An Amulet from Afsharid Iran - Poetry and Prayer

An Amulet from Afsharid Iran
Author(s): Sheila S. Blair
Source: The Journal of the Walters Art Museum, Vol. 59, Focus on the Collections (2001), pp.
85-102
Published by: The Walters Art Museum
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20168605
Accessed: 03/05/2010 13:53
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An Amulet from Afsharid Iran
SHEILA
S.
BLAIR
sorts of text carefully fitted
in bands and cartouches, like a jigsaw puzzle.
One of the most interesting objects in the Islamic gallery at the
is a small carnelian amulet made in Iran
Walters Art Museum
and contain different
on 28 fune 1748. Its
lengthy inscriptions reflect the uncertainty
were made to God, the
in
the
which
time,
prophet
appeals
of
the fourteen
immaculate ones venerated by
Muhammad,
The largest texts are contained in two boxes at the top
and center of the pendant (see fig. 3 for a schematic repre
sentation showing the location of the various inscriptions).
Shiites, and thefour orthodox caliphs venerated by Sunnis. Its
mixture offorms and designs shows that theAfiharid rulers of
Iran, though ofien at war with their neighbors, appropriated
their rivals' artistic tastes and styles.
together
script in both these boxes is formed by incising the
outlines of the letters and filling the background with a
tiny floral design so that the letters stand out in reserve.
The
two words
in the box at the top (LA) invoke God's
This
short text is followed by the longer
(y? al?alo).
text in the center (IB), a common phrase from the Koran
invoking God's majesty and power (in all?h 'ala kull shay
occurs eleven times in the Koran in this
qadtr). This phrase
The
name
One
on
of the smallest?yet most interesting?objects
new installation of Islamic art
in
the
display
splendid
is a carnelian pendant made in
Art Museum
1748, probably in Iran (fig. I).1 Like many examples of
is decorated with writing.
Its
Islamic art, the pendant
not only tell us what function the
inscriptions
pendant
at theWalters
and where itwas made, but also transform
this everyday object into a consummate work of art. The
carnelian pendant thus provides awindow
into daily life and
popular practices during the turbulent times of its creation.
filled and when
The
is carved from carnelian (also spelled
pendant
a
and translucent mineral that has
hard
reddish
cornelian),
a
as
been used
gemstone since Antiquity.2 Carnelian was
widely used in classical times by the Romans, who obtained
it inWest Asia and the Indian subcontinent.
It continued
to be used
in Islamic times, and, by the fifteenth century,
itwas by far the most common type of hardstone used for
jewelry, seals, and amulets, sometimes called talismans.3
To make the pendant,
the stoneworker
shaped the
hardstone to form a small articulated oval measuring 5.03 cm.
wide, 3.65 cm. high, and 3.3 cm. thick (fig. 2). He drilled
a channel
through the flat top edge of the hardstone, and
the projecting wings, now broken, would have provided a
a
or cord from which to
place for chain
suspend the object
as a
pendant. The back side is flat, but the front is rounded
or in cabochon. While
the carver left the back plain, he
the front side of the pendant with writing. The
inscriptions are executed in several techniques and styles
covered
exact form
(2:20, 2:106, 2:109, 2:148, 2:259; 3:165, 16:77,
24:45, 29:20, 35:1, 65:12), as well as many other times in
shorter or variant forms. The large texts on the pendant
can be read
as a
statement: "O God, truly
together,
single
God is powerful over all things." In invoking God's name
and power, these two large inscriptions immediately identify
the function of the object as an amulet invoking God's
on
protection
the wearer.
its talismanic
shape of the pendant confirms
function. Amulets made in the Islamic lands were carved
The
in many
shapes?circles,
hearts,
rectangles,
but most were oval. For example,
in the Cabinet
des M?dailles
Nationale
(as distinct
inscriptions
be
used
as
or
pyramids?
of the thirty-six amulets
of the Biblioth?que
in Paris that are carved with positive inscriptions
from the thirteen amulets carved with negative
that read backwards
seals),
twenty-one,
and hence were meant
or
almost
60%,
are
to
oval.4
Many, like the amulet in dieWalters, have a pierced opening
at the top for a chain or cord. One, made of green
glass
rather crudely carved on both sides
inscriptions
same
articulated oval shape as the carnelian
(fig. 4), has the
amulet in the Walters, with flat top and bottom
and
with
rounded
Ashmolean
Museum
are
in the
examples
and in the unpublished
collection of
sides.5 There
similar
The British Museum.6
TheJournal of theWaltersArtMuseum 59 (2001) 85
carver of the carnelian amulet in theWalters called
attention to the importance of the reserve texts (IA and IB)
The
in several ways. He made the letters
bigger than those of
the other texts. He also made the letters legible by carving
them in reserve against a darker ground. He further accen
tuated the rhythm created by the letters. In the top box, he
in
emphasized the vertical strokes of alifan?. lam, written
a thick round
as
In
known
thuluth.
the
he
middle
box,
script
turned the last letter in each of four large words (the n?n
[n] in in, the alifmaqs?rd [a] in ala\ the htm [1]in kuh\ and
the ya
[y] in shay) into a large bowl. The swooping tails
add internal unity and pattern to the design. The carver
further varied the thickness of the strokes in these letters to
add a sense of movement. These features are typical of the
as
was
hanging script known
developed in
nastal?q, which
Iran in the fourteenth
century
and became
particularly
there for transcribing Persian poetry from the
century onwards.7 A similar composition, with
swooping tails to the final letters, is found, for example, on
a sheet of decorated
calligraphy done by the scribe and
popular
fifteenth
Jalayir in the mid-nineteenth
century.8
use of this
of
suggests an
style
script immediately
illustrator
The
Iranian
Ismail
provenance
To make
to manipulate
for
the
amulet.9
these patterns with the letters, the carver had
the text, particularly in the middle box. He
squeezed the second and lastwords of the phrase (all?h and
corners above the other four words.
qad?r) into the upper
He even had to change the spelling. He spelled all?h without
the inital alifi making the initial alifofin,
the vertical stroke
on the left of the
as the initial
do
double
service
rectangle,
two words. Clearly, he
to know
his
audience
expected
alifoi
the phrase, recognize it, and recite it, rather than read it
literally. He made pattern take precedence over meaning.
In contrast to the large texts carved in reserve, the other
texts on the
pendant are incised in a fine, even script known
as naskh, quite
legible despite its diminutive size.The incised
texts fall into two parts, based on
meaning and placement.
The first text (II) incised on the carnelian amulet continues
in the same vein as the reserve text and iswritten in successive
tiers around the central rectangle (seeTable 1 for a transcription
and translation of the text). It begins beneath the central
on the
rectangle in the first cartouche
right and continues
around the first row of cartouches immediately surrounding
the central rectangle (Ha).The text (lib) continues around the
second row of cartouches, alsowritten in a circle.The text then
moves to the fields
surrounding the rectangular floral border,
Fig.
1. Carnelian
Baltimore,
The
Walters
x 3.65
x 3.3
5.03
pendant.
ace. no. 42.1205.
Art Museum,
cm.
[actual
size].
cartouche
layout of the beginning of the incised
the typical talismanic design of a magic
square, inwhich single characters, words, or phrases are set
in a checkerboard pattern. The
magic square (Arabic wafq)
text calls to mind
in a group of writings attributed to
b.
(known in Europe as Geber) and thought
Jabir Hayyan
to have been
compiled in the late ninth or early tenth century.
From the twelfth century, manuals on
magical formulas and
is first documented
procedures proliferated. The master of the art was Abu'l
Abbas Ahmad b. Ali b. Yusuf al-Buni al-Qurashi (d. 1225),
who composed a treatise on the construction of magic squares
and talismanic designs based on the letters composing
the
Beautiful Names of God. His treatise may have circulated on
a
popular level, and only two written copies are known to have
survived: one dated 16 Dhul-Qa'da
828/24 September
a
second copied atValljevo southwest of Belgrade
1425 and
on 29 Jumada 963/10
May 1556.10
have
become typical on talismanic charts,
Magic squares
shirts, and plaques made in the Islamic lands in the last
few centuries.11 The squares could be filled with numbers,
in numerals or alphanumeric
written
(abjad), in which
each letter of the alphabet stands for a numerical value.
The squares could also be filled with single words or phrases.
The words might spell out a verse from the Koran, but one
of the most
common
texts on these talismanic
objects was
(al-asma al-husn?),12 and this
is how the text incised around the middle of the carnelian
the Beautiful Names
amulet
of God
in theWalters
opens.
small incised text on the amulet begins in the bottom
name
right by invoking God's
(y? all?h), the same phrase
carved in reserve at the top of the amulet. Next comes the
The
beginning with the field below the rectangle (lie) and moving
clockwise around the three other fields (lid?0- Whereas
the cartouches each contain a phrase, the text in the field is
traditional list of ninety-nine Beautiful Names, all of them also
invoked with O (ya). These names are already mentioned
in an early hadith, or prophetic tradition, transmitted
by
one of Muhammad's
companions, Abu Hurayra. According
to this tradition, God had ninety-nine names, a hundred
in lines,with each phrase or word separated by a small
circle or other mark. To read the full text, the viewer needs
to turn the pendant in a clockwise direction three times.
the odd number (the Unique)
likes to be
names
one
these
enumerated
whoever
one;
designated by
by
knows the ninety-nine names will enter paradise.
written
86
less one, for He,
Fig.
2. View
of the pendant,
The repetition of these ninety-nine names has become
one of the most
diligent devotions in Islam. Pious Muslims
repeat them and meditate on them, often with the help of
a
ninety-nine beads strung together like rosary (subha).These
names
have
become
ninety-nine
particularly important for
or recita
mystics and are often included as part of the dhikr,
Persian mystic Abd
tion by Sufis. The fourteenth-century
al-Razzaq al-Qashani, for example, included them in his
terms under the heading Servants of God.13
glossary of Sufi
Since these ninety-nine names do not all occur in the Koran,
the list has never been absolutely fixed and is liable to contain
variants. Most lists, including the one on theWalters' amulet,
names mentioned
inKoran 59:22-24.
begin with the thirteen
arewritten on the amulet in cartouches running on the
They
bottom and left side of the central rectangle: y? rahm?n (O
Merciful), y? rah?m (O Compassionate),
y? malik (O King),
y? qudd?s(OHoly), y? sal?m(OPeace),y? mumin (OFaithful),
y? muhaymin (O Protector), y? 'az?z (OMighty), y?jabb?r
(O Repairer), y? mutakabbir (O Great), y? kh?liq (O Creator),
Fashioner).14
y? b?rf(0 Maker), and y? musawwir(0
magnified
five
times.
subsequent order in the list of ninety-nine Beautiful
often varies. Most names are grouped mnemonically.
The next six in the standard order are governed by euphony:
ghaffar (Forgiver), qahh?r (Dominant), wahh?b (Bestower),
razz?q (Provider), fatt?h (Opener), and ?//"(Knower). They
The
Names
are written
in the first row of cartouches
above the central
names are
grouped by assonance, associations
rectangle. Other
or
of verbal forms,
pairs having both a correlative and para
doxical sense. For example, awwal
(First) is typically paired
with akhir (Last),z?hir (Evident)with baton(Hidden).
The
list of Beautiful Names
incised on
theWalters'
amulet contains the standard ninety-nine, with only a few
variations. The name following the common first thirteen,
inserted before the six euphonic names, is sitt?r (Veiler),
not often
in the standard list. By contrast, rashtd
(Director), the second to last name on the standard list, is
omitted on the amulet. There also seems to be one extra
included
to one hundred names, or 101
bringing the total
name of God (all?h) at the
the
beginning. The
including
name
on
iswritten
the amulet in the fifth cartouche
unusual
name,
87
Ile
IB
lib
III
Fig. 3. Pendant,
with
marks
showing
the location
from the right in the bottom line: it seems to contain the
is the name of one of the kings of
word qubb?d This
ancient Persia; it is not part of the standard list of God's
name and its inclusion on the amulet is a
puzzle.
The
list of God's Beautiful Names
ends midway
in the
field to the left of the central rectangle on the amulet (lid).
Most of the rest of the space in the fields (lid?f) is taken up
with
the Noble
Names
(al-asm?* al-shar?fd), ninety-nine
that
pious names and epithets of the prophet Muhammad
are meant to
parallel the ninety-nine Beautiful Names of
God. The Prophets names are not invoked with y? (O),
and rather than the circle used to mark the end of each of
God's names, the Noble Names are followed by the letter
sad, an abbreviation for the tasliya, the phrase "May God
bless him and give him peace" that must follow every
mention
of the Prophet inwritten or spoken discourse.15
is even more
list of the Prophet's Noble Names
variable than the list of God's Beautiful Names.
It typically
root h-m-d,
variants
with
four
derived
from
the
begins
The
88
of the different
inscriptions
and knots.
who isworthy of Praise),
praise: muhammad(He
hamid
and
(More praiseworthy),
(Praising),
The list continues with more names, all
mahm?d(Praised).
meaning
alomad
and grouped in many of the same
as
the
Beautiful
Names
of God. Some Noble Names
ways
on
the same idea, such as munir
rhyme. Some pairs play
taken from the Koran
in Koran
(Radiant) and sir?j (Lamp), both mentioned
33:46. Some pairs are variants on the same Arabic root,
such as h?din (Guide) and mahd? (Rightlyguided), both
of which
derive from h-d-i. A few pairs are opposites,
such
as fatih (Opener) and kh?tim (Seal or End) or bash?r
(Bearer of good tidings) and nadh?r (Warner). A few are
identical with the names of God, such as awwal (First) and
?khir (Last)or z?hir (Evident) and baton (Hidden), but
most
to the Prophet. Some come from the
or
(Meccan),
Prophet's country
family, such as makki
madin? (Medinan),
'arab? (Arab), hijaz? (Jtvovn the Hijaz),
refer only
abtah? (Belonging to al-Batha, the area around Mecca),
the Nizari tribe), quraysh?(From the Quraysh
niz?ri(From
do not occur on many surviving
because
of their length.18 Calligraphers,
perhaps
sometimes
into calli
made
however,
up the Noble Names
graphic pictures. One example is the so-called Muhammadan
Rose, a floral design with the ninety-nine Beautiful Names
of God, the ninety-nine Noble Names of the Prophet, and
the names of the Ten to whom Paradise was promised (al
'ashara al-mubashshara)P
Finally, after listing the two hundred names of God
The Noble
Names
amulets,
and the Prophet, the inscription incised around the center
of theWalters' carnelian amulet ends in the middle of the
names of the so-called fourteen
right field (Ilf) with the
immaculate ones (Persian: chah?rdah ma1 sum):Muhammad,
his daughter Fatima, and the Twelve Imams who succeeded
him. These are the fourteen inerrant or immaculate personages
venerated
mw&
After
t?f<*x>rs
Muslim
by Twelver Shi'ites.20
the death of the Prophet in 632, the nascent
community split over how to choose his successor.21
Eventually, two major positions emerged regarding the nature
of authority over the Islamic community. One position,
ultimately accepted by the majority of believers, was that
of the caliphal loyalists. By the middle of the eighth century,
they came to call themselves the "people of tradition and
unity," inArabic ahlal-sunna wa'l-jam'a, or, more simply,
sunnis. Sunni Muslims comprise the overwhelming majority
of the more
in the world today.
than one billion Muslims
other major position
regarding the nature of
over
the Muslim
is represented by
authority
community
the partisans of Muhammad's
and
son-in-law Ali.
nephew
The
after Kalus,
nationale,
Fig. 4. Green glass amulet from the Biblioth?que
des Cachets, Bulles, et Talismans Islamiques, no. III. 1.23
Catalogue
clan), and mudan (From the Mudar
tribe). Some refer to
the mystical
letters found at the beginning of chapters, or
suras, in the Koran, such as the letters ya-stn, found at the
sura 36, ta-sin, found at the
sura
beginning of
beginning of
27, and hd-mim, found at the beginning of suras 40-46.
s
a
Reciting the Prophet Noble Names became
popular
in
The
Islam.
historian
al-Safadi
practice
fourteenth-century
a
composed
long poem inwhich he enumerated the ninety
nine names of the Prophet. Mystics often invoked these
names, which
served as talismans
to ward
off evil. For
Suhrawardi
Sayyid Baqir, a seventeenth-century
in
(now
Pakistan), included a chapter
mystic from Ucch
on the virtues and divine grace of Muhammad's
ninety
example,
nine names
in his treatise Jaw?hir al-awliy? (Jewels of the
more
recent times, the list was elaborated in
In
Saints).16
an
Arabic manuscript dated 1268/1851-52
popular tradition:
201
and
other sources mention
four hundred
names,
gives
or
even
one
thousand.17
This group
Arabic word
is collectively
shia meaning
as Shi'ites, from the
"party" or "faction." Shi'ites
known
and
initially pointed to Alis justice, religious knowledge,
closeness to the Prophet, arguing that any head of the
should be a direct descendant of Muhammad
community
through his daughter Fatima and her husband Ali. Their
doctrine
evolved so that by the eighth century most
Shi'ites also held that the caliph, or Prophet's successor,
also be a divinely guided, infallible religious teacher,
or imam. They believed that only such a leader could
guide
to achieve the justice and salva
the Muslim
community
would
tion promised by the Koran.
Shi'ites differ over the names
successors toMuhammad,
Twelver Shi'ites, believe
and number
of direct
but the largest group, known as
that the twelfth imam went into
in the year 940 and that, until he reappears on
on earth
by a viceroy,
Judgment Day, he is represented
who reinterprets the shari'a, the rules and regulations that
lives of Muslims,
for every age.
govern the day-to-day
hiding
comprise the largest group of Shi'ites inmodern
Iran
times, making up most of the population of modern
in neighboring countries.
and sizeable minorities
Twelvers
89
Fig. 5. Amulet,
dated
A.H.
1 161/a.d.
1748.
5.8 x 4.2
x 6 cm. London,
Iran is now a Shi'ite country, Twelver Shi'ism
Although
became the state religion there only in the sixteenth century,
under the rule of the Safavid dynasty (1501-1722). During
such as Mulla Sadr? (d. 1640)
this period, theosophers
elaborated the cosmic function of the fourteen immaculate
ones. These
and
figures became
are often mentioned
a major
focus of popular piety
in formulas
invoking divine
names are inscribed, for example, on an
blessing. Their
amulet dated [1] 161/1748 inThe British Museum
(fig. 5),
on three undated amulets in the collection of the Cabinet
on
eight undated amulets in the Ashmolean,
and on several talismanic plaques from the same period.22
The presence of these names is often taken to be an indica
tion of Persian provenance and adds weight to the stylistic
evidence in attributing theWalters' amulet to Iran.23
ones
Curiously, the names of the fourteen immaculate
on
to
in
those
of
the
carnelian
amulet
appear
juxtaposition
des M?dailles,
their rivals.The central rectangle is surrounded by a reserved
band of six-petaled flowers separated by pairs of leaves.
Cartouches
90
in the four corners
names of
(Ilg-j) have the
The
British Museum,
BM
1866
101.
12-29
the four orthodox
caliphs: Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman,
four people were the first successors to
chosen by the consensus of the community.
Muhammad,
In later times, some Muslims
looked back, through some
and Ali. These
what
rose-colored
to
glasses,
"Golden Age" in which
Islamic values flourished.
their
successive
reigns
as
a
faith, justice, and the pristine
these caliphs became
Hence,
or
al-khulafa al-rash?dun,
"rightly guided" caliphs. Shi'ites, by contrast, traditionally
curse the names of the first three caliphs, whom they consider
known
usurpers
to Sunni Muslims
and murderers
as
of the fourth
and,
in their view,
legitimate caliph, Ali.
names of the four orthodox caliphs on
Inscribing the
a hallmark of the arts produced under the
became
objects
and much of the eastern
rulers of Anatolia
Ottomans,
from the late thirteenth century to 1922.
Mediterranean
only
From 1501, they were the Safavids' great rivals. The
Ottomans often had the name of the four orthodox caliphs
inscribed on tile panels (fig. 6), ceramic vessels (fig. 7), and
many other types of art.24On these objects, the four names
were often written
in a line or set in cartouches, but in one
names were
of
work
the
four
type
typically disposed in the
corners:
a
four
description of the
calligraphic works bearing
or adornment),
as
Known
decoration
Prophet.
hilya (literally,
these calligraphic specimens contain a verbal description
of the prophet Muhammad
giving both his physical and
his mental characteristics. The description of the Prophet was
written in a large central medallion, with pendant circles in
the four corners inscribed with
the names of the four orthodox
m
SSS55SS
caliphs. This arrangement of the hilya (fig. 8) became standard
master
under the Ottoman
calligrapher Hafiz Osman
times.25
(1642-98) and was reproduced until modern
Ottoman calligraphers adapted the calligraphic tradition
of inscribing the names of the four orthodox caliphs in
for other media as well. The names, together
medallions
lolol
Ali, Hasan, and Husayn, were
on
wooden
roundels designed in 1859 by
reproduced
eight
to
'Izzet
be
Mustafa
hung below the dome in the interior of
with
those of Muhammad,
from the great
the congregational
converted
mosque
church of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul. The largest of their
roundels measure eight meters (twenty
type, these wooden
five feet) in diameter. The compositions were enlarged by
names survive
squaring, and smaller versions of these sacred
on both cardboard and wood.26
names
Fig. 6. Tile plaque with
Museum
York, The Metropolitan
of
the Four Orthodox
of Art,
caliphs.
New
15.76.3.
To understand why the carnelian amulet in theWalters
the names of both the fourteen immaculate
is inscribed with
typical of Shi'ites,
and the four orthodox caliphs,
their
rivals, the Sunnis, we must turn
typically pronounced by
to the other text incised around the border of the amulet
ones,
(III). Slightly larger than the text incised in the middle of
1 cm.,
the amulet (with the ?z//fmeasuring approximately
about twice the size of the alifm the central text), the border
text is separated from the rest of the decoration by a band
of floral motifs set in reserve against a dark ground. The
floral band, composed of many-petaled,
lotus-like flowers
serves to set off the
of
with
leaves,
pairs
stylized
alternating
border inscription and distinguish it from the other incised
text
center.
in the
the reserved text, the carver of the carnelian
elaborated the script in the border
As with
amulet
in theWalters
*
to enhance the
meaning of the message. The main
artistic touches are the knots added to final ha"m eight places
around the border. The knots are not spaced symmetrically.
band
do they seem to be placed semantically: many are
or
used on the pronoun ha (him), meaning Muhammad
are
on
ta
two
at
the
the
end
used
God, but
marb?ta, or
feminine ending, of the words al-juma (Friday) and sana
(year). Rather, the carver seems to have added these knots
Nor
wherever
space
was
available.
the knots may have
had magical significance. Many objects made in the Islamic
lands were decorated not only with magical writing, often
Despite
itit
their random placement,
ca.
vessel in the form of a mosque
lamp,
Fig. 7. Ceramic
ace. no. 48.1301.
17.8 cm. Baltimore, Walters Art Museum,
1580.
32 x
91
at the lower right of the flat,
begins
bottom edge of the amulet. It opens with the invocation
to God known as the basmala, from the words bism all?h
al-rahm?n al-rah?m (in the name of God theMerciful and
The
border
text
invoke the basmala in all
Muslims
the Compassionate).
sorts of daily activities, from reading the Koran to giving a
lecture or beginning a journey. This phrase is also found at
the beginning of all but one sura in the Koran (the exception
isChapter 9), and here too on the carnelian pendant, the
basmala is followed by a Koranic text.
The border text on the pendant comes from the second
The
chapter of the Koran, called al-Baqara (The Cow).
one of the latest to be
in
Koran
and
the
longest chapter
revealed, it is often thought to sum up the entire teaching
accept as God's revelation to
the prophet Muhammad.29 The sura takes its name from
in
the parable of the cow or heifer (al-baqara), mentioned
verses 67-71, which illustrates the insufficiency of carping
of the Koran, which Muslims
obedience. When
people lose faith, they put off obedience
with various excuses. Even at lastwhen they obey the letter
of the law, they fail in spirit and become fossilized, but
their self-absorption
prevents them from realizing that
are
spiritually dead.
they
The text on the pendant
from sura 2, which
(285-86)
illustrated by the parable:30
of the Prophet Muahmmad]
[verbal description
calligraphed
Fig. 8. Hilya
Chester
A.H. 1 103/a.d.
1691. 47 x 34 cm. Dublin,
by Hafiz Osman.
T559.4.
Beatty Library,
five- or six-pointed
arranged in squares, but also with the
as
Solomon.
Solomon is
of
known
seal
the
star, commonly
known in Islamic lore for the power he exercised over the
creatures. The jinn
"shape-shifting," supernatural
are
mentioned
word
the
(whence
frequently
genie)
English
in the Koran (e.g., 6:100,6:112,6:128,18:50,
55:14-15, etc.),
the
and one entire sura (72) is entitled jinn. For Muslims,
or flame and are
of
have
bodies
vapor
composed
jinn
to human senses, capable of
intelligent but imperceptible
in
forms
and of carrying out heavy
different
appearing
in
official Islam, the jinn became
labors. Although accepted
evil jinn,
occur extensively in
particularly popular in folklore and
The Arabian Nights.27 Solomon exercised his power over
the jinn through a talismanic ring engraved "the most
a sealed knot
great name" of God, and many designs with
seem to have magical connotations.28 The engraver may
well have intended the knots he added to the tails of the
inscription around the Walters'
to
recall the Solomonic knot and evoke
carnelian amulet
the power Solomon exercised over the jinn through his
talismanic ring.
letter ha
92
in the border
contains
the last two verses
sum up the nature of faith
The Messenger believes inwhat was sent down to him
from his Lord, and the believers; each one believes inGod
and His angels, and inHis Books and His Messengers;
we make no division between any one of His Messengers.
us Thy
They say, 'We hear, and obey. Our Lord, grant
forgiveness;
unto Thee
is the homecoming.
no soul save to its capacity; standing to its
charges
account iswhat it has earned, and against its account
what it has merited.
God
or make
to task if we
forget,
mistake. Our Lord, charge us not with a load such as
Thou didst lay upon those before us. Our Lord, do
not burden us beyond what we have the
Thou
to bear. And pardon us, and forgive us, and
strength
Our
Lord
take us not
have mercy on us; thou art our Protector. And help us
against the people of the unbelievers.
takes up most of the border band,
three-quarters of the way down the right
ending
the end of the
lobe on the amulet. The carver marked
a
text
with three signs: circle, the Arabic letter ta,
Koranic
a small cross-shape or x.
and a circle inscribed with
was not written with punctuation
Arabic
classical
Although
in its modern
sense, some marks were used to indicate
The Koranic
quotation
about
divisions
between
paragraphs,
sentences,
or
sections.31
circle was commonly used to represent the letter ha ,
"it is finished." One of the
intaha, meaning
earliest marks known, the circle may have been adopted
from old Persian or Pahlavi, for it occurs on papyrus doc
The
for the word
uments
written
between
to indicate divisions
language
Scholars writing Arabic adopted it in
to separate one hadith from another. The
in this
sentences.
Islamic times
to
printed editions of the Koran
separate one verse (aya) from another.
The second mark at the end of the Koranic verses on
circle is used
in modern
the amulet, the Arabic letter t?\ had a similar meaning. An
itwas tra
abbreviation for mutlaq (free or independent),
text of the Koran to
when
the
used
ditionally
transcribing
codices
indicate a full-stop. It is also used in non-Koranic
transcribed in Persia and India to indicate the word faqat,
"only" and used as a synonym for intaha
literally meaning
on invoices to indicate the
It
is
written
also
(end).
grand total
and prevent fraudulent additions at the end of a document.32
These two marks, the circle and the t?\ are standard,
and the carver used them elsewhere in the Koranic text on the
a circle inscribed with
a small
amulet, but the third mark,
or x, ismore unusual and appears only in this
cross-shape
on the amulet. Itmay be a variant of the dots or other
place
marks added to an empty circle upon reading a hadith.
to the great traditionalist al-Katib
According
al-Baghdadi
(d. 1071), the scribe should leave the circle empty so that a
dot or some other mark could be placed in it during collation.
If the hadith were
read or heard
several times, the circle
several dots,33 and the two slashes here may
indicate that the text contains two Koranic verses.
could contain
of the two strokes, the
mark, like the circle and the letter fi\ signifies die end of die
Koranic text and separates it from the dating information
that follows. This part of the inscription reads: "Friday in
Whatever
the literal meaning
the month
of Raj ab the venerated (murajjaB) during the
ran from
1161
year
h(ijriyya) (of the hijra)." This lunar year
2 January to 21 December
1748.
is the seventh month
in theMuslim
lunar year.
Rajab
was
as
a
In pre-Islamic times, it
in
observed
holy month
were offered to pagan deities in
when
sacrifices
spring
gratitude
for increased flocks and herds. Itwas also the month
of peace
in
which
tribes
the
Arabian
refrained
during
peninsula
from raids and warfare. Due to this legacy, Rajab is often
called al-asamm (the deaf), because no sound from weapons
was heard
or al-asabb (the
during that month,
pouring),
because the unbelievers of Mecca used to say that mercy
It was a time of devotional
poured forth in that month.
practices, exertions, and fasting.
These pre-Islamic practices continued in Islamic times,
but Muslim
scholars had various, and often contradictory,
their correctness. Strictly orthodox scholars
about
opinions
stressed that there was no valid
tradition
concerning
the
virtues of Rajab. Others, particularly the pious and devoted,
favored the widely circulated, popular traditions, inwhich
the Prophet is said to have emphasized the virtues of Rajab
and encouraged
carrying out various practices deemed
laudable and correct. Fasting during Rajab was thought to
be particularly commendable,
and very high rewards were
to
so. For many,
who
did
promised
people
Rajab became
one of four sacred months
are
the first month,
(the others
the eighth month,
Sha'ban; and the twelfth
which
Muslims undertake the
Dhu'l-Hijja,
during
Muharram;
month,
fifth pillar of Islam, the hajj, or pilgrimage toMecca),
and
there even developed a popular rivalry between Rajab and
the following month Sha'ban as to which should be more
highly venerated.34
The carnelian
amulet clearly belongs to the popular
tradition of venerating Rajab, for in the border inscription
is labeled murajjab (venerated or awesome), an
the month
same triliteral root
as the
adjective derived from the
(r-j-b)
name of the month. This was a somewhat unusual choice
of adjective to use in an inscription, but one attested in a
few examples, particularly from later Islamic times.35 Such
an
rare in
adjective may be
epigraphy because it reflects
than
rather
tradition.
literary,
popular,
For many, Rajab came to be associated with certain events
in the Prophet's life. His mother
is said to have conceived
on
to
evening of the month. According
was
in
the
born
tradition,
Prophet
Rajab, though
his birthday is usually celebrated on the 12th of the month
him
the first
another
of Rabi'
al-Awwal. More
importantly, the 27th of Rajab
came to be celebrated as the
mi
day of the
r?j, the Prophet's
to
or
of the isra, his visionary
heaven,
mystical ascension
Muslims
Hence,
many
spend the night of
night journey.
the 27th in vigil. In some places, particularly those areas that
were converted to Islam more
recently and therefore where
are
stronger, this day is celebrated
indigenous traditions
with popular festivities. In Indonesia, for example, Muslims
celebrate the night ofMuhammad's
journey with lights and
even fireworks.36 In East Africa, Muslims
spend the preceding
three days listening to a recitation of a prose version of the
story, first in Arabic and then in a Swahili translation,
followed by a day of fasting.
The
amulet,
however,
cannot
have
been
made
to com
memorate
the Prophet's journey, for the inscription gives
the date of a Friday in Rajab during the year 1161, and in
that year the 27th of Rajab fell on a Tuesday. Rather, the
amulet was made
for one of the other nights of the month
that are considered to be replete with God's graces. God is
said to grant every supplication made by the believer on the
first night of themonth, but the amulet cannot commemorate
that day either, for it fell on a Thursday
in the year 1161.
were
in
that
there
five
year
Fridays
During
Rajab: the 2nd,
the 9th, the 16th, the 23rd, and the 30th.
93
The first Friday night of Rajab, known as the night of
the prayer for extensive and desirable gifts (sal?t al-ragha?b),
is one of the most celebrated of the month. To mark this
on the
day, the believer fasts
preceding Thursday and then
fills the evening with prayers and supplications containing
hundreds of invocations, prostrations, bowings, and recita
tions of suras from
the Koran.
central inscription
such a dating to the
first Friday night in Rajab: one of the ancestors of Sayyid
wrote the treatise on
Baqir, the Suhrawardi mystic who
it particularly
considered
Muhammad's
names,
ninety-nine
incised on the amulet
valuable
The
accords with
to recite these names
after evening prayer, for
that person to enter Paradise.37
so would
cause
doing
the amulet was probably made as a gift to mark
Therefore,
that first Friday, and hence it can be dated precisely to
to 28 June 1748.
2 Rajab 1161, corresponding
This date makes the carnelian amulet in theWalters
one of earliest dated
amulets
to survive from the Islamic
published amulets date from the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries.38 A few are earlier. For example, of
the thirty-six Islamic amulets in the Cabinet des M?dailles
lands. Most
to be published,
in Paris, one of the first collections
the
two earliest pieces date from the mid-eighteenth
century.
a
heart-shaped amulet of yellow chalcedony,
(fig. 9),
is dated [1] 173/1759-60.
the same size as
Approximately
one
it is decorated with two texts in
in theWalters,
the
One
round scripts, one carved in reserve and the other incised,
like those on theWalters' amulet. The other dated amulet
a
in the Cabinet des M?dailles
(fig. 10), small oval of white
is inscribed [1] 171/1757-58. Half the size of
chalcedony,
it is incised with the same common
the one in theWalters,
in reserve in the center of the
is
that
carved
praise
Koranic
amulet (Koran 2:20, etc.), saying that God has
over
all things.
power
In addition to these two published examples, the col
Walters'
contains awhite chalcedony
same
to
the
amulet that is dated
year as the one in the
Walters,
[1] 161/1748, (fig. 5). Heart-shaped with a flat top
and base with straight sides, it is slightly larger than the
lection of The British Museum
and contains three texts: the outer margin
two texts with Koranic
sacred names circumscribes
one in theWalters
with
verses. The
contains Koran 2:255, the so-called
most sublime
(?yat al-kursi), considered the
In
the center is a
of God's majesty and power.
inner margin
Throne Verse
statement
the last two verses from
shorter Koranic text containing
sura 68, known as Chapter of the Pen (S?rat al-Qalam) and
to be the first of God's revelations toMuhammad.
thought
state that unbelievers, when
they
to be mad, but
hear God's message, might take aMuslim
that truly God's revelation is a message to all the worlds.
a few amulets are dated sporadically in the
Although
late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries,39 these four
The
94
verses
(68:51-52)
a
century comprise
examples from the mid-seventeenth
rare group of dated amulets. The amulet in theWalters
is
further distinguished
because of its precise date, giving the
of
the
week
the
and
month aswell as the year. It is the
day
I
know
with
such a specific date. This date,
only example
on it,
us understand
helps
along with the lengthy inscriptions
amulet was made. To put the amulet in
why theWalters'
examine the turbulent historical and
context, we must
religious situation of the time.
In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries,
the power and authority of the Safavids as rulers of Iran
away under a series of increasingly inept and
ineffective shahs. In 1722, the Afghans
invaded. Safavid
resistance soon collapsed, and, in the ensuing strife and
toNadir Shah, aTurcoman chieftain
upheaval, power passed
of the Afshar tribe from the province of Khurasan in north
had dribbled
east Iran.40Nadir
began by ridding the country of itsAfghan
after
invaders, and,
consolidating his power, he proclaimed
himself shah in 1736. Whereas
the Safavids had claimed
as teachers of
legitimacy
religious law who exercised their
return of the
personal judgment (ijtih?d) until the ultimate
or Hidden
Imam, Nadir Shah had no such claim
Mahdi,
to
therefore, he
religious authority. At his coronation,
announced a new religion, an attenuated form of Shi'ism
with the sixth imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, as its spiritual head. To
his undefeated enemies on the west
appease the Ottomans,
to end the traditional
Baghdad, and
Persia
between
and Turkey, Nadir
hostility
Shah insisted that Shi'ites abjure the traditional practice of
a prac
cursing the first three of the four orthodox caliphs,
tice particularly hateful to Sunnis.
Nadir Shah's new religion was a bust: itmade no one
not achieve its desired aim of d?tente
happy, and it did
who
still controlled
Shi'ite-Sunni
with
the Ottomans.
for money
to wage
that drove
him
against
India
Rather, Nadir Shah's persistent need
continual warfare was one of the things
into his brilliantly successful campaign
in
1738-39.
Nadir
Shah
defeated
the
the supremely wealthy dynasty that had ruled
Mughals,
the Indian continent since 1526, and gained enormous trib
ute, including the fabled Peacock Throne, which he carted
back to Iran on the backs of donkeys. The loot was so
extensive that Nadir Shah was able to exempt the people
of Persia from taxes for several years.
Like his new religion, Nadir Shah's political ambitions
a
were soon thwarted.
powerful military opponent,
Though
he failed to lay the administrative foundations for govern
ment. He became
increasingly suspicious and capricious,
a revolt, or were even
savagely punishing those who staged
to have done so. Resentment
it
rose, and with
alleged
attacks on the ruler, until a group of Afshar and Qajar
chiefs finally succeeded in assassinating Nadir
Jumada II 1160/20 June 1747.
Shah on 11
Fig. 9. Amulet
Fig.
10. Amulet
from
from
the Biblioth?que
the Biblioth?que
nationale,
nationale,
dated
dated
A.H.
A.H.
[1]173/a.D.
[1]171/A.D.
1759-60.
1757-58.
5.2 x 3.4 x 5 cm. After
2.6 x 2.3 x 5 cm. After
Kalus,
Kalus,
no.
no.
III.1.11.
III.1.16.
95
dated to the same year (fig. 5) were made
interregnum of Nadir Shah's
British Museum
the brief and troubled
during
two nephews. The Walters'
amulet
is precisely dated
to the
the younger boy's upset of his older
following
texts on both amulets reflect the rapidly
brother. The
month
changing political situation in Iran. Both contain Koranic
verses
asking help from God against unbelievers. Both also
cite the names of the fourteen immaculate ones, and, on
amulet, the traditional Shi'ite allegiance to the
imams is tempered by Iranian overtures to the Ottomans,
in the form of the names of the four orthodox caliphs. The
theWalters'
texts on both these amulets can be read as appeals to God
and his regents on earth for help in these troubled times.
an amulet would protect thewearer from harm.
Wearing such
It is also possible to see theWalters' amulet as reflecting
the new taste of the Afsharid court. Much of the art made
in Iran during this period depicts Nadir Shah in triumph.41
The first life-size royal portraits to survive in Iran date from
this period, including an oil portrait (fig. 11), assigned to
ca. 1740. It shows
Riza Hindi,
Shah seated on a floral carpet. He is festooned with
the hand of Muhammad
Nadir
ropes of pearls set with emeralds, diamonds, and polished
red spinels and grasps a string of pearl prayer beads in his
left hand. At the beginning of his reign, Nadir Shah had
dressed modestly, but following his conquest of India, he
often donned the fabulous jewels and accoutrements of the
court. The ropes of pearls he wears in the portrait,
Mughal
for example, may be the very ones worn in portraits by the
emperors Shah Jahan (r. 1605-27) and his son
Mughal
now in the Crown Jewels collection
Jahangir (r. 1628-57),
Fig. 11. Oil painting of Nadir Shah, attributed
ca. 1740. 162.7 x 102 cm. London, Victoria
toMuhammad
Riza Hindi,
and Albert Museum,
I.M.
20-1919.
Nadir
Shah was
succeeded
briefly
by
two of his
to his eldest
nephews. His assassins first offered allegiance
was enthroned asAdil Shah, but after a
reign
nephew, who
of less than one year, he came up against the ambitions of
his younger brother. The armies supporting the two brothers
collided in Jumada II 1161/June 1748, and Adil Shah was
in favor of his younger brother, who
reigned
deposed
as Ibrahim Shah. He too was soon overthrown, and
briefly
Nadir Shah's blind grandson, Shah Rukh, ascended the
of the old Safavid
throne in 1163/1750. A descendant
through his mother Fatima, daughter of the Safavid
shah Sultan Husayn, Shah Rukh was more acceptable to the
mere descendant of Nadir Shah. Despite
populace than any
to stay on the throne for almost
interruptions, he managed
house
fifty years.
The carnelian amulet
as
in theWalters, commissioned
a
extensive
desirable
for
and
for
the
of
the
prayer
night
gift
2 Rajab 1161/28 June 1748, and the amulet in The
gifts,
in Tehran.42 The
also contains
Jewels collection
to
have
other gems that may
passed from the Mughals
Nadir Shah, including an emerald engraved with his name
and dated 1152/1739 that is the same size and shape as the
one in this portrait and other similar
the
spinels with
names of Nadir Shah and late
rulers.
Mughal
Shah inherited his taste for fancy jewelry from
emperors, who were particularly fond of engraved
gemstones.43 Court artists there in the late sixteenth and
Nadir
theMughal
seventeenth
centuries
developed
new
drilling techniques
to
the
wheel
and
produce free-flowing
using
polishing points
on
precious stones.
designs of flora and fauna engraved
One of the most stupendous examples is a huge emerald
carats
weighing 234
(fig. 12) that has been wheel
an octagon and drilled with a floral scene.44
cut into
The precious stones collected by theMughals attest to
in
international connections. The emeralds most
their
demand were
imported
from Columbia.
Muslims
often
to gemstones, particularly
supernatural powers
as their vivid colors made them stand out from their natural
were
an antidote
surroundings. Emeralds
generally considered
to viper bites and protection against epilepsy and stomach
attributed
disorders. The
96
Crown
exceptionally
deep green of emeralds
from
was
the New World
particularly prized, and Mughal authors
likened the color to the Garden of Paradise and
sometimes
the highest spiritual level of Sufism.
the Emerald Mountain,
The Mughals were not alone in their taste for engraved
In the early eighteenth century, there was a
gemstones.
in Europe, partly due to
major revival of gem-engraving
interest in the arts of antiquity.45
the widespread
the
Muslim
lands,
gems typically used there were
tional hardstones such as carnelian and sard, but
patrons also commissioned works on diamonds,
As
in the
the tradi
important
emeralds,
and aquamarines, though not on the scale ordered by the
the first half of the
fabulously wealthy Mughals. During
was
center
Rome
of production,
the
century,
undisputed
but,
in the second half of the century, London
center
major
Works
monarchs
became
a
as well.
were
exported to
produced inRome and London
most
One
the
successful
and
of
abroad.
passionate
collectors was Catherine II, Empress of Russia (r. 1762-96).
She sent agents all over Europe to round up other collections,
12. Emerald, wheel cut and drilled. Late 16th or early 17th century.
Fig.
no. LNS 28 HS.
Maximum
diameter 5.7 cm. Kuwait, Ex-Sabah Collection,
including that of the Orl?ans family in France, and amassed
a vast collection amounting tomore than 10,000 pieces, now
in the Hermitage. Her daughter-in-law,
later Empress Maria
was also an
(1759-1828),
accomplished engraver
Fyodorovna
of cameos, many depicting members of the imperial family.
Nadir
of Mughal
jewelry made of
and gemstones may well have stimulated
Shah's collection
gems
taste
for amulets carved from hardstones. The carnelian
courtly
is not inscribed with the name of
amulet in theWalters
precious
any particular person, but its precise date strongly suggests
that itwas a specific commission, and its quality and precision
(there are more than three hundred words incised on a
or 3 square in.,
surface measuring
only 15 square cm.,
area
a
of
of
silver
dollar), indicate
slightly larger than the
that it was made for a wealthy and sophisticated patron,
of the Afsharid court.
as
of theWalters' amulet is a cheaper
the
material
Just
version of the gemstones used by theMughals, so too the shape
and decoration of theWalters'
amulet echo the Mughal
perhaps
amember
style. The articulated oval shape recalls the cusped ogee
arches typical ofMughal art and architecture. Mughal artisans
also used the same shape for precious objects, including a
pendant dated 1029/1619 (fig. 13).46 Its apotropaic text,
saying that God alone wields strength and power, suggests
served as
that it, like the carnelian pendant in theWalters,
an amulet, but its precious materials?it
is carved of grey
a ruby set in the center?are
indicative of
nephrite with
royal patronage. The 1619 piece may well have been made
for the emperor Jahangir himself.
Both the cusped ogee arch and the articulated oval
occur on other works of Mughal
art, such as
shape also
cover made around 1700 and
an enameled
and
gold jar
trellis set against a green translucent
(fig. 14).47The overall shape of the jug iswithout
decorated with
ground
awhite
Fig.
amulet dated A.H. 1029/A.D.
1619. Maximum
13. Gray nephrite
6.6 cm.; depth/thickness:
width:
0.5 cm.
7.2 cm.; maximum
height:
(including
jewel). Dublin,
Chester
Beatty
Library,
IsAs 31.
a
parallel inMughal art; itmay well have been inspired by
or
to
the Mughal
metal
Timurid
jug that passed
jade
court. The enameled decoration, however, is specific to
India. European craftsmen had introduced the
Mughal
to the
court, where itwas exploited by
technique
Mughal
Mughal artists using local motifs and themes of decoration,
on the
such as the cusped arches and cusped medallion
shoulders and body on this jar.
97
Fig.
14. Gold
jar and
cover with
The floral motifs
champlev?
enameled
on theWalters'
decoration
in green, pink, and white. Height
amulet are also remi
niscent ofMughal taste. Plants derived from European herb?is
decorative vocabulary
had become part of the Mughal
under Jahangir around 1620, and from the period of Shah
in all the arts produced for
Jahan, they became ubiquitous
at
the Mughals.48 Naturalistic
first, the flowers became
as on the enameled jar and cover as
increasingly stylized,
in the
well as many other objects made for the Mughals
late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. The flowers
incised in reserve on theWalters' amulet are further stylized
and routinized in the style typical of Persian art of previous
the six-petaled flowers in the band around
the central box and the lotus-like flowers in the band near
the edge recall the floral designs common on Mughal gold
objects and other metalwares.50 These floral motifs also
centuries.49 Both
cast of an alloy of
typical of Bidri wares, objects
zinc and inlaid with silver or brass and made in Bidar and
became
other places in the Deccan
eighteenth centuries.51
in the late seventeenth
and
The Walters' amulet, securely dated to 28 June 1748,
into courtly art and culture of the
thus provides a window
one of
eighteenth century. The period is often reckoned
98
14.3 cm. Cleveland,
inWest
Cleveland
Museum
of Art, 62.206.
poised between the
rule of great shahs, sultans, and emperors in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries and the European
imperialism
decadence
and decline
Asia,
of the early nineteenth.
Indeed, the
a
was
constant
of
warfare,
century
period
mid-eighteenth
particularly under Nadir Shah, who expelled the Russians
and colonialization
from Iran, conquered Central Asia and
and Ottomans
into India. The inscriptions on the
and marched
Oman,
amulet reflect the uncertainty of the time, inwhich appeals
were made to God, the Prophet, the fourteen immaculate
ones venerated
by Shi'ites, and the four orthodox caliphs
Sunnis.
At the same time, the mixture of
by
the disposition of
forms and designs on the amulet?from
venerated
the names
the
the four orthodox
caliphs following
to
the
oval
and
floral
shape
style
designs typical
ofMughal taste?show
enmity that was no barrier to artistic
the Afsharids were often at war with
transferal. Though
of
Ottoman
and the Mughals,
the Ottomans
their neighbors,
often appropriated their artistic tastes and styles.
they
Boston College
Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts
i : List of names
TABLE
the carnelian amulet
incised around
in theWalters
ROW 1, BOTTOM:
1 y? allah
y?
3
4
5
6
y? rahim
y? malik
7
y? mumin
O Faithful
8
y? muhaymin
y? aziz
O
9
rahman
O Compassionate
O King
O Holy
y? qudd?s
y? sal?m
O
Peace
Protector
O Mighty
ROW 1, LEFT
10 y?jabb?r
11
SIDE:
O Repairer
O Great
y? mutakabbir
12 y?kh?liq
13 y? b?rl
O Creator
14
y? musawwir
O
ROW
1,
O Maker
Fashioner
TOP:
15 y? sitt?r
16 y?ghaffar
17 y? qahh?r
18 j)/?wahh?b
O Veiler
O
Bestower
19
jy?zrazz?q
O
Provider
y?fatt?h
O Opener
O Knower
20
21
jy? k//7?2
22
23
jr?^??/?/
j/?te/f
O
Forgiver
O Dominant
O Restrainer
O
ROW 1, RIGHT
24 y? kh?fid
25 y? r?fi'
26 y? muizz
27 y? mudhill
28 y? sam?'
IIB:
ROW
2,
Spreader
SIDE:
O Abaser
O Exalter
O Honorer
O Raiser
O Witness
O Truth
O Advocate
_y?wak?l
55 y? qaw?
56 jwmat?n
57 y? wall
58 j/? hamid
59 j? muhsi
O
Strong
O Firm
O
Patron
O
Laudable
O Counter
SIDE:
ROW 2, RIGHT
O Beginner
60 y? mubd?
61 y? muid
O Restorer
62 y? muhyl
O Quickener
O Killer
63 y? mum?t
64 y? ?payy
O Living
O Subsisting
65 y? qayy?m
O Unique One,
66-67 y? wahidya majid
FIELD:
BOTTOM
68 y? ahad
O
Praiser
O One
69
y? samad
O Eternal
70
y? q?dir
O
Powerful
71
y? muqtadir
O
Prevailing
72
73
y? muqaddim
y? muakkhir
O
Bringing
O D?ferrer
74
y? awwal
O First
75
76
77
78
y? ?khir
y? z?hir
y? b?tin
y? w?ll
O
79
y? muta
Forward
Last
O Evident
O Hidden
O Governor
all
O Exalted
y? barr
y?
82
y? muntaqim
O Righteous
O Accepter
O Avenger
83
84
85
86
y? afu
y? rauf
y? m?lik al-mulk
y? dhuljal?l wdl-ikr?m
O Kind
O Ruler of theKingdom
O Lord ofMajesty and Liberality
BOTTOM:
y? bastr
O
O Ruler
36
j/? az?m
O Grand
37
jwghafur
O
38
39
j/? shak?r
jw ?z/i
40
j/? A^/r?
Seer
O Just
O
Subtle
O??
O Clement
O Wise
Forgiving
O Grateful
O Exalted
O Keeper
SIDE:
41
y? hafiz
O Guardian
42
jw muq?t
O
43
44
45
j/^?/w/#
yajal?l
j/^ kar?m
O Majestic
46
j/? r?^/?
O Watcher
j^ muj?b
O Approver
47
O Glorious
81
y? h?kim
y? 'adl
y? lauf
y? qub?d??
j/? hal?m
y? hak?m
LEFT
54
O Comprehensive
O Loving
80
30
31
32
33
34
35
2,
II)
TOP:
ROW
48 y? wasi
49 y? wad?d
50 y? majld
51 y? baith
52 y? shah?d
53 y? haqq
O Destroyer
O Hearer
29
ROW
(Inscription
O God
O Merciful
2
the center of
Strengthener
O Reckoner
O Generous
taww?b
LEFT FIELD:
87 y? rabb
88
y? muqslt
89
90
91
y?j?mi
y?ghanl
y? mughnl
92
93
y? m?ni
j/? ??zrr
O
of Repentance
Pardoner
O Lord
O Equitable
O Collector
O
Independent
O Enricher
O Withholder
O Distresser
94
y? n?fi(
O
95
jw nur
96
97
98
99
100
101
y? h?dl
y? badV
y? b?ql
y? w?rith
y?sab?r
y?s?diq
O Light
O Guide
102
muhammad
103
ahmad
O
Profiter
Incomparable
O Enduring
O
Inheritor
O
Patient
O
Sincere
[He who
More
is] worthy
of praise
praiseworthy
99
104 h?mid
105 mahm?d
106 q?sim
107 '?qib
108 f?tih
109 kh?tim
110te/z/V
111 n?j
112 ?fe?
Praising
Praised
Saviour
168
169
Following
Opener
Seal
He who
munir
Radiant
114
iz'r?/
Lamp
Bearer
117
/?Wz"
118 mahdl
azlz
h?rls
Caller
Divider
113
115 bash?r
116 nadhlr
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
gathers
of good
guides
people
[atDoomsday]
He who
tidings
rightly
172 faslh
173 Ag/y?/
Rightly-guided
174
175
120
??#?/"
Prophet
121 nadhlr
122
TOP
j/?ifw
muzammil
124
125
126
127
128
129
mudaththir
mustaf?
130
murtada
?A?//'
khalll
kallm
/fczt?
131 mujtab?
132 mukht?r
133 h??>
134
mans?r
135 /w/^?
136 shahld
137 W/7
138
Unequaled
The
letters ya and sin
178
?z//?k
139 #?/7?
140
?z?zz?t
141
munawwir
142 ^z??/?z?
Wrapped
Covered
Resplendent
Generous
Opener
Agreeable
Evident
of divine
Object
Preacher
muttaql
z'ra^ra
God-fearing
Leader
Beneficent
Pure
mutawassit
Moderate
179^z^
Previous
180
ma'tazid
Petitioner
181
awwal
First
182 ???z>
Last
Healer
183
Good friend
184 toz'rc
Hidden
Manifest
Chosen
185 mahdl
186 mubln
187 muhallil
Content
188
muharram
Elect
189
t?wzz>2
Selected
190 ???u?
191 shak?r
Abstinent
192
Near
He
to whom
[God] has
Beloved
Helper
Victorious
Preserver
Martyr
talked
-z^/jzV
Evident
Rightly guided
Resolver
Forbidden
Secure
^?zrz~&
Grateful
193 munlb
Returner
194 t?-jf?
The
ha-mlm
The
195
Knowing
Steadfast
196
/??wz~#
197
awwala
Respected
Worthier
Shining
198
muhammad
Muhammad
Illuminated
199
Ali
'*//
200 f?tima
Fatima
143
wwr
Light
201
/??#?m
Hasan
144
?zt?>z~
to al-Batha
Belonging
[the area around Mecca]
202
husayn
Husayn
203
zaynal-abidln
Believing
Obedient
204 ?w#z>
205 ^JS?r
206 k?zim
207 rz??z[spelledwith alif]
208 fcr?tf
209 ??#/
145
mumin
146
raz/fz"'
147 mudhakkir
148
?zrazirc
149 f&%
150 muqtasid
151?'?
FIELD:
RIGHT
152 makkl
153 madinl
154
'?mz??
155 /tf/?z?
He who
Adopting
Possessor
course
Arab
From
From
mudarl
From
100
a middle
Medinan
157 qurayshl
159 umml
remember
Meccan
From
158
makes
Trustworthy
Sincere
niz?rl
156
letters t?a' and sin
letters h?a' and mim
Just
Reasoner
the Hijaz
the Nizari
the Quraysh
the Mudar
Illiterate
tribe
clan
tribe
power
Eloquent
Lord
176 ?wrr
177 s?fin
FIELD:
123
??zj/yz^
<z?z/?z>
?/w?z~#
Messenger
Orphan
jawwv?d
y?taz/?
mazhar
r?z&//
Merciful
yatlm
mudl
171
119
Full of concern
Mild
rauf
rahlm
170
Warner
Dear
210
/w&z?
'askarl
211
mahdl
?khir al-zam?n
[Ali]Zayn al-Abidin
[Muhammad]
Baqir
[al-Sadiq] Ja'far
[Musa] Kazim
[Ali]Rida
[Muhammad]Taqi
[Ali]Naqi
Hasan
al-Askari
[Muhammad]
Mahdi,
the end of time
NOTES
1.My thanks
at theWalters,
toMarianna
Shreve
me
for introducing
this article about it.
to write
2. In ancient
were
times, minerals
then Curator of Islamic Art
Simpson,
me
to this amulet and encouraging
into three categories
are often
they
arranged
divided
contradictory
P. Hughes,
Dictionary
true hardstones,
(10). Most
diamond
fall
carnelian,
including
the names
15. On
(very hard,
times
and soft), but in modern
according
on the scale
to the ten
of
hardness
by Austrian min
developed
degrees
Based on the ability of one mineral
(1773-1839).
eralogist Friedrich Mohs
to scratch another, the Mohs
scale ranges from the softest talc (1) to the
hard,
hardest
include rock crystal, amethyst,
into category 7, quartzes. These
agate,
as
is
known
the
of
and
fibrous
quartz
variety
chalcedony, which
jasper,
a wide
in turn, comprises
valued for carving. Chalcedony,
particularly
one of the best known
and most
carnelian,
range of stones, including
are
and
hardstones
that
valued types of common
uniform
chalcedony,
light
in The Dictionary
in color. See "Hardstones"
Shoaf
Turner
ed.
Art,
J.
of
(New York, 1996), vol. 14, 167.
Hill,
1985),
distinction
as many
unclear,
amulet
and
in Schimmel,
16. Cited
17. Ibid.,
Young,
use
D.
authors
rare
18. One
protection
a talisman, which
of more
ismade
talismanic means
adjective
off evil or bad luck. There are many Arabic
amulets
and talismans
interchangably
4. L. Kalus,
des Cachets,
(Paris,
Islamiques
1981), 70.
5. Ibid.,
84, no.
III. 1.23.
6. For the ninety-four
Ashmolean
Museum,
Talismans
(Oxford,
information
this
and amulets
in positive
in the
inscriptions written
objects with
see L. Kalus,
and
Catalogue
of Islamic Seals
to
thanks
Venetia
Porter
for
1986). My
supplying
from her
inThe
forthcoming
British Museum.
catalogue
of
the Islamic
seals
from
Art
Production
the Early Fourteenth
(Oxford,
see E.
of nastaliq,
The look
Wright,
in the Southern Iranian City ofShiraz
to 1452, Oxford
in Islamic
Studies
evolution
Century
forthcoming).
8. See Treasures
of Islam,
ed. T. Falk
(London,
no.
1985),
177.
was also used in India, but the
9. Nastaliq
script
script there
to be done to
be more
sloping. More work needs
distinguish
and Indian calligraphy during this period.
10. The
former
is in the Nour
Vienna
(MS. a.f. I62a(76));
no. 22.
Tools & Magic,
11. Maddison
Collection
(MS
see Maddison
the
300),
and S?vage-Smith,
Science,
Tools & Magic,
edition
[henceforth
12.
of Islam, 2nd
Encyclopaedia
s.v. "Asma' al-husna."
1931?),
al-Razzaq al-Qashani,
as A
Glossary of Sufi Technical
and M.
J. L.
Muhammad,"
amulet
gold
by W. E. Staples,
published
Semitic
and
of
languages
and cited by Schimmel,
63-70
Force," Journal
1940),
100 and n. 30.
of the Muhammadan
Rose
example
see Schimmel,
Preussischer
Kulturbesitz,
Berlin,
is His
Muhammad
111,
Messenger,
see EI/2: "al-Ashara
Paradise,
promised
20. Encyclopaedia
Iranica
21. A
introduction
convenient
its culture
Power
and
front
cover.
For
in the
And
the
ten
al-Mubashshara."
is J. Bloom
(New York,
(London,
s.v. "Cahardah Ma'sum."
1985-),
to the fundamental
tenets of Islam and
and S. Blair, Islam: A Thousand
2000),
esp. Chapter
Years of Faith
and
1.
in the
amulet in the British Musum
(1866 12-29 10), formerly
inM. Reinaud, Monuments
de Blacas collection, was published
Arabes,
Persans et Turcs (Paris, 1828), vol 2. For the amulets
in the Cabinet
des
22. The
see Kalus, Cachets, Bulks et Talismans
nos. III. 1.17,
Islamiques,
see idem,
III. 1.18, and III. 1.19, and for those in the Ashmolean,
Catabgue
M?dailles,
nos.
1.16-1.22
and 2.4. The Nour
of Islamic Seals and Talismans,
owns several talismanic
see
collection
plaques
(e.g., SCI 16 and SCI 17;
nos. 55 and 56).
Maddison
and Savage-Smith,
Science, Tools & Magic,
in
Mughal
to exclude
23. Shi'ites
impossible
needs to be done
argues
to
Iranian
latter
in
Science,
Kitab
istalahat al-sufiyya,
24.
Several
sets of these
90.162
and New
Terms
(London,
1991),
nos.
provenance
Iranian
script
and
it is
used
on
the Walters'
amulet
tiles panels survive (Boston, Museum
of Fine
Museum
of Art, 15.76.3). For
York, Metropolitan
see S. Blair and J. Bloom,
these tiles and the mosque
eds., Images
lamp,
in Islamic Art
{Austin,
1991),
nos.
22 and 30a.
see D. James, Islamic
the hilya in the Chester
Beatty
library,
the
Chester
1981), no. 40. For a
(London,
Masterpieces
Beatty library
of
of the hilya, see my forthcoming
Islamic Calligraphy
general discussion
25.
For
(Edinburgh,2002).
26. The
cardboard
Centuries,
trans. N.
distinguishing
style of nastaliq
Imams,
for the piece. More work
from Indian works
of this
(CAL204-209) measure
examples in the Nour Collection
ones in the same collection
the wooden
(MXD 265A-B)
60 cm.; seeN. Safwat, TheArt of thePen: Calligraphyof the 14th to20th
106-31.
EI/2]
in
the Twelve
for an Iranian provenance.
of Paradise
tends
the
but
India also venerated
an Indian
Art,
(Leiden,
1996),
27.
13. Abd
the Prophet
an Ottoman
35 cm. in diameter;
and Savage-Smith,
a
(January-October
isHis Messenger,
Staatsbibliothek
period,
7. For the 14th-century
of the Book: Manuscript
see R. Y. Edier
Duc
et Talismans
Bulks,
110 and n. 29.
isHis Messenger,
And Muhammad
terms for
etc.), but they too are often
(tilsam, htj?b, h?mlla,
and variably.
Catalogue
ephemeral materials,
to
intended
apotropaic,
and Persian
(Chapel
an
133,
as any
to ensure
relatively small object intended
It can thus be
and well-being
and made of durable materials.
from
distinguished
such as paper. The
used
12,
in Islamic Piety
6.
is
example
A Talismanic
57
literatures,
is here defined
amulet
ward
vol.
And Muhammad
Schimmel,
Muslim World 66 (1976), 259-62.
And Muhammad
arbitrary and
Francis
Following
see A.
of the Prophet
for the Leeds manuscript,
of the Appellations
of
Ill;
"A List
s.v. "God."
n.d.),
(Lahore,
The Veneration
esp. Chapter
"Muhammad,
is often
talisman
the terms differently.
and Emilie
Science, Tools & Magic,
Savage-Smith,
of Islamic Art (London,
Khalili Collection
1997),
Maddison
Nasser
between
of Islam
of Muhammad,
isHis Messenger:
19. For
3. The
out (EI/2: "Asma al-husna"), it is difficult to translate
points
or even
as
into
they often contain complimentary
English
I have taken my translations mainly
from T.
associations.
14. As Gardet
these names
Safwat,
vol.
nos.
EI/2,
(London,
5, Nasser
D.
Khalili
Collection
of Islamic Art
(London,
82-89.
s.v.
"Djinn" and R.
203-7.
Irwin, The Arabian Nights:
A Companion
1994),
293-392.
101
on the many uses of the Solomonic
knot over the centuries,
I thank Eva
R.
ed.
Milstein
Seal,
[1995]).
(Jeruslaem,
King
a copy of this hard-to
for speedily obtaining
Baer and Rachel Milstein
28. For more
see
Solomons
find publication.
29. The
study of
to the Quran
(New York,
Interpreted
On
these
see A.
For
32.
"Technical
Gacek,
further
of
information
34. EI/2
s.v.
Mat?riaux
Part I, Egypt, vol. 2, fascicule
orientale du Caire
(Cairo,
37.
s.v.
Les
et
ed.
depakographie,
A
forth
of Technical
Glossary
38. Maddison
isHis Messenger,
Science,
47.
The Indian Heritage,
Architecture
111.
Tools & Magic,
Art,
a bracelet with
inOxford:
jasper,
the last dated
1121/1709-10;
see Kalus,
and
nos. 11.2.3(111) and II. 1.26.
Catakgue
of Islamic Seals and Talismans,
to the J. B. Elliott collection,
Both of the Ashmolean
examples belonged
in India and given to the Bodleian Library in 1859.
which was acquired
Shah and the Afsharids, see, among many works, Peter Avery's
in From Nadir
Shah to
Legacy"
chapter, "Nadir Shah and the Afsharid
vol. 7,
and C. Melville,
eds. P. Avery, G. Hambly,
the Islamic Republic,
of
Iran
35-36.
3-62,
1991),
esp.
History
(Cambridge,
Cambridge
40. For Nadir
41.
Diba
The Qajar Epoch
Royal Persian Paintings;
and M. Ekhtiar
(London and Brooklyn,
eds. L. S.
1785-1925,
137-45.
1998),
in pearls and jewels,
42. For a typical portrait of Shah Jahan bedecked
see the
him as a prince from the Minto
album
of
(London,
painting
Court Life and
in The Indian Heritage:
illustrated
V&AI.M.
14-1925);
Arts under Mughal
Ruk,
August
1982
April-22
Crown
Iran
(Toronto
Ekhtiar,
43.
102
Jewels,
see V
catalogue
and Buffalo,
eds., Royal Persian
"Gemstones,
of an exhibition
(London,
B. Meen
6. Indian"
1982),
cover
at the V&A,
held
and
no.
41.
For
21
the
Crown Jewels of
and A. D. Tushingham,
and
and 77', cited in Diba
1968), 65-67
Paintings,
140 and no.
in The
Dictionary
no. 353.
no.
S. Blair
324;
1250-1800
and J. Bloom,
(London
"ADecorative
Skelton,
P. Pal
ed.
Architecture
(Leiden,
of Islam
andTomoko
Motif
7-37;
1972),
281
1250-1800,
50. Zebrowski,
and New
The Art
Haven,
and
1994),
inMughal Art," Aspects
of Indian
Art and
Blair and Bloom,
and 299,
figs. 351
and 376.
ofArt,
10.
vol.
Gold,
12, 252-53.
(New York,
Silver and Bronze,
1993),
cover and no.
19.
figs. 30-34.
to Blair and Bloom,
Art and Architecture
of Islam
see S.
Gold, Silver and Bronze,
fig. 380, and Zebrowski,
Bidri Ware: Inlaid Metalwork
India
(London,
1985).
from
In addition
:
1-3, 7, Baltimore, Walters
figs.
after Kalus,
fig. 5, London,
Metropolitan
of the Trustees
Victoria
fig.
Tiks
Persian
Masuya,
PHOTOGRAPHS
132.
in The
two early
in the Ashmolean
Museum
examples
three stones of yellow chalcedony,
carnelian,
and another
1078/1667,
jasper oval dated
of Islam,
12, 261-64.
vol.
of Art,
300 and fig. 379;Mark Zebrowski, Gold, SilverandBronzefromMughal
India (London, 1997), 59 and fig. 29.
Stronge,
one of white
British Museum:
dated
chalcedony
carnelian
(Sloane amulet 4) and a second of pinkish-orange
There are also
1086/1675-76
collection).
(1878 12-20 9, Christy
dated
10-21).
11" in The Dictionary
The Indian Heritage,
9-10,
39. E.g., two
1077/1666-67
2000),
46.
1250-1800,
and Savage-Smith,
(see Islamic Art
the floral band with a rosette connected
49. See, for example,
by paired
at Kashan
in the
leaves that runs along the bottom
of a luster tile made
at Takht-i
New
for the Ilkhanid
1270s
York,
Sulayman;
palace
in Stefano Carboni
Museum
of Art
illustrated
12.49.4,
Metropolitan
55.
un
pour
Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum,
de l'Institut fran?ais d'Arch?ologie
1,M?moires
1929), 37, gives some other examples.
And Muhammad
in Kuwait
collection
The al-Sabah
1983],
"Gemstones,
51.
See Schimmel,
Museum:
National
45.
4."
"Mi'radj,
in the Sabah
ed. M. Jenkins
Colkction,
124), but was looted during the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait
in 1990 and is now
"Patient
and L. E. Gould,
(see J. Bloom
missing
Restoration:
The Kuwait
National
Saudi Aramco World
Museum,"
[London,
48. Robert
Gacek's
"Radjab."
35. Gaston Wiet,
36. EI/2,
and
Arabic
of Manuscripts,"
see Adam
these marks,
and Correction,"
"Copying
Practices
esp. 55.
51-60,
Tradition:
coming book, The Arabie Manuscript
Terms and Bibliography
(Leiden, in press).
33. See Gacek,
The Koran
Post-Classical
Essais de codicologie
1989),
(Istanbul/Paris,
in theKuwait
(September/October
J. Arberry,
and
by Classical
the Copying
and Correction
concerning
du Moyen-Orient:
Manuscrits
F. D?roche
are taken from A.
recorded
Scholars
Bell's
Watt,
Montgomery
1970).
1955).
marks,
Recommendations
isW.
(Edinburgh,
of the Koran
30. Translations
31.
the Koran
classic
Introduction
emerald was
44. The
Catakgue
Trustees of The
Museum
of Art;
the Chester
of
and Albert
14, Cleveland,
des Cachets,
Museum;
?
The
Bulks,
British Museum;
figs.
fig.
Cleveland
fig. 6, New
By kind
8, 13, Dublin,
Beatty
Library;
12, Kuwait,
Museum
Art Museum;
et Talismans
figs. 4,
Islamiques-,
York, ? The
permission
The
fig. 11, London,
Ex-Sahab
Collection;
of Art.