“Protecting truth – combating denial”.

1
West Timisoara University, West Timisoara, Romania
Faculty of Economics and Business Administration
Department of Management
Doctoral Thesis
Protecting Truth—Combating Denial:
The Challenge to Manage and Preserve Holocaust Memorial Sites,
to Safeguard Authenticity and Perpetuate Memory
Candidate: Florence Luxenberg-Eisenberg
Prof. Dr. Nicolae Bibu
2
Table of Contents
Dedication……………………………………………………………………………..6
Glossary……………………………………………………………………………….7
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………8
Chapter I
Methodology and Procedure………………………………………………………....21
1.1The Title and the Parameters…………………………………………………...…21
1.2 On the Soil where it Happened …………………………………………………..23
1.2.1 Procedure and Management of the Logistic……………………………………27
1.2.2 Questions on the Ground……………………………………………………….35
Chapter II
Disintegration of Morality and the Collapse of Humanity…………………………...38
2.1 Is there a Word? …………………………………………………………………39
2.2 The End of Justice………………………………………………………………. 43
2.2.1 The Roma Porajmos……………………………………………………………45
2.2.2 The Disabled…………………………………………………………………...47
2.2.3 Homosexuals in the Holocaust…………………………………………………50
2.2.4 The Murder of Sephardic Jews from Rhodes…………………………………..52
Chapter III
How was it Possible? A Literature Review………………………………………….55
3.1 The Definition of Evil……………………………………………………………57
3.2 The Timeline of Jewish Elimination……………………………………………..59
3.3 Management’s Dark Side: Administrative Evil in the Holocaust………………..63
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Chapter IV
The Decimation of Truth and Denial of Reality……………………………………...72
4.1 Twisted Logic…………………………………………………………………….74
4.1.2 Granting Legitimacy. The 1936 Nazi Olympics……………………………….78
4.1.3 The Red Cross Visit to Theresienstadt…………………………………………82
4.2 Contemporary Slander……………………………………………………………87
4.2.1 Canadian Holocaust Denial…………………………………………………….92
4.2.2 United Nations: Managing Remembrance…………………………………….98
4.2.3 The UN Paradox………………………………………………………………104
Chapter V
What about Romania? …………………………………………………………….107
5.1 Romania’s Forgotten……………………………………………………………111
5.1.2 A Special Tribute to the Neuman Family……………………………………..113
5.2 “Penetrante Indifferentei”: Management Challenges for Romania……………..121
5.2.1 Slow Changes: Management of the Elie Wiesel Institute for Studying the
Holocaust in Romania………………………………………………………………130
5.2.2 Silence Shattered: The Mass Grave in Iasi……………………………………133
Chapter VI
Managing Holocaust Memorial Sites: Cemeteries without Stones…………………146
6.1 Where it began: Management of Memorial Sites in Germany………………….153
6.1.2 Beginning of the End: Managing Dachau! …………………………………..155
6.1.3 Managing Sachsenhausen: A Guardian of Memory…………………………..169
6.1.4 Remembering the Faces of our Sisters: Managing Ravensbruck……………..176
6.2 Berlin’s Establishments for Perpetuation of Memory…………………………..192
6.2.1 Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe…………………………………...193
6.2.2 Breaking down the Barrier: Managing a Hitler Exhibition…………………...199
6.2.3 Otto Weidt and Silent Heroes: Managing Resistance and Bravery…………...208
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Chapter VII
Grounds of Grief: Managing Memorial Sites in Poland……………………………210
7.1 Auschwitz! Managing and Preserving Auschwitz-Birkenau…………………...218
7.1.2 Conservation Challenges in Auschwitz………………………………………227
7.1.3 Challenges for Education……………………………………………………..231
7.1.4 Management Structure of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation……………...234
7.2 Alone in the Dark. Plaszow …………………………………………………… 239
7.2.1 Just Beginning: Managing the Schindler Museum…………………………...241
7.3 Stutthof! Managing Death’s Gate………………………………………………245
7.3.1 “The Hanan Project.” A Jewish survivor from Stutthof………………………250
7.4 Wannsee! The Final Termination of the Jew…………………………………...256
7.4.1 Genocide to Remembrance: Managing the Wannsee House…………………261
7.5 Speaking for the Perished: Managing Sites of Mass Extermination……………271
7.5.1 Chelmno Weeps! …………………………………………………………….275
7.5.2 Where Silence Screams: Managing Treblinka……………………………….281
7.5.3 Ashes and Ravens: Managing the State Museum at Majdanek……………….295
7.5.4 Ashes, Graves, Shadows, and Tears: Managing Belzec! ……………………311
7.5.5 Tell about the Ashes and the Brave: Managing Sobibor……………………...326
7.6 What are their Thoughts? ……………………………………………………...340
7.7 Managing Poland’s Institutes of Research, Education, and Memory…………..347
7.7.1 Museum of the History of Polish Jews………………………………………..348
7.7.2 Guardian of Jewish Collections: Jewish Historical Institute………………….353
7.7.3 Institutes of National Remembrance………………………………………….357
7.7.4 Past into Present: Managing the Galicia Jewish Museum……………………363
Chapter VIII
Others that Stand Alone…………………………………………………………….368
8.1Babi Yar: Ashes in a Ravine…………………………………………………….370
8.1.2 Despite Adversity: Managing Ukraine’s Holocaust Center…………………..376
8.2 Reaching beyond its Walls: Managing Theresienstadt…………………………379
8.2.1 Where Objects Speak: Managing the Jewish Museum in Prague…………….392
8.3 Resistance and Spirit: Managing the Ghetto Fighters’ House………………….400
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Chapter IX
Narrowing the Gap: Findings, Observations, Suggestions…………………………408
9.1 Israel’s Role…………………………………………………………………….418
9.1.2 Proposals for Change…………………………………………………………420
9.1.3 Personifying Loss: Managing Yad Vashem’s Hall of Names………………..421
9.2 A Plea to the International Community………………………………………...427
Chapter X
Looking Ahead: Survivors and Projects…………………………………………….430
10.1 Lights from the Dark: Survivors………………………………………………430
10.2 Personal Contributions for the Future…………………………………………437
Chapter XI
Near the end of an Era: Conclusion and Final Thoughts…………………………...439
References
Primary Sources…………………………………………………………………….443
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………..448
Webliography……………………………………………………………………….454
Filmography………………………………………………………………………...461
Appendix and Acknowledgement…………………………………………………..462
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“Only guard yourself and guard your soul carefully, lest you
forget the things your eyes saw, and lest these things depart
your heart all the days of your life. And you shall make
them known to your children and your children’s children.”
-Deuteronomy 4:9
Doar garda-vă şi protejaţi-vă sufletul cu grijă, ca nu cumva să uitaţi de dvs. Lucruri
vedeau ochii, şi ca nu cumva aceste ting tings abate inima ta toate zilele vieţii tale. Şi
să le faces cunoscute copiilor dumneavoastră şi copiii copiilor vostri.
-Deuteronomy 4:9
Dedicated to the Neuman family; my grandmother Regina;
Simon and Malchen Tachauer; my sister Esther and father
Louis, always in my heart. To the millions who perished and
those who hear their cries; to those who survived and those
who speak out. To those who struggle to preserve memorial
sites, and strive to protect truth.
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Glossary
Most of the terms below are used in the research. Some are translated
into German, as used in the research. Some words are also translated
into Romanian. There are terms where their definitions depend on the
context.
Administrative evil. Performing evil deeds for the good of the
organization to feel part of that organization.
Crematoriums. An installation used to cremate loved ones. In the
Holocaust it refers to installations where bodies of Jews were
incinerated in ovens and where Jews were forced to perform this
heinous act. Ashes were not placed in urns but strewn around the
grounds of the area.
Aktion 1005: Operation referring to the exhumation and burning of
corpses to hide the Nazi atrocities.
Einsatzgruppen: Mobile killing units. SS paramilitary death squads
charged with the mass extermination of Jews following the invasion of
the Soviet Union.
Euphemism: A term used in a different way to cover up or hide its
true meaning.
Free of Jews: “Judenfrei.” Hitler’s obsession to rid Germany of Jews
Generalgouvernement:
Germans.
Those areas in Poland annexed by the
Genocide: “Volkermord.” The systematic annihilation of a people of
culture. “Genocid.”
Genocide of European Jews: “Volkermord an den Europaischen
Juden.” Referring to the mass extermination of the Jews in Europe
during the Holocaust. “Genocidal din Evrei Europene.”
Holocaust: “Holocaustului”. Term coined by Professor Elie Wiesel
referring to the Genocide of European Jewry during World War II.
Holocaust denial: “Negarea Holocaustului.”
Jewish Extermination Camp: “Judenvernichtungslager.” A site used
for the mass killing of Jews.
Jewish Question: “Judenfrage.” Nazi obsession to find the Final
Solution. “A chestiunii evreieiesti.”
Memorial Site: “Gedenkstaette.” Place for reflection
remembrance often but not exclusively on a former killing site.
and
Moral inversion. Performing despicable and unthinkable acts which
the doer thinks is a good thing to reach the end result.
Museum head: Used in Poland for somebody who manages a
museum branch, usually on a memorial site.
Operation “Erntefest”: Operation Harvest Festival which resulted in
the massacre of 43,000 Jews during a two-day period mainly in the
Majdanek Concentration Camp but also Trawniki and Poniatowa.
Road to Heaven: “Himmelfahrstrasse.” Used cynically by the Nazis
to refer to the road which lead to the gas chambers in Sobibor.
Sonderkommandos: Unit of Jews who had to handle the corpses of
the Jews.
Special treatment or handling: “Sonderbehandlung.” A euphemism
which meant death in the gas chamber.
The East: A euphemism for transporting Jews to the death camps in
Eastern Poland.
The Final Solution: “Die Endlosung.” Label given for the
bureaucratic decision made in an official capacity in January, 1942 to
obliterate all the Jews in Europe using methods of mass extermination.
The Final Solution culminated in the creation of the extermination
sites—Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka for the purpose of total
annihilation. “Solutia Finala.”
The Jew: Der Jude. “Evreul.”
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Introduction
How is it possible that research for a PhD can create a journey involving
the body, the mind, and the human spirit? The following pages illustrate
that journey, through an authentic research investigation into the challenges
to manage and preserve Holocaust memorial sites on their original locations,
exactly where the atrocities occurred during that infamous time period. The
Holocaust which killed over six million Jews was Hitler's attempt to finally
put into fruition, the massive effort to "cleanse" Europe and the world of the
Jewish nation. And because history has the tendency to repeat itself, the
genocide of the Jewish people needs to be remembered. Throughout the
world, the Holocaust generates a lot of emotion; people are angry about it,
hurt by it, and some refuse to remember it. Because there are so many
people still affected by it; those who lost families, survivors from
concentration camps who will never be the same, the ominous nakedness of
the once thriving Jewish communities in Europe which are no more—the
significant impact of the Holocaust has created a worldwide network of
remembrance through museums springing up, educational programs in
schools, Holocaust studies programs, lectures, seminars, and testimonies by
survivors. Because of the natural life cycle, there is the fear that when
survivors won't be around anymore and
there are no more firsthand
accounts of what it was like, genocide could happen again. Due to that,
there is the "pressure of preservation," that the stories of survivors and their
experiences are never forgotten; that people for years to come can learn
about the Holocaust—to attempt to understand how heinous it really was.
Many Holocaust researchers focus on different aspects of the event and
the atrocities which took place, often specializing in one area of examination
while not addressing others. The "now" of the Holocaust has not been
thoroughly investigated.
And in the face of Holocaust denial gaining
legitimacy even in public forums, we are at the brink-- about to enter into
the abyss. We are at humanity's greatest challenge. How can truth be
protected in the face of those who wish to destroy it? As a result, I decided
to embark onto exploring the challenges faced by those who manage and
maintain the Holocaust sites. The term "sites" rather than "camps" is used
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more frequently in this research because "camp" was and still is a
euphemistic term conjured up by the Nazis to hide the true intent of their
crimes. We still use the term "concentration camps" and even "extermination
camps" to label those places where people were starved, tortured, gassed and
burned. They are memorial sites and sacred ground. They are and never
were "camps." And even those terms can create misconceptions unless
properly explained.1 The research explores the management challenges
faced by those (some under great difficulties) who work on the subject of the
Holocaust on a daily basis, on authentic ground, as seen through their eyes.
And it is this that makes this research unique. It supports the following
statement: Preservation of the sites would safeguard authentic evidence,
protect truth, and keep Holocaust memory alive while combating deniers of
atrocities—that Holocaust remembrance is not just one element but a huge
network, all part of a ripple effect which expands while managing it. There
are many questions that are answered in the research through the
investigation and they are discussed in the methodology and procedure. In
order to get a clear picture of the challenges to manage and preserve
memorial sites while at the same time doing the research authentically and
thoroughly, I felt the necessity to travel to the actual locations where the
events took place and to speak directly to the museum heads, managers, and
directors on the sites themselves—to see for myself with my own eyes what
the condition of the sites are today, what problems there are for the directors
and museum heads, and to come up with suggestions for the future. This
allowed for a reexamination of what exactly is involved with the
management of Holocaust remembrance—that it does not involve one thing
but a blend of different elements. As a result, locations were chosen very
carefully and for different reasons. The journey as mentioned earlier was as
spiritual as it was physical and arduous (former greater than latter).
With no financial assistance to speak of and at great cost, I embarked
onto a voyage of the spirit not only for research but a great desire to make a
contribution to humanity and my people, to try and at least attempt to answer
1
Some of these terms are discussed in the research, such as crematoriums instead of incinerators and
other euphemistic terms, which although adopted in Holocaust jargon, can lead to misconceptions
about actual events which took place. For the purpose of this research, Shoah (Hebrew term) and
Holocaust are used interchangeably.
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the questions: What is Holocaust remembrance and how can something
abstract such as remembrance be managed? Where do we go from here?
What can be done so we remember not to forget? Who is responsible if not
all of us?
What are the challenges faced by museum heads in the
management and maintenance of the site in the face of economic woes,
Holocaust denial, and anti-Semitism? What are the differences in the
challenges for museum heads on sites left with artifacts such as Auschwitz
and those that were completely decimated like Sobibor? And it supports the
statements that: Preservation of the sites would preserve the authentic
evidence and keep the Holocaust memory alive while combating deniers of
atrocities; that this represents the biggest management challenge because
humanity is at the brink; many elements contribute to managing Holocaust
remembrance and the protection of truth.
As well, it examines the
difficulties in terms of managing the site under sometimes very challenging
circumstances—on a personal level as much as on an economic level and
examines the problem of managing preservation and conservation to
safeguard authenticity while at the same time figuring out how much of the
existing structure can be altered, without effecting the former.
It also
provides the reader with greater insight into other institutions and memorials
besides the sites themselves, and the managers and directors of those
contributors to Holocaust remembrance, such as the Institutes of National
Remembrance, Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe in Berlin, the
Jewish museums, the Holocaust Center in Kiev, the Jewish Historical
Institute, the House of the Wannsee Conference and many more auxiliaries
that make their contribution to the dignity of man and the memory of the
Jewish genocide. Individuals such as the former Polish Ambassador to
Israel and the Chief Rabbi of Poland, Holocaust survivors, and the forensic
archaeologist who recently discovered mass graves on Treblinka—all of
them contribute to this vast network.
This research is authentic.
Investigating the sites in their existing states (thirteen of them in a one year
period) and more importantly, conversing with those who are responsible for
their maintenance and management, has not been done to this extent. It
evaluates the role of Israel in terms of Holocaust remembrance management
and suggestions for the future in this area. It provides the realization that
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managing Holocaust remembrance is not just Yad Vashem, not just the
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM), not just hundreds
of museums springing up worldwide beyond European soil, not just learning
in the schools, not just the revival of Jewish communities in Europe, not just
Holocaust Memorial Day in the UN or Israel, not just school trips to Poland
(which in and of themselves must be changed and will be discussed), and
not even only Auschwitz-- but a combination and merging of all of these and
more, contributing to the perpetuation of memory; remembering the
extermination of a people and culture. The model of where they all fit into
this vortex is provided at the end of this paper. It provides a historical
review of the Jewish genocide and an in depth look at the birth of and
modern battle with Holocaust denial and deniers who have made headlines.
It recognizes the revival of some of the Jewish communities which were
completely obliterated. It takes a look at Romania's shattered silence with
the discovery of the mass grave near Iasi and what is going on in that
country in terms of Holocaust remembrance management, particularly
through the dedication and effort of those who manage the Elie Wiesel
Institute for Studying the Holocaust in Romania. 2 At this point, it must be
mentioned that it is a privilege and honor to present the research on the 70th
anniversary of several significant events which took place towards and
during the genocide of European Jewry. The years 2011 to 2013 are those of
commemoration and ceremonies. But commemoration and ceremonies are
not necessarily enough, as this paper will illustrate. It is not enough to stand
and commemorate, for solutions must be found on how to combat antiSemitism, xenophobia, racism, and Holocaust denial. September 2011
marked the massacre at Babi Yar in Kiev which has become a symbol of the
mass graves and killing fields around the Ukraine3. But it was hardly
discussed in Israel although the 70th anniversary occurred during the Jewish
2
Although Holocaust memorial sites on location are the focus of the research, Romania is
included as an integral part of creating a greater understanding of this wide area, the process
and challenges it is going through in terms of Holocaust remembrance management, and
acknowledgement of responsibility in terms of Jewish persecution and deportations especially
to Transnistria.
3
Babi Yar outside Kiev is one of the sites visited by author. Within two days, approximately
35,000 Jews in Kiev were rounded up and shot into the Babi Yar ravine. There was no mention
th
in Israel of its 70 anniversary.
12
New Year (Rosh Hashanah) of 2011. Having plans to visit the site in
October, I immediately realized the significance of this research. It also
marked the 50th anniversary of the Adolf Eichmann trial for crimes against
humanity and his participation in the genocide of the Jewish people. It is a
year that marked the 70th anniversary of the Iasi pogrom in Romania and the
beginning of Romanian Jewry deportations not long afterwards to
Transnistria. The year 2012 marked the 70th anniversary of the Wannsee
Conference, which legitimized in a well-managed and organized forum the
implementation of extermination en masse—the Final Solution for the
eradication of the Jew. It must also be remembered that annihilation of Jews
were already occurring through mass killings and extermination. Chelmno
gas vans were already in use. Although commemorations took place at the
House of the Wannsee Conference outside Berlin, little was mentioned
about it in Israel. A symposium held at Yad Vashem and attended by the
author in January 2012 focused on the Final Solution, but the names of the
extermination sites were hardly mentioned in the detail they deserved. On
the evening of Holocaust Memorial Day in Israel, the Final Solution's 70th
anniversary was not the theme. The extermination sites of Belzec, Sobibor,
and Treblinka were not mentioned in the ceremony—sites that already
remain invisible to a great degree in terms of Holocaust awareness. Again,
this was an illustration for the necessity of the research. Neither Yad
Vashem nor the Ghetto Fighters' House4 (notwithstanding the wonderful
work they do) had as their theme for Holocaust Memorial Day 2012 the
Final Solution and the establishment of the Operation Reinhard sites of
Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka where over two million Jews were
exterminated. Having returned from these sites October 2011, it illustrates
again the necessity for this research. It also marked the sinking of the ship
"Struma" which took off from Constanta with 769 Jewish souls attempting
4
Yad Vashem is the Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority Museum of the
Shoah which focuses on remembrance and commemoration as well as the gathering of victims'
names. It is often visited by dignitaries who visit Israel worldwide. The Ghetto Fighters' House
Museum focuses on educational projects and was the first museum of the Shoah in Israel,
originally established by survivors themselves. They hold the ceremony for Holocaust
Memorial Day the evening after Yad Vashem. Both do wonderful work but omitted mentioning
th
the 70 anniversary of Operation Reinhard and the sites of extermination—Belzec, Sobibor,
and Treblinka. Both museums chose a different theme for Holocaust Memorial Day.
13
to flee the anti-Semitic regime in Romania and to find safe haven, only to be
torpedoed at sea off the coast of Turkey—no mention of the Struma in
Israel and again, an illustration of the necessity of the research. This year
2013 marks the 70th anniversary of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, the
opening exhibition of the new Warsaw Museum of the History of Polish
Jews, and the Sobibor and Treblinka revolts. The purpose of this research
therefore is multifold. It examines the challenge to manage and preserve
Holocaust memorial sites on location while at the same time safeguarding
authenticity and perpetuating memory, the battle to protect truth from denial,
creating awareness of other sites people may not know of, suggestions for
Israel's role for the future and worldwide cooperation in combating antiSemitism, delegitimizing atrocity deniers,
to provide a comprehensive
definition of what entails Holocaust remembrance, and to come up with
suggestions for the long-term in managing this astronomical task. On a
personal level, the desire to make the research as authentic as possible, to
present the topic with extreme dignity and respect is overpowering and
overwhelming. Pictures and short film clips included in the research and
presentation are authentic, taken on sites and locations from both research
trips. It is this urge to create a powerful impact in the name of the Jewish
people and humanity itself in a dignified manner—that proved and will
prove challenging on all levels at present and for the future. Many Holocaust
researchers suffice themselves with using material available in books,
journals, and the world-wide web. Many have never seen a site on location.
There is a difference between Holocaust knowledge and Holocaust
awareness. How is it possible to do Holocaust research without actually
visiting a memorial site?
Implicit knowledge
Implicit to explicit; more
conscious and tangible.
Awareness-tangible
and using all senses.
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The internet is splashed with erroneous claims by people who have not
really investigated the subject. Misconceptions are presented even on tourist
websites. These will also be included in the research. This research lends
itself to paying attention not only to the sites, but focuses on the people who
are responsible for their management and maintenance; those who dedicate
themselves on a daily basis to the subject of the Holocaust and its relevance
in today's world, how it can be commemorated and remembered, how to
preserve and conserve using very limited resources for the short-term and
the long-term, and on a more personal level-- how to detach oneself from
poignant material day in and day out. The challenges faced by museum
heads on Holocaust sites and directors of various institutes are numerous and
require a tremendous amount of dedication from all participants. There are
the challenges for the sites themselves—preservation and conservation,
maintenance of the grounds, security to prevent looting and vandalism,
accommodating to visitors. Of course, these challenges are similar among
all of them and yet different among many of them. There is also the
personal challenge—the emotional strain of working with traumatic material
on a daily basis, becoming immersed in viewing documents and graphic,
images and more so, ashes of a people. There is also the challenge for the
museum (if there is one) on the site—educational projects, exhibitions,
funding, location, employees, archives, conservation, and the mission. All
of these different parameters are discussed in the research.
What is
paradoxical is that without victims, there would be no museums.
But
without museums, there are still victims. This can be illustrated by such
sites as Babi Yar, Chelmno, and the killing fields around Ukraine, Poland,
Romania and other parts of Europe. And yet, having a museum on a site
like Majdanek or Auschwitz, "speaks" for the victims, providing the viewer
with an authentic look at what happened to these people, at this place, at that
particular time. Most of the museums are individual—that is, they discuss
that particular site giving background on the victims and transports that were
sent there, but focusing on the site itself and what happened. And as opposed
to museums beyond European soil, the visitor is surrounded by remains of
the victims as soon as he or she enters the site. All senses become active—
the sense of smell, the sense of sight, the sense of touch. Museums on the
15
sites paint a picture of what the martyrs had to go through from the time they
arrived until the time they were exterminated. The task of extermination
sites where all evidence was destroyed is more difficult in terms of
sensitization for the visitor.
The murdered victims are there—human
remains can still be seen—and there are silent cries beneath the earth like in
Treblinka which engulf the visitor on the site which has no sign of life.
Many youngsters find Auschwitz and Majdanek more difficult because they
"see" artifacts, barracks, shoes, and a lot of what the Nazis did not have time
to destroy. Extermination sites put the visitor into an abstract mode, using
all senses to imagine the horror of the place and the suffering of the
murdered. Seeing human remains and mounds of ashes, forces the visitor to
believe the unbelievable.
Crematorium III ruins taken by author on location, Auschwitz II, Birkenau.
The relatively new field of what we call the "Management of Holocaust
Remembrance" is a conglomeration of many different elements. It consists
of many facets that make up the whole.
And to define Holocaust
remembrance requires recognition of this. As survivors disappear, these
elements are going to become more pronounced and necessary—all merging
towards the goal of perpetuating memory.
In this research, all these
different elements are examined and where they fit into the ripple effect.
The pressure to remember has also caused a tremendous amount of
competition among various institutions, an increase in the amount of
Holocaust museum births, and is moving towards a business direction—at
times losing focus of the human aspect of its mission, immersed in the quest
to attract visitors and become famous.
And many individuals want to
become well-known and have put themselves on YouTube or on Google,
16
often making erroneous claims and distorting facts based on a minimal
amount of Holocaust knowledge—forgetting that these precede serious
implications.
When we say more than six million, we mean 6,000,000
individuals; each one with a name, a unique human being—flesh and blood
like all of us; belonging to a family, a community, a culture, a nation, and a
country. It is sometimes forgotten when numbers are tossed around too
loosely.
Speaking to the museum heads, directors, and managers of Holocaust
memorial sites on location face to face, provided a lot of insight into the
problems in terms of safeguarding authenticity while at the same time, trying
to preserve the items and artifacts, as well as their difficulties on a personal
level working with traumatic material day in and day out while keeping
focused on their mission. They wanted to talk about their experiences—
their challenges and hopes for what they would like to do in the future and at
the present time, what their needs are, and what obstacles infringe on them.
An appreciation and respect for the wonderful work being done in managing
the memory of Shoah can only be credited to their possession of dedication,
vision, hard work, and heart. And because the museum heads particularly
those responsible for the sites of mass extermination feel (as they stated)
"alone", my visit demonstrated to them that someone does take notice of
their efforts and wants to hear from them. From their point of view, my
determination to get to them, even in isolated areas, showed them that their
views on the difficulties they daily face do matter. It is for that reason there
is continued contact since my return and in some cases, projects which are
being implemented. Proximity to the material, that is, going physically to
the location and seeing the places first-hand, makes this research authentic.
It gives us a clear picture of what the employees and staff especially on the
Holocaust memorial sites go through on a daily basis.
As a Jewish person, both trips held special significance. The first trip to
Germany guided me to the country where it all began; the second trip to
Poland to the country where the bulk of Jewish extermination was
implemented. It is therefore, a research that is multifocal in purpose and
wide in scope. Although it began with a vision on a narrower scale, the
expansion of it became part of the research process. Each place it was felt
17
needed to be addressed. It was a feeling that something would be omitted if
not included. Learning about each city and country, what is going on in
terms of Holocaust remembrance management and which sites are located
there, created a need to put them forth and expand awareness. This research
investigation
emphasizes
its
methodology—that
the
method
of
implementation was done as seriously and authentically as the subject matter
deserves and in the following pages, begins with a historical and literature
review of the genocide events. It is hoped by the author that readers of this
paper gain insight into the connection between committed atrocities and the
complexities and challenges involved in managing locations of ash today,
"speaking" for those who cannot. In order to create the base for today's
management challenges on the sites, it is necessary to include the events
leading up to the present day. Though graphic, poignant, and perhaps
disturbing for the reader, the photos prudently chosen for this research
emerged from actual events with the majority taken on location by the
author. Furthermore, readers of this research should not only gain insight
into the unique management challenges for Holocaust memorial sites, the
arduous work of the education establishments and institutes with their
contributions, but an increased knowledge about the horrific human tragedy.
Nothing illustrates better the authenticity and proximity to the material
than when we5 found ourselves sleeping in Auschwitz for one night. It also
illustrates the intensity of the schedule. We flew from Berlin to Krakow and
arrived on a Friday morning. With appointments scheduled in Auschwitz
and not enough time to check into a hotel in Krakow, we decided it was best
to take a private taxi straight to the camp. It was arranged through the
assistant to the director that we would sleep in the "guesthouse". When we
arrived at the reception I was pleased how organized everything was and
how they were waiting for my arrival. We were greeted by a wonderful
guide who gave us a key to the "guesthouse." As we were walking to our
destination, I realized that we were entering further into the site. She led us
through a gate separating our area from the gas chamber area, and took us to
a building which was formerly used by the SS. At the beginning I did not
5
Friend and colleague Ann Hansen accompanied the author on both research trips.
18
realize that we were actually going to sleep in Auschwitz! How much closer
can one get to studying and doing research on the management and
preservation of the sites? The flat was spacious and clean but not much was
changed in terms of the building itself. Nobody was in the building with us.
We had to choose the room we would sleep in depending on the view. One
side had a view of the barbed wire and barracks, and the other side had a
view of trees but with the crematorium chimney and gas chamber to the left
and the house of the former commander of the camp (Rudolf Hoess) to the
right. My suggestion was that we take the room with no view directly in
front of us although the gas chamber and crematorium area were to the left.
Although eerie and quiet, I felt afterwards that this was a rare opportunity—
that not many people get to experience something like this.
After the
meetings we returned to the building and remained there. It was total ebony
in Auschwitz except for a couple of lights and guards patrolling around here
and there. It made both of us realize what the managers go through in their
work, what they have to deal with when the sun comes down if they ever
have to work overtime, and how they have to see everything daily. For one
night it put me in their position, getting true "hands-on" experience and
questioning how they are able to do it, if they ever get used to such a thing,
or if perhaps because they are surrounded by it constantly, they are able to
become somewhat immune. And it was the next morning that I glanced out
the window and saw young people entering another barrack to start working.
It must be mentioned that in most sites we visited, former buildings are
used for administration and offices of employees and in the more preserved
sites like Majdanek and Auschwitz, even sleeping quarters. This is another
way of keeping it all authentic—to use already existing artifacts in their
authentic structures that
already symbolize what life was like in the site.
Sleeping in Auschwitz and looking out at the darkness awakened me to this
19
place with "no life yet life." There is no sound of life walking around
Auschwitz-Birkenau or any of the other sites. But there is life because
activity is going on. There is a lot of work being done. Dedicated people are
extremely busy hours and hours; so in the midst of no life, there is life.
Early morning in Auschwitz I. View from window taken by author. No sign of life.
Below: Window view on opposite side. Crematorium chimney and gas chamber area are in
plain view on the right side. The car in the forefront symbolizes "no life yet life" going on at
the site of Auschwitz. Photos by author.
The paradox of Holocaust memorial sites is that they are international
mass graves and museums without walls.
The areas if assembled are
massive places of death and in the midst of all that at many (but not all),
hard work is going on and continuing to perpetuate memory— life on death
to preserve the dignity of mankind.
The purpose of this research is to
present a clearer understanding of the elements involved with the
management of Holocaust remembrance, all coming together to achieve the
same goal and to narrow the gulf between the genocidal events and what
has been done up until now, and the uncertainty of its future for the next
generations. To narrow this abyss, its focus is on memorial sites on location
and the management challenges faced to safeguard authenticity for the
21
protection of truth while at the same time, combating deniers of atrocities.
It particularly addresses managers and museum heads who maintain sites of
total extermination (Chelmno, Sobibor, Treblinka, Belzec) whose
management task is cumbersome under limited resources. Its goal is to
create awareness of their existence and importance of preserving them
particularly on the 70th anniversary of Operation Reinhard6 and the Final
Solution to the Jewish Problem, and compares their needs and challenges
with the other sites. This micro and macro research about management and
preservation of sites along with the facets involved in remembering Shoah
and genocide, hopes to refute some of the Holocaust myths, and shed light
on the problems of distortions, and twisters of truth. And it answers the
questions that are beginning to arise: "Where do we go from here now that
survivors are fading away?" How can we meet the challenge of managing
Holocaust remembrance for future generations that this event won't
disappear into the annals of history? And when we say "never again", how
can we make sure that this is carried out?" This research attempts to narrow
the gulf between "now" and "future," investigating what has been done and
what has yet to be done. The photo below illustrates the latter.
Vandalism at Krakow Jewish Cemetery. Photo by author.
Preservation of the sites, safeguarding authentic evidence—plays the
most important role in securing the future regarding the memory of Shoah
and fighting xenophobia, racism, anti-Semitism. They are only preceded
by the survivors of the atrocities.
6
"Operation Reinhard" was named after Reinhard Heydrich. It became an integral part of the Final
Solution to the Jewish question and provided answers for the Final Solution to the problem of the
Jew. Three sites were constructed for the purpose of total extermination: Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka.
Other sites were already in operation with total extermination like Chelmno, and the mass killing
fields across the Ukraine, Poland, parts of Romania, and other parts of Europe which most are
unfamiliar with. These three sites were built to make the process of annihilation more efficient,
systematic, and well-organized. They are discussed in this research.
21
Chapter 1
Methodology and Procedure
1.1 The Title and the Parameters
This is a qualitative and observational research investigation based on
interviews not taken from any other source, conducted during the
implementation of two research trips, which took place in February 2011
and October 2011. The emphasis on the research is based on authenticity
and originality in terms of topic, to try and narrow the gulf between Shoah
events and what has been done up until now in terms of remembrance and
commemoration worldwide, and the uncertainty of the future in terms of
this remembrance. To accomplish this task, it focuses on management
challenges and the precarious position and vulnerability of Holocaust
memorial sites in the face of battling denial, while attempting to protect
truth. As a result, a very detailed chapter on Holocaust denial is presented.
a) . . . Challenge to manage and preserve – This is on different levels.
The term "manage" has several definitions. In terms of managing
Holocaust memorial sites, it includes coping on a personal level and on a
managerial level; the preservation of the site while using limited funding
resources, preserving it while there are those who say not to keep it, to
make it relevant for today's generation, the challenge to maintain it daily
against those who vandalize and threaten to decimate, and creating
awareness of its very existence on location and abroad. This is most
relevant when it comes to the extermination sites where challenges are
different than Auschwitz which has become a symbol of the Shoah.
b) . . . To safeguard authenticity – This includes the managerial dilemma.
How much of the site can actually be preserved in its original construct
under the threat of environmental elements while at the same time,
allowing the visitor to "see" and "feel?" As sites are the only physical link
between the victims and actual events which took place (and this will
become more pronounced with the demise of Holocaust survivors),
memorial sites have become places of reflection and remembrance, for the
viewer to become a modern witness and messenger of atrocities which
took place on those locations. What exhibits should be presented and how
22
graphic can they be made? How can artifacts be preserved and is there
funding to do so? In the case of some of the sites, greater emphasis is
placed more on maintenance of the landscape in its original form while at
the same time, protecting it from the physical elements of nature and those
bent on destroying it.
c) . . . Perpetuate memory. – Since denial is the antithesis of
remembrance and memory perpetuation of the Shoah, humanity needs to
decide what it wants to do. Those who seek to eradicate its memory are
challenged by the existence of the sites and an effort to preserve them. As
a result, there is a constant battle to protect what is real from what is not
real. The authentic evidence which is the sites keeps the memory alive and
penetrates the very core of apathy and twisters of truth. They are the link
between actual events and the next generations—proof that genocide is
possible even in modern and civilized nations. They are testimonies to the
devaluation and dignity of man. The task of the managers and maintainers
of the sites is cumbersome.
They are charged with protecting and
managing them-- in many cases with very little support by government and
population.
The parameters used for this research on the challenge to manage and
preserve Holocaust memorial sites include funding, location, visitors,
museums on location or not, managers on location or not, conservation and
preservation, and archaeological excavations which have been done and
are planned for the future, educational projects and school activities, vision
and mission, facilities for reflection and discussion, artifacts, employees
and departments, public relations, the biggest personal challenge as
museum head, director, or manager, crisis on the site, monuments and
memorials, promoting awareness of its existence. Additional interviews
were conducted with other institutions and museums which all contribute
to the management of remembrance and in that sense help increase power
to prevent assaults on truth and protect authentic evidence.
23
1.2 On the Soil where it happened: Research Locations
Memorial Site
Country
Closest major city
Theresienstadt
Czech Republic
Prague
Dachau
Germany
Munich
Sachsenhausen
Germany
Berlin
Ravensbruck
Germany
Berlin
Poland
Crakow
Poland
Crakow
Poland
Warsaw
Poland
Lublin
Poland
Lodz
Poland
Lublin
Ukraine
Kiev
Stutthof
Poland
Gdansk
Majdanek
Poland
Lublin
Auschwitz-Birkenau
Plaszow
Treblinka
Sobibor
Chelmno
Belzec
Babi Yar
Table 1. Memorial Sites and Locations. The skulls represent the sites of total Jewish
annihilation with no selection and no chance of survival. Majdanek became part of the Final
Solution with the advent of gas chambers in 1942.
Stutthof participated with the
extermination of the most Jews in 1944. Auschwitz-Birkenau was already established.
Ravensbruck, the notorious site for women, introduced gas chambers in late 1944.
Dachau and Sachsenhausen had gas chambers. Differences in tempo, yet still extermination.
24
Since this research is an investigation into the challenges to manage and
preserve Holocaust memorial sites as well as a way to narrow the gulf
between now which we have reached, and the future which we have not
yet reached, investigating the situation of the sites and their state as they
are in at the present time, was crucial in fulfilling that end; after searching
countries in Europe, gathering websites, phone numbers, faxes, e-mails,
and the names of the managers or directors, it was discovered that in order
to provide suggestions for the future, there needs to be an inclusion of
other institutions and museums—contributors for the protection of truth,
perpetuation of memory, and the work for humanity through archives and
education.
Additional museums, institutes, and
memorials used in the research. They
are used mainly for archival research
and education.
City
Country
Jewish Museum in Munich
Munich
Germany
House of the Wannsee Conference
Berlin
Germany
German History Museum
Berlin
Germany
Jewish Museum in Berlin
Berlin
Germany
Otto Weidt, Silent Heroes –places of
resistance
Memorial to the Murdered Jews of
Europe
Jewish Museum in Prague
Berlin
Germany
Berlin
Germany
Prague
Czech
Shindler’s Factory and Museum
Cracow
Poland
Galicia Jewish Museum
Cracow
Poland
Institute of National Remembrance
Lublin
Poland
Institute of National Remembrance
Lodz
Poland
Jewish Historical Institute
Warsaw
Poland
Auschwitz- Birkenau Foundation
Warsaw
Poland
Warsaw Museum of the History of
the Polish Jews
Elie Wiesel Institute for Studying the
Holocaust in Romania
Warsaw
Poland
Bucharest
Romania
Ukrainian Center for Holocaust Studies
Kiev
Ukraine
Table 2. Institutes, museums, and centers for Holocaust education and remembrance.
25
The questions that were addressed and answered during the course of the
research are: What is going on in that country today in terms of Holocaust
research management? What sites are located on that particular soil? What
other institutes are there connected to the Holocaust? Background research and
a lot of “footwork” were central to the progression of this dissertation. Once
the countries were chosen and it was decided when it would be possible to
actually go to these places, contact with the sites and other institutions needed
to proceed. Which sites were chosen was done very carefully, for specific
reasons, and underwent several revisions taking several months of research and
patience. It was also discovered that institutes are active; that countries in
Europe—particularly Germany, Poland, and the Czech Republic are
participants in the “Holocaust remembrance communities of nations” and more
than that, there is still much more out there—sites of slave labor, concentration
camps, and mass graves which have as yet, remain undiscovered or
unmentioned in many parts of Europe. So on one hand, it was revealed during
the research progression and unexpected because I did not know before, the
tremendous amount of work that is being done, and on the other hand, so much
more left to
do—an endless amount of work to prepare for the next
generations. This prompted me to fully understand the significance of this
research—that not only the challenges to manage Holocaust memorial sites
should be the focus, but also what needs to be done from now, being that
humanity is at the brink. As a result, it was decided that Germany would be
included in the research because that is where it all began. Theresienstadt
Memorial Site located about an hour from Prague using public transportation
fascinated me, due to the fact that it was visited by the Red Cross and yet, its
members confirmed that no atrocities were committed there. The Nazis used it
as a cover-up camp—a way of hiding the truth about Jewish extermination
through starvation and torture. And it was further determined that Holocaust
denial began even then, with the Red Cross visit and forcing Jews to beautify
the Terezin Ghetto to “fool” them. Poland is included because the bulk of
Jewish extermination occurred there through gassings, killing fields, and torture
and starvation.
But this was not enough because I needed a symbol for
everything—Auschwitz a symbol of the mass extermination of Jews and deaths
of other victims, Dachau a symbol of the sites in Germany, and Babi Yar in the
26
Ukraine, located on the outskirts of Kiev as a symbol of mass killings. The
purpose of including Germany in the research is also motivated by the urgency
to dispel a myth which is found in Holocaust literature and which is the target
of the deniers: There were no extermination camps on German soil and no gas
chambers in Dachau.
Questions of “where do we go from here—from this point that we have
reached,” and “what needs to be done to cross over the cavern between the now
and the future with survivors fading away, the primary witnesses to these
events” – are leading the urgency for pressure to remember. As a result, a lot
of competition among Holocaust institutions as well as distortions on the
internet are not providing answers to these questions but rather losing focus of
the original intent. Although the focus of the research was on the Holocaust
memorial sites illustrated in table 1, additional institutions, museums, and
memorials were investigated as supporters of truth and facilitators in the quest
to battle denial.
Through dedication and effort, they are part of the ripple
effect, only second to the sites themselves. With ongoing research, educational
projects, seminars for teachers, learning centers and much more, these
additional memorials, institutes, and museums disseminate critical information
and clarity—crucial contributors towards pulling out from the vast melting pot
of information what is claimed and what actually happened. The memorial sites
themselves provide authentic evidence as to what actually occurred at the
specific locations, a micro-look on where the visitor is standing. Additional
museums, institutes, and memorials are aides in the quest for safeguarding truth
from fabrication and provide a macro—look into the atrocities, providing
additional support and providing scores of research based on facts and evidence
about European Jewry, particularly in that country of origin. And they
themselves are authentic, for they are located in buildings or within
geographical locations of where original events took place during that period of
time. In essence they are tremendous assets to the sites, not instead of the sites,
launching greater awareness as to that infamous time period. They are an
essential part of the “no life yet life” ripple effect, with the directors
continuously being active in the quest to do what is morally right, for the
institute to represent those who cannot speak, and to aide in the management of
perpetuating memory. During the gathering of information about cities and
27
countries, these institutes were discovered as playing essential roles in the
facilitation of Holocaust awareness, again the revelation that there is a
tremendous amount of activity going on. Other memorials and monuments
which are places of remembrance without walls include the remnants of the
Warsaw Ghetto Wall, Radegast Station in Lodz (train station from where Jews
were transported to Chelmno), Umschlagplatz (location in Warsaw from where
Jews were transported to Treblinka), and the Memorial to the Warsaw Ghetto
Uprising. They are silent remnants of the horrific events which occurred at
those locations and commemorate those who fell victim at the hands of the
Nazi machine.
What is left of Warsaw Ghetto Wall.
1.2.1 Procedure and Management of the Logistics
Deciding where to go was not an easy task and presented a dilemma:
On one hand, this was an opportunity to bring awareness to sites unknown
such as those in and outside of Belgrade, Belgium, and the like. On the
other hand, to really focus on the challenges to manage and preserve the
memorial sites, Germany and Poland had to be included. Spanning over a
two year period, evaluating what is going on in different parts of Europe
and what other institutions are involved with Holocaust awareness, the
decision was made to focus on Germany where it all began. Knowing that
Dachau is often under attack by Holocaust deniers regarding the gas
chambers, this proved to be a challenging prospect.
Through further
investigation, the site of Ravensbruck which is often listed as a “forgotten”
camp, was built specifically for women during that infamous period. Not
many people are even aware of it. With that understanding, it was felt that
28
the sites in Germany would prove to be extremely challenging.
Theresienstadt which was used as a “cover-up” site of the real atrocities was
until recently, also listed as a “forgotten camp.”
The logistics involved
with such an undertaking required searching for websites, finding the
contact numbers, e-mails, and faxes of the museum as well as the contact
for the museum head or director. Initial contacts were made by phone,
reaching the receptionist. The goal was to speak to the museum head
directly in the first conversation so as not to waste unnecessary time. The
conversation with the receptionist would begin with “hello, do you speak
English? I am calling from Israel long distance. I would like to talk with
the director." In most cases, the call was forwarded to the director himself
or herself depending on the size of the site or had to go through the
director's assistant. In the case of the extermination sites, I spoke directly to
the person in charge first time around. Initial contact by phone was crucial
in the management of the logistics because it created a more "personal"
connection and rapport with the museum heads. In all cases, the reception
was positive and they were very pleased to set up an appointment. This
confirmed already the fact that they are not addressed that often, they just
do their work without outsiders knowing who they are and what exactly
they do. Following initial phone conversation with repeated calls if the
director was not available during the first time around, an e-mail was sent
describing the research, what would be asked, and in some cases at their
request, the university and name of mentor for the PhD.
In most
correspondences, University of West Timisoara was written and the
department of studies. Constant contact with the sites and museums until
the time of departure was crucial to creating a relationship even before
arrival.
Arrangements for the first trip began three months earlier in
November 2010. For the second trip, arrangements began earlier than that,
approximately six months before in April 2011. It involved more sites and
cities although it was concentrated in Poland. The decision to fly to Kiev
was not planned at the beginning. It became apparent that going to Babi
Yar—the symbol of mass killings would make the research complete.
29
Memorial sites-February 2011
Dachau
Sachsenhausen
Plaszow
Auschwitz-Birkenau
Ravensbruck
Theresienstadt
Reason for inclusion in the study
First site on German soil 1933,
often the focus of Holocaust deniers
because of gas chamber. Political
prisoners initially. Notorious for
extermination by torture, starvation,
medical experiments, and mass
executions. Site also for non-Jews,
political opponents, homosexuals,
Jehovah's Witnesses, and Jews.
Center of administration for SS.
Prototype for other sites. Built in an
"ideal" way in a triangular shape.
1936 began operations. Used for
political prisoners and those
considered biologically inferior.
Infamous slave and forced labor
site. Death through starvation
torture, and execution. Established
1942. Estimated 8000-10000 deaths.
From movie Shindler’s List.
Largest site for the murder of Jews.
Over one million Jewish men,
women, and children exterminated
in Auschwitz alone. Known for a
large amount of Polish prisoners
and deaths as well as Gypsies.
Started
operations
in
1940.
Consisted of Auschwitz I, II, and
III.
Set up by Heinrich Himmler 1939
as a camp specifically designated
for women. It is often referred to
as "forgotten". Provisional gas
chamber late 1944.
Women
perished from starvation, forced
labor, torture, medical experiments,
and gassings. Multinational from 40
nations. Estimated Jewish martyrs
20,000-25000.
Established 1941 as a transit camp for
deportation to death camps. Site known
for artists, musicians, and intellectuals.
Known for being the "deception" site
used for the visit by the Red Cross.
Referred to as a "forgotten" by
survivors. Estimated 33,000 Jewish
victims.
Extermination
through
starvation, disease, overcrowding.
31
Memorial sites–October 2011.
Treblinka
Belzec
Sobibor
Reason for inclusion in the study
Total annihilation. Established for
the Final Solution to the Jewish
Problem. Among the sites of
extermination, the most deaths—
between 800,000 to 950,000
estimated Jewish perished. Scene
of a revolt. Established in July
1942. Often visited by school
groups from Israel. Although
relatively unknown, still more than
the others. Holocaust survivor
interviewed; only one left in
world.
Total annihilation. First site to
be established for the Final
Solution
in
March
1942.
Relatively the most victims in the
shortest amount of time, and in
the smallest hectare area. No
living survivors today.
One
survivor from the site Rudolf
Reder.
Estimated
between
500,000 to 600,000 Jewish
victims. Often forgotten and not
discussed. Memorial built in
2004.
Total annihilation. Established
in April 1942.
Site of the
Sobibor revolt. Although often
forgotten and not mentioned,
gained "fame" due to the movie
"Escape from Sobibor" based on
survivor's testimony Thomas
(Toivie) Blatt. Approximately
three survivors today. Survivor
Thomas Blatt interviewed. Site
recently underwent management
shift to Majdanek. Was under
threat of closure in June 2011.
Estimated between 250,000 to
350,000 Jewish perished.
31
Majdanek
Chelmno
Stutthof
Babi Yar
Established in 1941 as a site
mainly for Poles but later
expanded to include inmates from
30 countries. Known today for
mausoleum and gas chambers
intact. Extermination through
torture, starvation, execution,
gassings. 60,000 -65,000 estimated
Jewish martyrs. Visited by school
groups from Israel. Site was part
of Final Solution; gas chambers
1942.
Total annihilation. Not so wellknown. Prototype for gas chambers
with the use of mobile gas vans.
Operated in two phases from
December 1941 until March 1943
and then June-July 1944. Less wellknown than the others, it is also
under threat of being "forgotten"
due to funding problems. It is less
visited by school groups from Israel.
Approximately 200,000 to 350,000
Jewish martyrs. Also Poles, Gypsies,
Soviets murdered in Chelmno.
Only three survivors, none today.
Located near Gdansk. First site on
Polish soil 1939 and last to be
liberated. Site of forced labor for
Poles who were mainly patriotic and
intellectuals. Extermination through
starvation, disease, and torture. Gas
chambers 1943. Transport of Jews
1944 to Stutthof. Estimated deaths
65000 martyrs. Multinational site,
known for gruesome atrocities.
Stutthof recently received the
Sybilla Prize for its achievements.
Jewish survivor interviewed.
Symbolic for "killing fields" around
Ukraine. Victims were shot into a
ravine on outskirts of Kiev. Largest
amount of deaths in shortest
amount of time from September 29th
to September 30th 1941. Estimated
33800 to 100,000 martyrs.
32
Managing the logistics for the research required the following steps:
a) Deciding on the topic and location. Once the topic was chosen which
would be on location where it all happened (Europe), the decision had to be
made as to where in Europe. Should the sites be those that we know little
about or should sites like Auschwitz and Majdanek be included?
Should Germany also be included as the place where it first began or is
Poland enough since the concentration of most sites are located there?
b) Investigation of institutions in various European countries as well as
sites located there. This involved making a list of sites and their locations
as well as other institutions and museums that are in those countries.
Through the investigation, it was discovered that a lot more was being done
in Poland and Germany than just preservation of the site—that there are
also many auxiliary museums and institutions which facilitate awareness.
c) Deciding on the sites. Once the decision was made which countries to
focus on based on preliminary research, the sites were chosen for focus.
The decision was made to include Auschwitz but to also choose sites that
are less known, particularly those located in Germany. Ravensbruck, the
notorious site for women, was found through investigating the sites in
Germany. I was not aware of it before. Although previous knowledge
played a big role in choosing the locations, the realization that it was limited
only after beginning investigation became apparent. Again this illustrated
the importance of this research—the more that is learned, the more it is
realized how little is actually known. There are those who claim to know a
lot when it comes to the Shoah, but the research demonstrates how little we
actually do.
d) Making contacts with museum heads, managers, and directors.
Initial contact was made with the management of the sites directly by
phone.
It was felt that creating a more "personal" relationship at the
beginning would be vital as a prerequisite to the actual meeting.
Arrangements for the latter began weeks before. In all cases, the response
was positive over the phone. In the majority of them, they were very
pleased and cooperative, happy to hear from someone who lives in Israel.
Following the phone contact, a brief background of the research was sent by
e-mail and in some cases, the name of university, department and mentor.
33
e) The itinerary and meetings. Having established a more "personal"
relationship immediately with the directors and managers, it became easier
to set up an appointment with them. They knew at the beginning which
month but not which date. Reaching the director of larger institutions and
sites proved to be more difficult and often had to go through the public
relations spokesperson. And in this particular case, arriving to Dachau on a
Friday and on the particular chosen weekend would not be suitable for
anyone there. Although it was implored that perhaps an interview could be
conducted with other people who work there, rules on the site prevented a
meeting in Dachau. However, interviews were conducted with the group
guide and tourists who accompanied me to Dachau. It should be noted that
this was the only site visited with a group. Knowing that the staff would be
unavailable for a meeting although great effort was made towards this end
prior to the trip, interviews with tourists and tour guide (trained at Dachau)
proved to be very worthwhile. In the end, the director of Dachau answered
questions by e-mail. Dates were set in advance, and constant contact with
the interviewees on the sites and the other institutions lasted for three
months. Reconfirmation of the appointments was done before departure.
It was decided at the beginning to complete one research trip due to
financial considerations. It was felt that six Holocaust memorial sites and
other institutions would be enough for the purpose of the research.
However, it occurred to me that as far as Poland was concerned, Auschwitz
is not enough—that the extermination sites needed to be included. Through
further investigation, it was learned that Warsaw has a tremendous amount
of activity going on.
It also became apparent that due to the 70th
anniversary of the "Final Solution to the Jewish Problem", there would be a
lot of ceremonies and commemorations particularly across Europe for the
occasion.
Therefore,
a
second
research
trip
became
necessary.
Arrangements for the second trip began earlier than the previous one,
shortly after returning from the first one. Once the decision was made to
include the extermination sites, searching for the museum heads began. In
many ways it proved to more difficult because in the cases of Chelmno and
Sobibor, the museum heads were not always available. In the former case,
there is no museum on location.
After reaching the museum head,
34
arrangements were made that she would take us from the train station and
spend most of the day with us telling about the site with a translator by her
side. This was a unique experience, different from all the others. In a
similar way, the former museum head of Sobibor (former because since
then Sobibor is under new management) met us at the Wlodowa Synagogue
and drove us to the site. The tiny museum on location was closed for the
winter, but he opened it especially for us. In the case of the German History
Museum in Berlin, there was a whole itinerary prepared on arrival which
included a guided tour of the exhibition, a meeting with the director, and an
additional meeting with the educational department, similar to the reception
at the Jewish Museum in Prague.
It was quickly realized that changes can take place even on location and
that flexibility is the key to success. Being prepared for an unexpected
occurrence and still managing use of the location is important.
For
example, it was originally scheduled that a meeting with the director of the
Jewish Museum in Munich would take place and confirmation was made
before departure. On arrival, a letter was left at the reception that the
director cannot make it and that the spokesperson would also be
unavailable. The exact words in the letter translated from German were:
"If Florence Isenberg from Israel falls from the sky, please accept apologies
that the director is not available." Since we had already arrived, it was
interesting to speak with some of the staff and a guided tour was provided.
So the Jewish Museum in Munich was not to no avail and valuable
information was gained on location. It seemed that the meetings with
Dachau (10 kilometers from Munich) and the Jewish Museum in Munich
both required making use of the location in terms of improvising with who
was available, and it could not be helped but to think that perhaps there is a
similarity of avoidance. Dachau has been the target of atrocity deniers for
decades. And in Munich, less work (although very important) is being done
than in Berlin. In another situation, a meeting was organized with the
Institute of National Remembrance in Warsaw. That meeting had to be
cancelled due to a serious case of bronchitis on the part of the author,
illustrating that changes in venue can take place on both sides. Success in
implementing the interviews and maintaining the appointments depended
35
on being well-organized with a lot of prior knowledge about the location,
and maintaining a personal contact with the target prior to the trip. It also
depended on being prepared for situations that might occur on arrival.
Except for Dachau and the Jewish Museum in Munich, all meetings took
place as scheduled. It was known ahead of time that a meeting in Dachau
would not take place—that nobody would be available on Friday to meet
although great effort was made. Nevertheless, improvisations took place,
and others connected to the Dachau excursion were interviewed. As well,
an e-mail interview was conducted with the director prior to the trip. In the
case of the second research trip, all encounters took place as scheduled
except for the Institute of National Remembrance in Warsaw and in this
case, cancelled on the part of the interviewer due to illness.
Further
discussion on evaluation regarding meetings and locations are addressed.
Using a tape for interviews (lightweight and small) it was placed on the
table during the whole discussion. Everything was recorded, from the time
entering the room until leaving. In some cases, the whole tour around the
site or museum complex was taped so that to the listener, there is the sound
of footsteps walking on rustled leaves and nothing else. A camera was also
used to take clips in some cases, the whole walk around the site. In Belzec
extermination site for example, the camera was on the whole time while
walking around the perimeter, to capture the serenity and horror at the same
time— of not having control over one's own destiny within the huge tally of
so many deaths. And yet the first time around was with the museum head
who maintains this incredible place of remembrance, which is again "no life
yet life." A day was devoted to each site so as not to be pressured with
time.
Only the meeting with public relations in Sachsenhausen was
combined afterwards with a meeting at the Memorial for the Murdered Jews
of Europe located in Berlin.
1.2.2 Questions on the Ground
Parameters and questions used in this multifaceted research include
focus on: Funding, location, visitors, museums on location or not, managers
on location or not, visitors, employees, departments, exhibitions, education,
36
preservation and conservation, archaeological excavations, vision, mission.
All of these parameters take into consideration the original intent of the site.
Does the location have an effect on the amount of visitors? How and who
funds them? Are there educational projects or seminars? Are there any
exhibitions and if so, where are they presented and how? What departments
are there? How many visitors come to the site? What is the vision of the
museum head or director?
How artifacts are preserved and is there
conservation on location or do they have to be sent out externally? What is
the mission statement of the museum? What is the biggest crisis that has
happened on the site and how was it managed? What kind of manager are
they? How many employees are there? Why did the museum heads or
managers choose to work in such a place? What special difficulties do they
have if any, working with traumatic material on a daily basis?
Why
remember? Why preserve Holocaust memorial sites? What can be done to
prevent Holocaust denial and distortion? The additional auxiliary museums
and memorials had similar questions but included as well the intent of their
exhibition or institution. It also included questions on their role in the
facilitation of Holocaust awareness and their involvement with such a task.
Inquiries about preservation and conservation were included since most of
them have archives consisting of original documents and artifacts which
need to be properly preserved. At many of the institutions and museums,
there are educational projects.
It was discovered that in most of the
interviews on the memorial sites and at the auxiliary institutes, questions
did not necessarily have to be asked. The interviewees were pleased to
speak about what they are doing and about their institution and location.
Questions were asked when it became necessary to refocus—guiding them
back to the subject at hand. It became apparent that the sites and the
auxiliaries were happy to have a visitor from Israel taking an interest. At the
end of the meeting all of the museum heads and managers of the sites were
asked: "When I return to Israel, what can I do for you?" The majority,
especially the museum heads on extermination sites replied with "tell them
we are here and tell them we exist!" This further illustrates the necessity of
doing research on location when it comes to the Shoah; to hear from the
people themselves who work with this sensitive material daily.
Most
37
importantly, it points to the urgency of unity and the cry for interest—that
just because the extermination sites in particular are in isolated areas, that
does not mean the museum heads should feel isolated and alone. And it
was observed that for them, it was a new experience to voice their concerns
and challenges towards an interested party. The chapter on "Suggestions"
delves into more detail on how the time has come to listen to these people
and to include them in the quest to narrow the abyss between "now" and
"future," for they are the ones who are there.
Author standing and conversing with Belzec Museum Head Tomasz Hanejko on location.
It must be noted that the trees are original “silent witness” to the atrocities in Belzec.
Author with Dr. Lucja Pawlicka-Nowak, Ruzechow Forest, Chelmno extermination site.
38
Chapter II
Disintegration of Morality and the Collapse of Humanity
The American Heritage Dictionary of
the English Language (2009) defines the
"And so I believe to-day
term "holocaust" as:
that my conduct is in
1. Great destruction resulting in extensive
accordance with the will
2.
loss of life, especially by fire.
of the Almighty Creator.
Holocaust is the genocide of
In standing guard against
European Jews and others by the
the Jew I am defending the
Nazis during World War II: That
handiwork of the Lord."
Israel emerged from the Holocaust
-Adolf Hitler,
and is defined in relation to that
catastrophe.
3. A sacrificial offering that is
consumed entirely by flames.
Lord's handiwork?!
Photo was taken by author in
Dachau Museum.
39
2.1 Is there a Word?
Totality of destruction has been central to the meaning of the "holocaust"
since it first appeared in Middle English in the 14th century, used in
reference to the biblical sacrifice in which a male animal was wholly burnt
on the altar in worship of G-d. The word comes from Greek "holokauston"
(that which is completely burnt) which was a translation of Hebrew "ola"
(‫ (עולה‬literally, that which goes up," that is, in smoke. In this sense of
"burnt sacrifice," the term is still used in some versions of the Bible. In the
17th century, the meaning of "holocaust" broadened to "something totally
consumed by fire," and the word eventually was applied to fires of extreme
destructiveness. In the 20th century, the word has taken on a variety of
figurative meanings, summarizing the effects of war, rioting, storms,
epidemic, diseases, and even economic failures. Most of these usages arose
after World War II, but it is unclear whether they resulted from the use of
"holocaust" in reference to the mass murder of European Jews by the Nazis
and their collaborators. The application of the word occurred as early as
1942, but the phrase "the Holocaust" did not become established until the
late 1950's. Here it parallels and may have been influenced by another
Hebrew word, Shoah (‫ )שואה‬which in English means catastrophe. In the
Bible, there are various ranges of meanings including personal ruin,
devastation, wasteland or desert. The term Shoah was first used to refer to
the Nazi slaughter of Jews in 1939, but the phrase "ha Shoah" (the
catastrophe) became established only after World War II. Holocaust has
also been used to translate Hurban (‫ )חורבן‬or destruction in English, as a
Hebrew
word
used
to
summarize
the
Jewish
genocide.
Holocaust has a secure place in the language when it refers to the massive
destruction of humans by other humans. Ninety-nine percent of the Usage
Panel for the American Heritage Dictionary (2009) accepts the use of the
term in the phrase nuclear holocaust. Sixty percent of the Panel accepts the
sentence: "As many as two million people may have died in the holocaust
that followed the Khmer Rouge takeover in Cambodia." Because of its
association with genocide, people may object to its extended applications.
When the word is used to refer to death brought about by natural causes, the
41
percentage of the panel accepting it drops sharply. Only 31 percent of the
panel approves the sentence "in East Africa five years of drought have
brought about a holocaust in which millions have died." In a 1987 survey,
just 11 percent approved the use of holocaust to summarize the effects of
the aids epidemic. This suggests that other figurative usages such as the
huge losses in the Savings and Loan Holocaust may be viewed as
overblown or in poor taste. In essence, Holocaust refers to the destruction
of Jews and others by the Nazis and includes the persecution of Jews that
preceded the outbreak of the war.
In his article From "holocaust to Holocaust" what is in a word? Sean
Warsch (2006), presents differing viewpoints and a compelling look at the
morphology and terminology of the holocaust word. People, who dislike
the use of holocaust to describe the slaughter of more than six million Jews
during World War II, object because if it is used as a sacrifice to G-d and
the Jews are the ones being sacrificed, than what does that make the Nazis?
Did G-d demand that the Nazis offer up the Jews as a sacrifice? This would
cast the Nazis in a positive light and mean that what they did was just. It
would indicate that some sort of arrangement had been made between the
implementers and the sacrificed, one that was satisfying to all. By thinking
about the term in this light to describe the genocide, it becomes disturbing
and repugnant. There are those like Shoah survivor Elie Wiesel who
favored the "holocaust" as an acceptable term and did not think of it in this
light. They comprehended the full meaning of the term and did not pay
much thought to the perpetrators; just to those sacrificed. According to
Garber and Zuckerman (2004) Wiesel liked the term because of its religious
connotations. In defending his rationale for choosing a controversial term,
he created an extensive and spiritual theory to describe the astonishing
hardships the Jews had to endure during the Holocaust as well as
throughout history. His speculations are based on his personal experience
as a survivor, and not one who perished. He feels that throughout history,
Jews have been faced with imminent risk, but have survived every hardship.
Using this logic, Wiesel feels that the Holocaust is just one example out of
many of Jews being faced with major hardships and persevering—another
test of Jews' faith. Another reason why Wiesel feels that the massacre of the
41
Jews in World War II should be called the Holocaust with its religious
connotations, is that being the chosen people carries with it an extra
burden—that you must get tested as evidenced by Isaac and Abraham, the
Jews who were slaves in Egypt, and those who went through the Holocaust
ordeal; being the chosen people carries with it an extra burden, and
sometimes this extra burden causes extreme hardship and suffering, but
because of the covenant G-d made with the people of Israel, He will always
make sure that the Jews ultimately survive. Ultimately Wiesel chose the
word Holocaust to describe the horrific matters that took place because he
felt that G-d needed to have a place in this event to make sense of it as a
Jewish catastrophe. He felt that one cannot rationalize what took place
without including G-d in this confusing, disturbing, and dramatic disaster.
There are people who feel that the Holocaust is not a spiritual event and
they take a different approach then Wiesel in studying its matters. They
feel that the images and stories of the Holocaust should be told in its
infamous detail since it happened through the memory of the victims from
whom there are pictures and documents. Many feel it is inappropriate and
plain wrong to cast the Holocaust as a biblical event, similar to other events
that took place in the Bible. According to Garber, the Nazi's ability to
display gross inhumanity is not an attribute of a specific group of people but
an inherent characteristic that lays in the heart of all men; that examining
the events of the Holocaust proves the horror of what human beings are
capable of doing and suffering through. By using the term to describe
atrocities that other groups of people have suffered through and thus making
these events special as well, the phrase the holocaust loses its uniqueness.
According to Garber, Wiesel feels that the term has lost its sanctity and has
suffered from overkill. It has become overused and its deeper meaning has
disappeared.
Numerous people suggest using a different word which
specifically describes what happened in the Jewish genocide such as Shoah
or Hurban—that they would not suffer the same fate of being overused as
did the term Holocaust. It is Garber's contention that Jewish theologians
such as Wiesel, who view the Jews as special victims who endured
unprecedented hardships, feel that they deserve special attention. He does
42
not agree with this outlook and thinks that the Holocaust is neither unique
nor a strictly Jewish event.
Steven Katz (1994), feels that the Holocaust is singularly unique and that
G-d is completely absent from this entire affair. In his book The Holocaust
in Historical Context he claims that "the Holocaust is a phenomenon,
unique by virtue of the fact that never before has a state set out, as a matter
of intentional principle and actualized policy, to annihilate physically every
man, woman, child belonging to a specific people" (Katz, 1994, p. 27-51).
His viewpoint recognizes that the Holocaust is a unique event in the course
of history and that this uniqueness does not imply any sort of religious
connotation.
He recognizes that countless Polish intellectuals, Russian
POW's, Gypsies, and homosexuals were mass-murdered as well, but these
massacres do not constitute genocide. Because the Jews were subject to
state-sponsored annihilation, they deserve special consideration and thus
what the Nazis perpetrated against them deserves to be called "the
Holocaust." Because the acts perpetrated by the Nazis are so horrendous as
to have never been carried out before, the Holocaust is unique and deserves
to be capitalized and preceded by the word "the." Other events that we
annotate as being a holocaust, while bad, are not unique in history and it is
the fact that it is, also leads one to believe that the word is too common to
be used to describe the horrid events of the Jewish genocide. Although
using the term Shoah or Hurban to describe the Holocaust seems suitable, it
holds most relevant for those who speak the Hebrew language and if used,
need to be pictured as symbolizing those horrific genocidal events. There is
no one word in the human language that can summarize all of the events
that the Jews suffered. And although the term "holocaust" is imperfect due
to its loose usage, it is crucial that the subject is kept in the open. Only by
gathering as much information about the brutality, grotesqueness, and
thoroughness of the event as well as the preservation of authentic evidence
at the sites, can the claim that the Holocaust is a unique event be justified
against those who wish to minimize it. It is important to keep in mind
therefore, that terminology and the history of a word can slowly evolve over
time and create changes in terminology even to symbolize that which was
the most heinous crime of the 20th century. According to Katz (1994), the
43
Holocaust does deserve a name because of its singularity in brutality,
thoroughness, and grotesqueness. Doing so requires us to catalog the events
of the Holocaust, discuss them openly, and attempt to learn as much as we
can about them—that the images of Shoah are kept real, horrendous, and
hideous as they are. No matter what view, it is impossible to rationalize the
murder of over 6,000,000 Jews and arduous to devise a proper designation
that would pay enough allegiance to survivor and martyr. According to
Warsch, few scholars have written about what using the Holocaust term
implies to those who survived it and to the general public—that "just
because terms are in use today, does not mean we are compelled to use
them and to keep this in mind when using the term "Holocaust" (Warsch,
2006, p.8). It is obvious that no term would ever suffice to symbolize the
abominable crimes against humanity, the collapse of man, and the total
disintegration of morality, but that one is needed to facilitate understanding
of the event which in and of itself precludes any comprehension.
2.2 The End of Justice
The Holocaust is not just a word that means fire and catastrophe, but a
graphic representation of the events that took place during that barbaric
chapter in modern Western history; the crematoriums, ovens, gas chambers,
mass killings, torture, slave labor. Today, it is not just regarded as a Jewish
calamity and German crime, but it has transcended itself to become a
historical signature of modern society and a measure of its moral life. The
annihilation and extermination of over six million Jews has resisted
understanding. And the question persists: How could it have happened?
That question envelops several other questions which are electrified with
moral judgment and passion (Davidowicz, 1975). How was it possible for a
modern society to carry out the systematic murder of a whole people for no
reason other than that they were Jews? How was it possible for a whole
people to allow themselves to be destroyed? How was it possible for the
world to stand by without halting their destruction? The Holocaust events,
so extreme and unbelievable, defy understanding and plunged the west into
an era which closed won innocence, moral reasoning, happiness and
44
betterment.
It brought out the unthinkable human potentialities of
management and technology's evil side and forces us to struggle with a
degraded past of bloodshed and passivity. And it forces nations to confront
their own tainted past. In 1959, Stanley Elkins opened his landmark study
on the topic by noting how sensitive Americans were to racism; the
"inhibitions," the "painful touchiness," and the "coerciveness" that still
governed the debate over slavery (Elkins, 1976).
When explained by deniers of atrocities, the Holocaust misses the depth
of evil and belittles the suffering. No matter how it is explained, there is no
retreat. German authorities during that era targeted other groups because of
their
perceived
racial
inferiority7--Roma
(Gypsies),
the
disabled
(handicapped), Slavic peoples (Poles, Russians, and others). Other groups
were persecuted on political, ideological, and behavioral grounds, including
communists, socialists, Jehovah Witnesses, homosexuals. For the Jews, it
took the Germans and their accomplices four and a half years to murder
approximately six million Jews. They were the most efficient from April to
November 1942—two hundred and fifty days in which they murdered two
and a half million Jews in mass murder, ovens, and gas chambers. Like
fugitives, they were hunted down. The Nazis did not leave any stone
unturned. They were obsessed with finding any Jew in hiding. Every
single one had to be put to death, meant to suffer and die with no chance of
reprieve, hope, or alleviation of pain and suffering. The destruction of East
European Jewry brought to an end the one thousand year old culture of
Ashkenazi Jewry that had originated in the Rhine Basis and that by 1939,
was concentrated in Eastern Europe. There were as well some centuries old
once thriving Sephardi communities such as Rhodes and Salonika in Greece
which were also decimated by the Nazi machine. German dictatorship
launched a war which engulfed the whole world. The human cost of 2191
days of suffering, surpassed the losses of any previous war.
7
Other groups also targeted may not be specifically mentioned here by name but they were
targeted nonetheless.
45
2.2.1 The Roma Porajmos
The word "Porajmos" (devour, destruction) was adopted by the Roma
(Gypsies) to label their experience of persecution during the infamous Nazi
regime. The Gypsies of Europe were registered, sterilized, ghettoized and
deported to concentration camps and death camps by the Nazis. Though the
Gypsies had undergone centuries of persecution, it remained relatively
random and sporadic until the 20th century when negative stereotypes
(which unfortunately are still believed today), became intrinsically modeled
into a racial identity, and the population was systematically slaughtered.
Gypsies were arrested and interned as well as sterilized with the onset of the
1933 Law for the Prevention of Hereditary Diseased Offspring which also
culminated in the T4 Euthanasia program to exterminate the handicapped.
At the beginning, they were not named as a group that threatened the Aryan
because
under Nazi racial ideology, Gypsies were Aryans. They had a
dilemma. How could they persecute a group enveloped in negative
stereotypes but supposedly part of the Aryan super race? When the Nazis
came to power, they did however become slated for persecution because
they represented a contradiction to the Aryan ideal. According to Yad
Vashem, they were not as bad as Jews, but they were not of pure Aryan
blood. They did not have a settled way of life, and they did not fit into the
kind of society the Nazis aspired to. A Bavarian Law of 1926 outlined
measures for "Combating Gypsies, Vagabonds, and the Work Shy" and
required the systematic registration of all Sinti and Roma.
The law
prohibited Gypsies from "roaming about or camping in bands," and those
"Gypsies unable to prove regular employment" risked being sent to forced
labor for up to two years. The law became the national norm in 1929. This
law remained in effect when Hitler came to power, while introducing other
laws
which
affected
Germany's
Sinti
and
Roma
population.
As the Nazis began to implement their vision of a new Germany—Jews,
Gypsies, and blacks were ranked on the hierarchy as racial inferiors. As a
result, under the 1933 "Law for the Prevention of Offspring with Hereditary
Defects," physicians sterilized against their will an unknown number of
Gypsies, part-Gypsies, and Gypsies in mixed marriages. Similarly, under
46
the "Law against Dangerous Habitual Criminals" of November 1933, the
police arrested many Gypsies along with others the Nazis viewed as
"asocials"—prostitutes,
beggars,
chronic
alcoholics,
and
homeless
vagrants—and imprisoned them in concentration camps. With the onset of
the Nuremberg Racial Laws of 1935, the Gypsies were identified as nonAryan and subjected to persecution. In 1936 an office was set up in Munich
to combat the "Gypsy nuisance." They established the Racial Hygiene and
Population Biology Research Unit, with Dr. Robert Ritter at its head, to
study the Gypsy problem and to make recommendations for Nazi policy
(Rosenberg, 2005). As with the Jews, the Nazis needed to determine who
was to be considered a "Gypsy." Dr. Ritter considered that someone could
be a Gypsy "if they had one or two Gypsies among his grandparents or if
two or more of his grandparents are part-Gypsies."8 To study them, Ritter
examined thousands of Gypsies—documenting, registering, interviewing,
photographing, and finally categorizing them.
And it was from this
research that 90% of Gypsies were of mixed blood, and thus dangerous to
the ideology and order of the day.
Gypsy child photo taken by author as exhibited in Auschwitz I Memorial Museum
to Roma and Sinti.
8
Robert Ritter as quoted in Kenrick, Destiny, 67.
47
For the summer Olympics of 1936, police from the office were
authorized to gather Gypsies so as not to discredit Berlin's image. They
were considered second class citizens, regardless of whether they had been
charged with unlawful acts. They were often accused for the atrocities of
others. Sterilization was rampant; they were seen as being "unworthy of
human production" and later exterminated.
They faced peril only in
Germany but in other parts of Europe. While the treatment of the Roma
depended on the country, it is known that authorities in Romania for
example, one of Germany's Axis partners did not systematically annihilate
the Roma living on Romanian territory, but Romanian military and police
officials deported around 26,000 from Bukovina and Bessarabia primarily,
but also Moldavia and Bucharest, to Transnistria, a section of south western
Ukraine placed under Romanian Administration 1941-1942 (Ioanid, 2000).
Thousands died from disease, starvation, and brutal treatment. Most of
them were deported to Auschwitz where they were forced to wear black
triangular patches, which classified them as "asocial" or green triangles
which identified them as professional criminals. They were housed in a
special compound in Birkenau called the "Gypsy Family Camp." Many of
them were chosen as human subjects for medical experiments. Conditions
in the family camp were plagued with infectious diseases—typhus,
dysentery, smallpox.
It is not known exactly how many Roma were
annihilated in the Porajmos but estimates range between 250,000 to 500,000
killing approximately three-fourths of the German Gypsies and half of the
Austrian Gypsies.
2.2.2 The Disabled
Because the Nazis formulated their vision of a "biologically pure"
population to create an Aryan Master Race, the handicapped were seen not
only as a financial burden on society, but as impure and something that had
to be cleansed out of the society. On July 14, 1933, with the culmination of
the law for the Prevention of Progeny with Hereditary Diseases, sterilization
of all persons who suffered from diseases considered hereditary, such as
mental illness (schizophrenia, manic depression); retardation (congenital
feeble mindedness); physical deformity, epilepsy, blindness, deafness, and
48
severe alcoholism were forced to be sterilized.
The Sterilization Law
explained the importance of weeding out the so-called genetic defects from
the total German gene pool.9
The handicapped relationship with the
Holocaust can be separated into three stages:

1933 Sterilization Law

1935 Marriage Law

1939 Euthanasia or Mercy Killing
According to the USHMM, the United States also led forced
sterilizations from 1907 and 1939. More than 30,000 people in 29 States
were sterilized, many unknowingly or against their will while incarcerated
in prisons or institutions. Advocates in Germany and United States were
influenced by eugenicists who believed the human race could be improved
by controlled breeding. Still, Germany carried sterilization farther than any
other nation and with a vengeance.
An estimated 300,000 to 400,000
people were sterilized under the law by vasectomy and litigation of ovarian
tubes of women—several thousand of whom died mostly women, because
of this. As mentioned earlier, the law also targeted Gypsies seen as asocial
as well as targeting some homosexuals (at this point Jews were not always
targeted since other experiments were done on them later on).
The
Marriage Law of 1935 required that all marriages prove that any offspring
from any union would not be afflicted with a disabling hereditary disease.
The systematic killing of the mentally ill and physically handicapped was
preceded by the Sterilization Law. Hitler initiated a decree in October 1939
which empowered physicians to grant a "mercy death" to patients
considered incurable.
As with other euphemisms and distortions used
during this period, its aim was to exterminate the mentally ill and the
handicapped, thus cleansing the Aryan race of persons considered
genetically defective and a financial burden to society.
From 1939,
approximately 250,000 handicapped persons were murdered under the
euthanasia program. The magnitude of these crimes in an age of genetic
engineering and controversy over euthanasia raises moral and ethical issues
9
Specifics of the law can be found on the site of the United State Holocaust Memorial
Museum (USHMM).
49
concerning physicians, scientists, and lay persons. Despite public protests
in 1941, the Nazi leadership continued this program in secret throughout the
war. It required the cooperation of many German doctors, who reviewed
the medical files of patients in institutions to determine which handicapped
or mentally ill individuals should be killed. They actually supervised the
actual killings. Doomed patients were transferred to six institutions in
Germany and Austria, where they were killed in specially constructed gas
chambers.
The bodies of victims were burned in large ovens called
"crematoria."10
Lethal injection was administered to infants and small
children or they were also murdered through starvation.
The 'T-4" or
"euthanasia," program became the model for the mass extermination of
Jews in those sites equipped with gas chambers which the Nazis would
open in 1941 and 1942. It also served as a training ground for SS members
who manned these sites. Many of those who operated T-4 handled Jewish
extermination. The "euthanasia" program was the systematic killing of
those Germans whom the Nazis deemed "unworthy of life." It was in
Hartheim Castle in Austria where a euthanasia killing center was
established and people were murdered.
The disabled waiting to be gassed.
10
Crematoria by English definition are used during the cremation process for loved ones who pass
away and whose ashes are put into an urn. It was used as a euphemism during the Jewish genocide
and is still used today by Holocaust researchers. The term incinerator by English definition would be
more realistic since bodies were burned en-masse by Jewish prisoners forced to do the action. For
the disabled, the euthanasia program was dubbed a mission of “mercy.”
51
2.2.3 Homosexuals in the Holocaust
Homosexuality was outlawed by the Nazi regime, because it was seen as
detrimental to the goal of procreation, wholesome family life, and the
producing of the pure Aryan race. In 1945 it was common knowledge that
gay men had been prisoners in Nazi concentration camps, marked with a
pink triangle.
Within the realm of the Holocaust research, gay men
belonged for a long time to the so-called group of "forgotten victims,"
which according to Heger and Fernback (1994) distorts history.
The
postwar German government did not simply forget about homosexuals but
"actively continued to persecute them." (p. 8)
Even though the Golden Twenties in Germany's urban areas had seen a
flourishing of gay and lesbian bars, the Nazis made it clear that the future
Aryan race would have no place for homosexuals. Despite the closing of
gay bars and the raiding of the Institute for Sexual Science in 1933, some
mistook Nazi anti-gay policies as somewhat ambivalent so long as SA chief
Ernst Rohm was tolerated.11
When Hitler suspected Rohm of plotting
against him, Rohm and many others were killed on June 30th 1934. His
homosexuality was then cited as a means of printed public order to rid all
Nazi organizations of homosexuals. Not until the late 1980's and 1990's did
researchers begin seriously exploring the Nazi persecution of homosexuals.
An early study estimated that 10,000 to 15,000 men wore the pink triangle.
At Buchenwald, an SS doctor performed operations designed to transform
gay men into heterosexuals through the insertion of a capsule which
released the male hormone testosterone; some of the men died during the
operation (Heger & Fernback, p. 12). Homosexual men were forced to
wear pink triangles on their clothes so they could be easily recognized and
further humiliated inside the camp.
Between 5,000 and 15,000
homosexuals died in concentration camps during the Holocaust. No exact
number is known where many records were lost and destroyed. Holocaust
research in general is difficult but for research on homosexuals, the
problems also multiply. Unlike Jews and other victims, they could not
11
Although Rohm was not openly homosexual, his homosexuality was nonetheless widely
known.
51
receive restitution payment since West German courts decreed that gays had
been criminals under the Nazis and thus not eligible for such payments.
Furthermore, the killing of homosexuals was not considered a crime against
humanity or a war crime. For all these reasons, finding survivors was very
difficult. In addition, scholars who are homophobic on the subject, tend to
overlook homosexuals or dismiss them.
Controversy surrounds every
aspect of this persecution, even the label itself. Since gays could "pass,"
unlike Jews or Gypsies, most survived the war if they remained in the
"closet," hidden and celibate. Perhaps it can be considered that gays were
victims of a genocidal mentality as were the handicapped and not of
outright genocide. There are no known statistics for those who died in the
camps—only rough estimates.
Homosexual prisoners lacked a support
network common to other groups and without the mitigating support; they
were unlikely to live long.12 Many prisoners were sent to Sachsenhausen
and Dachau.
Gay prisoners 1938, wearing a pink triangle in Sachsenhausen Concentration Camp.
Photo taken by author.
12
United States Washington Memorial Museum (USHMM) recognizes the "gay genocide."
52
2.2.4 The Murder of Sephardic Jews from Rhodes
Rhodes is a beautiful Greek island in the Aegean Sea and is a tourist
attraction for many Israelis. Few are aware that this once thriving Jewish
community was completely devastated during the Shoah.
The Jewish
genocide that devastated Eastern European (Ashkenazi) Jewry of its
centuries old culture, also wiped out the great European population centers
of Judeo-Spanish (Sephardi) Jewry and led to the almost complete demise
of its unique language and tradition. Very little Holocaust research is done
on Sephardi Jewry and not enough commemoration is allotted to them.
They are also included on the list of "forgotten victims." It is up to Yad
Vashem and Ghetto Fighters' House Museum in Israel to give these martyrs
their due. There is only brief mention of them as well in the USHMM. It is
imperative that they are removed from the list of the forgotten ones. Due to
the larger numbers of Eastern European victims, there seems to be a myth
that Sephardim were spared the Holocaust. It has been retold as an Eastern
European tragedy. In the light of accurate historical accounts, Sephardim
need to be included as part of those millions who were involved and fell
victim to the Nazi atrocities. To this day however, the Sephardic voice of
the Holocaust remains ominously silent and among themselves, they know
little of what happened to their brethren during the Shoah.
It is only
recently that survivors from areas of Tunis living in Israel are recognized as
eligible for German restitution.
The unrelenting determination; the perverse obsession of the Nazis to
obliterate the Jewish people everywhere and at any cost, is epitomized
through the small and far-reaching community of Rhodes. A favorite island
for cruise ships on the Aegean Sea, Jewish visitors also come as a place to
remember (those who are aware of it), and for some to discover that a
historic Jewish community where life once bustled in the Jewish quarter (La
Juderia), was decimated. A plaque lists the names of families murdered in
the German camps in from 1944 to 1945. Rhodes was part of Italy after
World War I and as such, the Jews of Rhodes remained relatively safe until
the Germans occupied the island in September 1943. The implementation
of anti-Jewish laws in September 1938 by the Italian Governor caused great
53
alarm and hardship to the tiny Jewish community. This resulted in a swift
exodus of over 2,000 Jews from Rhodes which prior to then held a
population of 4,000. Italy as an ally of Germany during World War II,
allowed the Germans to share control over the Island of Rhodes.
In
September 1943, the Italian military surrendered full control of Rhodes to
the Germans. The heartbreaking part is that less than three months before
the Germans were forced to leave Greece, deportations from Rhodes, the
last conducted by the Germans in Greece, were implemented. On July 18,
1944, the male Jews of Rhodes, age 16 and older, were ordered by the
German military commanders to appear the following morning with their
identity cards and work permits at the Air Force Command Center. The
tactic of requiring the work permits tricked the Jews into thinking they were
summoned to be sent for a work camp. The next morning after the Jewish
men were assembled, they were brutalized and threatened by the German
soldiers who proceeded to take away the identity cards and permits. They
were herded into the basement of the building. On July 19th, the remaining
women and children were also ordered to appear the following day with
their valuables under a threat of death. They had no choice but to obey, and
once entrapped, their belongings were stripped away. On July 23rd, 1,673
Jews were ordered to march to the port where they boarded onto three
crowded boats. The Jews were sent to the neighboring island of Kos,
crammed into boats in the hot summer sun with no food; no water. On that
day, a centuries old Jewish community had ceased to exist. The crossing
from Rhodes to the mainland lasted eight days and had devastating
consequences. Seven people died during the trip. They had one stop at the
Island of Leros, where they were joined by another small cargo boat
carrying about a hundred Jews from the Island of Kos. Like the people
from Rhodes, they had also been herded onto the boat after being stripped
of all their valuables. After landing in Piraeus (Athens) and staying at the
Haidari concentration camp, they forced onto trains to Auschwitz where
most of them were murdered. Of those 1,673 Jews, only 150 survived.
Today, there are fewer than forty Jews on the island which came under
Greek dominion in 1947. The community, because it is too small to be
independent, is managed by the Central Board of Jewish Communities in
54
Athens.
It is imperative that further research is done on the topic of
Sephardic Jews during the Holocaust and that the martyrs are given their
due recognition through commemoration.
1938 Laws implemented for tiny Jewish community of Rhodes. Fear, apprehension,
and terror were inflicted. Below: Alexander Angel a Jewish boy from Rhodes who
was exterminated in Auschwitz along with 1500 Jews. They did not have to wear
the Yellow Star. It was a form of resistance. Courtesy of the Rhodes Jewish Museum.
55
Chapter III
How was it Possible?
A Literature Review
"This people must disappear
from the face of the earth."
Heinrich Himmler, "Speech to
the Leaders of the Nazi party," in
Posen, October 6, 1943.
Shoes of Martyrs. Taken by author on location in Auschwitz I.
Baby shoes in the forefront symbolize the complete destruction
of the Jew and the evil and management efficiency of the
perpetrators. Note reflection of light above baby shoe.
The Holocaust has taken its place as a defining moment of 20th century
humanity, the moment we learned about what we are as individuals, human
capacity for good and evil, and more than that, about the power of states and
institutions to accomplish so much, even the annihilation of a people. The
massive and heavy book called The Holocaust Chronicle, a History in Words
and Pictures—heavy like the event of genocide itself, is as its title. It is a
chronicle, written and fact-checked by top scholars reliving the long, complex,
anguishing story of the Holocaust which has as its mission to report facts,
clearly free of bias or agenda. It consists of images and a 3000-item timeline
that pinpoints the specific deportations, atrocities, and important developments
towards the "Final Solution." It illustrates individual acts of cruelty,
compassion, and heroism. It is the Holocaust brought out in visual terms—the
56
sites of mass shootings, the corpse-burning ovens, pictures of perpetrators and
victims, scenes of combat, and dozens of images of artifacts. It is a non-forprofit book and although no single volume could cover everything about Shoah,
its mission as stated by the publisher, is that it "has been designed as a richly
illustrated survey that will introduce students and lay readers to the basic facts
of the Holocaust, and help guide them to an increased understanding of the
event” (Weber, p. 3).
Much is known about the Holocaust.
There are
meticulous records of actions, plans, orders; crimes were documented, photos
were taken, and even film. Still, even with all that, there is much that is
unknown and dispute about its inception to its finality. Much of this literature
review is derived from The Holocaust Chronicle a starting point for the review
of other material. The final termination of the Jew is filled with myths and
distortions—and it is not a shocking revelation. The sum of Jewish victims
which as only an estimate exceeds six million--creates numbness in response.
The mind wants to shut down that which is unbelievable—a figure which
cannot be comprehended and a recognition that each martyr had a name --a past
with happiness and dreams, someone who loved and was loved, and their own
individual death. Researchers are still exploring the answer to the question of
"why" which to date has only been partly answered and certainly not in its
entirety. Some put the event as beginning with the rise of Hitler from 1933.
Others put the event as beginning from 1939 with the invasion of Poland, and
still others ignore prior events focusing only on the implementation of the Final
Solution which was implemented in 1942. There are many events which are
omitted from timelines and many were never recorded. Today there are still
sites waiting to be discovered; mass graves and death camps which have
remained anonymous.
The Holocaust event is paradoxical in nature and roles of survivors have
changed. After the war, survivors were silent—unable to find those who were
willing to listen. With the influx of survivors into Israel, they were accused of
being part of those who went "like sheep to the slaughter without a fight." And
they had with them their scar and guilt of why they survived and nobody else in
their families did. Slowly, hints of what happened emerged and since 1994,
more than 50,000 testimonies of Holocaust survivors, liberators, rescuers, and
eyewitnesses have been taken in 32 languages in 57 countries by the Survivors
57
of the Shoah Visual History Foundation in Los Angeles. Their words are a cry
against indifference, a plea for human values and dignity. But today there is a
pressure to gather more and a pressure to remember due to their demise.
Museums are springing up worldwide, and yet, there is a danger to losing focus
of why museums are being established in the first place and questions about its
main mission. There is the constant urge to know more and this is the
Holocaust paradox. The more the event becomes distant, the more interest
seems to grow. Because it actually happened, students are interested and want
to study more. They ask why it is relevant for them and the answers of Bosnia,
Rwanda, and Kosovo become etched in their minds along with words such as
ethnic cleansing and genocide. Images of fleeing refugees, corpses, and empty
villages, films, visits to museums cause them to become "the interested." They
want to know more. Trips to Poland and March of the Living are organized
and Holocaust Memorial Day in the United Nations has been established. In
the Foreword of the book The Holocaust Chronicle, researcher Michael
Berenbaum13 says that "the study of deaths is in the service of life. To study
evil is to strengthen decency and goodness. . . And although the Holocaust
provides few answers and raises many questions, the questions invite moral
struggle against that evil." (p. 11).
3.1 The Definition of Evil
When we think of a "good" or "qualified" manager, we often associate those
terms with something positive not just for the contribution to an organization,
but automatically, they are reverberated to the concept of "good" deeds. And
the antithesis is also true:
A "bad" manager who we associate with
"unqualified," is probably doing "bad" things for the organization and hence the
deeds performed are also "bad." There is no separation here between good and
bad in terms of human qualities and management qualifications. The focus here
is not on the separation of organization and deeds but putting them in one box.
And this is the management paradox.
We do not normally separate the
management from the deeds. However the term evil helps to describe actions
13
Michael Berenbaum, PhD was Project Director for the creation of the United States Holocaust
Memorial Museum, and the first director of the United States Holocaust Research Institute as well as
CEO and President of the Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation.
58
by those members of an organization of individuals. Reminiscent of the 20 th
century more than any other, is the paradox which has proven that more
efficiency in management can lead to evil deeds. And in terms of the Jewish
genocide, the more evil that was committed, the better the management
apparatus—that to do more evil would bring more reward and approval from
the Fuhrer. It must be understood that the systematic evil, state-sponsored evil
and industrial killing and mass murders—that was the essence of the Holocaust.
The perpetrators had an assignment of mass murder—some sadists and
criminals unlike us but many more who were ordinary men and women trying
to do their best, to fulfill their obligations which they felt would reap reward
and assure their place in the Nazi organization. Some were professionals—
doctors and engineers who used their skills to become efficient murderers. All
became privy to the management of mass murder. Much has been studied on
the mass killings which took place but little is still known about the mass
production of mass murderers, the instruments of those mass killings; that a
nation was able to produce such massive death through industrial means. And
the question remains: How is it possible that one man with a tiny moustache
and beady black eyes had such a mesmerizing effect on a civilized nation, and
caused this nation and its bystanders to commit the horrendous deeds and the
worst crimes against humanity?
The term "evil" has religious and judgmental connotations.
Those in
academics prefer to dwell on describing behavior rather than the term itself.
But denying evil as a combination of label and action constrains us from
acknowledgement of the deed itself.
Bernstein (2002, p. 10) says the
following:
Looking back over the horrendous twentieth century
few of us would hesitate to speak of evil. Many people
believe that evils witnessed in the twentieth century
exceed anything that has even been recorded in past
history. Most of us do not hesitate to speak of these
extreme events—genocides, massacres, torture, terrorist
attacks, the infliction of gratuitous suffering.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines "evil" as morally bad; causing
trouble or harming people; a force that causes bad or harmful things to happen.
It is defined as the antithesis of good in all its principle senses. The former
59
definition indicates that there is a human component in the label of evil which
requires the physical, the human hand; the latter indicates something more
removed from direct human involvement, almost like something supernatural,
the devil perhaps. Or it can be that the blame for evil action is caused by
something supernatural or some external apparatus which causes harm. For
example, if we say excess alcohol drinking causes us to do evil deeds, the cause
for the evil is alcohol and not the human being. The human being is removed
from responsibility, as if blame should be cast on some other external, perhaps
supernatural force that caused that evil deed. Again, the human being is
removed from direct responsibility. Many Germans when tried after the events
said they were forced to do it or something made them do it. The removal of
human responsibility and the blame on some other force, apparatus, or object to
cause a deed is extremely dangerous. It permits us to continue with genocide,
mass destruction, and prevents us from learning from our mistakes and evil
deeds. Furthermore, this removal permits the distorted rhetoric of those who
say that these events never occurred; to deny history. And that is the ultimate
danger; giving legitimacy to those who outwardly deny history and evil events.
So much is learned about evil when studying the Holocaust. It was an atrocity,
senseless, and done with the fullest force of human zeal. But there were a few
precious men, women, and even children—who opened their homes and their
hearts and provided a haven for their victims, a place to sleep, a crust of bread,
a kind word, a hiding place. What makes such goodness possible in the midst
of such evil taking place? It is those deeds we wish to emulate that can serve as
models for how humanity wants to behave and what it wants to become.
3.2 The Timeline of Jewish Elimination
According to Louis Weber (2000), CEO responsible for the publishing of
The Holocaust Chronicle, "the Holocaust was not generated only from within
the German Reich. Fascist regimes in Romania, Croatia, and the Ukraine
murdered large numbers of Jews as well. Nor was the Holocaust completely
confined to the war years but to centuries of anti-Semitism in Europe—bloody
pogroms, exclusionary laws, rising hatred." Full of euphemisms, those who do
not want to believe, and paradoxical in nature, it is the systematic, stateorganized persecution and murder of more than six million Jews by Nazi
61
Germany and their collaborators. Using poison gas, bullets, starvation and
overwork, the perpetrators succeeded in slaughtering two-thirds of Europe's
Jews and one-third of the world's Jewish population.
In addition, Nazi
Germany's genocidal policies eradicated millions of other defenseless people.
Goldhagen (1996) presents a book that is not easy to handle in terms of telling
about what kind of people did the killing and how they could. He divides the
implementation of Holocaust objectives into ten sequential parts (p. 136):

Verbal assault.

Physic assault.

Legal and administrative measures to isolate Jews from non-Jews.

Driving them to emigrate.

Forced deportation and "resettlement."14

Ghettoization and physical separation.

Killings through starvation, debilitation and disease (interim genocide).

Extermination through slave labor and forced labor as a surrogate for
death.

Genocide, Mass shootings calculated starvation, and gassing.

Death Marches.
Many timelines of the Shoah begin from 1933. As mentioned, some
begin as late as 1942. In order to get a full understanding of when the
Holocaust (the label to the events) began, the subject of anti-Semitism must
be discussed. Over the centuries, it has taken different but related forms.
Goldhagen identifies three dimensions of anti-Semitism: Christian antiSemitism which envisioned Jews as the killers of Christ and in need of
conversion. Under this category up until the middle of the 19th century, the
Jews were considered redeemable provided they converted to Christianity.
In that way they could save themselves from persecution. They were also
considered to be the devil and could not be vanquished—because the devil
would
remain.
demonological.
Goldhagen
coins
this
type
of
anti-Semitism
as
The third type of anti-Semitism was the racial one,
whereby Jews had no chance of redemption, that their demonological
14
Resettlement is another euphemism used by the Nazis. It meant being deported eastward to the
death camps in Poland.
61
qualities were innate, and that they represented the devil itself. As a result,
the basis for the Nazi ideology rejection of Christian anti-Semitism whereby
Jews can have redemption if they convert became the order of the day.
There was no chance for the Jew in racial anti-Semitism for reprieve.
Hence, the Jew had to be eliminated from German society. Since they were
seen as poison and responsible for all the ills of the society, they had to be
vanquished. According to Goldhagen and top researchers in The Holocaust
Chronicle, without anti-Semitism, the Holocaust could not have happened.
The seeds were sown and the time was ripe when Hitler came to power.
Many myths surround the Holocaust but there are three which regularly
expose themselves: The Holocaust was caused by one crazy guy named
Hitler and he hypnotized the Germans; the Jews were scapegoats and this
caused the Holocaust; there were no extermination camps on German soil
but only Polish soil. The first two are ruptured with Goldhagen's categories
of anti-Semitism as well as top researchers from The Holocaust Chronicle.
One can say that if the seeds were already sown, than Hitler represented the
man who could implement Jewish annihilation with the cooperation of his
people. Without them as well as collaborators, it stands to reason to reflect
that he could not have carried it through, at least not on this wide scale.
Jews as scapegoats was the symptom of Shoah facilitation and it is an
excuse to summarize easily and justify that which was so catastrophic. It is
not the reason for the event. And it is when the opportunity was ripe that
the genocide component of eliminationism came into fruition. It must be
remembered that way before the Holocaust, Jews were discriminated
against, hated, and killed, lacked citizenship qualifications, practiced
business improperly, behaved inappropriately, or possessed inferior racial
characteristics. All of these, especially the racial category, played key parts
in the genocide event and therefore any timeline for this huge disaster, must
take into account the turning point of the 19th century, when racial antiSemitism and supporters of Jewish elimination set the conditions for the
genocidal policies and the eradication of millions. How Jews were to be
eliminated and what it meant was unclear and hazy but its necessity was
clear in the order of the day. It was in 1941 and 1942 that the how to
“Judenfrage” (Jewish problem) carried out the "solution" of Jewish
62
extermination. And the finality of the implementation for the solution
occurred in phases.
The following timeline was created through different sources and
compiled by the author, decked in the colors of the swastika flag.





Middle to end of 19th century. Racial anti-Semitism ideology is
increased with no chance for the Jew to gain redemption. By adopting both
Christian and racial anti-Semitism, they had no escape.
1920's to 1932. Beginning of Nazi rise to power. Germany experiences
harsh economic realities following its World War I loss.
Jews are to blame for Germany's economic woes. Hitler is sentence to
nine months in jail for attempting a takeover in Munich and writes Mein
Kampf (My Struggle) where he outlines his vision of an Aryan race,
elimination of undesirables like the handicapped and others considered to
be impure, and the extermination of the Jew.
1933 to 1937. Nuremberg Laws. The Reich Flag Law (swastika with
colors of red, black, and white becomes the national flag). The Citizenship
Law and the Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honor both
carrying Hitler's signature, affected the Jews directly. The former
distinguished between citizen and subject, acquiring citizenship only
through a Reich Citizenship Certificate. The latter stripped Jews of
citizenship (although they were not mentioned directly), deprived them of
civil rights, and treated them as foreigners. The Nuremberg Laws were
race laws in which they found Jewish "blood to be inferior and dangerous.
Jews could never be Germans and hence were threats to German purity
through their very presence on German soil. In 1933, a vague formula
defined a non-Aryan as any person who had a Jewish parent or
grandparent. Later a draft contained the provision that the law applied
only to "full-blooded Jews." The final implementation came in 1935
which defined the Jew in a way that distinguished between full Jews and
part-Jews. A person was fully Jewish if he or she had at least three Jewish
grandparents. If a person had two Jewish grandparents or had a Jewish
spouse, he or she was a part-Jew—a Mischlinge (crossbreed). This was
also eventually refined to distinguish between Mischlinges of the first or
second degree, the latter classification referring to persons who had only a
single Jewish grandparent and who did not practice Judaism or have a
Jewish spouse. Therefore to be a full Jew was considered much worse
than, a Mischlinge of the second degree. Increase in racial, anti-Semitic
policies. The Jews become "socially dead" beings with the removal of
basic rights and their exclusion in society. 1936 Germany hosted the
summer Olympics. Although United States and Britain were aware of the
Nazi ideology, allowing Germany under the Nazi flag to host the summer
games in 1936 legitmized their political arena on the world stage.
1938 Kristallnacht (The Night of Broken Glass). Turning point in
Holocaust events. Synagogues are burned and Jewish homes vandalized
and destroyed throughout the German Reich. Jews are arrested and some
sent to concentration camps. Jews are pushed to "get out." Verbal and
physical violence ensue. The final "social death" of the Jew (Goldhagen,
1996, p. 137).
1939 -1941. Invasion of Poland. Establishment of Stutthof, the first
concentration camp in the Generalgouverrnement. Jews are sent to ghettos
and slave labor camps around Poland.
63






1941 – 1942. Invasion of the Soviet Union. Mobile gas vans are used in
Chelmno extermination site. Liquidation of the Lodz Ghetto to Chelmno
with no chance of survival and extermination en masse. Mass killings
around Ukraine including mass extermination in Babi Yar ravine outside
Kiev September 29th to September 30th 1941. Gas chambers in Auschwitz
and Majdanek. Plans and implementation for the elimination of Soviet
Jewry.
1942 – 1944. The Wannsee Conference to finalize the plans for the Final
Solution for the termination of the Jew. Establishment of three
extermination sites in Poland specifically for mass extermination upon
arrival: Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka. Jews in Romania deported and
transported to Transnistria and put in ghettos and camps. Mass killings
around Romania occur in many towns and cities like the massacre in Iasi.
1944 – 1945. Germany begins to lose the war. Gassing intensifies,
evidence of mass killing centers is destroyed, bodies are exhumed for
burning all evidence of mass killing in Aktion 1005, death marches begin.
1945 –End of World War II. Many more are killed and exterminated
until the end of the war through the death marches and continuous torture,
gassings, and starvation. The allies liberate the camps. Some of them are
liberated by the Americans and British, others by Soviets.
1945 – 1960's. Aftermath of the Murdered. Survivors search for loved
ones, have to learn to cope with great loss and guilt. Establishment of the
State of Israel. The world has to come to grips over its apathy and role as
passive observers and the emergence of the horrifying truth. Hence, the
exposure of what man is capable of doing in its most virulent form is
exposed and naivete is torn up. Nuremberg trials for crimes against
humanity take place on German soil. Capture of Adolf Eichmann (one of
the masterminds behind Final Solution) by Israeli Mossad agents. He is
brought to Israel and hung on Israeli soil. His body is cremated and ashes
strewn in international waters away from Israel's geographical location.
Establishment of Ghetto Fighters' House and Yad Vashem museums in
Israel. Emphasis on "never again." Survivors try to put their lives "back
together" illustrated through second generations and remarriage after the
loss of spouse.
1960's to present. From Ashes to Genesis. Survivors begin to speak and
tell their stories. Many books are published on the subject. Pressure to
preserve, Holocaust museums established worldwide, memorials on sites
in Europe are established. Restitution by the German government to
Holocaust survivors. Survivors beginning to disappear due to the natural
life cycle. Many questions asked today about what to do for the future.
Feeling of uncertainty. Increase in Holocaust research but also increase in
Holocaust denial and rhetoric. Glimpses of Jewish community revivals.
3.3 Management's Dark Side: Administrative Evil in the Holocaust
According to Goldhagen (p. 154), the elimination of the Jew—the
termination of the Jew, was the central mission of the German machine.
The genocide component of eliminationism came into fruition in 1941 with
the Einsatzgruppen who went on killing sprees implementing the goal of the
eliminationist ideology with the onset of the Soviet Union invasion. The
dual assault of militarism and exterminationism was made possible by
64
getting the locals to do the dirty work in its initial phases, so the
psychological equilibrium of the officers could remain in check and to
reward the locals by giving them free reign to take revenge for their
suffering at the hands of the Jew. The utter destruction and the obliteration
of the Jewish people from the face of the earth began with these killing
squads—first towards Jewish men from 16 to 60 and then women, children,
and the infirmed. Hitler made good on his eliminationist ideology planted
firmly in his mind—not to just eliminate Soviet Jewry but world Jewry. All
that was needed were more manpower, operational plans, organization of
resources, and the implementation of genocide on a full scale. Goldhagen
provides phases for the implementation of full Jewish destruction.
Phase 1: Killing squads—from men to women and children all across the
Soviet Union.
Phase 2: Operational planning for the European worldwide extermination
which resulted in the erection of permanent gassing installations, and
requirement of more manpower.
Phase 3: Erection of death camps in Poland (the demographic center of
European Jewry).
Experimentation with Auschwitz's initial small gas
chamber on September 3rd, 1941 using Zyklon B (hydrogen cyanide) to kill
about 850 people, 600 of them Soviet prisoners of war. This phase saw the
establishment of the Aktion Reinhard sites of mass extermination and the
use of gas vans in Chelmno.
In his book Hitler's Willing Executioners, Goldhagen reveals that undue
recognition has been given to the perpetrators for their part in killing
institutions besides the camps. By Holocaust research focusing on the gas
chambers in the death camps, notwithstanding their gravity and crucial
understanding of horrific killing methods of the Jew, attention has shifted
away from the perpetrators themselves as well as other institutions of
killing. Those who worked in the less notorious killing institutions with
extermination "intent" have fallen from view. According to Goldhagen, the
star villains of the 20th century have become Hitler, Himmler, Eichmann
and a few others, which unknowingly omits to give dues to those who
operated the vast network of other horrific institutions other than the death
camps. The involvement of so many in the genocidal slaughter and the
65
minimal knowledge we have about them, suggests how little we know about
the perpetrators themselves. Eliminationism which culminated into
genocide at the opportune moment was a humungous managerial and
operational undertaking, involving hundreds of thousands of perpetrators
who participated in this widespread rampage of destruction. Berlin alone
was home to 645 camps, which baffles the mind, thinking what the distance
was between Germans and a camp (p. 171). It became part of the society, a
"camp system," distinct in that it had its own organizational system,
governing rules, and practices. Whether the Germans were killing the Jew
at an extermination camp or starving them slowly, torturing them, or
crowding them into ghettos, the ultimate goal was the same: All Jews were
deemed to die. What was different was the tempo of extermination, but the
goal was the same. The camp system was a unique world, different from
the rest of German society. With such a large camp system, ordinary
Germans became employed in these institutions of "waiting to die" even if
they were not directly affiliated with the Nazi party. This close proximity
of the camps and the employment of ordinary Germans, cancels out the
myth that Germans did not know anything about what was going on. The
hundreds and hundreds of camps, ghettos, and slave labor factories and
facilities, involved a massive organizational and administrative apparatus.
And the success of the management of this operation, although it contained
flaws at times in its efficiency, with the German zeal always trying to
improve it, the means achieved its end.
It must be remembered by those teaching about this period, that the
Holocaust entailed much more than just Auschwitz (notwithstanding its
importance and horror in Holocaust history atrocity). It consisted of a
destructive machine warped by racism and prejudice, determined to achieve
a purpose thought to be of omnipotent grandeur, which was implemented
with fanaticism against those who were deemed subhuman and unworthy to
inhabit the planet. We cannot forget the ghettos, slave laborers, partisans,
mass graves, torture, starvation, and executions that did not take place
inside the camps themselves; again, the same goal but different tempo and
means. The management of the giant German system of destruction, is
illustrated by a recent study of all varieties of German "camps" (including
66
ghettos) which identified a total of 10,005 positively with the full
knowledge that many existed which have not yet been uncovered (p. 167).
Among the ten thousand camps (not all of which housed Jews), there were
941 forced labor camps designated specially for Jews and located within the
borders of today's Poland. 230 special camps for Hungarian Jews were set
up on the Austrian border. The German machine created 399 ghettos in
Poland, 34 in East Galicia, 16 in small Lithuania. Just the ghettos and
forced labor camps reserved for Jews totaled over 1600. The Germans had
over 5700 people handling Mauthausen and its satellite camps. 4100 guards
were stationed on Dachau alone and Auschwitz, by itself with its 50 satellite
camps, had 7000 guards among its personnel at various times. One can
conclude that it becomes obvious that the number of people manning the
German machine of extermination was enormous.
The above do not
include the figures for the Einsatzgruppen which started out with 3,000 men
and three SS brigades, totaling 25,000 men under Himmler's direct
command, which slaughtered the Jew in the Soviet Union from 1941 to
1943 (p. 167). Railroad officials; administrators of many varieties; and the
many who contributed to the slaughter of Jewish slave laborers working
under them in production facilities need to be included. Normal rules did
not apply when it came to Jews. The genocidal task was facilitated by
police battalions with no special training (Order Police), volunteers in
various districts who joined these units or helped round up the Jew, and
consisted of killing sprees done by citizens themselves such as in Lithuania
or Kovno. It is staggering that little is still known about the number of
Germans who contributed to and had knowledge of the regime's brutality
and cruelty, but given the proximity of the camps in Germany, it is
impossible that they did not.
According to Goldhagen (p.158) the extermination of the Jew—the
increased fervor, zeal, and fanatic obsession to exterminate the last Jew in
Europe took precedence even at the cost of other objectives. Eliminating
the Jew resulted in labor shortage of the war's economy. As a result, the
Germans began to employ non-Jews in greater numbers. They destroyed
irreplaceable and desperately needed Jewish labor and production, further
putting into peril prospects for military victory. The extermination of the
67
Jew and the Germans' final-final solution to finding an answer to solving
the problem to the question of the Jew took on a perverse feeling of glory,
even jeopardizing Nazism's very existence. And it must be remembered
that not only is the Shoah the extermination of millions but it also operated
the largest economic pillaging machine which went across Europe.
In their book, Unmasking Administrative Evil (2004) Adams and Balfour
use the Holocaust, "perhaps the most important event in the research of our
field," to illustrate the reality of what they call the "unmasking of
administrative evil."
The modern age has coined the phrase technical
rationality—the elevation of technical progress and processes over human
values and dignities. They portray the Holocaust as a massive political
undertaking that required the complicity of thousands of professionals and
administrators, most whom were not professional Nazis. They consider
how so many came to participate in mass murder; whether modern public
service may be at its most effective and efficient operating evils when
engaging in programs of dehumanization and destruction (Introduction, p.
xxx).
Because we tend to prefer more modern terminology such as
dysfunctional behavior, "the use of the word evil may be uncomfortable or
even misguided. Evil appears in a new and more dangerous form in the
modern age." (p. 4). Technical Rationality, a way of thinking and living
that emphasizes the mindset and the belief in technological process and
progress (Adams, 1992), is the gateway for a new form of evil in
administration or administrative evil. If people act in their own
organizational role, they may not be aware that they are in fact doing
anything wrong. In fact, what is shocking about administrative evil is that
its appearance is masked in many different ways—ordinary people simply
acting as they should in their role—doing what they should be doing in the
organizational process.
To a reasonable onlooker, what they are
participating in would be called evil.
The frightening aspect of
administrative evil is when "moral inversion" occurs—something evil has
been redefined convincingly as good; that ordinary people can all too easily
engage in acts of administrative evil, while believing that what they are
doing is not only correct but in fact, good.
Take for example the
masterminds of the Final Solution who believed that what they were doing
68
is a good thing not only for Germany but the whole world. The belief that
Hitler and the Nazis were a bunch of demented crazies and simply the
ultimate racists (although it began with that), is not enough to explain how a
whole civilized nation participated in atrocities. It is too simplistic. It does
not explain the application of rational-legal principles and bureaucratic
efficiency to the task of extermination. As Adams and Balfour comment:
The destruction of the Jews was procedurally indistinguishable
from any other modern organizational process. Great attention was
given to precise definition, to detailed regulation, to compliance
with the law, and to record keeping. In other words, the modern
technical-rational approach to public administration was adhered to
in every aspect (p. 66).
The writers argue that the tendency towards administrative evil as portrayed
in acts of dehumanization and genocide is deeply woven into the fabric and
identity of public administration. It is when people view their acts as
good—conditions
of
moral
inversion—that
distinguishes
technical
rationality from administrative evil. Adams and Balfour expose the reader
to this modern form of evil in human affairs by unmasking it layer by layer.
As the distance between the object and the action increases, sense of
individual responsibility decreases. This can be illustrated by the example
of Nazi officers who had a cup of coffee after executing hundreds of people
by mass killings into mass graves dug by the very victims themselves
(another example of the perverse moral inversion).
Or this can be
illustrated by the example when the Nazi officer went home to his wife and
children after double-checking the "gassing system" to make sure that the
gas chambers were in full operation.
In their article, From Instrumental Rationality to Administrative Evil
(2005), Adams and Balfour argue that administrative evil is inherent in the
administrative hierarchies currently governing work organizations, and they
explore the means by which instrumentally rational processes merge into
administrative evil. In their abstract, "administrative evil refers to the use of
technology, professionals, and hierarchical organizational structure that
divorce collective actions from their moral context. Technical expertise,
manifested in various devices, facilitates ordinary human beings' (rational)
participation in administrative evil."
This is facilitated by information
69
technology which contributes to technically competent and instrumentally
rational decisions. Moral context and actions are divorced and the sense of
personal responsibility is removed with the definition of evil, already cited.
The label of evil, the label of our deeds, alleviates any personal
responsibility or accountability by the doer. Movies on the Holocaust like
Schindler's List, The Pianist, or Holocaust documentaries, illustrate the
shocking theory of administrative evil which is beginning to engulf many
organizations. The sense of identity which in and of itself reaps benefits;
the feeling of belonging to a group—this becomes paramount to any moral
or ethical grounds for acts of positive humanity and goodness—the German
or non-German soldiers who pointed their machine guns at women holding
their babies, shooting them into mass graves.
The moral inversion of
thinking that it is for the good of the Reich to shoot the victims, or to
accomplish their duty for the longer reward—to belong to that special class
of Aryans, prevailed any form of moral or ethical rules. And who dug those
pits? Using their authority to the maximum, German soldiers and their
collaborators forced the victims to dig their own graves, using their labor as
a means to an end.
The Holocaust paints a vivid picture of administrative evil and moral
inversion in its most virulent and sadistic form. The "Nazi death machine
organization" ran day in and day out, 24 hours a day. Everyone had a role
for the benefit of the Reich. Prisoners were used for slave labor and then
executed themselves, making way for a new set of prisoners. Thus, slave
labor not only benefited the Reich economically, but exterminated Jews in
the process. There was a special unit of Jewish prisoners who had to extract
the gold from the teeth of their brethren, after the latter asphyxiated from
the poison gas. The vicious cycle of organizational efficiency, illustrates
the ultimate administrative evil, unmasked. From Hitler himself down to
the prisoners, the management of the Nazi death machine organization's
execution of the Shoah is a clear demonstration of how professional and
ordinary human beings can turn to commit the most horrible crimes against
humanity. The Nazis in the high ranks, thought what they were doing must
be done for racial purity and world domination of the Aryan race. Had they
not lost the war, they might have succeeded. Those in lower ranks who
71
belonged to the allegiance of the Reich and the SS did their acts of cruelty
for their commitment to what they saw would end up being for the good and
for their sense of belonging if they followed orders. The perverse logic
within administrative evil of the Nazi regime (although not perverse to them
but to us), may shed light on how they were able to manage such a massive,
powerful and destructive organization without relenting, from 1939-1945.
Adam and Balfour produce a shocking revelation into the organizational
structure of the most efficient and well-organized death machine in the
twentieth century.
Forces of anti-Semitism and racism were already
present and provide only the partial explanation as the base for the building
of the operation.
Using relentless propaganda, the death machine
continuously operated using the most technological advances for producing
evil means for evil ends. The Wannsee Conference for resolving the Final
Solution to the Jewish Problem is perhaps the greatest example of moral
inversion generated by administrative evil. Its purpose was to discuss with
and implement the final plans to put an end to the Jew. With great care, the
Auschwitz-Birkenau blueprints were graphed and presented to the leading
Nazi officials of the Reich, personally signed by Himmler himself. With
meticulous accuracy, paying attention to every minute detail, top engineers
and architects mapped out the death factory at Auschwitz from which other
extermination camps followed suit. It was the prisoners themselves who
dug the foundations for the gas chambers, no knowing what was in store for
them and their brethren. Adolf Eichmann, one of the architects for the Final
Solution, was indicted on fifteen counts of crimes against humanity and
crimes against the Jewish people in his role for deporting thousands
of men, women, and children to be exterminated.15
The most common psychological view treats the Nazis as a bunch of
mad monsters. Confronted with fiendish behavior, some instantly diagnose
"sadism," "psychosis," or "authoritarian personality" and believe this solves
the psychological puzzle of the Holocaust (Zukier, 1994). As Zukier states:
The Holocaust was not nor could it have even been simply one big
"acting-out" party. Something else, more terrifyingly human was going on.
It can no longer be explained psychologically as the discharge of natural
15
Excerpts of Eichmann's final plea before being sentenced to death can be found on many websites.
71
wickedness. Evil and goodness do not simply lurk deep in the heart,
waiting for the lifting of repression or for the opportunity that calls them
forth. They do not "spring" out from their depths; they are carefully
nurtured qualities of the mind. Not only were the protagonists of the
Holocaust mostly ordinary people, but so were the psychological processes
which transformed them into extraordinarily bad (or good) individuals.
Understanding that the Holocaust dynamics were a form of "learned
sadism" will hardly be enough to understand it, for it is beyond
comprehension by any standard. However, it may stop us from soothing
and deluding ourselves when we realize the event can be cast to the realm
of human possibility from which it arose. In that realm though, the event
must remain, like other historical events, forever undetermined. It is not an
aberration of the past on the part of a demented mad man but a threat of the
future. Besides the ravages of the Shoah on its victims, its psychological
roots must be elucidated. (p. 9).
In administrative evil, the Nazi saw himself as an innocent perpetrator
(as did many before being executed). He shifted his mental focus away
from the behavior to his relationship with authorities, to his own changing
expectations, or to the details of his undertaking, and adopted an attitude of
instrumental efficiency, casting himself as the instrument of another's will
or higher purpose. At first he followed orders; then he followed his own
inner commands (p. 11). If evil and more than that, administrative evil
develops gradually within normal contexts and performed by ordinary
people, then the devil lies within its roots.
72
These photos are exhibited in museums worldwide.
Administrative Evil. For the good of the Reich to. . . . Moral Inversion. How was it possible?! Ukraine,
1942. Photo is exhibited in Sachsenhausen, former Jewish Barrack 38. Photo is courtesy of Sachsenhausen
Memorial Site as seen by the author.
Chapter IV
The Decimation of Truth and Denial of Reality
There are many scholars who have written about why they think the
Holocaust happened. To date, due to the enormity of the human tragedy,
there is no clear answer. Research is ongoing and enormous like the subject
itself. Administrative evil is one theory and it is revealed by Adams and
Balfour, making it unmasked.
Many researchers and non-researchers
come up with their own theories as to why and how such a huge tragedy
was able to be implemented. And it is unfortunate to say, that there are
those who hope to profit from sometimes making erroneous claims, just as
there are distortions splashed over the internet. The common characteristic
of administrative evil as examined earlier reveals that ordinary people
within their normal professional and administrative roles can engage in acts
of evil without being aware that they are doing anything wrong. Under
conditions of moral inversion, people may even view their evil activity as
good. The question of "how far ordinary Germans" were accomplices to
the Jewish genocide is hotly contested. Goldhagen (1996, p. 8) argues that:
The Holocaust was the defining aspect of Nazism, but not only of
Nazism. It was also the defining feature of German society . . . The
program's first parts . . .were carried out in the open, under approving
eyes, and with the complicity of virtually all sectors of German
society, from the legal, medical, and teaching professions, to the
churches, both Catholic and Protestant, to the gamut of economic,
social and cultural groups and associations. Hundreds of thousands
Germans contributed to the genocide . . . Millions knew of the mass
slaughters.
73
If the theory of administrative evil is accepted in its entirety, would this not
alleviate responsibility from the perpetrators, from the society in general? If
as the authors claim, the evil-doers are not aware, than why would we bother
prosecuting Nazi war criminals, or war criminals from the former Yugoslavia,
go after Bin Laden or Saddam Hussein? Why not continue allowing the
President of Iran to out rightly deny the genocide of the Jews? The author of
this research, although accepting of some of the ideas for administrative evil
cannot condone the Nazi behavior by claiming that they were not aware that
what they were doing was evil. This would be tantamount to shirking them of
any wrong-doing and releasing them of their responsibility. A person who has
a mental illness may not be aware that he or she is doing something wrong.
But the Nazis were fully aware of their actions. The fact that their obsession
for Jewry elimination overpowered them for the good of the Reich does not
make them oblivious to what they were doing. For example, there are many
euphemisms we know of today that were used in the Holocaust.
"Resettlement" meant that Jews would be transported to a death camp; The
gas chambers alone, covered with replicas of shower nozzles, gave the
impression that the victims would enter a shower room and be washed; music
played at Sobibor and flower-gardens greeted new arrivals to make this
factory of death look like an attractive place; the symbol of the Red Cross for
a hospital so that Jews arriving in Treblinka would think they would be
examined by a humane doctor; the forced beautification at Terezin (outside
Prague) to masquerade the atrocities of torture and starvation for the visit of
the Red Cross in 1942; and most horridly, Aktion 1005 which referred to the
exhumation of bodies from mass graves to be burned to ash so that the
perpetrators could cover up their crimes towards the end of the war or when
there was no more room for extra cadavers. And it was the Jew himself who
had to exhume and burn the bodies of his brethren; even own family members.
74
Bodies are burned in Birkenau in broad daylight and open sky behind crematorium V. In the
summer of 1944 more than 440,000 Hungarian Jews arrived in Birkenau and the ovens did not
suffice. This photo is one of three taken secretly by the Sonderkommando. Photo is on exhibit in
Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial Museum and original photo is in the archives of the Memorial
Museum of Auschwitz-Birkenau.
4.1 Twisted Logic
Holocaust denial is the claim that the genocide of Jews during World
War II, usually referred to as the Holocaust, did not occur at all, or in the
manner or to the extent as historically recognized. Key elements of this
claim are the rejection of any of the following: That the Nazi government
had a policy of deliberately targeting Jews and people of the same ancestry
for extermination; that more than six million Jews were systematically
killed by the Nazis and their allies; and that genocide was carried out at
extermination camps using tools of mass murder such as gas chambers.
Deniers to not accept the term "denial" as an appropriate description of their
point of view, and use the term "revisionism" instead. Scholars prefer the
term "denial" to differentiate Holocaust deniers from historical revisionists
who use established historical methodologies.
Most Holocaust denial
claims imply, or openly state that the Shoah is a hoax, derived from a
deliberate Jewish conspiracy to advance the interest of Jews at the expenses
of other peoples. For this reason, it is considered to be an anti-Semitic
conspiracy theory. Not all who prefer to call themselves revisionists in an
75
attempt to gain academic legitimacy and world recognition make the same
claim. However they do share the same point: There was no systematic
apparatus by Nazi Germany to exterminate European Jewry. Deniers
minimize and distort Holocaust facts. It is a form of twisted fallacy and
anti-Semitism. They deny the overwhelming evidence of the event and
insist that the Holocaust is a myth invented by the allies, Soviet
communists, and the Jews for their own ends. These deniers of atrocities
assert that if they discredit one fact about the Holocaust, the whole history
of the event can be discredited as well. The internet is the chief source of
Holocaust denial and the primary means of recruiting avid Holocaust denial
supporters. They claim that the whole history of the Holocaust has been
grossly
exaggerated
and
numbers
of
victims
fabricated.
According to the perverse logic of deniers, the allies need the myth to
justify their occupation of Germany in 1945 and the harsh persecution of
Nazi defendants; that Israel propagates the Holocaust for their own ends.
The Nazis themselves were deniers. By destroying evidence near the end of
the war—gas chambers, incinerators (crematoriums), mass graves—they
were able to conceal evidence about the ferocious atrocities which
generated the martyrdom of so many victims, thus spurring the beginning of
denial throughout Germany and worldwide. Himmler explicitly referred to
the murder of Jews in Europe and further stated that the murder must be
kept secret. If they were unaware that they were doing something wrong,
why keep it a secret at all?
. . . I also want to refer here very frankly to a very difficult manner. We can
now very openly talk about this among ourselves, and yet we will never
discuss this publicly. Just as we did not hesitate on June 30, 1934
to perform our duty as ordered and put comrades who had failed up against
the wall and execute them, we also never spoke about it, nor will we ever
speak about it. Let us thank God that we had within us enough self-evident
fortitude never to discuss it among us, and we never talked about it. Every
one of us was horrified, and yet every one clearly understood that we would
do it next time, when the order is given and when it becomes necessary. I
am now referring to the evacuation of the Jews, to the evacuation of the
Jews, to the extermination of the Jewish people.16
16
On October 4, 1943 Himmler gave a three hour speech. The audience consisted of high-ranking
officials. The speech was given in the city of Posen (Poznan) in what is now part of Poland.
76
The secret speech emphasized that the mass murder of European Jewry
was a secret, never to be recorded. Both at the time and later, Hitler
ordered that the killings not be spoken of directly in German documentation
or in public statement. Instead, the Germans used codenames and neutralsounding terms in Nazi parlance. For example "action" (action), referred to
a violent operation against Jewish (or other) civilians by German security
forces; "resettlement to the East" (ummsiedlung nach dem Osten) referred
to the forced deportations of Jewish civilians to killing centers in German
occupied Poland; and "special treatment" (sonderbehandlung) meant
murder. Such euphemisms impeded a clear understanding of what the
Nazis were doing. Himmler sought to destroy the physical remains of the
victims by exhumation and burning them on makeshift grills, tracks, or
wooden beams in order to hide the killing process from advancing allied
armies. The forensic evidence of mass murder (though not all of it) was
destroyed.17
They knew that what they were doing to Jews and others was
so evil, that if they could get rid of the evidence, there would be no proof
and the world will deny it ever happened. Holocaust denial began with the
Nazis themselves. It is not a new phenomenon.
In 1945, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, supreme allied commander,
anticipated that someday an attempt would be made to trivialize the Nazi
crimes as propaganda and took steps against it (Hobbs, 1999, p. 223):
. . . The same day I saw my first horror camp. It was near the town of
Gotha. I have never been able to describe my emotional reactions
when I first came face to face with indisputable evidence of Nazi
brutality and ruthless disregard of every shred of decency. Up to that
time, I had known about it generally or through secondary sources. I
am certain however, that I have never at any time experienced an
equal sense of shock. I visited every nook and cranny of the camp
because I felt it my duty to be in position from then on to testify at
first- hand about these things in case there ever grew up at home the
disbelief or assumption that the stories of Nazi brutality were just
propaganda. Some members of the visiting party were unable to go
through the ordeal. I not only did so but as soon as I returned to
17
It is recently that forensic archaeologist Dr. Caroline Sturdy- Colls discovered more mass graves and
other artifacts on Treblinka using modern non-invasive technology. For decades, Treblinka has been
the target of Holocaust denial so her findings created a sharp thorn for the deniers of atrocities and
she has received threatening e-mails due to discoveries for humanity. And yet, she is pressing hard
on sites that are less known as well as continuing her work on Treblinka. It is hoped that there will be
a future project between the author and Dr. Caroline Sturdy-Colls.
77
Patton's headquarters that evening, I sent communiqués to both
Washington and London, urging the two governments to send
instantly to Germany a random group of newspaper editors and
representative groups from the national legislatures. I felt that the
evidence should be immediately placed for the American and the
British public in a fashion that would have no room for cynical
doubt.
From the catastrophic events that Eisenhower witnessed, he foresaw the
possibility of Holocaust denial in the future. But if he claims he knew about
it generally, why was the action not taken sooner? Could it be that they
would never have fathomed that such destruction of humanity on such a
large scale could actually be implemented? And was this inaction on the
part of the allies a gateway leading to Holocaust denial in the future?
Eisenhower was aware that there would be those who will deny that the
events took place; that the Nazis and their collaborators would claim that
they were only following orders and they were unaware of what they were
doing. Himmler's fear of exposure is evidence that they were aware that
what they were doing is evil but that what they were doing was for the good
of the Reich, or as seen before, administrative evil. But can we use the
Holocaust as an example? Does it not allow an excuse for the perpetrators
and support their claim that they were only following orders? How can we
attribute administrative evil as the reason for the killing squads who
exterminated women and babies in killing fields? Does this not trivialize the
event and the dignity of all the martyrs-- Jews and others? This can result
in dangerous consequences because it can open the door for further acts of
genocide with the excuse that it was for the good of the government.
Crimes against humanity cannot be condoned under any circumstances.
Goldhagen's argument in direct conflict with the administrative evil claim is
that the key to understanding why ordinary Germans willingly engaged in
the genocide is found in the unique history and culture of the German
people. According to Goldhagen, what drove the Holocaust was not some
scientific-analytic mind-set, but a deeply rooted and vicious form of antiSemitism that was waiting for someone like Hitler to unleash its destructive
energy and wrath.
78
Germans' anti-Semitic beliefs about Jews were the central causal
agent of the Holocaust. They were the central causal agent not only
Hitler's decision to annihilate European Jewry (which is accepted by
many) but also of the perpetrators' willingness to kill and to brutalize
Jews. The conclusion of this book is that anti-Semitism moved many
thousands of ordinary Germans—and would have moved millions
more, had they been appropriately positioned—to slaughter Jews.
Not economic hardship, not the coercive means of a totalitarian state,
not social psychological pressure, not invariable psychological
propensities, but ideas about Jews that were pervasive in Germany,
and had been for decades, induced ordinary Germans to kill unarmed,
defenseless Jewish men, women, and children by the thousands,
systematically and without pity. (p. 9).
4.1.2 Granting Legitimacy. The 1936 Nazi Olympics
For two weeks in August 1936, Adolf Hitler's Nazi dictatorship
camouflaged its racist, militaristic character while hosting the Summer
Olympics. Toning down its anti-Semitic agenda and plans for territorial
expansion, the regime exploited the Games to bedazzle many foreign
spectators and journalists with an image of a peaceful, tolerant Germany.
The United States and other western democracies missed the opportunity to
take a stand by rejecting a proposed boycott of the 1936 Olympics which
would have bolstered international resistance to Nazi tyranny. With the
conclusion of the games, Germany's expansionist and racial policies, the
persecution of Jews and other "enemies of the state" accelerated,
culminating in World War II and the Shoah. Racial policies were already in
practice following Hitler's rise to power in 1933, and the Nuremberg Laws
which resulted in the "social death" of the Jew, excluding them from all
aspects of German life was already in place at the 1936 Olympics.
The government harnessed sport as part of its drive to strengthen the
"Aryan race," to exercise political control over its citizens, and to prepare
German youth for war. "Non-Aryans"—Jewish or part-Jewish and Gypsy
athletes—were systematically excluded from German sports facilities and
associations.
They were allowed marginal training facilities, and their
opportunities to compete were limited. Soon after Hitler took power, the
drive began to exclude Jews from German sport and recreational facilities.
Joseph Goebbels, Minister of Propaganda, convinced Hitler of their
propaganda value. According to the Jewish Virtual Library, the regime
79
provided full financial support for the event, 20,000,000 Reich marks or
$8,000,000.
The drive to exclude Jews from German sport and recreational facilities
emerged soon after Hitler took power. The German boxing Association
expelled amateur champion Eric Seelig in April 1933 because he was
Jewish. He later resumed his boxing career in the United States. Gypsies,
including the Sinti boxer, Johann "Rukelie" Trollmann, were also purged
from German sports. In June `1933, the German middleweight boxing
champion was banned from boxing for "racial reasons." Observers in the
United States and other western democracies questioned the morality of
supporting Olympic Games hosted by the Nazi regime. Responding to
reports of the persecution of Jewish athletes in 1933, Avery Brundage,
president of the American Olympic Committee, stated publicly that Jewish
athletes were being treated fairly and that the Games should go on, as
planned. Debate over participation in 1936 Olympics was greatest in the
United States which traditionally sent one of the largest teams to the Games.
By the end of 1934, the lines on both sides were clearly drawn from
participation to opposition. As the Olympics controversy heated up in
1935, Brundage alleged the existence of a "Jewish-Communist conspiracy"
to keep the United States out of the games. On the other side, Brundage's
rival, Judge Jeremiah Mahoney, president of the Amateur Athletic Union,
pointed out that Germany had broken Olympic rules forbidding
discrimination based on race and religion. In his view, participation would
mean an endorsement of Hitler's Reich.
The Berlin Summer Olympic
Games of 1936 allowed the world its first comprehensive insight into the
propagandized war machine that was Hitler's Third Reich. By the 1930's
clear evidence of anti-Semitism and human rights violations, meted out by
the German government, already existed. In the face of such evidence, why
did the International Olympic Committee still award the Games to Hitler
given that it would jeopardize the conditions of the Olympic Charter itself?
The Berlin Olympic Games were certainly a propaganda victory for
Hitler. By hiding anti-Semitic activity for the duration of the Games, the
Third Reich achieved a greater level of recognition by the international
community. Such activity included the removal of Anti-Jew signs from
81
public display (during the Games) and a minimization of violence towards
Jews throughout the duration of the event (Walters, 2006). However, whilst
overt, outward displays of anti-Semitism were kept to a minimum in this
Olympic period, it would be a mistake to conclude that discriminatory
activity did not continue. Furthermore, it would be a mistake to believe that
such a lack of overt evidence of anti-Semitism explained the decision of
many nations not to boycott the Games.
Many nations were in fact
painfully aware, by this point, that there had been a rise in anti-Semitism
preceding the period before the Games (Walters, 2006).
Spectators at Olympic Games in 1936 giving Nazi salute.
The Olympics were a perfect arena for the Nazi propaganda machine,
which was unsurpassed at staging elaborate public spectacles and rallies.
Choreographed pageantry, record-breaking athletic feats, and warm German
hospitality, made the 1936 Olympic Games memorable for athletes and
spectators. Germany skillfully promoted the Olympics with colorful posters
and magazine spreads.
Athletic imagery drew a link between Nazi
Germany and ancient Greece. These portrayals symbolized the Nazi racial
myth that superior German civilization was the rightful heir of an "Aryan"
culture of classical antiquity. Bedecking the monuments and houses of a
festive, crowded Berlin were Olympic flags and swastikas. Most were
unaware that the regime temporarily removed the signs, nor would they
have known of the "clean up" ordered by the German Ministry of Interior in
which the Berlin Police arrested all Gypsies prior to the Games. On July
16, 1936, some 88 gypsies were arrested and interned under police guard in
81
a special gypsy camp in the Berlin suburb of Marzahn. Also in preparation
for the arrival of Olympic spectators, Nazi officials ordered that foreign
visitors should not be subjected to the criminal strictures of the Nazi antihomosexual laws.
Eighteen African American athletes represented the
United States in the 1936 Olympics, including runner Jesse Owens and
others who threw a blow to the Nazi myth of Aryan supremacy. Hitler
refused to shake his hand or congratulate any other black medalists. The
continuing social and economic discrimination the black medalists faced
upon returning home, underscored the irony of their victory in racist
Germany. At no time did President Franklin d. Roosevelt become involved
in the boycott issue, despite warnings from high-level American diplomats
regarding Nazi exploitation of the Olympics for propaganda. Roosevelt
continued a 40-year tradition in which the American Olympic Committee
operated independently of outside influence, despite protests from groups
such as the American Jewish Congress and individual athletes. In the end,
the Americans relented. Only Ireland boycotted the games. There is no
question that allowing the 1936 Olympic Games to take place in a country
that espoused racism and xenophobia, gave legitimization to its regime and
fostered notion of dissociation--paving the way for denial of actual events.
The Nuremberg Laws were in full swing by the Olympic Games. Most
attendees knew about them but somehow the blinders were overpowering.
Ironically, it was in 1972, exactly 36 years later at the Olympic Games in
Munich where eleven Israeli athletes were massacred. The incident
embarrassed German officials and was a painful reminder of the past.
Memorial plaque and obelisk with names of Israeli athletes in Olympic stadium. Photos by author.
82
4.1.3 The Red Cross visit to Theresienstadt
Collective emotional dissociation regarding the Holocaust is a major
problem surrounding it. It is a refusal to make any kind of emotional
association with it for different reasons. The refusal may be deliberate as in
Holocaust denial, or it may be that it is such a painful association that it is
better to just "not deal with it." The Oxford English Dictionary provides
two definitions of denial connected to the subject:

A statement that something is not true.

A refusal to accept that something painful or unpleasant has
happened.
The former definition would apply to deniers, who claim that the event
never happened or not the way history says it did. The latter would apply
more to those who have witnessed traumatic events or may also apply to
reactions from many survivors who up until today, still cannot talk about
their experience.
The town of Terezin, located in the Czech Republic
outside Prague, registered with the world's public during and after World
War II as one of the symbols of persecution of the political enemies of
Hitler's Germany, as well as the monstrous genocide program against
European Jews. Terezin's small Fortress became a police prison of The
Prague Gestapo in June 1940—mostly political prisoners were detained
there. Thousands of members of various resistance movement groups from
the occupied Czech lands as well as other countries passed through its gates.
The town itself—the former Main Fortress—was turned into a ghetto,
collection, and transit camp for Jews in November 1941. At first Jews from
then Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia were deported there; later also
from the Reich (Germany and Austria) and other countries.
There are Nazi concentration camps that are famous for different
reasons. Auschwitz is noted for its gas chambers and has become a symbol;
Bergen-Belsen is noted for the place where Anne Frank perished;
Theresienstadt's claim to fame is the "Verschonerung,", the beautification
program in which the Nazis cleaned up the ghetto in preparation for a visit
on June 23, 1944 by two Swiss delegates of the International Red Cross and
83
two representatives from the government of Denmark. They began their
beautification program in late 1943 in preparation for the inspection
demanded by the Danish King Christian X, which was more than six
months away.
Especially because the ghetto was the home of many
prominent and well-known Jews, the Nazis wanted to fool the world into
thinking that the Jews were being well-treated. They wanted to generate a
world reaction of atrocity denial. The government of Denmark was anxious
to know about the conditions in the ghetto since 466 Danish Jews had been
sent there, beginning on October 5, 1943. Because of pressure brought to
bear on the Germans, Danish Jews were given preferential treatment in the
ghetto. They were sent back to Denmark on April 15, 1945 under the
supervision of the Red Cross, three weeks before the ghetto was liberated
by Soviet troops on May 8, 1945. Thus they escaped the typhus epidemic
which devastated Theresienstadt in the last weeks of the war. During World
War II, information about the mistreatment and gassings of the Jews was
known throughout Europe and the United States as early as June 1942. It
was broadcast by the British throughout the war. On December 8, 1942,
twelve allied governments including the Czech government in exile in
England, denounced the Germans for their treatment of the Jews. Due to
these complaints, Himmler issued an order on February 2, 1943 to stop the
transports from Theresienstadt to the death camp at Auschwitz. At the time,
the total number of prisoners housed at Theresienstadt was 44,672. The
transports stopped for seven months.18
The visit to Theresienstadt by the Red Cross was by no means the only
visit to a Nazi camp, but it is the one that is the most written about, because
the Nazis used the occasion to disseminate propaganda, presenting the
ghetto in a most favorable light. The Red Cross was aware of the camps
from the beginning of the war and they began sending packages to the
inmates of the major Nazi concentration camps, starting in August 1942; by
February 1943 the Red Cross was sending packages to all the Nazi
Concentration camps. From autumn 1943 to May 1945, the Red Cross
distributed 1,112,000 packages containing 4,500 tons of food to the camps
18
Theresienstadt is discussed later in the research.
84
including the Terezin ghetto and the Auschwitz death camp. But where did
all these packages actually end up? Even before the complaints by the
allied governments, the Nazis had already turned the ghetto into a
propaganda tool to fool the rest of the world about their plans to exterminate
all of European Jewry. In the spring of 1944, the Nazis began extensive
improvements in the ghetto in preparation for the visit and made a
propaganda film entitled Der Fuhrer schenkt den Juden eine Stadt (The
Leader gives the Jews a Town). Once Theresienstadt was beautified, the
next step was to relieve the overcrowding in the ghetto so that the
International Red Cross would not realize the actual inhuman living
conditions there. In September 1943, December 1943, and May 1944, just
before the scheduled visit, there were a total of seven transports on which
17,517 Jews were sent to Auschwitz. The Nazi cover-up and beautification
included a park and playground, bank, children's theater, jazz band.
The Red Cross inspection of the camp lasted six hours but events went
on for a week. A jazz band called the Ghetto Swingers, played in the music
pavilion in the square. In the making of the propaganda film, the Jews were
forced to look like they were having a great time. They needed to smile for
the cameras, laugh, and enjoy being together socially. Elaborate measures
were taken to disguise conditions in the ghetto, to create an atmosphere of
normalcy. Prisoners were forced to work in the propaganda office, painting
beautiful scenes of life in the ghetto in preparation for the upcoming Red
Cross visit. Some of them realized that Theresienstadt was nothing but a
way station for Auschwitz and began drawing scenes of the actual life in
Terezin. The Red Cross inspectors were completely duped by the sham of
beautification. Artists hid their sketches throughout the ghetto in hopes that
the truth will survive after they are gone.
Three months after their
inspection of Theresienstadt, the Red Cross visited Auschwitz in September
1944 but failed to notice that the purported shower rooms were really gas
chambers. In 1948, the Red Cross released a three-volume report in which
the findings on the Auschwitz visit were included:
. . . Not only were the washing places but installations for baths, showers
and laundry were inspected by the delegates. They had often to take
action to have fixtures made less primitive, and to get them repaired or
enlarged. . . (p. 594).
85
Apparently, the Red Cross representatives could not tell the difference
between the fake shower heads in the gas chambers at Birkenau and real
shower nozzles in a genuine shower room. The Red Cross came under fire
for failing to report even known conditions about atrocity centers. The
question is, why didn't they? How could they not know that the infamous
rooms with shower heads were actually the gas chambers if there was an
awareness of atrocities in 1942? They knew about the gassings earlier and
also knew that conditions for the Jews were very bad. How could they
think that conditions in Theresienstadt were actually authentic and not a
propaganda ploy?
The Fallacy
New wash basins installed for the Red Cross visit installed as a cover-up in the Small
Fortress in Theresienstadt. This area was never seen by the delegation. The Terezin
Ghetto was seen by the delegation but it underwent beautification before the visit. Jews
were forced to look like they were having a good time. They were later exterminated in the
death camps. Photo by author.
The Red Cross visit proved to be a continuous encore of the Nazi
attempt to camouflage all evidence of what they were actually doing. With
the Red Cross, they succeeded in deluding them. However, since the Red
Cross already knew about conditions long before, then perhaps it was a
form of emotional dissociation or denial as to the true events actually going
on. They were more comfortable with the conditions they witnessed in
Theresienstadt rather than contemplating what was under the real surface.
And this is also Holocaust denial; another early form of denial that laid the
foundation for the organizers and sympathizers, neo-Nazis, and other racist
86
groups worldwide. Whatever the actual truth is regarding the Red Cross
visit, we will never know. We do know that thousands of prisoners interned
in Nazi death camps could have been saved. It was denial of truth amidst
the reality of evil--that Holocaust denial is not a modern phenomenon. It
began with the Nazis themselves.
The Reality
Crematorium ovens located on the outskirts of the former Terezin Ghetto.
Crematoriums were installed because there was no room to bury the dead.
Unlike other death camps, ashes were kept in urns and documented by the Jews.
At the end of 1944 Jews were forced by the Nazis to dump the ashes of 22,000
victims into the Ohre River and all urns were burnt. Below: Memorial and
monument by the Ohre River (background), taken on location. Photos by author.
87
4.2 Contemporary Slander
As significant as the Holocaust was, collective emotional dissociation
causes some people to believe there were no Nazi crimes; that the whole
Shoah is a Jewish conspiracy. And Holocaust denial is becoming a more
accepted and tolerated form of self-rhetoric and expression, even in a
legitimate forum. According to Drobnicki (1994), those who deny the
Holocaust believe the Jews themselves, usually referred to as Zionists, and
fabricated the "Big Lie" in order to gain sympathy for a homeland and to
extort money in the form of reparations from Germany. As written by
Lipstadt (1993), the deniers are people who contend that the Holocaust—the
attempt by Nazi Germany to annihilate European Jewry during World War
II—never happened. According to the distorters, the Nazis did not murder
six million Jews, the notion of homicidal gas chambers is a myth, and any
deaths of Jews that did occur under the Nazis were the result of wartime
privations, not of systematic persecution and state-organized mass murder.
According to Lipstadt, deniers dismiss all assertions that the event took
place and some even claim that Hitler was the best friend the Jews had in
Germany—that he actively worked to protect them. Jews have perpetrated
this hoax about the Holocaust on the world to gain political and financial
advantage, and it was in fact Germany that was the true victim in World
War II. And despite the fact that it is one of the best documented genocides
in history, with a wired array of evidence documenting virtually every
aspect of it, this form of anti-Semitism still persists. It posits that Jews have
concocted a giant myth for their own ends. For example, over a million
Jews were murdered on the Eastern Front in 1941-42 and buried in large
pits by the mobile killing units or "Einsatzgruppen" who coordinated these
massacres, with prepared detailed reports on the murders. These reports
contained precise death tolls broken down into men, women, and children.
These reports were sent to high-ranking officials in Berlin, to army, police
and SS officers and even prominent industrialists. According to Lipstadt,
had these killings not been part of Berlin's policy, the reports would never
have been so widely distributed. Deniers argue that evidence such as this
was forced, after the end of World War II by people working for world
88
Jewry. Above everything, they even tend to deny Auschwitz, despite its
overwhelming documentary and physical evidence as well as eye-witness
accounts by perpetrators and survivors (Poles and Jews)—that it was an
extermination camp. They ignore or try to explain away evidence that
leaves no doubt that this factory of death has become today's Holocaust
symbol. They have even repeatedly attacked the authenticity of the famous
Diary of Anne Frank, which tells of the young Jewish author's experiences
as she and her family hid from Nazi persecution in Holland. It has been
published in world-wide languages. According to Lipstadt, every test to
which the diary was exposed to revealed that this was a genuine World War
II era work by a teenager. Lipstadt's ground-breaking book Denying the
Holocaust: An Assault on Truth and Memory, demonstrates the nature of
deniers' claims. Much of this information was entered into the High court
of Justice in London as evidence when she was sued for libel by David
Irving, a man who has written many books on World War Two, many of
which deny the Holocaust. The judge found him to be indeed a Holocaust
denier dismissing Irving's claims that the gas chambers were impossibility.
The judge noted that the cumulative effect of the documentary evidence was
corroborative and considerable.
Many people worry that after the last of the survivors has died (most are
in their middle to late 80's), deniers will achieve greater success. And if this
history is denied than any history can be denied. As David Matas (2007)
wrote in his article regarding Holocaust denial, "the Holocaust was the
murder of six million Jews, including two million children. Holocaust
denial is the second murder of those same six million." He explained that
denying the event is part of the crime itself. The people that deny the
Holocaust and try to change history either does not want to take blame for
what happened or they agree with Hitler and don't think the Holocaust
should have been stopped in the first place, and want another hate crime
like this in the future. One has to admire this movement which has gained
support over the internet's modern technology. One simply has to go into
the American Nazi Party website to find versions of Mein Kampf or the
Zundelsite denial website (set up by Holocaust denier Ernst Zundel) to gain
access to anti-Semitic and denial material.
Loretta Ross (2008) in an
89
article about white supremacists in America said that it is "the clearest
expression of the anti-Semitic white supremacy. Institutions within the
white supremacist movement are revising the history of Nazi Germany,
claiming that the Holocaust against the Jews did not happen or was greatly
exaggerated." The white supremacists want to make the world think that
the Germans, Nazis, and their collaborators did nothing wrong and that the
Jews have just made the whole thing up.
Major attacks by deniers have
focused on the death site Treblinka and the concentration camp Dachau.
With the former, they claim that no mass killings took place in Treblinka
and with the latter, there were no gas chambers used for extermination but
rather for delousing. This myth is refuted later in the research. 19 Despite
having no shower facilities, the gas chamber in Dachau was labeled
"Brausebad" and an American reporter made a movie showing the existence
of the gas chamber very soon after the camp's capture.
Entering gas chamber in Dachau, this photo was taken by author on location. The "Brausebad"
(shower), illustrates the cruel deception used by the Nazis on the victims and the twisted claims by
deniers. Below: Inside gas chamber at Dachau. Gas nozzle protrudes from the wall.
19
The extermination site Treblinka and the concentration camp Dachau have been the targets
of deniers for decades. Both are discussed in the proceeding chapters dealing with the
management of the sites in Poland and Germany.
91
In his eight-page booklet published by the Institute of Historical Review (as
deniers have dubbed for legitimization) called –Did Six Million Really Die
Harwood (1974) contends the following:
. . . In terms of political blackmail, however, the allegation that Six
Million Jews died during the Second World War has much more farreaching implications for the people of Britain and Europe than
simply the advantages it has gained for the Jewish nation. And here
one comes to the crux of the question: Why the Big Lie? What is its
purpose? In the first place, it has been used quite unscrupulously to
discourage any form of nationalism. Should the people of Britain or
any other European country attempt to assert their patriotism and
preserve their national integrity in an age when the very existence of
nation-states is threatened, they are immediately branded as "neoNazis." Because of course, Nazism was nationalism and all we know
what happened then—Six Million Jews were exterminated! So long
as the myth is perpetuated, peoples everywhere will remain in
bondage to it; the need for international tolerance and understanding
will be hammered home by the United National until nationhood
itself, the very guarantee of freedom, is abolished. (p. 2).
The above excerpt from the booklet illustrates the dangerous contentions
made by deniers of atrocities. Use of words such as myth, bondage, and lie
spread slander that is splashed all over the internet to spread the denial
movement and the desire of neo-Nazis to finish the job. It is a decimation
of truth and a refusal to acknowledge not only the deaths of Jews but
millions of other victims who fell prey to the Nazi machine. It is a betrayal
of humanity and creates a loss of human dignity. Deniers of atrocities focus
on a 1975 letter to the editor from late Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal. 20 In
it he responds to the "Six Million Myth" in reply to a letter by Colin
Wilson. He states the following which is the target of deniers for decades:
"Because there were no extermination camps on German soil the NeoNazis are using this as proof that these crimes did not happen and
furthermore exhibit witnesses from German labor camps who have never
seen mass extermination."
On German soil, it was a question of
euphemisms. There is the tendency even from Yad Vashem to classify the
sites into categories. This does not mean however that in concentration
20
th
Nazi-hunter Simon Wiesenthal died at age 96 in his sleep in Vienna September 20 , 2005. He was
responsible with helping to bring more than 1,100 Nazi war criminals to justice in the decades after
the Jewish genocide. They included Adolf Eichmann, architect of the Final Solution, and Franz Stangl,
commandant of the Treblinka and Sobibor extermination sites in Poland.
91
camps such as Sachsenhausen, Ravensbruck, Buchenwald, and Dachau gas
chambers were not in use. This does not mean as well that Jewish martyrs
were not exterminated through other means such as starvation, torture, and
mass executions all on German soil. So Wiesenthal was technically correct.
He used the classification of "concentration camps" and "slave labor camps"
on German soil versus extermination sites in Poland such as Treblinka,
Sobibor, Chelmno, and Belzec or death camps like Auschwitz or Majdanek
all on Polish soil.21 It is a question of semantics. Victims were exterminated
through the use of other methods. Gas chambers on many of the sites on
German soil did exist and were in use. Deniers of atrocities have used
Wiesenthal's statement to embellish their rhetoric and discredit famous
Nazi-hunter and survivor of the notorious Mauthausen death camp. The
classification of the sites and where they fit into categories is in itself used
too loosely. There were many methods of extermination used in Germany
and elsewhere in Europe. It was a question of site intent and tempo of the
killings. Therefore whilst true according to semantics and site division,
there was indeed extermination done on German soil.
Remnants of ovens and gas chambers in Sachsenhausen Memorial Site. Photo by author.
21
There is emphasis in Poland to educate about the Jewish genocide as well as Polish persecution
and murder. There is also a tendency to shift blame to Germany, that Germany bears the
responsibility for the mass extermination of the Jews in Poland, because technically Polish soil
was annexed by the Nazi machine. Nevertheless, this shift cannot deny the location of the
extermination sites which are geographically, mainly concentrated on Polish soil. It must also be
remembered that there were sites, many as yet undiscovered all over Europe and that
collaborators like Lithuanians, Romanians, and Ukrainians played joint roles with the Nazi
machine in annihilating the millions.
92
4.2.1 Canadian Holocaust Denial
The Nazis, while committing mass murder, were already covering up
their tracks so that the Jewish story and crimes against humanity would not
be believed—that they would be able to get away with the slaughters that
they committed.. Their vocabulary system, strewn with euphemisms, was
an attempt to carry out their secrecy and even though the locals "knew what
was going on", they "did not know" as well. The disappearance of the Jew
off the face of the earth was to be made for future generations a mystery,
and in the eyes of the Nazi regime, a necessity. The destruction of their
atrocities at the end of the war, illustrates their awareness that by leaving no
evidence, they can escape relatively unnoticed.
Holocaust deniers are
individuals fixated on the idea that despite documented evidence,
photographs, archival lists, authentic film footage, and authentic sites,
survivors and eyewitnesses to the horror of genocide are all mass
delusional.
The quiet country of Canada bears a huge brunt on its soil when it comes
to prominent twisters of truth and is not immune to this controversy. It
holds special interest for the author of this paper.22 The prime practitioner
of Canadian Holocaust denial is Ernst Zundel. In 1985 in Toronto, he was
charged under section 177 of the Criminal Code which makes it a crime to
disseminate false information known to be false by the disseminator, and
likely to cause injury or mischief to the public interest. In the Zundel case,
"public interest" was particularized to mean social and racial tolerance. In
his 32 page pamphlet entitled Did Six Million Really Die?" based on the
book by Harwood (1974), he branded the Holocaust to be a hoax. It was
widely distributed throughout Canada; especially to politicians, media
people, and librarians. The second piece of work was a four-page letter
entitled "The West War and Islam." It advanced the notion of a Zionist
conspiracy by Zionists, bankers, communists, and Freemasons to control the
world. In his publications and activities which can be found on the
Zundelsite website, he forthrightly advanced Nazi doctrine and admired
22
This researcher was born in Montreal, Canada and felt it necessary to include it as a subchapter. It
is also the location where famous deniers were able to advance their anti-Semitic rhetoric. It focuses
on one of the most prominent Canadian deniers of truth, Ernst Zundel.
93
Nazi personalities. He sold SS-like paraphernalia, glorified Aryan men, and
was co-author of the Hitler we Loved and Why (Friedrich & Thomson,
2004). Zundel supplied the pictures and received considerable sums of
money as the beneficiary of a will for the book. Since Eric Thomson was
employed by Ernst at the time, Ernst received all the money. The following
excerpt clearly illustrates the continuance of the love that Nazi and Third
Reich admirers share. It is explained by the deepest emotional feeling of
love and the power of love.
At no time in recorded history has a leader, a wielder of power in
human terms, not a popular figurehead or celebrity, had such
closeness to his followers, his entire people, as did Adolf Hitler.
It can be called a love relationship. What other than love can explain
the German people's glad welcome of this humble, but thoroughly
dedicated savior from the Easter marches? What other than love can
explain how the people of Greater Germany remained with him in
bad times and good, for better or for worse? What other than love
can explain that those who remember him love him still? We loved
him because he stood for the best that was in us, and as our leader,
demanded of us our best: It was never Hitler's Germany. It shall
always be Germany's Hitler, the man loved by his people. This is
why we loved him. (p. 3)
Two other Canadian distorters include James Keegstra and Malcom
Ross. Keegstra for many years taught high school in the small town of
Echville, Alberta preaching Nazi gospel to his students, most of whom
never even met a Jew. Ross was a teacher in Moncton, New Brunswick.
Although Holocaust denial is not as central to their world view as Zundel's,
it is nevertheless an outgrowth of it. Both men are Christians and have
deeply embraced the enclave of Christian anti-Semitism. To them, Jews are
evil, satanic world conspirators out to wreck Christian civilization. They
preached their views in the classroom. In 2001, officials of the four York
Region School Board in Toronto, which runs hundreds of schools in
municipalities north of there, sought a meeting with Bader Abu Zahra, a
volunteer on the race relations advisory committee, who distributed copies
of a book review that characterized the Holocaust as an industry concocted
by Jews to extort money from the international community. The review
treats the book and thesis as a historical fact. Zahra refused to resign and
the board narrowly allowed him to stay on the committee. Meanwhile,
94
Alan Shefman, an expert in Holocaust denial who assisted prosecutors in
the Zundel case and others, said board members are tired of dealing with
objections about the Holocaust curriculum. York's superintendent of
curriculum Sharon Craigen defended it:
"The Holocaust is taught because it was historically so monstrous and
because by far is the most thoroughly documented genocide in modern
history. Of course, the whole effort is to be inclusive towards other
genocides, to affirm the worth of all peoples." (Gladstone, 2001, p. 6).
Ernst Zundel is a German born Nazi, Holocaust denier and anti-Semite
who moved to Canada from Germany when he was 19, given the honor to
live in a country that values free speech and democracy.
In 1978, a
Canadian broadcasting journalist revealed that using his middle names—
Christof Fredrich Zundel had become Canada's leading pro-Nazi and denial
propagandist. Once exposed, he continued his efforts and ranting under his
conventional name. The principal outlet for Zundel's activities was his
Toronto-based company, Samisdat Publishers Limited which produced his
fallacious and racist handiworks like:

The Hitler we Loved and Why

The Hoax of the Twentieth Century (Butz, 2003).

A Straight look at the Third Reich and the Six Million Swindle (App,
2003).

Auschwitz, Dachau, Buchenwald: The Greatest Fraud in History.
(Harwood, 1978).
Samisdat Publishers was a small Canadian Publishing house owned and
operated by Zundel during the 1980's and 1990's. It was a Toronto affiliate
and is now defunct. The name was taken from "Samizdat," a system
practiced in Soviet countries of covertly transmitting documents which
would have been politically impossible to publish officially. Most of the
books and pamphlets by Samisdat were associated with Holocaust denial
and neo-Nazism. Today on his website, the Zundelsite, it says: Dedicated
to Ernst Zundel—The Political Prisoner and Martyr. All one has to do is go
to his website and buy books and DVD's online at the Zundelsite store. In
2003, the Canadian Citizenship and Immigration Minister issued a national
95
security certificate against Zundel indicating that he was a threat to national
security owing to his alleged links with pro and neo-Nazi groups. He was
deported to Germany on March 1st, 2005. Upon his arrival at Frankfurt
airport, he was arrested and detained in Manheim prison for inciting racial
hatred. He was charged with fourteen counts. He justified his beliefs by
saying that "the mass destruction in Auschwitz and Treblinka, among
others, was an invention of the Jews that denied the repression and
blackmail of the German people." The trial started resuming after delay,
2006. He was sentenced to seven years in Germany and Canada. The
Zundelsite is being looked after by his wife Ingrid.
Website
of
Tom
Metzger's
White
Aryan
Resistance
which
clearly
promotes racism and anti-Semitism. It illustrates how the internet has created
bountiful opportunities and has become a powerful tool to spread hatred, racism,
neo-Nazism,
anti-Semitism,
xenophobia,
and
denial
of
atrocities.
The
cartoon is also used on Islamic websites. Below: Emblem of the American Nazi Party.
Hitler's Mein Kampf can be downloaded from the website.
96
Statistics Canada Report: Police-Reported Hate Crimes
Police-reported hate crimes decrease in 2010 but it still
remains higher than 2006 to 2008.
After two consecutive years of increase, the number and rate of policereported hate crimes decreased in 2010. Overall, Canadian police services
reported 1,401 hate crimes in 2010, or a rate of 4.1 hate crimes per 100,000
population, representing an 18% decrease in the rate from the year before.
Although the rate declined in 2010, it remained higher than the rates reported
from 2006 to 2008.
Chart 1
Police-reported hate crimes, Canada, 2006 to 2010.23
Chart 2 - Jewish faith most commonly targeted religion
In 2010, the most common type of religiously motivated hate crime targeted
the Jewish faith, a finding that is consistent with previous years. With 204
incidents in 2010, hate crimes against the Jewish faith represented nearly 6 in
10 (55%) religiously motivated incidents (Chart 2). Although hate crimes
against the Jewish faith accounted for the largest number of religiously
motivated hate crimes in 2010, the proportion of hate crimes against this
religious group was at its lowest point since data collection began in 2006.
23
Source: Statistics Canada.
97
Map of Canada. Montreal (bottom right) is where the author of this paper was born.
The country is divided into ten provinces (in brown coloring).
Reported attacks mainly in Ontario but also in Quebec where researcher was born.
Hate crimes motivated by race or ethnicity most common
Consistent with previous years, there were three primary motivations for hate
crime in 2010: race or ethnicity, religion, and sexual orientation. As has been
the case since 2006, hate crimes motivated by race or ethnicity were the most
common at just over one-half (52%) of all incidents. Racially motivated hate
98
crimes are also the most common type of hate crime in several other countries,
such as the United States), Scotland, Finland, Germany, Sweden, and the
United Kingdom. Religiously motivated hate crimes in Canada accounted for
another 29% of all hate crimes and sexual orientation for 16%. Other
motivations, such as mental or physical disability, language, sex, and other
similar factors (e.g. occupation or political beliefs) were identified as the
primary motive in 4% of hate crimes.
Chart 3:
Police-reported hate crimes, by type of motivation, Canada, 2009 and
201024 with race and ethnicity the most common motivation, followed by
religion. Not much difference between 2009 and 2010.
4.2.2 United Nations: Managing Remembrance
It has been in the past decade that the United Nations (UN) has created
resolutions regarding the memory of the Holocaust, and the first one
appeared on the 60th anniversary of the finality of World War II. Resolution
60/7 which emerged at the General Assembly on November 1st 2005 is a
reaffirmation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which
proclaims that everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms of any
24
Source: Statistics Canada
99
kind, such as race, religion or other status. At the center of this resolution is
the sixtieth year of the Nazi regime defeat which culminated in a
reaffirmation of the Holocaust:25
Resolution 60/7 made a landmark decision that designated January 27th
as an annual International Day of Commemoration in memory of the
victims of the Holocaust. In addition, it urged Member States to develop
educational programs that would "inculcate future generations with the
lessons of the Holocaust in order to help prevent future acts of genocide."
It also "rejects any denial of the Holocaust as an historical event, either in
full or part" and "commends those States which have actively engaged in
preserving those sites that served as Nazi death camps, concentration
camps, forced labor camps and prisons during the Holocaust" and
"condemns without reserve all manifestations of religious intolerance,
incitement, harassment of violence against persons or communities based
on ethnic origin or religious belief, wherever they occur." The United
Nations also made a request to establish an outreach program on the subject
of the "Holocaust and the United nations" as well as "measures to mobilize
civil society for Holocaust remembrance and education, to help prevent
future acts of genocide; implementation was to be realized at its sixty-third
session.
At the 85th plenary meeting held on the 26th of January 2007, the UN
passed Resolution 61/255 on Holocaust denial. The decision for such a
resolution was based on the previous Resolution of 60/7 which by "ignoring
the historical fact of those terrible events, increase the risk they will be
repeated."26 The differences between the two Resolutions, although subtle,
are certainly critical when it comes to the denial of atrocities. It also
reconfirms the establishment by the Secretary-General of a program of
outreach on the subject as stated with the goal of confronting attempts to
deny or minimize the importance of the Holocaust. It recalls the Resolution
of 60/7 which rejects efforts to deny the genocide. The proceeding pages
25
Source: Welcome to the United Nations. The Holocaust and the United Nations Outreach
Program. Resolution on Holocaust Remembrance November 1, 2005, A/RES/60/7.
26
Source: Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on Holocaust Denial, Resolution
61/255.
111
include the three resolutions passed by the United Nations: 60/7, 61/255,
34c/61 and examines the subtle differences between them.
Resolution 60/7 adopted by the General Assembly on Holocaust
Remembrance
The General Assembly,
Reaffirming the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which proclaims that
everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth therein, without
distinction of any kind, such as race, religion or other status,
Recalling article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states
that everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person,
Recalling also article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and
article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which
state that everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion,
Bearing in mind that the founding principle of the Charter of the United
Nations, "to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war", is testimony
to the indelible link between the United Nations and the unique tragedy of the
Second World War,
Recalling the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide, which was adopted in order to avoid repetition of genocides such as
those committed by the Nazi regime?
Recalling also the preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
which states that disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in
barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind,
Taking note of the fact that the sixtieth session of the General Assembly is
taking place during the sixtieth year of the defeat of the Nazi regime,
Recalling the twenty-eighth special session of the General Assembly, a unique
event, held in commemoration of the sixtieth anniversary of the liberation of
the Nazi concentration camps,
Honoring the courage and dedication shown by the soldiers who liberated the
concentration camps,
Reaffirming that the Holocaust, which resulted in the murder of one third of the
Jewish people, along with countless members of other minorities, will forever
be a warning to all people of the dangers of hatred, bigotry, racism and
prejudice.
1. Resolves that the United Nations will designate 27 January as an annual
International Day of Commemoration in memory of the victims of the
Holocaust;
2. Urges Member States to develop educational programs that will inculcate
future generations with the lessons of the Holocaust in order to help to prevent
111
future acts of genocide, and in this context commends the Task Force for
International Cooperation on Holocaust Education, Remembrance and
Research;
3. Rejects any denial of the Holocaust as an historical event, either in full or
part;
4. Commends those States which have actively engaged in preserving those
sites that served as Nazi death camps, concentration camps, forced labor camps
and prisons during the Holocaust;
5. Condemns without reserve all manifestations of religious intolerance,
incitement, harassment or violence against persons or communities based on
ethnic origin or religious belief, wherever they occur;
6. Requests the Secretary-General to establish a program of outreach on the
subject of the "Holocaust and the United Nations" as well as measures to
mobilize civil society for Holocaust remembrance and education, in order to
help to prevent future acts of genocide; to report to the General Assembly on
the establishment of this program within six months from the date of the
adoption of the present resolution; and to report thereafter on the
implementation of the program at its sixty-third session.
Resolution 61/255 adopted by the UN General Assembly on Holocaust denial
The General Assembly,
Reaffirming its resolution 60/7 of 1 November 2005,
Recalling that resolution60/7 observes that remembrance of the Holocaust is
critical to prevent further acts of genocide,
Recalling also that, for this reason, resolution 60/7 rejects efforts to deny the
Holocaust which, by ignoring the historical fact of those terrible events,
increase the risk they will be repeated,
Noting that all people and States have a vital stake in a world free of genocide,
Welcoming the establishment by the Secretary-General of a program of
outreach on the subject of “the Holocaust and the United Nations”, and also
welcoming the inclusion by Member States within their educational programs
of measures to confront attempts to deny or minimize the importance of the
Holocaust,
Noting that 27 January has been designated by the United Nations as the annual
International Day of Commemoration in memory of the victims of the
Holocaust,
1. Condemns without any reservation any denial of the Holocaust;
2. Urges all Member States unreservedly to reject any denial of the Holocaust
as a historical event, either in full or in part, or any activities to this end.
112
UNESCO resolution 34c/61on Holocaust Remembrance
The General Conference,
Remembering that the Holocaust, which resulted in the murder of one third of
the Jewish people, along with countless members of other minorities, will
forever be a warning to all people of the dangers of hatred, bigotry, racism and
prejudice,
Recalling United Nations General Assembly resolution 60/7 of 1 November
2005, which condemned any denial of the Holocaust,
Noting that 27 January has been designated by the United Nations as the annual
International Day of Commemoration in memory of the victims of the
Holocaust,
Also noting that the Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization, adopted in the aftermath of the horrors of the
Second World War, states that “the great and terrible war which has now ended
was a war made possible by the denial of the democratic principles of dignity,
equality and mutual respect of men, and by the propagation, in their place,
through ignorance and prejudice, of the doctrine of the inequality of men and
races”,
Bearing in mind United Nations General Assembly resolution 61/255, adopted
on 26 January 2007, and, in particular, its recognition that the SecretaryGeneral has established a program of outreach on the subject of “the Holocaust
and the United Nations”,
1.Requests the Director-General to consult with the United Nations
Secretary-General regarding his outreach program with a view to exploring,
in consultation with Member States, what role UNESCO could play in
promoting awareness of Holocaust remembrance through education and in
combating all forms of Holocaust denial in accordance with the United
Nations
General
Assembly
resolutions
mentioned
above;
2. Further requests the Director-General to report on the results of this
consultation and his recommendations to the Executive Board at its 180th
session.
113
Resolution 60/7
Resolution 61/255
Holocaust Denial
UNESCO Resolution
34c/61
Rejects any denial of the
Holocaust
Condemns without
reservation
Recalling condemnation of
any denial of the Holocaust.
Commends those States
which actively preserve
the sites
Welcoming
establishment of
outreach program
Condemns religious
intolerance
Urges Member States
to reject any denial.
What role UNESCO could
play promoting awareness
through education and in
combating all forms of
denial.
Remembering that the
Holocaust will forever be a
warning to all people of the
dangers of hatred, bigotry,
racism, and prejudice.
Resolution 61/255 which specifically addresses Holocaust denial is a
progression from rejection to condemnation. The difference is in semantics.
It not only encourages but urges nations to reject any form of denial on their
soil and around the world. There is an Outreach Program which has as its
center, the Petr Ginz and film.27 The effort that is being made by the UN
regarding denial of atrocities is a big undertaking and project. International
commemoration requires tremendous amount of preparation and prepared
ceremonies particularly this year, which marks the 70th anniversary of the
Final Solution. The Charter of the United Nations illustrates the "indelible
link" as stated in Resolution 60/7, between the United Nations and the
unique tragedy of the Second World War. Most importantly, it reaffirms
that the Shoah, which resulted in the murder of one-third of the Jewish
people, along with countless members of other minorities, serves as a
warning to all people about the dangers of racism, anti-Semitism,
xenophobia. So the International Day of Commemoration is not only in
memory of the Jewish victims and painful reminder of that catastrophe, but
a strong message to humanity. Ignoring the events or denying historical
facts increases risk that they will be repeated. According to Resolution
27
Petr Ginz was a 14 year old boy who was sent to Theresienstadt outside Prague. His diary
was found in a Prague attic and his drawing, "Moon Landscape" accompanied Israeli astronaut
Ilan Ramon on his voyage. Petr perished in Auschwitz at the age of 16. An interview with his
sister Chava was conducted at her home in Beersheba, Israel with the author.
114
61/255, its remembrance is critical to preventing further acts of genocide.
Unfortunately, there have been other genocides following the Second World
War such as the "ethnic cleansing" in Yugoslavia and the collapse of
mankind in Rwanda.
The effort of the United Nations to facilitate
awareness is crucial for mankind and minorities who are discriminated
against in their countries.
4.2.3 The UN Paradox
Entry into a Holocaust cartoon contest which was promoted by
Iran's Culture Ministry. There were 204 entries worldwide and
28
they were exhibited beginning in August 2006.
With all the effort that is being made in the UN and around the world to
manage the remembrance of the horrific crimes of that period, the fact that a
leader could speak anti-Semitic rhetoric and spew Holocaust denial in a
legitimate public forum in the House of Nations is a paradox. It is illogical
that all the programs and educational efforts being made to facilitate
Holocaust awareness are being hampered (and are permitted to be), by those
who wish to decimate them. Iran's President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has
repeatedly downplayed the extent of the tragedy and has called it a myth,
has been permitted to address the world bodies in 2005, 2008, 2009, and
2012 among other time slots, and organized the two-day event called the
International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust that
opened on December 11, 2006 in Tehran. This follows Resolution 60/7 of
2005 which rejects Holocaust denial and condemns religious and racial
intolerance. If there is a Remembrance Day, an Outreach Program and so
28
Holocaust Cartoon Contest was a competition sponsored by Iranian newspaper Hamshahri
to denounce what it called "Western Hypocrisy on Freedom of Speech."
115
much effort being made to foster awareness, than outright denial of the UN
purpose negates its efforts, assaults it, and makes it paradoxical in nature.
Attendees at the conference in Iran included prominent Holocaust deniers
such as Robert Faurisson and David Duke, a former Ku Klux Klan leader
and white supremacist.
Below are examples of Ahmadinejad's racist and
anti-Semitic remarks, calling for Israel's destruction and promoting the
Holocaust as a myth,29 all of which are in total contradiction with UN
Resolutions and efforts regarding anti-Semitism, genocide, racism,
xenophobia, and which urges total condemnation unequivocally towards
those who rant in such ways. By permitting the Iranian President to speak in
such a forum and granting him endorsement, one can make an ominous
comparison with the legitimization of Nazism at the 1936 Olympic Games
in Berlin.
"Today, they (Europeans) have created a myth in the name of
Holocaust and consider it to be above God, religion, and the
prophets. . ."
(Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, December 14, 2005)
"Those who think they can revive the stinking corpse of the
usurping and fake Israeli regime by throwing a birthday party is
seriously mistaken. Today the reason for the Zionist regime's
existence is questioned, and this regime is on its way to
annihilation. . . "
(Remarks on Israel's Independence Day, as quoted by Iran's
official IRNA news agency)
"They (the Western powers) launched the myth of the Holocaust.
They lied, they put on a show and then they support the Jews. . . "
(Remarks at the annual Al Quds Day rally in Tehran)
"Israel is destined for destruction and will soon disappear. Israel is
a contradiction to nature; we foresee its rapid disappearance and
destruction."
(November 13, 2006)
"The world powers established this filthy bacterium. . . "
(February 20, 2008)
29
Source: Iran's President Mahmoud Ahmadiinejad In his Own Words.
116
Winning entry: A Parody of Auschwitz. Below: Depicting vicious imagery.
Caricature extracted directly from Iranian cartoon website and examined by this researcher.
Site is in several languages and consists of anti-Semitic, anti-Israel, and decimation of truth.
It illustrates the biggest challenge for the memorial sites, auxiliaries and patrons, as well as the
world at large. The preface begins with this: This book tends to denounce the "conspicuous
lie of the planned murder of 6 million Jews during the Second World War allegedly called
30
"Holocaust." The lie is so obvious that there is no need for any further explanation."
30
From Iran's cartoon Website: Holocaust. In the name of Allah (p. 4).
117
Chapter V
What about Romania?
What is true about individual human beings is also true of
communities. Repressed memories are dangerous for, in
surfacing, they may destroy what is healthy, cheapen what
is noble, and undermine what is lofty. A nation or a person may
find various ways to confront their past but none to ignore it.
-Elie Wiesel (November 11, 2004)
On December 12, 1941, 769 Jews boarded the "Struma" at the port of
Konstanz in Romania in order to escape the Nazis. The event took place six
months after the mass murder of Jews in Bucovina and Bessarabia, started
by the Legionnaires "Iron Guard" and under the reign of the Ion Antonescu
regime. The plan to get to Palestine did not work out because the ship's
engine was almost non-functioning even at the start of the voyage. In the
middle of the sea, the engines broke down. With great difficulty, it reached
the port of Constantinople. It was towed to Istanbul where it stayed for two
months. All efforts were ignored to convince the British to allow the ship
anchor in Palestine (permits were limited to 1500 a month despite the
Holocaust horrors). The fleeing refugees were kept on board the ship
opposite the Turkish shore in conditions of a "concentration camp on the
sea" with overcrowding, little sanitation, little food, and the breakout of a
dysentery epidemic. On February 23, 1942 despite refugees' resistance, the
ship was towed by the Turkish Coast Guard into the middle of the sea with
no food, no engine, and no anchor. The passengers were deserted, destined
to die of starvation while neither the Turks nor British did anything to help.
A Soviet submarine misidentified the ship as German and launched a
torpedo at it.
It sank and all its passengers drowned except for one
survivor—David Stoliar who was saved by Turkish fishermen. After the
war he migrated to United States.
118
In the year 2000, one of the victims' grandchildren organized and
launched an expedition to search for the remains of the sunken ship. Until
then, the sinking of the ship was unknown. A memorial for the Jews who
perished on the Struma was erected in the Bucharest Jewish cemetery,
September 29, 1948.31 Many people have never heard of this ship, in Israel
as well. It is another event which would have been left invisible had it not
been for the relatives of the deceased. The fact that a memorial was erected
in 1948 indicates that Romania did know it bore responsibility. On the 70th
anniversary of the Struma tragedy, a ceremony was held in the Jewish
cemetery for the martyrs who were among the hundreds of thousands of
victims who were exterminated as part of the Romanian Holocaust.
A Romanian guard stands silent during a memorial service held in Bucharest,
to remember 769 Holocaust victims who perished at sea on the Struma ship.
31
Source: Jewish Telegraphic Agency 29 September, 1948.
119
Since the historical aspect of what happened to the Jewish people in
Romania is beyond the realm of this dissertation, its account is presented
briefly. And while there were no gas chambers in Transnistria; while there
is no concentration camp or extermination site on Romanian soil like in
Poland, there are to date mass graves which have as yet remained
anonymous, undiscovered and not commemorated which are part of the
country's landscape. In Transnistria, everything but gas chambers was there;
not one community was spared and all were decimated in thousands of
other ways.
About two hundred and fifty thousand perished from
starvation, disease, mass killings, death marches, public executions, and
others. Ioanid (2000) presents an in-depth look into the cruelty of the
Antonescu regime and the destruction of the Jews and Gypsies, which
began before the deportations to Transnistria, anti-Semitism being deeply
embedded in a Romanian past. There were many massacres, economic
pillaging, and plundering. Jews were sent to ghettos, people were shot into
pits, and there were restrictions by notorious laws all under direct orders
from Marshal Ion Antonescu.
He bears the responsibility for the
slaughtering of Transnistrian Jewish and Roma population and the
deportations to this region of the Jews and Roma living in Bucovina and
Bessarabia, territories regained by the Romanian army in July 1941.
Although historians may speak about Antonescu's courageous decision to
stop all deportations towards Poland's death camps of the Jews from Banat,
South Transylvania, Walachia, or Moldavia (summer 1942), he is to be kept
responsible for the slaughtering and atrocities the Jews had to endure in the
territories ruled by the Romanian authorities: North Bucovina, Bessarabia
and Transnistria. Estimated victims of the Antonescu regime range from
250,000 to 480,000, casualties of a genocidal policy that was independent
from that followed by Nazi Germany and was constantly justified as a fight
against Judeo-Bolshevism. And although it was independent, it followed
many of the policies of Nazi Germany including the law of August 8, 1940
defining a Jew with strong anti-Semitic intent (Ioanid, p. 20). Comparative
to the Nuremberg Laws based on biological and racial purity, a law forbade
marriage between those Romanian "by blood" and Jews—that people of
"Romanian" blood were the main element making up the foundation of the
111
country. As an ally of Nazi Germany, many Jews were slaughtered in
pogroms such as the 1941 killing of 15,000 Jews in Iasi which had a
particularly large Jewish population—many of them dying in labor camps
or on death trains. The general area of Yass (Iasi) is known to be the place
of several mass massacres of Jews during the Holocaust. Despite all that,
there is a tendency in the post-Communist era to glorify Antonescu and
minimize the atrocities he inflicted. According to Ioanid, "the communists
began to impose their own criteria for the rewriting of Romania's past. The
saga of the extermination of the Romanian Jews soon disappeared from the
newspapers and from scholarship and classroom instruction; later, study of
the fascist period fell victim to propaganda requiring numerous omissions
and distortions."32 Ioanid writes . . . "Nowhere else in Europe has a mass
murderer, Adolf Hitler's faithful ally until the very end, a man who once
declared war on the United States, been honored as a national hero, inspired
the erection of public monuments, and had streets named for him."
Iasi Pogrom. Courtesy of isurvived.org
Bodies piled behind logs after pogrom.
32
As quoted in the Introduction p. xxii.
111
5.1 Romania’s Forgotten
1942 Deportations to Transnistria. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Transnistria was a historic reality although very little is mentioned of it in
Romania. The name was coined by the Fascists to designate a territory of
about 16,000 square miles, for the annihilation of Jews deported from
Romania. Ukrainian Jews already living there and in the area met their
demise in Transnistria as well.
It was the largest killing field in the
Holocaust, decreed into existence by Marshal Ion Antonescu, in the summer
of 1941. It was in existence until the spring of 1944, when the Soviet Army
reconquered southern Ukraine. The Nizkor Project attributes several
contributing factors of the historical gap leading to the conflicting and
confusing perception of the Romanian Shoah and particularly that of
Transnistria. Why has there been so little discussion about those chapters of
horror when about half a million people perished there?

Northern Bucovina and Bessarabia were ceded to the Soviet Union in
1940-1941. As a result the fate of the Jewry from these areas is
sometimes described in Holocaust literature pertaining to the Jews of
the Soviet Union.
Similarly, the fate of Jewry from northern
Transylvania is sometimes found under the history of Hungary. These
shifts in territories and boundaries obscure the picture of the historic
events in Romania.
The fate of the local Ukrainian Jews in the
112
territory of Transnistria is also obscured in historical writings since
after the war this territory was a part of the Soviet Union, as it was
before the war, and if at all mentioned in Holocaust literature, it would
not be listed as Transnistria.

Another camouflage is that at the time when the tide of the war
changed, Antonescu realized that he allied Romania with the losing
partner in the war. In order to protect his "reputation" he allowed
himself to be swayed and to stop further deportations of the Jews to
which he had agreed in 1942. By so doing, he saved half the Jewish
population from destruction for his own best interest. This dichotomy
however, has led in the past decade to attempts for his "rehabilitation"
in Romania

The name "Transnistria" as a geographic entity existed only from the
summer of 1941 to the spring of 1944. Therefore, it cannot be found
on any pre-World War II or post-World War II maps. It is like a
phantom which claimed so many deaths but has disappeared into the
annals of Romanian Holocaust responsibility. While larger towns and
villages are mentioned on the map, readers may not connect them to
Transnistria, let alone associate them with those events.

The Red Army which liberated Transnistria concealed its findings.
The Soviet Union was reluctant to publicize how closely many
citizens of its Republic collaborated with the German Nazis in the
destruction of the Jews in Transnistria.

Soviet Union did not consider Jews as a national entity, therefore,
even the few memorials that do exist on the territory of Transnistria
mention the Nazi victims buried there, but do not specify that most of
them were Jewish.

The area is filled with mass graves and execution pits which have not
been properly identified or commemorated.
113

Survivors of Transnistria returned home to search for scattered family
members and under the Communist dictatorship, felt unsafe to talk
about it. There was a continuation of oppression and persecution, and
harassment. They felt unsafe, frightened, insecure, and unwanted.
They arrived to other countries with damage to self-esteem caused by
prior anti-Semitism and deportations, trauma and loss experienced in
the camps, and by the persecutions of communism.

Those who immigrated to Israel had to cope with an attitude of
humiliation from those who blamed them for not fighting back. This
deepened the pain and suffering of the survivors.

Although in Western countries they found assistance from Jewish
institutions and some help from governments, many people were
unreceptive to their plight and had no knowledge about the crimes
perpetrated in the camps and on humanity.
5.1.2 A Special Tribute to the Neuman Family
From Cernauti, loading transports to Transnistria
Czernowitz (Cernauti in Romanian, Chernivtsi in Ukrainian, and
Chernovtsy in Russian) was not spared the deportations to Transnistria and
the Czernowitz Ghetto. Hundreds of Jews migrated to the city in search of
safety hoping for protection because of the well-organized Jewish
community. However, after one year of Soviet occupation, as soon as the
Romanian troops entered the city, they invaded the Jewish quarter and
began to cleanse the city of Jews. According to Nizkor, corpses of victims
were hauled out of the city in garbage trucks and buried in four immense
mass graves. 50,000 Jews were forced out of their homes and herded into
114
the ghetto. Thousands of others were also deported to Transnistria. The
Mayor of Czernowitz, Traian Popovici, a man with high moral standards
and compassion, fought against the measures taken by the Romanian
authorities, during 1941-1942. He was instrumental in saving over 16,000
Jews form deportation. "They have written a page of apocalyptic shame in
the chronicle of the Romanian people," he wrote in his memoirs. It is fitting
that the story of Rosa Neuman and her family is presented here as part of
this subchapter. She survived the deportation to Transnistria along with her
daughter Dvora. She was the great-aunt of this researcher—the sister of my
grandmother.
Neither Dvora nor Rosa knew each other survived
Transnistria. They met in Regina's (this researcher's grandmother) house in
Montreal, Canada in 1946. Rosa used to sit and rock her body back and
forth. Nobody asked her why she did not say anything. Only her sister
Regina, knew a little of what she had experienced. As mentioned before,
survivors did not speak. Their trauma was too great at that time. It is only
later on that this researcher inquired and found out about some of the details
from Rosa's experience. She had a husband, Hersh Lev, two sons, Yona
(17) and Gershon (6), and a little girl named Sarah (7). Her father (this
researcher's great-grandfather) was shot by the Romanian Iron Guard on the
doorstep of the house. Hersh was rounded up with 200 Jews, forced to dig a
pit by the River Prut, and all were shot into it. The women and children
were forced into the ghetto and from there, transported to Transnistria. The
older boy Yona was never heard from again and was separated from the
family. Rosa and Sarah were together in Transnistria although the exact
concentration camp is unknown.
Dvora and Gershon were in another
location. Due to starvation and dysentery, Sarah and Gershon could not
survive. Sarah died in Rosa's arms and she begged for someone to bury her.
Gershon died in Dvora's arms. Out of a family of six, only two members
survived. Included here are pages of testimony extracted from the Database
of Shoah Victims' Names at Yad Vashem.33 They were filled in by Regina
33
Yad Vashem's major task is the gathering of victims' names from the Holocaust. To date,
they have over three million names but many more are missing. They are gathered from
family members, friends, relatives, and neighbors, anyone who knows of somebody. The
Victims' Names Recovery Project is a major project for the museum Names and the Shoah
Victims' Names Recovery Project director. Interviews will be presented later in the research.
115
in her own handwriting in 1979 with assistance from the author's mother; a
testament to their tragic story among many. After long searches, this
researcher was extremely touched to find them with little information to go
on. The author was also unaware that pages of testimony were filled in for
Yad Vashem.
Courtesy of Ghetto Fighters' House archives. A wagon loaded with bodies drawn by Avigdor Arikha
who was 12 years old, Transnistria. Below: A camp in Transnistria drawn by the same child.
116
Sarah Neuman perished in Transnistria from starvation and dysentery. This page of
testimony was written by author's grandmother. Sarah was author's second cousin.
117
Hersh Lev Neuman (father) was taken from his home and executed with 200 Jews by the River
Prut. Author's great-uncle, and written by author’s grandmother.
118
Gershon Neuman died in Transnistria of starvation. He was born in 1936 and not 1926. Gershon was
author's second cousin.
119
Yona Neuman died in Transnistria. He was never heard from again. Author's second cousin.
121
Antonescu
(Romania)
Hitler
(Germany)
Similar
Romanianization, pure
race.
Jews as scapegoats
Aryanization, pure race.
Similar
Jews as scapegoats
Similar
Racial Laws of Blood
Racial Laws of Blood
Similar
Roots of anti-Semitism
Roots of anti-Semitism
Similar
Unorganized and illmanaged system of
destruction
Organized, systematic,
well-managed machine
Different
Iron Guard
SS, police squads
Similar
Mass killings
Mass killings
Similar
No gas chambers
Gas chambers
Different
Called them "my
Jews."
Jews plague of the earth.
Need to be vanquished, the
devil.
Different
Little propaganda
Reaching the masses using
propaganda.
Different
Unorganized economic
pillaging /plundering
Different
Ghettos
Well-organized, systematic,
listing of all items and
personal possessions.
Nothing was wasted.
Ghettos
Persecution of Gypsies
Persecution of Gypsies
Similar
Not concerned about
Germany's image
Different
Concerned about
Romania's image
Different
Similar
Table 3. Similarities and differences between Antonescu and Hitler in terms of genocidal policies.
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5.2 "Penetrante Indiferentei." Management Challenges for Romania
The opposite of love is not hate.
It's indifference.
The opposite of art is not ugliness.
It's indifference.
The opposite of faith is not heresy.
It's indifference.
And the opposite of life is not death.
It's indifference.
-Elie Wiesel (October 27, 1986).
The Wiesel Commission is the common name given to the International
Commission on the Holocaust in Romania, which was established by
former President Ion Iliescu in October 2003, to research and create a report
on the actual history of the Holocaust in Romania and make specific
recommendations for educating the public on the issue. Until that time,
Romanian society had avoided any genuine confrontation with its own
culpability for the murder of Jews in Romania and in Soviet territory under
Romanian occupation. To the extent of Holocaust acknowledgement in
Romania, the latter's role in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Jews
was often negated and blamed on others—sometimes even on the victims
themselves (Weinbaum, 2012). The 2003 then-president Ion Iliescu
expressed this blatantly.
Asked to clarify a Romanian government
declaration that "within the borders of Romania between 1940 and 1945
there was no Holocaust," he asserted: "The Holocaust was not unique to the
Jewish population in Europe. Many others, including Poles, died in the
same way . . . Jews and Communists were treated equally . . . However it is
impossible to accuse the Romanian people and the Romanian society of this
massacre of Jews."34 Under international pressure, Romania agreed to
convene an international commission of historians to investigate the facts
about the Holocaust in Romania, spearheaded and chaired by Holocaust
survivor, author, and Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Elie Wiesel. And the
findings unequivocally indicate Romanian culpability. The Commission
concluded that a significant percentage of the Romanian Jewish community
was destroyed during World War II. Systematic killing and deportation
were perpetrated and Transnistria, under Romanian administration, served
34
Source: Haaretz, July 25, 2003.
122
as a giant killing field for Jews.
Regarding statistics of victims, the
Commission chose to define the range of numbers as they are represented in
contemporary research. There may never be a full statistical picture of the
carnage wrought during the Holocaust in Romania. It declares that "of all
the allies of Nazi Germany, Romania bears responsibility for the deaths of
more Jews than any country other than Germany itself." 35
Table 4. Commission Report on the number of murdered.
Territory/Region
The Murdered
Numbers
Bessarabia
Jews, by Romanian and
German troops 1941
Jews in expulsion to
Transnistria
Jews in Odessa, Golta,
Berezovka.
Jews, Iasi Pogrom and
other anti-Jewish
measures.
Jews deported --to
Auschwitz.
45,000
Roma. Centuries old Nomadic
communities disappeared.
11,000
Bukovina
Transnistria
Regat
Northern
Transylvania (under
Hungarian control)
Transnistria
60,000
115,000 -180,000
At least 15,000
132,000
Table 4. Number of victims. Total: Approximately 280,000 to 400,000 perished.
Iliescu praised the commission's findings and was himself praised for
convening it and accepting the results. His was a regime that made attempts to
comply with international pressure. In a speech dedicated to Holocaust
Remembrance Day in Romania, the former President stated that36:
Having emerged from the darkness of totalitarianism, Romania has
embarked on a long and not so easy road to the recovery of
memory and assumption of responsibility, in keeping with the
moral and political values grounding its new status as a democratic
country, a dignified member of the Euro-Atlantic community . . . A
critical evaluation of the past is always necessary, so as not to
forget it, but also to set with clarity the landmarks of our efforts to
build ourselves, as part of constructing the future of our nation.
Such remembrance is all the more appropriate when it refers to tragic
events befallen for so long by an unmotivated silence.
35
Source: Elie Wiesel Institute for the Study of the Holocaust in Romania. Final Report of the
Commission on the Holocaust in Romania presented to President Ion Iliescu, Bucharest,
November 11, 2004, p. 7.
36
Speech given by Mr. Ion Iliescu, President of Romania at the meeting dedicated to the
Holocaust Remembrance Day in Romania, October 12, 2004.
123
The International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania made a list
of recommendations including:

Public Awareness of the Holocaust.

Holocaust Education in Romania including the review and
preparation of textbooks and programs in higher education.

Teacher training and seminars through cooperation with Yad
Vashem.

Commemoration of the Holocaust through government observance
of Holocaust Remembrance Day designated as October 9th, the
anniversary of Jewish deportation to Transnistria. This should be
marked by educational programs, inviting survivors to speak,
observation with religious leaders through interfaith ceremonies, and
include it in their sermons.

Holocaust memorials and exhibitions. A national memorial to the
martyrs of the Shoah should be erected in Bucharest. As well, a
traveling exhibition and permanent displays at the National
Historical Museum should be established.
Photographer takes photos inside Holocaust Memorial in Bucharest.

Memorial Plaques at significant sites and special exhibits in local
museums.

Archival access for historians and present-day researchers.

Resolutions involving contradictory and detrimental matters such as
reversing the rehabilitation of war criminals who perpetrated crimes
against humanity, accepting responsibility and implementing
provisions of international law and treaty obligations that pertain to
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the treatment of war criminals; cooperating with other government
to maintain the highest standard of international practice.

Holocaust denial legislation and enforcing public veneration of
Antonescu. In March 2002 Romanian legislation presented a ban on
fascist, racist, and xenophobic organizations and symbols and
prohibits the denial of the Holocaust. It makes illegal the cult of all
persons guilty of committing war crimes and crimes against
humanity (for which Antonescu was sentenced to death), including
erecting statues, plaques, and naming streets or public places for
such people.

Amending the law which defines the Holocaust as limited only to
actions perpetrated and organized by Nazi authorities, thereby
excluding the Romanian experience in which Romanian officials
and not the Nazis organized the extermination.

Implementation and follow-up which recommends that the
government of Romania establish a permanent agency, commission,
or foundation that will be responsible for monitoring and
implementing the recommendations while fostering the study of the
Holocaust in Romania.
In keeping with the commission's recommendations, the subject of the
Holocaust has been introduced in the school curriculum. But it is still an
elective and not compulsory like in Germany or Poland. A new government
has come to power and there are on the other hand, some encouraging signs.
In some universities, notably Bucharest, Cluj, and Iasi there are courses
which have been instituted to teaching Jewish history and the Holocaust.
Yad Vashem has played host to Romanian educators and young political
activists who have participated in special courses on the Holocaust and the
Romanian role in it. Some books and academic publications have been
published and the Elie Wiesel Institute for the Study of the Holocaust in
Romania has taken an active role in implementing many recommendations
under very limited circumstances. There is also the Elie Wiesel House in
Sighet which was transformed into a small museum and the Holocaust
Memorial Museum in Simleu Sylvaniei (Muzeul Memorial al Holocaustului
125
din Transilvania de Nord). Although it is a start, it is lacking archives,
material, and educational projects. The Elie Wiesel Institute also has under
its jurisdiction the Holocaust Memorial which was erected on October 8,
2009 and there is Holocaust Remembrance Day which was established on
October 9, 2004—the date when the first Jews were transported to
Transnistria from Northern Romania by the authorities. Following the final
report and as a result of the government's endorsement, Romania became a
full member of the Task Force for International Cooperation on Holocaust
Education, Remembrance, and Research in December 2004. Still, it is not
clear whether the findings of the Commission on the Holocaust will give
rise to a new national consensus. A real change in attitude can take
generations. It depends on the attitude of those in power, those willing to
penetrate the throes of indifference, to combat those who deny, and to
address and protect the truth.
The perished from Timisoara. Courtesy of Ghetto Fighters' House.
Jews were supposed to be transported to Belzec extermination
site in Poland 1942. Plans were thwarted due to inefficiency.
126
Cluj Memorial plaque taken on location, courtesy of Ann Hansen. “In remembrance of
the 18,000 men, women, and children who after difficult torture were transported to
Auschwitz where they were exterminated. Earth conceal not my blood.”
The Honor: Phone Conversation with Professor Elie Wiesel
Doing qualitative research and investigating contemporary management
issues concerning Holocaust remembrance and the sites is an arduous task;
for accompanying it is a tremendous sense of responsibility to disseminate
accurate information to its readers, to try and remain (at least as much as
possible) emotionally segregated and objective, and to emerge with that
which will give honor and dignity towards the subject as it deserves—to
make it “real”—authenticity of the research based on interviews and
conversations as much as possible face-to-face on location. In most cases
that was possible but a great privilege was bestowed upon this author when
given the opportunity after a lot of relentless perseverance, to have a
conversation with Professor Elie Wiesel. Born in Sighet, Transylvania, he
was a teenager when he and his family were taken from their home in 1944
to Auschwitz.
His mother and his younger sister Tzipora perished in
Auschwitz and his two older sisters survived. Elie and his father were later
transported to Buchenwald, where his father died shortly before the camp
was liberated in April 1945. For his literary and human rights activities, he
has received numerous awards including the Presidential Medal of
Freedom, the US Congressional Gold Medal, the National Humanities
Medal, the Medal of Liberty, and the rank of Grand-Croix in the French
Legion of Honor. In 1986, Elie Wiesel won the Nobel Peace Prize for
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Peace, and soon after, his wife Marion and himself, established The Elie
Wiesel Foundation for Humanity, an organization created to fight
indifference, intolerance, and injustice. He has received more than 100
honorary degrees from institutions of higher learning. He is the author of
more than fifty books of fiction and non-fiction, including his powerful
book Night which has been translated into more than thirty languages and is
a testimony of his memories on the death of his own innocence and the
death of his family.
He is the Andrew W. Mellon Professor in the
Humanities and University Professor at Boston University.37 His house in
Sighet was converted into a small museum.
Photo taken inside the barracks on liberation, in Buchenwald Concentration Camp (Germany). It is
exhibited worldwide and has become a symbol of survival. Elie Wiesel is third tier, seventh from the
left, just beside the wooden post. Courtesy of Buchenwald Memorial Site.
Of all interviews conducted, it was felt by this author that to truly complete
the task, it would be crucial to make the acquaintance with Elie Wiesel and to
try and render a conversation with him at least by telephone. The goal of the
initial conversation conducted on September 12, 2012 was to make the
introduction, inform him of this research, report to him about the present
condition of some of the sites and what is going on in Romania, hear his
thoughts, and pave the way for further and future contact. To be able to speak
to Elie Wiesel is no easy accomplishment. It requires a tremendous amount of
patience and communication. As he is a very busy humanitarian who travels
37
Source: Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity.
128
often and has an intensive schedule, it required several e-mails beginning at
Boston University with his assistant, and culminating with an unexpected email received on July 31, 2012 from his executive assistant. After researching
his possible whereabouts it was decided by the author to approach his assistant
at Boston University. Ongoing e-mails were continuous from December 2010
until the final notification from his executive assistant in New York at the
Foundation for the Humanities on July 31st, 2012. Even then, the appointments
had to be revamped due to his busy schedule and even with his apologies
through his executive assistant Adrienne. This author did not mind because it
already put into place a rapport with the realization that if he felt the
conversation was not important, he would not have asked her to reschedule it.
Many e-mails were sent back and forth between 2010 and 2012. In the end,
constant momentum prevailed and played an important role in the logistics of
managing initial contact with Professor Wiesel. As Professor Wiesel is an
extremely busy person, travelling worldwide and occupied with his
humanitarian efforts, for the author it was an exceptional honor to speak with
him and that he took the time out of his busy schedule to converse. He is a
Holocaust survivor, and great humanitarian. Communication with Professor
Elie Wiesel was initiated on September 12, 2012 just before the Jewish New
Year taking place on September 15th. The phone call was made to his office of
the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity in New York by this author.
Discussion with Professor Wiesel focused on the Elie Wiesel Institute in
Bucharest, providing him with an update as to what is going on, further
research on mass graves, the United Nations, and preservation of memorial
sites. Some excerpts of the conversation are below. Original audio file and emails are available from the author. (E. Wiesel, personal communication,
September 12, 2012).
Hello Professor Wiesel. This is Florence Eisenberg from Israel speaking.
First of all, I want to wish you a Happy New Year and Shana Tovah (in
Hebrew).
Thank you. You too. Ask me what you like. What do you want to know?
Well I am doing my doctorate on the challenge to manage and preserve the
sites and of course I found out what is going on there. A lot of them are in
big trouble in terms of funding as you can imagine. . .
I know.
129
Especially Chelmno which is in bad shape. But basically Romania is a big
focus that I am looking at. The Elie Wiesel Institute at the moment—they
are working under difficult conditions financially and yet they are doing
work as much as they can. It is kind of at a stalemate since 2010 with the
discovery of the grave in the forest in Iasi. What would you like to see
done there?
Where? You mean Romania, or in a certain place?
What would you like to see done in terms of Romania?
Whatever I wanted was in the report of 2004 and had been implemented.
Textbooks are slowly being revised . . .
That’s good.
But projects are kind of at a stalemate so what I decided to do is team up
with a forensic archaeologist who recently discovered mass graves on
Treblinka using non-invasive technology. We want to continue that work
in Romania, trying to find some of the mass graves.
I think that is a great idea.
That’s what I wanted to know; what you thought of the idea. If you were
us, and this is what the archaeologist wanted me to ask you, which areas
would you concentrate on the most (although I have an idea)?
Transylvania has much more I think for what happened. Mass executions in
Galicia and beyond the Hungarian borders which caused the deaths of a
hundred thousand Jews by bullets. . . I remember reading something about it
and I spoke to Father Desbois who is investigating that area. The first mass
executions were of Hungarian Jews 1941, citizens in Hungary by Hungary and
therefore would be placed beyond the borders in Poland. Six months later they
were all executed. This is in the Desbois book Holocaust by Bullets.
Would you also concentrate more on the areas around Iasi?
Of course.
What about Cernauti?
Same thing,
My own relatives went to Transnistria and it is very much underreported.
I also wanted to know what you think of the United Nations. I call it a
paradox because on one hand they commemorate Holocaust Memorial
Day and on the other hand, they allow Ahmadinejad to speak.
When I go, it is covered by me anyway. Wherever I go, every president I speak
with—I tell them he should be arrested and brought to The Hague and tried in
light of his commitment and plan to exterminate and drown the Jewish people.
What do you see as the biggest management challenge for the museums on
the sites?
131
Where? In Romania or anywhere?
Well, Romania does not really have a camp per se which I call sites,
because “camp” I feel was a euphemism.
Authenticity should remain; land on where they died.
If a Holocaust museum opened up in Bucharest, and I know that the
Director of the Institute Dr. Alexandru Florian and historian Dr.
Alexandru Climescu, both of them would approve of that. . . What would
you see as a mission statement?
They would consult with me of course. I would have to see. I cannot give you
an offhand answer without knowing because I would need more knowledge.
When I would get enough details on where it is happening and when, then I
would be able to apply it.
Would you like to see a Holocaust museum in Bucharest?
I think it would be a good idea.
So that’s another thing that you would probably approve of being done.
What would you tell next generations with the survivors disappearing?
For the next generations to become witnesses.
Do you feel the memorial sites need to be preserved?
It depends where; it depends how. That is important.
Why, because it is the authentic evidence?
Exactly. It’s authenticity.
That is in the title of my paper, "safeguarding authenticity and
perpetuating memory." I hope I will be able to forward it to you.
Let me know when you are finished.
5.2.1 Slow Changes. Management of the Elie Wiesel Institute for
Studying the Holocaust in Romania
The Elie Wiesel National Institute was created through Governmental
Decision no. 901 of August 4th, 2005 following the 2004 report from the
Commission. Its aims are the identification, gathering, recording, research
and the publishing of the documents concerning the Holocaust, the solving
of some scientific issues, and the elaboration and implementation of
educational programs concerning this phenomenon.
Thus, one of the
recommendations of the Report of the Elie Wiesel International
131
Commission on Holocaust in Romania, which was published in 2004, was
implemented. Its main prerogatives include:

To carry out studies and research, home and abroad to deepen the
knowledge of the Holocaust phenomenon.

To gather or acquire by means of donations—any evidence,
publication, or document concerning the Shoah or related to it.

To identify, to bring into the country and preserve the documents
regarding the Holocaust in Romania, in original or in copies, of any
material support, from different countries.

To establish an archive which will include publications, books,
scientific journal collections, newspapers, manifestos and other
written material related to the Romanian Holocaust and to create
specific working instruments in the field.

To launch projects of oral history in order to save the memory of the
Holocaust.

To organize scientific meetings dedicated to the Holocaust and
contribute to national representation in the field within the
international scientific meetings.

To finance the editing, printing, and the publishing of memories,
books, research studies, articles, correspondence, photographic and
video collections, albums concerning the Holocaust.

To organize and support the carrying out of exhibitions and other
educational activities.

To set itself as a point of reference and communication with the
survivors.

To contribute by means of expertise to the preservation of the
spiritual inheritance of the communities in Romania which were
affected during the Holocaust.

To support the establishment of a Memorial for the victims of the
Holocaust in Romania.
The Institute employs eighteen people including historians, auxiliary
persons, executive director, director, education and culture, public relations.
It includes an honorific board and supporters of the Institute including Elie
132
Wiesel himself and Ioanid Radu who has written many books on the
Holocaust in Romania. This researcher is honored to be in contact with the
Institute which is working under limited means in terms of funding and
access to material. Contact was made with the Elie Wiesel Institute once it
was decided to include the chapter on Romania for the purpose of this
research.
Included at the "Institutul National Pentru Holocaustului din
Romania Elie Wiesel" is a list of Righteous Among the Nations (those
honorable mentioned who helped to save Jews) as stipulated by Yad
Vashem, and their publication of the INSHR Holocaust Studies and
Research Journal, through which this researcher was able to publish an
article. Management structure of the Institute includes an Honorific Board,
Scientific Board, and an Educational Committee. Other activities include
textbook projects to modify distortions with emphasis on historical accuracy
to be disseminated to high school students.
Teacher seminars in
cooperation with Yad Vashem have been implemented.
Recent e-mail and phone interviews with three employees of the Institute
revealed special challenges in terms of funding. Operating originally under
the Ministry of Culture following the establishment of the Institute on
August 4, 2005, this part of funding has recently been revoked in June
2012. They are therefore operating under limited resources and feel very
uncertain regarding future funding. The contributions by the Ministry of
Culture were crucial to help with maintenance of the Institute and the
financial structure has not changed. As this has happened only recently,
consequences of such an action cannot be established just yet. The second
half of the first decade of the twentieth century increased progress in terms
of Holocaust research and awareness but it seems there is a slight
regression. As well and as stipulated in the Governmental Decision of 901,
the Institute can reach up to thirty employees.
Due to limited budget
restrictions, only recently has the number of employees increased from
fourteen to eighteen. Aside from financial constraints, there is still an
attitude to downplay the nation's role and this impedes progress in helping
Romania face up to one of the darkest periods in its history. Therefore the
Institute's task is difficult because parallel to progress in many areas due to
133
their efforts, they are overshadowed by those who wish to negate them and
deny the truth.
5.2.2 Silence Shattered. The Mass Grave in Iasi
"A country is not only what it does but also what it tolerates."
-Kurt Tocholsky, German-Jewish Essayist.
Silence about Romania's Holocaust role was shattered when a mass grave
was discovered in the village of Popricani in the Vulturi forest. A team of
historians and archaeologists coordinated by the Elie Wiesel National
Institute discovered the mass grave of Jews who were murdered during the
Holocaust. The site in a forest in the district of Iasi where German and
Romanian troops advanced at the beginning of Operation Barbarossa was
part of the ethnic cleansing of the population and part of a series of
massacres committed by Romanian troops. Witness Vasile Enache (88
years old), still has fresh memory of what happened that day in 1941.
According to a magazine article by Time, he was grabbed by a couple of
Romanian soldiers who accused him of being a Jew. They arrived at a
series of deep graves where civilians were made to sit down, ten at a time,
and then shot. Others were ordered into the grave to arrange the bodies so
more victims could be thrown in.
The killings continued all day, but
Enache managed to convince his captors that he was a local, an Orthodox
Christian, and when this was confirmed by the local forester, he was
released. The Vulturi forester who saved Enache died in 1945 but his
daughter still lives nearby. Murray's Time article reveals how Lucia Baltaru
described what she remembered when she was six years old. "We used to
go and play at the grave," she says. "There was a thin layer of soil over the
grave, and when we played, the bodies would move around. I think there
are thousands of bodies buried there." (Murray, November 12, 2010).
134
With the latest mass grave discovery, silence in Romania was shattered.
However, ambivalence still reflected itself in the Romanian media
coverage. The Chief prosecutor in Iasi, Cornelia Prisacaru, made a
statement that "at this moment we don't know if these are civilian or
military bodies. Or could they be Russian or German soldiers? The front
line was in that area during World War II. We can't confirm they are Jews."
But such comments made no sense to the investigators who found so many
civilian items in the grave—or to Vasila Enache who still remembers being
dragged off to the killing ground on the assumption that he was a Jew. The
location in Vulturi Forest was the second mass grave site to be discovered.
During the fall of 1945, 311 bodies from three mass graves were exhumed
in Stanca Roznovanu also in the Iasi District. The discovery near Iasi
offered evidence of pogroms against Jews in the region, where official
history taught that Germans were the sole perpetrators of the Holocaust, and
shattered the silence about the involvement of Romania's leaders which was
ignored during communist times and subsequent governments, as already
revealed in the research.
This researcher was honored to receive authentic footage of the mass
grave discovery by Elisabeth Ungureanu who helped lead the project in the
Vulturi Forest. As head of public relations and mass media, as well as the
Educational and Cultural Department of the Institute, the most difficult part
for her was "finding the remains of small children and babies in the mass
grave." (E. Ungureanu, personal communication, May 14, 2012). The team
from the Institute also included historian Adrian Cioflanca, coordinator of
the archaeological investigation in Popricani.
Discovery of human remains in mass grave, headed by the team from the Elie Wiesel
Institute. Photos are courtesy of Elisabeth Ungureanu, which were sent to the author.
135
Photos sent to author. Courtesy of Elisabeth Ungureanu.
Approximately sixty victims were unearthed and a memorial service
was held on April 4, 2011—graves that were left unmarked and
forgotten. Five rabbis from Britain and the United States performed a
funeral service on April 4, 2011 which was televised live over the
internet in Romania.
Dressed in black, they carried the remains,
unidentified and contained in paper bags and cardboard boxes, and put
them into a single grave in the Jewish cemetery of Iasi, overlooking the
city. The victims were buried just a few meters away from thousands
more Jews killed during the pogroms.
136
Photos, courtesy of Elisabeth Ungureanu, sent to author. Human remains in paper bags are
carried for reburial in the Iasi Jewish cemetery.
Ceremony monument dedication held June 28, 2011 for 70th anniversary of Iasi pogrom.
It was put into place to cover the grave of the remains for 36 victims found in Popricani.
On the lid are 36 slim black granite plaques each engraved with the Magen David. At
the far end of the grave there is a tombstone clad in black granite and written in Hebrew,
Romanian, and English. The grave itself is 11.00 x 2.50 meters. The discovery resulted in
remembrance and commemoration for the perished.
Interviews were conducted through e-mail and phone contact with
Executive Director of the Elie Wiesel Institute in Bucharest (Dr. Alexandru
Florian), historian at the Elie Wiesel Institute in Bucharest (Alexandru
Climescu) and Elisabeth Ungureanu, public relations, education, and mass
media at the Elie Wiesel Institute for Studying the Holocaust in Romania.
Alexandru Climescu: Interview by telephone
The Elie Wiesel Institute was founded in 2006 with the idea of filling
thirty positions, but not enough money was available to fill them. It is
funded by the public budget—the government. The Institute is in contact
with Yad Vashem for teachers, teaching Holocaust history through art. In
high school, the Holocaust is an optional course, not compulsory. It is an
elective. Students can choose if they wish to learn about it and the history of
the Jews. I would like to see it compulsory in the schools because people
137
do not know much about it. I would like people to become more informed,
more tolerant. There are several ethnic minorities living here and there is
some sort of phobic intolerance, especially toward Roma. I think it is most
urgent to have a Holocaust museum in Bucharest which would be opened to
the public, where people can see exhibits and there would be educational
projects for teachers and students. We are an Institute and not a museum.
There is a lot of denial, myths, and misconceptions regarding the Holocaust
due to a lack of information. I am researching the forced labor of Jews and
there are tens of thousands of documents mainly concentrating from 19401944. Regarding Antonescu, he is still respected by a large part of the
population. Regarding your question about research on Transnistria, it may
be talked about among researchers but the population does not know much
about it. It is a specialized history. Very little research has been done on
the topic of Transnistria. (A. Climescu, personal communication, February
12, 2012).
Interview by e-mail with Alexandru Climescu
What would you like to investigate as a Holocaust researcher?
I would like to investigate Romanian and German relations as well as the
problems for the Jews.
What is the biggest problem in Romania today when it comes to the
Holocaust?
The population is not well-informed about the Holocaust in
Romania. There are a lot of misconceptions regarding the
responsibility of state officials for the persecution of Jews during the
Second World War.
Has anything really changed since the Institute was established?
Since the Institute was established, there has been a qualitative and
quantitative growth of documentation sources regarding the Holocaust
textbooks, journals, TV documentaries, specialized books and articles,
conferences, exhibitions). Mass-media started to cover more often
related issue due to the activity of the Institute. High-school teachers
were adequately trained by the Institute in Holocaust history.
For you, what is the most urgent thing that needs to be done?
Ideally, more funds should be allocated to the education and
research of the Holocaust; more precisely, a museum adequately
equipped and financed, able of organizing and developing educational
programs and events.
Should students visit a concentration camp?
We don't have any concentration camps in Romania. However, it is
desirable (but less feasible) that Romanian students go to Poland or
Germany and visit one of these camps.
138
When it comes to Holocaust education, should it be compulsory in the
schools?
At the moment, every high-school student studies Contemporary Romanian
history in the twelfth grade. But how the teacher covers the Holocaust issue
varies. There is an optional course about the history of the Jews and the
Holocaust. This means that at the beginning of the semester, students are
informed that they may choose one discipline from several others
i.e. Hydrology and Oceanography, History of Christian Culture and
Civilization, The History of Jews and The Holocaust. And to respond to
your question, I think there should be a compulsory course for at least one
semester in Holocaust studies
Do you think the mass grave near Iasi changed public attitude?
No, it was not sufficiently publicized by the mass-media and the
public does not know of its existence.
What is the general attitude in Romania when it comes to minorities?
See our website. There were surveys (Sondaj) done in 2007, 2009, and
2010.
What can be done about Holocaust denial in Romania?
Monitoring of newspapers, blogs, sites, legal punishment of those
responsible for public denial (we have the legal instruments) and
education for those vulnerable to the spread of denial beliefs.
What makes you want to do this type of work?
I work here because of personal belief and sense of responsibility.
If a Holocaust museum would be built, where would you put it and
what would you have in it? What would be its mission statement?
I would put it in an urban agglomeration (Bucharest) so that man persons
can benefit from it.
Is Transnistria mentioned as part of what happened under the
Antonescu regime?
Yes, but by researchers and professors.
Fill in the following: I would like to see in Romania:
I would like to see in Romania a more tolerant society.
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Interview by e-mail with Dr. Alexandru Florian
The Elie Wiesel Institute was inaugurated in 2005. It consists of
administration, archives, researchers, culture and education, public
relations, secretary, finances, auxiliary persons, and researchers. Total
amount of employees is fourteen people. There is no budget for more than
that, even though originally we were permitted to have until thirty
employees. The inauguration of the memorial was in 2009 for Jews and
Roma. It is taken from the budget of the State and we are also funded by
the Lauder Foundation. The Holocaust is an optional course in high school
which was implemented in 2006 which is one hour per week on a once a
week basis. Before that, there were no courses on the Holocaust. Students
studied the Second World War but only one page was allotted to this tragic
event (A. Florian, personal communication, February 20, 2012).
Since the finding of the mass grave near Iasi, has anything else been
done or has there been more work continued on mass graves?
The research on the mass grave near Iasi was ended and the body
remnants were reburied according to Jewish law in the Jewish cemetery in
Iasi. Criminal investigation is underway.
What do you think is the most urgent problem facing Romania when it
comes to the Holocaust?
I think that the most urgent problem facing Romania when it comes to the
Holocaust is to increase the knowledge and access to it regarding the history
of the Holocaust in Romania, the role played by Romanian authorities and
institutions, and other factors involved in it. I also think that combating
denial is another urgent problem.
Should Holocaust education in the high schools be compulsory? Should
students visit a concentration camp as they do on Germany or Poland?
I think that it should be compulsory and the teachers should include in their
courses visits to the Holocaust memorial, meetings with survivors, etc. .
Should the memorial sites be preserved for future generations?
Yes, they must be preserved for future generations.
What would you like to see done in Romania in terms of for example
commemoration, research on mass graves, museum, and so on?
I think that the research on archival documents should increase.
Of
course, commemorating the most important events of the Shoah in Romania
should continue. Also the research on mass graves must continue.
What is the general attitude of Romanians when it comes to the
Holocaust? Do they talk about it/ not talk about it/ do not want to
know?
141
The Romanians did not have the chance to get knowledge about it during
the Communist era; therefore only after 1990 they started to learn
about their recent history.
How can the attitude and atmosphere in Romania be changed? What is
their perspective when it comes to Antonescu?
I think that access to education and information to the topic of Holocaust
and other related ones could have an influence on the attitude Romanians
may have towards their recent history. For more information you can check
our surveys.
How can we fight Holocaust denial in Romania?
This can be done by increasing the access to information to and research on
the topic. More than that, we have in Romania, Law 107/2006 that bans
denial in public space with penal sanctions.
Should there be a Holocaust museum and if so, where should it be
built? What would you like to have in it?
A. F. There should be a museum and it should be built in Bucharest.
What is your mission as Director of the Elie Wiesel Institute?
My mission as a director is to manage the activity of the Institute
considering its research, cultural, educational, publishing projects.
What does the Holocaust memorial in Bucharest mean to you
personally? What does it symbolize for you as Director?
For me, the Holocaust memorial is very important both personally as well
as when it comes to its impact on public opinion and public space.
Tell me more about the education in the high schools?
The course on Holocaust history is designed for students graduating
from the humanities track in high school and the course is optional.
For you as Director of the Institute, carrying great responsibility under
difficult conditions, what is your most important task? What do you
hope to accomplish?
I am very interested in supporting the research on the history of the
Holocaust in Romania, in implementing more educational projects, and in
developing more cultural activities.
Do people visit the Institute? How many visitors do you get?
The people who visit the Institute come especially for our public library, to
attend conferences and seminars, to get information and knowledge about
different issues on the history of the Holocaust.
141
2010 Opinion Survey (Sondaj), regarding the Holocaust in Romania.38
Have you heard of the Holocaust?
What does the Holocaust mean to you?
Who was responsible for the Holocaust?
In what consisted the Holocaust in Romania?
38
Source: Elie Wiesel Institute for Studying the Holocaust in Romania.
142
Marshal Ion Antonescu was the leader of Romania during 1940-1944. I will read a number of
attributes of a state leader. Tell how they match the historic character.
143
If you think that the Holocaust means the systematic state-organized persecution and
extermination of European Jews by Nazi Germany and its and collaborators from 1933 to
1945, you think this happened in . . .
Analysis and Proposals
Only slightly more than half of the respondents place responsibility on
the Antonescu government and hardly any responsibility on the Romanian
people which illustrates until today, that Antonescu is still thought of by
some in a positive light. Even the Jews were responsible by 2% of the
respondents for their own persecution and extermination. Less than half of
the respondents included the mass extermination of the Jews as part of the
Holocaust and only 28% included mass executions of Jews which is what
happened in Romania. The Holocaust happened in Germany and not so
much in other European countries with Romania being the least of the other
countries in terms of respondents again, an indication that denial of
responsibility is still prevalent. Other European countries played a role but
this does not include Romania on the same scale. Mass gassing had the
least response in terms of what the Holocaust means and persecution of the
Roma has the lowest response. The event means extermination of the Jews
by the Germans with a small percentage (only 6%), responding that it was
something bad for humanity. Subjects were able to choose more than one
answer in their responses. Most importantly, quite a few respondents (24%)
said they never heard of the Holocaust, a sign that truth about the Romanian
Holocaust tragedy needs to be disseminated inside the country. Regarding
144
questions about the Romanian leader Antonescu, most of the respondents
answered that they cannot say. He is hardly held responsible for crimes
against Jews and is still considered by some a great patriot who must be
rehabilitated.
Few confirm him as a war criminal. He is held more
responsible for crimes against the Roma than the Jews (25% in the former
and 19% in the latter), however, even with regards to the Roma, this is a
small percentage with most respondents in the "I can't say." In the totally
matched category, Antonescu is held responsible for crimes against Roma
slightly more than the Jews (14% in the former and 9% in the latter). This
parallels with the respondents who place Nazi Germany at the heart of the
Jewish genocide. Overall, the Romanian Holocaust tragedy is still not seen
by many as a Romanian responsibility and because most of the respondents
are in the "I can't say" category, perhaps it can be assumed that this is
generated by lack of awareness or emotional dissociation from the event.
In
sum,
the
management
challenge
for
Romania
cannot
be
underestimated. From 2004 to 2010 Romania witnessed an upswing—a
change in the status quo which prior to that relinquished its Holocaust
responsibility. On this positive note, it fulfilled several commitments as
recommended by the Commission: Establishment of an Institute, Holocaust
Memorial Day, a memorial, the genesis of elective Holocaust studies in the
high schools, teacher-training programs through Yad Vashem, slow revision
of textbooks, becoming a member of the Holocaust Task Force, and coping
with shattered silence following the mass grave discovery in Iasi. This
latter event, however, was not sufficiently disseminated throughout the
country; an opportunity that was lost indeed. Since 2010, there is basically
a stalemate in terms of change and progress. Mass grave research is not
continuing, and the momentum has slowed down. To retrieve it requires a
supportive government, educational programs in schools, compulsory
Holocaust studies, full revision of textbooks, greater source of manpower in
the Elie Wiesel Institute (which as stipulated allows for up to 30
employees), increase in educational programs for teachers, contact with
survivors, international cooperation to assist the Institute, further research
on Transnistria and
mass graves,
enforcement of laws
against
discrimination, further support for the Holocaust museum in Simleu in
145
terms of education and archives. Student should be given where feasible an
opportunity to visit a concentration camp in Poland, compulsory visits to
the mass grave memorial in Iasi, student exchange programs with students
from Israel, and a general educational program which would become part of
the curriculum. Dr. Alexandru Florian and Alexandru Climescu would like
to see a Holocaust museum erected in Bucharest as Romania's capital, a
place where people (adults and youngsters alike) can learn; be participants
in educational activities and projects; seminars; archival research; a place to
reflect; and permanent and temporary exhibitions. There is no doubt that
the country is at a crossroads and is screaming for the dissemination of
information. Exposure and increased government support will lead to a
change in perception and attitude among the population. The 2010 survey
illustrates the gap of missing knowledge regarding the subject, avoidance of
responsibility, and in some cases, admiration and affinity for the
perpetrators.
According to Elisabeth Ungureanu from the Elie Wiesel
Institute "nothing much has changed in terms of the attitude. I was told
(even with my five years experience working in television), that I cannot be
hired for the national channel because I am working for the Jews and for
that reason, this would create a dilemma for the viewers. It shocked and
upset me." (E. Ungureanu, personal communication, August 10, 2012).
The employees at the Institute are managing with limited funding and under
difficult circumstances. Perhaps the process Romania is experiencing can
be viewed not as an ole, but a way to make a positive change; to be a leader
among nations that support truth, combat racism, xenophobia, and antiSemitism, and leaves a legacy for the next generations to not just tolerate
but fully accept minorities. Keeping memory alive is a way to maintain the
value of human dignity; forgetting it is comfortable but dangerous; it gives
in to the perpetrators and the deniers of truth. And until the momentum is
revamped, the silent cries of the victims will not be stifled. Romania needs
to steadily continue to positively adopt new policies so that negative
existing attitudes are vanquished for those who are the future. In a press
release by Elisabeth Ungureanu (June 5, 2012) from the Elie Wiesel
National Institute for Holocaust Studies in Romania, indignation is
expressed regarding the displacement of 1500 Roma people:
146
“National Institute for Holocaust Studies in Romania “Elie Wiesel”
expresses its indignation regarding local government gesture from
Baje Mare to move about 1,500 Roma people on the outskirts of
the former chemical laboratory of Cuprom . . .”
It is for these reasons that gratitude is extended to forensic archaeologist
Dr. Caroline Sturdy-Colls who has considered including Romania as part of
continuing her Holocaust Landscapes Project which would also involve
assistance by this author. The project would extend further research on
mass graves in Romania included with other sites using "noninvasive
archaeological methodology" (Sturdy Colls, 2012). Her PhD research "has
addressed Holocaust sites in terms of their scientific and historical value,
whilst acknowledging their commemorative and religious significance"
(Sturdy Colls, 2012). It follows her discovery of mass graves in the
extermination site Treblinka which created pandemonium by refuting
Holocaust deniers' claims that have repeatedly stated "Treblinka has no
mass graves."39 This rhetoric is despite an abundance of contrary evidence.
Chapter VI
Managing Holocaust Memorial Sites: Cemeteries without Stones
The Holocaust was a European-wide event that affected and continues to
affect the lives of countless individuals across the world. These atrocities
resulted in the deaths of over eleven million people and irreversibly altered
the geographic, political and demographic map of the world (Gilbert, 1999).
Throughout Europe, museums and memorials are erected to pay homage
and commemorate the ferocity and finality of this crime. However in spite
of increasing effort, many sites remain unforgotten; some sites have been
mismarked as they have not been properly examined (Sturdy Colls, 2012);
some sites although known to locals, are unknown to the rest of the world;
many have as yet not been discovered. Locations of mass killing fields
around Serbia, Ukraine, Romania and elsewhere have remained anonymous
and have become integrated with the geographical landscape of the region.
The thirteen memorial sites chosen for the purpose of this research illustrate
39
Source: Treblinka ground radar finds no trace of mass graves. The Journal of Historical
Review 19(3), p. 20. Retrieved September 27, 2012 from http://www.ihr.org
147
the diversity in terms of their original intent and unique management
challenges in a contemporary world. There is awareness about some of
them; lack of awareness about others. And although they are different,
there are still similarities, common threads that hold them together. For
example, all of them are cemeteries without tombstones for the individual.
Each one is a grave in and of itself and in its entirety—collective resting
places filled with bone and ash, perhaps marked by the odd plaque or
monument and although different in size, all possessing that in common.
They are all places with no life. Others like Auschwitz, Majdanek, Stutthof,
or Sachsenhausen intonate busy sounds of activity—work that is going on
for preservation and the safeguarding of authenticity in contrast to the total
absence of presence. All are in need of more funding; some more urgently
than others. They are in need of monies not only for the present, but to
secure their place for the future.
In previous chapters, contemporary challenges to protect truth were
investigated. The management of the sites is not just the site itself, but a
slew of auxiliaries and patrons, bent on promoting awareness and
perpetuating memory. They act as additional support networks for the
dissemination of information all merging together (although operating
separately) in an attempt to make sure that the phrase "never again"
prevails. Management challenges for these vast and open cemeteries include
several criteria: Funding, conservation and preservation, maintenance of
the grounds, concerns about vandalism, exhibitions, funding, educational
projects, information about prisoners and victims, managing on a personal
level with traumatic material. As well, there are issues involving some of
the sites in terms of the local population, many of whom live on the former
boundaries of the site (Sobibor for example).
Some of the sites have
artifacts—physical remains of what happened at that particular location;
others an eerie nakedness where artifacts were decimated by the Nazi
machine, forcing the visitor to use senses to join with the abstract. Some of
them are located on the outskirts of cities or within cities, towns, or villages;
others deep in underlying forest areas, hidden from view and yet, among
nature.
148
There are even those like Ravensbruck where location is a paradox to its
extreme. Located outside the small village of Ravensbruck (part of
Furstenberg/Havel) it stands on the peninsula of the beautiful and shimmery
Lake Schwedt. Used for dumping human ashes, it was also used for the
pleasure of female guards, Nazi officials, and the locals. It is a lake of
deception which aided in the camouflage of the horror that went on in
Ravensbruck—nature’s beauty and wonder in the midst of evil. And if a
passerby is unaware of Ravensbruck’s existence on the opposite side of the
lake, he or she would surely awe at the shimmering serenity of the water.
Not all sites are managed the same way. It depends on the needs of the
site, its original intent, and the vision of the museum head and director. It
depends very much on cooperation with government and cooperation with
the locals. Museum heads, managers, and directors (sometimes different
titles are used) cite terms like "responsibility," "morality," "sense of duty,"
"necessity," "humanity," among others for their choice of occupation.
Some of them have nightmares while others cope by engaging in other
activities in their spare time. But all are affected in some way by their
work, and all want to make a contribution and do. They work laboriously
with their staff, speaking for those who cannot, telling a story about what
happened at that particular place and time. The challenge is even greater
with the demise of Holocaust survivors, as they need to create innovative
educational projects for the next generation which are relevant in today's
contemporary and world of technology. Holocaust memorial sites are truth
about what happened on that soil and it is the task of the staff to transmit
that story within the means allotted to them. The ones that do exist also
149
represent those that have not yet been found or go unnoticed as stated at the
beginning of the chapter.
However even among those chosen for this
particular research, there are those which remain forgotten—left behind
(Chelmno among others) by those who promote Holocaust awareness.
They are sites that are rarely mentioned or hidden in the literature or that
might be neglected in Holocaust museums.
And often they remain
anonymous, but are no less crucial to the event and maybe more so (in
terms of the number of victims and cruelty of the perpetrators) than the
well-known sites. They are not given their due and their murdered are in
danger of being forgotten—sites vulnerable to disappearing forever and
dependent on reluctant participants to keep them going. These disturbing
elements confirmed through interviews with museum heads, helps to justify
the reasons and necessity for the author's choice of memorials mentioned in
previous chapters.
Map showing Nazi camps both in Germany and occupied territories. Some are not shown or
labeled. As written, camps operated by German-allied or dependent states are not shown. It
illustrates the scope of the Nazi death machine. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
The map above is by no means complete. It is estimated that there were
15,000 camps including forced and slave labor. Many of the sites had sub
camps, some as many as 105. Auschwitz had 40 satellite camps. Holocaust
researchers classify the sites into categories by intent. However it must be
151
remembered that although a concentration camp started out with no gas
chamber, does not mean it did not have one by 1945.
People were
exterminated in other ways even without them. So even the classification
system is open to interpretation and leaves a lot to be desired. For the
purpose of the sites visited by this author, they are classified into the
following categories:

Concentration sites (Konzentrationslager). – Used to incarcerate
undesirables such as political prisoners, Jehovah Witnesses,
homosexuals, Jews, Gypsies, Poles, and others. The term
"concentration" was used to indicate segregation of the unwanted
from the rest of society. The "concentration" camps in this research
all had gas chambers, some earlier on than others, and all had
incinerators or what is politely called "crematoriums." Some of
them had execution areas for Soviet prisoners of war and the Jews.
And the majority of them had sub camps. For example, Stutthof had
105 sub camps of slave labor and forced labor throughout northern
and central Poland, Ravensbruck had forty sub camps, and so on.
Many of these have yet to be discovered and are unknown.

Slave labor and forced labor. – Used for prisoners forced to do labor
for the Reich. Inmates would die of torture, exhaustion, starvation,
random executions. There were no gas chambers but they were
exterminated in other ways including annihilation through work.

Hybrid sites. – Used as a combination of concentration and
extermination. The term "selection" became synonymous with
Auschwitz.
In
Majdanek,
most
Jews
were
immediately
exterminated. Those selected on arrival for "arbeit" (work) may have
had a chance of survival for a period of time doing slave labor in the
site. They were the ones who usually possessed a "healthier"
appearance. Small children, the elderly, pregnant women, and the
infirmed did not stand a chance.

Transit. The Places that Stand Alone. – Used to send people before
deportation to the "East." It was like a "pit-stop" for a period of
time. Theresienstadt was such a place. Often the Ghetto was used
151
as well as a transit and way station. From Ghettos, the Jews were
most often sent to their deaths as in these intermittent transit sites.
Conditions in these places were horrendous and people died of
starvation, disease, overcrowding, and torture.

The "Killing fields." - Used for mass extermination of Jews and
sometimes Gypsies, Poles, and Soviets in pits or ravines. They are
mostly well-known in the Ukraine but these mass graves are also
located around Romania, Poland, Serbia, and other locations. No
chance for survival.

Mass Extermination Sites (Vernichtungslager and Todeslager). –
Used for the Jewish genocide with no chance for survival. There
was no selection process and victims were immediately sentenced to
die. Bodies were thrown into pits or previously dug graves.

Shoes in Auschwitz. Photo by author.
152
Photo by author. Baby shoes and sophisticated shoe illustrate the zeal of mass killing in Auschwitz.
.
Name of the Site and Operation
Classification
Theresienstadt
1940 – 1945. Terezin Ghetto 1942
Transit and Intermittent
Dachau
1933 - 1945
Concentration Site (Camp)
Sachsenhausen
1936 - 1945
Concentration Site(Camp)
Ravensbruck
1938 - 1945
Concentration Site (Camp)
Stutthof
1939 – 1945 (first camp on Polish soil)
Concentration Site (Camp)
Babi Yar
September, 1941
Mass Killing Field
Auschwitz-Birkenau
1941 - 1945
Hybrid
Majdanek
1941 - 1944
Hybrid
Plaszow
December, 1942 – January, 1945
Slave and Forced Labor
Treblinka
July, 1942 – August, 1943 Revolt
Mass Extermination
Belzec
March, 1942
Sobibor
May ,1942 to October , 1943 Revolt
Chelmno
End of 1941 to Spring 1943
June 1944 to end of summer 1944
Mass Extermination
Table 5. Site, date of operation, intent.
Mass Extermination
Mass Extermination
153
6.1 Where it began: Management of memorial sites in Germany
There is a lot of activity happening in Germany regarding Holocaust
remembrance. Education for young people is compulsory and it is part of
the curriculum to visit a Holocaust memorial site. In Berlin, there are many
memorials and institutes. It is particularly there, that the sense of
responsibility and duty to educate the next generation is of utmost
importance. Laws on denial and discrimination are enforced with signs,
even posted on trains and billboards. Nevertheless, there are those who
battle to stop such activity and would rather see a Germany that once was.
The main sites are being preserved in Germany with funding from the
Federal Government and the State.
Focus seems to be on teaching
youngsters about the consequences of racism, fanaticism, prejudice, antiSemitism, xenophobia, and genocide of the Jewish people; that Germany
has to take responsibility and try to pass on new ideals to the next
generation. What is interesting is like in Israel; the people whose relatives
were involved in the Nazi movement call themselves "survivors" or
"generation" just like the Jews. There seems to be a common thread. For
example, the child of a Holocaust survivor is "second generation" and the
child of a Nazi who calls the self "second generation", or even "third
generation" (as this author heard at a site) emphasizes the trend that in
Germany there is an effort to shed the image of cruelty and barbarism, and
to be identified as a nation of decency, taking moral responsibility, and
"trying to make up for what happened." They want to be identified as
people who have suffered as a result of actions by their parents and
grandparents with no fault of theirs, trying to find common ground of
suffering if at all possible, with Holocaust survivors. And many of them
work in memorial sites around Germany. It is only recently, through the
small museum called Silent Heroes in Berlin that more Germans who saved
Jews from the Nazi wrath are emerging, coming forward to be documented
as "Righteous gentiles" and heroes after decades of silence. Many of them
until now never admitted to saving Jews, perhaps fear of being ostracized
from their neighbors or not having a location to tell their story and identify
with others.
154
Although in Germany there isn't a Holocaust museum per se, the
institutes, sites, and memorials all piece together to tell the story of the
Jewish genocide and the perpetrators. They provide background to the
event and many have a small museum on that location with exhibitions and
a contemplation room—a place to gather thoughts and think about the
horror of what was seen. A good example of this is the Memorial to the
Murdered Jews of Europe which is discussed in this chapter. There is also
emphasis to discuss the perpetrators and eliminate myths regarding ordinary
Germans at the time. For example, the myth that they were hypnotized
under the gaze of Adolf Hitler or that the people did not know anything is
one that is being eradicated. The recent exhibition called Hitler and the
Germans as presented by the German History Museum in Berlin, is the first
one of its kind, focusing on the head perpetrator, Adolf Hitler.
Many sites, especially forced and slave labor have never been identified
or commemorated. And they may never be. Travelling by train as this
author did, one can see fields and factories—dilapidated and bare. And the
question arises:
Could that location be a former slave labor camp or
perhaps a sub camp of Dachau or Sachsenhausen? There were so many of
them that one can never really know, but it is disturbing nonetheless. At all
the sites Jews were singled out for especially harsh treatment. Dachau alone
had 150 satellite camps. In contrast, there is a lot of positive work being
done in Germany and a continuous struggle for change.
This chapter
focuses on the place where it all started and the management challenges for
the sites in Germany. Three sites were visited—Dachau, Sachsenhausen,
and Ravensbruck. It begins with the first site erected on German soil in
1933.
It also includes institutes and museums in Germany, those
establishments and memorials which provide support, promote awareness,
and struggle to reinforce change through dedication and laborious work.
And although each operates as a separate entity, they are united—striving
for the same goals in the face of those who wish to deny and undermine
what they are trying to achieve. And Holocaust memorial sites include the
sites themselves on the soil and the institutes and facilities that stress
education, do archival research, and perpetuate memory.
155
6.1.2 Beginning of the end: Managing Dachau!
Infamous entrance gate to KZ-Gedenkstatte Dachau (Dachau Memorial Site). The words
"Arbeit Macht Frei" (work makes you free) mark the cruel cynicism of the perpetrators.
They have become synonymous with the hell's gate at Auschwitz but Dachau was the first to
have them. Taken by author in February, 2011.
Dachau was the only site this author visited with a group and through a
tourist agency. It was also the only site where a direct meeting could not take
place with a director, museum head, or any employee of the site. Logistics did
not permit it, although there were people at the visitor's center on arrival and
that even the public relations spokesman, with whom there was an initial
contact, was present. In the end however, it became an opportunity for this
author to answer the question: "Why do people visit a site?"
This was
answered through the direct question to the people in the group. Visiting the
site with a group provided a different perspective, but for reasons such as
pressure for time, lack of freedom to explore further, and needing to
contemplate away from the group, this way of visiting such a place of death
would not be repeated. For anyone, it depends on the purpose of the visit.
However it provided insight into tourist agencies and their advertisements, and
the curiosity of the individual—added perspectives for the purpose of the
research.
After much effort, an e-mail interview was conducted with the
Dachau director following the author's visit to the site on February 4th, 2011.
E-mail interview was returned to the author on May 5th, 2011. Although direct
contact was not established, others became significant contributors to this
research. For these reasons, the visit to Dachau is unique from all others done
independently, without the presence of a group, and interviews conducted on a
personal level with the staff on the sites.
156
th
Table 6. Tourists travelling to Dachau. (Personal communication, February 4 , 2011).
Subject
Reason for the trip to Dachau and a concentration camp
1 U. S.
To learn and remember, and to get a first-hand experience. Rather than
just reading about it in books and seeing it on TV.
To show greater respect for the history.
2 U. S
3 U. S
4 U. S
I read a lot about it but never visited one. For the history I felt it
was important to see what they had to live through. I don't know what to
expect.
I struggled whether or not to go because of the atrocities. I don't know if
I'm prepared for that. I have gone to the Holocaust museum in
Washington. I was able to get a bit of a taste of some of the things that
happened but to actually be at one will be a much different experience.
From the historical side I want to go and feel what actually went on there.
From my heart side I don't know. I think there will be quite a gap
between U.S. soil and a camp on German soil. It is a huge part of our
world history and a way to learn from our past.
5 U. S
This is my second visit. I took my family to Dachau in 2005. I want to
be there when people ask "have you ever visited a concentration camp?"
I can say, yes. I can you to those who deny "you are wrong." I want to
feel the emotions of being there and realizing that you're in a site like it
was—an atrocity that should never, ever have happened and should never
happen again. Humanity is great in the great things we do but we can
also see the depths of what we can do to other human beings too. These
should never be repeated again and Lord willing it never will happen.
You cannot go to a place like that and not be moved.
6 Canada
I am going as a tourist and for history.
7 U. S
I am interested in war history. I've always read about the horrendous
things that happened to Jews, people with disabilities, and the insane—
that they would be worked to the extreme, not fed, kept in unsanitary
conditions. Some were even just shot and burnt, buried where they were.
They (Nazis) did not even care because the victims were not as good. A
lot of people say it didn't really happen. I think it would be good to go
and say it did happen. It would be interesting to actually see because I've
only read about it and heard about it.
8 U. S
9 India
I've been to Dachau, the Holocaust museum in Washington, and the
Holocaust museum in Jerusalem. It's horrifying to see how this happened
and it is amazing that the world allowed this to happen to G-d's chosen
people. It blows my mind that it was allowed. The Lord knew it was
going to happen and allowed it. When I went to Dachau, I left very sad.
I imagined myself there and people back then. It's a beautiful area of the
country but it's so cold in the winter and beautiful in the spring. It would
be sad to be inside those gates and barbed wire, knowing you can't go
outside or anywhere. It's sad. . . very sad.
Exploring and touring Munich.
10 S. Afr.
Just to know what happened.
11 U. S
I'm here for three months for work and I came for the weekend to
Munich.
It is something we heard about on different documentaries. It is an
opportunity to experience a concentration camp. You can see new
buildings but only here you can experience something like this. I'm back
next week to see new things as well.
12 U. S
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Table 6 illustrates similarities and differences among respondents when
asked about their visit to Dachau. The site is located within the picturesque
town of Dachau, approximately ten kilometers from Munich. It is advertised
on tourist websites. Respondents' answers can be divided into five groups:
History, to experience the actual location, tourism, curiosity, and a combination
of them. Some respondents were prepared to speak more than others. Most of
them were American and the others were each from different countries of
origin—Canada, India, South Africa, Moscow.
All the American tourists
wanted to visit for the history and because they heard or read about it. Some
wanted to experience first-hand what it would be like and be able to refute
Holocaust deniers. For subjects 5 and 8 it was their second visit. For 6, 9, 10,
11, and 12 it was more for tourism and curiosity. Subjects 4, 5, 7, and 8 wanted
to talk about it longer and focused on the cruelty of the crime. Canadian tourist
was very vague and did not discuss it further. Subject 12 demonstrates that he
did not really know about other sites because he states that "only here can you
experience something like this." He also places visiting a camp on a rank as
part of the tourist structures in or near Munich: "Next week I'm back to visit
new things." Five of them expressed that they were visiting for the history (7, 6,
4, 3, 2). It seems that people are curious, want to visit a site to say they went to
one, and want to visit for the sake of humanity and history. Subject 8 even
brought up the Bible—"G-d's chosen people." Subjects 8, 7, 5, and 4 cannot
figure out how such a thing was allowed to happen and subject 5 strongly states
that it should never happen again. This short research illustrates that people
visit a site mainly for the history of it but also as a tourist with no specific
purpose in mind and only because it is included. Others hope to gain
knowledge and become witnesses. To summarize, not everyone visits a site for
the same reasons but for the majority, it was to be able to say that they
presented themselves in one, after being inundated about the Holocaust from
literature and movies. There also seems to be a trend that people want to say
they actually went to one when asked. Whatever the reason, and as Professor
Elie Wiesel responded in the interview, it is important to become witnesses.
Visitors to the sites end up joining the latter ranks notwithstanding their
personal reasons for the visit. They walk on the actual grounds of the perished.
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"The task at Dachau is to use historical information to give a voice to these
empty grounds, which also served other purposes later."
-Dr. Gabriele Hammermann, Director, Dachau Memorial Site
Dachau, located 18 kilometers from Munich within the picturesque and
small town of Dachau has paradoxically become synonymous with the horror
of the Nazi machine. The site is a Holocaust symbol for Germany. Dachau is to
Germany as Auschwitz is to Poland. It is the most visited site in Germany and
many people internationally have heard about it. On entrance, beyond the
infamous gates, there is a modern visitors' center which distributes audio guides
and has a cafeteria and bookstore. Immediately, the cleanliness of the site is
noticeable. A lot of it is reconstructed, gravel stones don't look authentic and
there is a refurbished barrack. There are marked mass graves extremely well
kept, and the gas chamber area is clean. It seems that here, some authenticity is
absent. Much of it is visitor-oriented rather than victim-centered. Dachau has
been the object of Holocaust deniers regarding the gas chambers and the actual
number of victims who perished, and this author began to question whether that
was the reason for the absence of personal artifacts in its main exhibition. The
exhibition consists of a small screen TV showing the aftermath of liberation,
bodies being bulldozed into graves, and faces of inmates. Dachau was the
longest-running camp, built originally for political opponents in 1933,
culminating with its liberation by the Americans in 1945. Although a lot was
destroyed, the element of authenticity even on the ground seems to be absent.
One has to really imagine the conditions that were there and although the
exhibition portrays some of that, there are very few concrete belongings to
illustrate them. Therefore, although placed on the same scale as Auschwitz, it is
managed in a vastly different way. Answers about the gas chamber are very
vague, and the tourist guide seemed reluctant to discuss it as were the director
and public spokesperson. Tourist guides are trained in Dachau and they are also
instructed on what they are permitted to answer. One of the most important
highlights of the visit was when a tourist on the train made a statement and
asked the following question: "They did not actually gas people at Dachau, is
that correct?" The guide responded with "No. They didn't." This author seized
the opportunity to pursue the matter, not being able to stand by while this
misconception was being stated and tactfully asked "but isn't that a
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controversy?" She then answered with a retraction of the previous response
with "well there's speculation that it was used for small groups of prisoners, but
definitely not used for mass murder as far as we know." But the tourist who
wanted to visit a concentration camp and know how it really was, left Germany
believing that the gas chamber wasn't used at all, not knowing the whole truth.
The tour guide quickly changed the subject. This illustrates that even 67 years
since its liberation, there is still information being withheld, more which needs
to be discovered, and issues which remain controversial. The gas chamber is in
Dachau and one wonders why it would have been built had it not been used.
Perhaps the tour guide revealed more than she would have liked. The site we
visited was the newer one built by the prisoners between 1937 and 1938 which
became the permanent one. We were not permitted to enter the original site
next to it, constructed in 1933 and used as a training ground for the SS. Since
1973, it has been used by the Bavarian riot police. On that particular day, there
were visits by Secretary of State Hilary Clinton and the British Prime Minister.
The exact amount of prisoners who died in the site between 1933 and 1945 may
never be known and there are different estimations in the literature. About
188,000 were imprisoned during its reign including incarceration of religious
Catholic deacons, priests, bishops, Jews, homosexuals, Jehovah Witnesses,
political prisoners, Poles, Ukrainians, Czechs. Imprints are all that remain of 32
barracks which had to be torn down due to their poor condition when the
memorial was built in the 1960's. Due to the severe refugee crisis mainly
caused by expulsions of ethnic Germans, Dachau was used as a settlement, a
location for refugees housed in the former camp complex.
Imprints mark areas where barracks once stood in Dachau. Photo by author.
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Dachau is an international cemetery with graves unmarked. There are four
memorial chapels which commemorate four different religions that were
imprisoned.
Above: Taken by author. Memorial chapel to Murdered Jews in Dachau.
Author lights memorial candle in Dachau memorial to the murdered Jews.
An e-mail interview conducted with Dachau Memorial and Museum
Director Dr. Gabriele Hammermann took place in May, following the
author's visit to the site February 4, 2011. It was received by e-mail on May
20th, 2011, three months after the author's visit to Dachau. Excerpts of the
e-mail interview are below. (G. Hammermann, personal communication,
May 20, 2011).
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How long have you been the director of the Dachau Museum and
Memorial? What is your background?
I have been Director of the Dachau Memorial Site for 2 ½ years. I studied
history, art history and sociology at the universities in Munich and Trier. From
1989-1990 I was able to work at the German Historical Institute in Rome
thanks to a research scholarship. My dissertation examines forced labor for the
“ally”, the conditions of work and life of Italian military internees in Germany
from 1943 to 1945 (2002). This study was published by Il Mulino in Italian in
2004 and was awarded the historic book prize “Premio Acqui Storia” in the
“scholarly book” category in 2005.
Starting in 1996, I worked as an academic assistant at the Buchenwald
Memorial Site. In 1997 I became Deputy Director of the Dachau Concentration
Camp and Memorial Site. On January 1, 2009, I was given the Directorship. I
am a member of various advisory bodies, including one for the Topography of
Terror (Berlin), for the National Socialist Documentation Center in Munich.
Since 2009 I have been a member of the German-Italian Historians’
Commission convened in Rome and Berlin, whose aim is to develop a joint
culture of remembrance.
My research projects cover the topics of forced labor, the history of the Dachau
Concentration Camp. I have submitted papers on various groups of prisoners,
as well as crimes committed at the end of the war, on the SS and on the Special
Camp at Buchenwald and the Internment Camp at Dachau.
What is the biggest challenge for you as manager and what would you say
was the most difficult crisis you handled as director? What did you do to
rectify it?
In the course of time, memorial sites have now come to enjoy a high level of
social acceptance. For a very large part, this is thanks to the survivors.
However, in a time when the numbers of concentration camp survivors is
dwindling, remembrance is increasingly being influenced by politicians and
associations. We have reached the threshold of an epoch marked by a gradual
transition from the direct, individual memory of the survivors to a collective
remembrance of concentration camps which is often shaped by the media. The
interest in current affairs is clouding the view of historical facts. As
contemporary eye witnesses die out, we see the German culture of
remembrance increasingly marked by tendencies toward the abstraction,
nationalization and generalization of history and remembrance. This shows up,
for instance, in the discussion over the Homosexual Memorial in Berlin.
In terms of the survivors too, as they very impressively put it in their “legacy”
on January 27 last year, another purpose of memorial sites like that in Dachau
is to confront these developments with meticulous research and learning
opportunities.
There are not many personal artifacts of prisoners on display in the
museum. Is there a specific reason for this?
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Today the Memorial Site is the most visited of its kind in Germany, with
700,000 visitors from all over the globe annually. Owing to the high number of
visitors, many members of the Scientific Advisory Board which supervised the
exhibition said they were skeptical as to whether the three-dimensional objects
and the related texts were being perceived properly. My team and I are now
revising the exhibition, however, to integrate more personal belongings into it.
Rising visitor numbers, as well as the necessity to update the existing range of
information both in terms of scholarship and didactical approach and give it a
contemporary presentation, were the reasons behind the extensive
redevelopment of the Dachau Concentration Camp Memorial Site. In 2003 a
new documentary exhibition based on the leitmotif of the “Path of the
Prisoners” opened. Information panels explain the topography of the grounds as
well as the history of the buildings. A further exhibition was created for the
rooms of the former camp prison which – like the permanent exhibition –
provides the immediate impact of an authentic historical site. The remnants of
the building not only function as an atmospheric background, they themselves
are a key exhibit.
For the first time since the 60th anniversary of liberation in April 2005, it is
possible to once again use the historical entrance to the Memorial Site, the
Jourhaus. For the first time, visitors are now able to grasp the topography of the
former concentration camp in all its dimensions. The redevelopment of the
Memorial Site was completed last year with the opening of the visitor center,
which has since been awarded the German Architects’ Association Prize for
Bavaria. The center provides visitor information and audio guides as well as
housing a bookstore and a cafeteria.
The site seems quite tourist-friendly. It is clean and organized. As
Director, what is it you want people to go away with? What do you want
people to learn from their visit?
The Dachau Memorial Site is a place which in many respects has been
refashioned, altered and molded. Many visitors come to the memorial because
they would like to visit a concentration camp. The job of the Educational
Department is to explain to visitors what happened at this place, not only
between 1933 and 1945, but also afterward. It is a duty to illustrate how this
place continued to be used after the War, and what this says about German
society.
What kind of manager are you? Do you like to handle a lot yourself or do
roles overlap with other employees?
Even if I take over many prominent tasks myself, holding scientific lectures at
meetings and conferences, we usually do our job as a team. For instance,
having the Educational and the Scientific Department work closely together
appears to me extremely important when exhibitions are organized.
As director, what is your biggest worry for the future?
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From the postwar period to the present there have been a wide range of
attempts to obscure the tangible aspects of the war crimes and the responsibility
of the large number of perpetrators who were instrumental in making the
genocide possible. Only the ruling elite of the National Socialist state are
clearly named as culprits. At the same time, and very closely related to this, are
the current historical debates marked by efforts to present the German civilian
population as victims, focusing on how the Germans suffered air raids, were
forcibly expelled and had to flee from danger. Furthermore, there are attempts
to downgrade remembrance of the Holocaust by encouraging remembrance of
the GDR.
There are many controversies surrounding Dachau, including the number
of actual prisoners who died there and the use of the gas chambers. Why
has Dachau come under such heavy attack by Holocaust deniers and as
director, how do you deal with such a crisis when it arises?
More than other places, memorial sites must be homes of applied research and
communication to respond to such attacks with objective, scientific
information. Memorial sites have to be places of transparent, discursive
historical documentation and education. They will, of course, always be
graveyards, scenes of crime and suffering. But it seems to me more important
to target educational programs to the different groups of visitors. We are
therefore planning a qualitative visitor survey
Why should sites like Dachau be preserved and why do we need to remember?
How many people work here altogether and how many departments to you
have?
We have four departments: the Scientific Department, the Educational
Department, the Administration and the Technical Staff. Overall, 35 people
work at the Dachau Memorial Site.
Explain where Dachau gets most of its funding and if there are long-term
plans for its preservation.
Three-fourths of the funds were made available by the State of Bavaria and
one-fourth from the Federal Commissioner of Culture and Media in Berlin.
Since 2009, the West German memorial sites have also been receiving
institutional support from the federal government. Like Auschwitz, Dachau has
become a Holocaust symbol and a symbol of oppression.
What would you say is the biggest difference between Dachau and
Auschwitz in terms of its management?
Dachau and Auschwitz have to deal with very large numbers of visitors.
Having tourists visit the site can disturb the piety of these places, at least in the
summer months. We try to care for as many groups as possible. We at Dachau
must make it clear that the Dachau concentration camp is one of the earliest
concentration camps and the only one that existed throughout all twelve years
of the Nazi regime. It was built in March 1933 and served as a model for all
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later concentration camps. During the twelve years of its existence, more than
200,000 people from all over Europe were interned in this camp and its many
satellite camps. While Auschwitz, because more its building substance has
survived, has had to pay a great deal of attention to preserving the historical
buildings, the task at Dachau is to use historical information to give a voice to
these empty grounds, which also served other purposes later.
For you as director, what is the reward you get working in a place like
this? Does it ever "get to you?" How would you say working in Dachau is
different than a regular museum?
Working at a place like this is an extraordinary challenge in many respects.
Being in close contact with survivors and their dependents means a great deal
to me and gives me motivation in my work. Dealing with attempts of various
groups or individuals to misappropriate or exploit this site is something you
certainly do not find at “normal” museums. On the other hand, the work is very
exciting because it is so cross-disciplinary, involving history, art history,
sociology, research on historical buildings, archeology, monument
preservation, architecture and many more fields. Working with such a highly
motivated team on exhibitions and producing new materials for historicalpolitical education always leads me back to the essential tasks.
Many of the responses from the director are visitor-centered. When she
is asked about the Dachau controversies, she avoids answering and veers
back to the visitor—that "educational programs need to target different
groups of visitors." When asked about the exhibit which lacks personal
artifacts from victims, she states that the building is a key exhibit itself. She
does indicate that this will be rectified. "My team and I are now revising
the exhibition, however, to integrate more personal belongings into it." The
site is tourist friendly and when asked, she explains by saying that "many
visitors come to the memorial because they would like to visit a
concentration camp. The job of the Educational Department is to explain to
visitors what happened at this place."
She also says that the Dachau
Memorial Site is a place which has been "refashioned, altered, and molded."
The question remains whether Dachau serves its purpose. The Director
confirms what this author found in interviews with the tourists. Most of
them want to visit a camp to see what it was like. They should return to
their homeland with accurate information, internalizing what they saw at
that particular location. If there are lack of structures, than authenticity can
be compensated in other ways so that the story of the victims and
incarcerators is told in as accurate a way as possible. This does not remove
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the function of the site after 1945. When the director is asked about the
main difference between Auschwitz and Dachau, she puts them on a similar
plane in that both are Holocaust symbols. However she does state that
Auschwitz is occupied with preservation of building structures whereas
Dachau focuses on using "historical information to give a voice to these
empty grounds which also served other purposes later." If the function of
the site is to give "a voice to the empty grounds" and speak for so many of
the perished, than more needs to be revealed from them and forwarded to
the visitor. What happened at the site after 1945 is not negated by placing
more authentic objects which belonged to the dead. The question remains
whether the purpose of the site is a memorial which speaks on behalf of
victims or whether there needs to be a concern about graphic, vulgar, and
gruesome images which may be disturbing to the visitor. Perhaps this
management dilemma should be addressed in Dachau in conjunction with
the wonderful work they are doing.
It is a modern looking site, well
maintained, that has a contemporary look in the midst of horror. And yet
with all that, one can still imagine the roll call of the victims standing in the
cold winter for hours, on the large, open space, the "appelplatz." Visitors
should not be under illusions and underestimate the brutality and horror of
this mass graveyard camouflaged behind its modernity. Markings on mass
graves help to stifle any contrary image to its harsh reality.
Grave of many thousands unknown, bearing a cross above, in memory of many victims of the
Christian faith who perished in Dachau.
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Photo by author. Roll-call area (appelplatz). Prisoners were made to stand for hours in freezing
temperatures. Many could not survive the ordeal. The vast, clean area cannot camouflage the
truth about Dachau which is not only visual, but sensual.
The Director of Dachau Memorial Site is concerned about downplaying and
trivialization of the Holocaust, information dispersed which may not be
accurate, and what needs to be done for the future, particularly with the
demise of eyewitnesses and survivors of the ordeal. "We have reached the
threshold of an epoch marked by a gradual transition from the direct
individual memory of the survivors to a collective remembrance of
concentration camps which is often shaped by the media. The interest in
current affairs is clouding the view of historical facts. As contemporary eye
witnesses die out, we see the German culture of remembrance increasingly
marked by tendencies toward the abstraction, nationalization and
generalization of history and remembrance. There are attempts to
downgrade remembrance of the Holocaust by encouraging remembrance of
the GDR." (G. Hammermann, personal communication, May 20, 2011).
Table 7. Dachau management.
Funding
75% from Bavarian State. 25% from the Federal
Ministry of Culture in Berlin. Since 2009, additional
institutional support from the federal government.
4 - Administration, Educational, Technology, Scientific.
Departments
Employees,
Director on site
35
Visitors
V 700,000 visitors a year.
V In original shower building
Exhibition
Director's office is located at the location.
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Above: The Dachau ovens are part of the exhibition on the ground and were used to burn bodies.
Taken by author inside crematorium. Left, oven interior.
An oven that stands alone. Inaccessible to visitors, it is locked behind doors. One has to
question why. Is it because it is more gruesome for the visitor since parts of it are
missing? Author took photo through a crack in the door.
Holocaust studies are an integral and compulsory part of the high school
curriculum all over Germany. In the Bavarian region, a visit to Dachau is
part of the study program. Every student has to visit the site at least once.
Educational programs in Dachau are geared to cater to the youth who pay
homage to the victims who were eliminated at the hands of the Nazi
machine. At the Courtyard Marriott Hotel in Munich, this author seized the
opportunity to ask young people working at the hotel about their
experience. Results show different reactions to the question: "Were you
ever in Dachau and what do you remember about it?"
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Subjects
1 Born in Munich
Age and Occupation
26 - Waitress in the hotel
Everyone has to go to visit Dachau at age 15. We spoke about it for five years at least at
least in my school. For me it was a very bad day. It was a trip with our comrades but it
was a place where we did not feel fine because of the history—that you cannot go there
and laugh.. This was one of my bad days. Kids should see it. It gives them an idea of
what it was like.
2 Born in Munich
23 – Waiter in the hotel
All schools visit Dachau as part of the curriculum. I did not live at this time. For me it was
interesting but it was not relevant. I don't think it does anything for kids to go because they
don't feel for this. It should be remembered though because many died. In 200 years
people should remember. (After reflection, subject 2 changes opinion). Yes, my kids
should go there. It should be passed on from generation to generation. It teaches more
tolerance. If they have a heart, they could feel what happened to the people at this time and
to their families. It's hard to see what happened. You learn about it but going there is
another feeling. In school we just read about it. Going there gives a different feeling to
everybody. Some cry, and some don't feel anything. People in Munich don't like to talk
about it and why should they? Why should we talk about it? It happened 60 years ago.
People should remember so it does not happen again but they should not talk about it.
They need to live in the future. I hope it never happens again.
3
Born in lower Bavaria.
23 – Hotel receptionist
I was in Dachau at age 15. I do not remember any of it.
4
Born in Munich
22 – Waiter in the hotel. Did not
want to talk about it.
Visited Dachau at age 15. He did not want to discuss it. He paid attention to our table and
was very friendly. When this author asked another waitress to send anybody to my table to
answer a question about Dachau, he avoided it and did not come to the table, although he
saw the other waiters participating. His face and behavior completely changed when he
thought he would be questioned about Dachau and did not come to the table. When he was
told not to worry about it, that he won't be asked, he smiled but did not return to the table.
Table 8.
Personal Observation: Subjects 1 and 2 wanted to discuss at length, subject
3 did not remember or perhaps avoided talking more about it, and subject 4
was completely reluctant and couldn't discuss it, changing his behavior
dramatically. Perhaps it was because of the trauma. Subject 3 seemed to
have a lapse of memory or did not want to talk about it. Different reactions
among all four subjects are remarkable. There is avoidance and fear (subject
4), memory block (subject 3), confusion (subject 2) and clarity (subject 1).
More research needs to be done to reach a substantial conclusion.
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6.1.3 Managing Sachsenhausen: A Guardian of Memory
"My mission is that the history shouldn't be forgotten and that sites
should be kept and preserved. The sites are the witnesses from stone
which will witness for a long future that the crimes by the Nazis happened
and I am very eager to help this happen." –Dr. Horst Seferens.
Above: Infamous entrance gate at Sachsenhausen bearing sign of "Arbeit Macht Frei." Below:
Original entry building at Sachsenhausen Concentration Camp. Inside, there is a visitors' center
which provides information about the place. Photos taken by author.
Sachsenhausen Concentration Camp Memorial Museum (Gedenkstatte
und Museum Sachsenhausen) is located approximately 32 kilometers from
Berlin, on the outskirts of the town, Oranienburg.
It is part of the
Brandenburg Memorial Foundation, which is responsible for the care of
sites in the State of Brandenburg, including Ravensbruck Memorial
Museum, Memorial to the Death Marches, Memorial in Potsdam for
Russian Prisoners after the War, Oranienburg Concentration Camp
171
Museum, Memorial and Sculpture for Victims of Euthanasia (T4 program).
Sachsenhausen management is also responsible for the Memorial Museum
to the Death Marches in Belower Forest (Gedenkstatte Todesmarche im
Belower Wald) located north of Brandenburg, close to Wittstock. It
commemorates the death march of the prisoners from Sachsenhausen and
was erected in 1981. Sachsenhausen has been part of the Brandenburg
Memorial Foundation since its establishment in 1993.
What makes
Sachsenhausen unique is that it has undergone a process in terms of
commemoration due to very different histories in terms of the site. The first
phase from 1936 – 1945 it was a site used for the internment and
incarceration of mainly political opponents and criminal offenders.
However, during its day it held Jews, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses,
Roma and Sinti (or those considered asocials), Soviet civilians, and
prominent figures including Pastor Martin Neimoller, former Austrian
chancellor, and Joseph Stalin's son. Among Jews, there were increases and
decreases in terms of the tally. Their main incarceration was from 1938 to
1942 following the "Kristallnacht" in November 1938, or The Night of
Broken Glass. Jews were arrested and sent to Sachsenhausen, Buchenwald,
and Dachau. The number of Jewish prisoners decreased with the advent of
the Final Solution to the Jewish Problem when in 1942, most of them were
shipped to the extermination sites and death camps in Poland. The goal was
to make the German Reich "Judenfrei" (free of Jews). As the need for
forced laborers increased however, Jews were again transported to sites in
the German Reich, especially women. The second phase of the site from
1945 to 1950 saw the Soviets use the structures for the internment of
people. According to Public Relations Director Dr. Horst Seferens, "this
produces conflicts because there were innocent people, and people involved
in crimes. It is difficult to commemorate these very different groups at one
site." They do have one important rule however which is "we do not
commemorate Nazi perpetrators, but it's still very difficult to separate them.
This produced a lot of conflict in terms of commemoration after unification
which is still virulent and ongoing. After 1990 there were big debates on
how to deal with these two pasts." During GDR times, the Soviet Camp
was not mentioned and denied." Commemoration and management of the
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site therefore, experienced two phases, 1961 to 1993 and 1993 to the
present. In 1961, the GDR constructed the Museum of the Resistance
Fighters and the Suffering of Jewish Citizens. This was after the Union of
Israeli Antifascist Fighters and Resistance Fighters. But visitors gained
little perspective and information about the situation of Jewish prisoners.
Genocide of the Jews and Sinti were due to utilization and exploitation of
capitalist companies and ignored the National Socialist racism and antiSemitism. The Jewish exhibitions were established in the Jewish barracks
38 and 39. Little information was given in terms of the number of victims
and who was imprisoned.
Roma, Sinti, and homosexuals were hardly
mentioned at all. Due to its use as a military infrastructure, it was not
possible to commemorate the victims in an authentic setting.40 Unification
brought about a new phase for the commemoration in Sachsenhausen as
well as sites across Germany. In 1993, when the foundation was founded,
we started to construct the memorial site. Buildings, not only historic ones
but monuments by the GDR were in very bad shape. We started a big
program of reconception and reconstruction." (H. Seferens, personal
communication, February 8, 2011). The Jewish museum was attacked by
arson in 1992, two weeks before the visit from Israeli Prime Minister. It was
rebuilt as a museum dedicated to the Jewish Prisoners of Sachsenhausen, in
barrack 38.
An interview conducted at the Sachsenhausen Memorial Museum took
place on February 8, 2011 with Dr. Horst Seferens, Public Relations and
Spokesperson for Sachsenhausen. The following pages include other
excerpts from the interview (H. Seferens, personal communication,
February 8, 2011). Audio file is available from the author.
In Germany, Holocaust Memorial Day is called Memorial Day for Victims
of the Nationalist Socialist Time so that it is dedicated to all groups of
victims. In 2011, we dedicated our event to the prisoners who were killed
in 14F13, the euthanasia killings in the concentration camps. It was an
impressive event. In 1993, a very important decision was made not to have
one museum telling the whole story of Sachsenhausen but to have several
smaller museums located in the history museum, telling the story linked to
the buildings where they were dispersed. Today, there are twelve museums
at the moment. One deals with the history of the Jewish prisoners in one of
40
Source: Memorial and Museum of Sachsenhausen.
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these barracks called the "Jewish Barracks", called that because from
November 1938 "Kristallnacht" (The Night of Broken Glass), until October
1942, there was a Jewish presence in Sachsenhausen. Most of them were
sent to Auschwitz during 1942. There are other museum about the
cellblock, infirmary, murder and mass murder facilities, and the all day life
of the prisoner. The emphasis is putting the museum on the exact location
where these events occurred. Most of the people who visit, want to see the
original site and what is left. This is a large area, with historical relics and
buildings. The idea behind reconstruction is that if you have a large
museum and the site itself, visitors need to decide to see the site or the
museum. Most of them choose to see the sites and not our wonderful
museums. The problem of course is the site itself—the stones and barracks
alone don't tell the story. They don't tell anything. The visitor needs
information to understand what happened. We decided to link the
information with the museum with the locations and original relicts.
Because they are smaller museums, you can get some information but it is
still impossible to see them all in one visit. All the exhibitions have a
special focus, for example the Jewish prisoners, and all of them together
give the complete history of Sachsenhausen and its main events.
Management of the site and its museums is based on this "decentralized
concept". It gave us special opportunity to separate the history of the
special Soviet Camp into a separate museum. In all the locations, also the
Jewish barracks, you find the history of the building from its construction
until the present. In addition there is the special Soviet camp. In the
beginning, there were many debates whether in the old Lager museum—
camp museums of the GDR—whether both histories would be told. That
was one of the big debates. The "decentralized concept" helped us find a
solution for this. It is mainly an educational aspect—linking original relics
with information. I am doing this job for thirteen years but my office is in a
historical building nearby and not inside the site, but part of the
Sachsenhausen camp complex.
Why did you take the job? What makes somebody or in your case take
a job like this?
I think there is a responsibility for the history of course, and that it should
not be forgotten. The sites should be kept and it is our responsibility to tell
what happened.
With Holocaust survivors passing away, in the next decade, does the
task become more difficult and does the focus change?
Of course, the survivors still are and have been the best persons to tell what
happened and they have been an important part in the educational programs
of memorial sites. We have to make preparations on how to manage these
sites and how to communicate the history to the following generation
without the important participation of survivors. The process of
reconstruction and reconception which we started in the early 1990's is
already a project from the perspective that the survivors won't be there. It is
a project with a view upon the younger generations. Our generation, yours
and mine, we are not contemporary witnesses but for us, we knew people
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and talked to people who have been. History was quite near for us. For
young people today, it is far away, even if their grandparents were born in
1945 or were small children when the war ended. They don't have memories
of their own. So the history is far away for them. Today we need other
means to tell the story. Perhaps in 1961 when it was opened, it was enough
to open the site and show the relics which were there because the history
was less than 20 years prior. Even the young people knew about it. But
today, we have to give more information to the young people and that is an
aspect reflected in this process. I think Holocaust museums went through
and important process in the last ten or fifteen years. They became modern
museums of contemporary history. In West Germany, they were not the
focus of public interest. They were badly funded, the people there, although
eager, were not professional historians so they were in a bad situation,
funded by the local town. In East Germany there were large sites but of
course, they were part of the political ideology of the GDR. The whole
truth wasn't revealed. At the end they were in bad condition. So when we
started in the early 1990's, not only reconstructed to keep historical
buildings, but also installed modern museums and exhibitions. This didn't
exist in West Germany. I think the memorial sites all over Germany are in
better shape than ever before, making preparations for future generations to
keep the history in mind. Of course, we did lots of interviews with
contemporary witnesses. They are a part of our museums, to hear their
voices and see them telling their stories. This is also important for the time
after the survivors.
You said you need to attend an annual press conference. What does
that consist of?
It is aimed at the local media and the media from Berlin as well as national
newspapers. Every year we invite them to tell about our plans for the
coming year.
Do neo-Nazi groups have an effect on the way the museum is managed?
I think this group was much stronger after unification. Memorial sites were
targeted and visitors were also targeted outside the inside the sites. There
were swastikas. This stopped around 2000. Before that, the State of
Brandenburg couldn't accept that this was going on, saying that they are
from somewhere else. But the civil society organized to work against the
neo-Nazis. I don't say they do not exist, but there is a civil society telling
them "stop." I think they realize it is bad publicity for them when they
attack sites and appear in newspapers. But in 2002, there was another
attack against the Death March Museum. So it is still a serious problem.
What about security?
Security costs a lot of money which can be used for other things like
educational programs. We do have cameras and security but of course there
are compromises.
What is the emphasis on educational programs? What should young
people who visit leave with?
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KNOWLEDGE! Young people don't know about the GDR history and the
Nazi period. Our first target is to give information about National
Socialism, concentration camps, which people were imprisoned, and so on.
Most important thing is to use the special opportunities like a museum
which Sachsenhausen offers for the pupils. It is different in the class, when
they hear about a concentration camp. Here you have not only the
opportunity to address them intellectually, but also emotionally. Here of
course, you have the artifacts which also have the information. These
aspects together, give a very good opportunity to learn lessons about
history. That is what we try to do. This concept does not work with guided
tours. Our aim is to tell the students to stay longer, a whole day, to give
them the opportunities to work themselves with special materials and
subjects—about individuals, special chapters about the history of
Sachsenhausen so they can actively work. Perhaps they produce their own
texts or small exhibitions. They can really learn something.
A lot of sites are fighting for survival. What about here?
It is always a problem. We rely on public money. The sites are on a much
higher level than 20 years ago and we are near the end of the process. It
costs however a lot of money. The memorials still get much less funding
than museums of history of contemporary history which are comparable in
the amount of visitors and buildings we have to care for. We are still on a
much worse level than others. It is still a problem. For example, we receive
over 400,000 visitors a year. Our education staff is not able to give the
visitors all that they ask for. We don't have enough people to do all the
work.
How many people work in the foundation?
65 people and 28 people here at Sachsenhausen. Of course many of them
are not historians and take care of the site itself—gardens, technical, taking
care of the museums. Not all of them are in education. This of course is a
problem.
Fill in the blank. At the Sachsenhausen Memorial Site, my mission is
to:
My mission is that the history shouldn't be forgotten and that sites should be
kept and preserved. The sites are the witnesses from stone which will
witness for a long future, that the crimes by the Nazis happened. And I am
very eager to help this happen.
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Funding
50% State of Brandenburg
50% Federal Government
Visitors
Approximately 400,000 a year
Director or museum head on site
V
Employees
28
Education
V Goal: To impart knowledge
and prepare next generation for
future.
V audio, books, information.
Located on outskirts of picturesque
town of Oranienburg. Easy access
from Berlin.
V Monuments and sculptures.
12 smaller museums based on the
"decentralized concept."
Visitors' Center/location
Museums
and
exhibitions,
monuments and memorials
Table 9. Summaryof Sachsenhausen management.
Below: Gas chamber and crematorium ruins, protected inside from the weather. Right: 1961 memorial
sculpture and monument. Taken by author.
Below left: Memorial with sculpture inside gas chamber ruins. Right below: "Station Z" execution
ditch where many Soviet prisoners were murdered. Taken by author.
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6.1.4 Remembering the Faces of our Sisters: Managing Ravensbruck
Sculpture of young woman and child taken by author at parking lot, Ravensbruck.
"We have a historical consciousness where you see that you can also go
wrong. I think that this is essential for democracy and so this negative
history of Germany which is also relevant for women perpetrators as well
as men, I think this is why we have to be here, to offer different
perspectives and possibilities to deal with the past."
-Dr. Insa Eschebach, Director of Ravensbruck Memorial Site.
Remaining part of the infamous entrance gate, Ravensbruck Concentration Camp for women.
It is one of the only concentration camps without the Arbeit Macht Frei sign. There are signs of "no
life yet life," with construction activity to prepare for the opening exhibition to be held April 2013.
Below: Author looking up at entrance signs Mahn-und Gedenkstatte Ravensbruck. Background,
SS Administration Building used today for management and administration by staff and exhibition.
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How is it possible that the largest concentration camp in the Third Reich
built specifically for women, has fallen by the wayside in terms of
commemoration and remembrance, that it is one of the unknown sites
although its location is in Germany and is unique in its intent? Owing to this
research, this author discovered such a place and knew it had to be included,
to help bring awareness to the international cemetery for women. In 1939,
the SS had the largest women's concentration camp built paradoxically next
to beautiful Lake Schwedt in Ravensbruck, not far from picturesque
Furstenberg. It became a place of horror, incarceration, and extermination
for women from forty nations including Poles, Russians, Germans, Czech,
and Hungarians. It also housed Jews, Roma and Sinti. In April 1941, a
men's camp was added under the management of the women's camp. It
continually expanded until 1945. It had at least forty satellite camps and
was the site of forced labor. Twenty workshops were constructed outside
the perimeters by Siemens and Halsker where female prisoners were forced
to do tedious work under very difficult conditions from 1942. Thousands of
women were exterminated by disease, hunger, torture, and starvation.
Many were subjects in medical experiments in particular Roma and Sinti.
Totally about 20,000 men were incarcerated in Ravensbruck. About 1000
adolescent girls were imprisoned in the Uckermark Juvenile Camp, not far
from the original site.
It is there that approximate 5000 women were
murdered. About 132,000 women and children were in Ravensbruck at one
time or another. In January 1945, provisional gas chamber was established
next to the crematoriums.
And from January 1945 until April 1945,
approximately 6000 women were exterminated through gassing. It was up
to the male prisoners to burn their bodies in the ovens. Prior to that, Jews
were also taken to be gassed along with the infirmed to the sanitarium in
Bernburg or to Hartheim Castle in Linz. This was done under Operation
14f13 which encouraged extermination for those infirmed or unfit to work.
In addition to the horrors and atrocities at the site, there was a cell block
building—"a prison within a prison." Women were put into isolated cell
blocks and severely punished and beaten. Today it stands in Ravensbruck
as a reminder of the atrocities and as a memorial to those women who
suffered and perished.
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Babies were also born in Ravensbruck by pregnant women who arrived
at the site. Pregnant Jewish women were sent to the gas chambers and nonJewish women had forced abortions. Babies that had the fate of being born,
perished due to starvation and other horror stories, but there are
approximately 900 babies that managed to survive the war. According to
the Director at Ravensbruck some of them are "still fit and in reasonable
health, around age 70."
What is unique about its history is that women
were able to bond together and form support networks for one another.
There were even "camp mothers" who became surrogates to babies and
small children whose own mothers were murdered. Some of these children
even went to live with them after the war. Women were put into barracks
according to country. Jewish women were shoved altogether in one barrack
(about 250) and they did not speak the same language, arriving from
different countries. It was difficult for them to communicate with one
another. In addition, the women had to sing a German folk song when they
left the barracks and did their marches.
Many of them did not know
German but they had to learn it quickly. In general, the women of
Ravensbruck were treated just as severely as men and were subject to the
similar levels of cruelty and punishment as men in other camps. But studies
of women in the Holocaust and during this time period, both victim and
perpetrator, are at a minimal level and Ravensbruck "is always standing in
the shadows in one way or another." It is estimated that approximately
92,000 women (although figures vary) died from starvation, torture,
medical experiments, and execution. From this amount approximately
25,000 Jewish women were murdered but at the end, no records were kept.
Ravensbruck can be labeled as an international graveyard for women but
despite all this, it is not well-known like some of the sites in Poland and is
understated in the literature. Although there is a memorial plaque in the
Memorial Hall in Yad Vashem, there is little that refers to Ravensbruck.
Despite the spiritual resistance of the Ravensbruck women, only recently
has this come to light and it is only recently that books have appeared about
the Jewish women in Ravensbruck.
According to Saidel (2006), "the
Jewish women of Ravensbruck concentration camp have been doubly
ignored and forgotten. For most of the time that the camp memorial was
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under the jurisdiction of the Soviet Union and then the German Democratic
Republic, the victims' identity as Jews was minimized or submerged in
memorial exhibits and monuments. In the case of the Jewish women of
Ravensbruck, they were also ignored in memorial exhibits, monuments, and
publications in the U.S. Of the about 132,000 women and children who
were in the camp at some time between 1939 and 1945, an estimated
100,000 to 117,000 of the total population of prisoners didn't survive.
About 20 percent of the prisoners were Jewish." (p.3) It was during the
period of 1942 to 1944 that the presence of Jewish women in Ravensbruck
was nullified due to the Final Solution in 1942. Those who were there
ended up in transports to Auschwitz where they met their fate. In 1944
Jewish women from Hungary were sent to Ravensbruck and when
Auschwitz closed, more Jewish women arrived. They were met with
horrifying conditions and placed in a makeshift tent with no food, shelter—
simply left to die of disease and starvation. Nobody can ever really know
the death toll exacted from Ravensbruck. It was liberated by the Soviets.
On exhibit at Ravensbruck Memorial Museum, painted and donated by survivor. Taken by author.
Like Sachsenhausen, the memorial underwent two phases of
commemoration and is now entering a third. From 1945 to 1994, grounds
of the site were used for military purposes by the Soviets. In 1984 the first
museum was constructed in the former SS headquarters which had been
used by Soviet troops until 1977. Survivors donated drawings and personal
valuables. The memorial area was located on the banks of Lake Schwedt
and a memorial wall constructed with the names of countries. In addition a
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grave of ashes commemorating victims was placed in front of the memorial
wall. After reunification, the national memorial's management drew up a
concept for the Exhibition of Nations in the former cell block building.
Each cell permits organizations or representatives of various countries to
design their own exhibitions. There are seventeen national memorial rooms
on the first floor. There is one dedicated to the site's Jewish prisoners since
1992 and one for Roma and Sinti (1995). The "Bunker Imprisonment" or
"Bunkerhaft" as the prisoners named the cell blocks was a prison within a
prison.
Among those incarcerated was Nina Schenk Grafin von
Stauffenberg, wife of Hitler's would-be assassin Claus von Stauffenberg.
She was held in a "bunker" on the bottom floor. And although conditions
were harsh, she received preferential treatment over that of other prisoners.
She was sent to give birth in a proper hospital and managed to escape.
Former cell block building, a prison within a prison. Women were forced here at the slightest
infractions and sometimes for no reason at all. Women were subjected to beatings and torture.
Sometimes other women in the cells were selected to whip other women. Above: Cell block
representing Romania's women. Below: Flogging bench with whip used in beatings.
The whipping bench was also seen in Dachau and Auschwitz. Photos taken by author.
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Since 2004 there has been an exhibition of SS female guards in the
former quarters. It contains information about female SS guards deployed at
Ravensbruck. The two phases of prior and post reunification saw many
changes in Ravensbruck. The memorial became part of the Brandenburg
Foundation (Siftung Brandenburgische Gedenkstatten). An International
Youth Meeting Center established in 2002, offers educational services,
programs, and seminars. Ravensbruck holds its annual summer school form
the last week of August until the first week of September. It focuses mainly
on gender issues and participants range in age from adolescence until older
citizens. Since reunification Jews are commemorated when prior to that,
they remained basically anonymous. Stories by survivors began to emerge
and testimonies have been collected. For example, according to tour guide
and Educational Manager Angelika Meyer, "survivors testified how they
had to water the trees while they were very thirsty.
They were not
permitted to drink water. This was a form of silent torture." (A. Meyer,
personal communication, February 9, 2011). The grounds of the site opened
to visitors. The memorial is also entering a third phase of commemoration
and remembrance. In 2013 Ravensbruck Memorial is going to have an
opening exhibition. The section of the site used by the GDR which was
surrounded by a fence is going to be torn down. The first floor of the
former SS headquarters is also going to be used for the permanent
exhibition which will include the history of the camp. The management
staff is going to be housed in another building. Visitors will be able to roam
freely beyond the area of the fence which was out of reach. This author is
invited to attend the opening exhibition to take place on April 21, 2013,
which commemorates the 68th anniversary of the liberation of Ravensbruck.
Today, eighteen women manage the Ravensbruck Memorial Site. There are
around three or four men who do maintenance work such as technical jobs
and cleaning of the territory.
There are no reconstructed barracks but
ominous territory with the barrack patterns carved into the earth. Each
barrack pattern has a number in front of it with what it represented. In
addition there is a memorial for the tent which was located separately from
the barracks. The trees planted by the women still remain as witnesses to
the atrocities that happened in Ravensbruck.
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Authentic shower floor. Upon arrival, women had to take cold showers under the gaze of SS males
watching them although it was run by female personnel. Right: Kitchen. Photo by author.
Above left: Women were subjected to the same treatment as men. They were harnessed and had
to pull the roller often used for flattening cement and building paths. Behind is the crematorium
building beside the gas chamber area. The latter no longer exists and there is a memorial flame that
stands in its place. The roller is on display in Sachsenhausen and Auschwitz as seen by this author.
Above right: Imprints and grooves mark areas where barracks once stood. The area above is the
imprint of block 16 which was the Jewish barrack. Trees were planted by the prisoners at each end,
and had to be watered by the prisoners without permission to drink. It was a cruel façade and
silent torture for the prisoners.
Sculptures of women stand in front of Memorial Wall and on the grounds of the gas chamber. There is
a grave of ashes which is in front of the wall. Right: Former gas chamber area. The gas chamber is no
more but a memorial flame is lit on days of commemoration and remembrance. Beside it is the
crematorium building where thousands of bodies were burnt. It must be noted that this is the only
site where the author could not photograph the ovens. It was too painful. Taken by author.
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Excerpts of an interview conducted with Dr. Insa Eschebach, Director of
Ravensbruck Memorial and Museum are included below. Parts difficult to
decipher were not transcribed (I. Eschebach, personal communication,
February 9, 2011). Original audio file is available from the author.
Hello Insa. It is a pleasure to finally meet you. I am doing my PhD on
the challenge to manage and preserve Holocaust memorial sites, at the
University of West Timisoara in Romania.
That is an interesting construction. How did that happen?
My strong motivation was that I wanted to write about the Holocaust.
As I am in the Department of Management, I wanted to combine it with
management but engage in something that hardly anyone has
examined. I am focusing more on the present than a specific aspect in
history. History is included but on a more general level. At this point,
we already visited Dachau.
Did you meet my colleague Dr. Gabriele Hammermann?
Interestingly, I could not meet with her because I arrived on a Friday.
I will contact her by phone and e-mail when I return. Apparently they
were busy on that particular weekend as well. In addition we visited
Sachsenhausen and I spoke to Dr. Horst Seferens. The director was
unavailable. We also visited the German History Museum in Berlin
and met with the director Dr. Hans Ottomeyer. I chose my sites very
carefully. There a couple of reasons for choosing Ravensbruck among
them. First of all, until I really started searching, I knew the name of
the camp but had no idea that it was the largest camp in the Reich used
for women specifically. Immediately I felt a shudder and knew then
and there that I had to make my way over here and include it among
the others. That is the main reason for the choice. I also noticed that
on tourist websites, they do not advertise Ravensbruck. People on
forums suggest that "if you want to visit a concentration camp near
Berlin, go to Sachsenhausen." Either Ravensbruck is not mentioned at
all or it is mentioned as visiting only if the tourist has enough time. I
felt I needed to include this place.
Thank you very much. It was a good decision to include it. Maybe it is a
bit far away.
It was easy to get here, a nice train ride, and very relaxing. It takes
longer to get here than Sachsenhausen but it is not complicated. When
we got off the train we entered the small kiosk opposite the station and
asked for a taxi. I also had instructions from Angie (the tour guide) on
what to do and how to get here. What is the reason that this camp is
not known even though it should be because it was specifically designed
for women?
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My colleagues and I are working very hard on making this camp more wellknown in the world. Every day I am thinking one way or another about that
question. I am confronted with that reality. It is always standing in the
shadows in one way or another. First of all, it is easier and more accessible
to get to Sachsenhausen. More tourists go there, they take the S-Bahn and
pay less money because it is close to Berlin. They say "let's take a quick
train ride to this place." Here it is more of an effort. An example of the
reality is I ran into a document just this morning about the history of
Ravensbruck which was published in France and was well received. In
1995 they were trying to get the German edition. They said "no because the
theme is too especially chosen. The history of women is too special.
Women are like "in addition to". Let's talk about the general thing which is
the history of the men. Another publishing house brought it out but it took
so long, because it is a little "too special." Only now it became translated
into German. The document says that the theme is too specific and
especially chosen.
Even on the internet it is called the "forgotten camp."
There are other reasons too. Here the camp was liberated by the Russians.
There are no photos of the moment of liberation. People don't really
remember. No pictures were taken here. Add to the fact that the history of
the camp is comparatively unknown.
We talk about how much we see here already. In Dachau we found
that not a lot is shown. If I compare here although you really cannot
make a comparison, we feel that there in Dachau it is very touristoriented. Sachsenhausen exposes a lot; Dachau not. So that camp
affected us in a different way. What are you doing to make it more
known in the world?"
We are in the midst of preparing for a big main historical exhibition because
it has been underdeveloped. After reunification, it had to start again in
Eastern Germany. Even Buchenwald and Sachsenhausen did it pretty
quickly. They got professionalized quickly and in many ways. We fell
behind and as you see here, there is a lot happening to develop the place.
One main aspect, we are going to move out of this building which was the
administration building of the concentration camp in former days and we
will have a new main exhibition on both floors of this building in different
languages including English. The two main exhibitions are only in German
which I have to apologize for every day. Now we will have a very good
thing. These main exhibitions will tell about Ravensbruck in details and in
all possible aspects, even the history of remembering and forgetting about
Ravensbruck which will be part of the exhibition. So now we are preparing
this building. It will be established as the central and big museum of
Ravensbruck which I think is a very important thing. Every year we do a
big international summer school. This summer we are focusing on Gender
and Race in Nazi Medicine, taking place last week of August until first
week of September. Last year we discussed women's history of the camp.
We always emphasize women's history and gender in our scientific
approach. The school is composed of different people: Scholars who want
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to finish their thesis and also ordinary people who are interested in different
things. It is not highly academic but it is more for the aspect of general
education so that different people from different groups and generations can
meet and get together. Last year we had women from ages 15 to 80. We
find this intergenerational approach very important for this camp.
Somebody like us can come to the summer school?
It is opened to everyone. We got some money from Europe to realize it.
The seminar is free. People have to pay for the plane flight but they can
stay in the guest house near the site and it houses up to 100 people. It
always takes place the last week of August until the first week of
September.
Good things going on. It is great to know. Why did you choose to work
in a place like this?
I studied comparative religion and philosophy in the university and in time
did research on acts of commemoration and how much is influenced by the
Christian religion and nationalism honoring the dead; the link between
Christian commemoration, religious commemoration, national and patriotic
commemoration, soldiers and history of commemoration in the 20th century
and how it changed. I did a big project on it and became attached with
Ravensbruck. The exhibition is called "The language of commemoration"
but the director at that time was my boss. Since 2005 I am Director of
Ravensbruck.
We discussed that the biggest challenge is to make it more well-known.
What about other specific management challenges?
Basically there hasn't been much research done on the history of the
women's camp. Only four books came out in the late 1980's. One came out
in France, Poland, and an essay in German. It only started in the 1990's that
really compiled research and interview projects started with survivors and
their memories. This is an important development. We are now much
better informed about the history of the camp and its satellites than ever
before. I think it is a wonderful challenge to transform all this knowledge
into an exhibition that people like you can come here and get this
information. It is a fantastic challenge and I feel gifted that I can do such a
wonderful job in this aspect, and an important challenge of course, meeting
with survivors. I have a lot of friends among them. The liberation of
Ravensbruck this year will be on the 17th of April. This is the time of
events for all the year. 2010 was the 65th anniversary and we invited 300
survivors. The government is giving us money so they can come again.
Survivors are in Eastern Europe and in Israel. They were deported at a
rather young age. German survivors are very few, less than ten of them
because they were older when they arrived here. They consisted of political
prisoners, etc. There were young women from the Soviet Union, Poland,
and all those countries deported them at a young age. So they are still there
many of them. We try and invite as many as possible from the former
Soviet Union countries. Every year this is a central event. Many of them
live in Israel. There are even some in Iceland but they could not come last
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year as they were stuck in the airport. We are getting funding to bring them
again. We also have women who were deported as small children or even
born here. 900 babies were born here and survived here. Now they are 70
years old or younger so they are still reasonably well and fit. They
managed one way or another to survive. There were many more born here
that did not survive.
How much do they remember?
That is a very good question because the memory of people as small
children who experienced the camp—they have a memory of its own kind.
They remember gestures—a woman coming to give them something to eat;
they cannot describe context like where a barrack stood. They have almost
a photographic memory. They might see themselves sitting in a kind of
space or they were crying because they remember their mother which they
memorized, or a kind of face. This is very different than older women.
How did it work when the babies were born here? The women came
pregnant but did they become pregnant here?
There were no men so I don't know of cases of women becoming pregnant
in Ravensbruck.
Were women from here used by the Germans?
I must say there was prostitution. There were women who were recruited
here to go to other camps and promised they would come back. In some
cases but not all, they did. I have not heard of sexual harassment in
Ravensbruck. To get a job here, SS men had to be married so as not to be
distracted from their job. There were female SS guards and staff who were
educated here on the camp. The nice buildings on the outside were for the
women administration. They were used by the women staff. You can see
the concept of gender in the SS which was developed and realized in the
architecture of the camp. There were flushed toilets in the area of the camp
for example and central heating in some of the buildings. Much more
research needs to be done on the concept of gender in the SS.
That is interesting and fascinating because women were treated here
just as badly as men in the camps and that concept was mainly
developed here.
In Auschwitz I don't think they had water-flushed toilets.
No they did not. Have you been there?
Yes.
So you and I know they didn't. What kind of director are you? Do you
do things yourself or do you rely on your staff?
It is impossible to work in a place like this without working as a team. I am
glad to say that we have a fine team of mainly women at Ravensbruck who
do their job with great enthusiasm. My secretary speaks hours on the phone
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with survivors and she has no experienced education on how to speak to old
women who were traumatized. But she has developed comfortably and
speaks for hours to France, Israel, Prague, and other places. We work very
much here on a social level with very familiar relations. My secretary
spends hours. There are familiar relations between us and we can speak
about all things.
It seems even working in a place like this, women are different. That's
just the way it is. How many employees work here?
We are with me eighteen on staff. All women and three or four men who
handle maintenance and stuff like that.
So there are three or four men "hanging around." That is really funny.
That is a nice team. It is great you are such a close-knit group. For
funding you are under the umbrella wing of the Brandenburg
Memorial Foundation like Sachsenhausen. Is that correct? Do you get
as much funding as Sachsenhausen?
Sachsenhausen gets two-thirds and we get one-third. But they have a
second chapter in their history after 1945 when they had to put up refugees
on the site. So there is that chapter. There is also the fact that they receive
more visitors.
Again this is perhaps the issue of being well-known. I have seen it for
myself. But it is the easiest task to get here. I am going to talk about
this place when I return. I am also focusing on the management
challenges involved with preservation. How is that done here?
You should go to the house of the camp commander. I did not want that
house to be reconstructed from the state it was in when it was built in 1941.
I did not want people to come here like in a time machine. We decided to
show the age of the house and the time that has since passed. You can see
there was an open fireplace but we did not rebuild it. We only repaired the
stairways. We did not reconstruct them. I am convinced you will be able to
imagine how it was for the SS to live in such a villa. We did not want it to
be like a time machine and reconstruct it in its original state. My wish is
that we are successful in dealing with the relics and historical buildings that
are here. We don't want to rebuild a concentration camp but to make it
clear that it was a concentration camp here—that you can still see it in the
eyes of the imagination.
So the buildings we see have not been reconstructed but only repaired.
That is correct. For the moment you are going to see the former camp.
Once we have the construct for the opening exhibition, people will be able
to move where they want in other sections of the camp which were closed
off. I want to make the camp impressionable. It is very important that this
camp is accessible to everyone. The whole fence will be gone. There were
railroads and buildings. For me, all of this is the real Ravensbruck.
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We are fortunate to be here today and to meet with you. I do not take
anything for granted. Women at the end were exterminated in the gas
chambers, correct?
Research needs to be done. In 1945 there was an operation using the gas
chamber which was in a provisional hut next to the crematorium. It does
not exist anymore. The majority of women died from other things here-starvation, sickness, torture. And in the winter of 1945, the Jewish women
evacuated from Auschwitz. When they arrived here, they were put into a
tent. They had diarrhea and were too ill to get out of it. The weather was
freezing. There was no sanitation, no food. They were left to starve and
die. That was a place of real horror we can say. The building you are in
now is the headquarters of the SS. We want to open the exhibition in April
2013, the 68th day of liberation. All this building will be part of the
exhibition.
Why preserve? Why should people remember in your opinion?
I cannot say this for everybody but I think for our country, for Germany, it
is important for the German people to remember. Our collective, the
German people should remember because we have a special responsibility
to remember. It is important to remember in our own thoughts. It is easy to
say in times of crisis, we fought, they did wrong. We are always the great
ones. But we have a historical consciousness where you see you can also
go wrong. I think that this is essential for democracy and so this negative
history of Germany which is relevant for women perpetrators as well as
men, I think this is why we have to be here—to offer different perspectives
and possibilities to deal with the past.
."
Above left and below: Photos of women from SS albums and records. Women had to be
processed and photographed as prisoners. Above right, photo with Director of
Ravensbruck, Dr. Insa Eschebach (rear right), author in center, Angelika Meyer, tour
guide and education, Ann Hansen (front) friend and colleague who accompanied and
assisted author on research trip.
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Author calls these photos "faces of our sisters.”
Following the discussion with the Director, we were given a tour by
Angelika Meyer who is in charge of education. When posed the question
"does it bother you to work here and does it ever get to you" she responded
by stating: "Yes it does. That is why I live in Berlin. It is very important to
remember not to forget what happened here, the people who suffered and
were murdered here, to tell the stories of the perpetrators. How does a
society change that you kill your neighbor you loved before? How do you
become a victim, an SS guard? It is important that we keep talking about it.
History is influenced by the present. If it is 70 years ago, it can be a family
story even if they are not telling me. If we don't talk about it and don't
preserve, it will be forgotten. It's a responsibility to remember because you
don't understand how such things could happen next to you. I am third
generation. There are even fourth and fifth generations now." (A. Meyer,
personal communication, February 9, 2011).
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Funding
One-third or approximately
33% funded by Brandenburg
Memorial Foundation (State
of Brandenburg) Funding also
by the federal government.
Visitor/information
V
center
Book display, small gifts,
information about Ravensbruck.
Access to films, archives.
Visitors mainly from Germany.
Director on location
V Goal:
Museum exhibition
V
Monuments/memorials
V
Location
State of Brandenburg, on the
outskirts of Fustenburg. About
70 kilometers from Berlin.
Employees
18 women. Three or four men for
maintenance of the site.
Education
V
To make the site more
well-known and impressionable.
–To further research on the
history of the site. Responsibility.
Renewal of exhibition to be
presented April 21, 2011, 68th
anniversary of liberation.
Projects, seminars, summer
school, youth center. Focus on
gender issues.
Table 10. Ravensbruck Management.
“The tent.” In memory of Jewish women who met their cruel fate in Ravensbruck. Photo by author.
191
Rear view of sculpture and memorial "She who Carries" which stands tall facing beautiful Lake
Schwedt, facing the church steeple of Furstenberg. As mentioned earlier the author calls it a
paradox. Photo by author.
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6.2 Berlin’s Establishments for Perpetuation of Memory
There are numerous locations of commemoration and remembrance
around Germany.
The emphasis in that country is to take collective
responsibility for what happened and to teach the next generations through
educational programs, preservation of the sites, and many institutions and
museums dedicated to historical information, the consequences of doing
nothing when evil dictatorship arises—that such an event as the Holocaust
never happens again—that ordinary people and not some divinity were
involved in heinous crimes because they felt it was best for Germany. The
relatively new emphasis also paves the way for more Germans to come
forward and speak about the hardships of those times, to tell how they saved
Jews without fear, and to ask more and more questions about the sufferings
of those under the National Socialist Regime. Under the wing of "Orte der
Errinerung 1933-1945" there are numerous memorial sites, documentation
centers, and historical museums in Berlin which document the history of the
National Socialist reign of terror. They are dedicated to the commemoration
of victims and emphasize that at actual locations, visitors can get a "clear
look at the historical events and people who were part of that."41 Orte Der
Erinnerung (Sites of Remembrance in Berlin and the State of Brandenburg)
consists of institutions, memorials, exhibitions, conferences, and libraries
which are all dedicated to commemorating the Holocaust and victims of
Nazi persecution and oppression. It is impossible to include all of them in
this research but the author visited four of them. They include Memorial
and Education House of the Wannsee Conference, Silent Heroes Memorial
Center, Otto Weidt Museum, and Memorial to the Murdered Jews of
Europe. Others dedicated to the handicapped and homosexuals and Sinti
and Roma are not included here but are discussed in earlier chapters
dedicated to them. They each have a critical component in the struggle to
remember the injustice and evil that marked those human tragedies and are
included in the management of the abstract term called "remembrance." A
crucial element for the success of the Orte Der Errinerung or Sites of
Remembrance is the Permanent Conference for Directors of National
41
Source: Orte Der Errinnerung 1933-1945.
193
Socialist Memorial Sites in the Berlin Area.
Since December 2009,
meetings of the directors have taken place regularly in an attempt to
intensify the collaboration of the national socialist memorial sites, to
improve public relations and carry out projects together, and to convene
meetings for disciplinary focuses. A total of five institutions are members of
the Permanent Conference. The chair rotates on a yearly basis between the
directors. There is also the Working Committee I ("Arbeitskreis"I) with
whom the members of the Permanent Conference work closely. Alongside
the institutions which are members of the Permanent Conference, there are
also members of smaller memorial sites, documentation centers and
museums, as well as other associations and initiatives which participate.
Those interested in the sites of remembrance in Berlin and the State of
Brandenburg can easily access them on their website, where information is
provided about each and who to contact for even more. The Permanent
Conference is funded by the German Federal Commission for Culture and
Media Affairs. This illustration of the dedication and commitment of the
German government to promote Holocaust awareness and the consequences
of being under a reign of terror should not be underestimated as illustrated
here. And since reunification, there has been this upsurge continuum and
commitment to hurl this momentum forward, to work with their difficult
history. Original audio interviews are available from the author, although
some excerpts are included.
6.2.1 Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe
The unusual Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe (Denkmal fur
die Ermordeten Juden Europas), is Germany's Holocaust memorial. It is a
memorial on the location of the "Death Zone" where the Berlin Wall was
located. It is also built on top of Helmut Goering's bunker, Hitler's right
hand. When people visit Berlin, it is a tourist attraction. It is an abstract,
grid-looking memorial, in the middle of the city on a large piece of land. It
consists of a 19,000 square metered site covered with 2711 concrete slabs
called "stelae" which are arranged in a grid pattern, a maze on a sloping
field. They vary in height and length, designed to produce an uneasy,
confusing atmosphere, instability, and perhaps chaos. It created a
194
controversy due to its size and the fact that it is unusual. It does not have
symbolism of any kind and is more open to interpretation by the individual.
But as one enters the memorial, the chaos inside the uneven slopes
increases, as the slabs reach their maximum height. It is a disordered
system, creating confusion and a feeling of being blocked out from view
and what is outside. The information center under the memorial holds the
names of Holocaust victims taken from Yad Vashem. The stelae protrude
through the ceiling and never touch the floor. It took two years to build
from 2003 to 2005 and its architect Peter Eisenman wanted to create
something that does not have an explanation and where each individual
takes something from it. What is unusual about the memorial is also its title
which caught the eye of the author who has not seen one like that. Most
memorials are called Holocaust memorials but here the words "murdered"
and "Europe" are injected. According to Educational Director and Director
of the Information and Visitor's Center Dr. Barbara Koester "most of the
people do not have knowledge about the European dimension of the
Holocaust. They want to stress on this dimension. In the exhibition there
are two main facts. We try to give the people a history with a face and
show in every room the European dimension. Most visitors think that all
the victims came from Germany and don't think about Poland, or the
countries of the former Soviet Union. With this title they stress the whole
European history and not only German history" (B. Koester, personal
communication, February 8, 2011). We entered the exhibition before
speaking with Dr. Koester about the memorial and the information and
visitor's center. She is responsible for the visitor's service and educational
program. She is responsible for all things concerning the daily life—for the
staff, guides who are also free lancers, students who work there part time,
and for the memorial. Less funding is available for educational programs.
"It would be better if we had a big educational department. The government
does not pay for this. There is a free entrance and visitor's need to pay for
guided tours. In other memorials, the educational program is also free. It
depends on the history of an institution. We are fourteen people working
full time and nearly 100 educational staff, security, part time students,
people working in the visitor's service. Most of the visitors are tourists
195
coming from Germany like pupils. There is a tradition that pupils who
leave school make a journey and most of them come to Berlin.
It is
attractive for tourists in Berlin as well. There are a lot of tourists from
Spain, Italy, The Netherlands, and Israel. Most of the tourists come by
accident. They do not learn about the Holocaust but they come to know the
town. The exhibition and memorial is in the center of Berlin. They stop
here for a short visit of this memorial. It is a chance to reach people who
are perhaps not really interested in this issue and we have the chance to
bring people into contact with this issue" (B. Koester, personal
communication, February 8, 2011). The memorial is funded by the Federal
Government. Excerpts of the interview are below:
How do you conduct research on visitors?
We have two ways. We pay for it and there is an organization from Cologne
who specializes in this. It is a quantitative research and we do research
from a tourist office in Berlin, called Visit Berlin. They ask them not only
about memorials but also museums. We have some results but are not at the
end.
How do Berliners feel having this big abstract grid-looking memorial
on this large piece of land in the middle of the city because when you
look at it, if they don't know much or don't associate with it, it is very
abstract.
We are not deeply rooted in Berlin. We get visitors from all over the world
that read and are more strongly connected than people from Berlin. I would
say that 60% of pupils come from Brandenburg and not from Berlin. Only
40% or less is from Berlin. But we also have other memorials and institutes
like ours and it takes time that they would accept us in a way to become
known to them.
What is the difference between here and a Holocaust museum?
This is only one small part of the history of the Holocaust. We don't tell
about anti-Semitism. We concentrate from 1939 and not from 1933. The
exhibition is 700 square meters so certain issues had to be reduced. This is
the power of this exhibition.
It is very organized and flows very well.
Most of the people don't stay long in the room of biographies. The
concentration is less than at the beginning. People tend to be emotionally
involved when they read biographies or pieces of individual lives. The
visitors spend more time in the Room of Dimensions. We are not able to
tell a long story but we go deep in some points. I was not part of the team
196
who did this exhibition and I am here for five years. The memorial was
inaugurated in May 2005. I am not the director of the memorial but
responsible only for visitors and educational programs.
What challenge do you face doing that?
We do not have answers to what does it mean for the next generations in the
next 50 years. But I meet people from Argentina, Rwanda, and the former
Yugoslavia. The government invites them to be able to report to their
countries and help them with genocide issues and racial tension. They ask
the question about prevention. How do you stop it? This is the challenge
for pedagogical work. We do not have any answer to the question what
does it mean for younger people who are not connected by their family
history to this issue. Berlin has a high degree of immigrants who bring their
own history. It is difficult. They have to learn about the Holocaust and it is
difficult to compare things with one another. You have to know the facts
and structure. Then you can discuss and compare. You have to learn more
about our issue and then find other themes. But I have one educational
room. There is no air, no window, and no light. You cannot work more
than five hours here. The House of the Wannsee Conference offers daily
programs and they have developed a program for soldiers, pupils, different
professional groups. We are only at the beginning. We offer seven or eight
workshops, but they go deep into the history of groups. We have Project
Day in the video archives and you learn about eye-witnesses. We have
guided tours which are booked. Our guided tours begin in the Field of
Stelae and most important is the dialogue with visitors about the memorial
and why we need to remember.
Why do we need to remember?
For me it is a question of the country and my family. Remembrance is
absolutely necessary. If you don't know your history, you don't have roots.
We have a bad history but we try and work with it. It is our responsibility.
If you had more funds available what would you want to do? What is
your vision?
We planned a workshop with some colleagues from Berlin to speak at a
conference to get some suggestion to analyze where we are now and what
we want to do in the future. But we only have these rooms and I need
facilities. I think it won't be enough to learn about the Holocaust but the
most important question is the method. How can we learn about it and find
a connection and bridges to questions of human behavior without losing the
focus?
In Israel we don't have an answer to this question. It somehow is still
not reaching. It is not relevant even though we are a country with
survivors. It is a global question. We have Holocaust Memorial Day
and most of the schools have survivors that come and talk. Although
some children are involved, some children are rude, have to be taken
out of the room and respond with the fact that it does not matter to
them. It is the challenge of making it important to the generation.
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Nobody has found a solution yet. Is sending them to Poland enough?
Do you agree that students here should go to the sites?
Yes, this is important. These sites have another atmosphere and you are
strongly connected to the history of this place. I think in Germany most of
the go. There was a big discussion before the opening of this memorial.
They were afraid that people would not visit the sites but it has no effect.
Do you get donations besides government funding?
We do not ask for entrance but people try and support by giving some
donations. We have the journalist who was the initiator of this memorial
who still collects money for the Room of Names so we can still continue to
do research. In Germany the government pays for most of the big sites and
here as well. Funding is not so much of a problem.
Do you advertise this place?
We work a lot with tourism. I have a colleague who works together with
travel agencies who organizes these special voyages and we try and work
with them. The emphasis is on the younger traveler. First they only planned
a memorial without any exhibition. After this there was a big discussion,
not only in the political but cultural sphere. People said it is not enough.
Art does not explain itself and art is very strong and can give an emotional
connection to the issue. But you also need facts and not only an aesthetical
dimension. Than the government decided after Eisenman got first prize for
his suggestion, that there would be an exhibition connected to the memorial
up above in an aesthetical way.
In this case because it is abstract, it was necessary to add the exhibition
here. People can see slabs of cement.
But this is a good chance to come into a dialogue. Here we can get
information in a brief way.
January 27th was the commemoration of the Holocaust in the United
Nations. Is there a Holocaust paradox because it allows rhetoric about
denying the Holocaust?
Yes this is a danger. We all demand to teach about it and there are some
political entities against this. It is really a problem. But we are part of the
foundation responsible for the Holocaust. Three years after we opened, the
government gave us the task to be responsible for the homosexuals who are
victims of the National Socialists. Hopefully there will also be a memorial
for the Sinti and Roma. We are also responsible for this memorial. This is
an organizational question but our staff is connected to this group of
victims. This was a governmental decision of the foundation. Other groups
of victims want a memorial also. There is the question because some people
are disappointed—survivors or the families of survivors that they afraid that
their fate would be compared to the fate of other victims. It is a question of
how to do it and organization.
Are we in a war against those who say these things didn't happen?
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We don't have much discussion in Germany. We don't have much problem
with anti-Semitism and I think it is more of a discourse in America. There is
security here, two men who go around 24 hours. We have this problem but
it is really less. We had an incident with swastikas on the stones. The
papers wrote about it.
Our impression is that the people are sitting and taking their time—
that this place is doing what it is supposed to do.
On the other hand, there are people who eat or drink but Eisenman said it
should be a place of discussion and it is difficult to draw a line. I think that
where the crimes happened I am astonished. People actually sunbathe in
Auschwitz-Birkenau.
What would you want to happen here?
I would want people to think about their ethical background. Some of our
visitors through this place can draw conclusions on their own, like a
beginning, or a stepping stone towards further knowledge. We are all
connected with each other. You are working in Israel, we are working here,
and it is a chance to meet and talk.
Funding
Exhibition
Education
Employees
Entrance
Amount of visitors
Federal Government
Four different rooms based on the
European dimension of the Holocaust.
Workshops and seminars. Not enough
facilities.
14 permanent and 100 security, visitor
service, students working part time,
educational staff.
Free but visitors pay for guided tours.
500,000 but many by accident as part of a
tourist attraction.
Table 11. Management of the Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe.
Standing among the stelae. Photo by author.
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6.2.2 Breaking down the Barrier—Managing a Hitler Exhibition
The Second World War is a central part of every German child's school
curriculum, and museums looking at the Nazi regime and its crimes exist in
many major cities. Nowhere does it exist more than in the city of Berlin.
However, what has been avoided and which had remained a fear to touch
until recently is the main perpetrator—Hitler himself. It was through the
courage of Professor Hans Ottomeyer at the German Historical Museum in
Berlin that the first major exhibition opened on the dictator since 1945. The
desire of the Germans to portray a different worldwide image and come to
terms with their past of terror, pillaging, and murder, is illustrated through
the careful planning and management of the exhibition, which took a few
years. This author took extreme interest in attending the exhibit "Hitler and
the Germans—Nation and Crime" to see on location how it was done and
presented.
The main issue that disturbed this author was whether the
exhibition also created a tribute to the dictator and an occasion for the
gathering of neo-Nazis. It has become acceptable only in recent years, to
portray Hitler not simply as a monster, but as a human being who managed,
with the help of intensive and advanced media propaganda of the times, to
grab the opportunity to become the image of a savior. In the movie by
Charlie Chaplin, The Great Dictator, there is an attempt to portray Hitler as
a humorous character—a case of parody versus reality or what would have
been desirable versus undesirable. On arrival at the exhibition, the author
was greeted with a schedule prepared to meet the Director and the
Educational Director. We were given a guided tour of the exhibition. The
first thing facing the visitor was a large portrait of the man himself, Adolf
Hitler. The infiltration of Hitler into the everyday life of the German people
was illustrated by displays of reading books, card games, board games, and
film propaganda. The original Mein Kampf was on display as well as Nazi
uniforms. A wall rug onto which the members of women's church groups
stitched "Our Father" framed by swastikas was also on display. According
to Professor Hans Ottomeyer, the goal of the exhibition was to answer
questions such as "what was his image? How was it created? What did
Germans see in him?" (H. Ottomeyer, personal communication, February 7,
211
2011). The German History Museum is funded by the federal government.
From other exhibitions which began in 1992, the exhibition was created but
past exhibitions are basically ignored. According to Professor Ottomeyer,
"Hitler showed all the characteristics of a good character—sensitive to
animals and nature. The description of his lifestyle would not have lead to
any knowledge about what he really did. So we decided to do something
daring because there was always the fear that such an exhibition would
gather neo-Nazis who would click their heels, and shout "Heil Hitler."
Some did appear and cried "everything is wrong, Auschwitz is a lie," and
molested visitors" (H. Ottomeyer, personal communication, February 7,
2011). The exhibition has become world renowned. "The hope for the
exhibition was to try and give an answer to an image of history dominated
by feelings, and to come down to the facts using material of the exhibition,
and to have authenticity and clarity through the means that we use, to get
information to many in order to become aware of what happened. The
means of an exhibition is to create for the visitor an image of what has
happened. The visitors look carefully at all the images and they don't just
walk through. They don't make cynic remarks which happen quite often at
exhibitions where the means of orientations are less developed than here."
Personal artifacts were not included as much in the exhibition because they
did not create an element of clarity but stressed the emotion.
The
photographs and images that were shown at the exhibition are authentic and
helped the visitors understand what happened.
"I am always leaving
exhibitions on the Holocaust or the SS regime if I see that somebody plays
with my feelings using make-believe objects. For example, if there is a
flogging bench that is reconstructed, it does not inform that such a thing
existed. A photograph or eyewitness testimony would be far much better.
We avoided that here." (H. Ottomeyer, personal communication, February
7, 2011). There were many criticisms of the exhibition because there were
things not included in the exhibition but are included in the film museum.
Because the focus was on Hitler and the Germans, it showed how he
managed to guide with his voice and through photographs, and using the art
of persuasion—gather the mass support of the German people.
Management issues faced by the Director are to do enlightenment on the
211
centuries passed, from the first century onwards. However, one-sixth of the
museum devotes itself with the largest space to the years 1923 to 1945. As
a small boy, the director was shocked to read about newspaper reports of
the trials for Treblinka. Only in the middle of the 1970's, student
movements began to question parents, grandparents, and politicians about
what they knew so that they can gain this knowledge before the previous
generations would pass away. What did they have to do with the Holocaust?
What role did they play? This created a concentration on this research until
today. Some excerpts of the interview are included below. Original audio
file is available by the author.
We found that Dachau is very much geared towards the tourist. What
do you think of that?
I never went to Dachau because I cannot sleep if I go to places of mass
murder. I was in Buchenwald with a group from the museum which cost
me two nights of not sleeping. I cannot develop this professional attitude to
organize and talk about Holocaust and concentration camps. As a result, I
am happy that I am in a museum. I had to walk out at a meeting in Gdansk
because they were able to eat and drink while they were talking about
deaths in Treblinka—talking about it as their job. If you are on the same
soil of these places and look at the same sky all the time, it is one thing.
Here at this museum, we are in an artificial shell which protects us from the
overbearing emotions. I can only go to these hells if I am in the company of
someone else to explain and give answers to my questions. Otherwise these
questions heap up for many hours and you have to work to come back to
yourself.
Do you believe students should go when they are older to these places?
Yes, when they are able to ask and reason—not just come there. They
should go at fourteen or fifteen but not as younger children.
Why should we remember?
We should remember to overcome history and to come to an understanding.
Museums are not places of reconciliation but we can come to a better
understanding of each other over history, a double meaning if you will.
Should we preserve the sites?
Certainly. We should never reconstruct but only preserve them. In
Buchenwald they found wooden heads which were sold in 1949. They were
able to recollect them and put them back into their place which is a
possibility because they are authentic. They found numbers inside of them.
How many people work here?
212
We have180 people. We hire security and housekeeping. We always have
fifty to seventy on part time. We are one of the most important places of
conservators and education. Many people come here for their important
positions and internships. There is a constant exchange of knowledge,
methodology, between the memorials and the museums. They are separated
in methods, aim, and means of conviction but there is an exchange between
the "Gedenkstatte" and here.
On January 27th was International Holocaust Day. One of the myths
out there is that the German public was hypnotized.
They were not hypnotized. There was fear. There were those who had an
attitude of fear to cooperate with the regime which ran with them.
Sometimes out of this ambition, they did more than they had to do. There
was a hard core group of about 25% who enjoyed forcing people to follow
the Nazi conviction.
Where do you get funding?
Totally from the government, even this exhibition. I was not encouraged to
do the exhibition. I was asked why I am doing it. I was told it is better not
to do it. There was no politician at the opening ceremony. We were giving
speeches all alone. We played no music because politicians have a fear of
getting associated with this issue. They are afraid because a journalist can
take a snapshot in front of Hitler's poster. They can be manipulated.
Politicians have a certain right not to be placed in such a situation. I was
asked to do this exhibition in a few years. It took quite a long time to
prepare.
The management of it and dealing with all the issues, was difficult.
I was able to use the resources at hand which made it easier. It took three
years of preparation. It had to change from something biographical on
Hitler to something as to how was he kept up, by how many, and by which
way? It took two curators to prepare it. I had the opportunity to take more
than 60% of my own collections. Many photographs—paintings, graphics
made it easier.
You spoke very well of authenticity because that is the title in my
paper—safeguarding authenticity and perpetuating memory.
This also includes speaking to eyewitnesses. We are gathering testimonies
of eyewitnesses and doing a lot of research. We have a large archive on
forced labor.
So you don't like these museums springing up worldwide that play on
emotions, but you want the sites preserved because they are authentic.
We need to do dominant or temporary exhibitions to talk about fields of
new research. This works quite well. Our next exhibition will be about the
SS police in Poland.
Were Jews exterminated on German soil?
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Yes. Many sites turned into extermination camps that were there before.
Jews were exterminated in the second phase but not in the first.
So concentration camp was also used as a euphemism.
Dachau was used to execute the opposition at the beginning and writers
accused of undermining the system. So it is not ever 100% truth.
The UN and I am going to dare ask it—they commemorate the January
27th date but allow the President of Iran spew Holocaust denial at the
United Nations which is in a legitimate forum. What is your response
on that?
People are acting out of fear and they hope to influence about what is
happening. They are not acting out on ethical principles. They fear to
mingle into things which have a bad side for themselves. It is a form of
keeping away and not looking at it. I mentioned this when I talked about
many Germans who followed the Hitler regime out of fear and did not
overcome their fear.
Fill in the blank. As director of this museum my most difficult job is to
Treat the Holocaust. As I expressed, I am not bound to treat the subject
because I cannot build up a professional attitude. But I have to do it, but
one can see it is done with success and conviction.
Courtesy of German Historical Museum. Exhibition Hitler and the Germans: Nation and Crime.
A fancy cover decorates "Mein Kampf", Hitler's book which sold millions of copies. Today it can be
downloaded from the internet on neo-Nazi or Holocaust denial websites in several languages.
It was considered proper to give as a wedding gift. Left photo is the entrance into the exhibition.
The biggest challenge for Professor Hans Ottomeyer is "to treat the
Holocaust." The exhibition was done with care and extreme attention. As a
Jewish person from Israel, it can be said that the apprehension was eluded
as the exhibition was created with knowledge, taste, and meticulous
planning, taking into consideration several issues as previously noted. The
director strongly believes in authenticity—that sites should be preserved but
not reconstructed. On that, there is a similarity of opinion with the director
of Ravensbruck. His convictions to raise himself above those whose views
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were against the exhibition, permeated into one that permitted a subject to
be in the forefront, which in the past had been considered more of a taboo.
The question of how it could happen that Germans were so enthusiastic
about Hitler is one that is ongoing in Germany. An exhibition like the one
in Berlin can help address the nagging question of how it could happen that
the German population was so enthusiastic about Hitler even still, when
they started to learn of his intentions towards Jews and resisters. The
emphasis of the curators was to look at the rise of the regime, how it
operated in power and how it fell, as well as the tremendous destructive
potential that National Socialism unleashed. It was not intended to display
the personality of Hitler, but to illustrate his obsession to infiltrate into the
lives of the German people through the help of media propaganda.
Dr. Stefan Bresky is responsible for the permanent exhibition at the
Educational Department at the German Historical Museum; the pedagogy of
the museum, which focuses on pupils, handicapped, senior, and
emigrational backgrounds. He develops programs, guided tours, audio
guides, media, computer stations, workshops and more, to educate them on
topics in the German History Museum. He is responsible for the permanent
exhibition which represents 2000 years of German history and there are
8000 square meters about it. All the topics which are part of the curriculum
deal with industrial, history of the divided Germany, the enlightenment. "I
am just an ordinary historian and I manage a team of 22 members of staff.
It was never part of my studies to be a manager and it is a reality. I am
something like a communicator, to communicate all the topics and
programs to target groups especially to those who are responsible for
educational programs in schools, so they are informed as to what we offer—
long time projects if they want to cooperate with the museums. I have to
look for those people who are suitable for part of our team and I have to
communicate to all those who need to be informed. How much is devoted
to the schools from the period of 1933 to 1945 is still now the most
important topic. In all the States, this topic is the most important one and
the second most important is the divided Germany after 1949. History as a
school topic is getting smaller because they are getting more involved in the
curriculum to learn technology and mathematics. The classic topics of the
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humanities are getting smaller and smaller. There are some differences
between the States but there is this tendency. Those who make it stronger,
produce children better informed. Some States focus on only modern
history of the 19th and 20th century but they should also learn about the
medieval times to understand about the complexities of the history. I think it
is important that students go to the camps and I am glad it has been written
into the curriculum, fixed all over Germany in the last decade. Most of the
States are pointing out not only the concentration camps but every age
should leave the schools to go to educational institutions not in the schools
like archives, concentration camps, and the museums. They do it in
combination with all the other epochs as well. For example, if they deal
with the Nazi period, they might go to the House of the Wannsee
Conference. My age, when I went to school, it was not so usual to go to a
museum. We learned from the books at school and then there was this
change. We would like to teach them a variety of possible methods to learn
about history from different artifacts. There is a difference between talking
about Germany and other countries. It is not necessary to install a
centralized Holocaust museum in Germany. It is much more important to
develop and preserve the authentic sites and develop them to a
communication platform and educational place. One of the most important
results of the 1968 revolution uproar when the generation questioned their
parents and grandparents, educational camps and special pedagogy and
memorial sites, started with their work in the late 1980's. The House of the
Wannsee Conference for example focuses not only on schools but also
policemen, doctors, and for different specialists so that they can learn about
their special work during the Nazi period. They have a personal bridge to
their own biography. The most booked program is the History of the
Medieval Times. The children are interested in Pharaohs, knights, and
castles. Counting the numbers, this is the most successful program that we
offer every week for family groups and kindergarten. But numbers cannot
be compared. Another one is a film workshop which lasts one day and we
are presenting with two cinema rooms, a huge presentation. So we offer
this kind of film workshop because we would like to present historical film
documents as one of those historical artifacts like a painting.
It is a
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document which is attractive for the teachers and we offer them included in
the workshops so the pupils can learn to analyze the film—cutting, light,
fictional presentation and documentary. We are offering them to compare
artifacts in the exhibit to artifacts in the film. For example the film Triumph
of the Will is a Nazi propaganda film which cannot be presented in the
cinema unless it is with explanation and an educational part. A lot of
teachers say that they are confronted to discuss the different dimensions of
the documentary with the students and of course the propaganda aspect—to
make them stronger to analyze them. If they come from districts of Berlin
not so well educated in a classical sense, than sometimes a movie is an
easier entrance to a classical museum. They don't have to read a text. I
would say that the children's program and film workshop are quite
successful. Regarding the Nazi period, one has to differentiate between the
different ages.
We offer programs even at the primary school. It is
recommended to start earlier concerning Nazi dictatorship—beginning even
at the fifth and sixth levels—the goal to be aware that they hear from
brothers and sisters, internet, and that those children are getting in close
contact with those topics earlier and earlier. So part time in the school and
here, they get a first contact from a biographical perspective, like reading a
book in school before they come here. We look for special objects that can
be shown to younger children and talk about the murdering of the Jews and
the other people who were murdered. For them they work full of interest
and fascination on this topic. There is a turning point at age 14 or 15, at
puberty. They are not as interested in classical institutions like a museum at
this age. And then tricks and methods have to be used to get them
interested. But concerning the Holocaust it is generally against that. It
makes no difference to present to them 19th century medieval history or
contemporary history in which the latter may be a direct bridge to their
history. If they make their own interviews or take their own photos, it can
be turned around." (S. Bresky, personal communication, February 7, 2011).
What would you tell a Holocaust denier?
I am not sure whether any Holocaust denier would tell me his opinion. I am
angry at those who are part of a group and don't tell me because I cannot
start with an argumentation. I would expect but cannot prove it, that I would
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like to make a bridge to groups coming from smaller cities or some districts
from Berlin where there are right-wing extremists. Teachers ask us for a
special program. It is a rare situation that someone who is coming is going
to outright say that they deny the Holocaust. The extremists ignore a history
museum. They don't come in I would expect. They don't participate in our
educational programs. For example, I had a Lebanese student who said she
did not believe that so many millions of Jews were murdered. My reaction
was to ask her back, why she does not believe it. I wanted to start a
dialogue with her. I wanted to invite her to see the artifacts in the exhibit,
those that we have from the Holocaust victims, the documents from the
Wannsee Conference. I could explain to her the thousands of ordinary
Germans who organized this along with the SS. I was glad she was asking
the question because I had the possibility to invite her to read documents. I
suspected it was the opinion of the family and some TV channels. I wanted
to set something against it. I tried to keep the talk opened. I told her I don't
know the exact number of victims either, and out of my perspective is not
the most important detail. The central element I would tell her is that the
artifacts and documents are opened to her to see. They are not wrong
documents but authentic. I said to her that she can bring her parents and
compare the arguments with those documents and make up her opinion. I
showed her three documents including the model of the extermination camp
of Auschwitz. She was opened to the idea, but I am of the opinion that if
there is someone in a right-wing community, we cannot change them with
one visit. It is only a small element. Maybe some can be touched but there
will be many where it is not enough. There needs to be a lot more
intervention. If the parents are part of it than school officials, educators
have to be involved, even if necessary the police.
Funding
Federal Government
Education
Educational programs, exhibits in
cooperation with the schools. Also
long-term projects. Main museum
in Berlin that deals with schools'
history curriculum. Offers programs
to teachers and it is the museum's
responsibility to make contact with
them and let them know what is
available. Focus on exposing
students to contemporary and
classical history of Germany.
2000 years of German history. A lot
of focus on the Holocaust period
even for a younger age group.
180 employees. 50 to 70 part time
staff of security and cleaning.
Exhibitions
Employees
Table 12. German History Museum management.
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6.2.3 Otto Weidt and Silent Heroes: Managing Resistance and Bravery
Unless one has specific instructions on how to reach it, the small Otto
Weidt brush factory is not easy to find. Located in an alley off a main
Berlin street, it is a symbol of heroism and resistance for those times under
the National Socialist Movement. During World War II, visually impaired
broom and brush maker Otto Weidt employed many Jews in his workshop
at Rosenthaler Street 39. Bribing the Gestapo, falsifying documents, and
hiding a family behind a cupboard in his one-room shop, he protected
mostly blind and deaf employees from persecution and deportation. Not
only were they Jews but they were handicapped which put them in
tremendous danger. The small museum commemorates a story of resistance
and is administered and funded by the German Resistance Memorial Centre
Foundation, developed out of a student project. It tells Weidt's story with
archival photos and testimonies from those he saved. There is a film clip
visitors can watch at the beginning to get a better idea and become aware of
the risk Otto Weidt undertook to save Jews. In the same alleyway is the
Anne Frank Center, and the Foundation's Silent Heroes Memorial Center,
which opened in 2008. It commemorates Germans who helped Jews during
National Socialism. Many of them kept silent and did not feel comfortable
divulging their heroism to parts of society. Now they have a place where
their testimonies are stored for future generations. More and more Germans
are being designated Righteous among the Nations by Yad Vashem in
Israel. As with other memorial sites around Berlin, admission is free and
with advanced booking, a guided tour is available in languages other than
German or English. Unlike the Oskar Shindler's Factory and recent Museum
in Crakow, a different location of resistance and heroism, the Otto Weidt
factory remained silent until its discovery. The Shindler Factory discussed
in pages ahead, gained attention from the award-winning Holocaust movie
directed by Stephen Spielberg, Shindler's List and a large museum added to
commemorate Shindler's somewhat controversial heroism. One gentleman,
whose name is Chayim, takes care of the small museum commemorating
Otto Weidt. Originally from Israel, he feels an inward mission to keep the
place and memory alive so as not to forget the bravery and risks that were
219
undertaken. Part of the exhibit includes the machines that were used to
make brushes, written letters and testimonies, a film, the cupboard where
Otto Weidt hid a Jewish family, and samples of bristles for brooms and
brushes, made by those whom he hired.
It is also under "Orte der
Errinerung" discussed at the beginning of this chapter, which is the
permanent council taking care of memorials and sites around Berlin. In the
1970’s Otto Weidt was honored with Righteous among the Nations by Yad
Vashem. The museum was restored yet it was maintained in an authentic
condition as much as possible. The Silent Heroes Memorial Center
commemorates individuals who helped persecuted Jews during the National
Socialist regime. The desperate and precarious position of the Jews facing
deportation, forced many of them underground, deciding to resist the threat
to their lives. The permanent exhibition illustrates the persecution of Jews
as well as the actions and motivations of the men and women who helped
them. It documents successes in saving Jews, and also failed attempts. Its
location is adjacent to the Otto Weidt Museum, across the hall. Although
small in size, it is modern and pleasant on both levels. Using computer
technology for students to access heroes on their visit, they are able to get
the biographies of Jews and Germans and are often able to match them with
faces. Heroes from that time remained silent and now they are able to come
forward—no longer anonymous. Audio files are available from the author.
Original machines and bristles inside Otto Weidt Factory for the Blind. Photos by author.
Just some of the faces he saved.
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Chapter VII
Grounds of Grief: Managing Memorial Sites in Poland
“What have you done? Hark, thy brother's blood cries out to me from the ground!”
-Genesis 4:10
On September 1st 1939 the Nazis invaded Poland. They herded the
Jews into ghettos, stripped them of all rights to basic necessities of life,
starved them, and tortured them. The cog of the Nazi wheel turned
quickly. The Fuhrer and his henchmen were determined to rid
themselves of the Jewish problem and find the best solution to do this.
With obsessive zeal, ghettos were established around Poland—Warsaw,
Lodz, Lublin, Crakow being the most famous but many others erected
as well. The country became a massive graveyard bearing the blood of
not only Jews, but Poles, Gypsies, and others deemed unworthy. All
around Europe, not only in Poland, those considered unfit for hard
labor, were immediately transported to the "East"—a euphemism for
death. "Konzentrationslager" were established around the country, and
prisons were full to the rim. Anybody caught helping Jews risked
murder not only upon himself but his entire family. The Jew was caught
in a death grip which was closing in tightly at a remarkable and
incomprehensible speed with no chance of reprieve. The Germans
looted and pillaged all over Europe, allowing nothing to be wasted from
Jewish victims—looting their hair, gold teeth, shoes, and clothing. It is
well-known that they used hair for stuffing of pillows and mattresses,
collections of gold teeth to increase German wealth, and even human fat
to produce soap. The barbarism and evil of the genocide is so
unthinkable, so gruesome, that today the dissociation from the events
despite all the evidence makes it easier to bear. Not dealing with the
tragedy or not engaging in conversation, avoids looking at it in all its
ugliness. The sites in Poland which are the most renowned are symbolic
of the fury and efficiency of the Nazi death machine and their
collaborators. They could not have become victorious in such an
arduous mission to get rid of all the Jews in Europe had they not borne
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assistance from their helpers. And most of the time it was the latter that
performed the bloodthirsty atrocities while the top SS hands remained
"clean" and physically bloodless. With the arrival of American and
Soviet troops, there was the rush to destroy any evidence of the
genocide—burning documents, bodies, gas chambers, and barracks;
anything that would reveal the six years of horror. But on the sites like
Treblinka where virtually nothing visual remains on its grounds, they
could not destroy everything. It is even today that artifacts, building
foundations, and human remains are still being uncovered in Sobibor,
Belzec, Chelmno, and Treblinka and there are ongoing issues among
archaeologists as to what to do with them when they are discovered.
Shoes have been discovered in Auschwitz along with letters or priceless
documents. According to forensic archaeologist Dr. Caroline SturdyColls, "from an archaeologist's viewpoint, nothing ever gets completely
destroyed. There is something there that always remains" (C. SturdyColls, personal communication, May 20, 2012). Although sites were
established all around Europe and some remain undiscovered until
today, it is those in Poland that tore up naivete and brought an onus to
bear on humanity about questions of human morality, the like which
wasn't felt or seen before. It is Poland's soil that bears the brunt of mass
extermination of Jews, persecution and murder of its own people, and
the destruction of Gypsies. Poland's beautiful and scenic grounds are
marred with the ominous presence of mass graveyards that are
accompanied by the silent cries of the perished. It is a country that has
undergone an age of Holocaust enlightenment; learning about the
persecution of its own people and the extermination of a whole culture
while working arduously to come to grips with their painful past and
educate the next generation. There is emphasis on teaching Poles what
happened to themselves, and there is a realization that extermination of
Jews resulted in the loss not only of a nation, but a whole culture of
artists and intellectuals, who were an integral and crucial part of Polish
society. Not much was in the open regarding Jewish extermination
under Soviet rule. Sites were neglected, discussion was not in the open,
and young people were kept in the dark about what happened during
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those fateful years. Holocaust remembrance picked up speed following
the fall of the Soviet Union in 1989 and as with Germany; Poland has
undergone its own process of change.
Holocaust studies are
compulsory but a visit to one of the sites is not. Most schools do
organize trips to the sites in any event with the choice depending on the
area. Tourists and school groups from all over the world flock to
Auschwitz. Institutes of Holocaust studies are set up around Poland—
in universities and as separate entities. Many educational projects
complement the sites themselves so that students can gain knowledge
about what happened there.
And in 2013, Warsaw is opening its
Museum of the History of the Polish Jews with its mission to educate
Poles and visitors worldwide about the rich 1000 year history of Jewish
presence in Poland. Students from Israel go to Poland in the eleventh or
twelfth grade and embark on a painful itinerary to learn about what
happened during the Holocaust. They view the mausoleum of ashes in
Majdanek, hear the silence at Treblinka, and use their senses in
Auschwitz. Often survivors travel with them to share their story and
enlighten the students during their journey. Exchange programs
between Polish and Jewish youth are increasing. Still, the “right way”
to manage school trips to Poland has not been established and there is
some debate about them with changes that should be made.
Suggestions on that issue are included later in the research.
There are still many areas of mass killings which have remained
undiscovered—areas of murder which are uncommemorated and
unmarked. This is an active pursuit of the Chief Rabbi of Poland. The
concentration camps and sites of mass extermination are operated by
managers, directors, museum heads, and teams of people who are doing
work on sacred ground. They are committed to promoting awareness of
what happened at that particular place and at that time. In general the
sites are operating as separate units—each one focusing on their own
tragedy. Museum exhibitions overlap but emphasis is on creating
awareness of the site on location. Auxiliaries and patrons are essential
for the promotion of knowledge in Poland—like the Jewish Historical
Institute, Galicia Jewish Museum, Institutes of National Remembrance,
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and Institute for Holocaust Research in Warsaw, and many more
devoted to their mission. There is a lot of activity going on in Poland
and on many of the sites; there is “no life yet life” a bustling of
educational projects, program innovations, and conservation. There are
also sites however in very precarious positions and in danger of closure,
a double tragedy merging between past and present. Funding for them
is based on a hierarchy. Sites supported by the government (Ministry of
Culture) are in a better position, followed by those supported according
to the vovoideship, the town, and the village. There are seven sites in
Poland to which there is a commitment: They include AuschwitzBirkenau Memorial Museum, State Museum of Majdanek, Stutthof,
Treblinka, Belzec, Sobibor, and Chelmno. The first three are funded by
Poland’s Ministry of Culture. Treblinka is not funded by the Ministry
of Culture but by the Siedlce Regional Museum. Belzec is a branch of
Majdanek—a recent switch which has occurred in the last decade and
Sobibor has undergone a management shift. It was supported by the
Wlodowa village who received money from the region. Funds were cut
and Sobibor was under the threat of closure in June 2011. Through
protests by Holocaust survivors, the government decided to keep the
tiny museum opened. In May 2012, it went through a management shift
and became a temporary branch of the State Museum of Majdanek
along with Belzec. It is hoped that Sobibor will become an independent
museum operating under the Ministry of Culture. Both Chelmno and
Treblinka are in precarious positions, with the former being in a worse
situation. And the author fears that when something happens to Dr.
Lucja Pawlicka-Nowak, an elderly woman dedicated to the preservation
of the site and who has taken it on as a lifelong mission, Chelmno will
disappear into the annals of history, a forgotten tragedy stained with the
blood of approximately 350,000 souls. It is for this reason that the
author is grateful that Chelmno is included here and hopes to promote
awareness of its plight. Many questions and dilemmas have arisen in
Poland regarding the preservation of memorial sites: Who is responsible
for them? Does the responsibility lie with the Poles alone or are the
Germans responsible since the sites were established under their rule
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and the atrocities occurred with the annexation of Polish territory by the
Nazi regime? Was it Polish soil or technically German soil where
Jewish blood ran? What is the role of the international community
since so many nations were exterminated there? What about the
European commission? And most importantly, what does the future
hold for them and how can they be secured? With the economic woes in
Poland and the country’s support of many of the sites, a toll has been
taken on monies available to keep them going. It is for this reason that
the Director of Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial Museum Dr. Piotr
Cywinski took initiative and approached the Europeans and
international community about the plight of Auschwitz and its future
security as a Holocaust symbol and as part of the UNESCO heritage
list. His efforts resulted in the establishment of the Auschwitz-Birkenau
Foundation along with the International Auschwitz Council, the latter
which discusses issues and handles decisions regarding the other sites.
Many of the museum heads and directors and in particular those on
extermination sites made several pleas to the author: For the author to
talk about them and the site so they won’t be forgotten; need for
funding; contact with Yad Vashem and other museums in Israel. Their
frustrations and needs were noted by the author and how they work
under difficult conditions, on sites that are fragile as we speak. Yet,
despite difficulties, they need to be commended for the wonderful job
they are doing. And they are anxious to persevere, always putting
thought into what they do and can do.
Historians, archaeologists,
anthropologists, or a combination of both, those who manage these
graveyards are aware of the need to disseminate information and all of
them have a need to do so on a personal level. As with Germany, words
like responsibility and morality were in common among them as well as
feelings of atonement. Some were born in the area and needed to learn
more about what happened. Others feel it is a way for them to battle
anti-Semitism and try and make a difference, while still others want to
make up for what happened and choose their difficult job out of moral
responsibility. Many of them experience nightmares or a need to
separate from the Holocaust at the end of a hard day and yet they have
215
the strength to continue, persevere even in the face of arduous
circumstances. With this job, many of them feel they are conspicuous—
doing something that is not the usual and for the Jews, therefore
noticeable in society and sometimes not in a favorable light. They were
appreciative that somebody was interested in hearing from them and
more so when they were assured that the meetings would not be in vain.
They want and need to have a voice. Preservation of the sites includes
several issues. Conservation of artifacts is difficult and needs to be done
professionally. Auschwitz is the only site where conservation
laboratories exist on its location. The others, even Majdanek, have to
send their objects out for treatment. Others like Chelmno or Sobibor
don’t have funding for that, and conserve the objects and artifacts as
best they can, in makeshifts from plexiglass or transparent glass, even
plastic containers, exposed to wrong room temperatures sitting on
shelves. Safeguarding authenticity is expensive as is security. The threat
of vandalism is a reality and many of them have security issues. Even
Auschwitz experienced the “theft of the Auschwitz gate” a tragic
reminder that greed or anti-Semitism would drive those to such lengths.
The original gate is reassembled, its parts delicately and with precision
put back together, but a replica sadly stands in its place. The theft
created a warning and since then, security has increased on the vast
grounds in Auschwitz and Birkenau (Auschwitz II) where patrollers in
vehicles and on foot comb the large area 24 hours a day. Of all the
countries in Europe, it is Poland where more Jews were exterminated
(estimated 3,000,000) with the largest concentration of them in Europe.
Of the estimated six million Jews eliminated by the Nazi regime and their collaborators, about 1.5
million were children under the age of sixteen. Photo above of children liberated in Auschwitz,
courtesy of Auschwitz Birkenau Memorial Museum. It is exhibited worldwide.
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Map showing sites of extermination and ghettos erected on Polish soil by the Nazi regime. The sites
bearing skulls were of mass extermination and visited by the author. The Generalgouvernement was
the Lublin region annexed by the Nazi machine. The Reinhard sites as part of the Final Solution were
concentrated in that area and built for that purpose. Map appears in WW2-Holocaust-Europe. Photo:
Death of the innocent. Children in a pit. Photo courtesy of Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial Museum and
“Lest we Forget” at http:// www.auschwitz.dk/Holocaust1.htm
Managers and directors of the sites in Poland are concerned with vandalism,
security, maintenance of the grounds, conservation and preservation, funding,
education, attracting and catering to visitors, and survival. There is a sense of
insecurity regarding the future of the sites with a growing feeling of limbo.
When asked what we need to do about the future nobody gave a clear answer
although the emphasis was on educating the next generations and to continue that
mission. Nevertheless, it is still a pressing question which requires solutions to
solve it. Auxiliaries and patrons in Poland provide additional information for the
sites and are of utmost importance as in Germany. Besides the sites themselves,
there are memorials and monuments throughout Poland, former Jewish quarters,
and abandoned Synagogues which stand as silent testaments and remnants of a
community which once flourished. And there is a growing revival of community
pockets and trends. More and younger Poles are discovering that they have
Jewish roots somewhere down the line and are interested in the growing trend to
learn about the history. Warsaw has a Jewish community of about 5000. Crakow
has a tiny Jewish community of about 300 but more youngsters with different
shades of identity are joining the Jewish Community of Crakow established in
2008. There are those with no Jewish roots who want to learn about the culture
and history of the Jewish quarter. There is also a trend for archaeologists to take
a major interest in the extermination sites. The deafening silence and nakedness
217
of the grounds are creating a need for discovery, to find remnants hidden from
that terrible period so that additional information can be contributed and more
can be learned while battling deniers of atrocities. It is the extermination sites
which are often the latter’s target and there is a pressing archaeological need for
exposure while at the same time, the pressure to preserve. And nowhere is this
clock ticking faster than for Sobibor and Treblinka, where recent discoveries
have interrupted the claims of Holocaust deniers. The challenges for the
management of the sites in Poland are numerous and there is a lot of activity
happening. The managers, museum heads, directors, and the general staff who
guard these mass graveyards are doing impeccable and humanitarian work.
The memorial sites were constructed on the outskirts of small towns or
villages. Belzec, the site of mass extermination for approximately 550,000 Jews
was built some meters from the Belzec village. Sobibor and Treblinka however,
were constructed in wooded areas further away from villages as a camouflage.
Auschwitz was constructed within the small industrial town of Oswiecim. The
construction of Majdanek took place within the Lublin town. It is located only
four kilometers from the city center of Lublin. And Stutthof which was the first
site to be built on Polish soil and located 34 km. from the port city of Danzig
(Gdansk), was built within the small village of Sztutowo. People live in houses of
former SS officers or commandants which are still standing. Some of them like
in Sobibor belonged to the former camp and yet, are not considered as part of the
memorial even though it is on the grounds. Buildings near Majdanek are on
grounds of the former site and people live in them. The "beautiful" villa of the SS
commandant from Stutthof is occupied with other residents. The villa of the
former Auschwitz SS commandant Rudolf Hoess which is located on its grounds
and separated by a gate is occupied by a family. Whether the dwellers know
about the history or not of their homes, or whether they do and yet are
comfortable living there is another story. The museum head of Belzec would like
to see the former commandant's house (Christian Wirth) as an important part of
the Belzec memorial site. At the moment it is abandoned but had former
occupiers. These issues as well pose another dilemma for the preservation of the
sites. And the idea of safeguarding Auschwitz-Birkenau which is the international
Holocaust symbol has its own fair share of problems. Arguments about whether
to save the site from decay or not has left it opened to vulnerability and
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uncertainty about its future, and it is the Auschwitz museum that launched a
massive fund-raising project and made an international plea to ensure its longterm survival. Pledges and donations have come in to save and secure the site.
Nevertheless, the overhaul of the site and its present and future costs has
generated its own fair share of debate. This difficult and daily mission of
managing the Holocaust sites should not be taken for granted and on the contrary,
needs to be addressed. There are different focuses that require attention on
particular grounds but there are also similarities when it comes to basic concerns
about the future. Dedicated and young professionals with their commitment to
work for humanity, represent those who cannot speak. The dead become alive;
their stories revealed while safeguarded.
7.1 Auschwitz! Managing and Preserving Auschwitz-Birkenau
“There is one thing worse than Auschwitz itself . . . And that is if the world
forgets there was such a place.” -Henry Appel, Auschwitz survivor.
Entrance to Auschwitz I with the gate of death and cruel cynicism “Arbeit Macht Frei,” or work
sets you free." The “B” written smaller on the bottom than the top, was carved out as a
form of resistance by the prisoners. Photo by author.
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Saying the word speaks for itself. It is estimated that between and 1.5 million
people were murdered in Auschwitz and that up to 1.35 million of them were
Jews. Thousands of Poles, Sinti and Roma, and Soviet prisoners of war were also
murdered. Families brought by train from Germany and Nazi-occupied territories
were separated from one another on the ramps and all those deemed unfit for
labor—the infirmed, children, the elderly—were told they would take a shower.
They were packed into a room, told to strip naked, and then herded into the gas
chambers. Instead of water pouring out from the overhead nozzles, Zyklon B gas
poured in. Auschwitz is the most visited of the Nazi sites. It was a “hybrid”,
having the dual function of exterminating and hard labor. Its death factory was
established to kill Jews primarily. The construction of the site was forcibly built
by the hands of the prisoners, mainly Poles. It consisted of Auschwitz I
(Stammlager or base camp); Auschwitz II-Birkenau (Vernichtungslager or
extermination camp) and Auschwitz III-Monowitz, also known as BunaMonowitz (a labor camp). Birkenau, the German translation of Brzezinski (birch
forest), referred to a small Polish village that was destroyed by the Germans to
make way for the construction of a death factory which had the mission of total
annihilation. Unable to cope with the influx of transports to Auschwitz I, most
cattle cars diverted to Birkenau, where victims underwent cruel selection,
separation of loved ones, and mass extermination. The original tracks, gas
chamber and crematorium ruins, the guard tower, ash pits, barracks—all of it,
stands as an authentic testimony; a living will bequeathed to humanity.
Photos by author. Birkenau guard tower from inside the site. Birkenau original tracks, which illustrate the
massive size and infamy of the site. The tracks stretch down the whole length of the site leading at the
rear to the crematorium ruins, where victims were immediately gassed.
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The location of Auschwitz-Birkenau is about an hour train ride from Crakow
in Southern Poland. Built within the small industrial town of Oswiecim, the site
is easily accessible from the train, approximately a kilometer and a half by foot to
reach it. On arrival, especially if it is a first visit, one may be taken aback by the
hamburger joint near the entrance, souvenir shop, and machines to buy drinks.
This was the case for the author who visited the site for the first time in August
2004. Besides Plaszow in Crakow's city limits, Auschwitz-Birkenau was the only
site visited by the author a second time for the purpose of the research. Each visit
is an experience unto itself and cannot be compared to each other. The main
entrance is in Auschwitz I which consists of brick barracks, a visitor’s center, and
a parking lot for visitors, and the infamous Arbeit Macht Frei gate. Birkenau is
located about three kilometers from Auschwitz I and there is a shuttle bus which
brings visitors to the second site. Those who do not realize they should visit
Birkenau do not experience Auschwitz in its entirety. Operated and managed as
one unit, they are also separate entities, providing the viewer with two
perspectives combining to make up the whole and complete picture of the hell of
Auschwitz. Each one is dependent on the other to give the visitor the complete
story. Graphic in nature with its imprints of ash pits, tracks, crematorium ruins,
and remnants of barracks as well as those which still remain, the massive totality
of destruction reels the senses. For example, in 2004 the author noticed a foggy
mist which crept and descended upon the site in the late afternoon hours, moving
towards the entrance. As well, many visitors don’t realize that at the rear of the
site where the trees meet the tracks, there is a fence inside the forest. The author
entered through the fence and came to a clearing which had a shockingly large
grave of ashes imprinted deep into the ground. Across from it lies the memorial
to the Soviets prisoners. Information reveals that it was in that forest where
mainly women and children waited for their turn to be gassed and not everybody
sees it. Paradoxically, at that time there were two people in the forest handpicking mushrooms which awesomely protruded from the ground. The
management has to cope with an influx of visitors which exceeds 1,000,000 a
year. In 2010, the site was visited by approximately 1,300,000 people with an
increase in 2011. The enormous size of the site makes the former Nazi death
factory all the more an unimaginable reality. Auschwitz-Birkenau is the largest
site of 190 hectares split unevenly between each. The infamous Auschwitz I has
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20 hectares and 170 hectares is the area of Birkenau. Aushwitz I consists of brick
barracks, many which are opened and consist of sub-museums devoted to the
commemoration of the multitude of victims. In Barrack 27 is the Memorial
Museum of the Martyrdom, Struggle, and Destruction of the Jews, Memorial
Museum to the Roma and Sinti, Memorial Museum to Polish Prisoners; all
located inside former barracks of prisoners. The administration buildings are also
located inside former prisoners’ barracks and SS buildings, including the
guesthouse where the author slept for one night and barrack 12 which houses the
educational department of Auschwitz. The barracks used for modern-day
purposes merge death with life and where possible, everything is used. The main
permanent exhibition is housed in one of the barracks and consists of an endless
array of hair, crutches, Jewish prayer shawls, personal objects, baby clothes,
mounds of shoes, prisoner uniforms, portraits of prisoners, bowls and spoons,
suitcases, glasses, toothbrushes, shaving brushes—all which need to be preserved
and meticulously conserved. One cannot help wonder how this is done by the
amazing professionals who handle the task. The average visitor does not ponder
about that and gazes at the objects in awe and lingering shock. School groups
enter the dark corridors and descend to the prison cells. Conditions are revealed
regarding earlier to later stages of prison accommodations, from sleeping on the
bare floor with a few strands of straw to wooden planks in tiers, inhabited by
three or four prisoners on each. Auschwitz I has an intact gas chamber and
crematoriums, whereas those in Birkenau are in authentic ruins as part of the
Birkenau Memorial Site. The largest focus for management of the Birkenau
complex involves maintenance of its huge grounds. There are carpenters,
electricians, and painters who work laboriously repairing wooden and brick
barracks depending on their needs, workers fixing the drainage system to
preserve the crematorium ruins and keep them from disintegrating, and laborers
who meticulously clean and maintain the grounds. Those responsible for security,
patrol the large area in vehicles and on foot to prevent vandalism and provide a
feeling of safety in this wide and eerie space. Since the theft of the Auschwitz
gate, security has increased. Despite its “popularity” on the world stage and
despite the fact that is on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites, Memorial
Site Auschwitz-Birkenau has experienced its own set of challenges. In 2010,
Birkenau came under threat because of flooding as well as the theft of its gate. It
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is an unrelenting financial challenge to maintain and preserve its 155 structures
and 300 ruins, kilometers of roads, barbed wire and fencing, hundreds of
thousands of documents and personal belongings of the victims, all which
constitute evidence of the crimes. And time has taken its toll. Grappling with it,
conservation work was carried out sporadically, with the most urgent repairs
implemented. Since the end of World War II the entire financial burden fell on
Poland, preserving the countless testimonies and documents. In 2003, the Lauder
Foundation contributed to the establishment of a conservation laboratory, the
only one of its kind on a Holocaust Memorial Site With the serious threat to its
preservation and understanding its plight, the Auschwitz Director Dr. Piotr
Cywinski made a plea to the international community:42
This place is important for all of us. This is where we can most fully
understand the tragedy of a Europe plunged into war and mutual hatred.
Here too, the younger generations can best understand how much we must
preserve the site in order for the future to be different. Auschwitz remains
the most comprehensible explanation of the post-war struggle for human
rights. I believe that today every mature democracy depends on educating
its young people in such a way so that they understand the profound
state efforts to build a different world. It might not always be a success,
and it might not be completely ideal, but it will be different. That is why I
I think that at the moment, when the last eyewitnesses to those tragic times
are passing away, the preservation of Auschwitz is becoming a truly
shared responsibility.
Horror of crematorium ruins, Birkenau. Photo by author.
Appearing in a forum website on political history debates, the appeal to
save Auschwitz or leave it to deteriorate created some negative feedback
and dialogue. The following is an illustration of that: "Let it rot. The
42
Source: The Preservation of Auschwitz Birkenau, Handbook, p.32.
223
Holocaust and World War II is no longer of any real significance. What
does the camp's existence offer future generations apart from guilt?" In
response another person wrote "I disagree. Those who forget history are
doomed to repeat it." The Auschwitz Birkenau Foundation was established
in January 2009 by Wadyslaw Bartoszewski, member of the Polish
parliament and former Auschwitz prisoner "to allow for concerted action to
preserve this place for future generations."43 Bartoszewski turned to the
international community, appealing Poland's stand as a member of the
European Union and large international organizations bent on ensuring
peace and security. He reaffirmed the obligation not only of Europe but the
entire world to fulfill its mission of safeguarding the site for future
generations so that "by seeing what men were capable of doing to each
other in the past, young people will understand the meaning of our efforts to
ensure that the future will be different" and that safeguarding the past is
taking care of the future. In his appeal, there is a tone of fear for the site
that it must be saved from being "lost to oblivion." Wladislaw
Bartoszewski, prisoner camp number 4427 was recognized by Yad Vashem
as one of the Righteous among the Nations and is the chairman of the
International Auschwitz Council.
He prepared the groundwork for the
mission to create an endowment fund to amass Perpetual Capital to cover
the costs of conservation and preservation in Auschwitz-Birkenau—a
permanent source of funding to safeguard the Memorial Site and secure its
future through private donations, institutions, and governments. The largest
Nazi concentration and death camp in the whole Nazi system was in
jeopardy from accelerated natural erosion and irreversible deterioration. The
financial resources at the disposal of the Museum would barely cover basic
and current operations. Through concerted efforts, the world is responding
to save its authenticity. With its growing amount of visitors from all over
the world including survivors who return and those who want to
commemorate loved ones; it is the original grounds, buildings, objects,
documents, photos, and the sheer size of the death factory which leaves the
biggest impact on visitors. The crematorium and gas chamber ruins in
43
Source: The Preservation of Auschwitz-Birkenau, Handbook, p. 5.
224
Birkenau are left out in the open, with no mercy from nature's elements, a
way to leave them as untouched and unhampered authentic memorials for
the thousands who were annihilated. The Nazis tried to erase evidence of
their heinous acts. Today the ruins stand as testimonies of those acts.
What the Nazis tried to erase in Birkenau, stands today as monuments and testaments left in their
authentic state. They are in memory of over one million victims who perished. Top: Barrack ruins
and barbed wire. Below: Crematorium and gas chamber ruins. Photos by author.
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Management and museum structure of Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial Museum. Retrieved
from http://en.auschwitz.org/m/index2.Itemid=54
226
Location
Funding
Employees
Education
Visitors’ Center
Director on the site
Oswiecim,
Poland,
60
kilometers
southwest of Crakow.
48% museum generated, 36% Ministry of
Culture and Heritage, 15% European
projects, 1% Auschwitz death camp
victims Memorial Foundation in Oswiecim.
Maintaining the grounds and authenticity
exceeds the budget and reliance is on the
special funds project set up by the
Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation.
Budget in 2011, 10.5 million Euros. Most
of the funding comes from the museum
itself with the brunt borne by the Republic
of Poland since the end of WW2.
250. 30 employed in education and 50 in
Conservation Department.
Teacher seminars, prisoners, local schools,
Universities, seminars in Yad Vashem,
working with volunteers, guides.
V Bookstore, vending machines, snacks,
film about the site, earphones, maps.
Food and drink not permitted on the site.
Children under 14 not permitted.
V Dr. Piotr Cywinski
Dimensions of the grounds
Birkenau: 170 hectares
Auschwitz I: 20 hectares
Building and ruins
155 structures, 300 ruins
Exhibitions
Visitors
Biggest Challenge
Permanent exhibition consisting of objects
and personal belongings of prisoners as
well as shoes, prayer shawls, bowls,
spoons, toothbrushes, shaving brushes,
suitcases, hair, photos, documents,
clothing. All are in Auschwitz I. In
Birkenau are the crematoriums and
barrack ruins.
Over 1,000,000 a year. In 2011 1.4 million
visitors from all over the world. Auschwitz
is on the itinerary for high school students
from Israel.
To preserve the authenticity of the site; to
create financial security for long-term
preservation of the artifacts, building
structures, and ruins.-To nurture memory,
responsibility, and awareness.
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7.1.2 Conservation Challenges in Auschwitz
"The more you work here the more you don't question why but for whom—
for the memories, the prisoners, and for people to get the chance to see what
happened here." -Jolanta Banas Maciaszyczyk, Head of Conservation.
Eye spectacles and crutches from the perished specially preserved, on permanent exhibition,
Auschwitz I. They represent a small fraction of what needs to be properly conserved. Taken by author.
The author did not have the opportunity to meet the director of the
Memorial Museum Auschwitz-Birkenau. However the author slept on the
site itself and met with the Director of Education and the Head of
Conservation. As well, the author had the chance to tour the conservation
laboratories which are rarely seen by visitors. The Conservation Department
is divided into a few sub departments. According to J. B. Maciaszyczyk,
Head of Conservation, "there is the work of the whole place. There is a
team responsible for conservators, technical construction and paint,
carpenters, electricians, maintenance of the whole place. There is a team
for the conservation of archives and documentations, and there is a team
responsible for the projects from the Perpetual Fund." (J. B. Maciaszyczyk,
personal communication, February 11, 2011). The conversation with the
Head of Conservation was conducted in Polish with translation from
Deputy Director, Anna Lopuska. The challenge for the conservation was
based on analysis of all the objects and it was decided that the barracks
were in danger. Forty buildings altogether, visitors can enter into fourteen
depending on the condition of the building. Another challenge was "the
crematorium ruins. We finished an important project with crematorium III
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in Birkenau. We wanted to achieve the goal to secure the ruins of the
crematorium building and there was movement on the ground from erosion.
We had to save the underground from pressure and do drainage because of
the rain. We also did work with drains in the ground of the crematorium
ruins. Another challenge for conservators are the moveable objects—hair,
suitcases, crutches, bowls, spoons, toothbrushes, shaving brushes and
personal objects. The building was not in good condition and there was a
big project financed by the EU fund of 20,000,000 zlotys or around
5,000,000 Euros, which took three years just to prepare the documents.
There was a competition between places and Auschwitz was chosen. We
decide what takes priority depending on the condition and preservation of
the blocks and barracks. Some cannot wait because they are in danger, and
some can wait a few years" (J. B. Maciaszyczyk, personal communication,
February 11, 2011). Therefore, the conservation of Auschwitz-Birkenau is
very intricate and intensive. All the areas are urgent and priorities need to
be decided by the professional team. Aside from the conservators, there are
engineers who are responsible for construction, electricians, carpenters, and
painters. The Head of Conservation coordinates everything with them and
they are funded by an outside contract. Other excerpts from the interview
with the Head of Conservation are below. Audio file is available from the
author.
What happened when the Auschwitz gate was stolen? How was it
handled?
The gate now is a copy. The original gate will be reassembled and the
coming year will be finished. We will consider whether to place it in the
exhibition or return it. We are considering both options. We assume it will
be in the exhibition but sometimes on occasion, we might put it up.
Because of security situations it might not be possible to put it back. A
conservation program is going to be drawn up. It would be better for the
object to be in the exhibition. Although it would be good for victory to
have it in its original place, it would be better according to our computer
study about the object, to have it exhibited. The copy was already prepared
in 2009. It was already ready.
You also approached the international community. Is that correct?
In 2009 we established the Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation. This was a
way of financing for the long-term preservation of Auschwitz. It was in
support of the Polish government. They asked the governments of different
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countries for help. The goal is to get 120 million Euros and this is going to
be a lot of money. The interest from it is going to be spent on permanent
conservation. This is going to be around 3 or 4 million Euros per year, only
for conservation. Depending on the damage and type of barracks, that
depends on the costs. The wooden barracks cost less to preserve than the
brick barracks. It depends on the type and amount of materials used. We
found a lot of authentic things: Floors, walls, etc. And it is much more
expensive to preserve authentic materials. A brick block is more expensive
to preserve. The blocks were already changed for exhibition purposes.
This is a different case because they were already changed. It depends on
the cause for the blocks.
What will happen to this place when Holocaust survivors die out? Will
the next generation preserve it?
After the last prisoners die out, I hope the evidence is preserved. This place
is so unique. It is unimaginable that it would not be here. It is symbolic.
The meaning of this place of varied nations is so unique. It was an
extermination camp. I cannot imagine it not being here and we receive over
a million visitors a year.
Does it ever bother you to work here?
The difficult work here is the conservation of personal objects; the place of
the work. It is a very individual thing for each person to work here or not.
There are different types of people who work here but everyone has
something special within them that they feel to come back here. They take
the work as being very important, the people working here. There are
places of conservators like with art who would have more joy and happiness
from their work. But here, they know of its importance.
What happened when there was a flood in Birkenau?
It was difficult because of the capacity of the ditches. In Auschwitz I we
were worried about documents and objects. We were also worried about
decay in Birkenau. We have storehouses now in case of flooding. All the
objects would have to be placed in there. There are people responsible who
would coordinate that. Security has increased as well since the theft of the
gate. It definitely had an effect.
The Director of Conservation spoke about the personal challenges, as
well as the professional challenges. In her tone is a definite concern and
hope that the site should be preserved for the future. In her capacity, she
has to make crucial decisions when it comes to priorities depending on the
urgency. The theft of the Auschwitz gate took a toll on the staff in terms of
increased security, removal of the object from its original place, and the fact
that they are not sure it can be returned. Although they would like to place
it back for the sake of victory, they have in mind what is best for the gate.
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Four days before the author's visit to the site, a meeting was held with the
International Auschwitz Council, a 25 member body made up of Holocaust
survivors and historians, including the Auschwitz director. There was no
objection to the idea that the original sign should be preserved in
temperatures suitable to its needs of 17 – 19 degrees Celsius. As a result, it
was decided that the sign would be on permanent display in an exhibition
hall which is still under development. The sign was stolen by a Swedish
neo-Nazi on the early morning of December 18, 2009. The sign was cut
into pieces and there was a three day countrywide search. It was retrieved
and since then has been welded and reassembled by the dedicated and
professional staff at Auschwitz. A replica stands in its place. The site is the
only site that has a conservation laboratory directly on its grounds.
Dedicated professionals are meticulously scrutinizing every object to verify
its genuity and authenticity. Many more still need to be preserved.
On the Auschwitz grounds. Below: from inside looking at the gate.
It stands as a replica. Photos by author.
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7.1.3 Challenges for Education
“The more you get into it, the more it becomes part of your life.” –Alicja
Bialecka, Educational Director.
Directly on the site in block 12, is the Educational Department of
Auschwitz. Like other buildings structure where possible, they are used for
different departments and administration. The only structure that is more
modern is the Visitors’ Center at the entrance to the site. The buildings are
in their original form and have not been altered, save for some urgent
repairs. The small town of Oswiecim was chosen by the Nazis for the
venue of mass extermination. Today when people think of Oswiecim, they
think of the Holocaust. Since the end of World War II, Oswiecim has
become synonymous with the Auschwitz death factory and the Holocaust.
Today they are trying to shed that image and the levels of sensitivity vary
from individual to individual. Alicja Bialecka, Educational Director in
Auschwitz was born in the small town. She does not consider herself to be
an example of impartiality because her uncle was a prisoner and died in
Auschwitz. There is a program with the local schools in Oswiecim called
“Auschwitz my Homeland” which is given “to bring the young generation
to an understanding that they are not cursed because they live next door to
Auschwitz; that they are kind of privileged. They have a sensitivity and
honor to relate themselves to the topic as well as responsibility” (A.
Bialecka, personal communication, February 10, 2011). Rather than turning
Auschwitz into bitterness for the youngsters, the director turns it around
into something positive—that they are the future and can make a difference,
nurturing responsibility, awareness, and caring. The students ages 15 to 19
are encouraged to talk to old people and find objects that might be in their
attic; to find “living history” around them. “Our first part of the program
was to try and show them the good side of people, to try to find some object
that relates to this, like tiny things smuggled out of the camp made by the
prisoners, given to some of the people as thank you gifts for helping them.
In every society in traumatic times, there were those who tried to live their
little life, cooperated and collaborated, and those who became Righteous
among the Nations. We were showing what it was to be human—to help
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another human even with a piece of bread. This is what the young
generation needs to get from Auschwitz. They need to be taught about
responsibility. Memory and Education is responsibility for the future. The
topic was also called: We know about ourselves as much as we know that
we are.” In Oswiecim today, there is also a Jewish Museum which receives
cooperation from the Auschwitz Educational Department. According to A.
Bialecka, “we promote them and they promote us” (A. Bialecka, personal
communication, February 10, 2011). In addition to the Jewish Museum,
there is also a Roma Center which receives cooperation from the
department. It is the Oswiecim Synagogue which has an Education Center
and the Jewish Museum. More than half the population of Oswiecim was
Jewish when the Nazis entered the small town. The last known survivor
died in 2000. In addition to working with schools, there are seminars for
teachers, universities, guides, volunteers, and even a program to work with
prisoners, usually young people in their 20’s and 30’s. “We work with the
staff of the prisons and the whole system of detention. Prisoners, who are
able to leave, come and visit the site. They view the exhibitions and meet
with survivors.” It is clear that emphasis on education and remembrance to
teach youngsters about responsibility is the main focus of the department.
A lot has happened in Oswiecim to try and change the mind-set of those
who live there—that it should be used to their advantage as human beings to
live next to the site, learning that as the future generation, they can have
their definition of what is “human behavior.” Other excerpts from the
discussion with the director are down below. The audio file is available
from the author. Anything inaudible is not included.
I see on your title, remembrance and education. Are they intertwined?
Does education equal remembrance?
They are intervening all the time. Education is something between
remembrance and commemoration. It is all one.
Why do we need to remember and why does the next generation need
to remember?
For the future and to try that they develop into a good generation.
Development does not always mean we move towards the better. We want
the next generation to progress into a good generation. You can always find
some theory in the past. The more traumatic is was the more chance there
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will be a positive theory found for the future. Otherwise what would we do
here? We would just need 50 people to clean the memorial and that would
only be commemorating but we want to remember for the future.
You have such a responsibility on your shoulders. How many people
work here?
We have a total of 30 people and in my department which is the educational
section, we have 10. You don’t think of the responsibility on a daily basis,
otherwise I would not be able to work. I educate teachers, students, adults,
young people, and studies for Polish teachers together with the Pedagogical
University in Crakow, training for the guides and museology, conferences
including international ones, and an international academy for English
speakers opening this year. I am responsible for the entire team. There is
the matter of organizational things. One person is doing administrative
work but all the others can work on building programs. We need to be able
to do everything from cleaning cups, to working on elaborate programs in
foreign languages. On the staff there are people who know English,
German, and French.
Why can’t visitors get the same thing from a Holocaust museum not on
location, like in museums all around the world?
When I guided, I met professors of the Holocaust from all over the world.
There were many who came here for the first time. They said “I knew
about this place but now I am different. To see where it happened, it is
different. When I am here drinking tea in my office, I am safe. But when I
go to Birkenau, I don’t know . . .
The focus of the Educational Department at the Auschwitz –Birkenau
Memorial Museum centers on intertwining education, remembrance, and
commemoration with emphasis on teaching responsibility and humanity to
the next generations. It also centers on educating educators who can gain
this awareness and use it in their classrooms. There is also cooperation with
Yad Vashem. The director attends a seminar on a yearly basis in Israel’s
museum. Oswiecim has revived itself since the 1990’s. When the author
walked through the town on the first visit in 2004, “how can people live
here” first came to mind. Today there is a change. A lot of activity is
happening there and the mind-set is being switched using Auschwitz as an
educational tool for the future. Living in Oswiecim is being taught as a
privilege rather than a curse; a way to use the location to an advantage for
mankind. Tanks to the dedication of the Auschwitz Educational Department
staff, it is a prime example of how nurturing awareness and responsibility
can make a difference. Still, there is a lot of work which needs to be done
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as it is in its infancy. Working with prisoners who are incarcerated in
Poland’s jails creates identification between themselves and the victims of
Auschwitz. They learn about the hardships of what “the dead” and “the
survived” had to overcome.
Infamous ovens in Auschwitz I where naked victims were gassed and burnt. Photos by author.
7.1.4 Management Structure of the Auschwitz- Birkenau Foundation
"This is a universal cause and this is our main idea that needs to be
understood by everybody. It should not be only a question of people with
Jewish roots. It is not enough. It is humanity and it could happen to
everybody." –Jaciek Kastelaniec, Auschwitz Birkenau Foundation.
The grappling with the passing of time and the ongoing deterioration of
the material testimony to Auschwitz, found the Auschwitz museum obliged
to undertake complex, long-term conservation tasks.
The Auschwitz-
Birkenau Foundation, established in 2009 assumes that the annual sum of
four to five million Euros will make it possible to plan and systematically
carry out essential conservation work at the Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial
Museum. It has dedicated itself to raising a Perpetual Capital Fund of 120
million Euros. The fund will not be spent, but rather invested to that the
annual income from such investment will secure the authenticity of the site.
To give an example, in the first stage, the Museum envisions the
conservation and explanation of 30 of the most endangered vestiges of
wooden barracks in sector BII at the Auschwitz II-Birkenau site. The
condition of the barracks is highly varied. This results from the fact that
some of them underwent various repairs in the past. The cost of conserving
and preserving the remains of one barracks is approximately 78 thousand
euro according to the Auschwitz Museum. The cost of one small tower is
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approximately 18 thousand Euros. The annual cost of the conservation of
moveable objects is estimated at approximately 250 thousand Euros. One
of the most important conservation tasks in recent years has been the work
begun in 2004, and which is still underway, aimed at securing and
conserving the ruins of the gas chambers and crematoria, which were the
heart of the Nazi extermination system. Accordingly, the ruins of the gas
chambers and crematoria constitute some of the most important material
evidence of the crimes of the Holocaust. "Carrying on with this work
preserves the most distinct symbol of Auschwitz and Shoah" (J.
Kastelaniec, personal communication, February 9, 2011). The Foundation's
main mission is to secure the conservation and preservation of the
Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial Site for future generations through the longterm conservation plan. "This is a process we cannot avoid. For me it is
extremely important to keep the symbol of this whole tragic history and to
keep it going." (J. Kastelaniec, personal communication, February 9, 2011).
Left: Toilets inside wooden barrack. Right: Brick barrack. Taken in Birkenau by author.
Emphasis for the Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation is "to gather as many
countries as possible because it would be more symbolic even if some of
them do not have possibilities to be important donors. But symbolically it
is important for them to see that each other is involved and the fact that it
should be preserved.
This is why it was decided to approach the
international community besides everything else." (J. Kastelaniec, personal
communication, February 9, 2011).
Jaciek Kastelaniec is the Director
General of the Foundation, responsible for fundraising, and is a member of
the Management Board. The Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation consists of
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four separate bodies: The Foundation's Council, International Committee,
Management Board which includes the Director of Auschwitz who is also
President of the Board, and the Financial Committee. All are crucial to the
success and regulation of the structural and functional integrity of the
process behind the creation and management of the Perpetual Capital. The
Foundation has established a professional relationship with the renowned
companies that provide its services on legal matters, accounting,
bookkeeping, and external audit. All of these emphasize the Foundation's
primary objective of securing the Perpetual Capital and guaranteeing
transparency with regard to the disposal of funds. The Foundation's Council
is the decision-making supervisory and opinion forming body, including
appointing and recalling members of the Foundation's Management Board,
supervising its decisions and defining the main aims of the Foundations
activities.
The International Committee ensures the functioning of the
Foundation and is completely transparent to the public and to its
benefactors.
Members come from countries and institutions which
contributed to the creation of the Endowment Fund. No changes to the
Foundation's statutes are possible without first consulting with the
Committee. The first Committee meeting took place on March 10th, 2011 at
the Prime Minister's Chancellery in Warsaw. The Financial Committee
consists of experts in the field of safe fund investing, advises the
Management Board on fund investing strategy and coordinates and oversees
financial work of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation. The Management
Board manages the Foundation's activities and represents it externally. It
consists of one to six members appointed by the Foundation's Council for
three-year terms of office.
The International Auschwitz Council is a
separate entity. Made up of Holocaust survivors, historians, as well as an
international group of museum directors and the Auschwitz director, it
convenes to make decisions not only on Auschwitz but six other sites, each
with their own needs and issues.
For example, Sobibor underwent a
management shift when it came under threat of closure.
It was the
International Auschwitz Council that made suggestions on what to do with
it. For Jaciek Kastelaniec, the most important thing "is the contacts; to
reach somebody who can be helpful. Others are providing information on
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who should be approached to give some support with some materials, even
translation from Hebrew." The Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation booklet
was compiled and designed voluntarily. The office of his office is next to
the Nozyk Synagogue in Warsaw and consists of four employees including
him. Funding for the office comes from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Germany, France, and generates from the office itself. The budget for the
office is 200,000 dollars with salaries and travels. The strategy plan is for
them to concentrate on major donors in the United States with ten or fifteen
people who play an important role. To organize a campaign costs money.
Excerpts of the interview with Jaciek Kastelaniec are below. Audio file is
available from the author and anything inaudible is not included.
What is the procedure you undertake for the fund-raising? How do
you go about it?
First of all we get in touch with the Embassy in Warsaw. We do research
on the country and travel to it. We also have bookkeeping and also our
website. Secondly, what is crucial is to create a mechanism that this
process will continue. We are still only at the beginning. This will be the
first time that we will work on the cooperation and its organization. It is
important to create the proper mechanisms. Third, I want as many countries
involved as possible and to get countries not only European or EuroAtlantic but to get others to understand the importance of this place, that it
is not only US or a European project. There are many in Argentina or
Australia who understands the importance of this place if given the chance
to be involved. It is a challenge to preserve this place for future generations
and to obtain a result to change mentality; to try and be aware of how it
happened and what I should be aware of—what mankind should be aware
of.
We are meeting young people who are doing important work for
humanity and my people. What effect does all this have on Polish
Jewish relations? Do you see a change?
I think there are two facts. Poland is facing for the first time in the decade
the difficult and very dark part of our history during and after the war.
There are heroes who risked helping but there were also those who
committed crimes against the Jewish citizens of Poland. There is a growing
interest in Jewish culture. It is the fact that the initiative for this project
comes from Poland to protect this place forever which makes an impact on
Polish-Jewish relations. Israel decided to join the project also which was
their decision. We did not ask them but a good decision in my opinion.
This shows that there is a way of thinking in the same way, to keep it for the
future. Because survivors are passing away, after there won't be anybody.
During the communist period they did not use the word Jew. So there is a
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whole generation educated like that. The fact that young people have the
real view is a good step. Then there is the Festival of Jewish Culture in
Crakow which is a huge event. I am positive about the future knowing we
need to be extremely careful. A swastika was put on a monument last
week. The question here is reaction of the young people who cleaned is and
so on. There are people who don't want to be seen as a nation of criminals.
What about Romania?
I plan to meet with the Ambassador of Romania for the first time as well.
So far, world reaction has been positive; donations from a wide diversity
of nations over one million dollars are included in the following table:44
Country and Nation
Donation
Federal Republic of Germany
30 million Euros
The German States (Lands)
30 million Euros
United States of America
15 million dollars
Republic of Poland
10 million Euros
Republic of Austria
6 million Euros
Republic of France
5 million Euros
United Kingdom of Britain and
Northern Ireland
State of Israel
2,1 million pounds
1 million dollars
Donations and declarations below one million dollars: Kingdom of
Belgium, The Netherlands, Canada, City of Paris, Kingdom of Norway,
Swiss Confederation, Kingdom of Sweden, Czech Republic, Swiss
Confederation, New Zealand, Republic of Turkey, City of BoulogneBaillancourt, Republic of Estonia, Republic of Malta, City of Kolobrzeg.
There are several countries that declared their participation but have not yet
decided on the amount. The Foundation has also received positive signals
from others. The above figures make up the sum of approximately 97
million Euros out of a total 120 million Euros of the Endowment Fund
which is required.
Romania is not listed from 2011 but perhaps sent
positive signals. It is noted by the author that since the establishment of the
Foundation, the name Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum was changed to
44
Source: Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation.
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Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial Museum, perhaps another sign that there is
international cooperation regarding the future of Auschwitz.
7.2 Alone in the dark. Plaszow!
Only ten kilometers from the main city square of Krakow in the
Podgorze Burough, one can find the former site of Plaszow.
It was
constructed on the former grounds of two Jewish cemeteries and is
considered one of the largest mass cemeteries, since it was built over the
dead. It was originally designed to be a labor camp or "Arbeitslager" and
opened in 1942. It had areas for men, women, and children. With the
liquidation of the nearby Ghetto, it became a concentration camp in 1943.
More than 150,000 prisoners were incarcerated in Plaszow at one time or
another and it held about 25,000 at any one time. Majority of the Jews were
deported to Auschwitz, Mauthausen, Flossenburg, and Stutthof.
The
incarcerators faced extreme cruelty in Plaszow and were worked to death.
Many of them died of starvation, typhus, torture, and random executions.
From the cruel commandant of Plaszow Amon Goethe, prisoners were shot
at a whim for no reason. Anyone deemed incapable of coping with the
arduous conditions was shot on the spot. Under his command he had
Ukrainian SS personnel, followed by 600 Germans and SS women. Life for
the inmates was short and miserable.
Goethe personally oversaw the
liquidation of the Krakow Ghetto in March 1943 forcing the Jewish
inhabitants capable of hard labor into KL Plaszow. Bodies were stacked
layer upon layer in mass graves. But with the approaching Red Army in
1944, Plaszow became part of Aktion 1005. For nearly two years, special
units dubbed 10051 had to exhume the rotting corpses and burn them.
Other units during different times during the period were themselves
murdered.
The SS wanted to completely obliterate any traces of their
crime. At Plaszow the unit was forced to exhume 9000 bodies from 11
mass graves and the SS did not want any slave laborers left behind. Layer
upon layer, bodies were piled in a heap and turned into ash. Truckloads of
human ashes were scattered over the area.
The site was completely
dismantled and on their arrival January 20, 1945 they were met with bare
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land and complete silence. It is estimated that the ashes of 9000 bodies are
scattered over the area.45
Despite the extreme and vicious cruelty in Plaszow and its central
location on the outskirts of Krakow, tragically, it had become one of the
forgotten and unknown sites. Today there stands a monument and if one
does not know it is there, the area looks like a park of green. In 2004, the
author visited the site for the first time and saw people strolling on the parklooking area and walking their dogs. Goethe's villa still stands nearby.
Modern buildings view the monument from across the street. And driving
on a bus with a group of visitors, we passed the Plaszow monument and
nobody said anything about it. It stands there all alone unlit but glows if
one gets closer to it with headlights. In 2011, the author revisited the site
and noticed more hilly areas and more visible grounds. At the entrance to it,
there is a grey sign which tells people where they are entering. Many enter
and do not know that they are walking on it. Archaeologists are becoming
more interested in Plaszow and some excavation has been done.
The
grounds are maintained by the city and there is the intention to make it into
a memorial park. Attention was brought to the site with the blockbuster
movie by Stephen Spielberg, Schindler's List which he filmed on original
location. The site of Plaszow however had to be reconstructed nearby due
to the modern buildings in the area. In it he portrayed the short, tragic, and
miserable life of the prisoners. The hilly grounds of Plaszow eerily portray
the layers of mass graves that were exhumed and burnt. It is not flat ground
but barren, green, and bumpy.
There is no museum on the site but
information can be accessed through tourist centers, websites, and the
Shindler Museum. And thanks to Spielberg's movie, the former Jewish
Quarter in Krakow is experiencing a small revival. It is a tourist attraction
and there are even a couple of kosher restaurants in the area. The former
houses which were left until recently in their original state are becoming
refurbished and Poles are moving in. Still, the authenticity of the Jewish
Quarter is extremely visible with the Jewish cemetery and Synagogues. The
Krakow Jewish Festival under the management of the Galicia Jewish
45
Source: Oskar Shindler Museum.
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Museum is organized every year and attracts around 2000 visitors. Much of
Spielberg's movie was filmed on this location due to its original state.
"Please respect the grievous history of the site" reads the grey sign at the foot of the
stairs climbing up to the monument at Plaszow. The somber faces on the monument
portray the extreme suffering in Plaszow. Fists are clenched, opened, and some have fingers
missing. The monument was erected in 1964. At night, the area is completely invisible.
Like other memorial sites, the Plaszow site needs to be maintained. The
monument is beginning to fracture and decay. If not preserved, it can
eventually crumble over time. Small pieces of debris from the fingers or
faces are dropping and cracks can be seen on its body.
7.2.1 Just Beginning. Managing the Schindler Museum
"This place shows that even in a hard situation, you can be a human being.”
-Monika Bdarnak, manager and curator at Schindler Museum.
Located on Lipowa 4 the site of the former factory, the Oskar Schindler
Museum located on the original site of the Oskar Schindler Enameled
Goods Factory, was opened in June 2010. Oskar Schindler was a member
of the Nazi party and an agent of the German military intelligence. He
managed to appropriate the factory which was set up by a group of Jewish
businessmen in 1937. Under his control the plant continued to produce
cookware and varied metal vessels primarily for the German army. He was
ambitious and accomplished rapid expansion of the production facilities.
Instead of continuing using Polish staff, he replaced them with cheap labor
from the Krakow Jewish Ghetto. As the war continued, he became more
affected to the plight of the Jewish persecution. Through his factory, he
was able to employ 1200 Jews and save their lives from extermination. As
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he was a charming character, he managed to convince the Nazis that he
really needed the Jews. Their names appeared on a compiled list. The
other Jews were sent to Plaszow and most were transported to Auschwitz.
Stephen Spielberg immortalized Oskar Schindler in his film and Schindler
won Righteous among the Nations. At the end of the war, after using up his
own funds, he was broke. Upon his death, the survivors brought his body to
Israel and he was buried in Jerusalem. The Schindler Museum tells the
story of the life in Krakow, not only of Jews but Poles with the German
invasion in 1939. It contains a lot of stimulation. The first thing one sees is
the floor with swastikas, the idea being that with our shoes, we are stomping
on the Nazi emblem. The author had the privilege of speaking to the main
curator of the museum and having a guided tour. It is funded by the City of
Krakow and by the State. The museum is not a memorial site in the sense
of a camp, but it is on authentic location where the laborers stayed and also
on a location where Jews were deported to the sites. It is a museum
commemorating a form of resistance. There are 20 people who work in the
museum including five historians, guards, and people who work on the
exhibitions. It is the largest municipal museum. The museum is also an
educational institution; operating with the local schools, setting up projects,
and working on programs with teachers and the ministry from the city. One
of the problems the author cited to the manager and curator of the museum
Monika Bdarnak is the fact that there is no sign pointing where the museum
is located. It is a tourist attraction and yet, people have a difficult time
finding it. The museum is funded by the city of Cracow and the State. It is
among six museums which are funded by the city. Below are excerpts from
the interview with Monika Bdarnak from the Schindler Museum (M.
Bdarnak, personal communication, February 13, 2011).
Audio file is
available from the author and anything inaudible is not included below.
In Poland programs are changing and the history of the 20th century will be
discussed in the schools at the higher levels. Young students have projects
to do and they can come to the museum.
What do you want students or visitors to come out with from this
museum?
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That they should know that the story was not black or white, that the story
is very complicated. They should know that there were good and bad among
Poles, Jews, and Germans. The exhibition is based on the theme from the
movie. Stephen Spielberg knows we made a museum here.
Are you in contact with other museums in Israel?
The archives director of Yad Vashem was on the advisory board and we
have contact with the museum in Washington. Our archival material is
from different sources.
How many people work with you?
We are five altogether including one administrator. I am curator and
manager of this branch. There are another five museums in the city.
Why do people want to come here?
They want to come because they saw the movie but also for the museum.
How do you get your funding?
Mostly we are funded by the city and the State. We have six branches in
the city of Krakow.
What are some of your management challenges as a director?
It is hard to get it together. I want the exhibition to go well. We sometimes
need to change inscriptions or a picture. It is only five years after the
opening and there is a lot to do. We have place for small exhibitions as
well. We are now preparing a special room for students and the lessons.
We want to make it interesting for young people. Sometimes despite our
yearly budget, we need to ask for more money. We are looking for grants
wherever we can, even private donations to set up more projects. Students
should know that the story happened here in Cracow. It is interesting for
me. At the beginning we did not have many objects—documents and coins
perhaps. A lot of our exhibition is very dramatic. To make this exhibition
was a lot of hard work.
How many rooms are here?
The main exhibition takes up most of the place. The size of the space is
1,400 square meters. We have room for the permanent exhibition and
temporary exhibition.
What was done with the factory?
After the war, it was used for different purposes. Some of the machines
were sent to other factories. It was replaced with a different factory.
Nevertheless, there is a small part which visitors can see.
Do you agree that this museum is like a museum of resistance because
of its location and what happened at this spot?
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I agree. There were three other factories that operated in the Ghetto area.
This is different than a Holocaust museum. People should come here to see
what happened here. It is a place where you can see how war was cruel and
how people were treated, and that somebody took responsibility even in the
worst of circumstances. This shows that even in a hard situation you can be
a human being.
The biggest challenge for the manager and curator of the Schindler Museum
is to “get it together” of what she has been assigned to do. As it is still in its
infancy only opened in 2010, she has hope that it will be a success. While
the story of Oskar Schindler and his workers is covered in the original
location of the factory in Schindler's former office, the new museum's
permanent exhibition entitled "Krakow during Nazi Occupation 1939-1945"
puts the city at the forefront. Individual histories of the inhabitants, the seat
of the Generalgouvernement and Cracow's role during the period, everyday
life under occupation, the fate of the Jews, and the city's underground
resistance using archival documents, photos, multimedia installations, film
recordings, are all part of the exhibition. There is constant stimulation
incorporating all the senses. The Plaszow site is also part of the exhibition
in a room of its own. There is a separate section of the museum which is
reserved for film screenings, lectures and other cultural events.
"He who saves one life saves the world entire,” at entrance to museum. Taken by author.
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7.3 Stutthof! Managing Death's Gate
"From now on you are no longer a person, just a number. All your rights
have been left outside the gate- you are left with only one and that you are
free to do – leave through that chimney."-Speech to prisoners on arrival.
Second Stutthof gate and "Death Gate," entrance to Stutthof. Photos by author.
"We try and show survivors as having been normal people like grandmas
and grandpas and so on. Normally my students should see the history of
normal people. We are in contact with these people and we try and
organize that one of them comes to speak. I think this is very important
for Stutthof, the personal histories." -Marcin Owsinski, Education.
Stutthof was the first site built on Polish soil and operated from the
beginning of the invasion into Poland (September 1939) until 1945. The
site was built from the ground up by the prisoners themselves. It was
originally intended to be a place of incarceration for patriotic Poles,
especially from the surrounding regions of Danzig (Gdansk) and Pomorze.
Visiting it, one can see why the Nazis took the trouble to build in a wooded
and damp area about 40 kilometers from Gdansk. It was built along the
Danzig-Elbing highway on the way to the popular Baltic Sea resort town of
Krynica Morska, in the small town of Sztotowo. Like other sites built near
small towns, it was relatively secluded: North was the Bay of Danzig, to
the east the Vistula Bay, and to the west, the Vistula River. One can say
that Stutthof passed through three stages during its existence. From 19401942, it incarcerated mainly Poles, intended for 3500 prisoners at one time.
From 1942-1944 it grew from the former amount to 57,000 prisoners. It
comprised 39 sub camps and in 1943, the SS added a crematorium and gas
chamber. It became part of the "Endlosung" or Final Solution. Although
Jews were present from the beginning of the site's existence, an influx of
transports from Auschwitz and the ghettos arrived in Stutthof in 1944.
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Most were immediately gassed. A small transport of 500 Jews left Stutthof
for Dresden in November 1944. The author is honored to know a survivor
from Stutthof and from that particular transport. Many Poles were
exterminated as well by mass executions between 1939 and 1944. Another
30 barracks were put into place in the "new camp" to make room for Jews
and other nationalities. What is left of the Jewish barracks are cement
blocks with imprints of numbers on them. The site grew from 12 hectares
to 120 hectares and became a place of incarceration for 10,000 people and
an international death site.
Inmates were comprised of women, men,
children; citizens from 28 countries and 30 nationalities. Among them were
Poles, Jews, Russians, Ukrainians, Estonians, Czechs, Slovaks, Norwegians,
British, Italians, Hungarians, and Gypsies. The victims perished from mass
execution, gassing, starvation, torture, phenol injection to the heart,
hangings, and disease. Typhus was rampant in the site at the end of its
existence and claimed the lives of many. As the gas chamber could only
hold 150 victims at a time, railcars were used as well and filled to the rim.
Infamous Stutthof is known as a site for its extreme cruelty and sadistic
barbarism. One of the worst crimes was the execution of inmates for the
production of soap (Reines Judsiche Fett) or "Pure Jewish Fat" dubbed by
the acronym P.J.F through experiments by "scientist" Rudolf Spanner. He
was very proud of his invention and many prisoners were randomly
executed to satisfy his morbid and sadistic drives (Shermer, Grobman,
2002). Although survivors attested to this and despite the discovery of
chambers full of corpses by the Allies, Spanner was not arrested and
continued his work in Gdansk.
Between September 1939 and May 1945, 127,000 prisoners were
registered upon arrival. It is difficult to present clear figures as to the
amount murdered in Stutthof since those selected for immediate execution
were not reported. Most of the discovered documents are before 1944. The
lowest number of Jewish victims is estimated at around 28,000 but
according to the archive director, the number is probably a lot higher. What
singles out Stutthof is not the amount of Jews murdered compared to other
sites but the extreme cruelty and torture. About 50,000 prisoners, mainly
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Jews, remained in Stutthof in 1945. They were forced on a "death march"
and shot into the Baltic Sea. Amount of Jewish deaths can never be precise.
Due to its location in Western Poland, it is not included in the itinerary
for trips from Israel. Students concentrate on visits to the extermination
sites and death camps near Lublin, Cracow, and Warsaw. It is due to this
unawareness of the site despite its barbaric history, and a personal interest
(the author knows a Jewish survivor) that the author felt compelled to make
a special trip to Stutthof and meet those are in charge of its management
and functioning as a memorial site. Today, this place is visited by mainly
Polish students and work is done with local schools on educating the next
generations. Teachers are given a package by the museum prior to the visit.
The museum is run by 50 employees and like the other sites, there are
separate departments. Stutthof was the third site to receive government
funding by the Ministry of Culture in Poland, following Auschwitz and
Majdanek.
There is an emphasis on preservation and it is kept as
authentically as possible.
testimonies of survivors.
A project called "Last Witnesses" gathers
To date, they have testimonies of 80 Polish
survivors and they are trying to get more, desperately seeking testimonies of
Jewish survivors as well, outside of Poland. Perhaps this is one of the
biggest challenges for the management. “We don’t have Jewish survivors’
testimonies. We need Jewish survivors in Israel. We need Jewish survivors
outside Poland.” (M. Owsinski, personal communication, February 25,
2011). Stutthof is funded by the Ministry of Culture and they do not have
another budget. According to M. Owsinski, "more funding is needed to
make a new exhibition for the future. There are empty barracks. The
buildings exist but are not in the exhibition. It is a question of funding to
make it. We want to expand what is available to see. This is the line we
would like to go. We don't get donations from outside but survive on what
we get from the government." (M. Owsinski, personal communication,
February 24, 2011). The main exhibition is in the former women's barracks.
There are also other exhibitions consisting of 1200 exhibits total. There are
shoes, bowls, prayer shawls, uniforms, illegal drawings by the prisoners,
cans of Zyklon B used for gassing, a case of ashes, objects of personal use
that were later confiscated. There are also illegally crafted objects such as
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sewing needles, knives, ashtrays and illegal artwork of the inmates
including crosses, rings, and portraits. The gas chamber and crematorium
are intact at the rear of the site and there is a cross for in memorial of the
Christians who perished and a Magen David in memorial of the Jews who
perished. Flags line the wall of the crematorium, depicting the nationalities
of victims and inmates. Train tracks still exist in Stutthof. The
commandant's villa (Max Pauly) is inhabited today by a family. Stutthof
Memorial Museum is the winner of the prestigious Sybilla Prize for
outstanding achievement in museum exhibitions, the latest being 2011.
Left: Mound of shoes. Right: Gas chamber. Photos by author.
Left: Memorial for slain Poles with cattle car for gassing Jewish women in rear. Right: Jewish
memorial with gas chamber beside it. Below: Ovens and original tracks. Photos by author.
Discussion at the Stutthof Memorial Museum took place with the Director
Dr. Piotr Tarnowski, Education Head Marcin Owsinski, and Archives Head
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Bogulsawa Tartakowska. Below are excerpts of these discussions which took
place on February 25, 2011. Anything inaudible is not included and audio file
is available from the author.
I wanted to come here, to this place because it is unknown. I wanted to
come as well because I know a survivor from Stutthof. It is for these
reasons that I flew especially from Warsaw to meet with you. I wanted to
also see if the Jewish survivor I know is on the transport list.
None of the blocks exists in the newer camp. The documents regarding Hanan
Werebeczyk, the Jewish survivor you know, can be checked on the lists from
our archives. The camp is funded for the past fifty years by the Ministry of
Culture. We were last to receive it following Auschwitz and Majdanek. We get
100,000 visitors a year. There are fifty employees who work here and there are
separate departments, typical for a museum in Poland. Main documents are
preserved outside the museum and sent to professional conservationists. We do
have one person who does this work but with simpler artifacts easier to
preserve.
Not many people know about this site, also in Israel. Why do you think
that is?
Location is one thing. Second thing is the history of the place. From 1939 to
1942 there were mainly Polish prisoners. Jewish prisoners were not in large
number. Most of those here were sent from 1942 to 1944 to the extermination
sites in the East of Auschwitz. But there were Jews from the second day of
operation in 1939.
What are the greatest challenges you deal with on a daily basis?
We have a lot of Polish groups who come here. About 90% of our visitors are
Polish.
I would like to ask you Piotr. How long have you worked here? What
would you like to see done with this place?
Twelve years and I am director of the museum for four years. I would like to
make a new exhibition for the future. Buildings that still exist are not in the
exhibition. It is a question of funding to make it. We want to expand what is
available to see. This is the line we would like to go. We don’t get donations
from outside. We survive on what we get from the government.
What is the biggest crisis you had to face?
Funding and finances to do what we would like. We don’t have enough money
to publish to make the camp more well-known.
Do you have contact with Yad Vashem in Israel?
We have more contact with the Washington Museum than Yad Vashem.
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What is the goal of education programs here and what is the reaction of
students?
We make video testimonies of survivors. We made a film about them and now
we will try and make educational lessons here in this place with the video
testimonies. We have 80 testimonies and we try and extract from them. We try
and show survivors as having been normal people like grandmas, grandpas, and
so on. Normally my students should see the history of normal people. We are
in contact with them and we try and organize that one of them comes to speak.
I think this is very important for Stutthof, the personal histories.
Do they get education in school before they come here?
It is up to the teacher. We prepared new educational material that should apply
to every school in the region. There are lessons for teachers and students if
they come here, and material to prepare them for their visit.
What about the Archaeological Resources and Protection Program?
That was done with Poznan. They found some foundations of the barracks.
What would you like us to do when we get back from Israel?
We don’t have testimonies from Jewish survivors. We need Jewish survivors
in Israel and outside Poland.
If I want to find the name of my survivor, what do I do?
The Archives Head is coming here now to see you and she will be of
assistance. Our archives are for internal use only. They are not available on the
internet.
Why do you both want to work here?
Moral duty. I work here to remember and because of the mission. My
grandmother was a prisoner here.
7.3.1 “The Hanan Project”. A Jewish survivor from Stutthof
Despite funding from the Ministry of Culture and amazing work they are
doing, the management of the Stutthof Memorial Museum is limited in what
they can complete. They would like to see exhibitions in more barracks rather
than keep them empty as they are. A major challenge is the gathering of
testimonies from survivors.
At the time of the visit, they did not have
testimonies from Jewish survivors. They hope to use these testimonies as part
of their educational program. Compelled to assist and seizing the opportunity,
the author entered into a project with Sutthof by contributing the written
testimony of Hanan Werebecjzyk, a Jewish survivor from Stutthof. Following
the visit and the author’s return to Israel, the author suggested that for the 70th
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anniversary of the Final Solution, it would be a contribution from Stutthof if
they could publish Hanan’s survivor testimony, being a Jewish survivor, into a
book. This was agreed upon with enthusiasm by Marcin Owsinski and Dr.
Piotr Tarnowski. Its importance cannot be understated. Its publication in Polish
by a national Holocaust museum will be used for educational purposes. The
project, completed in December 2012, is available for purchase by the museum
in its bookstore and available to buy online. It will help to educate Polish
students and the population about the plight of Jewish prisoners in Stutthof.
It
was with assistance from the Head of Archives, Boguslawa Tartakowska, that
the author was able to find the original transport list with the name of Hanan
Werebeczyk. In order to complete this, the author had to tell the Head of
Archives personal information about Hanan including date of birth, place of
birth, that he was placed in barrack 4, and any other details which could be
provided. The author is fortunate to have contact with Hanan. He wrote his
memoir in Polish, Hebrew, and German. Hanan is survivor of the Lodz Ghetto,
Auschwitz-Birkenau, Stutthof, and KL Flossenburg in Dresden. Throughout
his memoir, he states that “he doesn’t know why he is alive.” Hanan arrived in
Stutthof along with his father, uncle, sister and other relatives on September 3,
1944 on a transport from Auschwitz. He left with 500 other Jews on a transport
to Dresden, Germany on November 24, 1944. He was kept alive because he
had a trade that his father taught him. His uncle was exterminated in the gas
chamber at Stutthof. His father picked up an infection and was undernourished.
He died on the transport to Dresden. Typhus ran rampant in Stutthof following
Hanan’s departure. He stated that he was fortunate he left when he did since
most of the Jews were left to die there. Below is an excerpt of the meeting with
the Head of Archives which was very moving as the author discovered Hanan’s
name on the original transport list. Hanan’s wife Miriam is also a survivor.
She survived the Lodz Ghetto, Birkenau, and KL Flossenburg. Although both
their testimonies can be found in the Stephen Spielberg Shoah Foundation, the
author recorded her own testimonies. Below are excerpts of the discussion
with the Head of Archives at Stutthof. Audio file is available from the author.
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What exactly is this building we are in?
You are in the “Kommandatur”, the original SS administration building of
Stutthof. This was the commandant’s office.
We can see why the Germans chose this place for Stutthof. They went to a
lot of trouble. It is further in, off the road in a forestry area.
I found Hanan’s transport list if this is him. He came to Stutthof from
Auschwitz on September 3, 1944 with 2,405 prisoners and left Stutthof for KL
Flossenburg on November 24, 1944. He was prisoner number 83426. His date
of birth was June 17th, 1925.
I see here that his nationality is listed as “Politische.”
Yes. That was for political prisoners. Jews were a subcategory in addition.
From what I see he survived these notorious conditions for almost three
months. I cannot believe that a secretary actually spent hours typing and
filling in the information very meticulously. Were most preserved here at
the end of the war?
It is a pity we only have these documents. We were able to find 80% in
different documents, including some Jews from the East and Riga. We have a
few documents about them. We don’t have information about prisoners after
the war. The booklet was found in Stutthof because this is a transport list from
Stutthof to another camp. We have different transport lists. This specific one
was made in Stutthof.
Hanan was a Jewish prisoner in barrack number 4. What did they do?
How many Jews died here?
They did hard labor in the “housenkommando.” In the Jewish “lager” there
were ten barracks for the Jews, thirty in the new camp. The camp was
destroyed in 1945. 70% of the prisoners were Jews in Stutthof in 1944 from
eastern Ghettos, Riga, Kovno, and Auschwitz. It is difficult to estimate how
many Jews died here, but I believe quite a lot more than 25,000. In 1945 the
camp documents were destroyed and liquidated. Our last documents are from
January 1945 and we don’t know what happened to the people January and
April 1945. Some were left here at the camp by the time the Soviets liberated
it. Most were sent on a “death march.”
Why did you start working at Stutthof? What do you do daily?
It was close to home. I always wanted to do that. I am interested in the Second
World War. I wrote my Masters about Stutthof. I was a guide here. I like this
work here in the archives. We meet with people looking for family and we are
working with the documents. We check the cards to make sure that one person
has one card. We are making a computer-based database and making copies of
these documents.
How do you feel when you work with this material?
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When we meet with people and they tell us about their family, and then we
cannot find the family members, this is the most difficult because we cannot
help them. We do not know why they did not return home. People come here,
often five or six people and they cry. I do not think about it because it is
important work.
I read quite a bit about this place and I know it was very cruel. They
tortured prisoners very badly. Did they make soap from human skin?
We do not really know. I remember about two years ago, they researched
about some soap which turned out not to be from human skin. But I think it is
possible because he was very cruel.
In an e-mail correspondence M. Owsinski wrote the following: “Our mutual
things look very good. Text is by redaction, cover is designed, hope end of
October we will have almost finished version of the book.” (M. Owsinski,
personal communication, September 28, 2012). The Head of Archives has the
arduous task of making a database of testimonies from survivors. She also has
to deal with those she cannot help. As with many of the sites, documents were
destroyed and therefore, number of victims is only an estimate. It is however
estimated that altogether there were about 85,000 deaths in Stutthof, with
Jewish deaths included in that number. In an e-mail correspondence was sent
by Marcin Owsinski regarding the Hanan Project. It said the following: “Our
“mutual” things look very good. Text is by redaction, cover is designed, hope
end of October we will have almost a finished version of the book.” (M.
Owsinski, personal communication, September 28, 2011).
Hanan's file card at Stutthof. It shows he left Stutthof for Flossenburg on November 24, 1944.
Photo by author. Courtesy of Stutthof Museum and archives.
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Oriiginal transport list with Hanan’s name on it. His father’s name is above it. It illustrates the
SS meticulous methods. Another prisoner is crossed off the list in genuine red ink. It can be speculated as
to his fate. Photo by author. Courtesy of Stutthof Memorial Museum and Boguslawa Tartakowska.
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Location
Western Poland, Sztotowo, 36 kilometers
from Gdansk, near Baltic Sea resort town
Krynica Morska.
Exhibitions
In barracks. Personal belongings, shoes,
drawings.
Visitor’s Center
In small house.
Gas Chamber
V One gas chamber intact.
Crematorium
V Crematorium building intact.
Monument, memorial
Jewish memorial and Christian memorial as
well as monument.
Visitors
Approximately 100,000 per year, mainly
Poles.
Employees
50, separate departments
Funding
Ministry of Culture in Poland
Education
Last Witnesses Program, package for the
schools prior to visit.
Biggest Challenge
Funding for more exhibitions, gathering
testimonies especially of Jewish survivors to
also be used for educational purposes.
Table 12. Stutthof management.
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7.4 Wannsee! The Final Termination of the Jew
Authentic list depicts the number of Jews by country drawn up for the “Final Solution to the Jewish
Problem.” The business-like meeting took place at the Wannsee Willa on January 20, 1942 with top SS
officials to discuss the implementation of total mass extermination. Today the villa stands as a
memorial and education center. This authentic list illustrates the zeal and determination of the SS to
fulfill their mission. Photo by author.
It was not enough that Jews were deported to the East, dying of disease
and starvation, subject to torture, degradation, humiliation, gassing, and
shot into mass graves. The obsession of the Nazi regime to find a solution
to the problem of the Jew culminated with the Wannsee Conference. The
management of the conference was carried out akin to an urgent meeting.
The beautiful villa, located in the Berlin suburb of Wannsee, would later
symbolize the epitome of the evil side of management. The beautiful and
serene location by Lake Grosser Wannsee set the stage for the discussion
and coordination to execute the “Final Solution to the Jewish Question”
("Die Endlosung der Judenfrage") in all its managerial and official capacity.
Reinhard Heydrich, chief of the Reich Security Main Office of the SS and
the initiator of the conference, summoned representatives from a variety of
branches in the Nazi regime. This meeting, convening half a year after the
systematic murder of Jews on the Eastern front had begun, was called to
coordinate expansion of the mass murder to include all European Jewry.
The purpose of the meeting was to coordinate the Reich offices and
authorities in implementing the plan to murder 11,000,000 Jews (Luxenberg
Eisenberg, 2012). On January 20th, 1942, fifteen high-ranking Nazi party
officials gathered at the villa. Representing the SS at the meeting were: SS
General Reinhard Heydrich, the Chief of the Reich Security Main Office
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(Reichssicherheitshauptant-RSHA) and one of Reichsfuhrer-SS (SS chief)
Heinrich Himmler's top deputies; SS Major General Heinrich Muller, Chief
of RSHA Department IV (Gestapo); SS Lieutenant Colonel Adolf
Eichmann, chief of the RSHA Field Office for the Government General in
Crakow, Poland; SS Major Rudolf Lange, commander of the RSHA
Einsatzkommando (killing squads), two of which were deployed in Latvia
Autumn 1941; and SS Major General Otto Hoffmann, the chief of SS Race
and Settlement Main Office. Representing the agencies of the State were:
State Secretary Roland Freisler (ministry of Justice); Ministerial Director
Wilhelm Kritzinger (Reich Cabinet); state Secretary Alfred Mayer (Reich
Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories0German-Occupied-USSR);
Ministerial Director Georg Leibrandt (Reich Ministry for the Occupied
Eastern Territories); Undersecretary of State Martin Luther (Foreign
Office); State Secretary Wilhelm Stuckart (Ministry of Interior); State
Secretary Josef Buhler (Office of the Government of the Governor GeneralGerman occupied Poland); and Ministerial Director Gerhard Klopfer (Nazi
Party Chancellor). There were some representatives not present at the
meeting that day to discuss the termination of the Jew. In late September
1941, Hitler authorized the Reich Railroads to transport German, Austria,
and Czech Jews to locations in German-occupied Poland and the German
occupied Soviet Union, where authorities would kill the overwhelming
majority of them. Regarding the figure of 11,000,000, Heydrich included
not only Jews residing in Axis-controlled Europe, but also Jewish
populations of the UK, and the neutral nations (Switzerland, Ireland,
Sweden, Spain, Portugal, and European Turkey). He also included in that
figure the Jews of Greece, and some countries where Sephardic Jews
resided.
For Jews in the greater German Reich and holding status as
subjects of the Reich, the Nuremberg Laws would serve as a basis for
determining who was a Jew. Taken from the original document of the
Minutes of the Wannsee Conference, he announced that:
During the course of the Final Solution, the Jews will be deployed
under appropriate supervision at a suitable form of labor deployment in
the East. In larger labor columns separated by gender, able-bodied Jews
will be brought to those regions to build roads whereby a large number
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will doubtlessly be lost through natural reduction. Any final remnant
that survives will doubtless consist of the element most capable of
resistance. They must be dealt with appropriately since representing the
fruit of natural selection; they are to be regarded as the core of a new
Jewish revival.
The participants discussed a number of other issues, including the
establishment of the Theresienstadt Ghetto and preparatory measures for
evacuations.
The euphemisms which appeared in the protocols of the
meeting did not deter the aim of the Wannsee Conference which was clear
to its participants—to further coordinate a policy aimed at the total physical
extermination and annihilation of the Jews (Luxenberg Eisenberg, 2012).
To carry out this judgment designated as the Final Solution, the entire
bureaucratic and functional apparatus of the entire German State and the
Nationalist Socialist Movement, embarked on the employment of the best
available technological means. The term was the code name assigned by
the German bureaucracy for the annihilation of the Jews. When analyzed, it
reveals its fundamental character of finality, the ultimate. The term "Jewish
question," as first used during the early Enlightenment/emancipation period
in Western Europe, referred to the persistence of the Jews as the problem; a
people that did not appear to conform to new political demands of the state.
Since a question demands an answer, and a problem demands a solution,
many preoccupied themselves with the latter, such as abandonment of
religion and abandonment of the Jewish language. And to this end, the
National Socialists are given the heinous credit for their addition of the
word final; definite, ultimate; end; sacrificial with a tone of salvation—
almost Biblical. The Nazis wanted to be the ones to finally provide a
solution to the problem of the Jew.
The success of the Final Solution to solve the problem of the Jew for
which the Nazis are accredited, achieved success on a wide scale. Had they
not lost the war, they would have succeeded in even greater numbers of
victims than the approximate estimation of 6,000,000 (however it must be
remembered that many deaths were not accounted for and mass graves have
to this day not been discovered. The 6,000,000 estimate of Jewish victims in
the Shoah is extremely rough). It is an example of bureaucratic efficiency.
It is an example of a well-thought out, calculated, and engineered plan
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consisting of professionals at the highest levels. No other organizational
plan succeeded to manage on such a grandiose scale, a perverse and
genocidal evil as the Holocaust. Killing Jews even came at the expense of
the growing manpower shortage at the end of the war. It did not matter.
The slaughter of millions outweighed the commerce of the Third Reich.
Yet, the Holocaust is not only the deaths of millions of people, each with
their own name, family, community—it was the largest economic pillaging
of human possessions of all time—and they spared nothing. From the
possession of houses and its contents, to the extraction of gold teeth, to
human hair used for stuffing pillows; economic plundering and pillaging
must be addressed as a separate topic. The Final Solution in all its totality
was a success. More than half of European Jewry was eliminated . . . part
of a culture that was no more. It must also be remembered that Jews were
being exterminated before the Wannsee Conference on January 20, 1942.
The infamous Babi Yar ravine on the outskirts of Kiev is a symbol of mass
killings around the Ukraine.
Chelmno was the first extermination site
which operated on Polish soil in two phases and with its gas vans, became
the prototype for latter sites used in the Final Solution. Accordingly, it is not
exactly known when the leaders of Nazi Germany decided to fully
implement the Final Solution. The genocide or mass destruction of the Jew
was a culmination of increasingly severe discriminatory measures as
discussed in previous chapters. The code name "Operation Reinhard" was
eventually given to this plan, named after Heydrich who was assassinated
by Czech partisans in May 1942. And it is the extermination sites, the
killing centers in Poland which had the sole purpose to commit mass
murder of Jews. It is in the gas chambers where the SS killed thousands
upon thousands. Majdanek just outside Lublin served as a killing site for
Jews residing in the Generalgouvernement. And it is the Lublin region
which became the epicenter of the Final Solution plague. This year 2012
marks the 70th anniversary of its implementation and the erection of the
mass extermination sites in Poland—Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka. Majdanek
was used as a contributor to the Final Solution with its gas chambers in
1942. And in the spring of 1942, Himmler designated Auschwitz II as a
facility for mass murder. In the killing centers, Jews were murdered either
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by asphyxiation with poison gas or by shooting. "Die Endlosung" or Final
Solution called for the murder of all European Jews by gassing, shooting,
and other means. It must be mentioned that the Reinhard sites of Sobibor,
Treblinka, and Belzec were established one following the other, with the
sole intent of total Jewish annihilation. Those who managed to survive the
horrendous journeys in the cattle cars were exterminated upon arrival.
Two-thirds of the Jews living in Europe before World War II were
murdered. Over 2,000,000 men, women, and children were wiped out in
the Reinhard sites alone. It must be mentioned however that gas chambers
were used in other parts of Europe and not only in Poland, although the
latter had the bulk of them. But it is the extermination sites that protrude in
a separate category. They were built specifically and intentionally by the
perpetrators to fulfill their evil, genocidal purpose. The mass death site of
Belzec was the first one to use stationary gas chambers. This obsessiveness
with totality regarding Jewish elimination makes the atrocity of the
Holocaust so difficult to deal with—the fury and zeal of its wrath and the
drumming up and preoccupation by professionals for more efficient ways to
complete the mission. Any discussion involving the extermination sites in
Poland is synonymous with the Wannsee Conference. It is for this reason
that although its location is in Germany, it is included in this chapter.
Original translated document from House of the Wannsee Conference. Photo by author.
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7.4.1 Genocide to Remembrance: Managing the Wannsee House
"This is the site here where the implementation of the Holocaust all over
Europe was really discussed and planned. Therefore I think it is a central
historical site. The house has become a symbol for the bureaucratic
organization and implementation of the Holocaust." –Dr. Wolf Kaiser
Wannsee Villa. Sculpture behind the villa located by the lake. Photos by author.
A trip to the House of the Wannsee Conference Memorial and
Educational Site is surreal.
On a beautiful location by the clear and
shimmering Wannsee Lake, approximately two hours by train from Berlin,
it almost makes one forget what hideous crimes against humanity and plans
for total annihilation were discussed there.
It is located at 56-58 Am
Grossen Wannsee. It was used as a guesthouse for the SS and high-ranking
officials and their guests. The beautiful sculpture in the back of the house
represents the perfect man, the perfectly built human being. The maintained
rose gardens take the breath away. The House of the Wannsee Conference
Memorial and Educational Site on the Jewish genocide has transcended
itself from a place that began with the ashes of the Jews, to an amazing
place that fosters awareness, education, and remembrance.
It is now
serving humanity rather than taking humanity. For it is that paradox, that in
such beauty was such evil.
Today the house is a memorial and an
educational site consisting of a permanent exhibition of the original
documents for all those to see on display—the meeting which took place on
January 20th, 1942 and that which gave an answer and provided a solution
for the problem of the Jew. Besides the permanent exhibition of original
documents, it has a library with over 50,000 collections in addition to
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newspapers and government records on microfilm. Its collection consists of
the history of the Jewish people, anti-Semitism, persecution, genocide,
racism, neo-Nazism, the culture of remembrance and more. It also provides
educational opportunities addressing pupils and other young people, as well
as adults. There are courses for teachers and trainee teachers, seminars, and
continuous investigation of how to deal with National Socialism during
lessons given in school. It does not replace the lessons taught in school
about the history of National Socialist persecution of the Jews. Instead, it
provides the opportunities offered by the historical site to gain deeper
insights into significant aspects of the genocide of the Jews and facilitates
study of a range of particular topics.
There are no rigid curricular
guidelines and time schedules. This allows for participants to self-reflect
and gain insights into the history of the crimes and their effects on the
present. Opportunities are designed according to the interests and prior
knowledge of the participants. All functions and events can be conducted in
many European languages as well as in Hebrew. In January 2006, the
House of the Wannsee Conference opened up a new exhibition that
incorporates recent historical findings that were accumulated since the
opening of the archives in Eastern Europe in the 1990's. Between 1992 and
205, the house received over 800,000 visitors. The majority attended to
participate in educational programs with the memorial site's staff. The site
offers many pedagogical possibilities and is also geared for those visiting
the site individually. There are 15 rooms in the Villa all contributing to the
the main focus of the exhibition which is the Wannsee Conference itself, its
participants, and the authorities they represented in the persecution and
murder of the Jews. This theme occupies four rooms. Others include antiSemitism and racism, while at the same time their attempt to integrate into
German society, the propagandist construction after 1933, the exclusion and
persecution of the Jews and their attempts towards self-assertion, theme
rooms of the perpetrators, as well as the civil administration in the occupied
territories. There is also information about collaborators which has
generated increased research since the 1990's and an exhibition which deals
with how much was known about the crimes within German society.
Ghettos, mass deportations, and finally liquidation of the Ghettos are also
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exhibited in room 12. Life in the camps is described using documents
produced by the perpetrators and the perspective of the victims in rooms 11,
13, and 14. The exhibition looks at the possibilities of action for the
bystanders and the victims' struggle for survival. Four family biographies
to give names and faces to the perished are represented in one room. The
various themes related in the rooms, include the attempts of justice to hand
down penalties for the crimes, reparations, politics of remembrance and
memorialization culture. Most importantly, the last room thematizes the
perpetuation of memory, the fact that it did not end with 1945, and the
clarity that it is not the end of the story. Residing above its circular staircase
are the administration and offices of the House of the Wannsee Conference.
It is here that the author had the honor of meeting Deputy Director of the
house, Dr. Wolf Kaiser on February 9, 2011 which preceded the author's
own tour of the house including its original documents on display.
Room 7 to 10 which house authentic documents from the Wannsee Conference, including countries and
numbers of Jews (right). Photos by author.
What distinguishes the House of the Wannsee Conference and separates
it from any other memorial, is its perspective. It is a museum of the
perpetrators, although the Deputy Director hesitates to use the term
"museum" since they do not preserve artifacts but documentation. "I
hesitate to call it a museum in the narrow sense because up until 1992, there
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was no archive here or Holocaust related artifacts. Our artifact is the house
itself. It is a museum, and artifact, an historical site. It can be called a
museum but not in trying to preserve artifacts. We show documentation
and of course photos in reproductions. In terms of education and
confronting the public, we are not so different from a museum. We are less
active in preservation except for the house. Therefore we call it here a
memorial and education site, though of course the term memorial has also
some problems in this case because it is the site of the perpetrators. The
house has become a symbol for the bureaucratic organization and
implementation of the Holocaust." (W. Kaiser, personal communication,
February 9, 2011). The house is the artifact itself, and it is within these
walls that displays of authenticity; direct evidence for the management and
bureaucratic implementation of the "Endlosung" is located. The House of
the Wannsee Conference is redeeming itself from an infamous site of
bureaucratic planning for genocide, to a place for reflection, remembrance,
education, combating xenophobia, racism, and genocide.
Testimonies in Generations Hall, House of the Wannsee Conference. Photo by author.
One has to have previous knowledge to realize what lurked behind the
beautiful exterior and pastoral view of Wannsee. And it is for this reason
that the mission of the House of the Wannsee Conference Memorial and
Education Center is critical to the memory of the Jewish genocide. It is
different than any other memorial site. Its title does not include "museum"
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but "education." It memorializes through learning and education, the
suffering of the victims through the house of the perpetrators. Below is the
transcribed interview with Deputy Director and Educational Director of the
House Dr. Wolf Kaiser. He is also a member of the International Holocaust
Task Force (W. Kaiser, personal communication, February 9, 2011). Audio
file is available from the author and anything inaudible is not included.
Tell me about yourself
I am a teacher of history and German literature. I have been working here
since 1991. I started during the preparation phase of this education and
memorial site which was inaugurated in January 1992, and since then I
work in the educational department. That means in particular, organizing
seminars for students, groups, giving lectures, and I travel a lot and keep
connections with colleagues working in the field.
Is the villa also a museum?
I hesitate to call it a museum in the narrow sense because we not exhibit
artifacts we do not have. Up until 1992, the house was used as a youth
hostel. There was no archive here and no Holocaust related artifacts. Our
house is the artifact itself. It is a museum, an artifact, an historical site. It
can be called a museum but not in trying to preserve artifacts. We show
documentations and of course photos in reproductions. In terms of
education and confronting the public, we are not so different from a
museum. We are less active in preservation except for the house. Therefore
we call it here a memorial and education site though of course the term
memorial has also some problems in this case because it is the site of the
perpetrators mainly. There were some young Jews here used as forced
laborers, but the house is important as a historical site because the infamous
conference was here. The house has become a symbol for the bureaucratic
and organizational implementation of the Holocaust. To finish this thought,
we do not think this is an adequate place for collective and ritual
commemoration, but more for individual commemoration of the victims. It
is a different kind of memorial whereas in places like Sachsenhausen, where
the perpetrators and victims were, it is clearly the place of full
commemoration. We use the house more for studying and learning.
Why should this place be remembered and maintained?
I think it is the site in Germany which refers to the European dimension of
the Holocaust. Although concentration camps in Germany had prisoners
from many countries and also Jewish prisoners, their role in the Holocaust
is limited. Many were created originally for political prisoners. Later on
Jews were brought in 1939 as forced laborers and than they were sent to
Poland. They came back later in the last phase of the war. So they do have
relations to the European dimension.
But this is the site where
implementation of the Holocaust all over Europe was really discussed and
planned. Therefore, I think it is a central historical site.
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I was thinking about the management thought that went into the
meeting back then and the management of this place today. I was
going back and forth in my mind to try and make a comparison and
contrast of such a meeting and the management of this site. It is a
memorial in that sense even though it is from the perpetrators' end. It
was the turning point.
From 1940 onwards, it was a guesthouse for the security of the SS. It was
sometimes used for conferences but usually a guesthouse for high-ranking
SS officers and also international guests of the SS.
When we were at the Memorial for the Murdered Jews of Europe, she
also mentioned that their emphasis is to teach that it was a European
dimension. Is this your emphasis here?
Of course, there it is victim-centered under the memorial but here we have
more focus on the perpetrators. This does not mean we only deal with the
perpetrators, because dealing with them makes sense if we can show what it
did to the victims of the perpetrators. Therefore we have some things in
common and yet some things that are different. On the one hand, in our
permanent exhibition, we try to show the European dimension. We have a
collection in our library which is quite remarkable. It is certainly the best
library on the Holocaust in Germany which includes publications from
other European countries including non-German literature, Polish for
example. We do not have much on Romanian literature but we do have on
Romania and the Holocaust. There is also another dimension. We are
working with people from all over Europe. Israeli groups and Americans
come here but also groups and individuals from many European countries.
We have developed programs for teacher-training including a seminar for
Russian teachers, Irish teachers, Ukrainian teachers, Polish teachers. These
seminars are usually over a six-day period. And of course during these
programs we visit with them some of the sites but the focus is on the
program in the House.
What do they want to get out of the program?
We ask them of course but the main interest is three-fold: 1) The history of
the Holocaust. 2) Commemorative culture and culture for remembrance and
its surroundings. 3) Methodology. They want to know how to teach the
Holocaust outside the classrooms.
What is the biggest challenge and why did you choose to work here?
I was trained as an historian and history teacher and of course I did not
study history by chance. So it was not just a general interest. From the
very beginning at that time, I was focusing on German history and this part
of history was something that was of crucial importance. I was focusing on
émigrés who escaped from Germany and anti-fascist literature. There are
several challenges here:
267
That the educational program we offer will meet the needs of the people
who come here. These needs are changing because of time, growing
distance to the events, and the groups themselves. This is particular true for
the German group. Nowadays many of them, if not the majority who come
here have non-German background and many national backgrounds,
particularly when they come from West Germany, West Berlin. East
Germany and East Berlin is a bit different. Many come here where you
have people with many national backgrounds. Maybe they have German
citizenship, or maybe not. Most of them are usually born here but their
family background is completely different. You cannot refer to them by
saying your grandparents lived during the Nazi period. They did not, or at
least not in Germany. Of course groups from abroad change. The biggest
challenge I think is how we convince our visitors that what we teach here is
not only historical but also of importance for the present. I think the
Holocaust deserves a study as such because there is a legitimate expectation
that learning about it and teaching it gives you more than just the history.
The reflection and relevance of these events for today and the future is a
very important task. There is a lot of discussion about this and I regularly
take part—how it can be addressed without moving away from it and not
seeing it as an event from long ago.
Why do we need to remember and why preserve the sites?
I think the sites remind people of this important part of history in a much
more impressive way than other places. Even the best museum cannot
impress people like the Auschwitz-Birkenau site. And there is some
impression here. If you come with little knowledge or no knowledge, you
won't feel it at least at the beginning. You feel it when you know something
about it. These sites give the opportunity to study these events. They are
learning sites and museums of contemporary history. I do not think that
other museums can replace these functions.
What can we do about Holocaust denial?
We have to refer to the conditions of the various countries. For the present
in Germany, there is not such a big problem. They are very small groups
and quite marginal. Even for the right wing, Holocaust denial is not their
main topic anymore. In other countries, Holocaust denial becomes stronger
and there are of course deniers on the internet. Conditions for fighting them
are different because there are different legislations for doing so, even in
Europe. In Germany for example it is strictly forbidden and you can be
charged quite heavily. Denmark does not have similar legislation. It is not
that they are fond of deniers, but they have a different way of dealing with
it. Memories are still fresh especially in Eastern Europe. People get
charged when there is interference by the State. I work with the Holocaust
268
Center in Budapest. They are skeptical about introducing legislation. But
they do fight it in a different way.
What is the aim of the International Task Force?
Aim is to encourage Holocaust education and research as well as
remembrance with the commitment of governments. Its construction is a
governmental organization, made of 29 countries. There is an expert level
to give advice to the diplomats and to agree on some principles. I am
working in education.
How cooperative are governments?
It varies from country to country. As you know diplomats change every
third year. It is very individual and it is difficult to organize seminars for
them. There are always some lectures. We are also cooperating with the
German Foreign Office on the question of how Germany deals with it
today. Sometimes the diplomats come and they are influenced by deniers
through their questions. I engage in discussions with them.
A lot of euphemisms were used even the word extermination. There is
a myth that Jews were not exterminated on German soil.
When we analyze the Wannsee protocol it is full of euphemisms. You can
only understand it if you somehow decipher it. I would differentiate
between euphemisms as a phenomenon of language, and myth partly
produced after the war, which can be a sort of expression of a secondary
anti-Semitism. Such things like Jews were not exterminated on German
soil are simply nonsense. From the point of Auschwitz of Chelmno for
example, it was on annexed German soil. Many died on the death marches
to concentration camps in Germany and died in the German camps, etc. It
is true that the great death camps and mass shootings were outside
Germany, but I would ask what one is trying to prove with this remark. Is it
to diminish German responsibility? It was the Germans who were
responsible even in far Eastern Poland. So the question of where it
happened is different from who is responsible.
What kinds of techniques and methodology do you use for immigrant
children?
We add some materials on our study days which refer to the countries
where they come from. We need to know the makeup of the group before
they come. It is a lot of preparation. We cannot always have special
information for all countries but we have for many. We use additional
materials because the very core of the Holocaust of course was in Germany
and Poland. We have outside publishing though. This is really a problem.
We have to come to agreements with publishing companies. We try and
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make a contract with them because we not have the machinery to do it and
they can distribute it. We can offer our website but we do not have the
machinery. Giving donations for such institutions is not such a tradition in
the US. We do not have that here. Our normal funding comes 50% from
the Federal German State and 50% from Berlin, political entities.
What kind of manager are you?
I try to work on my own and be involved with all the things in my sphere. I
need to know what is going on. There is a lot of overlapping of course in
roles. I also give seminars from time to time.
What about Romania?
I have not worked with Romania. I have contact with them insofar as I am
an educational advisor on the International Task Force in which Romania is
a member. I have not had close contact with them.
Are you involved with Yad Vashem and the Ghetto Fighters' House in
Israel?
I am involved with both of them.
Tell me what your main mission is. My main mission is to:
Make people acquainted with Holocaust history and make them think of the
relevance of these events for today.
Pastoral gardens and shimmering lake view mark the back of the Wannsee Villa. Photos by author.
271
Exhibitions
15 rooms consisting of authentic
documents,
testimonies,
and
photos. Over 50,000 documents.
Library
One of the biggest Holocaust
libraries in Europe.
Employees
4 in the Educational Department
and 35 freelance consisting of PhD
students, employees of other
institutions.
Education
Teacher seminars, local and
international programs involving
student groups, teacher trainees,
diplomats, other parts of the civil
service. Used as an education and
learning center.
Funding
50% city of Berlin.
50% Federal Government. Few
donations.
Seminar rooms
Large room for maximum 70
people, 2 smaller rooms, and one
room for 18 people. It was not
designed as a Conference Center or
a museum.
It is kept in its
authentic state.
Deputy director
On location.
Director
On location
Table 13. Wannsee Conference and Memorial Center management.
Author with Deputy Director, Dr. Wolf Kaiser.
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7.5 Speaking for the Perished: Managing Sites of Mass Extermination
"For These I Weep." (Lamentations 1:16)
To say that the Holocaust is an example of 20th century barbarism is an
understatement, for it is more than that as this research illustrates. Man is
not like the animal kingdom. Man has conscious awareness. And man can
reason. To imagine the brutality and perverse evil—vehement aggressor
against victim—for the purpose of promoting a race thought to be engulfed
in superiority is hard enough; but to imagine the deliberate acts of cruelty,
the ultimate obsession of man's inhumanity towards his fellow man with
methods that were so ingeniously carried out—managed and organized with
efficient precision is incomprehensible. The most characteristic feature of
the genocide of European Jews is its bureaucratic organization, whereby,
besides the SS, state institutions and members of many different
professional groups were to varying degrees accomplices on account of
their knowledge and responsibility—the doctors who performed medical
experiments; the engineers who constructed the gas chambers and those
who participated on the highest levels of government. Hitler could not have
completed his feat without support at the highest level. And he needed the
help
of
his
collaborators—Ukrainians,
Lithuanians,
Romanians,
Hungarians, and many more.
Nowhere is the totality of elimination illustrated more than at the
extermination sites emerged from the implementation of Die Endlosung,
The Final Solution. This is not to say that other death factories were not
performing. But the extermination sites were the result of finality—the
ultimate solution for total eradication decided over a business lunch.
Nothing can exceed to overpower the human spirit than that thought, when
it comes to the Holocaust. Despite the swiftness of death for the victims on
arrival and the numbers which exceed two million, these factories of death
are still underrepresented.
Put on the wayside, their names are not
mentioned that often, even at Holocaust lectures which this author attended.
They do not have a large staff taking care of them; in some cases, one or
two people devoted to perpetuating their memory. The SS destroyed all
evidence of their crimes so what the staff manages is bare ground with ash,
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save for the odd monument here and there. Because the Jew was eliminated
on arrival in Sobibor, Belzec, Treblinka, and Chelmno, there were few
survivors who lived to tell. The two who managed to escape from Chelmno
are no longer with us. Both the Sobibor and Treblinka revolts (the latter
revolt hardly anyone knows about), produced approximately 50 survivors
each. Belzec had one survivor. Today there is one survivor left from
Treblinka. Sobibor has perhaps two or three survivors left from that revolt.
Most of the people who were left to participate in them were those who
performed “auxiliary duties” like sorting clothing of the victims, removing
teeth, piling up shoes, cutting hair, construction work at the site like in
Treblinka, or slave workers. School groups do not usually visit these sites
from Israel, save for Treblinka. They are not on the itinerary which is
limited with time. So they visit the sites of Auschwitz and Majdanek, prior
to any of the others. The sites of mass extermination from the Endlosung
are at the bottom of the hierarchical funding ladder in Poland. It must be
mentioned that since the return from Poland by the author, Sobibor has gone
through a management shift for the better. With that however, its situation
is still precarious. All the extermination sites are in vulnerable positions.
The Polish government is aware that they need to be dealt with—that
something has to be done about them and it is only through the cries of
Holocaust survivors that in June 2011, the tiny red-roofed museum at
Sobibor was temporarily saved from closure. Chelmno is not classified as a
Reinhard Site from the Final Solution. Many researchers think that the
mass extermination started after the Wannsee Conference. The Reinhard
Sites are Belzec, Treblinka, and Sobibor. Majdanek, a hybrid camp similar
to Auschwitz, is included as a contributor to the mass extermination of Jews
and is in some schools of thought part of that list. But Chelmno does not
seem to fit into a specific category. Many people never heard of it. It is a
site that is left on the wayside. And yet, it is this site that was the prototype
for the gas chambers that were later used in Auschwitz, Majdanek, and the
other Reinhard Sites. Chelmno's story is extremely painful. Its pain has not
dissipated because its situation today is vulnerable.
On the verge of
extinction into the annals of history, the site can become forgotten and its
300,000 victims never remembered. There is one dedicated older woman
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who has been taking care of Chelmno for decades—pleading for it to be
given its due recognition, conducting research, and hoping that she will
receive more funding to continue her work. This researcher includes
Chelmno on the list of sites for the Final Solution. Although the date of the
Wannsee Conference was January 1942, the Nazis operated a site of mass
extermination in Chelmno which opened near the end of 1941. They also
operated killing fields around the Ukraine before the infamous January date.
It is this period in 1942 when the Germans and their accomplices were most
efficient—250 days in which they murdered over 2.5 million Jews in mass
murder, ovens, and gas chambers. Like fugitives, Jews were hunted down
and the Nazis did not leave any stone unturned. Every single man, woman,
and child had to be put to death with no chance of hope or alleviation from
pain or suffering (Luxenberg Eisenberg, 2012). It is important to be aware
of the fact that since mass extermination was already in force before the
Wannsee Conference, the latter stamped the final bureaucratic and legal
signature on the act of totality. It is through this that "Operation Reinhard,"
(implementation of the Endlosung) was put into effect in all its "official"
capacity.
The mass extermination site has bare ground; an ominous nakedness
accompanied by an eerie silence on places with no life. What is on its
surface however, is not necessarily what is under its ground. The ground
surface at these sites is a combination of ash, bone, and earth. Bodies were
burnt in ovens but there were no urns to put the ashes. They were strewn
around the site for the purpose of fertilizer. This grotesque and latter
thought is so beyond comprehension that one prefers to forget about it while
journeying through the place. Thoughts of what lies under the surface is
what intrigues anthropologists and archaeologists to embark on projects of
discovery. They try to find remnants or artifacts and attempt to identify
areas of former barracks, gas chambers, and crematoriums. As a result, on
Treblinka for example, the boundaries of the site have changed due to its
recent discoveries of more mass graves and remnants of gas chambers.
Discoveries on Sobibor of personal artifacts and even teeth, as well as
remains of the gas chamber have also impacted the boundaries of the site.
And in Chelmno, the palace ground (manor) where the Jews had their last
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walk is exposed. All have impacted and shattered the Holocaust denial
world that tries to minimize or out rightly deny the atrocities placed at these
locations. Playing on the fact that on the surface nothing is there unlike in
Auschwitz (although even there deniers have made attempts), they create
their own movement and drum up dangerous and twisted fallacies. The
managers of these sites have an arduous task. Their compelling need to
watch over the site; to create projects with local students; to try and promote
awareness, while all the time knowing they are in precarious positions.
This does not deter them from their hard work and dedication. Similarly,
they are all in desperate need of funding. They do not feel connected
enough with the museums in Israel. Each one has its most urgent need to be
fulfilled but their feelings of isolation are nonetheless in an ensemble. All
of them were happy to speak and share their plight to someone who had an
ear, a willing listener. It is perhaps this that touched the author most of all.
For some of them it was the first time anybody outside took an interest to
hear about their work. The extermination sites are in a separate
classification from Auschwitz or Majdanek for example. Their needs are
different; their cries of urgency are loud; and their vulnerability is visible.
Majdanek is different however. It is included on the list because its gas
chambers were built for the purpose of mass extermination of Jews in 1942.
Unlike the others however, it is very physically graphic, its funding is more
secure, and its urgency is less vocal. But Majdanek plays an important role.
It manages the extermination site of Belzec since 2006 and it has taken on
its shoulders the temporary management of Sobibor since May 2012.
The museum heads on these grounds of grief want to have a voice and
need to be heard. These sites should be addressed separately from all the
others. They provided a turning point not only for the final termination of
the Jew but provide a turning point for today's world. If not for the amazing
caretakers and managers of these sites, there is a chance they would be
forgotten. Their preservation lies at the very heart of humanity's morality
and the ultimate of the Holocaust genocide story. Just as it began with
political prisoners, handicapped, Jehovah Witnesses, Poles, Catholic priests,
and many others, it culminated with the Jewish genocide. But the story in
275
its entirety can be forgotten if the sites of mass extermination, the ultimate
cruelty and barbarism, are permitted to fade away.
7.5.1. Chelmno Weeps!
"I think I must do more work, more work, and more work. I am driven."
-Dr. Lucja Pawlicka-Nowak, Chelmno extermination site.
Blown up palace (manor) ruins, Chelmno. Photo by author.
The Chelmno extermination site was opened on December 8, 1941 with
its first victims. It operated in two phases: From December 8, 1941 until
March 1943. With the liquidation of the Lodz ghetto, Chelmno reopened
on June 23, 1944 and operated with its final campaign from August 9 to
August 29, 1944 (L. Pawlicka Nowak, 2004). The site was built in the small
village of Chelmno-en-Ner in the Konin region.
It consisted of two
locations in the first phase—the Ruzechow Forest and the palace grounds.
The palace was really a manor whereby Jews who were exterminated were
told they would take a shower.
They had to get undressed and were
hurriedly ushered down some stairs through a long passageway below the
manor. An exhaust connected the exit of the manor into a gas van. It took
about 20 minutes for all the people inside to be asphyxiated while their
bodies were driven to the Ruzechow Forest. The palace marked the last
walk taken by the victims to the mobile gas chambers. It was destroyed in
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April 1943. In the forest, teeth were removed; bodies were searched and
thrown into pits. When there was no more room for the bodies, they were
burnt. All the work with the bodies was done by Jews and than they were
also executed and burnt.
In the second phase of Chelmno, the palace
grounds were already destroyed so the Jews were brought directly to the
Ruzechow Forest where a few barracks took over the role of the palace.
Then they were gassed and burnt. "The ashes were strewn around and used
as fertilizer" (L. Pawlicka-Nowak, personal communication, October 12,
2011). Lucja is an expert on Chelmno and has been taking care of the site
along with her husband for decades. She is an archaeologist by profession.
It is with gratitude that the author spent a day with her learning about
Chelmno and its plight. The site is funded by the Konin Regional Museum.
The museum receives funding from the region and than money is allocated
for Chelmno.
Chelmno's position is extremely precarious and open to
vulnerability. The Konin Museum may not be that happy to preserve it and
are "stuck" with it nonetheless. "Its maintenance might be an
embarrassment to them. They would like to see it as an independent
museum" (L. Pawlicka Nowak, personal communication, October 12,
2011). It is not classified as a Reinhard Site like the others, and everything
that remained was completely destroyed. The mobile gas vans were
removed and any evidence was burnt. Many people are not even aware of
Chelmno's existence which operated before the Wannsee Conference and
the implementation of The Final Solution. School groups from Israel rarely
visit Chelmno although there was one group in 2011, prior to the visit of the
author. At the beginning, Chelmno was known as a place where Polish
citizens were murdered. According to Lucja, the International Auschwitz
Council is aware of the problem and knows about the situation, "but the
most important thing is to find money for it. The problem is there are no
survivors. Whole families were killed. Other camps have survivors who
also live in Israel." The sad situation at Chelmno is evident. Thanks to
excavations conducted over several years, priceless documentation of the
deaths of hundreds of thousands of defenseless victims, rescued the site
from total oblivion. It had been known only through the testimony of
eyewitnesses. As a result of Lucja's efforts along with the Council for the
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Protection of Memory of Combat and Martyrdom, effort has been made to
for many years to piece together the facts that took place in the autumn of
1941 in the forests near Rudzica and Kazmierz Biskupi nor far from Konin,
tied irrevocably to the history of the camp in Chelmno. Work has come to a
standstill.
Unfortunately, the chairman of the Auschwitz council who
supported making the site into an independent museum, perished in the
plane crash in Smolensk. As a result, Lucja does not have funding to
continue her work. The earth covering the ruins of the palace is now
revealed, but the palace is exposed to nature's elements and vandalism.
There is nothing that protects or shields it from the bitter cold. Pits where
victims’ belonging were buried are also revealed in the forest but again,
they are not protected. Eleven mass graves have been discovered so far.
Chelmno's tragic fate links past and present. The discovery of personal
belongings such as brooches, religious artifacts, medicine bottles, and
badges connect with the victim. The present state of Chelmno however,
continues the tragedy that happened in the 1940's. The cries of the victims
and Lucja's plea for help are connected as one. Of all the sites, it is
Chelmno that is at the bottom of the hierarchical ladder. It does not receive
funding from the government and it is in a situation that the regional
museum cannot properly maintain it. The tiny museum in the granary
where the last victims spent their final night before being executed, houses
small relics and personal belongings. But they are not properly preserved or
conserved due to lack of funds. For years, Lucja has been trying to get the
mass graveyards in Ruzechow commemorated. She has a list of the names
of victims and would want to place a small monument or some sort of
plaque. The lack of commemoration for hundreds of thousands is
paradoxical: There were so many murdered at Chelmno and yet there is
very little commemoration. The museum head Lucja is also an enigma.
Not Jewish, she has dedicated herself to maintaining Chelmno and is
constantly driven. "I think I always have more and more work.
I am
driven.” In the second phase of Chelmno 1944, people were brought to a
church where they spent their last night.
The previous Parish Priest
contributed to making the tiny museum and allowed archaeologists to dig
around the church. The land around the manor was leased to somebody
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with agriculture and farming activities. When the Priest allowed the
archaeologists to investigate, the company had to allow it also because of
the Priest. It was then that the foundations of the palace were discovered.
And because the Priest supported it, so did the locals" (L. Pawlicka-Nowak,
personal communication, October 12, 2011).
At the end of the war,
approximately 60 of the remaining victims were blown up in the palace
after spending their last night in the granary. A few prisoners who knew
they would be executed tried to overpower some of the guards.
One of the findings at the palace grounds was a baby's skull which Lucja
presented to the Chief Rabbi of Poland. He reburied it in the Warsaw
Jewish cemetery. Artifacts at the palace grounds are still being discovered
and the author found a safety pin during her visit which was embedded in a
piece of glass. Any artifacts discovered are brought into the museum "but
there is a problem with preservation and conservation. Once you excavate,
you have to find a way to preserve it."
Chelmno is on the verge of
extinction. If a move is not made soon and given Lucja's fragile health, its
fate may be sealed. The ongoing work that Lucja would still like to do
(although she is in her 70's) is at a standstill due to lack of funding and
support. The author plans to assist in the future towards the preservation of
Chelmno, for it is this site that was the prototype of stationery gas chambers
used in Auschwitz and the other Reinhard Sites. When Lucja was asked
why the site needs to be preserved, she quietly answered to "never have it
repeated again. It is very important to educate people, especially young
people. Teaching of the Holocaust is different now. We try and show how
Jewish people lived and their contribution to polish culture. So first, we
need to speak about Jewish culture and then Holocaust, so people can
understand the contribution that was made by the Jews and eliminate
stereotypes." At the end of the day with Lucja, she made a tearful plea to
the author: "Try and tell about us when you return to Israel." Except for a
couple of seminars, Lucja does not have much connection with Yad
Vashem. Her dream is to have the palace grounds properly preserved; a
structure built to protect it. The author has been in contact with the Chief
Rabbi of Poland to discuss the fate of Chelmno. It illustrates the urgency to
secure the sites in terms of funding. Some excerpts of the visit with Lucja
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are below and the discussion was translated with assistance from her
translator Katarzyna Krawczyk. Audio file is available from the author.
When you think about Chelmno and all the work you are doing
sometimes it is painful for you. . .
Yes it is. I am driven. I think I always have more and more work. When I
came here Chelmno was already a museum. It was known as place where
Polish citizens were killed. Nobody said anything about the Jews who were
killed here. There was no talk about killing Jews. Nobody talked, nobody
said anything. I wanted to investigate. In many places, the population in
villages had more than 30% Jews. My parents had a good relationship and
warm contact with Jews. They had good memories before the war of this.
They wanted to save a Jewish child during the war but circumstances did
not permit it because of the Germans.
When you say "museum" are you talking about the Konin Museum?
On Chelmno, there is no museum. What would you like done on the
site and with the site?
An independent museum would be very important but the most urgent thing
would be to preserve the manor ruins, the foundations. They can be
destroyed because of the air and weather. My dream is to have a structure
built over these structures to protect them—not reconstruct but protect.
There should be a monument and memorial in which people can come, sit,
and reflect.
You are very devoted. Were you ever in Yad Vashem?
Twice. The first time and second time were traineeships and we took trips
around the country. The training was organized by the Auschwitz-Birkenau
Foundation.
Mass grave pit by palace ruins. Ruzechow Forest, Lodz Ghetto monument. Photos by author.
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Funding
Konin Regional Museum.
Director/ museum head on
location.
Not on location. There is one
person who has safeguarded
Chelmno and its story for
decades. By appointment.
Museum on Location
Small museum in the former
granary displaying artifacts.
Monuments
In Ruzechow Forest.
Visitors
Approximately 20,000 a year.
-Mainly Poles and German
groups. Few groups from Israel.
Preservation /Conservation
Artifacts
preserved.
Most urgent need.
Departments in Chelmno
aren't
properly
Funding
for
continuing
unfinished work. Funding for
protection of the palace grounds,
pits, and artifacts.
No separate departments.
"This is the gate where only righteous walk through." Memorial, Ruzechow. Photo by author.
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7.5.2 Where Silence Screams: Managing Treblinka!
"We do our best with what is available. My dream is to be invited to Yad
Vashem and talk about Treblinka." –Dr. Edward Kopowka, Museum Head.
Monument and memorial site at Treblinka.
How is it that a word can become a symbol, evoke such strong feelings,
and immediately create graphic images in one's mind? It is impossible not
to be effected when one hears the word "Treblinka." Although it is the third
Reinhard site built in July 1942 following Belzec in March and Sobibor in
May, it is the most well-known of the three. Built specifically for total
annihilation of the Jews, it is also credited for having the greatest number of
victims. Like the others, the SS went through great pains to destroy all
evidence of the atrocities. Walking through the site, there is a deafening
silence which engulfs this place of death. Located among trees in a wooded
and forestry area, Treblinka is a place where nothing moves. The trees don't
sway even if there is a breeze and birds don't tweet. It is as if time stood
still for Treblinka and save for the sounds of school groups from Israel, or
the odd visitor, there are no signs of life. The dedicated staff at Treblinka
painstakingly maintains this place and manages its small museum which
was placed there by Israel's Yad Vashem. Prior to that, visitors encountered
only a small kiosk in a makeshift wooden hut. Today they can enter the
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museum which exhibits discovered artifacts, photos, and the history of the
site.
Treblinka is located 100 kilometers northeast of the Polish capital of
Warsaw, near the village of Malkinia Gorna and 2.5 kilometers from the
Treblinka railroad. It was a convenient location—a halfway point between
the Warsaw and Bialystok Ghettos. It consisted of two subdivisions:
Treblinka I or the Penal Colony, and Treblinka II or the site of mass
extermination, approximately 2.5 kilometers from each other. The Penal
Labor Camp operated from summer 1941 until the end of July 1944. It was
the prisoners who built the site for Treblinka II and the pathway from
Jewish gravestones separating the two sites. 20,000 inmates were
imprisoned in Treblinka I. Half of them died or were executed. According
to the Treblinka Museum, the camp's history can be divided into a few
stages: June – September 1941, the initial stage when only a few dozen
inmates were staying in utility rooms next to the gravel pits; September
1941 – July 1941, when at this stage, there were no clear divisions between
Polish and Jewish inmates. Most of them were Poles however and there
were only a few Jewish craftsmen from the local areas; July 1942November 1943 when the camp started to coexist with Treblinka II, the
extermination site located two kilometers away. Deportees replaced those
who constantly died. Emphasis was on the operation of Treblinka II and
Treblinka I operated in its shadows; November 1943 to July 1944 when
Treblinka II was closed down due to the Treblinka revolt in November.
The Penal Colony continued to operate and was liquidated only prior to the
approach of the Red Army. The remaining people consisted of
administrative staff and craftspeople.
Built in mid-1942, Treblinka II
operated alongside the already existing Penal Labor Camp.
The
extermination site was aimed for the physical liquidation of the Jews. It
covered an area of 17 hectares and was surrounded by high barbed wire
fences. It was administered by 30 to 40 Germans and Austrians as well as
100 to 120 guards, mainly of Ukrainian origin. Franz Stangl was appointed
the Camp Commandant, preceded by Irmfried Eberl.
The influx of
transports arrived from the Warsaw Ghetto. Jews from occupied Poland
and other destinations including those from Western Europe arrived to their
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death.
Sinti and Roma from Germany and Austria also arrived.
The
victims were murdered through the use of Diesel exhaust fumes in gas
chambers that had been erected for that purpose. To obliterate traces of the
atrocities, corpses were burnt on special grids. On August 2, 1943, an
uprising organized by the inmates broke out. Out of 840 only 200 managed
to escape.
After the uprising, Treblinka II's liquidation began and all
facilities were demolished; the area ploughed and sowed with lupine.
Today a monument stands on the site of the gas chambers and mass graves
with 17,000 stones of different sizes which engulf the former area of
extermination. Some of them have names of towns and villages where the
victims originated. In 1995 three artists won the competition for a memorial
at Treblinka. The borders of the formal site were marked with two meter
boulders and the entrance gate commemorated with two concrete blocks.
The concrete blocks along the way to the ramp symbolize the railway tracks
and ten stones lying next to the ramp have the names of the countries from
where the Jews were transported. There is a cobbled road which leads to
the monument and represents the "tube" or the road to the gas chambers.
Stones on both sides indicate where victims got undressed. The monument
erected at the site of the gas chambers (Treblinka had ten gas chambers), is
reminiscent of the Wailing Wall in Jerusalem.
On one side of the
monument are symbolic torn human remains and praying hands; its icon
taken from Jewish gravestones.
On the other side is the menorah, the
symbol of Judaism. There is a crack on the front wall of the monument. A
granite monument representing a symbolic tomb for those who lost their
lives contains the inscription "Never Again" in Polish, Hebrew, Russian,
French, German, Yiddish, and English. There is a shape of a pit filled with
basalt which recalls the place of a mass grave and crematorium. There were
no crematoriums in Treblinka. Bodies extracted from the gas chambers
were placed on grids and tossed into pits. The exhumation and burning of
the bodies began in 1943.
For the memorial, an area of 22,000 square
meters was covered with concrete which extends over the ashes of those
killed. And it is on that surface, that 17,000 stones of different sizes were
placed.
The stones look like "matzevas"—tombstones form Jewish
cemeteries, which appear disorganized, placed often at random locations
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bearing no names, as they also appear in Treblinka.
On some of the stones
are the names of cities, towns or villages of the perished. It is only an
estimate that 850,000 souls were murdered in Treblinka. The walk from
Treblinka II to Treblinka I is on a road made from Jewish gravestones. At
Treblinka I is the memorial to the Poles who were murdered in the Penal
Colony. "Treblinka is the second place after Auschwitz in terms of the
number of victims" (E. Kopowka, personal communication, October 10,
2011).
On the way to Treblinka I from Treblinka II. The road was constructed by prisoners using Jewish
gravestones. Hebrew inscriptions can still be seen on the ground. Below: The end of the camp at
Treblinka I. Several crosses memorialize the Poles who perished. Left: Cement blocks mark the rail
tracks leading into Treblinka II and the ramp.
Despite the severity of the atrocities, Treblinka has been the target of
Holocaust deniers. At the same time, archaeologists try and piece together
the story of what happened there. Recent discoveries of mass graves on
Treblinka by Dr. Caroline Sturdy-Colls and her ongoing work and
dedication to the Treblinka site, is shattering claims by Holocaust deniers.
Museum archaeologist Joanna Zaslona focuses on documentation but hopes
to "do some noninvasive survey in the Penal Labor Camp and mark the
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boundary of both camps" (J. Zaslona, personal communication, October 10,
2011). Using non-invasive technology, Dr. Caroline Sturdy-Colls laid to
rest doubts about the existence of mass graves. According to Caroline, "if
they thought they had removed all evidence of their crime, they hadn't. For
a forensic archaeologist, there is a vast amount to study. The destruction of
buildings rarely results in the complete removal of all traces of them. And
even on the surface there are still artifacts and other subtle clues that point
to the real purpose of the site. I don't believe in randomly digging. I am
hoping to demonstrate to people the necessity of commemorating victims.
From the view of a forensic archaeologist, nothing ever gets completely
destroyed" (C. Sturdy Colls, personal communication, February 23, 2012).
Using non-invasive technology due to "Halacha" or Jewish Law and with
approval from the chief Rabbi of Poland, she discovered a number of pits
strewn across the site. The uneven ground by the ramp and memorial area,
as well as the discoloration of the grass, reveals that those were areas of
mass graves even to the non-expert eye, but needed to be proven. "Bone
fragments can still be seen on the surface of the ground, especially after
rain" (C. Sturdy Colls, personal communication, February 23, 2012).
Caroline travels back and forth to Treblinka continuing her ongoing
investigation with participation of the Treblinka Museum of Struggle and
Martyrdom. Management at the Treblinka Museum of Struggle and
Martyrdom consists of ten people. There are no specific departments and
no specific experts, so they all work as a team. The museum is not funded
by the government. It belongs to the Mosavia vovoideship so any monies
allocated to the museum are through the district of Mosavia but Treblinka is
a branch of the Siedlce Regional Museum in Siedlce. The extermination
sites consist of museum heads and not directors. The head of a museum in
Polish is called "Przewodniczacy Muzeum." Dr. Edward Kopowka has
written several books on Treblinka and about the Ghettos. The director of
Treblinka, who authorizes the hiring of employees and makes management
and administrative decisions, sits in the Siedlce Museum.
One of the
biggest challenges for the museum head at Treblinka is to organize a
conference where he would like to present research of the excavations and
ask what should be done with the structures. The problem of forestation
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also needs to be addressed as the forest and plants are growing very quickly.
The site is becoming smaller in size due to the forestation and what to do
about nature has to be addressed.
The memorial stones. Above: Forest areas surround the memorial site. Below: Author by the grave
pit. Author places flag by the memorial stone of Lodz, the birthplace of author's grandparents and
memory to the victims of the Lodz Ghetto. Photos by author.
The management of the Treblinka Museum of Struggle and Martyrdom
has many challenges, not the least of which is its survival. It is in a better
position than Chelmno because it is more well-known and visited by school
trips from Israel. Nevertheless, its position is still precarious and it is
vulnerable. Until it receives funding by the government it is not secure.
Also underrepresented, the biggest wish for the museum head at Treblinka
is to visit Yad Vashem and lecture about the site. Challenges for the site are
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also archaeological and personal. The site was vandalized several times
after the war, from those searching for gold left by the perished or swastikas
drawn on some of the stones. Maintenance of the site and the cleaning of
the grounds are an exceptional challenge for this vast area. Excerpts of the
interview with Dr. Edward Kopowka are below. Any translation was done
by archaeologist Joanna Zaslona who also participated in the discussion.
Anything inaudible is not included and audio file is available from the
author.
Tell me about yourself. How long are you working here?
I am working twelve years in this place.
How many people work here?
Ten people, not separate departments. I have one person who is an
archaeologist and she works twenty hours a week. I work forty hours a
week. I work 20 to 28 hours a week. At the beginning I was a bit
frightened when I started because of the history and background but I feel
comfortable now, because I know my job is very important. My duties
consist of archaeological documentation of the concrete structures from the
penal Labor Camp, Treblinka I. (J. Zaslona personal communication,
October 10, 2011).
What are you looking for Joanna?
I do the drawing of the structures and I need to write with details about the
object and the building for example, what is it made of—brick or concrete?
How large is the structure? What is the condition of the structure? Is it
destroyed or intact? What I need to do is give my opinion about the
buildings. What my advice is for the future is also included because we
need to do some conservation plans. The conditions are not good, because
the weather is changing—raining and snowing sometimes, so the concrete is
like sand the ground is very marshy. So it is a problem for those structures
and my work here. I need to organize specialists or a team who specializes
in concrete and in brick, and to know how to deal with them. We had
noninvasive surveys done in the Death Camp and it was under Caroline
Sturdy-Colls from Birmingham who was working here. She was responsible
for noninvasive surveys in the Death Camp.
How did she do it?
She had the agreement from the Rabbi because it is a holy site and she used
a gyrator. Her survey will be published. We are waiting soon for her
publication. She did this for her PhD.
Did she give any information about what she found?
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She distinguished the places where the armory was, and also she discovered
that the original border of the camp was in another place. When you go to
the Death Camp, you will see a small path in the forest and that was the
original border of the camp. After the war, when it was commemorated,
they only commemorated a smaller area than it should have been. So she
discovered that the border was originally in another place. In the future, we
hope to mark the border. Caroline also discovered that the gas chambers
were in a different place, a few meters from the stones. She distinguished
where they actually were. She also found the new places of the mass graves
and distinguished where the bodies were located. We are in mutual
cooperation with her and we help each other. In the future I would like her
to come and do noninvasive work in the Penal labor Camp.
This is an amazing and crucial find.
Last week we had a conference in Treblinka about what do we know about
Treblinka, so we invited many guests from Poland and also Caroline. She
presented her paper about the noninvasive survey. We also discussed
pedagogical with the Polish guests as to "why people should come here"
and how to talk about the subject with the students.
Do you have specific educational activities?
We have but this was specifically addressed. It was our first conference and
we will publish for the first time from the museum what happened at the
conference.
Why should people visit Treblinka? The Israeli students always
include it in their trip. Why should students come here, also Polish
students? I was wondering if any of the students from nearby villages
have ever been here.
I think it should be internalized, written inside, because it is also part of our
history and their history as well. Some of the students live right near here.
They come with their teachers from schools.
What do you think of having a museum on the site?
Willenberg's daughter Orit wants to build one.
Samuel
Mr. Kopowka is only the Head of the Museum. The Director is located in
Siedlce. Whatever he would like to do, he needs to contact the Director in
Siedlce. Our museum is a branch form the Siedlce Museum. We are not
separate. He could have his own private opinion but most important
decisions are made by the council and the Siedlce director.
How is Treblinka funded?
Poland is divided into 16 counties. We belong to the Mosavia district and
they give us the money.
So I can make a comparison between your funding and Sobibor which
gets funding from Wlodowa region. So your place where you get your
funding may be a bit better than where they get their funding.
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Yes this is a Polish problem. I do not understand why it is such a problem.
We are another rank. We are further down the rank than Auschwitz for
example. The biggest amount of money goes to Auschwitz or Stutthof.
Those museums are under the Ministry of Culture.
So it is like a ranking system.
Yes. It depends where you are on the list. The others are under local
administration. In our case it is good, because we managed to build this
museum building. But it is obvious that we get less funding. We receive
less money.
So you get less than Auschwitz but more than Sobibor. What about
freedom in decisions?
What we need the most is funding for preservation and conservation. In our
structure of the museum, we don't have many specialists. We know what
our duties are, but we are not divided into separate departments. We share
like a team. We emphasize that Treblinka is the second place after
Auschwitz in terms of the number of victims. When we find the structures,
we do not dig but we only clean them. In the future we would like to invite
some specialists who can tell us from which places we can take the samples
and create a conservation plan.
What has been the biggest crisis for you Edward as the Museum Head
of this museum and place?
I am responsible for this place, to keep it in order, to look after the museum
and the area. But any other decisions like employing people, creating a
contract, is not my field. I maintain the site. From an educational point of
view, I write about and publish on Treblinka. I would like to organize
another conference, present Caroline's research of the excavations. I would
like to ask "what should we do with the structures? Should we rebuild or
only mark them on the surface?" Another problem is the forest. The forest
and the plants are growing very, very, fast. What should we do with the
forest? How should we deal with nature? So this is a big challenge. But I
have a small voice. I support the idea of a museum on Treblinka.
Regarding the forestry people, it is not such a problem to cut the trees, but
the major problem is how to plan the area. For example, maybe we will
create some educational maze or something like that. This is the problem.
Where do we put it?
At the beginning I asked you if it was difficult for you and you did not
answer.
I would like to address that. I also write about Ghettos and not only
Treblinka. My method to "handle" it, after 40 hours a week in Treblinka is
to go home and read something else. I may read for three hours and not
more than that. I put the subject away on the shelf until I go back to work.
Were the train drivers punished in any way or put on trial?
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The Polish train drivers drove the train until the siding. They were not
allowed to go into the camp. At the siding, Germans went into the train and
drove it into the camp because it was a secret, to cover it up. Train drivers
or railway workers who worked before the war, had to continue doing so
during the war. For example, those Polish railway workers who acted
dishonestly, perhaps those people were punished after the war. They
needed to provide "essential services" for the Germans.
Is there anything we can do for you back in Israel?
Please speak about our museum in Yad Vashem. My dream is to be invited
to speak, to talk about Treblinka and receive funding to do so; I would like
to do research while I am there. My dream is to be invited to Yad Vashem
and talk about Treblinka, For example, Auschwitz organizes some trips to
Yad Vashem and my dream would be to accompany the delegation and be
there as well and not only the people from Auschwitz. But the decision is
made by Yad Vashem and not the Director of Auschwitz. The subject about
deportees to Treblinka is not touched. This is one area that still needs to be
worked on.
Location
Malkinia Gorna, about 100 kms
from Warsaw, in a forest area.
Employees
Ten. No separate departments.
Director on Location
Museum head on location, in
charge of maintenance of the site.
Funding
Mosavia district. Monies allocated
to the Siedlce Museum of which
Treblinka is a branch.
Major challenge
Victims
Preservation and conservation,
what to do with the artifacts,
markings of new boundaries,
forestation, funding for further
research, on a personal level, to be
invited to speak about Treblinka,
more awareness for the site,
research on deportees.
Estimated 850,000; one living
survivor.
Table 14. Treblinka management.
The author visited the only living survivor of Treblinka at his home in Tel
Aviv prior to the research trip in October. Samuel Willenberg survived the
revolt in Treblinka. He wrote books about it including the Revolt in
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Treblinka (Willenberg, 1989).
His map of the site is used in several
museums worldwide and is on display at the museum in Treblinka. His
recollection of his personal ordeal in Treblinka is portrayed through his
sculptures which he began in the late 1990's.
His father who was a
prominent artist survived the war. Samuel lost his two sisters in Treblinka.
The author had the honor of seeing the work of Samuel Willenberg which
was exhibited in several museums. It is Samuel's hope that the sculptures
will one day be placed in a proper museum on Treblinka and that his
daughter who is an architect by profession, will build it. Today Samuel is
88 years old and remembers vividly what he went through during his
incarceration. He and his wife Aida have escorted many groups to Poland
and they return several times a year to the site. Samuel's story was filmed
on location by the BBC and he has been interviewed by several prominent
newspapers including The Washington Post.
Visiting Treblinka after
meeting Samuel took on a more personal level. The stone "Czestochowa"
where Samuel grew up is clearly marked in Treblinka.
The author
interviewed Samuel Willenberg at his home in Tel Aviv. Audio file is
available from the author.
Samuel Willenberg's town of Czestochowa, on a stone in Treblinka. Samuel survived the
revolt. He lost his two sisters in Treblinka. Photo by author.
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Sculptures by Samuel Willenberg are displayed in a special room. A father removes his son's
shoes and ties them together prior to extermination. Only in Treblinka were victims given laces
to tie shoes together after removing them, another example of the cynical cruelty of the Nazis. Map
of Treblinka in background drawn by Samuel Willenberg.
Samuel recalls with sorrow how he had to remove hair from a naked young girl prior to
being exterminated. Below: Orchestra that played near the ramp. Photos by author.
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Samuel's drawing of the extermination site map and his recollection. His map is on
exhibit in the Treblinka Museum.
Art of pain and remembrance. Samuel and his wife Aida (also a Holocaust survivor), in the room
which houses Samuel's sculptures at their place of residence. Photos by author.
A drawing for a museum in Treblinka by well-known architect and Samuel's daughter, Orit.
Samuel hopes his sculptures will one day be displayed at Treblinka in a museum built by his
daughter. Plans are already made for the museum but it has to get approval by the International
Auschwitz Council and enough funding gathered for its construction and long-term maintenance.
An interview was conducted with Orit Willenberg. Photo courtesy of Orit, was given to the author.
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The cruelty of Treblinka did not start with the extermination of the Jews.
Samuel recalled the sinister cynicism and ridicule even on arrival. The
orchestra had to play amid the cries of the victims. A building marked with
a Red Cross cynically had the sick thinking they would be checked by a
doctor. They entered the area and were executed immediately in the
Lazarett. The Jews from Western Europe travelled in comfort, unlike those
who were cramped together and pushed into cattle cars with prods. They
were told to bring whatever they can. After their extermination, gold was
removed from teeth. Possessions were sorted by Jews and put into piles for
the regime. The Jews from Western Europe were even given a train ticket.
There were no survivors. Samuel's job was building fences and construction
around the site.
He also had to sort the clothing of the perished and
discovered the dress and coat of his two sisters. He had to remove bodies
and cut hair and was instrumental in planning and leading the Treblinka
revolt.
Following his escape, he joined the Polish resistance and was
awarded a medal of honor by the Polish government. Samuel and his wife
never rest from their past and are the keys to perpetuating the memory of
the Shoah through trips to Poland and contact with the young.
Samuel and his wife Aida in their Tel Aviv apartment, laughing with the author and her son.
Below: Treblinka sign on the highway, crossing the Bug River. Photos by author.
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7.5.3 Ashes and Ravens: Managing the State Museum at Majdanek
"We have many objects and buildings preserved. It is the authenticity of the
place that is really striking." –Agnieska Kowalcyk, Public Spokesperson.
"I would like students to get the knowledge of what happened here, not only
in Majdanek but Poland and Europe as a whole. Giving knowledge is needed
but I think more importantly, accept the facts and have them internalized. It
is not a minus that I am not Jewish and working in this place."
-Jolanta Laskowska, Education Director.
"We say that history teaches us how to live. And if we want to follow this
idea, we need to preserve former Nazi concentration camps. No other place
can substitute such camps in the educational process. Only by taking
everything together, can we have the whole picture of what happened."
-Grzegorz Plewik, Deputy Director.
Auschwitz-Birkenau is automatically associated with the extermination
of Jews and has become the symbol of the Holocaust. However, one should
not forget that the majority of Shoah victims were murdered outside
Auschwitz and on the contrary, most of them died as a result of hunger,
disease, murderous labor conditions, and mass shootings.
The Final
Solution was implemented in a variety of ways before the Wannsee
Conference in 1942. Destruction of the Jew was found in the ghettos, labor,
camps, and firing squads of entire Jewish communities. The murder in
Chelmno using poisonous gases in special automobiles led to the stationary
gas chambers. It is the city of Lublin, the largest city in Eastern Poland
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which played a significant role in the mass murder of the Jews.
The
Generalgouvernement (General Government-German-occupied central and
southern territories of Poland) established one of the first forced labor
camps for Jewish residents.
Situated in Lublin was the headquarters
overseeing the liquidation of ghettos and supervising the genocide in the
death camps at Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka. Warehouses storing the
belongings of victims were stored in Lublin, and one of the largest
concentration camps founded by the Third Reich was built (Kranz, 2010).
In a way Majdanek can be compared to Auschwitz because it served later
on as a "hybrid" site. It became a concentration camp and the site of mass
Jewish extermination with the advent of the gas chambers in 1942. There
are those who include it on the list of the Reinhard Sites and those who do
not.
Like other sites, the original intent changed through time.
And
Majdanek became especially significant towards completing the task for
"The Endlosung." Between the years 1941-1944, approximately 60,000
Jews predominantly from Poland and Slovakia, as well as other European
countries, perished in Majdanek. Many died of hunger and cold, disease,
exhaustion and brutal treatment, and remaining victims were shot and
gassed (Kranz, 2010). Most of the victims who arrived in Majdanek,
particularly women and children, were gassed on arrival after 1942. The
largest mass execution over a one day period took place in Majdanek. On
November 3, 1943 the Nazis committed simultaneous acts of mass murder.
Approximately 43,000 Jewish men, women, and children in the three
remaining camps in the Generalgouvernement—Trawniki, Poniatowa, and
Majdanek, were murdered in Operation Erntefest ("Harvest Festival").
After the revolts in the Warsaw Ghetto (April, 1943), Treblinka (August,
1943), and Sobibor (October 14, 1943), Heinrich Himmler ordered the
killing of the remaining Jews in the Generalgouvernement. In Majdanek
alone, approximately18, 000 Jews were executed en masse and their bodies
burnt. The graphic execution pits in Majdanek are still there. Originally
intended to be a site for prisoners of war and those who would work for the
SS, Konzentrationslager Lublin (KL Lublin) or Majdanek became a death
factory in addition to a penal colony and transit camp. Although its size
was modified a few times, it occupied an area of 270 hectares. From
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October 1942 a camp for women was established in one of the five fields
and it was placed next to the site of the crematoriums. Although a site for
children was never realized, Jewish, Polish, and Russian children were also
prisoners in the camp. Besides Poles and Jews, prisoners came from nearly
30 countries, including Russians, Byelorussians, Ukrainians, and a small
percentage of French and German prisoners.
Due to insanitation, shortage
of food, overcrowding, lack of clothing, the death rate among the prisoners
increased. For all real and imagined offences, prisoners were severely
punished and persecuted. From the very beginning of their stay at the
camp, they were inevitably accompanied by hunger, fear, backbreaking
work, and diseases. They perished due to the squander of the living
conditions or were executed and murdered in the gas chambers. Among an
estimated 150,000 prisoners who entered Majdanek, 80,000 people perished
including an estimated 60,000 Jews, according to the latest research by the
State Museum at Majdanek. Lublin became the center for the management
and administration apparatus towards Jewish annihilation.
View of Majdanek from main road with monument and barbed wire. Photo by author.
The State Museum at Majdanek ("Panstwowe Muzeum na Majdanku") is
situated in the south-eastern suburbs of Lublin, along the road leading to
Zamosc and Chelm. Its close proximity to the city limits makes it all the
more shocking. Although there are posted signs leading to the museum and
this massive factory of death, it appears directly on the right side coming
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from Lublin, almost from nowhere. Its majestic monument juts out, visibly
seen from the road. From a road with no barbed wire, drivers if paying
attention are confronted with a huge area of surrounding barbed wire even
off the main road. Majdanek is known for its preservation in its authentic
state. What makes this place so graphic, are the execution pits, mausoleum
of ashes, six crematoriums, and the gas chambers which have remained
intact. Barracks are used for the main exhibition of personal effects, history
of the site, exhibitions of shoes, uniforms, and artifacts.
Written
information provides the visiting witness with background so that he or she
can get a clearer picture of what it was like for a prisoner in Majdanek, both
Jewish and non-Jewish. There are the prisoners' barracks which are still
standing and empty fields where barracks once stood. The "rose garden"
next to the gas chamber which looks like any other nature area, was the
place where women and children had to wait before being exterminated.
The execution pits next to the crematorium building after Field 5 which was
the women's area are located just below the "mausoleum of ashes." It is
here that one gets a surreal image of the tragedy. Protected with a large
round roof, a large mound of human ash dominates the far left corner area
of the site. Imagining how much ash makes up one human being, it is
beyond human comprehension. Like other sites, residential buildings are
located on part of the former camp. It seems that the people in Lublin are
used to having Majdanek in their midst. It has become the icon of the city,
part of their high school education, and nothing unusual for them. But for
school groups from Israel which have Majdanek as a priority like
Auschwitz, it is this place which generally creates a greater despondency
among the students. They sit at the monument after their visit and do not
say anything. Perhaps it is the mausoleum or the intact gas chambers, or
perhaps the silence of the place. Each site has its own distinguishing feature
and of course it depends on the individual visiting these places. For the
author, in Treblinka nothing moves. In Chelmno, it is the sadness and
desperation of the whole place. In Auschwitz, it is the constant grey that
looms over Birkenau, the mist, and the sense of smell.
In Majdanek it is
the silence and the ravens. These black birds are everywhere—on the
barbed wires, on the ground, and flying overhead. Our tour guide told us
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that survivors recall that ravens were always present in Majdanek. Today
they continuously pluck at the ground, a link with life and death. Great
work is being done at Majdanek in terms of education, research, and
management of the place. After Auschwitz, Majdanek is second on the
hierarchy, also government funded by the Ministry of Culture and Heritage.
However, they are limited in what they can get done in terms of their
funding. Nevertheless, fabulous educational projects based on the theories
of "pedagogy of remembrance" emphasize an active approach to the
learning of history. The State Museum at Majdanek provides grounds that
enrich understanding and individual consideration of the moral dimension
of the Nazi persecution policies. It offers students a chance for personal
growth and active involvement in social and civic concerns, making it more
relevant to them and according to Jolanta Laskowska, Educational Director
at the State Museum at Majdanek—"to give those who want to learn to
discover something new for them the opportunity to get the knowledge by
themselves by becoming researchers through the materials they are given,
by finding in those materials—in the area, in the objects—the original ones
because we are in the authentic place and area, realize that objects can
"talk"—to learn themselves—not to be learned" (J. Laskowska, personal
communication, October 18, 2011).
On the Majdanek monument. Photo by author.
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Here there is also a place with "no life yet life." A lot of activity is going
on for the perpetuation of memory. In addition to fulfilling its own tasks
through the dedication of the staff, the State Museum at Majdanek also
oversees and administratively manages the non-local branch—the Belzec
Memorial Site since 2004 and more recently, the extermination site at
Sobibor since May 2012, which in itself has undergone a management shift.
Unlike Auschwitz, Majdanek does not have a conservation lab. They need
to send objects out for them to be preserved. They do not have a problem
with sewage "because we are located within the city. Our main problem is
with the barracks, the buildings because they are made of wood. When it
comes to the buildings we restore them on site.
There is no need to
dismantle them. When it comes to smaller objects like moveable objects—
documents for example, we send them out. We plan to open a conservation
lab but these are just plans. It is impossible to create here such a lab where
we can conserve all the things. Some of them we would have to still send
elsewhere" (G. Plewik, personal communication, October 18, 2011).
Majdanek has been a museum since 1944 while camps were still
functioning in Germany. The Auschwitz museum was established in 1947.
"It was the first camps liberated by the Red Army so many of the buildings
were still able to be seen. After liberating the city some trials took place in
Lublin against the Nazi staff even before Nuremberg.
It was the first
museum of that kind in Europe here" (G. Plewik, personal communication,
October 18, 2011).
Approximately 100,000 visitors flock to the State
Museum at Majdanek on a yearly basis, 130,000 taking into consideration
the Belzec Memorial Site. Before the author visited the sites in October
2011, Sobibor was under the threat of closure in June 2011. By the time the
author visited Majdanek, discussion was occurring as to what to do with the
site. The Deputy Director expressed desire that for himself, Sobibor has the
most effect on him and he would be willing if it became part of the State
Museum at Majdanek.
Today, Sobibor is also a branch of the State
Museum at Majdanek alongside its "brother", the other Reinhard site of
Belzec. This is a temporary situation apparently, since Sobibor is headed
towards becoming an independent museum.
The management shift
occurred following the author's visit and began on May 2, 2012 when it was
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decided by the Polish government and after lengthy discussions and debates
that Sobibor should be under the administration of Majdanek. In terms of
funding, The State Museum at Majdanek attempted to approach the
international community for assistance but attempts were unsuccessful. The
future of the site although secure for the moment because it is under the
Federal Republic of Poland, is uncertain.
According to the Deputy
Director, "other countries should participate in the funding of the sites. It is
not just a question of money, but joint responsibility" (G. Plewik, personal
communication, October 18, 2011). To date, Majdanek does not have a
future endowment fund established like Auschwitz. The concern of the
Deputy Director on the issue of Majdanek's future is apparent. "A change
in values is needed. Our museums are not competing museums. Good
maintenance of these museums like Sobibor, ours, and others, would be
beneficial also for Yad Vashem.
Everyone whose first contact with
Holocaust is in Washington or Israel won't finish its eventual history there,
but he or she may come here also to Majdanek. There should also be
cooperation with the training of guides and publications." According to the
public spokesperson at Majdanek, despite the frequency of groups from
Israel, "the Israeli groups don't make use of us. They have their own
guides; travel agents. We don't participate and come into contact with them
when they are visiting" (A. Kowalcyk, personal communication, October
18, 2011).
The author had the honor of interviewing three people at the State
Museum at Majdanek: The deputy director, education director, and public
spokesperson. It is managed with 70 employees, many departments. It is
clear that the departments have their separate duties. Everyone does their
job and contributes to make Majdanek run as successfully as it does. And
the management has not been devoid of other crises. On August 10, 2010
fire due to electrical wiring broke out in the barrack which housed 10,000
pairs of shoes from the perished. On arrival by the author, the barrack was
still closed for renovation and restoration. Since then it has been renewed
and the shoes are on exhibit again. An inspection revealed that the barrack
somehow set itself on fire and was not something which could be foreseen.
It was not deliberately set. For the deputy director, "from a critical point of
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view it was a very difficult day. Every day we are trying to put into force a
lot of tasks so each day I have some challenges." Among those challenges
the deputy director cites some tasks he follows: "The first one is to maintain
the substance and history at the same level so that the destructing process
does not affect it. Safeguarding and preserving. Secondly, to include other
objects into our conservation works because some of them have not been
already done due to lack of funds. We would like to include them, for
example, the wash basins and bath barrack that have not been restored
previously. Thirdly, we would like to modernize the museum. We would
like to create an infrastructure that brings in more of the 21st century. For
example, security systems, systems facilitating the visitors being here.
Fourth, maintaining the grounds in their original state, like cutting of the
grass" (G. Plewik personal communication, October 18, 2011). It is
apparent that the management of Majdanek is under a great many
challenges. Its need for extra funding to promote further preservation and
safeguarding of the site is clear. Its future would need to be secured. The
costs of maintaining barracks and preserving the original state are
increasing.
The fact that it administrates two other nonlocal sites of
extermination certainly will require a change in budget and management.
And although Majdanek management has approached the international
community, more fundraising might be necessary. Perhaps Majdanek is
concentrating on its present survival.
If a museum becomes a state
museum, than there are certain rules from the state that it needs to follow
and this would require money from the state budget. Excerpts of interviews
conducted at Majdanek are below. It must be remembered that since the
author's return, changes have occurred in the management of Majdanek. It
took over Sobibor in May, 2012.
Discussion with the deputy director
centers on the Sobibor issue. Audio files are available from the author.
Anything inaudible is not included. The first interview was conducted with
Agniewsz Kowalcyk, Public Spokesperson for the State Museum at
Majdanek and the author's original contact.
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Tell me what public spokesperson for Majdanek means to you.
From a practical point of view, every time when someone from the press
calls us, I am the first contact person. My task is to help journalists make
some reports, news, or articles on the State Museum at Majdanek and the
history of the camp. My task is also responsibility for the web page and
some translation (Polish to English) because we have a lot of news on our
webpage which is updated on a regular basis. The texts come from other
departments of our museum and my task is to make them available to
everyone, to translate them and add pictures.
How many departments are there?
We have different departments. There are departments connected to
technical. We have conservation, administration, collections, archives,
education, and the department connected with exhibitions like when we
have a new one. There is a separate department responsible for the
exhibition. We have employees who work here all year around and
seasonal employees. Their tasks are rather physical and menial work like
maintenance. It comes to about 70 people.
From Israel, they always come to Majdanek. How do you handle the
groups? Do you expect them?
The Israeli groups don't make use of us. They have their own guides, travel
agents and we don't participate and come into contact with them when they
are visiting.
So the educational projects are more to do with Polish children or also
outside groups?
They are earmarked for everyone but mainly Polish students and pupils.
Other countries mainly from Germany take part in them.
I know that Majdanek took over Belzec in 2004. Tomorrow we are
going there. What is Majdanek's role as Belzec being a branch? What
input does it have to give to Belzec in maintaining it?
You can speak to the deputy director about that.
administrative decisions.
He is in charge of
How many visitors do you get a year?
Together with our Belzec branch, we receive about 130,000 people. When
it comes to Majdanek alone, we receive more than 100,000. We have a
better connection when it comes to technical things like the location.
Growing up in the Polish school system, how much was taught in school
about this period when you were a child?
Not too much. There wasn't enough time to cover all topics. We usually
did not get to the end of the book. It was in the curriculum but it usually
wasn't reached. We start with the Middle Ages and antiquity in primary
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school and lower secondary school. When it comes to World War II and
the communist period, we don't always make it.
Does Majdanek feel less exposed than Auschwitz?
Not when we go to Auschwitz. Some surveys were conducted and when it
comes to awareness of extermination sites, Auschwitz is placed at the top.
Everyone knows about Auschwitz and that's all.
Does it ever "get to you" working here with this material?
Yes it is hard. We work here but we are also people. The event "The days
of Majdanek" takes place every year since 1945, a day devoted to
documentary films. At the time when I was watching it I was a viewer, a
human being. I was crying like everyone else.
How many Jews and non-Jews perished here?
In total 80,000 and in the light of the latest research, 60,000 were Jews.
Interview with Grzegorz Plewik, Deputy Director:
How is this place maintained financially?
The museum was created in 1944 and since that time we have dealt with the
same problems. We don't have enough money to fulfill all the needs of the
museum. From the very beginning it was a state museum. Funding
compared to previous years should be higher and higher because the
barracks are getting older.
Since Majdanek has been assuming responsibility for Belzec, is there a
difference in the amount of visitors there since the memorial museum
was built?
Before the museum at Belzec was built in 2004, nobody made statistics.
But for sure there are more people going there now than previously.
Does that have to do with a museum being there or the fact that
Majdanek handles it? Why would there be more people going there?
The new interesting museum attracts people. The infrastructure was made
to be more visitor- friendly. The employees in Belzec do their best to make
people aware that such a place exists.
I might be treading on sensitive ground, but when I read in June about
the closure of Sobibor, the Polish government reopened the tiny
museum there if you can even call it one. There was talk that
Majdanek might take it. What is happening with Sobibor?
It belongs to the regional museum of Wlodowa. It is one of the poorest
regions in Poland. That is why the local authorities have problems
maintaining the museum but also the buildings in Wlodowa. Until the end
of the last year they got some special funds from the Ministry of Culture,
but starting form 2011 they did not receive them anymore. The roots of the
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problem changed. It was decided from the Ministry of Culture that Sobibor
should be supervised temporarily from the Museum of Majdanek and then
there could be a sum of money to maintain Sobibor.
That would mean that Sobibor would be in a more positive direction
for maintaining the site like Belzec.
If Majdanek takes over and supervises Sobibor, changes in the management
structure have to be made as well. For example, there has been
archaeological research and they found a lot of artifacts. And they are
storing them. There should be a place where they can be stored. Also in
Majdanek we should build new buildings to accommodate all the artifacts.
There is a lot of work to do in Sobibor when it comes to the museum
building. It does not comply with a state museum, the technical
requirements that a state museum has to comply with. We have here a lot
of work to do but in Sobibor it is similar. The building is an old one in
Sobibor and it is without technical facilities.
You need someone in charge to supervise the whole process.
There are two groups working on the issue of Sobibor. The first are experts
regarding the museum activity of the site. We don't know if it will be
enforced. The second group is an international steering group to decide
what to do with it. Of course there are various ideas concerning its future
but we think the changes are very necessary due to the fact that it is a very
important place to hold. When we take all the sites into consideration of the
Reinhard sites, there is a memorial in Treblinka, one in Belzec and in
Sobibor there is a monument but it is not sufficient. The fact that Sobibor
would be a state museum enlarges it to be on a good level. The state
museums are secured.
Do you have any kind of endowment fund for the future?
Our attempts in approaching the international community have proved
unsuccessful. Auschwitz is backed up by the government and any extra
funds go to them. It was discussed that the funds should back up all such
places. We have our budget from the government but the AuschwitzBirkenau Foundation only goes to Auschwitz. This is a question for the
government.
Are you in contact with Auschwitz? Every place has their own
problem and difficulty. Do you have contact with Yad Vashem or
Washington Holocaust Museum?
Our employees participate in conferences organized by Auschwitz. Our
contacts differ than those in Germany. There are many museums nowadays
like Yad Vashem or Washington Museum that actually are not on the place
where the Holocaust existed. On the other hand, we have museums like
ours where we think that such cooperation with such institutions should
exist. In practice, our cooperation with them consists of just borrowing
exhibits and the like. The guides who come here with the groups from
Israel are not trained and taught here. When the director met them in Yad
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Vashem, they had a lot of questions about the typography of the site. The
director met the guides in 2004 and they did not know where the selections
were located. This is just an example. Their knowledge is based on old
publications and books.
I would like to go home and speak about the general situation in Poland
and the sites. I would like to speak about the problems each of them
have and that I strongly feel there has to be more cooperation. What
would you like us to do?
A change in values is needed. Our museums are not competing museums.
Auschwitz should not be representative of the whole Holocaust because
they should not be in charge of something about Einzatsgruppen or about
transit ghettos for example. Of course it is the most important museum
because of the number of ordinary objects. But we should remember about
proportions. In 20 years someone can create the idea to destroy others and
only keep Auschwitz. But everyone has a different experience and story.
Only by taking everything together can we have the whole picture of what
happened.
Is there a feeling of competition?
If there is a budget that can be divided, of course everyone would like to get
more. Every museum wants to have more visitors of course; how to get
them to be more attracted to the place. I feel some disproportion. For
example, the situation with publications is different about the place. A lot of
them were published abroad in Germany, France, United States, and Israel.
If you want to find historians who published about Majdanek specifically in
Western Europe, we cannot find them.
What is the difference for you to work here and a regular museum?
If you want to work in such a place, you have to have some basic
knowledge. Each day we can see developments here that things change. It
is challenging. I have been working here for fifteen years. At the
beginning it was difficult because you cannot just isolate yourself from it.
The work here would not be satisfactory by anyone.
Interview with Jolanta Laskowska, Educational Director.
Tell me in general what you do here.
We prepare materials and subjects for those who would like to come to
work in the area of the former camp and who would like to get more
information on specific topics. We have study days which include a guided
tour and every point is to actively discover by them. Even if we prepare
materials like testimonies, documents, and memoirs from our archives to be
used by the group, what we want to achieve is that the single person can
gather the information to enter their minds by themselves. We are here to
facilitate, encourage, answer questions that they may not want to deal with,
and to "take care" that we are not the only ones who know everything. We
also have peer guides. This is mostly done with ages 15 to 18 or the
"gymnasium" before university. About a group of 30 people is divided into
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subgroups and each subgroup works on a different subject that in the end
after summing up the topic, the whole 30 people get the basic knowledge of
what happened here. Every group is responsible for a different area and
when they feel like they finished with their work in the archives or visitor's
center, we go with the people through the former camp and leaders from
each subgroup present what they found on the materials and documents.
They become guides telling their own friends what it is about. We are there
to be helpful in any case. They know themselves when we divide them who
want to be a leader to be exposed in front of the others.
The rest of the audio file with Jolanta Laskowska is available from the
author. A booklet on the educational program at The State Museum at
Majdanek is available from the site.
Further information about their
specific educational activities is available from their website. It includes
museum lessons, study days, participative guided tours, meeting survivors,
intensive workshops, work camps, international projects, historical
assignments, training courses for university students, work experience
placements and volunteering. They have a rich educational program based
on the "pedagogy of remembrance" which has not been adopted at any other
site. It is obvious that the deputy director of Majdanek would like to see
more cooperation on an international scale, unity, and future support for
preservation not just of Majdanek but all the sites of this nature.
Walking inside execution pit, used in Operation Erntefest. Crematorium building in background.
Photo by author.
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Majdanek's large gas chamber. Blue stains, Zyklon B. Scratches can be seen on the walls. By monument with
youth from Israel. Photos by author.
319
Employees
70
Departments
Seven Departments: a. Research
b. Education c. Visitor Service
d. Secretarial e. Finances
f. Administration and Management
g. Technical and Conservation
Director on Location
Two Deputy Directors
Yes. Tomasz Kranz
Visitors
2011: 121,514. (66,764 from Polish
Grzegorz Plewik
Danuta Olesiuk
regions, 54,750 foreign visitors
mainly from United States, Canada,
Israel, Germany, and France). This
amount includes visitors to Belzec, a
branch of Majdanek.
Education
Based on the theory "pedagogy of
remembrance" whereby students
are learning rather than being
learned.
Major Challenge
Funding, preservation and
conservation, security for the
future, maintenance of the grounds.
Location
City of Lublin.
Funding
Ministry of Culture and Heritage.
Exhibitions
Visitor's Center
Table 15. Majdanek management.
-Outdoor exhibitions.
Located in the barracks. Consists of
shoes, personal belonging, artifacts,
mausoleum of ashes, intact gas chamber
and crematorium, prisoners' barracks.
Modern Visitors' Center, place to
purchase publications and books. maps,
guides, etc.
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Ravens are everywhere in Majdanek, plucking into the ground. On the grounds by barracks.
Photos by author.
311
7.5.4 Ashes, Graves, Shadows, and Tears: Managing Belzec!
"Earth do not cover my blood!
Let there be no resting place for my outcry." –Job 16:18
"We forget that Jews lived in Poland for hundreds of years; they made
Polish culture. They were part of the society and we have to preserve the
memory about it. This in my opinion is the most important."-Tomasz
Hanejko, Museum Head, Belzec.
"I had the occasion to read books by deniers. It is against the Jews and
Zionism. I work in Belzec. I have the evidence in my hand, the results of
investigations and researchers. Give me all the people who deny it."Tomasz Hanejko, Museum Head, Belzec Memorial Site.
Despite its horrific crimes, the Belzec site of mass extermination still
remains the least known of the Reinhard sites. School groups from Israel
hardly venture to make it there, despite the fact that it is located
approximately 70 kilometers from Lublin. For many years, the memorial at
Belzec consisted of an open area field, unmaintained and neglected. Its
commemoration was insufficient for the estimated 550,000 who perished on
its soil. Relatively speaking, this factory of death, small in size compared to
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the others of only seven hectares, managed to exterminate the most Jews in
the shortest period of time between March and December 1942. The life
span for the Jew who arrived in a cattle car to Belzec was approximately
two hours. The Belzec site of annihilation was built solely for the intent to
exterminate the Jew and no other nation was murdered there. Belzec holds
distinction on many levels compared to the others. It is the first site built
after the Wannsee Conference for The Final Solution to the Jewish
Problem; unlike Sobibor, Treblinka, or Chelmno, Belzec was the only site
of mass extermination that operated only 300 meters from the town. The
others were built in forestry areas, with lots of trees to camouflage what was
really occurring; the first stationary gas chambers modeled after the
Chelmno mobile gas vans were built there, and its small size incorporated
so many mass graves that in the end, the Nazis needed to destroy it due to
lack of space for more bodies and to hide any evidence of what happened
there. What happened between December 1942 and June 1943 when the site
was completely dismantled, nobody really knows for sure.
There is
speculation that there were more transports between those months but this
has never been proven. A seven year research by Holocaust survivor Itzhak
Weinberg whose family members perished in Belzec, surmised based on
mass grave calculations and other factors; that more than the estimated
number of victims perished there. Due to the absence of documentation
also destroyed and no survivors, there is no concrete evidence for him to
state his claim and have the numbers changed although he does have some
eyewitness testimonies. Estimates range from 480,000 to over 600,000 with
some reaching much higher than that. In Belzec, similar to Treblinka, about
a hundred people were kept around to help with the corpses. The Jews had
to remove the bodies from the gas chambers, toss them into a grave and
cover layer by layer with earth. The "Sonderkommandos" were themselves
exterminated like in Chelmno, Treblinka, and Sobibor. Hardly any women
were kept around but in the end, there were a few slaves, sewing and doing
jobs for the SS. Ukrainian guards like in Treblinka also dominated the
cruelty of Belzec. When the Nazis wanted to destroy evidence of their
crimes, bodies were exhumed, stacked in layers on rails, and set ablaze.
After the elimination of the traces, remaining Jews were taken to Sobibor
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and murdered there. We do not know what documents were written by the
camp command and the institutions connected with it. Its history has been
reconstructed by affidavits or accounts from witnesses: prisoners, members
of the SS staff, and outsiders who had a chance to observe what happened
there. The least comes from prisoners. Out of a total of five escapees, three
did not survive to liberation. It is Rudolf Reder's extensive affidavit which
still exists, an escapee survive the ordeal for four months in Belzec. His job
was to move the corpses from the gas chambers and bury them in mass
graves (Reder, 1999). The death camp at Belzec churned with blood day in
and day out. Reder's map of the site is still used today. Unlike Treblinka
and Sobibor from where sole survivors are still alive, nobody speaks for
Belzec. It is from these factors mainly due to lack of information and
absence of eyewitnesses, that make the site of Belzec paradoxically, the
least well-known while having the highest number of perished in the
shortest space of time. The decision to build Belzec, the first of the three
centers of this kind, was probably taken during the 1941 conference at
Hitler's headquarters called Wolf's Lair near Ketrzyn in East Prussia. They
started building the site in November 1941, using Jews as slave laborers. Its
location was determined by several factors. First of all, Belzec lay next to
the railroad which connected Lublin with the junction station Rava-Ruska
where transports from Galicia and Krakow could be brought. The Nazis
knew Belzec very well because a labor camp operated there in 1940. Jews
build an anti-tank ditch on the border of the USSR and the
Generalgouvernement.
The village also had a ready railway ramp
belonging to the former forest exploitation company.46
For a long time after the war, the area of the former camp was
abandoned and devastated.
The first monument commemorating the
victims was erected in December 1963.
commemoration
In its present form, the
simultaneously consists of the cemetery of the victims
and the museum with an exhibition presenting the history of the death
camp. The Memorial Site in Belzec is unique and symbolizes its grief. It
shifted from being an abandoned and devastating area, to one of
46
Source: Memorial Museum in Belzec.
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remembrance and protected. The old memorial was dismantled. Belzec has
been a branch of Majdanek since 2004. This means that it is also funded by
the government although Majdanek allocates the monies to Belzec. The
former also makes decisions in terms of the administration at Belzec. But
the site has its own staff of three people who are completely dedicated, busy
and effortlessly promoting awareness and remembrance of its sacred
ground. And this they do under limited conditions, lack of documentation,
and no survivors to tell their story. The newfound management under the
branch of Majdanek along with the amazing memorial and museum in
Belzec opened the gateway for an increase in visitors, seminars, education
projects, its own website, publications, and most importantly an increase in
its security on the hierarchy. It was no longer just an empty and abandoned
wasteland, but a memorial that properly commemorates the perished. It
documents the lives of the murdered, popularizes knowledge about the
Holocaust, and prioritizes on developing historical education. The Museum
uses the theory of pedagogy of remembrance and educational practice of the
State Museum at Majdanek. Under this framework of reflection, visitors
learn about the past and contemporary issues connected with intolerance
and racial or cultural hatred.
Photographs donated by relatives of the
murdered are included in the didactic materials. Most of the activities are
directly at junior high school students over 14, secondary and university
students, teachers who are interested in the historical education at memorial
sites, employees of social institutions, and everyone interested.
The
educational classes include guided tours, museum lessons on suggested
subjects, study stays, historical workshops, teacher traineeship and practice,
and historical workshops. Many of the pupils from the Belzec town as well
as Tarmaszow, Zamosc, and other areas participate in the activities at
Belzec, including different competitions initiated by Ewa Koper who is
responsible for education and much more at Belzec. And despite lack of
space and computers and using diligent effort, she succeeds in planning
innovative ways to remember the victims and educate the young. "The
students are mostly Poles, and the children from Belzec village, also from
other villages. There is a competition of art. Each year we have a different
competition with a new title. And this year we have one together with a
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school from Germany. The children from other villages also go to the
Belzec School which is the regional school. You have different districts
and they all come here" (E. Koper, personal communication, October 19,
2011).
What was. Former memorial at Belzec shows its unsuitability for the enormity of the crime.
The sight of neglect, dilapidation, and abandonment are evident. Below: What is.
th
Wreaths laid by dignitaries to commemorate 70
anniversary of the Belzec
extermination site. The wreaths were laid by the memorial wall in the "ohel" or tent which
includes inscribed names of some of the victims on its walls. Above: Tomasz Hanejko,
Museum Head at Belzec along with author and Ann Hansen. Photos by author.
316
Tell people about this place, that here is a museum. People do not
even know there is a memorial here. We must think about the light for
the future." – Ewa Koper, Belzec Memorial Museum.
Driving through villages and small towns to get to Belzec; knowing that
it should appear, the author felt a shudder seeing the sign on the edge of
town. On the left side on a slope, appears this dark mass of a gravesite, a
cemetery where the earth blankets over 33 mass graves. But the site of it
appears as if from nowhere. Seeing it previously on the internet, did not
prepare the author as it loomed closer, to the degree that the author had to
stop the car on the side of the road. At the entrance to Belzec, is the passage
from the book of Job 16:18 and the following words in Hebrew and English
and Polish:
"This is the site of the murder of about 500,000 victims of the Belzec
death camp established for the purpose of killing the Jews of Europe,
whose lives were brutally taken between February and December 1942
by Nazi Germany. Earth do not cover my blood. Let there be no resting
place for my outcry."
To suit a memorial site to the overwhelming amount of deaths which
occurred in Belzec, was a daunting task and discussion began in the 1980's
through the chairman of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum's
governing board. An agreement between the Polish government and the
American Jewish Committee was concluded in 1995. A competition was
held in 1997 whereby the winner would create a monument that would pay
homage to the victims of the Belzec horror in accordance with Judaic
tradition. The memorial includes the whole area of the site. The main
entrance to the cemetery of tears is where the siding was situated. There is
the ramp, the museum, and the "Crevass" which splits two sides of the
cemetery down the middle. When the author asked Tomasz how they
decided on the location without affecting mass graves he said that "in this
area chosen, there were no mass graves. There are mass graves on the
darker parts." A cemetery wall forms from the side of the gateway. The
"Crevasse" cuts the ground in half and as one walks through it, the elevation
of the ground is revealed on the sides until the cemetery cannot be seen.
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The towering walls reveal the dimension of the crime in its entirety. The
way out of this "Crevasse" at the end of the walk is by the stairs on the left
and right. Exiting the "Crevasse" the visitor is at the rear of the site, on a
concrete path which runs through the "Stone Pile." The path contains the
names of the towns from which the murdered were deported to Belzec. An
original oak tree stands as a "silent witness" to the atrocities. In addition,
there is a grid made of rails, symbolizing how the bodies were stacked and
burnt after exhumation. According to Tomasz, the surface of the ground is
covered with "metallurgic" material, protecting the grinded bones and
ashes. The memorial is unique from any other for its commemoration of the
enormous tragedy that took place in Belzec and represents those silent
voices. But it is Tomasz who runs this area even after daylight. "At night it
is different. There are many shadows. The stones look bigger. When the
sun sets, the museum is closed and nobody gets the chance to observe the
difference.
There are live voices in that place" (T. Hanejko, personal
communication, October 19, 2011). In addition to the largest cemetery in
the world according to the Belzec Memorial Museum, there is also the
museum itself which consists of discovered artifacts from archaeological
investigations by Andrei Kola between 1997 to 1999. They include keys,
spoons, scissors and others, corroded over time and death. Also included in
the exhibition are shoes, photos, the original Belzec sign as well as the
"contemplation" room which permits the visitors to enter and reflect. The
museum head would like to see more space for exhibitions. The exterior of
the museum is in the shape of a long cattle train, symbolizing the method of
transports and deportations of the Jewish victims.
The former storage
warehouse is also part of the site and needs to be restored as well as the
house of Christian Wirth, the former commandant of Belzec which stands
empty although it had previous dwellers. Chickens run around the backyard
of the house. Tomasz would like to see these buildings preserved and used
as part of the exhibition at the Belzec Memorial Site. As with the other
sites, limited funding as well as other factors "ties the hands" of what
museum heads, directors, and managers, can or cannot achieve. "It is sad
for me because we have no windows in this small room. We don't have
space. We have pictures from the Ukraine, showing where Jews lived
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before the war. We adapted the room which was originally to show films,
to give seminars or lessons because we don't have the space. It is amazing
that no plan was made for a room for lessons or activities. Someone comes
to Belzec and they want to hear about the history, like pupils who want to
ask about something and we have no place for it. The contemplation room
creates a big echo sound and it is for concentration and reflection after the
students walk around" (T. Hanejko, personal communication, October 19,
2011). What Tomasz needs the most are "people who care about this place,
not Holocaust but specifically Belzec and who want to give their time for
research and preparing, like a committee." Conditions for Belzec improved
dramatically when Majdanek took over the management at Belzec.
However, the site is still in a precarious position.
It is the first
extermination site that became part of government funding but it is not an
independent museum. As well, its future maintenance is not secure with
any endowment plan or monies put away. The international community
does not participate in any of its funding as the author was told by the
Majdanek State Museum. At least it is secure for the time being, unlike
Chelmno but the Museum Head is limited in what he would like to do and
has to answer to Majdanek if he wants to run a major project. They are on a
budget which the Majdanek management allocates to them. Tomasz and
Ewa would like more contact and mutual cooperation with Yad Vashem.
They want people to know about them and made a plea to the author.
"There is silence about Belzec" (T. Hanejko, personal communication,
October 19, 2011).
Concrete path with the names of the towns and villages, surround the memorial site.
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View from rear of site. The 33 mass graves are represented by the darker shades. Photo by author.
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"The hardest thing is that here is not the normal cemetery. It is not an
epic of a natural process. Here is the epic of the worst side of humanity
and that everything that happened here was from the human will. We
need to learn more because it is possible that something similar can
happen again." –Ewa Koper, Belzec Memorial Site.
Photo exhibited in Memorial Museum at Belzec. Photo by the author, courtesy of Belzec
Museum.
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Following the meetings at the Belzec Memorial Museum, the author was
honored and grateful to be given a guided tour from the Museum Head at
Belzec, Tomasz Hanejko. The audio file of the guided tour is available
from the author. Excerpts of the discussions with Ewa Koper and Tomasz
Hanejko are below. Audio file is available from the author and anything
inaudible in not included. It should be noted that the author remains in
close contact with all the managers, museum heads, and the directors, but in
particular, with Tomasz and Ewa. The author is planning to complete a
project about Holocaust survivor, Bracha Rauffman who was hidden in the
Belzec village 500 meters from the site of extermination and will donate it
to the Belzec Memorial Museum for educational purposes and for their
archives. It is with gratitude that the author has been given this opportunity
to make this amazing contribution. The museum staff is very opened and
grateful to anyone who wants to help.
Ewa Koper, Education at Belzec Memorial Site and Museum
Tell me about this place.
Here there are lots of symbols. Everything here symbolizes something.
Even this museum symbolizes something incomplete. We are a branch of
the State Museum at Majdanek. We have me, my colleague, and the
general manager; three on staff. We are doing everything we should be
doing and also what we want to do which is the commemorating of victims
who were murdered here and secondly is education, so that pupils can learn
what happened here.
Do kids from Israel come here?
We had last year 2000. We also received educators from Yad Vashem who
were staying in Auschwitz. They came here to Belzec. We are in contact
with anyone who wants to know what happened here and who wants to
help. We have internships mostly for people from this area. We are very
opened for help.
Where do people stay if they come?
They usually stay nearby—sometimes in Tarmaszow which is the next
village. Both Tomasz and I are from there. It is a town of 20,000 people.
2000 to 3000 people live in Belzec.
In terms of management, you are basically on your own, but Majdanek
oversees what you are doing.
That is correct. Our director is Tomasz Kranz who is the director of
Majdanek. It is state-funded by the government. The memorial was built as
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a joint project between Poland and the United States. When it was
established, there were archaeological digs by Professor Andrei Kola and
Nicholas Copernicus. Everything was in accordance to the Jewish tradition
and the Chief Rabbi was here. He located the mass graves but they were
never opened. There are 33 mass graves. There were only two survivors.
They kept around 100 prisoners to work with the bodies and about 500 also
for sorting.
What is the hardest thing for you?
. . . The hardest thing is that here is not the normal place, normal cemetery.
It is not an epic of a natural process. Here is the epic of the worst side of
humanity that everything that happened here was from the human will. We
need to learn from this for the future, that is someone could bring something
like here, it is possible that something similar can happen again; like we
hear today in the media that blood is everywhere, incidents where women
and children are still murdered, not on the same scale, but still . . . we need
to learn from these places for the future; that everything is possible because
people, I don't know, have something bad inside. What is very interesting is
that even though we live here and know it from our childhood, for the
people who live here, it is also hard for them to come here.
When my son came here in 2002, it was an empty field.
Yes, there was only a small memorial. Many people do not think that
Belzec is one of the biggest death factories. When we compare the number
of victims with the time of operation, it was enough to kill hundreds of
thousands of people. We think they closed because of the lack of space for
more mass graves. Here was the normal road and the railroad, and they did
not have the space to expand. Belzec was right near the village, unlike
other sites. The allies may have known about this place since 1942. From
the hill, people tried to observe what was going on. And some of them
testified after the war. Belzec is only half a kilometer from the train station
and only two kilometers from the village.
What would you like us to do, me or Ann when we return to Israel?
Tell people about this place, that here is a museum. People do not even
know there is a memorial here.
Does it ever get to you? Do you ever need a break?
It is quite difficult even when you go out and you know people were
deported here. But you must think of the present life. But the past comes
back to haunt. We must also think about the "light for the future." I am like
a voice. For many years nobody talked about it. Historians chose about
other camps to write about. Maybe if we had more survivors, it would be
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different. Here we don't have anybody. There was only the knowledge that
this place was here.
Well you are a "light." I see you sitting in a place where you are
speaking for the perished.
Tomasz Hanejko, Museum Head, Memorial Site and Museum at Belzec
How do you manage this place?
We are the branch of Majdanek museum and we have the special focus on
education. We realize the different roles of projects. Second point is
managing the site itself. I am the Head of Belzec and I have to collect the
schools, the different institutions and cooperate with them; I have to protect
the library, documents, and prepare schedules for my workers, everything
that is in cooperation with Majdanek. But we have our own ways of our
activities, because we have different propositions for education and a
different memorial, as well as different populations. In Belzec we get about
30,000 people mainly from Poland, not many from Israel, about 5%. We do
not get enough groups from Israel. It is a bit problematic because the
nearest airport is Warsaw although they are building the Lublin airport. If a
museum is independent it takes the funding directly from the government.
But if we are a branch of Majdanek, we have one budget and what they
want, they give us. Even though you have your own place and you do your
own things at times, what the director wants you to do is a different story.
Do you have contact with educators from Israel?
They come to Belzec and they do not have contact with the educators. We
exchanged some letters with Yad Vashem. But exchange is between the
Majdanek director and the Yad Vashem director. It is problematic because
we are the branch and we are limited. I have no chance to expand. It is not
a problem of the amount of workers.
This place is very powerful. When I drove in I was not prepared.
Yes it is very powerful. Auschwitz is the Holocaust symbol. But Belzec
was the place where people were exterminated—two hours between life and
death.
Do you see a change in Polish-Jewish relations?
It is not the worst but it is not the best. Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka,
must be the place to make better relations between Jews, poles, and
Germans. I like the idea of putting up the Warsaw Museum of the Polish
Jews. For many years we discussed the history of the Holocaust. We forget
that Jews lived in Poland for hundreds of years; they made Polish culture.
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They were part of the society and we have to preserve the memory about it.
This in my opinion is the most important.
Something has to be done about the commandant's house.
I am afraid in a couple of years they might tear it down and I am limited.
Where we are now is the death belt between the two sides of the Soviets and
the Germans—the symbol of occupation, destruction. We are the only ones
who have this document in the museum:
. . ."You are allowed to keep currency, documents, and shoes in the
assigned area. Leave your shoes in pairs. You will approach an inhalation
area."
The memorial is so powerful, the history is powerful. I feel it is too much
for the people if we show the worst pictures of the mass graves and the
victims. I have a problem when I hear that the Holocaust was made by
Nazis. It was made by ordinary Germans. Who were Nazis? They were
part of German culture, an ordinary person . . . The museum helps to give
us the size of the tragedy but we don't have space.
What do you want me to do?
From time to time we hear that someone in Israel may have survived, but
there is silence about Belzec. I wonder if someone even knows what was in
Belzec or knows someone who was in Belzec. There is like a silence about
Belzec. We need a committee of people who are interested only in Belzec.
Standing in the corner, clutching what were remnants from the original site. Cracks in the cement
illustrate only a fraction of what is required for ongoing maintenance. Photo by author.
325
Funding
Employees
Museum and visitor's center.
Main Challenge
Education
Exhibitions
Preservation/Conservation
Location
Ministry of Culture through Majdanek
State Museum. Branch of Majdanek
since 2004. Previously neglected and
dilapidated. Dramatic change since
the takeover of Majdanek.
3 managing the memorial site and
museum. One receptionist.
Located in the same building along
with the main office. Place to buy
memorial candles, booklets, and
books.
To create awareness about the place.
Limited in what they are able to do.
Limited with funding. Future is
uncertain. Maintenance and
preservation of the grounds.
Pedagogy of remembrance like in
Majdanek.
Area of the death camp; artifacts,
photos, documents.
In Torun and Belzec.
Only two kilometers from the small
town of Belzec.
Management of Belzec.
Museum on right. View of cement pathway and original trees, the silent witnesses. Photo by author.
326
7.5.5 Tell about the Ashes and the Brave : Managing Sobibor!
"People want to know. This is the cemetery of Europe. !" –Marek Bem
The Sobibor monument. Photo by author.
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Map showing deportations to Sobibor. Courtesy of survivor Thomas Blatt.
In a sparsely populated, wooded and swampy area inside a forest in one of
the poorest regions of Eastern Poland is the second of the Reinhard Sites,
Sobibor. Sobibor is located about seven kilometers from the small town of
Wlodowa and five kilometers from the Bug River which today forms the
border between Eastern Poland and the Ukraine. The initial area of 30 acres
was expanded to 145 acres. It was built near the tiny village of Sobibor, not
far from the Chelm-Wlodowa railroad line. The site was designed and
constructed in the form of a rectangle, 400 by 600 meters in size. It was
surrounded by barbed wire and intertwined tree branched to camouflage the
horror inside. Sobibor followed Belzec and preceded Treblinka. Its
constructors were able to take examples from the previous site. Built by
Jews and Poles, it was already in the making in March 1942. It started
functioning as a site of annihilation in May 1942. The assembly line of
death consisted of three sections: The administrative area included the
"Vorlager" or forward camp which was closest to the railroad station, and
Camp I which was separate from the rest and housed the Jewish prisoners
and workshops where some of them labored. The reception area or Camp II
was the place where the Jews from incoming transports were brought. They
went through various procedures before being killed—removal of clothing,
cutting of hair, expropriation of valuables. The extermination area, Camp
328
III was located in the northwest part of the camp and isolated. It was
enclosed with barbed wire on both sides as well as intertwined tree branches
to conceal the path from view. The path or "tube" herded the terrified and
naked victims into the gas chambers after being processed. Those who
arrived too ill or too weak to make it on their own were led by a narrowgauge railway directly to the burial trenches. Initially there were three gas
chambers (another three were built later) about 16 meters in size and each
capable of holding 160 to 180 prisoners. They were inside a brick building.
A second door was used to remove bodies after the process of murder.
Victims perished from carbon monoxide which was oozed out by a 200
horsepower engine in a nearby shed.
An estimated 250,000 victims
including approximately 35,000 Dutch were murdered in Sobibor. But
according to Marek Bem, former Museum Head, historian, anthropologist
and expert on Sobibor, "there were a minimum of 300,000 deaths and not
250,000. It is only a symbolic number" (M. Bem, personal communication,
October 20, 2011). At the end of summer, 1942, the mass burial trenches
were opened, bodies exhumed, and subsequently burnt in huge piles.
Subsequent victims were burnt immediately after gassing unlike previous
victims who were first thrown into mass burial trenches.
Those of you, who may survive, bear witness. Let the world
know what has happened here!"
-Alexsander Arnowich Pechersky
Leader of the Sobibor revolt, seconds before the outbreak.
Like the other Reinhard Sites, each one set apart from the rest, Sobibor
had its own distinction. A revolt was led by the Jewish prisoners in Camp I,
on October 14, 1943. Knowing they could not save those in Camp III
which was fenced off, they proceeded anyway during a roll-call, trying to
cut and cross through the barbed wires. Many perished on the mine fields
surrounding the outer area, while the others ran into the forests. After the
Sobibor uprising, Himmler ordered the site of death destroyed. Buildings
were demolished, trees and crops were planted. No traces of the atrocities
were left on the surface. Of the 200 escapees, only 50 survived. Today
there are only three survivors left from Sobibor.
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Prior to the film Escape from Sobibor it was a forgotten and neglected
site. Although the film brought some brief attention to it for a while, despite
its atrocities, it remained in the status like the others and reverted back
there—underrepresented, silent, and obscure.
In the hands of the
Synagogue staff in Wlodowa, access to the site remained limited and having
little funding, the site closed down for the harsh winter.
In 2001,
researchers, historians, and archaeologists in Poland including Marek Bem,
began excavating the site in hopes of finding more clues about the camp and
those killed within its fences. Little was found until 2007 and since then
several artifacts have been discovered as well as the "Himmelfahrstrasse" or
the "Road to Heaven," a path upon which the prisoners had their last walk
before being herded naked into the gas chambers. The gas chamber area at
Camp III was also discovered. Pieces of the Sobibor puzzle, although a
never-ending story, are being put together. Sobibor has become part of the
archaeological trend to discover what happened on the sites of mass
extermination.
Today, on Sobibor, stands a small red-roofed museum
which was previously a kindergarten with swings. Thanks to the efforts of
Thomas Blatt, Sobibor survivor from the revolt and active in preserving the
memory of Sobibor, the kindergarten was converted into a small museum
consisting of a few artifacts and photos found on location. A few houses
occupy parts of the site including the green house called Swallow's Nest
("Schwalbennest") by the Nazis which was occupied by the former
commandant Franz Stangl and which today occupies the Sobibor forester.
The people living in the houses are actually taking part of the site. They are
living on the former camp. A church sits on part of the area of Camp IV the
latter which was never completed. It contains anti-Semitic carving on the
front. At the entrance to the site stand eight plaques written in different
languages, erected through efforts by survivor Thomas Blatt to
commemorate the Jews who perished.
It should be noted that the small
single plaque prior to that had a small sentence about the Jews, which above
it commemorated the Russians. It took Thomas Blatt on a lone mission and
through three government administrations in Poland, to correct the false text
on the commemoration plaque.
After producing court documents and
testimonies of victims and perpetrators, eight plaques on the 50th
331
anniversary of the revolt were engraved in eight languages including
French, Hebrew, Yiddish, Polish, Russian, German, Dutch, and Russian
commemorating the Jewish perished:
"At this site between 1942 and 1943 there existed a Nazi death camp where
250,000 Jews and approximately 1000 Poles were murdered. On October
14, 1943 during the armed revolt by the Jewish prisoners, the Nazis were
overpowered and several hundred prisoners escaped to freedom. Following
the revolt, the camp ceased to function."
Management of the site has undergone two distinct phases: Up until May
2012, the struggle to preserve Sobibor was ongoing. It was at the beginning
of June 2011 (prior to the author's research trip to Sobibor) that the tiny
museum came under the threat of closure. Due to the outcry of Holocaust
survivors, the Polish government decided to keep the museum opened.
Although plans were made along with Marek Bem involving four countries
to build a decent memorial site on Sobibor, it did not come into fruition.
Sobibor remained in a vulnerable, precarious position. In Sobibor there is a
monument which pays homage to the hundreds of thousands whose ashes
are spread around the sad grounds. Like Treblinka, the trees don't move,
birds don't fly, there are no signs of life and the monument does not do
justice for the crimes.
A mound of ashes occupies the rear of the site but
unlike Majdanek, it is not protected and is exposed to the elements of
nature. According to Marek Bem, the exposed mausoleum of ashes "sits on
top of three mass graves and there are still different plans about what to do
with it." Should it be removed altogether? Repositioned? Protected with
an exterior roof? Surrounding the mound of ashes are other mass graves
discovered by Marek Bem and his team. "We found two wedding rings in
the ground at the former area of the gas chamber.
Prior to their
extermination, a husband and wife decided to bury their wedding rings.
This is the story of Sobibor" (M. Bem, personal communication, October
20, 2011).
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The Sobibor monument erected in 1963 stands on the gas chamber area, Camp III. Photos by author.
Since the return of the author's research trip from Poland, Sobibor
underwent a tremendous management shift, the significance of which has
brought the site from obscurity into a bit of light. Like Belzec in 2004, it
was decided by the Ministry of Culture and with the cooperation of
Majdanek that Sobibor become a branch under the administrative hands of
Majdanek at least temporarily for the next couple of years. The positive
consequences of such a move cannot be overstated. Bringing the site out of
silence, it has made it less vulnerable and more attention has been paid to its
plight.
In terms of funding, although very limited, it has shifted to
becoming more secure, under the eyes of Majdanek which allocates the
monies. The dual-task of managing and being responsible for two branches
(Belzec and Sobibor) instead of one, has no doubt put more strain on
332
Majdanek staff which in and of itself has undergone certain management
changes as a consequence. Priorities and plans on what to do with the
Sobibor site which up until the last year had been neglected and completely
precarious, are being discussed with other countries. For the present at
least, its situation has been more secured and already positive strides have
been made. Five people occupy the tiny museum in Sobibor. There was a
recent outdoor exhibition, an increase in visitors, and archaeological
excavations which took place in the summer of 2012. Most importantly, the
site is remaining open for the winter, and activity is ongoing. The website
for Sobibor is being designed and artifacts are being discovered. Plans to
build a decent visitor's center within the next three years are underway, and
there is a competition sponsored by the Ministry of Culture and Heritage for
the center to be designed on the Sobibor landscape. The task is not simple
because the mass graves need to be protected. Archaeological investigation
is being done around the areas of Camps I, II, and III. It should be noted
that the author had the honor of meeting with Marek Bem on the research
trip, who drove the author by previous arrangement to the site from
Wlodowa and shared his knowledge about the history and dilemmas
involving Sobibor. He is doing ongoing research for his PhD on Sobibor
and has written many articles and books on the subject. For reasons not
divulged to the author, Marek Bem is no longer part of the Sobibor museum
staff. However it should also be noted that prior to May 2012, credit for the
memory and efforts to preserve the tragic history of the death site, should be
bestowed and attributed to upon the perseverance and dedication of Marek
Bem and Sobibor survivor Thomas Blatt. It is possible that without these
two people, Sobibor's victims would be prey to the wayside, sadly
uncommemorated, and perhaps eventually completely forgotten.
In the
museum today, five dedicated staff including two historians and some of
whom previously worked in the Wlodowa Synagogue; effortlessly work to
revive the memory of the site, including the presentation during the summer
2012 of an outdoor exhibition in honor of the 70th anniversary of Sobibor,
historical research, and participation in archaeological investigation. For
the moment, Sobibor is lying in an interim management state. Discussions
are being held as to what to do with it for the long-term, whether it will
333
remain in the hands of Majdanek or whether it will become an independent
national State museum.
The original tracks and ramp where victims disembarked. Ironically there is a train on the
tracks with wood. Below: Well used to clean gas chambers. Later on human fat was gathered
to speed up the process between gassings. Photos by author.
The small town of Wlodowa, only seven kilometers from the Sobibor
extermination site, contains one of the most beautiful Baroque synagogues
built in 1762 and destroyed during the occupation. It was restored after the
war. Jews began settling in Wlodowa in the seventeenth century. By the
turn of the twentieth century, they numbered 3,670 (66% of the population),
than 4,200 in 1921, and 5,650 in 1939. The Germans created a ghetto to
which they deported 800 Jews from Crakow and 1000 from Vienna, before
exterminating them all near Sobibor, beside the Bug River. Eight people
managed the Wlodowa Synagogue up until the end of 2011. Due to budget
334
cuts, staff at the Synagogue was also cut.
The management of the
Synagogue which also maintained the Sobibor site, was in an extremely
vulnerable state. From the period of June 2011 until January 2012, Sobibor
and Wlodowa intertwined with the same uncertain fate until the final
decision was made in January 2012 for Sobibor to undergo the management
shift.
Today the Wlodowa Synagogue operates independently from
Sobibor. Marek Bem would have wanted that the Wlodowa Synagogue
management team continue with Sobibor and that the latter would be
declared an independent museum by the government. It did not work out
that way. Claiming that the winter conditions are extremely difficult; that
the area is completely closed off, he clearly stated that this would have an
effect on the management of the site through Majdanek.. "If Majdanek
takes it, it is 50 kilometers from Wlodowa. It is the end of the world. I can
go and get someone if they get stuck at the site. Everyone needs to think
that the area is really difficult. Nobody knows what is here in the winter.
The area is completely closed off. The best contact is with Wlodowa, from
the ministry and the council and the people" (M. Bem, personal
communication, October 20, 2011). For Sobibor survivor Thomas Blatt,
management of the site under the wing of Majdanek is a positive step. At
his residence in Santa Barbara, California, the author contacted Thomas
Blatt to report to him regarding decisions about Sobibor before the research
trip. "Because of my age (born in 1927) I have only a bit of health left and I
am getting tired.
Perhaps the government will take it and we can do
something so that it can fall under the Ministry of Culture. It took me thirty
years to get them to put up the plaques and I do everything alone. Other
survivors did not help me in my quest" (T. Blatt, personal communication,
October 4, 2011).
After the management shift, the author contacted
Thomas Blatt again to report to him that the decision was undertaken for
Sobibor
to
become
recommendations.
a
branch
of
Majdanek.
He
made
some
"The site should be cleaned up and it shold be fenced
around and protected from trespassers, those who want to use it as a
shortcut to get to the village and those who wish to vandalise it. Borders
should be marked and there should be marking of the Sobibor territory.
Around the mound of ashes, its wall should also have the names of the
335
countries where victims came from put on plaques to commemorate them.
The victims themselves cannot be written there because it would not include
everyone. There were too many. I would like to be included as part of the
commission when it reaches the stage for the building of the
commemoration and a new museum on Sobibor. It should be presentable
and with dignity" (T. Blatt, personal communication, May 12, 2012).
Thomas Blatt survived the Sobibor revolt. In Sobibor, "I polished boots
and made belt buckles for the SS and Ukrainians while people were
screaming." For years, he has returned to Sobibor, met with government
officials, and has led groups to Poland. The movie was based on his
testimony and he is the author of the book From the Ashes of Sobibor and
The Forgotten Revolt. During his escape, Thomas hid in a barn under some
hay. The farmer shot his friend and shot Thomas in the jaw who pretended
to be dead. The bullet remains lodged in his jaw until this day, a painful
reminder of the Sobibor atrocities and the tremendous strength and courage
of the revolt. The author maintains a continuous contact with him regarding
the plight and decisions made for Sobibor.
The beautiful Wlodowa Synagogue which is a museum. Photos by author.
336
The author is in contact with the new management at Sobibor. There are
five employees, including two historians. The most important thing is that
Sobibor is opened for the winter and a lot of activity is happening. Thomas
Pudelko, a historian at Sobibor was instrumental in setting up an outdoor
exhibition near the entrance to the site close to former Camp I. In a recent
e-mail he stated that "we started new archeological excavations including
Camp III near the cemetery. The museum is open all year" (T. Pudelko,
personal communication, November 30, 2012).
Commemoration plans,
including a permanent exhibition dedicated to the 70th anniversary of the
Sobibor revolt are underway for 2013.
th
Outdoor exhibition on Sobibor, commemorating the 70 anniversary of its inception. Excavations in
the areas of former camps I, II, and III at Sobibor took place during the summer of 2012. Photos are
courtesy of Tomasz Pudelko, historian at Sobibor.
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Excerpts of the discussion and visit to Sobibor with former Museum
Head of the site Marek Bem are below. It should be noted that an election
was held in Poland and news about the plight of Sobibor was only given
following the election of the new government in January 2012. At the time
of the discussion, the situation for Sobibor was in a stage of ambivalency,
uncertainty and a fear for the future its future. The museum was closed for
the winter. Marek Bem made a plea for the involvement of the European
commission and its governments, citing that Sobibor is an international
cemetery and the responsibility not only of Poles in Wlodowa region but
also of the Polish government and Europeans. Excerpts include discussions
held while he showed the author around the site. Audio file is available
from the author. Anything inaudible is not included.
What is the problem if Majdanek takes over Sobibor?
This is a difficult area for visitors; no public transportation; we need
provide a tourist service; they need to come especially and arrange a visit.
This is the year of parliamentary elections and everybody is waiting for the
new government. Three years were spent discussing ideas about Sobibor.
There are some unfinished details about the place. With the new
government, Ministry of Culture and Slovakia, Israel, and the Netherlands,
something might happen. January 1st, 2012, the international agreement is
ready and it should be a national museum. Nobody knows. I did not see
any new conception. What they have in the plan I do not know. There was
discussion about a Visitor's Center. It is comfortable for the ministry for
Majdanek to take the site. For me it is not good. Majdanek has Belzec and
I think it is too much for the kind of management. It is better to be
independent and alone so that this place can have a manager over there.
Everyone who prepared a plan for Sobibor needs to think that the area is
extremely difficult. If Majdanek takes it, is it too far from Wlodowa.
Nobody knows what it is like here in the winter. It is an area that is closed
off. I don't know why there is an agreement with only four countries. In
the agreement, it must be an independent national museum. To organize
this and prepare for it, for one year it might be a branch of Majdanek. It
will be easier for the government. If we will be a part of Majdanek it will
be the solution of the agreement but it must be independent. We work from
May 1st until October 14th.
How many visitors?
We get a minimum of 25,000 who also come to Wlodowa. There is some
history of Sobibor here. The knowledge really changed. Parts of the
exhibitions now are not based on the most actual information. I am sure
that there were minimum 300,000 deaths and not 250,000. Nobody thinks
about this. The former is a symbolic number. I feel it is even more. There
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was in the first month, the last month, and the end of the year between 1942
and 1943 when Belzec was already closed.
You would like to see the management remain in the hands of Wlodowa
along with the Synagogue?
Yes. We are eight people who work together with Sobibor. That is the full
staff. Houses of people who live here on the land are in private hands.
How did you become so dedicated and what makes you want to do it
more and more?
First it is for knowledge. I am a historian and anthropologist and I want to
find answers for many questions. We can talk many days about the
situation in Europe regarding the victims. A lot of problems are in the
archives; it is difficult to find more answers. Sobibor can be a first in the
world to open the camp for archaeology. Nobody did it before. In Belzec
they stopped in the middle, in Treblinka they did only a small part of the
excavation for many years. We can open the old field and now with
technical possibilities in archaeology we can find answers to questions
about the camp. For example we now know that the road you are on is not
the original road because we found it. My vision of the plan is camp
number III. With no eyewitnesses, a few prisoners tried to prepare the plan.
I was only off with my plan by five meters.
What about the plaques?
The plaques started with Thomas Blatt. He prepared the first one for the
opening in the Polish language. It was necessary to change it in the first
place which was from the communist times and for Russian soldiers. The
first plate had mistaken information. They mentioned Russian soldiers and
then the Jews. They were here because they were Jewish. The former redroofed museum was a kindergarten and than a forest house. To prepare for
the opening in 1993, we did some renovation and then changed the
exhibition in 1998. There are no conditions for visitors or workers. There
is only one small bathroom like a water closet and there is no comfort for
the visitor.
What about the international community?
If we start with education, people need it. People want to know. If the
scientists and institutions don't give the correct information, the truth is
stopped. If we have the possibility to show the young people the truth, we
should do it. Seven countries from Europe have their citizens here. If they
have the chance to be here for five hours, the visitors will be here five
hours. There were Dutch, Germans, Austrians, Slovakians, Czech,
Ukrainians, Russians. They were the citizens of these countries. For today
we need the governments. We can do it together. It is not the problem of
the Polish people only. Where are the governments? Where is the
European commission? It is no difference whether 5000 Austrians or
35,000 perished here. They were the citizens. This is the cemetery of
Europe. In this region of Wlodowa, there are only 40,000 citizens and we
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make them responsible for this, for the task of these people. To get help
from the government, I must beg for a grant. Is this only my problem and
the citizens of these cities? If it is the problem of the country I accept it.
But for 18 years we are in the hands of the community. Where is Europe?
Sobibor
Until May 2, 2012
After May 2, 2012
Funding
Wlodowa. It
received money from
the town. Funding
was cut to Wlodowa
and therefore cut for
Sobibor.
Branch of Majdanek,
which allocates
money for Sobibor.
More secure as a
result because it is
under the Ministry of
Culture.
Exhibitions
Not updated. Some
artifacts but not
recent.
Progress with new
exhibitions including
outdoors and further
research.
Museum and
Visitor Center.
Tiny red-roofed
museum in former
kindergarten and
house of the forestry.
No facilities for
visitors and only has
a tiny wash closet for
a bathroom.
Plans for a modern
Visitor Center to be
constructed
within
the next three years.
This would increase
the
amount
of
visitors.
Opening hours and
days.
From March to
October. Closed all
during the winter
months.
Opened also during
the winter months,
all year.
Archaeology
Projects put at a halt.
Lack of funds.
Investigations
renewed at Camp I,
II, and III. Discovery
of new artifacts.
Visitors
20,000 to 25,000.
Increase.
Museum Head on
location.
Only two people at
museum during winter
months.
Museum head on
location with staff of
five people.
Table 16. Comparing the management at Sobibor, prior to May 2, 2012 and from that date when it
underwent a management shift becoming a branch of Majdanek.
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7.6 What are their Thoughts? Polish Ambassador and Chief Rabbi
"The memory of the Shoah is one thing. To remember what one human
being is able to do to another human being has happened and it can
happen to all of us. Preserving the sites should be a shared responsibility
of the whole world." –Her excellency Agnieszka Magdziak-Miszewska,
former Polish Ambassador to Israel.
Author and former Polish Ambassador to Israel in Polish Embassy, Tel Aviv.
The sites in Poland are like a minefield. In the present state, their future
is uncertain. The author met with the Polish Ambassador to Israel on
September 19th, 2011, prior to the research trip to Poland. Having returned
from four cities from the February trip (Prague, Munich, Berlin, and
Krakow);
knowing
about
Sobibor's
vulnerability
and
the
other
extermination sites; being aware that Auschwitz-Birkenau has its own fair
share of problems, the author was compelled to meet Agnieszka MagdziakMiszewska who is also a member of the International Auschwitz Council.
The council convenes twice a year to discuss the situation of the sites in
Poland. Any project or change even with national exhibitions in Auschwitz
that the country wishes to change or that the director or manager of a
memorial site wishes to do, needs final approval from the International
Auschwitz Council.
The best example of this situation is when the
Auschwitz-Birkenau Director Dr. Piotr Cywinski approached the council
regarding the future fate of the site. Understanding well that funding from
the Polish government would not be enough to save the site in for the longterm, it was decided with the International Auschwitz Council that a special
341
foundation be formed for Auschwitz-Birkenau. The decision was made to
approach the international community.
This was done because of the
initiative of the Director and his vision for the future. Lack of awareness
about the extermination sites stems a great part from the fact that groups
from Israel always go on the same itinerary:
Auschwitz-Birkenau,
Majdanek, and Treblinka. They do not usually travel to the other sites.
According to the former Ambassador, "it is a paradox that for the whole
world, there is only one most important place which is Auschwitz-Birkenau.
Organizers of the International March of the Living should go to other
places to make them aware of their existence and to think together what we
can do. Poland is a poor country. We don't have money to build museums.
What is important is to at least preserve them. There is not enough money
in Poland's budget for all of them and their existence. Not only with
Auschwitz but also in the other cases, it should be a shared responsibility
with the whole world"(A. Magdziak Miszewska, personal communication,
September 19, 2011). The job of the International Auschwitz Council is to
approve projects on the sites and examine their conditions. It all takes time.
The former Polish Ambassador to Israel suggests that: There should be a
worldwide effort in cooperation with Poland to preserve the sites; school
trips from Israel and March of the Living should visit the other sites of mass
extermination to create awareness of their existence; the museum heads or
directors should think about what they want to do and come up with
suggestions to save the sites for the long-term; the international congresses
can be approached such as the Canadian Jewish Congress or the American
Jewish Congress, and the European commission for added assistance;
private donors willing to help should be involved for example, in the case of
the museum on Treblinka, there is a donor who would be willing to fund
the initial amount but the problem is its ongoing maintenance; increase in
the number of guides through mutual cooperation between Israel and
Poland; approaching survivors or committees of survivors in Canada or
United States to write letters to their governments about the plight of the
sites, for example, "Treblinka is the biggest cemetery for the Warsaw Jews
and the Jews of Poland.
The international community should be
approached through the former Warsawians who are living outside, like the
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Association of the former citizens of Warsaw. For different places there are
different tools." The ranking system in Poland regarding funding for the
site is based not only on the size of the place but also its contents. For
example in Auschwitz and Majdanek, there are many objects which need to
be preserved. "There are shoes, glasses, and those things and in Treblinka
for there is a field of the ashes. It is different when you are dealing with a
field of ashes and one monument. For Treblinka the goal is to preserve it
and make sure that bushes do not cover it up." If that is the case than the
preservation of the extermination sites are kept at a minimal level to keep
them going, but not more than that. Funding for extra research is difficult
to get because as it is the sites are preserved with most of them except
Belzec, being empty areas.
But the goal to achieve for Chelmno and
Treblinka is their security. Examples of Sobibor and Belzec illustrate that
under the Ministry of Culture, there is improvement on several fronts. But
all the sites, even the government ones are vulnerable in the long-term.
Thoughts need to be given as to what to do with each one and how it can be
saved from future oblivion. This is most true regarding the uncertainty of
Chelmno. Even for Auschwitz, the idea was to make it secure not just for
the present but for the future.
"It is not enough to preserve Auschwitz-
Birkenau. We should know that it would be possible that in 20, 50, or 100
years to preserve it. The idea for Auschwitz was to create the foundation to
bring money for the approving program with what should be done now and
to do it from the percentages of the perpetual fund" (A. Magdziak
Miszewska, personal communication, September 19, 2011). Full interview
with the former Polish Ambassador to Israel is available on audio file from
the author. It should be noted that when the author returned from Poland,
contact was made again with the office of the Ambassador in Tel Aviv.
Due to her busy schedule, no meeting took place but the author received a
phone call from her assistant in November 2011. The assistant told me that
Agnieszka is returning to Poland in December as her credential as
Ambassador is over, but that "she promises to handle issues regarding
Sobibor and the sites." It was in January that the author received the news
that there are plans for the Sobibor site to become a branch of Majdanek in
May 2012. She remains a member of the International Auschwitz Council
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and a prominent advisor to the Polish Prime Minister on Polish-Jewish
relations.
Chief Rabbi of Poland on the sites and Mass Graves
"You and I can make the world a better place" –As quoted by Rabbi
Michael Schudrich, at the end of the discussion with the author.
"I am involved with both preservation of the camps, mass graves, and
general cemeteries because there are basic "Halachic" (Jewish law)
issues which first and foremost if not entirely, is the question of human
remains, and how they may be properly preserved and buried. If
someone wants to desecrate they will and if someone wants to respect
them they will. So we are not building fences ten feet tall to keep people
out" –Rabbi Michael Schudrich, Chief Rabbi of Poland.
Nozyk Synagogue, Warsaw.
The Nozyk Synagogue is the only prewar Synagogue in Warsaw that
functions. Originally built in 1902, it was a private prayer house which was
later given to the Warsaw Jewish Community. It is the only one still in use
amidst the hundreds of prayer houses in Warsaw before the war. In the
1970's a building was added to the east side. This structure houses the
offices of the Warsaw Jewish Community, the Union of Jewish
Communities in Poland, and the Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation. Around
the Synagogue is a kosher kiosk.
The Nozyk Synagogue is a tourist
attraction for Jews and non-Jews alike. It is also the "home of worship" for
the Chief Rabbi of all of Poland, Rabbi Michael Schudrich. The author had
344
the honor of having a conversation with the Rabbi on the evening of
October 22, 2011 to discuss the plight of the Holocaust memorial sites in
Poland, specifically the situation with Chelmno and Sobibor, and what
should be done for the future. As well, discussion was held on the situation
of mass graves around Poland. Many of them remain part of the Polish
landscape. There are many still undiscovered as in Romania and other parts
of Europe.
Even if they are discovered, they are often mismarked in a
wrong location and often the monument is slapped on where it is
convenient. The Rabbi is involved with discovering the locations of the
mass graves and commemorating them properly, according to the correct
location and placing a proper marker. Even is the marker is only simple
stone, "I would rather get the stone down to have something there. We can
always go back and upgrade later. We often cannot find Jewish witnesses
so we rely on the locals are other witnesses" (M. Schudrich, personal
communication, October 22, 2011). According to the Rabbi, there are two
fallacies which require clarification regarding mass graves: The "killing
fields" were generally in the East which a lot is still in Polish hands. Even
if only 1% of the three million Jews were killed in mass graves, than that
means 30,000. Secondly, while it is true that most died in Ghettos of
disease and starvation or in the gas chambers; there are still tens of
thousands lying in unmarked mass graves. During the conversation, the
Rabbi told the author about a Baptist Bishop who has made it his "passion"
to find unknown mass graves of Jews. "We started working together and he
said "I had enough of business and I want to do this full time." We have
now preserved about fifteen mass graves around the country, mainly in the
Eastern corridor" (M. Schudrich, personal communication, October 22,
2011). The mass graves are usually not in open areas and were generally
seen by twelve to 16 year old Polish boys at the time, old enough that their
mothers could not control them according to the Rabbi. The years are 1943
to 1944 and many are still alive, but the window of opportunity is limited.
The Bishop goes around on his bicycle to the villages and simply asks
where the Jews are buried. The boys who are now in their late 70's are
relieved to tell him; "They were not participants although a relative may
have been, and they are relieved to tell somebody about it. It seems the
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Bishop has a magic touch" (M. Schudrich, personal communication,
October 22, 2011).
The author wanted to know the Rabbi's opinion regarding the
extermination sites and their plight, which one is in the worst trouble, and
the problems with all of them.
It should be noted again that since the
conversation, Sobibor underwent a management shift. At the time, it was in
big trouble and in limbo. Part of the issue includes digging under the
ground. The Rabbi supervised the discoveries in Belzec and the more
recent ones by Caroline Sturdy-Colls in Treblinka, where she followed
Jewish law without digging under the ground. But there were problems
with Sobibor. According to the Rabbi, the local authorities in Wlodowa
claimed they never received funding from the government. The Rabbi is
not sure where the truth is. It was after that a solution was found and
Sobibor was reopened on June 9, 2011. A project to preserve the site was
halted until after the Polish election and the present decision was made to
include it as a branch of Majdanek. An excerpt of the conversation
regarding the sites is below. Anything inaudible is not included and audio
file is available from the author.
Can you talk to us about Sobibor?
The funding of Sobibor is a complete and utter mess. The Rabbinate for
Poland is me. I do not want digging under the ground. There are two
problems: The day to day funding of Sobibor today, and the major project
with Slovakia, Holland, Poland, and Israel which would contribute to the
bulk of the funding. It is moving according to government bureaucracy.
The Dutch are trying to push it and so are the Slovakians. It is the day to
day stuff which bogs down and prevents moving on it. The local authorities
claimed the Ministry of Culture promised some monies which they never
received and therefore spent it on something else. To keep Sobibor open, it
is possible the local authorities tried to receive more money. Sobibor was
reopened because the problem got solved somehow.
What about Belzec? What was your involvement?
I was very involved with the Belzec site. There are about 33 to 36 mass
graves and the survey was done under my supervision. It is in pretty good
shape but the problem now is that some of it is falling apart. It is very
powerful and inspiring. No human being could have imagined how
powerful it would be.
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What about Chelmno? The situation is heart-breaking. Lucja
Pawlicka-Nowak is pleaded with us and told me to try and do
something. We must do something. What can we do about Chelmno?
If we go to the authorities now, the vice-ministry of culture for example,
that would delay Sobibor and it won't get done. Chelmno has to go under a
central authority along with the other death camps. They should be
removed from the local authorities. In Sobibor people are walking over the
mass graves. In Chelmno, we don't even know where they all are. We have
to work on those two. Also October 2013 is the 70th anniversary of the
Sobibor revolt. There will be some sort of major commemoration.
What about Treblinka and the others?
Treblinka is another story. It also needs to be better preserved. Auschwitz
is in a though-out intelligent way of preservation and in super capable hands
with the director. With Belzec, the most important thing is that everyone
buried in the ground is safe. When they did the memorial it was done well.
Majdanek is so-so—less than Auschwitz but better than the others.
So your priority is Sobibor. Is it worse than Chelmno?
I would say. The mausoleum of ashes is over opened graves. It is an open
area.
Chelmno needs protection for the palace ruins and the ruins in the
Ruzechow Forest.
Tell Lucja to forward to me how much money would be required for the
palace ruins and to at least get started. You and I can make the world a
better place.
Following the meeting with the Rabbi, the author was instrumental in
forwarding a letter from Dr. Lucja Pawlicka-Nowak regarding the state of
Chelmno. In it she included what her needs are. There is ongoing contact
between the Rabbi and the author regarding the plight of Chelmno. The
Rabbi would like to deal with each site at a time according to the most
urgent. Still, there was no discussion regarding the long-term preservation,
only the immediate problems. Sobibor has since improved in terms of its
rank on the hierarchy. Chelmno remains at the bottom of the list. All are
not devoid of problems which include first and foremost the immediate
maintenance and plans for the future. Auschwitz-Birkenau is more or less
secure in that sense. Even with the powerful memorial, it is cracking and
slowly decaying. Treblinka needs to be moved from the regional authorities
to the government authorities and the grounds maintained for the long-term.
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7.7 Managing Poland's Institutes of Research, Education, and Memory
The extermination sites, hybrids, and concentration camps are the
products and authentic evidence of the horror and tragedy that befell
Poland's Jewry and the nation. For today's generation; to complement them,
institutes and memorials play just as much of an important role through
their contributions to the perpetuation of memory and assist in the challenge
to manage and preserve the memorial sites and protect the truth through
educational programs, archival research, gathering of historic material and
testimonies, and a constant effort to collect and preserve documentation.
The monuments and original memorials in the streets of Lublin, Krakow,
Warsaw, and other areas of Poland, add to the knowledge of the tragedy.
Revival of the Jewish quarter in Krakow which has its yearly Jewish
festival; the Galicia Jewish Museum in the Krakow Jewish quarter; all
instill an emphasis to that not only were Jews eliminated but also a whole
culture which was an integral part and major contributor to polish society;
that the history of Polish Jewry did not start and end with the Shoah but that
it was a society rich in heritage, vibrant in tradition—an integral part of
what made up Poland as a whole. On more than one occasion, managers,
museum heads, and directors said the same thing; that for Poland the loss of
over three million Jews created a void that cannot be filled. Effort is being
made to provide a look at the Jewish contribution in Poland and to learn
about its 1000 year old history in Poland.
Nowhere is this more evident
than the construction of the Museum of the History of Polish Jews which is
supposed to make its debut in October 2013;
the Jewish Historical
Institute—responsible for the collection and preservation of original
archival documentation from the Warsaw Ghetto, Warsaw Ghetto wall, the
memorial of Umschlagplatz where Warsaw' Jews were transported to
Treblinka, the Institutes of National Remembrance, the memorial attributed
to the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, and so many more. All of them contribute
to the conglomeration of what makes up the whole concept of Holocaust
remembrance. But the success of these institutes and establishments of
memory depend on the dedicated staff that the author had the honor to meet.
Passionate about their work and sometimes under arduous circumstances,
348
they hope to make a difference and see the younger generation as a
challenge; cultivating young minds through education so that hatred
because of stereotypes will diminish. Through various projects, exhibitions,
and education, views and stereotypes are changing. Poland is going through
a process of coming to grips with Polish persecution, Jewish persecution,
and grappling with a subject that their parents and grandparents were
reluctant to discuss. It is through the assistance of educational and
historical institutes that this Polish renewal is taking place.
7.7.1 Museum of the History of Polish Jews
"They want to know about the history of the town and region. How can
you understand the history of the town or region without the Jews? It is
like a person without hands or legs." – Albert Stankowski, "Virtual Shtetl
Project” Coordinator.
The Museum of the History of Polish Jews will make its debut in
October 2013. It is located on the site of the former Warsaw Ghetto, across
from the monument to the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. It is a multimedia
narrative and cultural museum which focuses on the history of Polish Jews,
their rich civilization created over 1000 years.
Through innovative
exhibition design, the museum will immerse the visitors into the world of
Polish Jews through a wide range of media, documents, and artifacts.
Through its educational programs already taking place since the beginning
of construction in 2009, it will provide a learning environment and a place
where mankind from diverse walks of life can meet and reflect. With this
end in mind, it is hoped that the museum will provide a platform for social
change, tolerance, and profound new standards of experiencing history.47
The museum consists of the Core Exhibition which is its heart and soul.
The size of it occupies more than 4,000 square meters of space and will
present in eight galleries, 1000 years of history of the largest Jewish
community in the world on Polish land. It is still being erected on the square
framed by Zamenhofa, Anielewica, Lewartowskiego, and Karmelicka
Streets in Warsaw's borough of Muranow in the heart of the old Jewish
quarter of which part of it was inside of the Warsaw Ghetto in 1940.
47
Source: Museum of the History of Polish Jews.
349
Visitors will be able to participate through the use of source materials—
drawing, photographs, films, and articles of everyday use. The construction
of the museum was not without its own snags. At times since 2009, its
construction was put on hold due to lack of funds, which is through a joint
effort of partnership between the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage,
City of Warsaw, and the Jewish Historical Institute Association which
privately owns the Jewish Historical Institute and now the Museum of
History of Polish Jews. The JHIA receives funds for the Core Exhibition
through
private
donation,
foundations,
corporations,
and
foreign
governments. It also receives funds from the Polish Government and from
local governments.
Donors from all over the world contributed to the
galleries which make up the Core Exhibition. The total projected cost of
over 117 million Zlotys (PLN) and the museum is still searching for more
private and institutional donors.
Construction of Museum of History of Polish Jews in 2011. It is set to open in 2013. Photo by author.
A project of the museum called "Virtual Shtetl Project" makes use of the
internet, recreating areas where Jews lived through a portal that connects
people to their town or village because people "want to know about their
roots. They want to know about the history and town of their region. The
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mission of the project is to bring people together. For me education is one
of the most important parts of the project; to understand each other; know
each other; because many rumors come from not understanding and through
stereotypes "(A. Stankowski, personal communication, October 9, 2011).
The Virtual Shtetl Project allows people from outside Poland to come to
know their town or village, what is going on there now, and what it looked
like before the Holocaust. They are able to locate cemeteries, schools, town
halls, or a nice square. Part of the project in cooperation with youth from
Israel is to translate tombstones in cemeteries into English from Hebrew.
The portal posts daily news connected to Poland's Jewry like incidents of
anti-Semitism, vandalism, or perhaps a positive event. According to the
project coordinator, Albert Stankowski, 75% of those visiting the portal are
Poles. 3,500 people visit the portal each day. There is already a collection
of 67,000 photos on the site. "People are looking for their nostalgia and
childhood." Although the project is a success, mainly volunteers put in
their time and there is a problem with funding. Most of the funding goes to
the Core exhibition in the museum and to its construction. The coordinator
would like to expand the project and have researchers and translators who
would spend time in the Polish and Russian archives. They need sponsors
for this particular project, separate from the museum. For the museum itself
he says that "understanding is very important for the museum. We know
that after people see the gallery they want to try and understand the history
of the Jews in Poland and they will ask for information. We want to get
even the visitors active."
(A. Stankowski, personal communication,
October 9, 2011). It is expected that the museum will receive over 500,000
visitors a year. The response of the Poles is positive. A. Stankowski says
"the Poles are asking so much about this. They desire this museum. They
feel something is missing" (personal communication, October 9, 2011).
The full interview with Adam Stankowski is available from the author.
More than 70 employees and associates make up the management team
involved in the implementation of museum programs and projects. The
team includes specialists in various fields such as history, education,
marketing internet technologies, and finance. It is directed by a board and
351
leadership. Opening day of the museum at the beginning of October 2013
is supposed to bring in dignitaries worldwide.
Monument to the heroes of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, on Heroes' Square. The construction of the Museum
of the History of Polish Jews is still ongoing. It faces the monument which was temporarily blocked off. Photos
by author.
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Photos by author. Close up of monument and Museum of History of Polish Jews. Since the photos
taken in 2011, a lot of progress was made on the museum construction including the roof.
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7.7.2 Guardian of Jewish Collections: Jewish Historical Institute
"There is a process of showing this terrible story of Holocaust but also a
tendency to trivialize. This is very dangerous. We run our own
educational projects and we try and are very careful not to let people
taking part to make it less important than it is. Our mission is to be the
institute that has expertise and experience to help other establishments to
make sure they don't trivialize the Holocaust. It is part of our history and
we cannot forget about what happened. –Edyta Kurek, Deputy Director,
Jewish Historical Institute.
Jewish Historical Institute as it was. The building is an authentic memorial site. Today there is a modern
building where the Great Synagogue stood. The Synagogue was blown up the Nazis. Photos by author
and courtesy of the Jewish Historical Institute.
The building of the Jewish Historical Institute in Warsaw has within its
walls a rich, array of archives, museum, and library collections. People
managed to gather these after the war in that same building which the
Germans looted and in large part destroyed. It was rebuilt in 1947 through
efforts of Jewish organizations and it became the seat of the Jewish
Historical Institute. Its last remodeling occurred in 1997-2000. The JHI is
located in the building of the former Main Judaic Library, built during the
years 1928 to 1936. It housed library space, reading rooms, and exhibition
rooms. Adjacent to it was the Great Synagogue which today is a restaurant
and modern coffee area.
Once the Jews began to be deported to the
extermination site of Treblinka, the building was used as a warehouse for
looted furniture, which was also stored in the synagogue, as well as on the
square between the two buildings. On 16 of May 1943 the Nazis blew up
the Great Synagogue. The Institute is comprised of five main sections: The
archive,
museum,
the
academic
and
research
division,
library,
documentation of historical sites, and documentation for the righteous
Among the Nations of the World as well as individual victims of Nazi
persecution. It also has a genealogical research section. It has its own
conservation laboratory for papers and documents, and the microfilming of
354
archival materials. It is the latter that comprises one of the most important
repositories of primary source materials for the study of the history of Jews
in Poland, particularly for the period of the Second World War and the
Holocaust. Collected by the Central Jewish Historical Commission were
various materials and documents related to the culture and history of the
Polish Jews.
Its most important task was to collect documentation
regarding the Shoah which was used as evidence in many war crimes trials
including Nuremberg.48 Of particular value is the Warsaw Ghetto archive
known as the Ringelblum Archive. The historian Emanuel Ringelblum
formed and directed a group whose main task was to document what life
was like in the Warsaw Ghetto—the largest ghetto in occupied Europe.
Ringelblum's colleagues hid the archive's collections in tin boxes and metal
milk containers beneath the basement of the school in 1942 and 1943. A
third set of materials was hidden the night before the ghetto uprising broke
out on April 19, 1943 on the premises of the brush making workshop. The
first two collections were found in the ruins of the Ghetto in September
1946 and December 1950. The third part was discovered when the Museum
of the History of Polish Jews was being constructed. The archive was
added to the UNESCO "Memory of the World" register. In all there are
approximately 6,000 documents in the Archive, about 30,000 individual
pieces of paper.
Three volumes of the series of materials from the
Ringelblum Archive have been published. Going through the Institute, there
is an exhibition of photos, film, and a large collection of Yiddish books
which can be purchased in the bookstore in the lobby. In their library, they
have a collection of 80,000 books on Jewish literature and culture. The
building is authentic and has only been partially restored. The building is
funded by the Ministry of Culture and in particular the Ministry of Science.
The Jewish Historical Institute Association privately owns the Jewish
Historical Institute and it initiated the idea of the Museum of the History of
the Polish Jews.
48
Source: Guide to the Jewish Historical Institute, 2003.
355
The author had the honor of meeting with the Deputy Director of the
Institute, Edyta Kurek who has been working at the Jewish Historical
Institute for sixteen years and is Deputy Director of the institute for three
years. Not many people know about the Jewish Historical Institute even
living in the area.
For the Jewish people the JHI was the most important
place for Jewish modern history in the 1940s because "it was the place of all
the materials showing the fate of the Jewish nation in Poland, and it was at
this place that it was collected. After the war, Poles did not know much
about the place but because the institute is important for researchers on the
subject of the Polish and Jewish plight, the institute is being visited more
often. Changes occurred in the borders of the Warsaw Ghetto. After the
liquidation of Jews to Treblinka and the uprising, the borders became
smaller, and the JHI building was not included in the total destruction.
When the Synagogue was blown up however, the bottom of the building
experienced a lot of damage. The Great Synagogue was blown up as a
"symbolic gesture" to show the final liquidation of Jewish life in Poland and
the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question." In the 1940s, the JHI "was the
important place for Jewish modern history, because it was the place of all
the materials showing the fate of the Jewish nation in Poland. It was the
place where it was all collected" (E. Kurek, personal communication,
October 9, 2011). After the war, not many people were left to do the
research and waves of researchers left and people of Jewish origin were
often "forced" to leave—not from their own choice. There were less and
less specialists who did work in the JHI. According to the deputy director,
during the communist period, they did not want old buildings renovated or
refurbished. Donations were given by the Joint Distribution Committee and
various organizations to refurbish the original structure. After the fall of the
communist regime in the 1990s, it was agreed by the government, that
people working in the JHI would be established under the institute. Today,
it stands as a dignified guardian. Its walls hold precious archives that tell the
story of the lives in the Warsaw Ghetto and Jewish life in Poland. It is a
cultural institute that belongs to the State. The JHI is managed by 64
researchers in different areas.
There are archaeologists, sociologist,
historians, and literature specialists. "The staff can be divided into three
356
parts: Administration, which includes accountancy, services, and the like;
researchers who do important scientific research on the history of the
Jewish nation in Poland; specialists that include conservation and
preservation, archivists, librarians, archivists, and historians. There is also a
conservation laboratory which was established by the United States
Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington. There is a museum collection
of about 11,000 objects collected only after the war, and part of it includes
belongings of the people who perished in Auschwitz or Majdanek. For
example we have a beautiful collection from Greek Jews who were
murdered" (E. Kurek, personal communication, October 9, 2011). The
material was collected because the only place to put everything was in the
institute. After the war, the Jewish community did not exist and there were
things found after the war in warehouses, or hidden somewhere.
The
institute also has many photographs which is a relatively new department
established in the 1980s. They are photos of life before the war and also of
the Holocaust period. The involvement of the Jewish Historical Institute
with the Museum of Polish Jewish History is that they are both under the
Association of the Jewish Historical Institute in Poland. It is a private
society and it owns the buildings and the collections inside it. The State of
course has their own regulations which also include restrictions on removal
of objects, which are still part of Poland's collections but still privately
owned. There are agreements that regulate the way the buildings are treated
along with its collections.
The new museum is permitted to use the
collections also from the JHI although both establishments have different
goals. The Jewish Historical Institute does research on the 1000 year history
of Jewish presence. The new museum is supposed to show the results of the
research and the involvement of the Jewish nation in Polish history and to
show that they were part of that history. "They want to stress that Jews
were a part of the society and not living only in the ghettos. The Jews in
Poland were not as assimilated as German Jews but here they lived next to
each other. The exhibition is also supposed to show that. I am positive
about the museum and I am opened for cooperation. Even though the
building is still under construction, they are busy working" (E. Kurek,
personal communication, October 9, 2011). When Edyta Kurek was asked
357
about the preservation of the sites: "Sobibor and Treblinka are depending
on the local authorities. The locals are also in a difficult situation. What
should they do? How much should they allocate to the sites? The fact that
thousands are coming to visit these places, nobody wants to hear about it.
There should be a special fund for the promotion of knowledge and they
should be part of the national education system. They should be taken into
consideration by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs" (E. Kurek, personal
communication, October 9, 2011). The full interview with Edyta Kurek,
Deputy Director of the Jewish Historical Institute, is available on audio file
from the author.
7.7.3 Institutes of National Remembrance in Lublin and Lodz
Management structure of IPN. Forced labor in Lublin Ghetto. Courtesy of IPN Lublin.
358
"Remembrance which flows from our heart is the true remembrance.
The question of me as a Pole is a question of me as a human being. It is
the responsibility of my country and my people" –Dr. Adam Pulawski,
Institute of National Remembrance, Lublin.
The
Institute
of
National
Remembrance—Commission
for
the
Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation (IPN) was established on
December 18, 1998 by the Polish Parliament and was created to address
issues primarily concerned to preserve memory. The headquarters of the
Institute of National Remembrance is located in Warsaw. Its Act addresses
issues which are based on four principles: The first principle concerns the
great number of victims, losses, and damages suffered by the Polish Nation
during World War II and afterwards. The second draws attention to the
obligation of prosecuting crimes against humanity, war crimes, and crimes
against peace. Another draws attention to the obligation of compensation
for all who were oppressed by the state which had violated human rights. In
addition, there are the struggles coping with patriotism during the time of
occupations. The activities themselves began on July 1, 2000. It consists of
eleven Branch Offices of the IPN in the vovoideships and established in
cities where Appellate Courts are located. The branches include Lublin,
Warsaw, Krakow, Katowice, Wroclaw, Poznan, Ruzechow, Szczecin,
Bialystok, Lodz, and Gdansk. It also has seven delegations all sub-branches
of the main ones. The basic premise of the four principles is that any
unlawful actions of the state against its citizens cannot be forgotten. As
with Holocaust victims who were for decades uncommemorated, as with
survivors disappearing, as with victims and heroes whose stories remain
anonymous, the IPN is in a race against time to remember them and
preserve human dignity.
The management structure of the Institute of
National Remembrance consists of four offices:
Archival, Education,
Commission, and Vetting. Each of the branches operates under this similar
setting. There is a special section, although quite small in some of the
branches that deals with the Holocaust involving historical research,
education, and archives. The author had the honor of meeting with the
Institute of National Remembrance in Lublin and the Institute of National
Remembrance in Lodz. These two locations which were major centers of
359
Jewish life are significant in terms of Jewish liquidation of the ghettos and
transports to the death sites that were in the former Generalgouvernement.
At the IPN in Lublin, there are two people who research on the topic of
war and only one dedicated person who works with research on the Shoah.
In Dr. Adam Pulawski's home town of Chelm, there is no monument or
reminder of the Holocaust events.
The 15,000 Chelmian Jews were
exterminated in Sobibor. According to Dr. Adam Pulawski, historian and
Holocaust researcher who did his PhD on Polish behavior and reactions
during the Holocaust period, the Sobibor site which is in a forest area, was
associated with picking mushrooms, People used to go there and pick
mushrooms in its forests which grew on the soil of the dead. This type of
remembrance is prevalent especially in the small towns. "There are no
monuments in Chelm to the Jews. Sobibor was associated with the place of
mushrooms; this is an example of our Polish remembrance. Half the
population
of
my
town
disappeared"
communication, October 17, 2011).
(A.
Pulawski,
personal
The Lublin branch has seventeen
employees and it is funded by the government.
It is divided between
education, archives, and prosecution (war crimes and the communist
period).
What makes this branch different is its researcher. Poland is
going through a process of trying to come to grips with its own persecution
and the institute focuses on portraying the Poles only in a positive light.
Through his research, Dr. Pulawski shows that Polish Jews were excluded
from Polish society. He shows the different reactions towards Jews during
the Holocaust period—positive, negative, and indifferent. He is passionate
about his work. "My private commemoration which I wanted to give to the
Jews who were murdered is my book" (A. Pulawski, personal
communication, October 17, 2011).
In 2002, the Lublin branch hosted an
international conference which resulted in a special exhibition in the
Treblinka Memorial Museum as well as an educational brochure and
program for teachers and pupils and what can be included. This was done
during the earlier years of the institute. "The next years focused on writers
and heroes" (A. Pulawski, personal communication, October 17, 2011).
Here at this institute "we are like an island." A. Pulawski says that "people,
who study the Holocaust, never reject it. The emotion cannot be separated
361
and I know many people who deal with it have nightmares because it is
difficult for those who study it" (personal communication, October 17,
2011). For Dr. Adam Pulawski, the Holocaust has negative influences on
his mental state and he has recurring nightmares. He believes that the
remembrance after the Holocaust was weak and his research delves deeply
into the Polish-Jewish relationship. He is on a sole mission in the institute
to try and present what he researched. Regarding the sites, he believes that
the Polish government has to take them—that Belzec is a good example of
improvements that can happen when the site is in the hands of the Ministry
of Culture and believes that all of them should be independent museums.
The location of the IPN Lublin branch is on a side street in Lublin's old
town. The full interview with Dr. Adam Pulawski is available on audio file
from the author.
Moving photo of the "Death March of the Jewish Children" as it is written in Yiddish under the
photo. Children are being transported to their deaths in Chelmno. September, 1942. Photo is
courtesy of Kehilalinks on Lodz at http://kehilalinks.jewishgen.org/lodz/.
361
The author had the honor of meeting four dedicated people at the Institute
of National Remembrance in Lodz. The IPN branch in Lodz is much larger
than the one in Lublin both in the size of the physical structure of the
building and the number of employees.
It has 112 employees and the
dedicated people in the Education Department deal with projects that start
from 1918, the end of World War I, until 1989 with the fall of communism.
Two young and committed historians are responsible for the research on the
Holocaust. Lodz had a very large Jewish community of approximately
230,000 before the war. Most of them ended up in the Lodz Ghetto. The
majority of them perished in Chelmno although some of them ended up in
Auschwitz and Treblinka. The final liquidation of the Jews ended up in
Chelmno. The site was chosen due to its proximity to the city of Lodz.
Quite a large amount of the educational work is devoted to the Holocaust
and the history of Jews in the region.
The IPN in Lodz has a good
relationship with the local schools. The schools approach the institute and
the staffs go and teach about the history of Lodz during the war, the ghetto,
present lectures about Poles who rescued Jews during the war, destruction
of small ghettos in the Polish countryside and in the center of Poland. They
have exhibitions on the subjects. The educational offers are available on
their website which allows the schools access to approach them. Their goal
is to have the children remember something and make them aware. The
Institute has an agreement with Yad Vashem regarding information about
Poles who helped Jews during the war and also with the United States
Holocaust Memorial Museum.
It is an education and research
establishment and it does not deal with preservation of the sites which is in
a separate jurisdiction.
As like the others it is funded by the Federal
Government of Poland, they have strict protocols they need to follow. They
have more leeway when it comes to educational projects however. They
have 11,000 photos from the Lodz Ghetto and 700 meters of files about it
which are in the State archives. The parliament gives the general directions
and the director of the branch gives more specific ones. The Lodz branch of
the IPN made a lot of publications and sources. But they have a problem
making the local instructors implement them. The Director of the Institute
of National Remembrance in Lodz is in the position since its inception.
362
Both Holocaust researchers Adam Sitarek and Michal Trebacz would like to
see more involvement and exchange between Jewish students when they
come from Israel on their trips and Polish students. They would like to see
more of an exchange between them. For example, "when the students from
Israel come to Lodz to see the Jewish cemetery which is the second largest
cemetery in Europe, they get bits of information from the gravestones, but
there are 46,000 people on the Ghetto field" (A. Sitarek, personal
communication, October 13, 2011). Today, there are approximately 600
Jews living in Lodz. An estimated 800 Jews survived from the Lodz ghetto.
There is an improvement in relations at the local level according to the
institute.
For example, a church bell was inaugurated and the
commemoration for the bell was attended by the Chief Rabbi of Lodz, the
Protestant Bishop and the Catholic Priest. They see an improvement on the
Polish side because there "is an interest in the history and also on the dark
side of the history" (A. Sitarek, M. Trebacz, personal communication,
October 13, 2011). The tone at the institute is positive in terms of their
work but they would know that there would be an improvement between
students from Israel and Poland if they would meet each other. And they
"would arrange a basic course on history of Polish –Jewish relations from
the 19th century, with very specific information about the situation in Poland
during the interwar period, during World War II and after. They would give
a wide view about the situation of the Jews in Poland and compare them to
the situation of Jews outside Poland, including Romania, Hungary, and the
Soviet Union" (M. Trebacz, A. Sitarek, personal communication, October
13, 2011). On a personal level, as with the researcher in the Lublin branch,
they sometimes have recurrent nightmares, for example "escaping from
Treblinka" (M. Trebacz, personal communication, October 13, 2011). Full
interviews with the Institute of National Remembrance in Lodz are
available on audio file from the author.
363
7.7.4: Past into Present: Managing the Galicia Jewish Museum
"I am not Jewish. I was born in the Jewish district in 1983. I was raised
with Jewish Synagogues, Jewish cemeteries, and a district without the
Jews. It was part of my childhood and I wanted to know why this
happened. We want to show a wider perspective and make people aware of
the 800 year history of Jews in Poland" –Jakub Nowakowski, Galicia
Jewish Museum in Krakow
Kazmierez which is the old Jewish Quarter in Krakow is experiencing a
process of revival. It is a tourist attraction for people from all over the
world. Most of them come to Krakow to visit Auschwitz which is about an
hour away by train and tour Kazmierez. Today it has small hotels, kosher
restaurants, and is never totally empty. The authentic location attracts
tourism worldwide. Prior to this, Kazmierez lay naked. The ominous
silence of its streets where the Jews once trod lay bare; the original houses
remained as they were when the Nazis entered the Jewish area, and were
left in their authentic state. Some of them have since been renovated.
Poland had a law of waiting for about fifty or sixty years until somebody
would come to claim the property.
In most cases, nobody did. In the
center of Kazmierez is a small monument, commemorating the 65,000 Jews
who were snuffed from their lives and transported to Auschwitz and the
other death camps.
Synagogues are still standing; fragmented parts of
tombstones line a memorial wall in the Jewish cemetery behind the main
Synagogue. With emphasis on educating Poles about the 1000 history of
Jewish life in Poland as the management at the Museum of the History of
Polish Jews hopes to accomplish, the Galicia Jewish Museum traces the
memory of Jewish life in Polish Galicia (Galicja), through its main
exhibition and curated exhibitions, temporary and travelling exhibitions,
and leading culture and education programs. It opened its doors in April
2004 by its founding director, Chris Schwarz, a photojournalist who
covered the Solidarity movement as a press photographer in 1981 and then
returned again after the collapse of communism. He became interested in
the existence of relics that remained of Jewish life in the small towns and
villages in the countryside outside Krakow. British anthropologist Jonathan
Webber had been engaged in field research in Polish Galicia for many
years. When the two met they ended up working together for ten years with
364
Chris producing over 1000 photographs.
He found an old, empty
warehouse building in Kazmierez and it was there that he established the
Galicia Jewish Museum as a home for the photographs. With the help of
local friends, he set up transforming the warehouse and registered the
museum as both a charity in the UK and Poland. It was in April 2004 that
the museum was opened. From 2004 until his premature death in 2007, he
created dynamic exhibitions and education programs. Through its dynamic
and committed director, Jakub Nowakowski, today the Galicia Jewish
Museum remains home to the permanent photographic exhibition, Traces of
Memory and attracts over 25,000 visitors a year. The museum provides a
range of services for individual and group visitors. They have a Media
Resource Centre and a growing archive of films on Jewish and Holocaustrelated subjects. But besides the Holocaust, they hold all types of social and
cultural events including the yearly Crakow Jewish Festival which takes
place in the Jewish Quarter. The museum is a popular venue for local
artists, performers, and musicians. The author immediately noticed the
museum's contemporary, comfortable look with its glass and large space
while still retaining the authenticity with wood and brick. Its café which
serves hot and cold beverages on comfortable seats offers catering options
to visiting groups. The Galicia Jewish Museum is a unique institution,
which teaches about the Jewish past in Poland, while at the same time
encouraging Poles and Jews to reflect on the future.
The Galicia Jewish Museum. Photo courtesy of the Galicia Jewish Museum.
The author had the honor of meeting with the director of the Galicia Jewish
Museum. When asked about the purpose of the museum, he emphasized
365
several reasons, but the major one being that "for many who come to
Poland, whether Jewish or not or if they have some roots, visit Krakow,
Auschwitz, Warsaw, and Wieleczka Salt Mines. These places would give
you information on how they were killed, Krakow, and the salt mines, but
you would have no idea of how they lived, where they lived, and why they
lived here. We want to show a wider perspective and make people aware"
(J. Nowakowski, personal communication, February 13, 2011). In addition
to the education programs, the Galicia Museum has a comfortable learning
center which holds lectures, workshops, and has an educational room.
There is a screen for films and computers with testimonies from survivors
and movies connected with the Holocaust and prewar life. There is also
additional material connected with the exhibition. They also hold a program
for parents with young children. "It is held on the last Sunday of the month
and it is called "Family Sunday" which is a program for families. It consists
of three parts: Guided tour of Kazmierez, workshops with the children, and
Klezmer music where they can dance and move around. This was made for
the parents to visit the museum and they are free to move around.
Everything is taken care of" (J. Nowakowski, personal communication,
February 13, 2011).
Family Sunday at the Galicia Jewish Museum.
For the director of the Galicia Jewish Museum who grew up in
Kazmierez, next to the Jewish Quarter, emphasis centers on Jewish life and
culture including Hebrew and Yiddish.
The educational programs are
366
"tailor-made" for schools and foreigners. "We don't attack kids with the
numbers of 6,000,000 Jews but let them know names and stories, and learn
about the houses from their own town. I cannot imagine 1,000,000 or 1000
people. I can imagine one man with a name, with hopes, and this is what
we are trying to do; to learn the history through the people. By following
the story of one man, you can follow him. The history of Polish Jews is the
history of Poland. There is no history of Poland without the Jews" (J.
Nowakowski, personal communication, February 13, 2011).
the museum comes from donations.
Funding for
It is registered as a charitable
institution. Not funded by the government or the city, every two years they
need to fight for the money.
But the director sees it as something
challenging as a way to ensure that they are the best and innovative. They
try and bring the schools to the museum and organize for them a workshop,
meeting with a survivor, lunch which lasts a whole depending on the age
group.
The Galicia Jewish Museum is not a Holocaust museum and
therefore it does not have artifacts. They don't have artifacts about the Jews
in Crakow "because there is a Synagogue down the street connected with
that. There is no point in copying or doubling. We want to show what a
menorah tells about the life of those people. We want to show about
ordinary life" (J. Nowakowski, personal communication, February 13,
2011). Management of the Galicia Jewish Museum includes a board of
directors. It employs 25 full and part time staff and is divided into several
departments including Education and Research; Projects and Publications,
External Relations and Communications; Finances and Administration;
Museum Operations. They also have volunteers who are trained and remain
for at least a three month period. These volunteers come from various
countries.
The staff learns by travelling around the world to different
Holocaust museums including Yad Vashem, the Holocaust museum in
Skokie, and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. They go "to
see what is happening over there. Our staff is students and young people so
we make sure that the attitude is very good. For us going home happy is the
most important thing which depends on how the guest comes in and is
received."
The main exhibition, Traces of Memory consists of five
sections: Jewish Life in Ruins, Jewish Culture as it Once Was, Sites of
367
Massacre and Destruction, How the Past is being Remembered, People
Making Memory Today. The main exhibition is not only to commemorate
the Holocaust, but "to commemorate Jewish heritage."
The director's mission for the Galicia Jewish Museum is to make sure
that the memory they are trying to preserve is not about the victims or dead
people but says it is about "my people, my history. It happened here. It
was done by people just like me. The victims were also like me and you
with hopes, dreams and lives like me and you who happened to be Jews.
This could happen again and it could happen to any other group. It was
done by the people. It is not to commemorate numbers but the idea of
ordinary lives, ordinary people, and ordinary events and to do this as best as
possible"
(J. Nowakowski, personal communication, February 13, 2011).
The Galicia Jewish Museum is a link between the past and the present. By
presenting the Holocaust and making it on a personal level, it is countering
those countries that put down a monument but do not give any other
information about that monument at that place, at that particular location. It
is attempting to make the event relevant for today's generation and to
368
educate Poles about Jewish culture as it once was. In addition he feels that
the sites must be preserved because "it is proof that it happened, what the
purpose was, and why it was built that way. We cannot forget because for
me it is my history, my past. It is important that the Holocaust is not
forgotten and that our work is remembered."
Full interview with the
director of the Galicia Jewish Museum, Jakub Nowakowski is available on
audio file from the author.
Chapter VIII
Others that Stand Alone
The Nazi death machine and its collaborators, were on the annihilation
march before there were the extermination sites of Treblinka, Sobibor,
Majdanek, and even Chelmno. While Jews were being starved, tortured and
gassed, with the advent of the Nazis into the Soviet Union, a massacre spree
involving the deaths of an estimated 1.5 million Jews began.
They lie in
forgotten, unmarked, uncommemorated mass graves all over the Ukraine
which have become part of the Ukrainian landscape. Mass graves are
sometimes discovered by the locals who happen to be working in those
areas or by researchers who want to know more about what happened there.
However, the mass grave murders still remain underesearched and
unmentioned, left by the wayside.
The Jews were murdered by the
Germans and many Ukrainian collaborators. The Soviet regime would not
allow any publication concerning the fate of the perished Jews of the
Ukraine. Over 3,000,000 of them lived on Ukrainian soil before that. A
French Catholic Priest, Father Desbois, has spent several years searching
for mass graves around the Ukraine and has excavated hundreds of mass
graves,
unrecognized
and
unremembered,
no
markers,
and
no
documentation. He travels with Jews, Christians, and nonbelievers to these
places. The work has expanded into Belarus, Russia, and Poland. He has
written the book Holocaust by Bullets (2008) and together with Cardinal
Lustiger whose Polish Jewish family was murdered during the war, founded
Yahad In Unum in 2006 to fund the investigation and find out where and
how the Jews were murdered in the Ukraine. Ukrainian witnesses are
369
interviewed about the mass shootings which took place next to their homes
and where the mass graves are located. Since the opening of archives in the
Ukraine and the fact that travel is without a visa for people from Israel,since
2011, more research is taking place by Yad Vashem. There are still many
Holocaust sites, mass graves and former camps, that remain undiscovered,
dismantled still in a heap, or covered up with new buildings, camouflaging
the truth of what happened under the surface.
The Jewish Quarter in Prague is always bustling with tourists. It remains
basically intact and consists of six authentic buildings, among which are
several Synagogues and the Jewish Museum in Prague.
Not everyone
however goes to visit Theresienstadt, which is about one hour by bus from
the city center. As mentioned earlier in the research, Theresienstadt was
used as a transit camp; a waystation for Jews who would be deported to the
"East", the extermination sites in Poland. It became known as the cover-up
camp, the place of façade which the SS used to beautify in order to "fool"
the Red Cross delegates who came to check (although not thoroughly
enough) what was happening in 1942. It is a site that consists of the small
town of Terezin and the Small Fortress which was used a prison camp for
political prisoners, undesirables, and Jews. The people in the town were
forced to leave their homes and the whole town was turned into the
Theresienstadt (Terezin) Ghetto. Despite so many deaths due to disease,
starvation, torture, and living in conditions of total squalor, Theresienstadt
has also until today, remained one of those sites that is still underresearched
and forgotten. It gained some attention when a diary was found by a 14
year old boy in a Prague attic, Petr Ginz who later perished in Auschwitz.
The Theresienstadt site received further attention when Ilan Ramon, the first
Israeli astronaut to board the space shuttle Colombia, carried with him a
drawing from Petr Ginz which the boy drew during his incarceration in the
Terezin Ghetto. The space shuttle never made it home and disintegrated
before landing on February 1, 2003.
To complete this multinational research on the challenge to manage and
preserve Holocaust memorial sites, the author felt an overwhelming sense
of urgency to include the Babi Yar site in Kiev which has become the
"symbol" of mass killings in the Ukraine, as well as the Holocaust Center in
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Kiev to see how it is managed, despite the "silence" surrounding the mass
graves in the country.
As well, the author included Theresienstadt due to
the nature of its extreme cruelty as a "cover-up" and front. The Nazis
succeeded in "pulling the wool over the eyes" of the Red Cross.
Theresienstadt, not given its due in Holocaust research, still remains in a
category that is all its own.
8.1 Babi Yar: Ashes in a Ravine
Women and children being massacred at the Babi Yar ravine, September 29-30, 1941. Photo is exhibited
worldwide. Courtesy of http://www.onthisdeity.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/BabiYar
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th
Babi Yar monument. Wreaths mark the 70 anniversary of the genocidal massacre. Photo by author.
Like the word "Auschwitz," the ominous words "Babi Yar" speak
volumes. Although there is a preferred silence surrounding the atrocities
around the Ukraine, Babi Yar became a symbol for the mass killings and
extermination—the slaughter en masse which began with the invasion of
the Soviet Union by the German death machine in 1941. Kiev was taken on
September 19, 1941.
Located on the outskirts of Kiev, the original ravine
was about 150 meters long, 30 meters wide, and 15 meters deep. Today it
sits in a memorial park area, maintained by the city of Kiev, and consists of
an amazing monument which hangs over the ravine, to commemorate the
estimated 100,000 victims. The separate plaque for the Jews was only
placed at the monument in the 1990's although the memorial itself was
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realized in 1976. It included only Soviet citizens at that time. Babi Yar is
known for the largest massacre of Jews in the shortest space of time which
occurred on September 29-30, 1941. Orders were given to the Jews of Kiev
on September 29, 1941 that they must assemble near the Jewish cemetery
and bring with them documents, money, and valuables. They were told to
undress and gruesomely, they were shot into the ravine, bodies layer upon
layer, one on top of the other. The mass genocide resulted in the murder on
those two days in 1941 of over 33,500 Jews although estimates are higher
than that. Shooting continued well into the first week of October 1941. In
addition to Jews, Ukrainian nationalists, Soviet POWs, and Gypsies also
met their deaths in Babi Yar. It is estimated that between 100,000 to
150,000 people were murdered inside the death pit. The number of Jews
can never the exactly known. 327 inmates including 100 Jews from the
nearby KZ Syrets Camp were forced to exhume the bodies for Aktion 1005
in 1943, to hide evidence of the atrocities. After exhumation, bodies were
searched for valuables, gold teeth removed, bones crushed, bodies burnt
into ashes and scattered around the area. The prisoners of Syrets were also
shot to be replaced by new ones and only a handful managed to escape by
loosening their shackles and running away. Today, people are walking their
dogs, children play near the Babi Yar ravine, but there seems to be an
awareness of the atrocity due to the large monument and amazing sculpture
which hangs over this valley of tears and death. Around the park are
international monuments and plaques. But there is no sign that points to the
Jewish memorial although it does exist there. The author had problems
finding it. The monumental sculpture at the ravine is extremely moving.
One cannot help but be impressed with the meticulous artistry that went into
it. The author entered inside the ravine and walked around its
circumference, paying homage to the genocide that happened in this valley
of death. September 29th, 2011 marked the 70th anniversary of the Babi
Yar genocide which fell on the Jewish New Year (Rosh Hashanah). It was
hardly mentioned although commemorations took place at theBabi Yar site.
Upon arrival of the author in October 2011, the wreaths were still there
from dignitaries.
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Saying "Kaddish," Hebrew payer for the dead, in the Babi Yar ravine. Monument in back. Photo by author.
Rummaging through belongings of the perished at Babi Yar, 1941. Photo is exhibited worldwide.
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Prior to the research trip, the author discovered the heart-wrenching
Requiem project by American sculptist Cindy Jackson. Requiem by Mozart
is the Mass that is recited over the dead. In artistic terms, through her
sculptural environment, the artist hoped to pay tribute to the 100,000 lives
lost at Babi Yar by creating a walk-through pit with hundreds of scenarios
of pain, love, fear, and courage which would create an emotional impact to
motivate all those who visit. Although she never visited the site of Babi
Yar, she hoped that creation of Requiem would be realized through
donations and the Association of Americans and Ukrainians. Anxious to
put it into fruition, the author got into contact with the American-Ukrainian
Association and discussed with its director, Jon Kun, the Requiem project.
The author at this point had not visited Babi Yar but was determined to
prepare the groundwork for the project. By sending the author a portfolio
about the cost of the project and all that it entailed, it was thought that
perhaps it can be done. However, on location and acting as a scout, the
author discovered that there was nowhere to put Requiem. There is no
space for it. It would be impossible to put it inside the ravine because there
are still bones and ashes on and beneath its surface.
As well, the
surrounding area does not have enough room for it. For the future, it would
not be properly maintained because it would require funding for long-term
maintenance although according to the artist, "it would require being rinsed
off every six months."
Exposed to the elements of Kiev's harsh weather,
the author also had doubts whether that would be done since the Ukrainians
are still going through a process of breaking the silence which has not been
fully reached.
On return from the research trip, the author reported to
Cindy Jackson that there is nowhere to place Requiem and the project
cannot be realized at that location, but perhaps at another one like in Yad
Vashem.
Requiem illustrates the importance of travelling to the actual
location, before making decisions regarding Holocaust memorials and
monuments, as desirable and desired as they might be.
Issues such as
funding, national attitude, and location are just part of the list of factors that
need to be considered before placing a memorial such as Requiem.
Discussion is still ongoing about the future of this gut-wrenching
masterpiece.
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Requiem cannot be realized on the actual Babi Yar location due to several management issues.
Photos were sent to the author, courtesy of sculptist Cindy Jackson.
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8.1.2 Despite Adversity: Managing Ukraine's Holocaust Center
"It is not only our job, but part of our life even though we have no
money" –Dr. Anatoli Podolsky, Director.
Located in Kiev, the Ukrainian Center for Holocaust Studies (UCSH) is
a non-governmental institution founded in partnership with the I. Kuras
Institute for Political and Ethnic Studies of the National Academy of
Sciences of Ukraine. The latter donated the three rooms that occupy the
center.
The activities of the UCHS focus on Holocaust research and
education which can be grouped into five directions: Regional aspects of
the Holocaust on Ukrainian lands; reflection of the Holocaust in the massmedia of the Nazi-occupied Ukraine; Nazi ideology and the mechanisms of
its implementation; anti-Semitism and Holocaust denial; comparative
research of the Holocaust and other cases of genocide. The UCHS has
scholarly conferences and seminars on these issues. In addition, the UCHS
provides teacher training programs for those in secondary schools as well as
higher education. It has its own periodical editions and publications and
participates in international projects in cooperation with academic and
educational institutions all over the world. It holds educational study trips
and annual study trips for Ukrainian teachers as well as an annual seminar
for history teachers.
There are school competitions based on different
topics for example, on research and art work. On January 27th when it is
International Holocaust Day, the Ukrainian Center for Holocaust Studies
along with the support of the Embassy of Israel in Ukraine, to discuss issues
regarding the over 1,000,000 Jews who were massacred on its soil as well
as marking the day for the liberation of Auschwitz. The passionate and
dedicated director of the UCHS Dr. Anatoli Podolsky teaches young people
how to be guides for the center, holds youth seminars, and discusses issues
of tolerance and prejudice.
When the author arrived to the center on
October 14, 2011 a celebration was being held for those youngsters who
finished the course on being a guide and they received a certificate of
completion.
The center is struggling for survival however.
It is not
government funded and as a result, relies on donations and cooperation with
international Embassies in Kiev. The staff that manages the center consists
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of five people and six volunteers who arduously struggle to continue
research on the Ukrainian Holocaust as well as teaching and education.
Similar to Romania, the Ukraine is going through its own process of
"coming to terms" but it has not yet reached that end. The director is
anxious to promote awareness of the Holocaust in the Ukraine among
youngsters and train teachers who could teach about the subject. Through
donations, teachers are sent to seminars in other parts of Europe and at
times to Yad Vashem. The building which houses the Ukrainian Center for
Holocaust Studies is not that visible from the street. It is inside an alcove
and has three rooms including the office of the director and the library
which was the only participation by the government. Unlike Romania where
the Elie Wiesel Institute for Holocaust Studies in Bucharest does receive
some government funding, this center does not. The process they are going
through may be similar on some fronts but in the Ukraine, the situation is
even more serious. The indifferent attitude or the "out of sight, out of
mind" has made some progress in that the country opened its archives
recently in 2011 to Holocaust researchers. As well, Israelis do not need a
visa to travel to Kiev anymore. Prior to February 2011, a visa was required
which limited the amount of tourism visiting sites of atrocities in the
Ukraine like Babi Yar and others. The director would like to see the center
become government funded.
Pretty much inconspicuous in terms of its
location, the center operates quietly. The government does not disturb it but
"does not contribute to it either" (A Podolsky, personal communication,
October 14, 2011). The responsibility of the center was to train young
guides for the exhibition Holocaust by Bullets by Father Desbois. The
project included students from the history faculties. "I am hopeful for this
generation. I don't know how I get my funding. On one side, the main goal
is to save the memory of Jewish communities during the Holocaust in the
Ukraine. On the other side funding is difficult. We don't have one sponsor.
We send applications all over. Our partners include the Anne Frank House
and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington as well
as Yad Vashem.
I started this center because part of my family was
exterminated in Babi Yar; my grandfather, grandmother, uncle and aunt in
September 1941 all on my father's side. I grew up during Soviet times and
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it was forbidden to speak about it.
I was raised with that since my
childhood. I am also a historian specializing on World War II. It is a
combination of private and personal reasons" (A. Podolsky, personal
communication, October 14, 2011).
There are 3,000 teachers in their
database and the staff consists of five people and six volunteers. "If we
cannot get funding, we will close. We continue existing though. We have
an annual trip to Yad Vashem, Belzec, scholarly journal, biannual teacher's
seminar in the Ukraine. It is not only our job but part of our life, even
though we have no money." The scholarly journal of the UCHS is a highlevel academic journal which is funded by the center and not from other
monies. They are struggling for survival and at the same time, still doing
remarkable activities.
The director selects groups to send to the
International School for Holocaust Studies in Yad Vashem and prepares
them for the trip. They have annual projects but get their funding as it goes
along. It goes according to a yearly basis and they never know what they
are going to receive. The center is doing the best they can under very
challenging conditions. Students go into the library which is one room, take
books, and do preparations in the larger room. The books are purchased
from conferences by the center.
They have contact with German
organizations that send them books. The library consists of only Holocaust
topics and their collection includes Transnistria and Babi Yar among others.
The passionate director devotes his life to the center and is "hopeful" for the
future. In 2012, the center celebrated its tenth anniversary.
Full interview
with Dr. Anatoli Podolsky is on audio file and available from the author.
Dr. Anatoli Podolsky in front of his office door with young Ukrainian volunteers.
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8.2 Reaching beyond its walls: Managing Theresienstadt
"In my eyes this is the place where it happened. It is quite different in
feelings than simply understanding facts. Here is where there is natural
evidence of what happened." -Dr. Jan Munk, Director
Entrance to Small Fortress at Theresienstadt. Reception area with sign "Arbeit Macht Frei." Photos by author.
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Memorial sculptures before entrance to the execution hill and the moats in Small Fortress, Theresienstadt. In
this moat, a father and son were forced to beat each other until the death, according to the tour guide. Photo
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by author.
Unlike any of the other sites, Theresienstadt falls into a category all its own
and consists of three distinctive parts which are surrounded by a walled
fortification. It includes: The Small Fortress, the former Ghetto in the town of
Terezin, and the former slave labor camp of Litomerice. What distinguishes
Theresienstadt from any other site was its intent—to be used as a cover-up and
a way station towards death. The foundation of the town of Terezin dates back
to the late 18th century when Emperor Josef II decided to build a fortress
alongside the New and Ohre Rivers. The purpose of the stronghold was to
prevent any future attack from enemy forces into the Bohemian interior and to
guard the Labe waterway. The stronghold was never used in battle and its
fortifications, impenetrable at the time of construction, gradually grew obsolete.
In the 19th century, the Small Fortress gained a notorious reputation as a
penitentiary and it continued to function well into the 20th century as a military
prison. Terezin's Small Fortress became a police prison of the Prague Gestapo
in June 1940, mainly for political prisoners who were detained there. Members
from groups of resistance from the Czech lands as well as other countries
passed through its gates.
Jewish inmates were singled out to receive
particularly harsh treatment and they met with a brutal fate. Most of the
prisoners were people arrested for different signs of resistance to the Nazi
regime. Prisoners in the Small Fortress perished under brutal conditions of
execution, torture, famine, and disease. The Small Fortress was a way station
as many inmates were later sent to Nazi courts, prisons, penitentiaries and
concentration camps. It was divided into four courtyards and included the
execution area. As late as May 2, 1945, 51 prisoners were executed.
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Swimming pool built by prisoners from Small Fortress, for children of SS. Many prisoners lost their
lives during its construction. Behind the hill, they were executed. Right: Prison cell. They "slept"
standing up. Photos by author.
Approximately 7000 residents of the Terezin town had to leave in the
middle of 1942. The whole town was turned into a Jewish Ghetto, a transit site
which would be used to deport Jews to the "East"; a pit-stop towards death.
The ghetto was governed by the Jews but under very harsh restrictions by the
SS. The town itself became a large prison. The first Jews to arrive were from
the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia but later prisoners arrived from many
countries. At the end of the war, an influx of Jews from the death marches and
from evacuated concentration camps arrived in Terezin. They brought with
them diseases like Typhus and spotted fever. As a result, those who managed
to endure until the end of the war did not survive after liberation. More than
155,000 men, women, and children went through the gates of the Terezin
Ghetto. An estimated 35,000 found death in Terezin; another 83,000 died after
deportations from Terezin—in extermination camps, concentration camps, and
death marches towards the war's end. The Jewish self-administration created in
Terezin was in charge of the internal functioning of the Ghetto and the
obedience of the SS Camp Command which issued orders and prohibitions.
7,000 civilians inhabited Terezin before the war and 58,500 prisoners were
squished together in this overcrowded place of disastrous conditions, which led
to the destruction of the prisoners. Every fourth person died in Terezin. The
SS Camp Command went to extreme lengths to conceal from the outside world
the truth about real life in the Terezin Ghetto and its purpose. Anybody caught
trying to communicate with the outside world was severely punished.
However, many prisoners smuggled letters illegally. Drawings were hidden in
the Ghetto, and the boys in Home number 1 established an underground
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magazine called Vedem.
Adult prisoners did as much as they could to
counteract the hard fate of the Ghetto's children and youth. Tutors were chosen
by the Jewish self-administration for playing, painting, holding discussions, and
secretly teaching the older children. The death rate in the Ghetto was very high
due to epidemic of disease, overcrowding, and death by overwork. What makes
the Terezin Ghetto distinct from other sites was the decision to have the
crematoriums. The amount of burials in mass graves in the Jewish cemetery
grew to catastrophic conditions. As a result, the building of the Terezin
crematorium was decided by the Jewish administration under the guise of the
SS. From autumn 1942, the ovens in Terezin burnt a total of 30,000 to 35,000
victims from the Small Fortress, the Ghetto, and the concentration camp in
Litomerice. Two features distinguish the management of burial in Terezin from
other sites: The building of the crematoriums was initially decided by the
Jews; ashes of loved ones were stored in urns and kept in the Ghetto
Columbarium. This was unusual because ashes were strewn all over the place
in other sites. However, towards the end of the war in an attempt to hide the
atrocities at Theresienstadt, the SS Camp command ordered the ashes of 22,000
victims cremated in Terezin, to be thrown into the Ohre River. Today, a
memorial and place of commemoration stand as a reminder of this horrific
event. Perhaps it is here in Theresienstadt that the word "crematorium" takes
on its true meaning. It is the only site where the internal management of the
Ghetto made a decision out of necessity to establish the crematoriums. Bodies
of loved ones were cremated and ashes kept in urns. This was not done at any
of the other sites.
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Terezin Ghetto with original tracks built by prisoners in the Small Fortress, to bring Jews into the
Ghetto. Photo by author.
The cruel obsession of the SS to conceal evidence of the atrocities was
similar in all the sites but in Theresienstadt it went beyond restrictions. What
distinguishes this site in a category all its own was the use of the place for
propaganda purposes and to obscure the reality of its brutality.
In the
Beautification Action of 1943-1944, the overall appearance of the buildings and
prisoners' dormitories, as well as the construction of a park and a music pavilion
in the square, were used for shooting a propaganda film to portray Terezin as an
autonomous Jewish settlement and a "home for the Jews" given to them by
Hitler. The International Red Cross Committee visited the site to investigate
what was happening at a camp. But using "blinders" and denying the reality
under the surface, they claimed that prisoners—men, women, and children were
treated fairly. Most of the Jews who participated in the propaganda film were
transported to the "East" and exterminated in Poland's death camps. It must be
remembered that the Red Cross was aware of the decision to obliterate
European Jewry and hearing of the harsh treatment of Jews, arrived to the
Terezin Ghetto after the Wannsee Conference in 1942.
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The ovens in the Terezin Ghetto. Flowers placed by author. Photo by author.
Grave of thousands. Unmarked stones in the Jewish cemetery, Terezin Ghetto. Photo by author.
The Litomerice site was founded in 1944 and was a branch of the main camp
of Flossenburg in Germany.
Its prisoners built underground factories.
Approximately 18,000 prisoners went through the camp and an estimated 4,500
perished at the site. Inmates included Jews from many European countries. As
in the Terezin Ghetto, the large number of perished made it necessary to build a
crematorium. Liberation of Theresienstadt by the Red Army occurred on May
10, 1945. Due to the epidemic of typhus, the whole town became a provisional
hospital.
Prisoners from the Small Fortress arrived to the former Ghetto.
Today, the management of Theresienstadt has an arduous task of managing,
safeguarding, and preserving the Small Fortress, the Main Fortress (Terezin
Ghetto) and the responsibility over Litomerice. As a memorial for the site was
established in 1947, most of the original buildings remained.
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The administration today sits in the former SS Administration Building. The
director himself who is Jewish and whose mother was a Theresienstadt survivor
sits in the former office of the commandant, Heinrich Jockel. He has photos of
his grandchildren placed on a mantle. The site is approximately one hour by
bus from the beautiful city of Prague. Driving along, it appears as if from the
middle of nowhere on the right side of the highway. The huge fortress is
absolutely shocking; the dead silence in this huge complex felt immediately
upon arrival. Walking through there is the cemetery of many graves unknown,
of the thousands of bodies that were exhumed and reburied in mass graves,
unmarked stones that commemorate the dead. Some 601 bodies were exhumed
from mass graves in the Small Fortress and a funeral service was held on
September 16, 1945. It became the basis for the founding of the Terezin
National Cemetery. Until 1958 remains of the prisoners exhumed at Terezin
and Litomerice were also brought to the Terezin National Cemetery as well as
the victims from the last execution.
Ashes from the Terezin Ghetto
crematorium and the Litomerice crematorium were also brought to rest in the
National Cemetery, and put into the Jewish part of the National Cemetery;
unmarked stones to commemorate them. At the beginning in 1990 the director
was asked to maintain the site. In the Terezin Ghetto, there were no plaques
with the word "Jew" on them and no commemoration for the Jewish deaths in
the Small Fortress under the Communist regime. The director set up a main
exhibition in the Terezin Museum, memorial plaques are on the walls of the
former buildings, and inside the crematorium building are commemoration
stones and plaques.
The Jewish cemetery in the Terezin Ghetto is also
commemorated where 9000 souls were buried in mass graves. Grey, cement
stones bearing nothing on them, mark areas of the cemetery. In the former
Terezin Ghetto, there is a small population of approximately 2500 people who
live in the dwellings formerly used by Jews imprisoned in the Main Fortress.
Despite the cruelty of Theresienstadt up until the end of the war; despite its
status as a "façade" to fool the world into thinking the victims were treated well;
despite all that, the site nevertheless remained forgotten. Survivors were treated
as if they were in a different category from other Holocaust survivors.
Awareness about the Theresienstadt tragedy gained momentum following the
death of Israeli astronaut Ilan Ramon along with the other astronauts from the
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space shuttle, on February 1, 2003. He carried with him into space a drawing
by Petr Ginz, a 14 year old boy who secretly helped to run the underground
Vedem magazine in the Terezin Ghetto. The drawing "Moon Landscape" is on
exhibit in the Terezin Museum. A film was made about Petr. In the United
Nations, a booklet about Petr is used for educational purposes.
More
coincidentally, a diary was found in a Prague attic which turned out to belong to
Petr Ginz. His sister Chava Pressburger, who lives in Israel, heard about the
diary on television, travelled to Prague, and managed to get her brother's diary
with the assistance of Yad Vashem. A lot of material was given to Yad Vashem
in return for their assistance, but the original diary remains with Chava. The
author had the honor of meeting Chava Pressburger, a survivor from the Terezin
Ghetto. Her discussion with the author is available on audio file.
The Small Fortress, Theresienstadt. Fortress on the outskirts of the Terezin town or former Ghetto.
Photo by author.
Following the meeting with the Dr. Jan Munk, the Director of the
Theresienstadt Memorial Site and Museum, the author was given a guided
tour of this vast place—including the Small Fortress, the Main Fortress, and
the Terezin Museum. The former camp of Litomerice only four kilometers
from Theresienstadt was inaccessible to visitors at the time although the
director hoped that the town hall of Litomerice would take over
management of the site. "The space needs to be rebuilt, cleaned, and
restored to its original. It also needs security. It needs conditions to open
for the public. We don't have money or possibility to do it so we are
supporting that they want to do it. I hope it will be implemented. The
crematorium is in the management of ourselves but the underground factory
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is unfortunately not accessible because there is no road to get there. In the
winter it is impossible because it is muddy" (J. Munk, personal
communication, February 2, 2011).
The management of Theresienstadt
which includes the Small Fortress and the management of the Main Fortress
including its exhibition in the Terezin Museum have 120 employees. There
are several departments including archives, financial and administration,
exhibitions, photo archives, archives, library, and education. Funding is
received by the Czech government, Ministry of Culture.
In practice,
enough money is received for wages and according to the director, "this is
also going relatively down because our budget and expenses are growing
much faster than the support we get from the Ministry of Culture." To
survive, the management of the museum has incorporated itself to be an
organization of "partial financing" which means it takes the rest of the
budget that is needed from its own earnings. These include charging fees
for all day programs at the site, entrance fees, and charges for school visits.
There are twelve permanent exhibitions and temporary exhibitions which
change every two to three years. The site does not receive money from the
European Union although there are many buildings which need to be
preserved. Reconstruction is ongoing and the director has claimed for years
that Theresienstadt is an international site. The biggest expense comes from
the wages of the staff. The site does not receive donations save for special
programs it might be presenting. For example they may get monies from
the claims conference which supports education and exhibitions. As the
director is a member of the Holocaust Task Force, he may receive some
monies from there.
Unlike Poland, they do not have a system where
entrance is free, although even there, they need to pay for translation and
guides. They have created special programs for education where students
come for lectures, workshops, and seminars. Schools also receive special
grants through the Czech Ministry of Education to visit the site. It is not
compulsory to do so. There are also programs for teachers and every year
200 teachers enter the memorial and then return with their students. The
biggest crisis and danger for the site was the Prague flood in 2002. It
created havoc for Theresienstadt which resulted in a crisis situation.
Archival documents including many photos, building structures, and the
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Columbarium where the urns were kept in the Terezin Ghetto are just some
of what was destroyed.
The site does not receive enough funding for
restoration of the Columbarium. Nevertheless, following the flood in 2003,
they did receive an extra budget from the Czech government for restoration.
"We had to start over." The management is still working on digitalizing
archival photos and testimonies of survivors. The director has managed the
Theresienstadt site since the 1990s after winning a competition. Intensive
discussion ensued as to what to do with the site and from then, he
established spaces and buildings which did not exist before.
In those
spaces, the management created permanent exhibitions and special
programs and as he said "our conception is that the commemoration should
be placed in the place where it happened" (J. Munk, personal
communication, February 2, 2011).
The duties of the director include
dividing the tasks and corresponding with other people. "It is impossible
for one person to do everything. There are different departments which are
dealing with special things and they are doing it. We have the finance and
economic department and they take care of those problems." The site has an
unusual security system. An electronic system operates inside the main
administration building but there is also a "primitive" measure. "At six
o'clock the gates into the Small Fortress are closed and the housekeeper
opens the door to the dog and it goes where he wants. It is very effective."
The director is concerned about the future since there are no real plans for
the preservation of the sites. "I am not sure we will be absolutely successful
in saving the sites. But there is no other way because otherwise all this
suffering will not bring anything for the future. On other continents, there
are murders and genocides. It happened many times since the war." He
suggests that like Auschwitz, funding should be created on a "European
level." Below is a small excerpt from the discussion and interview with Dr.
Jan Munk. Full interview is available on audio file from the author.
Is the term "never again" a cliché?
I think so because it is happening all the time. It is saying to the people,
you are of this kind, able to do such terrible things; that you have to be
careful and know about it. It happened 70 years ago but not the technique is
much more effective.
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What do you tell your grandchildren?
I tell them the truth.
As director for so many years, does it ever bother you?
I am working more than 20 years in this place. It is sometimes difficult. I
am doing it because I believe it is necessary. My mother remembered the
times in the Ghetto and told me if it would be possible, she would have
returned to the Ghetto because in the Ghetto, she had mother, father, sister,
all the family. After nobody survived. She was only 20 or 21 at the time.
What was one of the most important tasks when you began here?
In the town where it was a Jewish Ghetto, there was no sign. There were
some plaques on the walls which spoke about prisoners and inhabitants but
the word "Jew" was not mentioned. There was no exhibition about the
ghetto so the first task was to implement the decision which was taken by
the Czechoslovakian government.
It was decided by this reform
government and for the first time, some of the points of the decision were
implemented like design of the places. Money came from the Vienna
Jewish Community. The main thing was the establishment of the Ghetto
Museum in the framework of the Terezin Memorial and in the town it was
done for ideological reasons which were unacceptable for the political
power. At the end of the 1970s they built an absurd Museum of Police, full
of telephone cables because there was a guard hearing about what people
were saying at different places of the exhibition.
What would you like students and visitors to leave here with?
At least minimal knowledge about what happened here. I think they
remember because the visit to the Small Fortress is so powerful and
impressive. That is why the education in such places is more effective than
school classes.
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Memorial to the Jewish and Christian victims in the National Cemetery in the Small Fortress, Theresienstadt
Memorial Site. It is located just before the entrance gate into the Small Fortress and includes the unidentified.
Ashes from the Terezin Ghetto and Litomerice were reburied in the cemetery. The rocks under the Star of
David commemorate the ashes of the Jews who perished. Photos by author.
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Funding
Czech government Ministry of
Culture, partial financing with
revenues generated by own
earnings. Entrance fee, material
generated by the site such as
publications.
Employees
120 including the Small Fortress
and the Main Fortress (Terezin
Ghetto).
Departments
Archives, finance, library, photo
archives, exhibitions, education.
Location
Approximately one hour from the
city of Prague, Czech Republic.
Located in the small garrison town
of Terezin.
Exhibitions
Small Fortress-original buildings.
Main Exhibition in the Main
Fortress, Terezin; crematoriums,
original buildings in the former
Ghetto.
Security
Electronic security system; dogs,
housekeeper.
Visitor's Center
No visitor's center in the Small
Fortress but there is a small kiosk
to
purchase
material,
and
souvenirs.
–There
is
an
administration building of the
former SS occupied by the present
administrators of the site; tour
guides.
Education
Seminars for teachers, grants for
schools, all day programs for schools
to come to Theresienstadt.
Theresienstadt Management.
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8.2.1 Where Objects Speak: Managing the Jewish Museum in Prague
"All the objects have their own story. It is our aim in the new exhibition
to tell the story through objects. We would like to keep history alive. You
can learn in Auschwitz about the death and killing of millions labeled
Jews, but you do not know anything about them as people." –Dr. Leo
Pavlat, Director of the Jewish Museum in Prague.
Dr. Leo Pavlat, Director of the Jewish Museum in Prague and author.
The Jewish Museum in Prague achieved its claim to fame not because of
foundations or support from the government, nor from those interested in
art collections. It emerged from the tragedy that befell the Jewish Nation
during World War II. According to Museum Director Dr. Leo Pavlat, "the
objects that were gathered in our museum were in fact, silenced twice.
Firstly, when the Nazis took them from those to whom they had belonged
for centuries; and secondly, through the actions of the Communist
authorities which throughout the more than forty years they were in power,
did not allow exhibitions to be held with the Jewish spiritual or historical
context" (L. Pavlat, personal communication, February 1, 2011).
The
original aim of the Jewish Museum was to preserve valuable artifacts from
the Prague Synagogues that had been demolished during the reconstruction
of the Jewish Town at the beginning of the 20th century. The Museum was
closed to the public after Nazi occupation of Bohemia and Moravia on
March 15, 1939. The Central Jewish Museum was established in 1942.
Objects and artifacts from all the liquidated Jewish communities and
Synagogues of Bohemia and Moravia were transferred to it. The Nazis
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approved a project to set up a central museum, proposed and founded by
Jews who sought to save the confiscated Jewish objects. The approval for
the project by the Nazis was of course, guided by different motives. After
World War II, ownership of the Jewish Museum was transferred to the State
which as of 1948 was in the hands of the communists. It was therefore
restricted in its preservation, exhibition, and educational activities.49 With
the collapse of the communist regime, the status of the Museum changed
and in 1994, the Museum buildings and collections were returned to the
Jewish Community of Prague and the Federation of Jewish Communities in
the Czech Republic respectively. It became a private museum; a non-state
institution. The author had the honor of conversing with Museum Director
(Dr. Leo Pavlat), Deputy Director and Head of the Shoah History
Department (Michael Frankl), and Educational Director (Miroslava
Ludvikova).
The Jewish Museum in Prague attracts approximately 500,000 visitors a
year and the former Jewish quarter is the site for tourism. Between touring
the Synagogues and exhibitions of many ritual objects, the visitor is
immersed into an experience of culture that is unique. The arduous artistic
labor and craftsmanship is on the objects and exterior of the buildings,
which provide the viewer with a unique architectural experience.
The
exhibitions of the Jewish Museum in Prague are located in six historic sites
and include five Synagogues. Also included are the Education and Culture
Center, The Robert Guttman Gallery, a multimedia center, and a restaurant.
The five Synagogues include Maisel, Spanish, Pinkas, Klausen, and OldNew Synagogue. The Old Jewish Cemetery is also maintained by the
Jewish Museum in Prague. The memorial to the 80,000 Czech Jews who
perished in the Shoah is located in the Pinkas Synagogue which includes the
names of victims engraved in its walls as well as a vocal and continuous
prayer for the dead. This would have been impossible to do under the
Communist regime but once the Jewish Museum became denationalized in
the 1990s, it was constructed.
Since the Jewish Museum is private and
relies on itself (save for grants it receives for educational projects) the
49
Source: Jewish Museum in Prague.
395
management charges an entrance fee, depending on the visitor's requests. It
can also include a fee for all the Jewish sites in the Old Town of Prague.
An individual audio-guided tour is also available for rent in a choice of
several languages and includes descriptions of historic objects, accounts of
the Jewish ghetto and Prague's Jewish community. The main headquarters
of the Jewish Museum sits with a combination of several buildings and is
adjacent to the Spanish Synagogue.
Exterior of the Spanish Synagogue. Photo by author.
The mission of the museum is "to tell the story through objects." What
makes the Prague Jewish Museum unique is the fact that objects were
stored on actual location while at the same time the Czech Jews were being
annihilated. Even the table in the office of the director is authentic; stored
in the museum while the family was being torn apart. The specific objects
in the museum belonged to those families that disappeared and they were
never removed. In the Spanish Synagogue with its beautiful craftsmanship
and décor, there is a special section about liturgical silver including parts of
Torah decorations and coverings and family heirlooms. To combine the
authenticity with contemporary audiences, the director would like to add a
new exhibit which would reach those accustomed to using mobiles and
media. They are still in the process of digitalizing their objects and archival
photos. "We are aware of the uniqueness of this museum not only through
the Shoah period but it has been a part of our museum; something we will
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always record. But we would like to develop in a way that is opened to
young people, to make through the idea of objects that each part has its own
history and belonged to somebody who had his own life. If you go home,
what does that mean?" (L. Pavlat, personal communication, February 1,
2011).
The Jewish Museum is going through a process of change—a
combination of maintaining the authenticity of the area and objects as well
as moving into the contemporary stream to reach more people connected
with technology.
The Jewish Museum of Prague is a scientific and
educational institution which also cooperates with others in the Czech
Republic. They represent the Jewish culture that is there and often show up
on a public level—media, radio, television. Since the restoration of the
museum in October 1994, there has been an involvement dealing with
restitution and Jewish property confiscated during the war. The director
writes many articles about these topics and is often on television. He has
good ties with the media and they often approach him to speak. A program
on National Geographic about Prague's Jewish Community during the
Holocaust included the Jewish Museum and the director presented its
uniqueness and history, including exhibitions of objects and personal
belongings which were confiscated and stored such as beds, linen, furniture,
silverware, Torah scrolls, and more. They also have good ties with the
Ministry of Education. Some of the programs receive money, for example,
a book was published for the schools which included a significant part on
Shoah deniers and anti-Semitism, as well as Jewish customs, traditions, and
general history.
In terms of funding, the museum relies on its own volition. They are
entitled to apply for grants and support but they need to cover their daily
expenses. "We have to be not only in balance but we have to have a profit."
The economic crisis in United States and Europe has affected tourism and
this of course has an effect on the Jewish Museum. They have to take care
of tombstones in the Jewish cemetery and spend a lot of money preserving
and restoring to keep items in safe condition. They have more than 100,000
books and 40,000 items and most of the budget is spent on restoration and
preservation.
There are fifty employees at the museum which include
guards, curators, and cash desks. There are storage depositories which are
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not visible to the visitor and they are in charge of fifteen of the fifty
buildings in the Jewish Quarter. "We are in the process of digitalization of
our objects. We are talking about tens of thousands of items." About 90%
of the income generated for the museum comes from tourism by selling
tickets, souvenirs, and providing services. When it rains or there is harsh
winter weather, they feel the difference. The Prague flood in 2002 closed
down the Pinkas Synagogue and flooded the others. The insurance covered
almost everything so in terms of loss, they were able to overcome unlike the
Theresienstadt Memorial Site. The latter relied on additional funding from
the Czech government. "Compared to other institutions we lost very little
because the insurance covered almost everything." Departments have their
own agenda and everyone contributes from their own specialty.
The
specialists in the museum are young (all under the age of forty) and are
experts in various fields including history, Judaism, and restoration. "We
have a schema of responsibility but there are some fields of activities I am
personally involved in like Christian-Jewish dialogue. I am not here to
interfere in other specialties because I rely on them. They should know
how to do it. I follow everything and we have plans on how, when, and
why, it should be done" (L. Pavlat, personal communication, February 1,
2011). In 2006 the museum celebrated 100 years. A year of Jewish culture
was organized in the Czech Republic through the Prague Jewish Museum
which also involved hundreds of other institutions that brought with them
their own specialties. "We show that Jewish history is alive. Not everything
has been 100% successful. Many things could have been done better but it
is always a good experience for next time."
The Jewish Museum
cooperates with Terezin Initiatives which is a small research facility that
also helps to coordinate the Jewish Museum website and publishes their
books. Their educational program called "Neighbors who disappeared" or
"Lost Neighbors" was presented in the European Union. It involves two
stages: Young people are engaged in tracing those who disappeared during
the war. They have an opportunity to learn about their own towns, history,
and people from their town and are able to bring material which the
museum cannot reach. For example, a person who believes that a photo is
not important may discover that it is when a student asks about it. They ask
398
about schoolmates and friends and the person may pull out a photo. The
second stage occurs in the schools. In the schools they know who was
visited 60 years before and they pull out files and would like to know more.
There are exhibitions and films made by students. Although the project is
continuing, the director made a public appeal to bring documents or objects
from those who they knew.
The Old Jewish Cemetery is maintained by the Jewish Museum in Prague. Tombstones look fragmented and
disorganized. The dead were buried upon layers, one on the other, due to lack of space accommodation.
Photo by author.
On a more personal note, Dr. Pavlat defines his role as doing something
that is vital for himself and part of his life. His mother survived the Shoah
399
but all her family was exterminated. "It is up to me how I act. This is in
my hands. This is the most important."
Names of perished from Czech Republic are memorialized in the Pinkas Synagogue. Photo by author.
"It is always hard although I am working in this type of work for a long
time. You need to be detached. You need to know why you are doing it
and you cannot think about every person who died. Otherwise you won't
finish what needs to be done. I am trying to make the museum more
visible" –Michael Frankl, Deputy Director.
Deputy Director Michael Frankl has worked at the Jewish Museum for
two and a half years. From his perspective, he feels that some of the
permanent exhibits need to be refreshed. He initiated a more coordinated
effort with other organizations by opening up different venues. His focus is
on the institution and the topic based line. He is working on a project
funded by the European Commission as a research infrastructure which
links twenty European archives but also includes Yad Vashem. The project
is coordinated from Amsterdam.
"This is significant because the European
Union is showing that it should do more to support additional research.
Archival sources have been spread into more archives, and much more with
Holocaust-related sources.
They have been fragmented" (M. Frankl,
personal communication, February 1, 2011).
He places emphasis on the
fact that a more coordinated effort should be made in Europe to make
sources better available "to connect with each other." There are many
stories that were not touched and hidden for a very long time, largely
411
forgotten because they did not play any significant role in Holocaust
research and remembrance and those few who survived did not have a story
to share.
Many Czech Jews were sent to Theresienstadt before being
exterminated in the other sites. As a result, a lot of research is being done
by the curator at the Jewish Museum who has spent many years looking for
survivors and documents. They are always adding.
In terms of
Theresienstadt, they have an extensive collection of about 1000 interviews
made from 1990 onwards initiated by two survivors.
The museum is
continuing this vital project and has also implemented a new history project
on Jewish life in Czechoslovakia after World War II. People come and
bring their family or objects when they were liberated. The Jewish Museum
in Prague is going through a transformation. Its professional staff of experts
is trying to figure out "how to contextualize the Holocaust and make it more
relevant to the Czech society. As a historian, Michael Frankl does not
believe that the Holocaust topic will recede to oblivion but it is in danger of
becoming less relevant and as such, important to keep it as a significant
topic, although he realizes that "we cannot effect everybody and racism and
Holocaust denial has been growing as well as threats on Gypsies."
Full interviews with the Jewish Museum in Prague are available on
audio file from the author.
Education Director of the Jewish Museum, Miroslava Ludvikova with the author. Miroslava was
instrumental for implementation of the educational project "Neighbors who disappeared."
411
8.3 Resistance and Spirit: Managing the Ghetto Fighters' House
"We can still be the best if we have our special educational spirit. The
challenge was how to keep the family spirit in the museum and build a
professional museum to compete with others" –Simcha Shtein, former
Museum Director of the Ghetto Fighters' House.
Ghetto Fighters' House Museum in Israel. In the foreground is Yad Layeled Children's Memorial
Museum. In the background is the main museum of The Ghetto Fighters' House.
Despite the fact that Yad Vashem is the national Holocaust memorial
museum in Israel, it is the Ghetto Fighters' House—Itzhak Katzenelson
Holocaust and Jewish Resistance Heritage Museum—the "House" which is
the first Holocaust museum in the world and also the first to be founded by
Holocaust survivors. It was established in 1949 and at its core, emphasizes
bravery, resiliency, triumph of the spirit, and incredibly, the strength of
survivors and fighters of the revolts who focused on rebirth, reconstruction
of their lives in a new country—the State of Israel—despite all they went
through.
This year 2013, marks the 70th anniversary of several revolts:
The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, (the most well-known), Sobibor revolt, and
the Treblinka revolt. The museum also focuses on Jewish fighters in the
Allied forces. The concept of Holocaust resistance itself has undergone
transformation—from the individual to the group. For example, women
making gifts for each other in Ravensbruck; constructing a turtle to try and
keep the human spirit in Majdanek; splitting a piece of bread equally among
several inmates; hiding drawings and other works of art in the Terezin
412
Ghetto; keeping a diary; and many other forms of "silent resistance" not less
important. The "House" tells the story of the Holocaust and emphasizes the
bravery and triumph of the spirit. Its location is symbolic of the founders'
vision. Located in the beautiful region of Israel's Western Galilee, the
survivors built a community—a "kibbutz" community known as the Ghetto
Fighters' Kibbutz—and the museum within it.
Known in Hebrew as
"Lohamei Hagetaot" it tells the story of loss, grief, and horror; about those
whose lives were torn asunder while at the same time, emphasizing the Jew
not only as the victim but also as hero. And it is this vision of strength,
human resilience, and hope that makes this facility unique.
It is the
authentic museum built on Israel's soil, and although there are others like
Beit Terezin and Massuah, smaller museums commemorating Shoah, the
"House" stands alone. Its emphasis through educational activity on the
Holocaust and Jewish resistance is the highest expression of its founders'
commitment in Israel and on a global scale. It is for this reason that the
author includes it to conclude this chapter following Babi Yar, and
Theresienstadt, although not on European soil, as a site of remembrance that
stands alone, founded on the vision from those who were the eyewitnesses.
Despite its importance as Israel's authentic remembrance facility which
commemorates heroism, the "House" has not been devoid of its challenges
and struggles. Its funding is limited. Although accredited by the Ministry
of Education, Sports and Culture, it does not receive funding by the
government.
It relies totally on donations and self-generated funding
through its own activities and programs (akin to some of the sites examined
in this research). And although entrance to the museum was free, they now
have to charge an entrance fee. The museum is often put on the wayside
when it comes to Yad Vashem. Its location is neither in Israel's capital city
of Jerusalem nor in Tel Aviv.
Visitors do not flock to the museum like
they do to Yad Vashem although it is accessible by public transportation. It
is located in what is known as the "periphery" or outer regions of the
country.
Delegates, who visit Israel, are whisked to Yad Vashem due to
their tight schedule.
With all that, paradoxically, in spite of its crucial
importance as the authentic and unique place, it has been basically ignored
by the government in the last years which places at the forefront (although
413
the two museums are each unique in their own right) the national museum
which is Yad Vashem. This has caused the "House" to find other means to
cope with its economic struggle (including its entrance fee), an illustration
that perhaps Israel's priorities when it comes to Holocaust remembrance
may need to be reexamined on more than one front. The museum has also
undergone management changes in recent years. The directors changed
three times which caused instability in the museum management and a
feeling of insecurity for the employees.
It is hoped that with the recent
appointment of the new director, the museum will undergo renewal in these
areas. The author had the honor of meeting with two former directors. For
unknown reasons to the author, the second director was replaced at the
beginning of 2011. Another challenge is that the museum is old and parts of
the exhibitions which are fifty years old, thirty, or twenty, are in the process
of renewal. The curator of the museum Beena Tsur, had the challenge of
presenting the experience at such "a turning point because the survivors are
no longer with us biologically." The curator challenged the scientific
committees—the management of the House (educators, historians, archives)
to construct the Remembrance Hall and combine the archive into the Hall of
Memory—"to open the treasure of the nation to the public" (B. Tsur,
personal communication, January 10, 2011). Using modern technology the
visitor enters into a dialogue with the artifact and the work of art. In
addition to the Remembrance Hall, the uniqueness of the story she felt
should be presented is in the main new hall.
The architecture of the
museum which took place in the 1950s gives the impression of a fortress
Synagogue from the Middle Ages, protecting it from the Crusaders. The
Observation Point, provides a connection between the memorial community
(the kibbutz) and also sees the puzzle of settlements which include Jewish,
Muslim, and more—encompassing the challenges of a society.
The
Treblinka Hall includes the testimonies to the event. Those who were
meant to perish "are back in their voice." Evidence which was completely
destroyed is brought back through the few survivors from the revolt, most
no longer with us. And it is Samuel Willenberg's map that inspired the
model of Treblinka used in the Treblinka Hall. The story of the site and its
totality of annihilation both in the site itself and victim were meant to be
414
invisible for eternity. In the Treblinka Hall, that "which was meant to be
invisible, becomes visible."
The former director of the "House" for sixteen years worked in the
museum for 28 years. He had the challenge of "keeping the family spirit in
the museum as its name implies, while building up a professional museum
to compete with others in Israel, emphasizing its uniqueness at the same
time. Up until 1996, the survivors who were still around were part of the
management of the museum. It is in 1996 that Simcha Shtein became the
only director. He realized that in order to survive, "the organization must
overcome its entire innocent and intimate situation, bring it to a new way
and keep the spirit" (S. Shtein, personal communication, January 25, 2011).
According to the former director, on one side there was the task to create a
motivation among the staff of a leading avant-garde team and all the time to
create new things. Its uniqueness had to be constantly emphasized outside
its walls. And it is this, which emphases the special spirit of the youth
movement during the Holocaust; the motivation to make the Warsaw
Ghetto Uprising as an educational reaction to what the Germans did which
was the target. Stressing team spirit and cohesiveness, and competitiveness
which meant attraction, the "House" had to be number one to convince
schools to come there and not go somewhere else. "This is a spiritual
business. You have to raise money to create new things. It is a whole
operation—a synergic situation."
The "House" is dedicated and committed to Holocaust education and
remembrance while at the same teaching tolerance through dialogue,
educational programs, and seminars.
It holds conferences, training for
guides, prepares students for trips to Poland, and encourages Arab-Jewish
dialogue. The children's memorial museum of the "House" Yad Layeled,
was established with the aim of taking children of today to acquaint them
with the world of children from the Holocaust. The museum exhibitions are
based on authentic stories taken from diaries and testimonies of children. It
introduces young visitors (age 10 and up) to the subject and guides them
through the personal experience of children who lived in Europe during that
period. Approximately 1,000,000 children perished in the Shoah and it is
Yad Layeled which devotes itself to promoting awareness to today's
415
children and youth living in Israel. Using audio and video installations, the
visitors immerse themselves while using all their senses, permitted to touch
the displays and explore the exhibitions in and around them.
The author
had the honor of meeting Anat Carmel, the director of Yad Layeled
Children's Memorial Museum who brings with her creativity and dynamics,
incorporating her knowledge of drama and art into the museum, uprooting
several projects through drama, music, and plays. Her desire to "cover all
corners and use art to get to the children" is reflected in the museum
exhibitions. "The museum itself guides and not that the guides guide. If the
guide comes not just with ego, it develops. Each child understands what
they understand and what they are capable of understanding" (A. Carmel,
personal communication, March 16, 2011).
She has confidence that
children absorb in their own way and they are capable. And this is what
makes the museum "real." As a manager "I am very organized. I work
extra hours in my head, always wanting to improve. To manage it is a gift."
The emphasis is that the children develop empathy with the subject matter.
A school can choose a program from the website or from the booklet.
Everything is written for the schools and they have a price and photos of the
exhibit. Enthusiastic and innovative, she struggles to get donations for her
programs and gathers money. She is always under scrutiny when it comes
to the museum's limited budget which is allocated to her through the main
museum management of the Ghetto Fighters' House. She does not receive
monies from the Ministry of Education nor from the government. When
asked what the Ministry of Education should be doing about this, she says
they need to put Holocaust education as a priority; that the museum is the
center of Shoah and that not everything should be poured into one facility
(Yad Vashem). She feels that all children from grades 5 to 8 should come
to the Yad Layeled Children's Memorial Museum as part of school visits to
museums. According to the director, "a child is a child. A child who
survived was cognitively a child. And to make it relevant for them, it has
to begin in the spirit of the personal" (A. Carmel, personal communication,
March 16, 2011). During the Holocaust, many adolescents and young
adults did not have the opportunity to celebrate their Bar Mitzvah (the
coming of age for a Jewish male done at 13 years old). Yad Layeled is host
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to a special program for grandparents, geared toward survivors and their
families who wish to hold a special and intimate ceremony. It includes a
tour of Yad Layeled’s exhibitions and can include special prayer services at
the museum’s synagogue.
The author connected Anat Carmel with the director of the Galicia
Jewish Museum in Krakow. It is hoped that future exchange of ideas will
be mutually beneficial.
Faces of our children. A memorial tribute to an estimated 1.5 children murdered in the Shoah appears
upon entering the Yad Layeled Memorial Museum at the Ghetto Fighters’ House. On the floor are symbolic
strewn bundles of clothing and suitcases, symbolizing children's belonging which they innocently took
with them and which were abruptly torn from them. Photos are courtesy of Yad Layeled.
417
The Ghetto Fighters'' House Museum has several departments and there
are more than 4,000,000 pieces of archival material. The author had the
honor of meeting with the Director of Archives who revealed how the
pieces of material are kept:
The material is evaluated and checked
historically through research about the artifact. Although they received few
cases of false items and most were authentic, they still need to be verified.
If it is exceptional material, it is introduced to researchers in academia.
"Sometimes it is material for medicine for example" (Y. Shavit, personal
communication, March 16, 2011).
After evaluation of material, there is
restoration. They check the situation of the physical of the material, if it
can be restored. They need to clean the material with strong components, to
remove any germs. They decide whether or not it goes into the exhibition.
It is also put into the computer and they try as fast as possible to put it on
the internet. The Department of Archives gets many requests.
The Archives Department Director, Yossi Shavit is not very optimistic
about the future of Holocaust remembrance. The biggest concern is that
there are few people who fight against Holocaust denial. "I don't believe
that we will succeed in this struggle because there won't be somebody who
will do it and there won't be the strength for it." According to the director,
there is a fatigue of material. He does have confidence in inward strength
which helps to provide those who deny with material about the subject. He
also claims that there are groups of young people who don't know much
about it and absorb whoever tells them the truth. "People believe what they
hear." In the end, there will remain the two fronts of those who deny it and
those who tell the story. After the survivors disappear, his biggest fear is
that there will be nobody left to carry the latter--memory of the event and it
will disappear into the annals of the history books. The fact that there are
many museums, approximately 400 or more worldwide, backfires on its
purpose. Although done with good intentions, the director feels that the end
result is not positive. The material gets fragmented into too many places
and then damage is done to the subject. People even establish "museums"
in their house and it is becoming commercialized and competitive. For the
archives director, trips to Poland are necessary to enter the hearts of the
young people. He feels if the sites go, the memory will be short, go into
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books, and nothing will be done about it because nobody would be left.
And since resistance against the memory of the Shoah is strong and
memory is short even among the most respected, it is increasingly
transformed into the general and international, taken from the Jewish
people's genocide. According to the director, "the survivors tried
everything."
The "House" has as its educational core, the Center for Humanistic
Education. Its emphasis on tolerance can even be seen even on its website,
with translation into English, French, German, Dutch, Arabic, and Spanish.
Its avant-garde approach through dialogue, combating indifference to the
suffering of others, and promoting human rights instills civic responsibility
and tools for moral judgment. The educational program consists of four
stages geared to high school students: Introductory activity which takes
place at the Center of the school to provide them acquaintance with the
program; basic workshop called "The Human and Universal Significance of
the Holocaust" consisting of a series of weekly encounters, 30 hours for
groups of students who choose to take part, that includes issues and their
background, ethical dilemmas and current aspects they raise; multicultural
seminars "I and the other" which is a 3-day seminar designed to create
interpersonal relationships amongst mixed groups. Participants confront
questions of identity, battle against racism, and infringement of human
rights, as well as majority-minority relations, and the Jewish-Arab conflict;
graduates group "Shared Citizenship" which includes an invitation to
monthly meetings during the school year. At the meetings they examine
current issues In Israeli society and retain personal relationships formed
during the process. The community-based project "Talking and Doing" is
geared towards this group.
The author had the honor of meeting Educational Director of the Center
for Humanistic Education, Ron Cohen. The center works in cooperation
with several international organizations which include the United States
Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM), Facing History and Ourselves
(USA), Anne Frank House (Holland), Association of Holocaust
Organizations, others in Sweden, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom.
Discussion with the author centered on school trips to Poland with mutual
419
agreement that trips need to be reevaluated, that "everything is all mixed
up" (R. Cohen, personal communication, March 25th, 2011).
Many activities of the GFH are supported by the Friends of the GFH
which include Israeli, French, Dutch, and American supporters. In addition
to being updated on activities of the House, there is a semiannual meeting
and invitations to conferences and seminars. The International Department
of the Ghetto Fighters' House offers a wide range of activities, conferences,
and seminars for a variety of groups, youth delegations bound for Poland,
Germany, foreign tourism, and educators. The author had the honor of
speaking with the International Program Director, Tanya Ronen. Programs
are available in English, German, Spanish Portuguese, and Russian. It also
has kits and educational resources. About fifty people are employed at the
GFH on full time, part time, or as freelancers. It includes the Department of
Archives, Photo Archives, and Center for Humanistic Education, Yad
Layeled, library, Department of Finance and Administration, Operations,
Reservation Center, Teacher Professional Development, International
Department, and also includes a museum bookshop. Complete interviews
with staff of the Ghetto Fighters' House are available on audio file from the
author.
Chapter IX
Narrowing the Gap: Findings, Observations, Suggestions
Where do we go from here? Through the eyes of the museum heads,
managers, and directors of memorial sites and institutions examined in this
research, findings reveal that there is a lot of work left to do; that challenges
are numerous, arduous, and taxing on the human spirit, and yet, through
their own volition, they all continue to persevere. They are devoted to their
work and anxious to do more, even with limited resources. They cannot
proceed with projects they would like to do because of this fact.
And
although many museums are springing up worldwide, paradoxically, these
authentic sites where the atrocities occurred are suffering.
Exposed to
vulnerability, and in precarious positions, some like Chelmno are under
threat of disappearing and becoming forgotten. Others like Sobibor almost
closed but due to outcry by survivors, the Polish government relinquished.
411
Belzec and Sobibor are proof on the ground that with interference, progress
can be made. However, the extermination sites remain invisible. There are
less than a handful of survivors still alive. They do not have a voice to
speak for them and in Israel, the average person never heard of Belzec or
Chelmno. In its museum, Yad Vashem devotes a room to Belzec, Sobibor,
and Treblinka and provides small models of each placed on a table.
But
not enough information gives them justice, relative to the amount of the
perished. Chelmno is hardly mentioned. Paradoxically, it is these sites
which have the highest number of the perished accompanied by few if any
survivors, lack of documentation and transport lists, that are facing a silent
oblivion and are given the least attention, funding, and support.
Belzec
Estimated 550,000
Sobibor
Estimated 250,000
Treblinka
Estimated 850,000
Chelmno
Estimated 350,000
Total deaths: Approximately 2,000,000.
The sites and institutions in Germany for the purpose of this research
center on the Berlin area. Most of the memorials and institutes are within
close proximity to one another. It is Dachau near Munich however, that
stands alone and has become the symbol of the Holocaust in Germany and
human oppression. It receives the most amounts of visitors and funding,
and is equivalent to Auschwitz in Poland in terms of its rank. But still, it
does not have an endowment plan for the future. It is the most well-known
of them, but even here, they are going through a process of change,
deciding which exhibitions need to be altered and which need to be
included. Sachsenhausen outside Berlin is the only one that operates its
exhibitions using the decentralized concept. On tourist websites, people are
encouraged to go there to get the "feeling" of visiting a camp. Ravensbruck
is the least well-known.
Even in the Holocaust and according to the
director, there is still a separation when it comes to gender. Unique in that
it was the site for women on an international scale, it is still
underrepresented.
All the sites are funded by the States and federal
411
government. It is Ravensbruck which receives the least funding of the
three, perhaps an illustration of the gender gap even when it comes to
Holocaust commemoration.
Often funding is enough to pay wages and
somewhat more, but not enough for major projects. Ravensbruck is
however going through a refurbishment, and is opening a new exhibition in
April 2013. In East Germany, the sites are going through a process of
vision, redirection, and identity—how best to come to terms with the past
and make it relevant for today's generation. Today, Germans who saved
Jews are emerging. Previously, many remained silent and their heroism
was unknown. Today, due to the Silent Heroes Museum in Berlin, they are
able to place their testimony and are privileged to become part of the
Righteous among the Nations. Entry into most major sites is still free but
funding is running out to meet costs for educational support, exhibitions,
and seminars. This is the discussion that is going on in Germany. The
prospect of paying to enter Dachau for example, has created controversy in
that country which is still struggling with how best to acknowledge its past.
On one hand, cash shortages may force the managers to place a surcharge
on entry fees. On the other hand, the thought of paying to visit mass
graveyards and mourn the dead is a subject which until now remains
untouched. From the managerial point of view, the sites are not enough.
Staff is necessary to explain about victim and perpetrator and required to
engage youngsters in educational projects and seminars. Yet, many of them
do not have money for special exhibitions. And although on the surface,
they seem more secure than the sites in Poland, money is running out even
for Dachau. According to Gunter Morsch who supervises the memorial
sites in Sachsenhausen, Ravensbruck, and Brandenburg "between a third
and a half of all requests for guided tours and educational support have to
be turned down."50
In Poland, there is a hierarchy system in terms of funding for the sites.
They are funded by the government, the state, region, or town. The latter
are in the worst situation. The town which itself lacks funding, does not
allocate enough to the preservation of the site due to "other priorities."
50
Source: The Sunday Times, May 31, 2007.
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Again, Chelmno is the best example of this. At the top of the pyramid is
Auschwitz-Birkenau which receives extra funding due to preservation and
conservation costs and its symbol on an international scale.
It is the only
one that has an endowment fund established for its future security and with
participation of the international community. And it is the director of the
site with his insight and vision for the future, who took the initiative,
realizing that even Auschwitz was in danger of existence. Stutthof and
Majdanek, although funded by the government, do not have funding for
much else. Majdanek has the additional task of overseeing the management
of Belzec and temporarily Sobibor. Discussion on what to do with Sobibor
is still ongoing but at least for now, it is more secure than previously, under
the management arms of Majdanek. Belzec and Sobibor are living proof on
the ground that with additional assistance, changes can be made. Sobibor is
slowly progressing
with
archaeological
projects,
exhibitions,
and
maintenance of the grounds. Belzec has a memorial site unlike any other,
which finally commemorates the perished as it is warranted. The sites
operate in a less unified manner than in Germany. They are like separate
entities, each struggling with its own management issues. Rarely do they
come into contact. It is the International Auschwitz Council which aids in
the recommendation as to what and where the limited funding should be
allocated. In Poland, the approach to teach the next generation is going
through a change. Today the Jewish liquidation is taught as a loss of an
integral part of society—that not only was a religion and culture
vanquished, but also a loss to the society as a whole. The construction of
the Museum of Polish Jews in Warsaw is a testament to this new-found
approach. The Poles are also coming to grips with their own losses. Many
perished in the sites alongside Jews, and although the figures are less, they
suffered displacement, incarceration, and executions. Young Poles are only
now learning of their fate—a somewhat symbiotic relationship with the
Jews. Some are discovering that along the line they had Jewish roots, and
there is an increase in revival of Jewish communities. Yet there are those in
Poland who refuse to accept the Polish responsibility for the mass
extermination of the Jews, claiming that it was actually annexed German
soil and not on Poland's soil alleviating them of any responsibility.
413
Managers and directors not only of the sites but also of the institutes in
Poland are young, energetic, and dynamic. They want to make a difference
and learn more and more. In a kind of atonement to make up for the past,
they laboriously pursue research and projects even with limited funding.
They come up with innovative ideas to perpetuate memory of the victims
and are the voices for the perished. Words like “it must be done, loss, and
bare areas of towns” are heard. In Germany, there is the sense of duty and
responsibility; that Germans need to know the dangers of National
Socialism and the repercussions of Fascism. They are coming to grips with
the enormity of the crime learning that neighbor turned against neighbor
and that ordinary Germans participated.
And they call themselves
"generation" just as the children and grandchildren of Holocaust survivors.
The youth are plunged into a past which is stained with blood.
Discrimination is against the law in Germany and anti-Semitism, neoNazism, and Holocaust denial rhetoric are met with severe penalties.
By
making Holocaust studies compulsory and visit to a site as part of the
curriculum, they hope to instill the need for youngsters to learn about
responsibility by not denying the reality of the Nazi past and to pave the
way to a brighter and better future In Poland, Holocaust studies are
compulsory but visits to a site are not. Most teachers do include visits to
the sites as part of the curriculum. In smaller towns like around Belzec,
many school groups engage in art competitions and projects. In Majdanek
and Auschwitz, educational projects are introduced to the schools as an
integral part of the curriculum. Still in these countries, the Holocaust denial
battle rages on and desecration and vandalism of Jewish sites are not
uncommon. The struggle to preserve the sites is at war with Holocaust
deniers. Even Auschwitz has not been spared this fate.
On a personal level, those who do this tiresome work for humanity often
have nightmares and the need to make an effort to separate from the
traumatic material they are dealing with on a daily basis. At times, as many
stated, an event, document, photo, or transport list can immerse them into
deep despair. But still, they realize their work is crucial and know that this
cannot get in the way. This is what keeps them going to press on. However
at the same time, there is also a sense of frustration. They were pleased to
414
see and speak with someone from Israel; that somebody was interested in
what they had to say; that they felt free to air their innermost thoughts and
grievances about the challenges they face. In some cases, although a time
limit was given for the meeting, it was not met and in the majority of the
interviews and discussions, there was no time limit. Some went on for more
than two hours. They feel however, that there is not enough contact with
Israel, that there should be more collaboration with Yad Vashem, and that
there is a lack of awareness about them. In the cases of the extermination
sites, the author was told to "please talk about us when you get home." But
even Majdanek has a similar opinion of lack of participation when it comes
to Israel. They feel that the guides for trips to Poland are not properly
trained and that the educational programs in Majdanek need to be used by
Yad Vashem so that the guides and teachers can receive the most updated
information about the site. In Germany, as there is more unity between the
sites and institutions, the feeling of isolation is less pronounced.
The Ukraine and Romania are different from Poland and Germany.
Romania is very slowly starting to recognize its Holocaust responsibility
but it desperately needs dissemination of information.
There is still a
reluctance to face and admit their part in the Holocaust tragedy. Thanks to
Elie Wiesel and his report of 2004 and the fact that Romania wanted to
become part of the Holocaust Task Force, the Elie Wiesel Institute for
Studying the Holocaust in Romania was formed.
However, they are
suffering due to absence of appropriate funding and staff to progress with
further research. Requiring a staff of thirty persons as stated in the
suggestions from the report, makes them grossly understaffed. Not much
progress is being made on projects. Although they hold symposiums and
host events for Holocaust Memorial Day in Romania on October 9th, still,
not enough is being done. There is a need to create awareness around the
country and create programs which will teach tolerance and the acceptance
of the other. Mass grave research is at a standstill since the discovery of
human remains in Iasi. Memorials and monuments around Romania are
neglected and not properly cared for. Even the Elie Wiesel House in Sighet
is not properly maintained. Yet, with all that, there is a slow change.
Textbooks are being reformatted.
Holocaust studies are now in the
415
curriculum.
Studies however are not compulsory and sometimes the
Holocaust is not reached enough in history class. On a more positive note,
there is cooperation with Yad Vashem to train teachers in Romania to teach
the subject in the schools and educate their fellow colleagues.
As the
Holocaust subject was considered a taboo to discuss around Romania, it has
entered itself into a very slow process of change. Holocaust studies need to
become part of the curriculum as compulsory and visits should be organized
to a camp. More research needs to be done on Transylvania, Transnistria,
and mass graves. All this requires funding. The funding that the Wiesel
Institute receives is at its minimum at best.
The Ukrainian situation is worse than in Romania. For the Holocaust
Center in Kiev, funding is a struggle.
It receives nothing from the
government and projects tend to stagnate. Anything that is done is through
the director's own pocket and private donations. It is in a very precarious
position. Mass graves lie around the Ukraine and are part of the landscape,
a silent apathy towards that which remains invisible and not discussed.
Little is being done in this area. Many remain undiscovered and those that
are, not properly commemorated. It is through the efforts of Father Patrick
Desbois that awareness about the mass graves has slowly circulated around
the country. The government however is apathetic about the Holocaust.
Funding is not given for the subject. The future about mass graves and the
Jewish tragedy remain in a precarious position. On a brighter note, the
archives are opened and research can be done. The Babi Yar site is also
well-maintained. The Center is trying to create awareness among Ukrainian
youth through its projects and sends a handful of teachers to train at Yad
Vashem.
For all memorial sites, it comes down to a matter of funding and
governmental policy. The sites alone are not enough. They need to be
accompanied by education. To become witnesses, visitors to a site should
know about what happened there and how it applies to the present day.
Many of the institutes examined in this research complement the task and
are central to education and outsourcing of information through projects and
research. And there has to be unity and collaboration between them. There
is a tendency to lose focus of the original intent.
With survivors
416
disappearing, there needs to be a more open approach between them—to
share information and provide support to one another. And as expressed by
the majority of the managers on the sites, Yad Vashem should take an
increasingly leading role towards mutual cooperation and interest in what
is happening on the various locations. Although it is busy with its own
existence as the leading education and research institute and Israel's only
national museum, it is caught in the web of trying to keep up with the
competition and is increasingly possessive of its materials. Other museums
in Israel are basically left to fend for themselves, and like the Holocaust
sites which are not government funded, are left on the wayside when it
comes to national support. The Ghetto Fighters' House charges an entrance
fee.
On an international scale, there is a growing competition among
museums to keep up their existence and attract more visitors, some which
resort to fancy technology to do so.
Due to lack of knowledge and
awareness, there is the threat of erroneous claims and distortion of facts, as
well as trivialization of the horrific event. And the desire to make money is
unbearably strong and this has turned the Holocaust into a business venture
at its own expense.
Treblinka (concentration camp, Poland) -- Britannica Online ...
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/603913/Treblinka
Treblinka (concentration
camp,
Poland),
major
Nazi
German
concentration
camp
and extermination camp, located near the village of Treblinka,
Here they include
“extermination” alongside “concentration.” Treblinka I was a penal
colony. Treblinka II was a death camp solely for the mass extermination
of Jews.
Gallery - Other Camps - Photos
http://fcit.usf.edu/holocaust/resource/gallery/campmisc.htm
Photos:
Other
Camps ... Gypsy
concentration camp. ... Here
prisoners
sit
in
an
open
area
of
the Belzec
Belzec is dubbed a concentration camp when it was
purely a death camp for mass extermination of Jews as well as
thousands of Gypsies.
417
Auschwitz
Stutthof
Majdanek
Belzec
Sobibor
Treblinka
Chelmno
Hierarchy in Poland based on funding. Treblinka and Chelmno are detached from the rest as they
do not receive funding from the Polish government. Sobibor is smaller than Belzec as decisions are
still being made. Belzec has a memorial site. Chelmno is in the worst situation. Auschwitz is the
worldwide symbol of the Holocaust and the only one that has an endowment fund for the future.
Dachau
Sachsenhausen
Ravensbruck
In Germany, the sites are funded by the state and the federal government. Ravensbruck receives
less funding than the rest. Dachau is the symbol of the Holocaust in Germany.
418
H
Holocaust museums not on
original soil and outside
Europe. Material and artifacts
are brought to the visitor rather
than the visitor brought to the
original location.
Museums in Israel, Holocaust
Memorial Day, trips to Poland,
March of the Living.
Institutes of remembrance,
education and research on
location. Jewish museums on
location.
Holocaust
memorial sites on
authentic soil,
monuments and
memorials on location.
Holocaust
survivors
Vortex management model of Holocaust remembrance. Survivors begin the vortex as the eyewitnesses to the
atrocities. The further out it goes the greater the distance from the actual event. When the survivors will
disappear, the core of the vortex will be removed and there will be a void. The memorial sites if preserved will
move to the core of the vortex. The remembrance of the Shoah will experience a management shift. The sites,
combined with education, will take on an even greater crucial role. If they go, authentic evidence goes.
419
9.1 Israel's Role
Israel has its own fair share of problems when it comes to the Holocaust
anti-Semitism, trivialization and commemoration. There is an increase in
anti-Semitism in the country generated by the political climate of the day.
Recently, a Jewish boy was beaten by Arabs on his way home from school.
Even Yad Vashem itself was recently vandalized by a sect of religious Jews
against Israel's existence. Professors in leading universities trivialize the
Holocaust in their classes. High school students laugh when they need to
stand at attention for the minute of silence on Holocaust Memorial Day.
Trips to Poland for years are devoted to the wealthy who can afford them.
Only recently has the Ministry of Education inserted scholarships for
certain cases. There is careless use of Holocaust jargon like “selektsia,
Nazi, and Ghetto.” If somebody opposes actions of another, he or she can
be called a Nazi and it is not stopped. Even politicians are sometimes
clothed in Nazi uniforms on placards and during protests. The Yellow Star
is worn to protest political upheaval. And nobody says anything. It is like
there is a passive blindness as to the situation going on in the internal
management of the Holocaust memory.
Survivors are not properly
provided for and many live in poverty. Recently, I witnessed anti-Semitic
rhetoric written on the wall of the college where I am currently employed.
It is a college that prides itself on integration between Jewish and Arab
students, and equal rights. Photographing it, teachers did not say anything
even when it was brought to their attention. It was rapidly washed off.
421
"Death to the Jews" written on the bathroom wall at the author's place of employment and
photographed by the author. Only one other teacher spoke out along with the author.
A Jewish boy recently beaten by Arabs. Vandalism at Yad Vashem. It reads
"Zionist leaders wanted the Holocaust." Photo courtesy of Yad Vashem.
Photo by protesters against the late Prime Minister of Israel Yitzhak Rabin, draped in a Nazi
uniform just prior to his assassination on November 4, 1995.
421
9.1.2 Proposals for Change
“Whenever human dignity is threatened, wherever and whenever, people
should not be passive and indifferent. It can happen to anyone.
Museums in Israel should not operate as separate entities but as mutually
cooperative institutes. Cooperation with Europe must be increased,
particularly with those who work on the sites.” -The author.
Lawmakers, politicians, and the people in Israel should pause to
reevaluate the current Holocaust remembrance state of affairs. While the
sites are struggling to survive and be preserved, due to democratic ideals of
“free speech,” nobody is stopping the loose rhetoric connected with the
memory of the Shoah. It degrades the event and trivializes it. Laws
should be enforced which outlaw Holocaust degradation. Trips to Poland
need to be reexamined. They should be subsidized by the government and
become part of the curriculum. Holocaust studies should be accompanied
by trips to the sites. At the moment, they are still geared towards those
whose parents can come up with the money. Less financially capable
families are ostracized from this participation. And the focuses of the trips
need to be changed.
Students going to Poland should participate
physically in helping the site as suggested by the museum head in
Treblinka. For example, they can clean the leaves around the stones. They
can and should
participate in educational programs and meet the people
who work there on a daily basis. They should meet Polish students their
age to counteract stereotyped images on both sides. Trips to Germany
should be included on the agenda and exchange programs between Jews
and Germans, Germans and Poles, and Jews and Poles should be increased
as well as with other European nations like Romania. Most of all, to
narrow the gap between present and future, the sites need to have an
address in Israel where they can exchange ideas, information, and receive
support. Yad Vashem should be opened to inviting museum heads and
directors of the sites to speak at conferences or symposiums and be more
open to share.
Urgently, a commission should be established which
focuses on the preservation of the sites with increased attention devoted to
the sites of mass extermination. And the issue must be reevaluated in the
422
country. With survivors disappearing, and questions being asked, even the
1953 Law of the Knesset which established Yad Vashem as Israel's
national Holocaust museum needs to be reexamined to check the mission
for today. And the other museums in Israel should be given government
support. Holocaust survivors should live their last days with dignity and
respect, provided with monies they are entitled to, and their medical and
emotional needs met with support. And the second generation should not
be left on the sidelines once their parents are gone. Support should be
encouraged for them as well. In addition, investigation on the Shoah
subject should be encouraged through easier access to scholarships. But
researchers need to be encouraged to visit the actual locations, even if they
are researching the Holocaust from a historical aspect. Becoming an eyewitness as encouraged by Professor Elie Wiesel, is a necessary prerequisite
in the eyes of the author.
If one does research on the Holocaust, one
should see first-hand and step on the soil. Grants should not be restricted
only to students studying in Israel or Yad Vashem. Additionally, Research
on Sephardic Jews (Judeo-Spanish) during this infamous period is
underrepresented.
It should be encouraged.
Only recently has Yad
Vashem inserted an exhibition on the Sephardic Jews, particularly those
from Tunisia. Although the number of Jews murdered in those countries is
less than Eastern European Jews, they were murdered nonetheless. Most
urgently, anti-Semitism and racism need to be met with outcries and yells
of protest.
Passive observation and indifference cannot be tolerated
whenever and wherever incidents arise. The country cannot afford it.
9.1.3 Personifying Loss: Managing Yad Vashem’s Hall of Names
"We speak about a cold number of 6,000,000 and there are personal
stories of survivors and about victims. We want to personalize the loss. If
you want to do this, you have to go one by one and see statistically not
how many they were but who they were" Dr. Alex Avraham.
The museum at Yad Vashem is located in Israel's capital of Jerusalem on
Mount Herzl. It was established in 1953 by the government and is the only
national Holocaust museum in Israel which is funded accordingly. The
name "Yad Vashem" is taken from a verse in the Book of Isaiah: Even unto
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them will I give in mine house and with my walls a place and a name ("yad
vashem") better than of sons and of daughters.
I will give them an
everlasting name that shall not be cut off (Isaiah 56:5). Central to the
museum is the establishment of its national repository for the names of
Jewish victims who perished at the hands of the Nazi machine and who
have no one to carry their name after death—the name being the essence of
one's existence.
In 1953, the Knesset, Israel's Parliament, unanimously
passed the Yad Vashem Law, establishing the Martyrs' and Heroes'
Remembrance Authority.
The western side of Mount Herzl was chosen to convey a symbolic
message of rebirth. The goals of Yad Vashem include education, research,
documentation,
and
commemoration.
It
organizes
professional
development courses for educators both in Israel and worldwide; develops
programs and educational materials, collects photos, documents, and
personal artifacts, and collects Pages of Testimony in an effort to
memorialize the victims of the Holocaust. Central to its main mission is the
preservation of memory and names of the six million Jews and the
numerous communities destroyed during the Shoah. It holds ceremonies of
remembrance, supports research projects; develops and coordinates
symposia, workshops and international conferences; publishes research,
documents, memoirs, albums and diaries related to the Shoah and has a rich
archival collection. It honors non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews
during the Holocaust as "Righteous among the Nations." Emphasis from the
1953 Law in the Knesset focuses on commemoration and remembrance and
at this point, not preservation of the sites. It opened to the public and on
March 15, 2005 a new museum was dedicated, more technologically
advanced. It consists of a long corridor with no windows on the sides. It
has an illuminated skylight 200 meters long and very narrow in width. The
exhibit begins with a film on Jewish life before the Holocaust and
progresses throughout its ten rooms beginning with Hitler's rise to power
and ending with the liberation and the aftermath. Donated artifacts help
combine with personal stories.
They include artwork and diaries;
testimonies matched with faces. The rooms include displays of shoes, a
cattle car, and graphic images. The route is organized for the visitor, with
424
gaps in the floor and the only exit is at the end, which culminates with a
beautiful view of the ancient mountains of Jerusalem. Darkness into light;
fragmentation to rebirth is the symbol of this museum structure. Included
on the grounds of this place of remembrance is the Memorial Hall which
has on the floor plaques with names of several sites covering ashes from
those tragic locations.
It also has the Children's Memorial, and many
sculptures symbolizing the tragedy of the Shoah. Many of them are replicas
of the original displays which are in the memorial sites in Europe.
Memorial to the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, Yad Vashem. Several sculptures appear in the Memorial
Park. Photos by author. Courtesy of Yad Vashem.
The Hall of Names is central to the uniqueness of the museum. It has a
cone-shaped high ceiling with faces of the perished. The visitor enters the
hall and looks down into a dark, bottomless-looking pit. Lining its walls are
endless binders which consist of the names of victims found thus far
through its tireless task of trying to give each victim a name. So far, more
than 4,000,000 names are gathered in the Hall of Names at Yad Vashem.
425
The author had the honor of meeting with the director of the Hall of Names
as well as the director of the Names Recovery Project Outreach Program.
In the Hall of names there are 25 people in the department who manage the
pages of testimony.
They receive them there and check that they are
historically accurate.
The database which is available online and put
together from different archival material are like personal cards for
Holocaust victims. To be placed in the database, pages of testimony by
relatives or somebody who knew a victim like a neighbor or person in the
community needs to be signed and there is a declaration on it that there are
truthful details. Three items are needed to be able to identify a person in the
database. The place of death is not obligatory because many don't know.
The site has progressed to also include 55% of information from other
sources according to the director Alex Avraham. The person can appear on
a list of transports which is on the Yad Vashem site. The director identifies
two major problems regarding lists from greater Hungary; The Jews were
deported by trains to Auschwitz like Western Europe but were not
registered. Victims may have escaped arrest or hid in the ghetto. As well,
although they have tried to comb the Hungarian archives to find lists, they
claimed after a lot of negotiation that they did the best they could to find
lists from Hungary proper. There are no lists from Transylvania which the
Hungarians claim were destroyed. Regarding Romania, there are
agreements for cooperation.
The director sees himself as a "client of the archives" that is, "I advise
them where we have missing names and I tell them to go there and get
them" (A. Avraham, personal communication, November 15, 2011).
They
are in the same division as the archives but they are separate entities. The
archives try to collect the physical and the Hall of Names, extracts names
from different sources including their own pages of testimony, archives, and
other parts of Yad Vashem or other projects. The goal is to find other
venues for other sources for names that are not in the pages of testimony or
not in the archives. The Nazis destroyed what they could and there are in
general very few lists even from Auschwitz and Majdanek.
Dr. Alex
Avraham's mission is to reach the 6,000,000. Although over 4,000,000
names have been gathered, it is the remaining 70% or 80% which requires
426
intricate work and searching. "Every new name is like a small victory
against the Nazis. They wanted to obliterate us. We are trying to take them
out of oblivion and put them here. The goal is to also get the biographies to
document not only victims but Jewish life that was before in a personal
way. You cannot fathom the dimensions of the tragedy if you don't know
what was lost. This is my vision" (A. Avraham, personal communication,
November 15, 2011).
Hall of Names, Yad Vashem. Photo courtesy of Yad Vashem.
The "outreach arm" of the Hall of Names is the Victims' Names
Recovery Project. The vision is to do a virtual file on every victim. The
staff goes to places where there are names including combing cemeteries
where there might be names of victims on tombstones.
There are
130,000,000 documents in the archives, hours and hours of testimonies,
rims and rims of documents of gentile cases which all contain names. "Yad
Vashem tries to get as much information from all this as it can," according
to the Outreach Project Director, Cynthia Wroclawski. Because survivors
are disappearing, there is an urgency to do it as soon as possible. The
Outreach Program and the Hall of Names also work with volunteers who
help scan and digitalize pages. The outreach program has a staff of eleven
people. It is a separate project which is not funded by the government.
They have a benefactor who donates the money for this project.
Yad Vashem is funded by the government and donations.
Today
427
approximately 50% of its budget comes from the government which has
also decreased in recent years. The other amount is completed through
donations and museum-generated output. On the Yad Vashem grounds are
also a bookstore and gift shop. Audio guides and earphones can be rented.
Entrance into the museum is free. Over 500 people are employed at the
museum on a full time or part time basis.
Memorial Hall in Yad Vashem is marked by an eternal flame. Names of sites line its floor.
Visiting dignitaries lay down wreaths. Photos by author. Courtesy of Yad Vashem.
428
9.2 A Plea to the International Community
Entrance to gas chamber and crematorium ruins, Sachsenhausen Memorial Site. Photo by author.
429
We are entering into a new phase when it comes to memorializing the
Shoah. Museums and memorials are springing up around the world. The
International Holocaust Task Force meets on a yearly basis.
There is
increased research on the Holocaust on a worldwide scale. There are trips
to Poland and the annual March of the Living. The United Nations has its
own exhibition and Holocaust Memorial Day as do several countries aside
from Israel. But the authentic evidence in Europe, the memorial sites where
millions perished on an international scale are in trouble. Asking where to
go from here needs to have an answer. Commemorative ceremonies are
helpful for the brief moment but do not provide solutions for the long-term.
The
international
community,
and
in
particular
the
European
Commission, the European Jewish Congress, and major organizations on
an international scale, need to address once and for all, the issue
surrounding Holocaust memorial sites—those that are discovered and those
that are not. Where millions perished, responsibility to preserve authentic
evidence should be undertaken.
But this involves the cooperation of
governments. Those countries which are still indifferent and minimize their
part in the tragedy of these atrocities need to change their outlook and move
into the community of humanity. If the memorial sites are what will be left
after survivors are gone, as the closest thing to eyewitnesses, than their
preservation is crucial for the perpetuation of memory.
A special
commission or council should be established for this purpose; to address
future issues after survivors are gone. It should not wait another decade
when nobody will remain from the devastation. In addition, preservation of
the sites should be accompanied by educational projects and proper
museums which host exhibitions and places for reflection. United Nations
should ban all denial, anti-Semitic, and racial rhetoric within its walls and
condemn outside.
There should not be a paradox in the UN between
commemoration and resolutions on the one hand, and legitimization to
desecrate truth on the other.
Budgetary constraints prevent the management at memorial sites to
progress with research, innovative ideas, and education.
They are
preoccupied with operating under tight financial rules. Not only should the
present state of the memorial sites be addressed but also their future state.
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Victims came from many European countries and as such, it is the
responsibility of the international community to participate in preserving
and commemorating the authentic evidence. The sites in Poland are not just
the responsibility of Poland. Auschwitz-Birkenau is the only one that has
an endowment fund for the future. To get it required massive fund-raising
and campaigning for its urgent cause. It is the symbol of the European
genocide. But Auschwitz-Birkenau is not the only one. Majdanek does not
have security for its future. Although government-funded; its future is
threatened and uncertain.
The memorial sites should not be under financial constraints. They are
reminders of the vulnerability of everyone, and the extremes of good and
evil. Simultaneously, ego involving Holocaust museums worldwide should
be eliminated.
The Holocaust tragedy should not involve ego and
possessiveness. There should be mutual cooperation with each other and
most importantly help provide the needs of the sites in Europe, and in
particular, the extermination sites which lack material and documentation.
For example, Belzec has no survivors and is in dire need of transport lists
related to the site. Emphasis should not be on competition and business; on
ego and possessiveness of materials. Mutual cooperation, the elimination of
ego, a return to "the why" and priorities—all are important to address the
answer to the question.
The Jewish Museum in Prague has initiated
archival mutual cooperation with twenty countries. But a lot more needs to
be done. Assistance to the sites, particularly those of mass extermination
where documentation and survivors are absent, should be provided with an
attitude of openness. Exchange programs, education, unity, sharing,
funding—all of these factors can create worldwide change, help answer the
question that everyone is asking, and narrow the present-future gap. With
so many Holocaust museums and organizations; with the trend to
commemorate on one hand and transforming it into a business on the other,
the memorial sites urgently need a voice. They need to be at the top of the
agenda. In addition, further research on mass graves, unknown sites, and
uncommemorated places of loss should be addressed.
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The Holocaust is used as a reminder and precaution for the prevention of
future genocides. Although other genocides have occurred since then, the
Holocaust holds the dubious distinction with its extreme obsession for
annihilation totality toward a minority group. We cannot afford to place the
event on the back burner. Preserving the authenticity of the memorial sites
is preserving the Holocaust memory. If it becomes forgotten, humanity
cannot afford it.
At the forefront it remains as a reminder of man’s
precariousness and the consequences of all that is good, indifferent, and
heinous.
Chapter X
Looking Ahead: Survivors and Projects
10.1 Lights from the Dark: Survivors
“For the survivor who chooses to testify, it is clear: his duty is to bear witness
for the dead and for the living. He has no right to deprive future generations
of a past that belongs to our collective memory. To forget would be not only
dangerous but offensive; to forget the dead would be akin to killing them a
second time.” ― Elie Wiesel, Night
The author had the honor of meeting and speaking with Holocaust
survivors. When survivors returned after the war, most of them did not
speak about their experience. Some were ashamed; others too traumatized,
and still others guilty for surviving.
Their reception was not an
environment that encouraged them to speak out and tell their story. Since
the 1980's it has been widely encouraged for survivors to speak out and tell
their story. Many of their testimonies are in Yad Vashem. The Spielberg
Shoah Foundation has as its mission, to gather as many testimonies into
their database as possible. There is an even greater rush to do so, since
many of them won't be around in years to come.
The author hopes to continue gathering testimonies of her own. In a
quiet and comfortable environment, the survivors were opened about their
experiences. Some of them also have their testimonies in Yad Vashem.
They are great contributors to society, travelling with Israeli youth to
Poland, authors of books, artists, and lecturers. Many of them make painful
pilgramages back to their own site or take their families along with them for
432
a trip to their roots. They are instrumental in the preservation of the sites
and some are active in making changes. Their involvement with the
memorial sites and their ongoing contributions has made them well-known
in Poland.
They are the torch lighters on the evening of Holocaust
Memorial Day in Israel at Yad Vashem. They are the surviving lights
extracted from the core of darkness.
Hanan Werebecjzyk, survivor of Lodz Ghetto, Auschwitz, Stutthof, and KL
Flossenburg.
His testimony is in the Shoah Foundation. His story was
published due to a joint project between the author and the Stutthof
Memorial Museum. He speaks to students at the high school level and
recently took his family on a trip to relive his journey of survival and
courage. Miriam Werebeczyk, wife of Hanan, survived the Lodz Ghetto,
Birkenau, and KL Flossenburg. Her testimony is in the Shoah Foundation.
433
Samuel Willenberg is the only living survivor of Treblinka. He survived
the Treblinka revolt and participated in the Polish uprising. He received a
medal of honor from the Polish government. He is the author of Revolt in
Treblinka and Surviving the Treblinka Revolt He returns to Treblinka
several times a year. For many years he and his wife Aida accompanied
school trips to Poland. His map is used in many museums about Treblinka.
He is a prominent sculptist. Documentary films by the BBC were made
about his life and he has been interviewed by prominent newspapers such as
the Washington Post.
Aida Willenberg, wife of Samuel Willenberg is a survivor of the Warsaw
Ghetto and slave labor. She survived by jumping over the Warsaw Ghetto
wall, was hidden by a family, and survived slave labor on a farm. Her
mother perished in Treblinka.
She accompanies Samuel to Treblinka
several times a year and has travelled with school groups to Poland for
many years. Their daughter Orit is a prominent architect and designed the
Israeli Embassy in Berlin. It is hoped that Samuel will be able to place his
sculptures in a museum on Treblinka.
434
Chava Pressburger is a survivor of Theresienstadt. She is also the sister of
Petr Ginz, who perished in Auschwitz in 1944. His diary was found in a
Prague attic and she had it published into a book called The Diary of Petr
Ginz. His story is also used in the United Nations. He was incarcerated in
the Terezin Ghetto, transported to Auschwitz where he was murdered in the
gas chambers. His drawing "Moon Landscape" accompanied late Israeli
astronaut Ilan Ramon on his shuttle voyage. Avraham Pressburger is a
survivor from Slovakia and fought in the partisans.
"Moon Landscape" by Petr Ginz. The original drawing is on exhibit in the Terezin Museum.
435
Thomas (Toivie) Blatt spoke with the author by telephone a few times.
Thomas is one of the only living survivors of Sobibor and survived the
Sobibor revolt which took place in 1943 following the Treblinka revolt.
His parents and brother perished in Sobibor. He is author of Sobibor: The
Forgotten Revolt as well as From the Ashes of Sobibor. He testified at the
John Demanjuk trial for crimes of genocide. He was instrumental in the
production of the acclaimed film, Escape from Sobibor in which he is
portrayed as a young boy. He lectures and accompanies school trips to
Poland. Thomas returned to Sobibor several times and was the one who
had the plaques set at the entrance to Sobibor, in memory of the victims.
They are in several languages. Upon his escape, he hid in a barn and was
shot by a farmer in the jaw. The bullet remains there, lodged in his jaw.
Bracha Rauffman met with the author for several hours at her home in
Israel. At the age of 7, she was hidden by a woman in the village of Belzec.
For two weeks she hid in a cemetery, inside a former grave. After that, she
was brought to the house and hidden under a floor, where she remained
crouched in a fetal position for two years. The house was located at a short
distance from the extermination site. At the end of the two years when the
436
Germans left the village, neighbors came to pull her out. She could not
walk or stand up. She immediately requested to see the place where
“children disappeared” as she put it. Neighbors placed her in a wheelbarrow
to take her to see Belzec. Today she is battling Parkinson's disease. Bracha
contributed her input for the design of the Belzec Memorial Site. The
author plans to complete the project about Bracha to be forwarded to the
Belzec Memorial Site. She is the closest person to a Belzec survivor. Her
testimony is in Yad Vashem.
Dr. Paul Hartal was interviewed for several hours in Montreal, Canada in
2010. Born in Szeged, Hungary in 1936, he survived the Nazi
concentration camp in Strasshof, a site that remains relatively unknown. It
is uncommemorated. The literature states that most Jews survived. But
approximately 7000 Jews from 20,000, perished at Srasshof. In March
1944 German troops occupied Hungary and the future poet was imprisoned
along with his mother.
They were liberated by the Russians in 1945, a
year later. In 1956 he participated in the Hungarian Revolution. A few
months later, he burned his poems and papers and escaped to freedom.
Paul (Zeev) feels that poetry heals the soul; that “we need to extract light
from the core of darkness.” Paul is an artist, poet, and writer. He is father
to the author's brother-in-law.
437
Children on the "Kastner Train." Itzik Weinberg (right) and his late brother Avner Kerem.
Photos are courtesy of http://www.aranpa.com
Itzik Weinberg spoke to the author by telephone several times. He was
born in Krakow in 1938.
When he was 9 months old, the Germans
conquered Poland and his family was transferred to the Krakow Ghetto. In
June 1942, all the family was murdered in the gas chambers in Belzec.
Four year old Itzik and three year old brother Avner were orphans and were
smuggled from the Ghetto to a hiding place by their aunt. For two years
they remained camouflaged among gentile villagers, but the toddlers had to
change hiding places each day.
In February 1944, the brothers were
smuggled through Czechoslovakia to Hungary by their aunt, in the hope
that the war would not arrive there. Only a month later in March 1944 the
Nazis conquered Budapest. Their aunt succeeded to throw the two toddlers
on the Kastner Train as hidden passengers, believing that those on the train
will arrive to Israel and be saved due to a negotiation between Rudolf
Kastner, a Jewish-Hungarian journalist, and Adolf Eichmann a senior SS
officer who became the frontrunner for the Final Solution.
The train,
carrying approximately 1700 people, ended up in Bergen-Belsen. It is there
that the little boys found “temporary mothers,” female prisoners who cared
for them. The film Here I Learned to Love (2011) follows the 50 minute
documentary film Kindergarten in Hell (2005). It is their story of survival,
through the care of a "temporary mother" in Bergen-Belsen and other moms
they met along the way. Itzik, the older of the two toddlers, became a
"father figure" to his younger brother Avner. After the war, they ended up
in Palestine through Italy on an illegal immigrant ship. Itzik spent seven
years doing research on the Belzec Memorial Site, convinced that the
438
number of perished is much more than the estimated 550,000.
He
accompanied school trips to Poland and published his autobiography.
Avner passed away recently. He could not speak about his experience and
suppressed the topic for more than 60 years. Their testimonies are in Yad
Vashem.
“They are committing the greatest indignity human beings can inflict on one
another: telling people who have suffered excruciating pain and loss that
their pain and loss were illusions." ― Elie Wiesel, Night
Professor Elie Wiesel was born in 1928 in Sighet, which is now part of
Romania. He is the author of more than 30 books, including the book Night
which is a memoir of his experiences during the Holocaust.
He is
outspoken on issues of racism, intolerance, and bigotry and runs the Elie
Wiesel Foundation for the Humanities. He is a distinguished professor in
the humanities at Boston University.
He serves on many boards and
trustees. His home in Sighet was converted into a small museum and he
established the Elie Wiesel Institute for Studying the Holocaust in Romania.
Professor Wiesel won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1986 for literature. The
author had the honor to speak with Professor Wiesel by phone at his
foundation in New York. Professor Wiesel is a survivor of AuschwitzBirkenau, death march, and Buchenwald which was liberated by the
Americans in 1945. His parents and younger sister did not survive.
10.2 Personal contributions for the Future
It is with great privilege that I am in constant contact with the memorial
sites and institutions investigated in the research. The Hanan Project is
complete.
The book in Polish written by Holocaust survivor Hanan
439
Werebecjzyk was published by the Stutthof Memorial Museum in
December 2012 due to collaborative efforts made by the author and the
National Stutthof Museum, in particular, Marcin Owsinski. It is with great
honor that the book is now in Hanan's possession, that he is alive to see it,
and that it will be used for educational purposes in Poland. In addition, I
interviewed survivors and plan to incorporate their testimonies into major
projects. There are short-term and long-term projects that I am currently
working on, many which will be accomplished with friend and colleague
Ann Hansen. There is still much to be done. The list is not complete. It
includes the following:
a) The Bracha-Irenka Project: We were little girls too! This is a project to
be used for educational purposes in Belzec.
b) Collaboration with Dr. Caroline Sturdy-Colls for research on mass
graves in Romania.
c) Plans to assist the Elie Wiesel Institute for Studying the Holocaust in
Romania with dissemination of information, lectures, and an exhibition
about the sites. To engage in research on Transnistria and Transylvania.
d) To prepare adults and students for trips to Poland and to do temporary
exhibits.
e) To call a conference with the museum heads of the extermination sites
and to address their specific management needs. This has already been
discussed with the International Department in the Ghetto Fighters'
House Museum in Israel.
f) A long-term project, searching for archival documents about Belzec
involving number of victims and transport lists. It is called the Itzik
Project: The Forgotten. It is initiated by Holocaust survivor Itzik
Weinberg.
g) Massive fundraising particularly for Chelmno and approaching
international organizations including the Canadian Jewish Congress,
European Commission, and individuals.
h) Follow-up visits to the sites, reports, and maintenance of contact. With
this, to address the media and politicians in Israel and organizations
worldwide.
441
i) To be an “outreach” source for the sites, or an “ambassador” as
described by the museum head at Belzec; to address and bring forth
their issues and concerns, and to meet museum heads, managers, and
directors of other camps in the future.
j) To encourage Yad Vashem to invite museum heads of the extermination
sites to speak.
k) The Ravensbruck Project: We were Women like you! Addressing
women's organizations in Israel like WIZO or Na'amat and to include an
exhibition, lecture, and perhaps a trip to the site.
l) Album of the extermination sites in winter through photos sent by
museum heads. The album would be sent to them all and available
online with the purpose of promoting awareness for the 70th anniversary
of the sites of the Final Solution and the Treblinka and Sobibor revolts.
m) To continue gathering testimonies of survivors and assisting to find
loved ones who perished.
n) Continuing research of the unknown or uncommemorated sites with
friend and colleague Ann Hansen and possibility of incorporating a
nonprofit organization for preservation of the sites.
Chapter XI
Near the end of an Era: Conclusion and Final Thoughts
Humanity is at the brink. We are entering into a new phase of world
morality. So what is Holocaust remembrance? Through the eyes of the
author, Holocaust remembrance is: A way to commemorate and remember
the millions who perished in the Shoah, managed through a conglomeration
of different elements, combined together, while each plays an individual
role as a contributor. Remembering the darkness of the Holocaust is: to
remember the consequences when the deepest and blackest part of man's
soul revealed itself; to remember the horror of genocide and the bloody
stain which marked the 20th century; to remember that where injustice and
cruelty reveal themselves due to prejudice and hate, we cannot be silent,
passive, or indifferent; to remember that it can happen to any group; to
remember the dignity of the human being; to remember the horrifying and
441
vicious ways that lives were torn and snuffed out; to appreciate those who
survived; to remember not to forget.
And although other genocides
occurred in the 20th and already in the first decade of the 21st century, still,
the Holocaust stands apart as a precaution—an ominous warning for our
very existence as human beings; not to betray fundamental principles which
first and foremost, is the tolerance and acceptance of those who are
different. Trivialization, denial of truth, and indifference, not only belittle
the devastation surrounding it, but dangerously degrade the dignity of all
human beings.
Those who manage the Holocaust memorial sites thoroughly investigated
in this research, are voices for those who cannot speak and perpetuate not
only the memory of the Holocaust, but also the memory of each victim.
They diligently labor to tell the story and reveal the truth behind this
horrific
crime
through
education,
preservation
and
conservation,
publications, testimonies, seminars, and the like. And they do it because
they feel a need to do so despite the heavy emotional and personal toll taxed
on them. To manage the sacred grounds of the sites is a daunting task. It is
accompanied by a tremendous amount of perseverance, strength, and
responsibility to teach the next generation, to make it relevant for them
while at the same time, not trivializing the actual events. It is done with
limited funding, and in some cases, almost none at all. And with all that is
happening in the world today, with all the economic woes and social
problems, there are still those who choose through their own volition, to
help maintain the authentic grounds and protect the truth. And they are at
the same time in a battle. On one hand, they work diligently to preserve the
sites and maintain them; on the other, they are faced with deniers, limited
funding, projects that cannot be implemented, education that cannot be
advanced, and lack of emotional support. And in some cases, they do not
have an address where to turn. .
If the eyewitnesses—the survivors are disappearing, than it stands to
reason that the authentic evidence in Europe moves to the forefront and
needs to be preserved. Ways to commemorate need to be reviewed for the
future. The international community must address the vulnerability of the
sites and include them on their agenda at conferences, symposiums, and the
442
International Holocaust Task Force. It is not the responsibility anymore of
one nation but all nations. It is not just the responsibility of Poland and not
even just the responsibility of Germany. It is a worldwide responsibility.
Mankind cannot afford to be silent and passively observe whenever and
wherever anti-Semitism, xenophobia, racism, injustice, denial of the truth,
and neo-Nazism emerge. Shrill cries of protest must ring out to undermine
those who wish to desecrate the dead and the memories of those who barely
survived. And it could happen to any group; it did happen to others. We
need to think about what we want to leave the next generation and we must
prepare the way with a look towards the future—sadly, a world without
survivors and imminent deterioration of the sites.
This year marks a
special time. It is the 68th anniversary of the liberation of the camps,
including Auschwitz.
It is the 70th anniversary of the Warsaw Ghetto
Uprising. It is the 70th anniversary for the final implementation of “Die
Endlosung der Judenfrage,”—The Final Solution to the Jewish Problem. On
a less-known scale, it is also the 70th anniversary of the Treblinka and
Sobibor revolts. It commemorates when the world was plunged into a loss
of naivete and innocence; when nations gradually came to learn about
engineered evil on a grandiose scale.
There is a fear that when the survivors are gone, nobody will be left to
speak out; the fear that if the sites go then memory will be short, go into
books, and nothing will be done about it. We prepared ourselves for the
present but not the future, and now we are in a rush. And the sites, the
authentic evidence where it happened, are vulnerable. Museums worldwide
are preoccupied with a competition of existence. But the era of living
eyewitnesses is coming to an end!
Managing and preserving the sites which is protecting truth, depends on
the attitudes of governments, focus on the original mission, collaboration,
unity, sharing of information, education, a general openness, and above all,
an absence of ego. Humanity has the choice to remember or forget;
humanity also has the choice to remember not to forget. So where do we
go from here?
443
444
References
Primary Sources
Primary sources consist of personal interviews and some personal
correspondence with museum heads, directors, and managers of institutes
and memorial sites, spanning five countries including Israel, and eight cities
including Jerusalem. Locations of interviews where memorial sites are in
forests, and those not in or near any major cities, are indicated by country
rather than city.
1. Avraham, A. Personal interview, Yad Vashem. Jerusalem, November
15, 2011.
2. Banas Maciaszcyk, J. Personal interview, Auschwitz Memorial Museum.
Poland, February 11, 2011.
3. Bdarnak, M. Personal interview, Oskar Shindler Factory and Museum.
Krakow, February 13, 2011.
4. Bem, M. Personal interview, Sobibor Memorial Site. Poland, October
20, 2011.
5. Bialecka, A. Personal interview, Auschwitz Memorial Museum. Poland,
February 11, 2011.
6. Bresky, S.
Personal interview, German History Museum.
Berlin,
February 7, 2011.
7. Carmel, A.
Personal interview, Ghetto Fighters' House Museum.
Northern Israel,
8. Climescu, A.
March 16, 2011.
Personal correspondence, Elie Wiesel Institute for
Studying the Holocaust in Romania, February 12, 2011.
9. Cohen, R.
Personal interview, Ghetto Fighters' House Museum.
Northern Israel, March 25, 2011.
445
10. Druzka M. Personal interview, Institute of National Remembrance in
Lodz. Lodz, October 13, 2011.
11. Eschebach, Dr. I. Personal interview, Ravensbruck Memorial Site and
Museum. Germany, February 10, 2011.
12. Florian, Dr. A.
Personal correspondence, Elie Wiesel Institute for
Studying the Holocaust in Romania, February 20, 2012.
13. Frankl, M.
Personal interview, Prague Jewish Museum. Prague,
February, 1, 2011.
14. Grosse, M.
Personal interview, Jewish Museum in Berlin. Berlin,
February, 9, 2011.
15. Gutterman, Dr. B.
Personal interview, Yad Vashem.
Jerusalem,
November 15, 2011.
16. Hammermann, Dr. G. Personal correspondence, Dachau Memorial Site
and Museum. Germany, May 20, 2011.
17. Hanejko, T. Personal interview, Belzec Memorial Site and Museum.
Poland, October 19, 2011.
18. Hoffmann, C.
Personal interview, Museum of Otto Weidt.
Berlin,
February 9, 2011.
19. Kaiser, Dr. W. Personal interview, House of the Wannsee Conference
Memorial and Education Center. Germany, February 9, 2011.
20. Kastelaniec, J.
Personal Interview, Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation.
Warsaw, October 10, 2011.
21. Katarzyna, K.
Personal interview. Former extermination site at
Chelmno. Poland, October 12, 2011.
446
22. Koester, Dr. B. Personal interview, Memorial to the Murdered Jews of
Europe. Berlin, February 8, 2011.
23. Koper, E.
Personal interview, Belzec Memorial Site and Museum.
Poland, October 19, 2011.
24. Kopowka, Dr. E. Personal interview, Museum for Fight and Martyrdom
at Treblinka. Poland, October 11, 2011.
25. Kornagel, J.
Personal interview, Silent Heroes Museum.
Berlin,
February 9, 2011.
26. Kowalczyk, A. Personal interview, State Museum at Majdanek. Lublin,
October 18, 2011.
27. Kuggelmann, C. Personal interview, Jewish Museum in Berlin. Berlin,
February 9, 2011.
28. Kurek, E. Personal interview, Jewish Historical Institute. Warsaw,
October 10, 2011.
29. Lang, M.
Personal interview, Sachsenhausen Memorial Museum.
Germany, February 8, 2011.
30. Laskowska, J. Personal interview, State Museum at Majdanek. Lublin,
October 18, 2011.
31. Lopuska, A. Personal interview, Auschwitz Memorial Museum. Poland,
February 11, 2011.
32. Ludvikova, M. Personal interview, Jewish Museum in Prague. Prague,
February 3, 2011.
33. Magdziak Miszewska, A.
Personal interview, former Poland's
Ambassador to Israel at Embassy of Poland. Tel Aviv, September 19,
2011.
447
34. Meyer, A. Personal interview, Ravensbruck Memorial Site and Museum.
Germany, February 10, 2011.
35. Munk Dr. J.
Personal interview, Theresienstadt.
Czech Republic,
February 2, 2011.
36. Nowakowski, J. Personal interview, Galicia Jewish Museum. Krakow,
February 13, 2011.
37. Ottomeyer, Dr. Prof. H. Personal interview, German History Museum in
Berlin. Berlin, February 7, 2011.
38. Owsinski, M.
Personal interview, Memorial Museum at Stutthof.
Poland: October 25, 2011.
39. Pavlat, Dr. L. Personal interview, Jewish Museum in Prague. Prague,
February 1, 2011.
40. Pawlicka Nowak, Dr. L. Personal interview, Former extermination site
at Chelmno. Poland, October 12, 2011.
41. Plewik, G. Personal interview, State Museum at Majdanek. Lublin,
October 18, 2011.
42. Podolsky, Dr. A. Personal interview, Ukrainian Center for Holocaust
Studies. Kiev, October 14, 2011.
43. Pudelko, T. Personal correspondence, November 30, 2012.
44. Pulawski, Dr. A. Personal interview, Institute of National Remembrance
in Lublin. Lublin, October 18, 2011.
45. Schudrich, Rabbi M. Personal interview, Nozyk Synagogue. Warsaw,
October 22, 2011.
46. Seferens, Dr. H. Personal interview, Sachsenhausen Memorial Museum,
Germany, February 8, 2011.
448
47. Shavit, Y.
Personal interview, Ghetto Fighters' House Museum.
Northern Israel, March 16, 2011.
48. Shtein, S.
Personal interview, Ghetto Fighters' House Museum.
Northern Israel, January 25, 2011.
49. Sitarek, A. Personal interview, Institute of National Remembrance in
Lodz. Lodz, October 13, 2011.
50. Stankowski, A. Personal interview, Museum of the History of Polish
Jews. Warsaw, October 10, 2011.
51. Sturdy Colls, Dr. C. Personal correspondence, February 23, 2012.
52. Sturdy Colls, Dr. C. Personal Correspondence, May 25, 2012.
53. Tabak, M. Personal interview, Auschwitz Memorial Museum. Poland,
February 11, 2011.
54. Tarnowski, Dr. P. Personal interview, Memorial Museum at Stutthof.
Poland, October 25, 2011.
55. Tartakowska, B.
Personal interview, Memorial Museum at Stutthof.
Poland, October 25, 2011.
56. Trebacz, M. Personal interview, Institute of National Remembrance in
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463
Estimated number of Jews murdered in the Final Solution
Country
Estimated Jewry
before the Final
Solution.
Estimated
annihilated
Jewry
Percent
Poland
3,300,000
3,000,000
90
Baltic Countries
253,000
228,000
90
Germany/Austria
240,000
210,000
88
Protectorate
(Czech)
Slovakia
90,000
80,000
89
90,000
75,000
83
Greece
70,000
54,000
77
The Netherlands
140,000
105,000
75
Hungary
650,000
450,000
70
SSR White Russia
375,000
245,000
65
1,500,000
900,000
60
Belgium
65,000
40,000
60
Yugoslavia
43,000
26,000
60
600,000
300,000
50
1,800
900
50
SSR Ukraine
Romania
Norway
France
350,000
90,000
26
Bulgaria
64,000
14,000
22
Italy
40,000
8,000
20
5000
1000
20
975,000
107,000
11
8,000
120
15
Luxembourg
Russia
Denmark*
*Due to active resistance to Jewish deportation, Nazi attempts to annihilate the small Jewish community
in Denmark were thwarted. Most of them at great risk, were smuggled (through a nationwide effort by
the Danes) to Sweden and found hiding places in homes, hospitals, and churches. The Germans managed
to seize about 470 Jews and deported them to Theresienstadt. Strong Danish protest deterred them from
sending Danish Jews to the killing centers. It is often recorded that no Danish Jews perished but 120 were
murdered in Theresienstadt. Source: USHMM, Jewish Virtual Library, Anti-Defamation League (1997).
464
I prefer winter and fall, when you feel the bone structure of the
landscape-the loneliness of it, the dead feeling of winter. Something
waits beneath it; the whole story doesn't show.-Andrew Wyeth
Extermination sites in the winter. Photos are courtesy of Tomasz Hanejko, Marek
Bem, and Dr. Edward Kopowka.
Belzec
465
Sobibor
466
Treblinka
467
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to express gratitude to the following:
Carmel College: Michal Namer, Roni Hassoun.
Also: Dr. Michal Omer, Dr. Yackov Sabovich, and Dr. Zeev Shemer.
With special thanks to the management from Zefat Academic College and
wonderful staff of English lecturers for their encouragement and support.
Special appreciation and gratitude to those without whom this challenging
achievement would not be realized: Dr. Alex Avraham, Jolanta Banas
Maciaszyk, Monika Bdarnak, Marek Bem, Alicja Bialecka, Stefan Bresky,
Anat Carmel, Alexander Climescu, Ron Cohen, Marek Druzka, Dr. Insa
Eschebach, Dr. Alexandru Florian, Michael Frankl, Matias Grosse, Dr.
Bella Gutterman, Dr. Gabriela Hammermann, Tomasz Hanejko, Rami
Hochmann, Chayim Hoffmann, Cindy Jackson, Dr. Wolf Kaiser, Jacek
Kastelaniec, Kasia Katarzyna, Dr. Barbara Koester, Ewa Koper, Dr.
Edward Kopowka, Agnieszka Kowalcyk, Dr. Cilly Kuggelmann, Edyta
Kurek, Jolanta Laskowska, Anna Lopuska, Miroslava Ludvikova, Angelika
Meyer, Dr. Jan Munk, Jakub Nowakowski, Dr. Prof. Hans Ottomeyer,
Marcin Owsinski, Dr. Leo Pavlat, Dr. Lucja Pawlicka-Nowak, Grzegorz
Plewik, Dr. Anatoly Podolsky, Tomasz Pudelko, Dr. Adam Pulawski, Tanya
Ronen, Dr. Horst Seferens, Yossi Shavit, Simcha Shtein, Adam Sitarek,
Albert Stankowski, Magdalena Tabak, Dr. Piotr Tarnowski,
BoguslawaTartakowska, Michael Trebacz, Beena Tsur, Elisabeth
Ungureanu, Jan Wozniakowski, Cynthia Wroclawski, Joanna Zaslona,
Jolanta Zelazko.
Special acknowledgements to: Professor Elie Wiesel, Dr. Caroline SturdyColls, Poland’s former Ambassador to Israel, Agnieszka MagdziakMiszewska, Rabbi Michael Schudrich, and the survivors.
Special appreciation to Dr. Prof. Nicolae Bibu, Head of the Department of
Management at the University of West Timisoara in Romania for his
interest in permitting and providing the opportunity to pursue the research
and investigation of this crucial and poignant subject.
With unwavering gratitude to my family in Montreal, Canada for their
undaunted encouragement and support; to my mother; my brother Marv for
being there for me; Deb for being proud; and Brenda for believing in me
even during the most challenging times.
My family in Israel for encouragement and standing by me. Special thanks
to my sons: Jonathan for all his help throughout, Josh for his support, Eitan
for being there, Natanel for listening. Appreciation to my husband Eli for his
support, keeping me focused, and providing stability throughout.
With special gratitude and appreciation to Ann Hansen for all her
encouragement; for accompanying and assisting me on the research trips;
for all the tears we shared and those to come; her unwavering support and
friendship throughout.