medieval ages - Qafqaz University

Transcription

Volume I, Textbook
The volume is intended as a text-book for those students who are studying the
literature of Great Britain and the United States of America and is designed to
provide basic information on the great diversity of the literature emanating from
these two countries over a long period of time.
The book presents both the historical and the literary background of the literature in
question and also an analysis of some of the period's writers' lives and works. The
essential literary experience of the period has been illustrated with the extracts from
the main works of the authors.
This first volume gives an account of the medieval period up to 1500 AD. As the
literature of the era is so closely linked to the social, historical and political issues of
the time, the contents of the book are presented in a historical context.
MEDIEVAL AGES
MEDIEVAL AGES
BRITISH LITERATURE
BRITISH LITERATURE
BRITISH LITERATURE
MEDIEVAL AGES
Volume I, Textbook
Shahin Khalilli
Ali Tatlı
Shahin Khalilli, Ali Tatlı
F. Alexander Magill
ISBN: 978-9952-468-11-3
Volume I
Textbook
Qafqaz University
Press
BAKU 2012
BRITISH LITERATURE MEDIEVAL AGES
British Literature up to 1500
Volume I
Textbook BRITISH LITERATURE
MEDIEVAL AGES
Volume I
Textbook
Shahin Khalilli
Ali Tatlı
The volume is intended as a text-book for those students who are
studying the literature of Great Britain and the United States of
America and is designed to provide basic information on the great
diversity of the literature emanating from these two countries over a
long period of time.
The book presents both the historical and the literary background of
the literature in question and also an analysis of some of the
period’s writers’ lives and works. The essential literary experience of
the period has been illustrated with the extracts from the main
works of the authors.
This first volume gives an account of the medieval period up to 1500
AD. As the literature of the era is so closely linked to the social,
historical and political issues of the time, the contents of the book
are presented in a historical context.
Editor
Dr. F. Alexander Magill
Turkey – Izmir Şifa University
The textbook has been introduced for publication under the guidance
and editing of Dr. F.Alexander Magill (Izmir Şifa University)
Editor: Dr. F. Alexander Magill
This textbook was compiled as a result of
a mutual project between Qafqaz University
and the Azerbaijan University of Languages
and printed by the decision of the Minister of
Education of the Azerbaijan Republic dated
October 24th, 2011 (Order No. 1703)
Reviewers:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nurana Nuriyeva
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nasir Khankishiyev
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nigar Isgandarova
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Narmina Aliyeva
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shafag Dadashova
(Azerbaijan University of Languages)
(Azerbaijan University of Languages)
(Sumgait State University)
(Qafqaz University)
(Baku Slavic University)
Design: Sahib Kazimov
Qafqaz University Press
Baku, 2012
Copyright @ Qafqaz University, Baku, 2012
Copyright @ Shahin Khalilli, Ali Tatlı, Baku, 2012
ISBN: 978-9952-468-11-3
Qafqaz University Press
Baku - 2012
“At the present time (in the 8th century AD.), there are five
languages in Britain, just as the divine law is written in five
books, all the devoted to seeking out and setting forth one
and the same kind of wisdom, namely the knowledge of
sublime truth and of time sublimity.
These are the English, British, Irish, Pictish, as well as the
Latin languages; though the study of the scriptures, Latin is in
general use among them all.”
The Venerable Bede,
“Ecclesiastical History of the English People” (731)
***
“Britain is inhabited by five races of people, the Norman-French, the
Britons, the Saxons, the Picts and the Scots. Of these the Britons
once occupied the land from sea to sea, before the others came.
Then the vengeance of God overtook them because of their
arrogance and they submitted to the Picts and the Saxons.”
Geoffrey of Monmouth,
“The History of the Kings of Britain” (1135)
***
“...we have inherited from the Celtic side that poetic vision which
has made English Literature the most brilliant since the Greek?”
Matthew Arnold,
“The Study of Celtic Literature” (1867)
Şekspirə ithaf
Sənin dilin incəlikdə
Sevənlərin lal eşqidir,
İstəyidir.
Sənin dilin şirinlikdə
Elə bildim arı şanı,
Pətəyidir.
Sənin dilin könüllərdə
Bardaş quran əsrin neyi,
Tütəyidir.
Dedication to Shakespeare
Your tongue in tenderness
Is calm love of lovers
I believe.
Your tongue in the sweetness
I thought is honeycomb
Or beehive.
Your tongue in the souls
Is sounding as the fife
Of the life.
Shahin Khalilli
The 25th British Council Cambridge Seminar on the
Contemporary British Writer (1999)
Contents
PREFACE
1
PART ONE
6
Unit I. VISIONS OF BRITISH CULTURE AND LITERATURE
6
1.1. BEAKER CULTURE
6
1.2. CELTIC HISTORY AND LITERATURE
10
1.3. THE CLASSIC IMAGE OF THE CELTS
16
1.4. THE GIANTS OF THE ISLAND OF ALBION
22
1.5. BRUTUS CONQUERS BRITAIN* Error! Bookmark not defined.
Unit II. IRISH GAELIC LITERATUREError!
defined.
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not
2.1. OLD IRISH POETRY
Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.2. OLD IRISH PROSE
2.3. THE COMBAT
2.4. THE TRAGICAL DEATH OF THE SONS OF UISNECH
Error!
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2.5. THE FENIAN CYCLE
2.6. OSSIAN AND THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENTError! Bookmark not
defined.
2.7. THE CYCLE OF THE KINGS
2.8. THE MYTHOLOGICAL CYCLE
2.9. THE IMMRAMA
2.10. BARDIC POETRY
2.11. LOVE POEMS
2.12. CUCHULAINN’S SON
Unit III. WELSH LITERATURE
3.1. THE MABINOGION
3.2. THE FOUR BRANCHES OF THE MABINOGIError! Bookmark not
defined.
3.3. TALIESIN*
3.4. GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH
3.5. THE STORY OF ARTHUR
3.6. KING ARTHUR OF SARMATIAN ORIGINError! Bookmark not
defined.
v
3.7. SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHTError! Bookmark not
defined.
3.8. OF PERCEVAL AT COURT
3.8. KING LEAR*
Unit IV. SCOTTISH GAELIC LITERATUREError! Bookmark not
defined.
4.1. THE ORIGINS OF THE SCOTTISH NATION*Error! Bookmark not
defined.
4.2. A BRIEF OUTLINE ON SCOTS BACKGROUND
AND ARMENIAN FALSIFICATION Error! Bookmark not defined.
PART TWO
Unit V. OLD ENGLISH LITERATUREError!
defined.
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not
5.1. ANCIENT ENGLAND AND THE ROMANSError! Bookmark not
defined.
5.2. BEOWULF
5.3. READING EXTRACTS IN PROSE Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.4. CYNEWULF
5.5. HENGIST AND HORSA
5.6. CAEDMON THE FIRST POET OF ENGLANDError! Bookmark not
defined.
5.7. THE VENERABLE BEDE
Unit VI. THE SEAFARER
6.1. ALFRED THE GREAT – THE KING, TRANSLATOR
AND THE FIRST PROSE WRITER Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.2. ADVENTURES OF KING ALFRED Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.3. RICHARD COEUR DE LION
6.4. ROBIN HOOD
6.5. ROBIN HOOD BALLADS
Bookmark
not
6.6. WILLIAM LANGLAND (or Langley) Error!
defined.
6.7. PIERS PLOWMAN SONG
Unit VII. MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATUREError! Bookmark not
defined.
vi
British Literature Medieval Ages
7.1. GEOFFREY CHAUCER
7.2. THE GENERAL PROLOGUE
7.3. SUMMARIES OF “THE CANTERBURY TALES’Error!
Bookmark
not defined.
Bookmark
not
7.4. THE 15th CENTURY ENGLISH POETSError!
defined.
7.5. WILLIAM CAXTON
7.6. MEDIEVAL DRAMA
APPENDIXES
KUXULİNİN FERDİADLA DÖYÜŞÜError!
defined.
Bookmark
not
ƏLFRİK VƏ ONUN “YENİ İLİN BAYRAM
EDİLMƏSİ” HEKAYƏTİ
REFERENCES
Page - vii
Table of Figures
Figure 1. A bell beaker
Figure 2. Areas of Beaker Culture
Figure 3. Magian
Figure 4. A Celtic chieftan
Figure 5. A Celtic burial
Figure 6. A Celtic warrior committing suicide
Figure 7. Modern Druids performing a rite
Figure 8. Geoffrey of Monmouth
Figure 9. Daughters of Albion William Blake
Figure 10. Gog and Magog
Figure 11. Brutus of Troy
Figure 12. Aran islands Ireland
Figure 13. Cuchulainn mourning for Ferdiad
Figure 14. Finn Maccumhaill
Figure 15. Seeking the far country
Figure 16. A bard
Figure 17. Loch Gur
Figure 18. The magic cauldron
Figure 19. Arthur and Excalibur
Figure 20. A view of Medieval England
Figure 21. A Medieval Swordsman
Figure 22. The Lady of the lake
Figure 23. King Lear
Figure 24. Regan and Goneril with King Lear
Figure 25. The tuatha de danann
Figure 26. King Robert the Bruce
Figure 27. A Scottish highlander
Figure 28. An extant manuscript
Figure 29. A Frank’s casket
Figure 30. A Scribe Working on a Parchment
Figure 31. Beowulf
viii
7
8
9
13
14
17
18
22
24
30
50
54
61
65
74
75
79
95
135
178
178
182
192
194
202
203
210
216
218
219
239
Figure 32. The Venerable Bede
Figure 33. Arthur and the burnt cakes
Figure 34. Robin Hood and the Bishop
Figure 35. Piers Plowman
Figure 36. Normans Landing in England
Figure 37. The knight and the woman at court
Figure 38. Caxton’s print shop
Page - ix
283
305
319
346
352
349
396
PREFACE
What to expect ...
The first volume of the textbook covers the literary history
of Britain from the Old to Early Modern English period. This
volume includes some literary texts dating back about 1000
years from the Classical period up to the Renaissance.
We hope that the students who use this book will be
encouraged to explore and further research the cultural,
historic and literary topics concerning the Medieval Period
mentioned on these pages.
Focus
The initial oral transmission of tales and poetry was later
linked to the creation of manuscripts and the production of
these manuscripts preserves a record the British literary past.
***
Readers, especially students of English language and
literature departments are surely very interested in the
historical background of the English and their language. While
this book may not be counted as a research paper, it gives a
deep view of past of English history and its effect on the
creation and foundation of English culture and literature.
For the first use of the name “English” one must go back to
the work of the Latin historians and the handwritten work of
the writers of the 7th century AD.
The king of Kent, Ethelbert, was given the name “King of
the Angles” 1 . In the Alfredian translation of the Venerable
Bede’s book 2 scholars found the phrase “on Engla lande” 3
referred to “in the country of the Angles”. But one should not
forget that in Bede’s time the word “Anglia” was not used for
the name of the country, then it was called Britania or
Britannia4, which today is known as Britain in a larger sense.
The name “Britain” can be traced back to around 325 BC
through the records of the travels of the Greek geographer
Pytheas. In the 1st century BC, the Romans called the islands to
the west of Europe “Britannia”. The argument that Britain got
its name from Brutus of Troy as its historical founder was
accepted until the Renaissance. Many Anglo-Normans
chronicles of British history are known, as “Bruts” because
they begin with the story of Brutus as founder of Britain.
The English scholar David Crystal notes, “in a treaty made
between Alfred and the Dane Cuthrum (c.880) we see English
opposed to Danish, and the “English” referred to plainly to the
non–Danish population, not just the Angles. Around the same
time, English is used for the name of the language. The
translation of Bede at one point5 (Book III, chapter 19) talks
about a monastery “named on Englisc (called in English)”.6
The phrase “Engla lande” (England) referring to the country
was used by the writers of the 11th century Chronicle. One can
find various spelling of the name of the country as Englene
londe, Engelond, and Ingland. However, the modern spelling
of England appeared in the 14th century.
The Romans occupied and ruled Britain (the territory we
call England) until the early 5th century when Rome was taken
by the Goths. When the military garrisons7 were withdrawn
from England and the Romans returned to Rome, attacks on
the Britons by the Picts and Scots followed. The Britons
3
4
5
6
1
2
In Latin Anglorum
Bede Venerable, Book lV, chapter 26
1
7
In Latin in regione Anglorum
In Latin Anglorium
Bede Venerable Book lll, chapter 19
Crystal David ‘The stories of English’. Allen Lane. An imprint Penguin
Books, 2004, p.27
Garrison is a military post; especially: a permanent military installation
2
appealed to Rome for help, but the Romans were too
preoccupied with their own affairs and could do nothing to aid
the Britons.
Due to the continued attacks on “Britain” from the north,
the Britons were obliged to call on the help of the nation of the
Angles, or Saxons. After an invitation from King Vortigern in
Britain the tribes of the Angles and Saxons arrived in Britain
with their three long ships8
David Crystal’s critical approach is that “the fifth nation,
led by the brother of the commanders Hengist and Horsa,
arrived” in AD 449. After the arrival and the victories of the
Germanic tribes, 9 the native British were pushed back into
Wales and Cornwall although the majority of Britons stayed in
their areas under subjection, and by degrees adopted the
culture and the language of the invader. The language of the
native Britons was a Celtic language while that of the invaders
was a Germanic language.
That corpus of work called British literature has grown in
parallel with the prestige of English as a world or international
language. Large numbers of books about that literature have
been written and published in many parts of the world,
especially in Great Britain and the USA.
Thus, the questions may be asked “is there a need for the
publication of another book on British literature in the
Republic of Azerbaijan where the English language and its
literature is taught at Universities”.
Concerning the writing and publication of this book, the
compilers aimed to fulfil a number of targets that would help
students to study British literature and who found it difficult to
obtain suitable academic and study books on the subject.
This book gives detailed explanatory texts on the origin of
the English as a nation and its literature along with rich and
interesting references on the subject matter.
8
9
Bede Chapter 14 and 15
Saxons, Angles, and Jutes
3
Much information is given on the Germanic tribes or
peoples known as the Angles, Saxons, and the Jutes who
invaded the island of Britain in 449 AD brought and spread
their languages which would form the basic building blocks of
the language which we now know and use as modern English.
The term “British literature” encompasses many “literatures”.
Included in “British literature” are works produced by writers
who are not English but have written their works in English.
There are works from American, Indian, African, Caribbean
and other writers who have produced works in English
although the cultural context of their works is not related to
the English culture or tradition. Perhaps as part of “English
literature” we can also include those works which have been
translated from another languages into English as many of
these works have been studied academically in their
translated form as English literature.
The British literature in this first volume refers to the works
in English, Latin or Gaelic written by the writers and poets
who were English, Scottish, Irish or Welsh. Medieval works in
Latin or Gaelic are of course not “English” literature in terms
of language but their influence on early English literature and
culture is huge.
Scholars usually divide the so-called Medieval British or
English literature into two periods: the Old English Period
(from 700 to 1066) and the Middle English Period (from 1066
to about 1500). Accordingly, this textbook as the first volume
of the proposed series presents a sample of British Literature
of the two periods mentioned.
We are very grateful to the editor Dr. F. Alexander Magill,
the reviewers and the students who advised the compilers on
the contents of the book. In preparing this edition of the
textbook, we have had the support, care, and assistance of
many people. The book has been shaped by suggestions and
comments from many scholars and sources.
4
This book is primarily intended for students studying the
literature of the Medieval period.
We would welcome any suggestions and notes that may
improve the book in any future reprinting.
Shahin Khalilli
Ali Tatli
Qafqaz University
Baku 2012
PART ONE
UNIT I
VISIONS OF BRITISH CULTURE
AND LITERATURE
What to expect ...
Topics for discussion and questions
1. Scholars of literature traditionally divide the Medieval
period into two parts: the Old period, from about 700 to
1066 (the date of the Norman Conquest), and the middle
period, from 1066 up to 1500. The given divisions mostly
cover the different state of the English language and
Literature. The period concerning not just English, but in a
broad sense British culture and literature goes back BC
times.
2. The Celts, who first migrated to Britain about 400 BC,
brought their culture and literature with them. The literatures
written in Celtic languages, like Irish, Scottish and Welsh
have long been dominant in the British Isles.
What are distinguishing features between English literature
and British literature?
The answer to the question “who were the first inhabitants
of modern England” is discussed and the idea of the early
history of Britain is introduced.
Focus
The Sixth Edition, the 11th impression of the Oxford
Advanced Learners Dictionary defines the word (Beaker) as
the following: a plastic or paper cup often without a handle or
the amount contain in a beaker. Until recently, the Beakers or
Bell-Beaker people culture was relatively unknown in England.
There is persuasive evidence from a number of reliable sources
that suggests the Beaker people predate the Celts by about
2000 years. The Beaker people lived somewhere in Europe but
the place of origin is still in doubt. Recent studies reveal that
they travelled to the areas of modern England from Germany
or Spain in search for metals while some historians claim that
they were of Sicilian or Early Turkic tribes. Bell Beaker culture
is a cluster of cultures who shared the same type of pottery but
with different origins.
1.1. BEAKER CULTURE
Most scholars claim that the first inhabitants of Britain
were the Celts. The inhabitants of the British Islands up to the
Roman invasion were generally described as “Celts”. Mostly it
is said that there were two major races: the Celts and the
5
6
Britons. The two races have inhabited the British Islands from
ancient times.
The Latin writers, Tacitus described that the “Caledonians”
of the North differed from the Southern Britons in being larger,
limbed and redder-haired, and Strabo described the tribes in
the interior of Britain as taller than the Gaulish colonists on the
coast, with hair less yellow and limbs more loosely knit.
Professor Rhys found them as two distinct peoples.
Some scholars also note that the Celts were separated into
two major branches that came into the British Islands at
different times. The earliest of them were the Goidels, or Gaels,
the second were the Brytons, or Britons.
The Roman historians who wrote about the migrations
from north of the Alps to the Po Valley called them “Galli”.
However, in Greek sources they were called “Galatae”. Most
history writers of the 1st century BC note that these names
were interchangeable with the Greek “Keltoi” and Latin
“Celtae”. Julius Caesar writing of the inhabitants of central
Gaul, specifically said: “We call them Gauls, though in their
own language they are called Celts”.
What about the Beaker people who precede the Celts by
about 2000 years? A late Neolithic, early Bronze Age people
who lived about 4500 years ago in the mild temperature areas
of Europe were named Beakers. The
Beaker people are so called because
of their manufacture and use of
distinctive bell-shaped beakers, decorated in horizontal zones by finely
toothed stamps. Their culture probably
is called the Bell-Beaker culture. The
Beakers were primarily bowmen like
the Turks and were armed with a
dagger or spearhead of copper, and a
rectangular wrist guard. Probably,
Figure 1. A bell beaker
originally from Spain the Beaker people
spread into central and western areas of Europe in the search
of food and metals.
The beginning of the Bronze Age dates back to around
2000 BC and it is said that bronze was first brought into Britain
by the Beaker people. At that time, Britain had rich deposits of
copper and tin, the two metals that are used to make bronze.
The so-called Bell Beaker people mixed with any new culture
and especially the Neolithic farmers they found in Britain. Bell
Beakers have been found in megalithic tombs with the henge
temples of the Neolithics.
The Bell Beakers improved the existing temple at
Stonehenge and at Avebury they made another great henge
monument nearby at Silbury Hill. Silbury Hill is the biggest
man made mound in prehistoric Britain. Some claim that it
was constructed by the Beaker people.
A number of rich grave goods in underground barrows
have been found in southern Britain. The finds include
skilfully made stone battle-axes, metal daggers, and precious
ornaments of gold and amber. These are the rarest prehistoric
objects to be found in Britain thus far. Some of the buried
grave finds are so similar to those of Mycenae that it gives proof
the existence of trade between Britain (Wessex) and Greece.
The Beaker people’s culture was edstablished and widely
distributed over Europe
during the early Bronze
Age. The people had
skill in metalworking
and they are associated
with hard baked drinking
bowls, or cups of various
designs. A special type
of beaker with a bell
shaped
profile
was
widely
spread
over
Europe.
Figure 2. Areas of Beaker Culture
7
8
The bell-beaker culture (sometimes
shortened to beaker culture, beaker people,
or beaker folk; German: glockenbecherkultur),
ca. 2400 – 1900 BC, is the term for a widely
scattered cultural phenomenon of prehistoric
Western Europe starting in the late Neolithic
or Chalcolithic running into the early bronze
age. The term was coined by the Scottish
archaeologist John Abercromby, based on
their distinctive pottery drinking vessels.
While preparing the brief essay on the
Beakers it reminds us a story of the Magian
people of the ancient times in Azerbaijan. It is
true that Mag, or Mug mostly resembles the
Figure 3. Magian
area, and at the same time it gives the meaning
magic as well. It is also a historical fact that the English word
“mug” is associated with the Mag tribes who were wine
makers. Up to the 7th century when travellers or tradesmen
from Britain were in Azerbaijan, they purchased much wine.
When they drank it from the cups whoever asked them where
they bought it. They replied that they bought it from Mags. So
the wine cup was transformed into the word “mug”. Now we
can say that the prehistoric countries and their people
received the distinctive parallels in naming.
1.2. CELTIC HISTORY AND LITERATURE
What to expect ...
The French archaeologist Salomon Reinach characterized
the Celts in his book “Les Celtomanes” as, “The Celts are the
oldest people in the world; their language is preserved practically intact in Bas-Breton; they were profound philosophers
whose inspired doctrines have been handed down by the
Welsh Bardic Schools; dolmens are their altars, where their
priests the Druids offered human sacrifice; stone alignments
were their astronomical observatories”.
One should not think that the Celts only lived in Britain.
Classical sources provides us with a number of national heroes
from different parts of Europe, like Boudicca in Britain,
Vercingetorix in France, Ambiorix in Belgium, Viriathus in
Iberia – each of them could be used as a symbol of national
identity. A statue of Boudicca was erected on the Thames
Embankment in London in 1902.
It is a historical fact that women did not appear in positions
of political power in Gaul at the time of Caesar’s invasion. But
in Britain Boudicca became the first queen. Her harsh voice,
and red hair falling to her knees, resplendent in gold tore and
bright cloak, remains in manuscripts as a lasting image of Celtic
female power like Tomiris from Hun tribes in Turkic world.
It is said that the warrior aristocracy of the Celts, like other
warrior aristocracies throughout the pre-modern world
created and transmitted a rich oral history in epics.
But just in Ireland, where Celtic culture survived untouched
by the heavy hand of Romanization, later on they were written
and transmitted to the world.
Focus
From the 16th century onwards, information about the Celts
was more readily available in the printed form. Caesar’s “Gallic
9
10
***
The English language stems from a branch from the
ancient Teutonic German. That Teutonic language was spoken
by the inhabitants of Central Europe and introduced by the
Anglo-Saxons into England in the mid 5th century AD. The
language gradually spread as the Anglo-Saxons gained control
of England. The use of the Celtic language, which had been
the language of the island, shrank as the natives were pushed
into Wales, Cornwall and other remote parts of the island.
Anglo-Saxon literature flourished during the five centuries up
to the Norman invasion. Many historical chronicles, theological
treatises, religious, political and narrative poetry had been
written both in Latin and in vernacular languages, but Latin
was predominant.
One of the earliest luminaries to appear in the chronology
of writers of the Anglo-Saxon period is Gildas a British cleric
(c.500 - c.570). He is generally described, as a missionary of
British parentage, living in the first half of the 6th century. He is
the author of a Latin tract devoted to early British history.
So Gildas was the first British historian. He was born in
Strathclyde Scotland, but was obliged to flee from his home
due to the strife of the times. He went to live in Wales, where
he married. After his wife died, he became a monk. His history
written in Latin “De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae” (“On
the Ruin and Conquest of Britain”) was probably written
between 516 and 547 AD and it is the only known history of
Celts.
In his work, Gildas did not mention the legendary King
Arthur, a war leader, who apparently fought no less than 12
battles, including Mount Badon (Mons Badonicus), against the
Saxons. But he did mention a heroic leader named Ambrosius
Aurelianus, whom some modern writers have identified, as
the original legendary King Arthur.
Geoffrey of Monmouth noted Gildas’s “excellent Book” at
the beginning of his handwritten “Historia Regum Britanniae”
(“The History of the Kings of Britain”).
The Welshman Nennius (c. 770 - c. 810) wrote the “Historia
Britonnum” (“History of Britain”), a collection of materials on
the history and geography of Britain in Latin. It gives an
account of the historical Arthur and is one source from which
Geoffrey of Monmouth drew for his “Historia Regum
Britanniae”. It should be noted that the collection of historical
notes by Nennius is a mixture of legend and history; it
characterizes the pride of the Celtic people of Britain and
gives topographical details of the land.
Scholars of history and literature consider that the Celts
were separated into two main branches and appeared in
history at different times. The earliest group were the Goidels,
or Gaels; the second group were the Brythons, or Britons.
Between the two branches there was not only dialectical, but
also a considerable physical differences. The first of the two
groups were short, swarthy, dark-haired, dark-eyed and long
skulled, the second group were tall, fair, light-haired, blue or
grey eyed, broad headed people.
The question of which of the two groups settled on the
island first is given by Charles Squire’s, who claims that the
earliest to settle were the Goidels or Gaels, the second were
the Brythons or Britons.
It is supposed that the original home of the Celts was
probably somewhere in Central Europe, along the course of
the upper Danube, or in the region of the Alps. The Celts
belonged in speech to the “Aryan” language family, their
11
12
War” was published in Venice in 1511. In Britain at the end of
the 16th century, William Camden (1551-1623) attempted to
explain the early origins of Britain in his book “Britannia”, first
printed in 1586.
The Celts created a unique art and culture, which spread
throughout Europe. Echoes of parts of that Celtic culture have
experienced a recent revival in music and film.
language finding its affinities in Latin, Greek, Teutonic, Slavic,
the Zend of Ancient Persia and the Sanskrit of Ancient India.
Much is written about the
Roman invasion of Britain. Much
less is written about the Celt’s
devastating blow or attack on
Rome’s power and authority in
400-180 BC. The first stage of the
Celts Southern thrust brought them
to the Etruscan town of Clusium in
391 BC, when they demanded land
on which to settle. Roman ambassadors were sent to act on behalf
of the city, but negotiations broke
down and in the ensuing battle of
Figure 4. A Celtic chieftan
ambassadors, in breach of accepted
custom, the Roman ambassadors joined in the melee and a
Celtic warlord was killed. The Celts made a demand for
compensation, but it was ignored by the Roman authorities,
thus hastening the next stage of the Celtic advance, the march
on Rome.
In July 390 BC, the Roman army was destroyed and the
city except the defended Capitol fell. Eventually a compromise
was reached between the Celts and the Romans and the Celts
departed with 1000 pounds weight of gold given by the
thankful Roman authorities. The raids, which were more
ambitious and deeper thrusting than others, brought the Celts
into contact with Roman forces. When the Celts threatened to
besiege Rome, the Romans were, “terrified by the fine order
of the Celtic host and the dreadful din they made for there
were innumerable trumpeters and horn-blowers and… the
whole army were shouting their war cries at the same time,
Very frightening too were the appearance and gestures of the
naked warriors in front, all in the prime of life and finely built
men, and the leading companies richly adorned with gold
torques and armlets”.
It is noted that the Romans, impressed by the sight of the
gold the Celts wore, took courage and battle commenced.
Eventually the Romans prevailed, and the Celtic force was
destroyed. Polybius records that the Celtic force comprised
50000 infantry and 20000 horses and chariots. Of these about
40000 were slain and 10000 were taken prisoner. It was a
great victory for the Romans; thereafter-Celtic attacks from the
north were much reduced.
The thrust of the Celts into Greece and their subsequent
retreat probably took place during 279 BC. It seems to have
been no more than a raid designed to obtain treasure. One of
the historical distinguishing features of the Celt attack on
Delphi is that the Celts had moved against literate people,
who could record events and present them according to their
own concepts of history. Thus, through the written works of
Greek historians the historic facts of the event survives as one
of the great stories of brutality and heroism.
What is particularly interesting is that half their total
number of 20000 Celts was non-combatants who included
women, children and the elderly. This suggests that, unlike
the warriors, who chose to follow Brennus10 on his raid, those
other groups of people were a migrant population in search of
new land to settle.
The Celts moved on
to a barren highland.
During
the
raid
Cappadocia was first to
suffer. Then gradually
Celtic
communities
known universally, as
the Galatians absorbed
the ways of Greece and
Rome and of their Asiatic
Figure 5. A Celtic burial
neighbours.
13
14
10
Brennus or Brennins, a mystical British king who conquered Rome
From the descriptions given by Greek and Roman writers,
we get more knowledge and a better understanding of the
Celts and Asia Minor. The historians of the Graeco-Roman
world had many opportunities to observe and write about the
Celtic warriors. Pansanius 11 , writing of the Celtic attack on
Greece in the 3rd century BC used of the same structure and
balance as Herodotus did when he wrote of the Persian wars
two centuries earlier. Thus, the equating of the Celts with
Persians as the two enemies of the civilized world was found
in a fragment of poetry preserved on papyrus of the 3rd century.
The Celts occupied a large swath of the Western Europe
from Iberia to the upper Danube. Ephorus (c. 405 - c. 330)
regarded the Celts, as one of the four great barbarian peoples
of the world along with Scythians, Persians and Libyans.
Plato (429 - 347) in his “Laws” described the Celts, as
warlike and hard-drinking tribes. Aristotle (384 - 322) claimed
that the Celts were a hardy northern people: they exposed
their children to their harsh climate with little clothing to
toughen them, and excessive obesity among men was
punished. They took little notice of their women and rather
preferred male company, and they had strict rules of hospitality
and, especially, to strangers.
In parallel with the scientific discoveries of men like
Pytheas and the philosophical considerations of Aristotle,
Greek mythology expanded to take account of Celts.
According to Timaeus, the Celts descended either from
the union of Polyphemus and Galatea or from the giant Keltos.
Another version presents the Galatians, as the descendants of
Galatos, the son of Cyclops and Galatea. A different tradition
assigns the fatherhood of Galatos or Kelto to Heracles, who
during his wanderings in the west, was seduced by Keltine
the beautiful daughter of King Bretannos when her refusal to
retrieve the cattle of Geryon, he felt impelled to sleep with her.
11
A Greek historian death circa 180 AD
15
Strabo’s famous description on the Celtic emissaries from
the Adriatic region, who visited the court of Alexander the
Great in 335 BC to negotiate a treaty of “friendship and
hospitality”, is very interesting and worth noting as it gives a
clear indication of the image of the Celtic mentality of the
time. “... The king received them kindly and asked them when
drinking, what it was that they most feared. Thinking that they
would say Alexander, but they replied they feared nothing
except that the sky might fall on them, although indeed, they
added, they put above everything else the friendship of such a
man as he”.
While discussing British literature it is better to gain some
knowledge of the “ancient Britons”. Much information concerning the ancient inhabitants of Britain was presented by
Julius Caesar in his “De Bello Gallico” (“The Gallic War”):
“The inhabitants of our islands (Britain) previous to the
Roman invasion are generally described, as “Celts”. But they
must have been largely a mixed race; and the people with
whom they mingled must have modified to some and perhaps
to a large extent, their physique, their customs and their
language”.
1.3. THE CLASSIC IMAGE OF THE CELTS
Here is the classic Celtic image, which is presented in
Strabo’s description: “The whole race… is mainly fond of war,
high spirited and quick to battle, but otherwise straightforward
and not of evil character.”
And when they aroused, Strabo pointed out: “… they are
ready to face danger even if they have nothing on their side
but their own strength and courage… their strength depends
on their mighty bodies, and on their numbers… to the
frankness and high–spiritedness of their temperament must
be added to the traits of childish boastfulness and love of
16
decoration. They wear ornaments
of gold torques on their necks,
and bracelets on their arms and
wrists, while people of high rank
wear dyed garments besprinkled
with gold. It is the vanity, which
makes them unbearable and so
completely downcast in defeat”.
There is a marble copy of an
original statue in of a Celtic
warrior in the Museo Nazionale
delle Terme in Rome. The statue
depicts the Celtic warrior, in
defeat, committing suicide next
to the body of his dead wife.
Julius Caesar observed a
variety
of Celtic tribes during his
Figure 6. A Celtic warrior
committing suicide
eight-years of campaigning in
Gaul. His descriptions of Celtic society in Gaul and narrative
picture of Britain and the Britons present a general account of
military and political matters. From Julius Caesar we get a
sketch of the ethnic structure of Gaul: “Gaul, as a whole,
consists of three separate parts: one is inhabited by the Belgae,
another by the Aquitani and the third by the people we call
Gauls, though in their own language they are called Celts.”
Julius Caesar, in his book, gave his observations about the
Druids (druides, druidae in Latin; druad in old Irish; dryw
(singular) in Welsh, which probably means “knowledge of the
oak” or less likely, “deep knowledge”). It is thought that the
doctrine of the Druids was formulated in Britain and was then
taken to Gaul. Those who wish to study Druidic doctrine in
detail usually go to Britain.
The Druids belonged to the social elite and they had
control over sacrifices. In Gaul, one man was elected as
supreme and he held the position for life. Human sacrifice was
practiced by the Celts and Gauls, burning victims alive is
mentioned by Julius Caesar. “They used to shoot down men
with arrows, impale them in the temples or, make a burnt
offering of large statue of straw and wood which may contain
cattle, wild animals and human beings”.
From “A Child’s
History of England”,
Charles Dickens wrote:
“The Britons had a
strange religion, called
the religion of the
Druids. It seems to
have been brought
over, in early times,
from the opposite
Figure 7. Modern Druids performing a rite
country of France and
to have mixed up the worship of the Serpent and of the Sun
and Moon with the worship of some of the heathen gods and
goddesses. Its ceremonies were kept secret by the priests (the
Druids), who pretended to be enchanters. Their ceremonies
included the sacrifice of human victims, the torture of
suspected criminals, and on occasions the burning alive, in
immense wicker-cages, of a number of men and animals
together. The Druid priests had great veneration for the oak.
They met in dark woods, called sacred groves, and there they
instructed in their mysterious arts young men, who came to
them as pupils.”
The warrior aristocracy of the Celts created a rich oral
history in cycles of epic narrative. These epics were told to an
audience who were keen to hear about the deeds of their
ancestors. The survival of such epics is a matter of chance.
17
18
However, it is very interesting to note that when quoting of
the same source, several classical writers and Strabo used the
past tense, which might indicate that human sacrifice had
died out in Gaul by the 1st century BC.
The most extensive of the vernacular Celtic sources in the
Ulster Cycle, comprising about 80 individual stories. “Tain Bo
Cualinge”12 is the most complete and the longest story among
the mentioned number. The entire corpus is contained in ten
separate manuscripts, of overlapping content.
Stories about the great figures of history and of humanity
have often developed into myths and legends. Those writers
who first created the stories have become legendary figures.
Richard Barber writes in the introduction of his book, “Our
stories belong to an older world, first created by poets, who
have become legendary figures themselves: “Taliesin in Welsh,
Widsith in Anglo-Saxon. Widsith claimed to have sung before
the great kings of past and present-Ermanaric lord of the
Goths in fourth–century Italy; Attila, leader of the Huns…”
One very interesting description one can find in the Irish
literature about the holiday of Halloween. In times before
Christ, the end of the old year and the beginning of the new
was marked by the greatest of the ceremonies, the Samain,
which took place on November 1st. The Samain was a liminal13
time between the two years and as such was dangerous ... the
spirits of the dead could roam free. It was on that occasion
that the male god Dagda and a female goddess, usually
Morrigan came together and through their meeting, the wellbeing of the tribe and the fertility of their enterprises were
assured. In some versions of the myth the goddess, now an
old hag, was revitalized by the union and became young and
beautiful once more. Samain was the time, when every
important communal acts, meetings and sacrifices took place.
The strength of tradition, which lay behind that festival, has
ensured its survival as Halloween in its Christianized form as
the festival of all Souls.
12
13
Cuchulainn14 is one of the principal heroes of the Ulster
Cycle of Irish mythology and literary heritage. He was the
nephew or ward of Conchubar, king of Ulster. Cuchulainn is
supposed to have lived in the 1st century AD.
Cuchulainn’s major deed was the defence of Ulster.
Single-handed against Medh (pronounced Maeve) Queen of
Connaught, who attacked Ulster in order to carry off the Brown
Bull of Cuailgne (pronounced Cooley). Cuchulainn was killed
at the age of 27 by Lugaid, son of king of Ulster and the
daughters of Calatin the wizard in vengeance for their fathers,
whom Cuchulainn had slain.
By the end of 1st century AD, most land in Britain was
under Roman occupation. However, in the north and west of
Scotland and in Ireland, the Celts continued to live without
interference from the Romans.
Why did the Romans invade Britain? The probable answer
is that they wanted to take advantage of Britain’s natural
resources and its wealth in agriculture. The Romans remained
in Britain for about 400 years. Barry Cunliffe15 disagrees with
the point of view that Celtic society became heavily romanized
through the adoption of Roman culture. He is of the opinion
that “….in Ireland, where Celtic culture survived untouched
by the heavy hand of Romanization, a selection of this narrative
tradition was committed to writing and in this form has been
for ages ….”. The material of the culture of the Ulster Cycle is
essentially a Window through which we can view the Dark Ages.
The Celtic belief system was untouched. The discovery of
a number of inscribed lead “curses” at the spring art Bath
proves that Celtic personal names remained much in evidence
into the 3rd and 4th centuries AD.
It is an accepted view that the Celtic language remained
dominant throughout centuries and the Celtic survival is the
14
Cattle Raid of Cooley
A transition period
15
19
Pronounced Cuhoolin
‘The ancient Celts’, 1987
20
dominant proof of the Celtic nobility and strength in the southwest peninsula, Wales, Scotland and Ireland, where they kept
the visions and realities of their culture well.
The Romans had not brought Ireland within the empire
and consequently the native culture had not been
overwhelmed by Latin and at that time with Christianity. Later
however, England was to benefit from the knowledge of
classical literature and the art of writing which came from
Ireland.
1. How would you characterize the name of Britain? Did the
name Britain originate from “Brutus of Troy”?
2. Who were the first inhabitants of Britain – the Beakers or
the Celts? How would you state your point of view about
the Dark Ages in Britain?
3. Write an essay on the classic image of the Celts.
1.4. THE GIANTS OF THE ISLAND OF ALBION
What to expect ...
John Milton’s (1608-1674) famous opening to “Paradise
Lost” (1667) introduces a beginning of the world, with Adam
and Eve’s transgression in the Garden of Eden:
Of Man's first disobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden, tree whose mortal taste
Brought death into the world, and all our woe,
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat,
Geoffrey of Monmouth’s “Historia
Regum Britanniae” (“The History of
the Kings of Britain”) provided an
account of the history of the Britons.
It gave an account of history from
the Britons’ beginning with the death
of Cadwallader and their defeat by
the Saxons. In that manuscript, Brutus
is the original founder of Britain. In
the Nennius manuscript, Brutus is “a
Roman consul”, but in Geoffrey of
Monmouth, he is introduced as
having a Trojan ancestry, but he also
connected later British kings, Arthur’s
ancestors to the Roman imperial
line. So one appreciate the, “widely
Figure 8. Geoffrey of Monmouth
held notion of the westward
movement of world power, translatio imperii, from Troy to
Greece to Rome, and then to Britain”16.
16
21
A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture c.1350-c.1500
(Blackwell Companions to Literature and Culture)
Peter Brown (Editor)
22
Some readers might think that Britain was a “second
Troy”. Names of countries were often etymologically linked to
founding figures in Medieval myths. So we read in Geoffrey of
Monmouth’s notes:
“Brutus then called the island Britain from his own name,
and his companions he called Britons... A little later, the
language of the people, which had up to then been known as
Trojan or Crooked Greek, was called British, for the same
reason”.
What about the first naming of Britain as Albion, what do
the giants signify? We can say that there were two versions of
the Albina story. One begins in Syria, but the other in Greece.
In Geoffrey of Monmouth’s version, the story is as the following.
Focus
Albina and her sisters were outraged at the thought of
marrying men of lower status than themselves and decided to
defy their husbands in every possible way. The sisters agreed
to Albina’s suggestion that they should murder their husbands.
When plan was discovered – in one version of the tale only
after murders have been committed, in another just before the
murders, the king wanted to put his daughters to death for
treason. The King’s barons convinced him to send his daughters,
into exile across the sea. The boat, in which they were sent,
brought them to an empty island. The eldest of the sisters
named the island Albion soon after calls after her name. The
sisters lived on the island peacefully until the arrival of Brutus.
Do you know any other countries whose names are
connected in some way with the rulers’ name or names?
What are your views on this issue? Write your views on this
matter.
***
The origin of the name Albion is obscure; it has been
suggested that it came from the white cliffs of Dover, albus in
Latin, but this is far from certain. It was current as an alternative
23
poetic name for Britain by the mid 13th century, when “The
Giants of the Island of Albion” seems to have been written.
The story draws on the common tradition that the earth was
inhabited by giants, that “there were giants in those days”.
There may also have been political overtones in the tradition,
because Edward I was trying to establish his claim as overlord
of Scotland, and this story shows the island as a single political
unit and Edward I argued as Albina’s successor and laid claim
to the whole island. The story also provides a “prequel” to
Geoffrey of Monmouth’s famous “History of the Kings of
Britain”, in that it explains the presence of the giants whom,
according to Geoffrey, Brutus found in Britain when he first
landed there. It has come down to us as an Anglo-Norman
poem, but the earliest version was probably written in Latin.
***
Here you may learn how the great giants first came to this
island, their number and origins; they were the first to occupy
England, which was first known as Albion. Now listen
carefully and I will tell you in brief the whole story of the
giants, just as I heard it from
a wise man, who was well
versed in writings about the
adventures of former times.
Three thousand nine
hundred and seventy years
after the creation of the world
there was a powerful king in
Greece, who was so brave,
noble, and proud that he
held sway over all kings. He
had a beautiful, well-bred
queen, by whom he had thirty
daughters; everyone thought
them very beautiful, and they
Figure 9. Daughters of Albion
William Blake
24
were brought up together. The father and mother were tall,
and the children grew up like their parents. I cannot tell you
their names, except that of the eldest, who was a very tall and
beautiful girl called Albina. When they were of age, the king
and queen gave the daughters in marriage to kings of high
rank.
Evey daughter was wedded a king, and was queen in her
own right; through pride and temper, they plotted a great
crime. They did not think that anything could go amiss with
their plans, but they gathered and took secret counsel and
secretly agreed, among themselves, that none of them should
be subject to the authority of anyone else, whether it was their
lord, their neighbour, their brother, their cousin or any other
lord. “But our husbands keep as in subjection all the time, and
rule over us just as they please.” They were the daughters of
the great king, and had never submitted to anyone; nor did
they wish to, nor did they wish to have any master, nor be
forced to do anything. Rather they wanted to rule over their
lords and all they possessed. The idea that no one should
command them was pleasing and as they did not want to do
as their lords wished by obeying and performing their desires.
They made a pact and swore an oath that each of them would
kill their lord on the same day when he came to her privately
and embraced her and looked for solace. They set a day to
accomplish this, and agreed, save the youngest, who did not
want to harm her lord, as she loved him dearly.
lord’s feet and begged him for mercy. She asked pardon for
her sin, and told him of the treachery which her sisters had
plotted, and how they had sworn to kill him against her will.
Her lord took her in his arms and kissed her, and solaced her
more than he had ever done before. “Lady”, he said, “be at
ease, and forget your sorrow”.
When their counsel was over, they returned to their
various countries. The plot did not please the youngest at all,
for she loved her lord and had given herself to him. She in no
way wished to see her lord harmed, but while she was at the
meeting she dared not contradict her sisters, because if she
had said anything against them they would have murdered
her on the spot. As soon as she came home and saw her lord,
her grief increased; and when he saw that she was sad, he
asked her what the reason was. The gentle lady fell at her
The next day at dawn, he dressed to go to her father to
speak with him, and he told his wife to get ready to go with
him. They did not delay a moment, but both made their way
to her father, the king of Greece. The king made them very
welcome, and they told him exactly what his daughters had
been doing. He was so dismayed by what his youngest
daughter told him, that he sent out a summons to them
commanding them to come to him at once.
When they were present, the king accused them of
treason, and of maliciously plotting the death of their lords, to
their great dishonour. The ladies were dismayed by the
accusation and by the treason that they had been prevented
from committing, but of which they would always be guilty.
Each tried to clear herself on oath; but they could not
contradict the charges. Their husbands were so furious that
they wanted them put to death. Their father, who was equally
angry, cross-examined them so that nothing remained hidden,
and everything that they had decided at their council was
revealed. He convicted them of this enormity and wickedness,
save for the youngest, who had told everything to her lord and
was greatly honoured by him thereafter.
When the sisters had been convicted of that grievous
crime, they were seized by their father and their husbands
and shut up in a dungeon for their iniquities and evil. They
suffered greatly there as they waited for judgement as was
ordained. The judges were wise, because the accused were
of noble birth, the judges did not wish to dishonour the family
of their mother and father, who held such wide domains, nor
the families of the lords of rich lands who had married them.
25
26
Therefore, they did not condemn them to death, but ordered
instead that they should be exiled from the country of their
birth forever, without hope of returning. Nor was there any
appeal from this judgement, whether they liked it or not. They
were led in sorrow, without anyone to help them, to a seaport which was nearby.
All that I can tell you is that they were taken and put in a
large, well-found ship, without a rudder and without provisions.
They wept bitterly, but no one took pity on them, because the
crime that they had plotted was so terrible. The ship set sail
and the waves tossed it hither and thither, and it was in great
peril as it drifted away from the land. The sisters were in great
sorrow, exiled from the country where they had been queens
and lived in luxury: now they were poorer than nuns were.
They did not know what would become of them, whether
they would live or die.
These women suffered much; the ship was driven by
chance, buffeted by great winds and menaced by the waves.
But none of this was as bad as the hunger that gnawed at
them, for they had nothing to eat; yet the danger made them
lament pitifully and forget their hunger. They were tormented
on all sides, and were ready to die as a gale arose and huge
waves lifted the ship up and then brought it down again,
turning it round so much that the women fell on the deck and
lay, as if in a trance, for three whole days and nights without
moving,. The storm carried them onwards until they were
near the shore of an island.
The eldest sister hastened to be the first to leave and take
possession of the land: she was called Albina. The others
came out of the ship, weak from the pain and fasting they had
undergone at sea. They sat down, and the great hunger,
which they had forgotten, returned. They were hungry beyond
measure and thought of nothing else, even though they did
not know where to find anything to eat. In the end they ate
raw herbs, which they found in great plenty, and fruit which
was on the trees. Acorns, chestnuts and sorb-apples kept
them alive; they found plums and bullaces, pears and apples,
and this was the only food they ate. They were very anxious,
for they did not know where they had landed, what the country
was called, or whether it was at peace or war. They had to
stay there, for there was nowhere else they could go.
When they had recovered their strength, they explored the
country to see what kind of people lived there and what sort
of life they led. Although they searched everywhere, they
found no human beings either in the woodland, the plains, the
valleys or the hills. There was neither man nor woman, and this
astonished them; nor could they find any sign that men had
been there. They found fine forests and woods and many wild
beasts, plenty of fowl on land, and rivers full of fish, bordered
by delightful flower-filled meadows. The wild birds sang loudly
in the woods which gave them comfort.
When the storm ceased, the weather cleared and calmed,
and the ship had been driven so far west that it came to the
land that is now called England although in that time it was
unnamed because no one lived on it. When the tide went out,
the ship lay on the shore. At this, the women woke up, and
lifted their heads. They were overjoyed to find themselves so
near land, and at once left the ship in which they had suffered
so much.
When they realised that they could never return home and
that the land, which they found, had never been inhabited by
man born of woman, as it was open and deserted. Albina, the
eldest sister, said: “We have been exiled from the land where
we were born: we know we have deserved our punishment
and that we will never return. Such is our fate; but fortune has
given us this land. I should be acknowledged as its ruler, for I
was the first to take possession of it when we left the ship. If
anyone has anything to say against this, let them do so now.”
They agreed that the land should be hers.
27
28
Then Albina said, “We do not know the name of this land,
or if it has ever had a lord. As I am now its ruler, it should be
named after me. Albina is my name, so it shall be called
Albion, and our shame shall always be remembered here. We
must remain here, nor should we want to go elsewhere,
because the land is full of good things, even though we lack
meat.”
They were very eager to have meat; it was their hearts’
desire. They saw many wild animals and birds to tempt them,
and would gladly have eaten them if they could have caught
them. They tried to think how they could catch a wild beast or
bird. They knew how to hunt from the days when they were
queens, and they knew the lie of the land; but they did not
have bows or arrows, falcons or hounds, with which to catch
their prey. They were cunning and clever, and after much
thought they built more than a hundred traps. They made
ropes from creepers, and caught deer with them; they made
traps from twigs to catch fowl. They made other such devices,
which deceived both beast and bird, and caught many of
them. When they had caught what they wanted, they skinned
the deer and lit a fire by striking stones together; there was no
shortage of firewood. They cooked the beasts in their skins
and roasted them over the fire, both the deer and fowl that
they had caught. They ate them gladly, drinking clear water
from the fountain.
ready to fulfil their wishes and all of them coupled with the
incubi. They gave birth to children who became giants, and
held the land after them. When the incubi had gone, the
women could find no one to play the man’s part. When their
sons came of age, they wickedly begot sons and daughters
with them. Sisters bore children by their brothers, and everyone
grew to great stature, they were exceptionally large and tall.
The huge bones, which can be found in many places
throughout the world, are evidence for this; men dig them up
in the country and the city, teeth, legs and ribs, and thighbones
four feet long, shoulder blades as large as a shield. Many
people are perplexed by this and wonder if there can ever have
been men with such huge skeletons. The giants were hideous
to look at because evil spirits had begotten them; their fathers
were devils, and their mothers were tall and well built. They
were just the children you would expect from such a union.
This way of life sustained them so well that they regained
their strength, recovered completely from their adventures
and grew fat on their new diet. The heat of nature overcame
them, and in their lechery, they longed for men to make love
to them - a common enough temptation. The evil beings
called incubi saw this. They are spirits that have the power to
take on human form, and they mingle with women and give
them such delight that they lie with them and make them
pregnant, and then disappear. It happened with Albina and
her sisters: when desire overcame them, the evil spirits were
This fairy race multiplied
greatly and spread through
the land, making caves in
the ground and raising huge
walls and ditches. They
preferred to live on the
mountains. In many places,
you can still see the great
walls, which they built,
though many of them have
been battered down by
storms. This race held the
land until the Britons came,
which happened eleven
hundred and thirty-six years
before our Lord was born; I
am sure of this.
According to the chronicle
Brutus, took the land by force and changed its name from
29
30
Figure 10. Gog and Magog
Albion to Britain. Two hundred and sixty years had elapsed
since the women first came to the island. As their race
multiplied, they each took a different part of the land and
made it their stronghold; they lived each for himself, so
proudly and wickedly that every one of them tried to overcome
the others, trusting to his own strength and despising the rest.
They strove to conquer the whole land and become lord and
master; and in the civil wars which resulted they slew each
other until only twenty-four remained, and it was they who
came to fight Brutus when he first landed. Brutus soon
overthrew them, except for their leader, Gogmagog, whose
life he spared. For he was amazed by his height, he was
twenty feet tall and wanted to find out how his race had come
to the land, and what his lineage was. He told Brutus the
whole story of how his ancestors had arrived, and what had
happened, and how long they had held the land, just as it had
been passed down and as he had heard it from his elders.
Brutus made a record of it, so that others might know of it
afterwards and make a story of it to tell at high feasts, so that
the marvellous story would be remembered.
Now you have heard the story about those who first came
to England and held it, and what the Island’s name was, and
who bestowed it, and how long they held it before the Britons
came and changed its original name and called it Britain. It
will never hurt to know the tales and writings of ancient
adventures, may God bless him who sets them down in
writing (2, 3-8).
P.S. Gog Magog is mentioned in the Qur’an, the Book of
Genesis, the Book of Ezekiel and the Book of Revelation. They
are variously presented as supernatural beings, demons or
national groups that lurked upon the land. Gog and Magog
occur widely in mythology and folklore and their existence is
accepted by many religions including Islam, Christianity and
Judaism. The widely accepted belief both in Christianity and
Islam holds that “He of the Two Horns” (a great and righteous
31
ruler) or Two Ages (one who impacts on two ages) travelled
the world in three directions, until he found a tribe threatened
by Gog and Magog, who were of an “evil and destructive
nature” and “caused great corruption on earth.” The people
offered tribute in exchange for protection, he agreed to help
them, but refused the tribute; he constructed a great wall that
the hostile nations were unable to penetrate. They will be
trapped there until doomsday, and their escape will be a sign
of the end: “The War of Gog and Magog” would precede the
return of Jesus.
1. The history tells us on specific events that happened in the
world, and the legends provide an additional perspective
for rewriting the history again. The fundamental, or
imaginative ideas are hidden in the legend “The Giants of
the Island of Albion” as well. Do you find the legend
entertaining, or do you find parts of it offensive? Does the
plot of the legend make any sense to you? Evaluate the
view of the father, or the powerful king of Greece.
2. The storyteller says: “Now you have heard the true story
about those who first came to England and held it, and the
Island’s name was, and who bestowed it, and how long
they held it before the Briton came and changed its
original name and called it Britain”. They say that Albion is
the poetic name of Britain. Do you agree with that view?
Why?
32
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müəlliflərlə əlaqə saxlaya bilərsiniz.
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medieval ages - Qafqaz University

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