio backdrop sometimes creates a detached emotional connection
with a viewer, making the garment seem unreal and unattainable.
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The personal reaction to both images is a sense of realism and true beauty. Both
images capture the models in a dressing room setting, which has a realistic feel and
glamorous atmosphere. The models are getting ready for a glamorous evening; they
are dressed in evening gowns.
The historical timeline differs between the two images. The Avedon image (Figure
5.5) was taken in 1950 in Paris, whereas the Meisel image (Figure 5.6) was taken in
2010 in New York. Although both images appear to have been created in the 1950s
because of the styling and setting, the Meisel image has merely been produced to
look like a 1950s image and not a contemporary one.
The technical aspects also differ. The camera Meisel used was a Hasselblad H2
with 80mm lens and Phase One P45 digital back, attached to a tripod. The exposure
was set at 1/125, f8, ISO 100. The key light was an Elinchrom Octabank at f8,
boomed six feet above the models and slightly behind them. The fill light is a medium
strip light at f5.6, positioned horizontally six feet to camera right.
The camera Avedon used was an 8” x 10” Deardorff large format with a 360mm f/6.8
Sinar lens. He used Kodak Tri-X E.I.200 film and his skill in darkroom development
to print and retouch the image. Meisel, on the other hand, used Adobe Photoshop to
digitally manipulate his images in post-production.
The ethical considerations are limited for both images. No harm was done to the
model, photographer or viewer by the production of the images.
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The cultural perspective for the images is similar in a way. The Avedon image
(Figure 5.5) captures the essence of a lady of the 1950s. The perfect make-up, hair,
the gorgeous garment and matching accessories all add to “The 50s look”. Avedon
captures the realistic beauty of women and sells garments with this concept. If you
buy this gown you will feel like the model wearing it, perfect in every sense of the
word.
Meisel also uses this same social connection in his campaign. He uses the values of
the 1950s women. He replicates her sense of style, femininity and self-confidence in
his photograph to sell the 2010 Louis Vuitton range. He specifically used the
influence of the 1950s to carry his concept of the iconic beauty to the magazine
pages.
The conclusion that is drawn from this visual analysis is that the influence of 1950s
fashion photographer Avedon is visible in the work of Meisel. The stylistic similarities
and the social and moral messages portrayed are very similar to the 1950s images.
5.5 Synopsis of chapter five
In this chapter the work of Avedon and Penn has been compared to the work of
Meisel and Rolston by applying Lester’s method of visual analysis. Chapter five
showed that Meisel and Rolston photographs show similarities to the 1950s fashion
photographers, Avedon and Penn.
The conclusion can be drawn that the influence of the 1950s masters of fashion
photography is still relevant and influential for contemporary fashion photography in
the 2010s.
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In the following chapter the influence of Richard Avedon and Irving Penn on fashion
photography in the 2010s will be analysed. The influences will be gauged by
analysing images of this researcher. By applying the six perspectives of Paul Martin
Lester’s method of visual analysis to the work of this researcher, the stylistic
similarities will be noted.
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CHAPTER 6
A VISUAL ANALYSIS OF THE WORK OF ASTRID CORDIER
6.1 Introduction
Irving Penn and Richard Avedon have influenced fashion photographers for the past
sixty years. By visually analysing the work of this researcher, Astrid Cordier, the
influences of these two photographers are acknowledged. Applying the six
perspectives of Paul Martin Lester’s method of visual analysis to the work of this
researcher, this underscores the importance of the stylistic similarities.
Figure 6.1: Model wearing fur (Cordier 2011)
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Astrid Cordier - Model wearing fur (Figure. 6.1)
The first image to be analysed is titled Model wearing fur, 2011. Renate Arndt is the
model. The photograph is monotone, the researcher photographed the image in
colour and converted it to monotone.
Figure 6.2: Compositional analysis of Model wearing fur
Cordier 2011)
The image is photographed in a studio with a white backdrop and backlighting. The
composition is central with the model facing the right. The model stares over her
right shoulder (indicated by green arrow in figure 6.2). This creates a motion vector
that draws the viewer’s eye to the left side of the image. The positive space that the
model occupies is more than the negative space of the background. The central
positioning of the model (figure 6.2) is not symmetrical and the balance in the
composition is gained by the positioning of the model’s head and arms in the image.
The influence of Penn’s use of monotone is evident in this researcher’s image.
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There are several shapes that are used to compose the image. The model’s head
forms an oval (see blue oval) that is balanced on a triangle (see yellow triangle
Figure 6.2). This triangular shape creates a base for the image and balances the
oval shape.
The depth is limited in the image. The model’s face and garment is in focus,
whereas the white background has no depth. This draws the viewer’s attention to
the model instead of the background. Backlighting is used to lift the model from the
background. The soft haziness of the light falling on the outline of the model
separates her from the background and produces a flattering diffused light effect.
There is a lack of movement in the image. The model is smoking a cigarette but the
way the arm is positioned does not imply motion in the pose.
When analysing from the personal perspective, the image evokes a sense of
sophistication and elegance. Since the image is photographed in a white studio, the
effect is to detach the model from the background setting. When viewing the image,
the question can be asked: what does the cigarette signify? A possible answer is
that it may signify the empowerment of women. It was seen as a symbol of
supremacy in the 1950s when a woman smoked a cigarette. The body language is
sensual, evocative and seductive. The way the model is staring over her bare
shoulder signifies the alluring sophistication of the woman.
The historical perspective can cause confusion as far as the viewer is concerned.
The image is photographed in 2011 for the purpose of comparison with 1950s
fashion photographers. The styling, composition and background share similarities
but the actual timeline has a sixty-year difference.
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The technical perspective also differs from that of the 1950s fashion photographers.
The image was photographed with a Canon EOS 1D Mark III digital camera with a
70 to 200mm zoom lens. The aperture was f/5.6, the focal length of the lens was
105mm and the shutter speed was 1/60. This researcher used studio flashes on the
background and a diffused electronic flash to light the model. This researcher used
Adobe Photoshop software to retouch the image in post-production.
When analysing the ethical perspective the image has no damaging influence on
society. No harm was done to the models, photographers or viewers by the
producing or viewing of the images.
The cultural considerations for the image are more complicated. In the 1950s Penn
and Avedon showed models smoking cigarettes in their images. This was not seen
as unwomanly or unsociable. In this researcher’s image the model is also smoking
but in the 2010s this is not seen as a sociable and acceptable behaviour for a lady.
In the 2010s it is prohibited to smoke in most public spaces. There is thus a
difference in the cultural perspectives of the different eras.
As a result of examining the image thoroughly according to the above perspectives,
a critical analysis can now be done. The conclusion can be drawn that Figure 6.1
has stylistic similarities that show the influence of 1950s fashion photographer, Irving
Penn, on the researcher’s fashion photograph. This implies that the significance of
the 1950s photographers is evident in the contemporary fashion photography of the
researcher and that the common characteristics of 1950s fashion photography can
sometimes be seen as important in the practice of contemporary fashion
photography.
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6.3 Astrid Cordier - Lady behind fountain (Figure 6.3)
The next visual analysis will be done on the researcher’s image titled Lady behind
fountain 2011 (Figure 6.3), with the model, Este Swanepoel. The image is
photographed in colour and converted to monochrome. The image relies on the
monochrome contrast to enhance the garment the model is wearing and to add
drama to the image.
Figure 6.3: Lady behind fountain (Cordier 2011)
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The compositional elements in this image rely on the lighting to place the focus on
the model. The model is placed slightly off-centre on the right-hand side (figure 6.4
indicated by green line), looking away into the distance and showing her profile. The
fountain on the left is bigger in the frame but the darker lighting on the fountain draws
the viewer’s eye away from it, to the lighter of model. The wind blowing through the
shawl and the positioning of the arms create a diagonal line (see cyan line) that
creates movement in the image. A triangle is visible in the fountain (see yellow
triangle). All of these shapes create a dynamic and interesting composition that
leads the viewer’s eye through the image and holds it there.
Figure 6.4: Compositional analysis
of Lady behind fountain (Cordier
2011)
The depth is focused on the model and less on the background. The viewer can see
some detail in the background but the main focus is on the model in the foreground.
In Figure 6.4 the model’s right arm and the wind blowing the shawl creates a
diagonal line that is similar to the photograph done by Richard Avedon, Dovima with
elephants, (Figure 6.5). Dynamism is introduced to composition by the use of these
diagonal lines.
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Figure 6.5: Dovima with elephants (Avedon 1955)
From a personal perspective, Figure 6.3 has a dramatic impact on the viewer. The
influence of Dovima with elephants is evident in the styling of the garment, the hair,
the make-up and the use of monochrome. Both images use monochrome that
creates contrast in the garment the model is wearing and both images utilise the
pose of the model to add dynamism to the image. In Figure 6.5 elephants are also
used to add tension and drama to the image. In Figure 6.3 the water feature and
architectural background is used to make an elegant statement.
The historical perspective is perplexing when viewing Lady behind fountain (Figure
6.3) because it was photographed in 2011 but appears to have been photographed
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in the 1950s. The influence of Avedon is very noticeable in Figure 6.3 although there
is a sixty-year difference in the timeline.
The image in Figure 6.3 was taken with a Canon EOS 1D Mark III digital camera.
The lens the photographer used is a 70 to 200mm zoom lens. The aperture was
f/5.6, the focal length of the lens was 85mm and the shutter speed was 1/160. Adobe
Photoshop post-production software was used to retouch the image. The image was
initially captured in colour and then converted to monochrome. The retouching
technique consisted of lightening some parts of the image and darkening other parts
to place the focus on the model and not the fountain.
No harm was done to the models, photographers or viewers by the making of the
image.
From a cultural perspective, Lady behind fountain represents the social ideals of
womanhood. The image uses the social influence of the 1950s era of femininity and
sophistication as a basis. The model’s pose is a goddess-like pose that symbolizes
strength, beauty and exquisiteness. The image is trying to capture the 1950s ideal
of the perfect women.
The critical issues revealed by the analysis of the image, Lady behind fountain, show
how much the iconic image, Dovima with elephants has influenced contemporary
photographers and fashion designers. Figure 6.3 brings to light how this influence is
noticeable in contemporary photography and why it is so important to study the work
of Richard Avedon to learn from his knowledge gained through years of experience
in fashion photography.
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6.4 Synopsis of chapter six
In this chapter the influence of Irving Penn and Richard Avedon on fashion
photography in the 2010s was analysed. The influences were evaluated by
analysing images by this researcher. By applying the six perspectives of the Paul
Martin Lester method of visual analysis to the work of this researcher the stylistic
similarities were identified.
One of these similarities is the use of monochrome imagery. By extracting colour
from an image the photographer is left with only two options to create a striking
image, these are composition and lighting. By using undiffused lighting as seen in
figure 6.1 and 6.3, the contrast creates a bold image that shows textures and
different tones. Avedon and Penn used these lighting techniques to create their
1950s fashion photographs.
Figure 6.1 uses a simple composition; with a plain white studio background to
eliminate background detail and place focus only on the model. Penn often used this
technique to create his studio images.
Figure 6.3 is made up of a more complicated composition, as influenced by Avedon’s
cinematic type backgrounds that create movement and atmosphere in the image.
Avedon used this technique in his image Dovima with elephants (figure 6.5), which
inspired the composition for Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.1 has used Penn’s technique of adding movement by use of motion vectors.
This technique involves the model’s gaze. The viewer’s eye moves through the
image and follows the models gaze. Figure 6.3 also has movement in the
composition but this time it is created by the use of diagonal lines in the composition.
Avedon used the same diagonal lines to create movement in his images.
The purpose of figure 6.1 and 6.3 is to present a sense of sophistication and
elegance in contemporary fashion photography. By incorporating the characteristics
of the1950s fashion photographers it is possible to recreate their ideal of femininity
and womanliness in contemporary fashion photography.
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Chapter six presented the findings and how they may be used to guide the
production of images in the style of the 1950s. The images created by applying the
characteristics of 1950s fashion photographers are enduring because of their classic
style and personification of a woman. Contemporary fashion photographs inspired
by 1950s fashion photographers use a combination of contemporary technology and
the main focus of the 1950s, femininity.
Chapter seven will summarise and conclude on the findings of the study. Then the
contribution of the study will be noted. Presenting ideas for further research will
follow this. The chapter will conclude with closing comments.
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CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
7.1 Summary and conclusion
Fashion has defined the way people see themselves and how they want to be seen.
It distinguishes the individual from the crowd. It is evidence of a specific time and
place. It is a testimony to a society, morality and politics of an era. Bonnie English
(2007:100) strengthens this notion by stating that, “Dress signals an individual’s
politics and morality”. By examining photographers, Richard Avedon and Irving
Penn’s, fashion images of the1950s a general picture can be drawn of that era.
In this study the significance of the fashion photography of Avedon and Penn in the
1950s has been explored by visually analysing photographs by them. The influence
of 1950s fashion photography on the fashion photography of the 2010s has been
analysed by comparing the work of Avedon and Penn to contemporary fashion
photographers, Steven Meisel and Matthew Rolston. The findings of this study have
been applied to the photographic work of the researcher in an attempt to illustrate
how the stylistic approach and technique can be applied to practically solving fashion
photography challenges that reflect a 1950s sensibility.
7.1.1 Summary of the preceding chapters
In chapter one, a background was given on fashion photography in the late 1940s
after the war, with the main focus on the 1950s. An in-depth background to the
fashion photography of Avedon and Penn in the 1950s followed this. The distinctive
characteristics of each of the photographers was studied and it was found that each
had a unique style that distinguished their fashion photography from their peers.
Avedon introduced a cinematic quality into fashion photography. He moved with his
models, creating images that were alive and captured in action. This motion was
always accompanied by emotion. He made his models laugh, cry and express
emotion rarely seen before in fashion photographs of the 1950s.
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Avedon was not afraid to challenge politics, society or culture. As stated in Chapter
one, Avedon was a man of his time, always attuned to society and culture. When
Avedon was given the opportunity to travel to Paris for Harpers Bazaar magazine
(USA), he pursued it passionately. The images from his Paris trips have been
exhibited and published and are still noted as significant today.
Avedon had a unique printing method that placed soft focus on some parts of the
image to diffusing unwanted information. Avedon was distracted by the detail in the
backgrounds, as mentioned in Chapter one, and decided to eliminate this by placing
sharp focus on the subject and soft focus on the background. Avedon also
experimented with slow shutter speeds to enhance blur in his fashion images.
Avedon was highly attuned to his surroundings. When he composed images he
used lines to create dramatic graphic compositions. He concentrated on settings
that were clean and uncluttered.
Chapter one also included a background on Penn. Penn was the other fashion
photographer of the 1950s that had a very distinctive style of work. Penn was one of
the first photographers to introduce the models to a grey or white backdrop in the
studio. He used the backdrops to isolate the models from the reality of their
environments. His signature style included his crisp; white backgrounds with
undiffused lighting that was very contrasting.
Penn paid meticulous attention to every element of the composition, from the
garment, to the hair, make-up and accessories; he created the image with precise
attention to detail. Penn would work on the arrangement of different picture
elements until he found the perfect composition to photograph.
He was noted for his way of capturing a model’s penetrating gaze. As mentioned in
chapter one, the simple and direct way in which he photographed models in a studio
were a revelation in the 1950s. Penn had a unique way of lighting a fashion
photograph. His studio was transformed into a big light tent by the use of roof
windows. He sculpted the models’ features with light to bring forth their beauty and
glamour.
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Penn’s style was very graphic. This can be seen in his use of contrast and shape,
and in the way he composed. His compositions were uncomplicated and plain.
Compared to other fashion photographers at the time who did similar work, his style
was unique.
In Chapter two different methods of visual analysis were described and a suitable
method of visual analysis for the study was chosen. A short description of the
following methods of visual analysis was given: Content Analysis, Visual
Anthropology, Cultural Studies, Semiotics and Iconography. These different
methods were assessed to eliminate the ones that would not be suitable for this
particular study.
Paul Martin Lester’s method of visual analysis was chosen (from his book Visual
Communication: Images with messages 2003) because it could be applied to images
from any era and all fields of visual media. The visual analysis method, consisting of
the six perspectives, namely, the personal, historical, technical, ethical, cultural and
critical perspectives, was applied to the different images of 1950s and 2010s fashion
photographers. An in-depth description of each of the perspectives was given as
well as the four basic visual cues.
In Chapter three, the visual analysis method developed by Lester was applied to the
work of the fashion photographers, Avedon and Penn, to reveal the historical
contents as well as the social and cultural aspects of 1950s society. By applying
Lester’s method of visual analysis, the messages in the images were deconstructed.
By visually analysing fashion photography from the 1950s, Avedon and Penn’s
stylistic qualities were revealed. To understand what the impact was of these
stylistic qualities on contemporary photography, a comparison of contemporary
fashion photographers was done in the Chapter four.
In Chapter four, a visual analysis was done on the contemporary fashion
photographs of Steven Meisel and Matthew Rolston. The analysis showed the
similarities and influences of the 1950s on the 2010s.
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These stylistic similarities can be summarised in the statement made by Evans
(2003: Introduction) on the importance of objects [fashion garments]:
Objects [fashion garments] are both objects and images, that are bearers of meaning
particularly as they are so closely associated with the human body that slant both
from the past and into the future.
Culture creates appearances that relate to contemporary ideas and preferences.
The evidence that designs of the 1950s influenced the Louis Vuitton range, And God
created women (2010), is testimony to the fact that society in the 2010s is still
influenced by the 1950s fashion designers and fashion photographers. Chapter
four’s visual analysis revealed the stylistic qualities that clearly showed the influence
of Avedon and Penn on the contemporary fashion photographers, Meisel and
Rolston’s work.
The premise in chapter five was that the fashion photographers of the 1950s greatly
influenced those of the 2010s, by means of a comparison of fashion photographers
from both eras, Avedon and Penn (1950s) and Meisel and Rolston (2010s) the
changes and fashions of the eras could be documented. Sontag (1977:62) notes the
importance of this documentation in the following assertion: “It is through
photography predominantly that we understand the styles and history of fashion as
an inventory of time”.
The fashion photographs of the 1950s captured the culture and sophistication of the
era. Avedon and Penn saw the immense possibilities of the fashion photograph and
used it as a tool to inform and document. Guy et al (2004:Introduction) pointed out,
“Clothes like photography are visual templates of a time period, location, experience
and link to others”. The fashion photographers of that era were acutely aware of
fashion’s significance, not only as a construction of the time and space of identity but
also that designers maintained rigorous control over their work within the broader
cultural arena. Avedon and Penn were able to capture the importance of fashion in
culture truthfully. The platform they used to document and express their findings
were the fashion magazines of the time, Avedon at Harper’s Bazaar USA and Penn
at Vogue USA. Consequently Radner (1995:56) explains that: “A magazine is a
cultural reservoir that functions as literacy within a certain ‘arena’”.
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Barthes had a theory of “image clothing”, which was the combination of photography
and fashion. In this regard Barthes (2006:22) explained that:
Fashion photography as a cutting edge art form, is a process of
representation rather than a literal depiction and celebrates lifestyle
(romantic, ironic or documenting the realistic) rather than illustration. The
one relies on the other, without the clothes the fashion photographer is
lost, and vice versa. The image of the clothing, however, is informed by the
associations, of youth, adventure, femininity, masculinity, which exists in
the written material of which emerge as part of our cultural understanding.
The photographs of the 1950s capture the culture of the time and preserve it for
future studies. Photographers in the 2010s use the information and messages found
in the 1950s fashion photographs to create images that are reminiscent of the 1950s
(as noted in Chapter five). Heller & Filli (2006: Introduction) asks,
Why do we choose to imitate something we have seen before? Imitation has social
value - imitation involves the familiar and there is an existing set of values and
historical precedent to which we can refer.
By examining the images of the 1950s a broader understanding of the era is gained.
To excel in the future one needs to return to the past, to draw from the attributes that
created successful fashion photographs. English (2007:18) strengthened this notion
by stating, “A way of knowing and researching the narrative of history is found in
images and clothes”. Therefore, visual analysis is crucial to comprehend the
meanings in these images.
In Chapter six, this researcher applied Lester’s method of visual analysis to a
selected sample of her own photographs to study the influence of the 1950s fashion
photographers on her contemporary body of work. It was found that by using the
characteristics in the images of these photographers in contemporary images, an
influence could be noted and built upon.
The influence of Penn can be seen in the photograph, Model wearing fur (Figure
6.1), by the use of the model being set against a crisp, white background. The
simple graphic composition and undiffused lighting used to photograph the model
are also characteristic of Penn’s 1950s images.
126
The penetrating gaze of the model is also characteristic of the emotion Penn brought
to his fashion images. The way the model’s body is positioned with the shoulder
slightly raised, gives the image the glamorous and sophisticated 1950s look.
The historical perspective mentioned that the image (Figure 6.1) was taken in the
2010s though it seemed as if it might have been taken during the 1950s. This is
owing to the influence of Penn’s style on the creation of the image.
The technical perspectives noted the different mediums used to photograph the
image (Figure 6.1) and the difference between the modern digital camera and the
film camera used in the 1950s. The difference in re-touching was also noted in
Chapter six, in that the researcher used Adobe Photoshop post-production software,
while Penn used chemical processing and hand-printing darkroom techniques to
create his stylistic effects.
The cultural perspective noted a difference in society between the 1950s and the
2010s. The model holding a cigarette was characteristic of the 1950s and not of the
2010s.
Therefore, from a critical perspective, it was concluded that the influences of Penn’s
1950s images were evident on the photograph of Model wearing fur (Figure 6.1).
The different characteristics of Penn’s work were evident as an influence on the
researcher’s image (Figure 6.1).
The second image of the researcher that was analysed in Chapter six was Lady
behind fountain (Figure 6.3). This image showed clear influences of Avedon’s
image, Dovima with elephants (Figure 6.5). The way the image was composed and
the use of motion in the image implied by the use of diagonal lines, were
characteristics of Avedon’s 1950s fashion photographs.
The image (Figure 6.3) relied on the contrast of monotone to add the dramatic effect,
in the same way as Avedon’s image (Figure 6.5). Thus, from a historical perspective
it was noted that the image of the researcher (Figure 6.3), which was photographed
in the 2010s, seemed as if it was photographed in the 1950s because of the
characteristic similarities with Avedon’s 1950s images.
127
As with the previous image (Figure 6.1) the technical perspective noted that the
medium used was a digital camera and not a film camera as Avedon used in the
1950s. The post-production software used was Adobe Photoshop, whereas Avedon
used darkroom-printing techniques to create the high contrast monotone effect.
The critical perspective concluded that as there were noticeable similarities between
the image Lady behind fountain (Figure 6.3) and Dovima with elephants (Figure 6.5),
the influence of Avedon on the researcher’s contemporary images was evident.
The images from the practical portfolio that were not analysed in the text are
attached in Addendum A and B. Addendum A shows the images that are influenced
by Richard Avedon and Addendum B shows the researcher’s images that are
influenced by Irving Penn.
7.1.2 Contribution of the study
The study has contributed in two ways. The first is via the literary contribution to the
field of fashion photography, and especially that of 1950s fashion photographers,
Avedon and Penn. There is not a lot of literature in this field of photography that is
explored in a scholarly way. Most writings in this field only document images, and do
not visually analyse them as done in this study.
The second contribution of this study was the creation of a contemporary
photographic body of work (see Chapter six) that was inspired and informed by the
approaches of the 1950s fashion photographers, Avedon and Penn, by recreating
1950s approaches via the utilization of contemporary tools and technologies.
7.1.3 Further research
Because of the lack of literature available in this field of fashion photography, further
research can be conducted in fashion photography to expand the academic literature
in this field. In this study only two of the 1950s fashion photographers were explored
in a scholarly way, future researchers could be guided to the other leading fashion
photographers of the 1950s, including Norman Parkinson and Henry Clarke.
128
Richard Avedon and Irving Penn both had long, successful careers in fashion
photography; further research can explore their stylistic changes through their
decades in fashion photography.
Steven Meisel and Matthew Rolston are both contemporary fashion photographers
whose work has not been documented in a scholarly way. Further research can be
conducted in exploring their fashion photography and different stylistic
characteristics.
7.1.4 Closing comments
Fashion photographs of the 1950s had a ‘real’ connotation because of the
characteristics of the photographs of that time: movement, emotion, enjoyment and
a sense of freedom. By applying these characteristics to fashion photographs in the
2010s, one could benefit immensely. As Heller & Filli (2006: introduction) assert, “A
style of any time is a significant enhancement or ‘imprint’ of a particular age”. The
revival of 1950s fashion designs in the 2010s is testimony that the 1950s still have
an influence on present society and culture. Style is a commercial and cultural
signifier of time and context.
Heller & Filli (2006: introduction) reinforces this concept by stating, “In retrospect, a
style reveals the distinctive aesthetics of a particular time; it becomes a part of a
shared language and thus part of design history”. The fashion photographers
succeeded in capturing the essence of the 1950s and in contemporary society
fashion photographers are using the characteristics of these fashion photographers,
Avedon and Penn, to create images that transcend the different eras. In conclusion
the purpose of the study has been fulfilled. The value and relevance of the fashion
photography of Avedon and Penn on fashion photography in the 2010s, has been
established and the knowledge gained from the study has been applied to the
production of the practical portfolio of fashion photographs by the researcher.
129
REFERENCES
8.1 BOOKS
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Barthes, R. 1973. Mythologies. London: Paladin.
Barthes, R. 1977. Image-music-text. London: Fontana.
Barthes, R. 1982. Camera lucida: Reflections on photography. London: Jonathan
Cape.
Barthes, R. 1983. The fashion system. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Barthes, R. 1990. New critical essays. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Barthes, R. 2006. The language of fashion. Oxford: Berg Publishers.
Berger, J. 1972. Ways of seeing. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
Bertin, C.1956. Paris a la mode: A voyage of discovery. London: Victor Gollancz Ltd.
Bamford, T. 2003. Viva vintage. London: Caroll & Brown Books.
Chenoune, F., & Bernard, A. 2008. Dior: 60 years of style from Christian Dior to John
Galliano. London: Thames & Hudson.
130
Culler, J. 2002. Barthes: A very short introduction. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Devlin, D. 1979. Vogue book of fashion photography. London: Thames & Hudson.
Elkins. J. 2001. The domain of images. London: Cornell University Press.
English, B. 2007. A cultural history of fashion in the 20th century. New York: Berg
Publications.
Evans, C. 2003. Fashion at the edge: Spectacle, modernity and deathliness. New
Haven: Yale University Press.
Faure, F. 1991. Givenchy: 40 years of creation. Paris: Paris-Musèes.
Guffey, E.E. 2006. Retro: The culture of revival. London: Reaktion.
Guy, A., Green, E., & Banim, M. 2004. Through the wardrobe: Women’s relationship
with their clothes. New York: Berg Publishers.
Hans, J.S. 1994. The golden mean. New York: SUNY Press.
Harrison, M. 1991. Appearances, fashion photography since 1945. London:
Jonathan Cape.
Heller, S., & Filli, L. 2006. Stylepedia. San Francisco: Chronicle Books.
Holborn, M. 1998. Irving Penn regards the work of Issey Miyake: Photographs 1975
to 1998. Boston: Bulfinch Press.
Howell, G. 1979. In Vogue: Sixty years of celebrities and fashion from British Vogue.
London: Penguin Books.
131
Iversen, M. 1986. Saussure v. Pierce: Models for a semiotics of visual art’, in A.L.
Rees & F. Borzello (eds) The new art history. London: Camden Press. pp.82-94.
Jobling, P. 1999. Fashion spreads: Word and image in fashion photography since
1980. New York: Berg Publications.
Lester, P.M. 2003. Visual communication: Images with messages. Third Edition.
Belmont: Wadsworth/ Thomson.
Lodge, D. 1986. Small world. London: Penguin Books.
McRobbie, A. 2008. The aftermath of feminism. London: Sage Publications.
Mill, J. S. 1863. Utilitarianism. London: Savill and Edwards Printers.
Miller, F. P., Vandome, A. P., & Mc Brewster, J. 2009. Categorical imperative.
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Mirzoeff, N. 1998. The visual culture reader. London: Routledge.
Moriarty, M. 1991. Roland Barthes. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Mulvey, K., & Richards, M. 1998. Decades of beauty: The changing image of women
1890s to 1990s. New York: Octopus.
Panofsky, E. 1970. Meaning in the visual arts. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
Paton, H.J. 1947. The categorical imperative: A study in Kant’s moral philosophy.
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Peczenik, A. 2009. Law and philosophy library 8: On law and reason. London:
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132
Radner, H. 1995. Shopping around- Feminine culture and the pursuit of pleasure.
London: Routledge.
Rhodes, Z. 2006. Vintage fashion- Collecting and wearing designer classics.
London: Carlton Books.
Rolston, M. 2008. Beautylight. Los Angeles: teNeues.
Rolston, M. 1991. Big pictures: A book of photographs. New York: Bulfinch Press.
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materials. First edition. London: Sage Publications.
Rose, G. 2010. Visual methodologies: An introduction to the interpretation of visual
materials. Second edition. London: Sage Publications.
Ross, D. A., Livingston, J., & Gopnik, A. 1994. Evidence 1944 to1994, Richard
Avedon. London: Jonathan Cape.
Shukman, A. 1977. Literature and semiotics: A study of the writings of Yu. M.
Lotman. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
Sontag, S. 1977.On photography-The heroism of vision. London: Penguin Books.
Squires, C., & Aletti, V. 2009. Avedon fashion 1944-2000: The definitive collection.
New York: Abrams.
Thody, P. 1977. Roland Barthes: A conservative estimate. London: The Macmillan
Press Ltd.
van Leeuwen, T,. & Jewitt, C. 2008. Handbook of visual analysis. London: Sage
Publications.
133
Watson, L. 2008. Vogue fashion: Over 100 years of style by decade and designer, in
association with Vogue. London: Carlton Books.
Wattles, J. 1996. The golden rule. New York: Oxford University Press.
Webb, J. 2010. Basics creative photography: Design Principles. Case Postale: AVA
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Wells, L. 2001. Photography: A critical introduction. Second edition. New York:
Routledge.
Wilcox, C. 2008. The golden age of couture: Paris and London 1947 to1957.
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8.2 MAGAZINES
Hart, R. 1994. Evidence of Avedon. American Photo, Volume 5 Number 2: 44-84,
March/ April.
Na. 2006. Pop goes elegant: Rolston shoots modern muse Jessica Simpson with an
eye on Hollywood’s past. American Photo, Volume 17 Number 6: 90, November/
December.
8.3 VIDEO
American Masters. Richard Avedon: Darkness and Light. 1996. Director, Helen
Whitney. New York: Wellspring Media Inc. [Video recording].
134
8.4 WEBSITES
Anakin. 2010. Luxuo. [Online]. Available:
http://www.luxuo.com/events/louis-vuitton-fall-2010-ad-campaign.html
[13-10-2011].
Bercovici. J. Nd. Alexander Liberman:Major figure in the look of magazines. [Online].
Available:
http://www.medialifemagazine.com/news1999/nov99/news31122.html
[18-01-2012].
Na. 2010. Anne of Carversville. 2010. [Online]. Available:
http://www.anneofcarversville.com/living/christy-turlington-steven-meisel-in-italyfearless-under-fir.html
[13-10-2011].
Na. 2012. Art+Commerce: Steven Meisel Bio. [Online]. Available:
http://www.artandcommerce.com/AAC/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=AACAC3_63_VFor
m&FRM=Frame:AACAC3_62#/CMS3&VF=AACAC3_63_VForm&FRM=Frame:AAC
AC3_64&SrvRsp=1
[12-01-2012].
Na. 2010. Fashion Gone Rogue. 2010. [Online]. Available:
http://fashiongonerogue.com/louis-vuitton-fall-2010-campaign-christy-turlingtonnatalia-vodianova-karen-elson-steven-meisel/
[13-10-2011].
Na. 2010. Guess the Lighting. 2010. [Online]. Available:
http://guessthelighting.com/post/998036414/copyright-steven-meisel-part-of-abigger-fashion
[15-08-2011].
135
Na. 2010. Italian Vogue. 2010. [Online]. Available:
http://www.vogue.it/en/magazine/cover-story/2010/07/cover-story
[13-10-2011].
Na. 2011. The Internet Movie Database. 2011. [Online]. Available:
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0049189/
[13-10-2011].
Beckett, H. 2008. Steven Meisel: Modern Fashion Inspiration. [Online]. Available:
h t t p : / / h a r r i e t b e c k e t t 5 . b l o g s p o t . c o m / 2 0 0 8 / 0 4 / s t e v e n- m e i se l- m o d e rnfashion.htm l
[12-01-2012].
Clark, D. 2010. Amateur Photographer. [Online]. Available:
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c_Photograph_Dovima_with_Elephants__Richard_Avedon_features_303643.html
[12-10-2011].
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136
van Hensbergen, G. 2009. BBC News Magazine: Piecing together Guernica.
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[16-02-2011].
8.5 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Picasso, P. 1937. Guernica. [Electronic print]. [Online]. Available:
http://www.artwallpapers.org/Guernica/Guernica19201080.jpg
[18-01-2012].
Figure 2.1: Lester, P.M.Visual Communication’s Circle Dance. [Diagram] Visual
Communication: Images with Messages. 2003:6.
Figure 3.1: Avedon, R. 1955. Dovima with elephants. [Photograph] Evidence 1944
to1994, Richard Avedon. 1994:53.
Figure 3.2: Avedon, R. 1955. Compositional analysis of Dovima with elephants.
[Photograph] Evidence 1944 to1994, Richard Avedon. 1994:53.
Figure 3.3: Hart, R. 1994. Avedon’s 8 x10 and lighting gear. [Photograph] American
Photo. 1994:81.
Figure 3.4: Avedon, R. 1955. Dovima with dog. [Photograph] Evidence 1944 to1994,
Richard Avedon. 1994:55.
Figure 3.5: Avedon, R. 1955. Compositional analysis of Dovima with dog.
137
Figure 3.6: Avedon, R. nd. Self Portrait of Richard Avedon. [Electronic print].
http://missavagardner.tumblr.com/post/9841776286/self-portrait-of-richard-avedon
[13-10-2011].
Figure 3.7: Penn, I. 1950. Cocoa-Coloured Balenciaga Dress. [Electronic print]
http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/artwork/144830
[13-10-2011].
Figure 3.8: Penn, I. 1950. Compositional analysis of Cocoa-Coloured Balenciaga
Dress. [Electronic print]
http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/artwork/144830
[13-10-2011].
Figure 3.9: Penn, I. 1950. Irving Penn’s studio, Paris. [Electronic print]. [Online].
Available:
http://observatory.designobserver.com/entry.html?entry=11277
[13-10-2011].
Figure 3.10: Penn, I. 1948. Self-Portrait, Cuzco Studio. [Electronic print]. [Online].
Available:
http://www.christies.com/LotFinder/lot_details.aspx?intObjectID=5314579
[13-10-2011].
Figure 3.11: Penn, I. 1950. Dior wasp-waist dress. [Electronic print]. [Online].
Available:
http://thecouturetouch.blogspot.com/2011/07/dior-wasp-waist-dress.html
[13-10-2011].
138
Figure 3.12: Penn, I. 1950. Compositional analysis of Dior wasp-waist dress.
[Electronic print]. [Online]. Available:
http://thecouturetouch.blogspot.com/2011/07/dior-wasp-waist-dress.html
[13-10-2011].
Figure 4.1: Meisel, S. 2010. And God Created Woman, Louis Vuitton. [Electronic
print]. [Online]. Available:
http://www.viewonfashion.com/open.php?LOUIS-VUITTON_And-God-CreatedWoman&id=7775&seccion=121
[13-10-2011].
Figure 4.2: Meisel, S. 2010. Compositional analysis of And God Created Woman,
Louis Vuitton. [Electronic print]. [Online]. Available:
[13-10-2011].
Figure 4.3: Meisel, S. 2010. Modern and Classic. [Electronic print]. [Online].
Available:
http://www.vogue.it/en/magazine/cover-story
[13-10-2011].
Figure 4.4: Meisel, S. 2010. Compositional analysis of Modern and Classic.
[Electronic print]. [Online]. Available:
[13-10-2011].
Figure 4.5: Penn, I. 1950. Lisa Fonssagrives in Mermaid dress. [Electronic print].
[13-10-2011].
139
Figure 4.6: Rolston, M. 2008. Lift and Separate. [Photograph] Beautylight. 2008:91.
Figure 4.7: Rolston, M. 2008. Compositional analysis of Lift and Separate.
[Photograph] Beautylight. 2008:91.
Figure 4.8: Rolston, M. 2008. Dream girl. [Photograph] Beautylight. 2008:49.
Figure 4.9: Rolston, M. 2008. Compositional analysis of Dream girl. [Photograph]
Beautylight. 2008:49.
Figure 5.1: Meisel, S. 2010. Modern and Classic. [Electronic print]. [Online].
Available:
[13-10-2011].
Figure 5.2: Penn, I. 1950. Lisa Fonssagrives in Mermaid dress. [Electronic print].
[13-10-2011].
Figure 5.3: Rolston, M. 2008. Dream girl. [Photograph] Beautylight. 2008:49.
Figure 5.4: Penn, I. 1950. The Black and White Idea. [Electronic print]. [Online].
Available:
http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/artwork/144829?search_id=1
[13-10-2011].
Figure 5.5: Avedon, R. 1950. Dorian Leigh photographed for Robert Piguet in 1950.
140
Figure 5.6: Meisel, S. 2010. And God Created Woman, Louis Vuitton. [Electronic
print]. [Online]. Available:
[13-10-2011].
Figure 6.1: Cordier, A. 2010. Model wearing fur. [Photograph] (Student portfolio
2011).
Figure 6.2: Cordier, A. 2010. Compositional analysis of Model wearing fur.
[Photograph] (Student portfolio 2011).
Figure 6.3: Cordier, A. 2010. Lady behind fountain. [Photograph] (Student portfolio
2011).
Figure 6.4: Cordier, A. 2010. Compositional analysis of Lady behind fountain.
[Photograph] (Student portfolio 2011).
Figure 6.5: Avedon, R. 1955. Dovima with elephants. [Photograph] Evidence 1944
to1994, Richard Avedon. 1994:53.
141
ADDENDUM A
IMAGES INSPIRED BY RICHARD AVEDON
142
143
Figure A.1
Figure A.2
Figure A.3
144
Figure A.4
Figure A.5
145
Figure A.6
Figure A.7
Figure A.8
146
Figure A.9
Figure A.10
Figure A.11
147
Figure A.12
Figure A.14
148
ADDENDUM B
IMAGES INSPIRED BY IRVING PENN
149
Figure B.1
Figure B.3
150
Figure B.4
Figure B.5
Figure B.6
151
Figure B.7
Figure B.8
Figure B.9
Figure B.10
152
Figure B.11
Figure B.13
Figure B.12
Figure B.14
153
Figure B.15
Figure B.16
154

Astrid Cordier Mtech Photography 2011 forweb

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