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x Clearances
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x Virtual, 3D design
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x BIM\BRIM
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MEDIUM
0.05 to 0.20 m
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2A
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x Historical Preservation
x Power line clearance
1B
COARSE
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(<3 pts/ft2)
INTERMEDIATE
30 to 100 pts/m2
(3 to 9 pts/ft2)
x Unstable slopes
x Landslide assessment
2B
x General Mapping
x General measurements
x Driver Assistance
x Autonomous Navigation
x Automated\semiautomatic extraction of
signs and other features
x Coastal change
x Safety
x Environmental studies
1C
2C
x Quantities (e.g., Earthwork)
x Natural Terrain Mapping
x Vegetation Management
LOW
> 0.20 m
(> 0.66 ft)
3A
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assessment (general)
3B
x Asset Management
x Inventory mapping
(e.g. GIS)
x Virtual Tour
3C
x Emergency Response
x Planning
x Land Use\Zoning
x Urban modeling
x Traffic Congestion\
Parking Utilization
x Billboard Management
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Expert
Moderate experience
Some experience
Novice
MLS Workflow
Planning
Quality Management Plan
Determine locations of interest
Coordinate with divisions\ agencies
Weather\ Environment Conditions
Determine which sensors are needed
GNSS PDOP prediction
Topography\land cover\water
Develop drive path
Preliminary Site Surveys
Determine obstructions
Traffic peaks
Determine what can be covered
by MLS
Fails QC
Data Acquisition
Verify system calibration
Set and acquire control and
validation points
Drive and monitor the mission
Scan Data
Raw
GNSS\IMU
Imagery
Img
Other sensors
Geo referencing
Combine LIDAR, GNSS, and
IMU
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Local Transformation
Validate accuracy\resolution\
completeness
Tile Data
Reg
Post Processing
Packaging and Delivery
Computations\Analysis
Develop reports
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Raw Files
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software. However, it may include geometric corrections
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On large, critical projects, possibly consider a third-party
entity (different from data provider) to do this work.
A variety of software exists to complete this task.
Removal of unwanted features and outliers. Can depend
heavily on traffic conditions at acquisition time.
Depends on type of features to classify. Ground vs. nonground would be relatively inexpensive. Other features;
however, require more sophisticated algorithms and manual
techniques. Ground-filtering software works better for
airborne LIDAR data.
Extraction of points and line work to develop maps and/or
digital terrain models (virtual surveying).
Addition of attributes to features may also be done during
this process or later in data mining.
Depends heavily on type of objects to be modeled. Some
(geometric primitives) can be obtained through semiautomatic processes, others require manual processes.
Depends heavily on the type of analysis needed.
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Data Processing
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Interim Progress Reports (long duration
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Project name and location identifier
Survey date, time, weather conditions, limits
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System calibration report
Survey control points found, held and set (see
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Personnel, equipment, and surveying
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Adjustment report
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Detailed Metadata files
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Expert
Moderate experience
Some experience
Novice
MLS Workflow
Planning
Determine locations of interest
Coordinate with divisions\ agencies
Weather\ Environment Conditions
Determine which sensors are needed
GNSS PDOP prediction
Topography\land cover\water
Develop drive path
Preliminary Site Surveys
Determine obstructions
Traffic peaks
Determine what can be covered
by MLS
Fails QC
Data Acquisition
Verify system calibration
Set and acquire control and
validation points
Drive and monitor the mission
Scan Data
Raw
GNSS\IMU
Imagery
Other sensors
Img
Geo referencing
Combine LIDAR, GNSS, and
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Geometric Correction
Local Transformation
Validate accuracy\resolution\
completeness
Tile Data
Reg
Post Processing
Packaging and Delivery
Computations\Analysis
Develop reports
Zip Data
Evaluate strategy efficiency
for future missions
Archive and backup data
Detect change\deformation
Cut\Fill estimation
QC analysis results
Clean and filter data
Classify data
Surface (model) data
Extract Features\line work
QC models and features
Mod
Fails QC
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Airborne LIDAR
Direct view of pavement & building tops
Poor (oblique) view of vertical faces
Faster coverage
Larger footprint
Laser travels much farther
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Lower point density (1-32 points/m2)
A
Mobile LIDAR
Good view of pavement
Direct view of vertical faces
Cannot capture building tops
Slower coverage
Smaller footprint
Closer to ground\objects
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Higher point density (100’s points/m2)
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Number of
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Unrestricted
question form
Zoomerang
12
100
Yes
SurveyMonkey
10
100
Yes
SurveyGizmo
Unlimited
250
Yes
PollDaddy
10
200
Yes
Streamlined
QuestionPro
10
100
Yes
Streamlined
Kwik Surveys
Unlimited
Unlimited
Yes
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Google Docs
Unlimited
Unlimited
Yes
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streamlined
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7.0
7.0
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5.4
5.5
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7.8
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Descriptive
Statistics
Mean
Median
Std. Dev.
Currently what percent of surveying
work/data acquisition is performed
in-house vs. contracted out to
private firms?
57.9
70.0
28.4
What percent of the design work in your
organization is performed in-house vs.
contracted out to private firms?
53.3
60.0
24.0
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Descriptive
Statistics
Mean
Median
Mode
Std. Dev.
Currently, what percent of the
technical workflows in your
organization use 3D data?
44.4
30.0
0.0
34.6
What percent of the overall technical
workflows in your organization would benefit
from the use of 3D data and/or visualization?
74.2
80.0
80.0
25.3
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Mean
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
8.9
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3.0
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How many years has your company been involved with mobile LIDAR/laser scanning?
Mean
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
4.2
3.0
3.0
3.5
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1
2
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Definition
Created, never classified
Unclassified
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Model Key-point (mass point)
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Reserved for ASPRS Definition
Overlap Points
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Term:
Definition:
2D
Two-dimensional. Typically referring to data that has been mapped to a
plane such as a map, plan, or profile view.
2.5D
Two-and-a-half dimensional. This typically refers to the situation where a
horizontal coordinate system and vertical coordinate system are separated.
Generally, in this case, there is one elevation value for a given XY coordinate.
Generally most DTMs are 2.5D rather than 3D.
3D
Three-dimensional. In a 3D Cartesian coordinate system (XYZ), there can be
multiple Z values at any given XY coordinate.
3D imaging system
A non-contact measurement instrument used to produce a 3D
representation (for example, a point cloud) of an object or a site. (ASTM)
3D reconstruction
A process of creating a 3D model from data that is not 3D. For example, a
series of 2D photographs of an object can be combined to produce a 3D
model.
Absolute Accuracy
The level of accuracy that can be obtained in a global coordinate system.
Accuracy of
measurement
See Figure 65. Accuracy can be defined as how close and how often a
measured value(s) is to the “true” value. Note that the “true” value is never
actually known (all measurements have some level of error) and should be
determined from a dataset of higher accuracy than the dataset to be
verified.
An accuracy statement should always include a confidence interval. For
example, if one states that a dataset is accurate to ±3 cm, the end user does
not know how often that statement is true for the dataset. However, when
stated per FGDC 1998 data standards as “Tested 0.03 meters horizontal
accuracy at 95% confidence level” then the end user knows that 95% of the
values would be expected to be accurate to ±3 cm horizontally and only 5%
would exceed that threshold.
“Closeness of the agreement between the result of a measurement and a
true value of the measurand.” (ASTM)
Adjustment
A correction applied to the data, typically through a least-squares analysis, to
correct for positioning errors. See also geometric correction.
Alignment
The process of aligning adjoining scans to each other, see registration.
ALS
(aerial laser scan)
Laser scans that are captured from and aerial platform such as an airplane or
helicopter.
Artifacts
Erroneous points in a scan that do not accurately depict the objects intended
to be measured.
As-built
Refers to a survey to document a project after construction.
ASCII
American standard code for information interchange. A code used to store
and transfer information between computers consisting of 128 characters.
The characters in text files on a computer are ASCII text.
ASTM
Formerly, American Society for Testing Materials. Agency which provides a
consensus of terminology and/or specifications for testing through
international volunteers.
Azimuth
An angular measurement of the scanner’s facing direction to north.
Beam divergence
The increase in beam width as the distance from scan origin increases.
Beam width
The extent of the irradiance distribution in a cross section of a laser beam (in
a direction orthogonal to its propagation path) at a distance away from the
origin. (ASTM)
Birds
Refers to actual birds captured in a scan or artificial points in sky. See
artifacts. These can sometimes be created by moisture in the air.
Boresight
In MLS systems this term refers to the rotation of the laser scanner frame to
align with the body frame of the IMU.
CAD\CADD
Computer aided design and drafting. The use of computer technology to
design, draw, model, and analyze real-world objects.
“Set of operations that establish, under specified conditions, the relationship
between values of quantities indicated by a measuring instrument or
measuring system, or values represented by a material measure or a
reference material, and the corresponding values realized by standards.”
(ASTM)
Calibration
Change detection
Checksum
A system calibration corrects for manufacturing errors (e.g. lever arm offsets,
orientations) and produces a set of parameters that remain constant as long
as the hardware is not modified or disturbed. (The frequency of recalibration depends on the desired system accuracy and capabilities and is
typically done by the manufacturer). It should not be confused with a
geometric correction or adjustment (sometimes called a site calibration or
local transformation), which corrects for errors in the GNSS and IMU
positioning\trajectory by adjusting the scan data to control or between
adjacent passes (e.g., strip adjustment). This correction is applied uniquely
to each pass within each project.
Use of remote sensing data to analyze how the attributes of a region change
over a period of time.
A fixed-size datum computed from an arbitrary block of digital data for the
purpose of detecting accidental errors that may have been introduced during
its transmission or storage (from Wikipedia)
Classification
The assignment of a point to a single predefined category, such as ground,
vegetation, noise, or water.
Confusion Matrix
A table to show the effectiveness of an algorithm comparing the algorithms
predicted results to actual results. Typically used for a classification accuracy
assessment.
Consolidated
vertical accuracy
A verification of vertical accuracy for several types of ground cover, which
consists of bare, open ground, and other types of land cover.
Control network
A collection of identifiable points (visible or inferable), with stated
coordinate uncertainties, in a single coordinate system. (ASTM)
Control point
An identifiable point which is a member of a control network. (ASTM)
CORS
Continuously operating reference station. Satellite receivers that are
continuously operating in a fixed location to provide highly accurate
positional location for use in applications such as RTK GPS.
Cross section
A 2D planar slice of the 3D point cloud.
Decimation
A method of lowering point density in a point cloud.
DEM (Digital
Elevation Model)
A DTM focused on elevation values only.
Density
The number of points per unit area; can also be expressed as the average
distance between points in a point cloud.
Detail Scan
A scan, or portion of scan, that is performed at higher resolution. Often a
detail scan of targets will be used for better alignment.
DGPS (differential
GPS/GNSS)
Use of ground-based reference stations to correct for pseudo range
ambiguities in GPS/GNSS signals
DHM (digital height
model)
A DEM that utilizes ground surface as a zero elevation to gain height values
above ground level, commonly used for tree heights in forestry applications.
Discrete pulse
A method by which a scanner records returning pulses as a series of discrete
values.
DMI (distance
measuring
instrument)
A device that physically measures distance traveled along the ground
surface.
DSM (digital surface
model)
A DEM that has not had surface features removed, vegetation and structures
are preserved.
DTM (Digital Terrain
Model)
A digital representation of ground surface topography, usually consisting of a
grid and triangulated irregular network (TIN).
E57
A binary file format that has been specifically developed by the ASTM to
improve efficiency and compatibility of working with 3D imaging data,
including LIDAR data.
Echoes
Used to describe all reflected returns to the scanner from an emitted laser
pulse, see first return, last return, multiple returns.
EDM (electronic
distance
measurement)
Devices that use infra-red or laser light to accurately measure distance by
measuring the time-of-flight of the light.
Ephemeris
The flight path that a satellite takes through space.
Error (of
See Figure 65. Result of a measurement minus a true value of the
measurement)
measurand. (ASTM)
Fast static GPS
See Rapid Static GPS.
Field of View (FOV)
The angular extent within which objects are measurable by a device such as
an optical instrument without user intervention. (ASTM)
Filtering
The removal of points from a point cloud, often to reduce the density.
Common filters include range, XYZ coordinates, minimum separation,
isolated points, and intensity values.
First Return
For a given emitted pulse, it is the first reflected signal that is detected by a
3D imaging system, time-of-flight (TOF) type, for a given sampling position,
that is, azimuth and elevation angle. (ASTM)
Flash LIDAR
A new LIDAR technology that operates by illuminating an entire field of view
simultaneously, similar to taking a picture, compared to traditional systems
which fire pulses one by one through incrementing angles.
Footprint
See beam width.
Full waveform
A method of recording the full returning waveform of a laser scan to permit
more advanced processing than in a discrete pulse method.
FVA (Fundamental
vertical accuracy)
A verification of vertical accuracy using only ground control check points in a
location on bare, open ground with a high probability of LIDAR sensor
detection.
Geomatics
The discipline of gathering, storing, processing, delivering, and analyzing
geographic or spatially referenced information (modified from Wikipedia).
Geomatics is a broad field encompassing surveying, GIS, geographic science,
geospatial intelligence, all of which interface with a variety of other
disciplines relying on such information.
Geometric
A geometric correction or adjustment is done to correct for errors in the
GNSS and IMU positioning information by adjusting the scan data to control
Correction
or between adjacent passes. This correction would be applied uniquely for
each project. Not the same as a calibration.
GDOP (geometric
dilution of
precision)
See PDOP (positional dilution of precision).
Geo-reference
The process of assigning a coordinate system and location information to a
point or points in space. See registration.
GIS (geographic
information system)
A computing program designed to analyze spatial data.
GNSS (global
navigation satellite
system)
A satellite system with global coverage that provides autonomous geospatial positioning. Includes the United States’ GPS system, Russia’s
GLONASS, and will include China’s COMPASS and Europe’s Galileo.
GPS (global
positioning system)
A GNSS system put into use by the United States.
Grazing Angle
The angle between the laser beam and the surface (90o – incidence angle).
Low grazing angles mean the laser beam is nearly parallel to the surface
(oblique, poor data quality) while high grazing angles mean that the laser
beam is perpendicular to the surface (orthogonal, good data quality). See
Figure 66. Also, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_of_incidence
Grid
A point cloud that has been reduced by assigning points into equally
distributed cells, typically used as a form of DEM generation.
Ground
Used to describe the physical ground surface with any occluding material
removed such as vegetation and structures
HDOP (horizontal
dilution of
precision)
An indicator of how well a satellite receiver can be horizontally located in 3D
space based on the geometry of over-head satellites.
HTDP (Horizontal
Time-Dependent
Positioning)
A utility provided by the NGS which enables one to transform coordinates
across time and between spatial reference frames
(https://www.ngs.noaa.gov/TOOLS/Htdp/Htdp.shtml)
ICP (iterative closest
point) algorithm
A software algorithm commonly used to register adjoining point clouds by
iteratively minimizing the distance between paired or corresponding points
in the cloud.
Incidence Angle
See Figure 66. The angle between the incoming laser pulse and the surface
normal. Low incidence angles, meaning orthogonal, direct data acquisition,
are preferred. Antonym of grazing angle. Also, see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_of_incidence
IMU (Inertial
Measurement Unit)
A device which utilizes a combination of gyroscopes and accelerometers to
provide velocity and orientation information.
INS (Inertial
Navigation System)
Not applicable to mobile mapping, see IMU.
Instrument origin
Point from which all instrument measurements are referenced, that is, origin
of the instrument coordinate reference frame (0, 0, 0). (ASTM)
Intensity
The quantity of laser energy measured at the scanner after light is reflected
and returned from a surface. Typically scaled as a floating point from 0 to
1.0 or an integer from 0 to 255 or 0 to 65535.
LAS
A binary file format that has been specifically developed by the American
Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS) to improve
efficiency and compatibility of working with LIDAR data between software
packages. Current version: 1.4. This is the most common format used for
mobile LIDAR data.
Last return
For a given emitted pulse, it is the last reflected signal that is detected by a
3D imaging system, time-of-flight (TOF) type, for a given sampling position,
that is, azimuth and elevation angle. (ASTM)
Lever Arm
In MLS systems this term refers to the difference in origin of the laser
scanner frame and the body frame of the IMU. See Figure 8.
LIDAR
LIght Detection And Ranging, a method of measuring the flight time of a
beam of light to calculate range to objects at predetermined angular
increments, resulting in a point cloud
Line scan
Constraining the Z-rotation of a laser scanner so that vehicular or platform
motion results in linear scan swaths through a corridor.
Local
A coordinate system that is referenced using the laser scanner location as
the origin of the point cloud.
Local Accuracy
The local accuracy of a control point is a value that represents the
uncertainty in the coordinates of the control point relative to the
coordinates of other directly connected, adjacent control points at the 95percent confidence level. The reported local accuracy is an approximate
average of the individual local accuracy values between this control point
and other observed control points used to establish the coordinates of the
control point. (FGDC-STD-007).
MLS (mobile laser
scanner)
A mobile system capable of collection of geo-referenced remotely sensed
data, utilizing the use of at least one LIDAR scanner.
MMS (mobile
mapping system)
A mobile system capable of collection of geo-referenced remotely sensed
data, typically using imagery based sensors. A MMS may or may not include
a MLS.
Multiple returns
The signals returned to a single detector element from simultaneouslyilluminated multiple surfaces resulting from a single laser pulse. (ASTM)
Network Accuracy
The network accuracy of a control point is a value that represents the
uncertainty in the coordinates of the control point with respect to the
geodetic datum at the 95-percent confidence level. For NSRS network
accuracy classification, the datum is considered to be best expressed by the
geodetic values at the Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS)
supported by NGS. By this definition, the local and network accuracy values
at CORS sites are considered to be infinitesimal, i.e., to approach zero.
(FGDC-STD-007).
Noise
See artifacts.
Oblique
When the view of the laser to the object is positioned such that the laser
strikes the surface at an angle. This can degrade the data quality. See Figure
66.
Occlusions
Areas within a point cloud that are void of measurements due to objects
blocking the scanners line of sight.
On-the-fly
1) A mode of mobile mapping that utilizes continuous movement of the
mapping platform while collecting data. 2) Processing of scan data in real
time.
OPUS (online
positioning user
service)
A service provided by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA), which allows GPS users to increase the accuracy of collected GPS
point locations using through post processing.
Orthogonal
See Figure 66. When the view of the laser to the object is positioned such
that the laser strikes direct or perpendicular to the surface.
Overview Scan
A low resolution scan, may be used to select areas specific areas within a
scan which need to be scanned at higher resolution.
Panoramic scan
Allowing the scanner head to rotate in the Z-axis up to 360°.
Parallax
The apparent displacement of a distant object in relation to a nearer as
viewed from different locations.
PDOP (positional
dilution of
precision)
An indicator of how well a GPS receiver can be located in 3D space based on
the geometry of over-head satellites relative to the GPS receiver.
Phantom points
See artifacts
Phase-based
A method of measuring distance by observing the phase shift of a laser's
sinusoidally modulated waveform and the reflected return from a surface.
Used over smaller ranges with a higher data collection rate.
Photon LIDAR
A LIDAR technology under development that splits the laser pulse into
individual photons to improve spatial resolution. It also reduces the spot
size, improving accuracy.
Pitch
Rotation about the Y axis in a Cartesian coordinate system.
Pits
Refers to artificial points captured below the ground surface. See artifacts.
Point Cloud
A collection of data points in 3D space (frequently in the hundreds of
thousands), for example as obtained using a 3D imaging system. (ASTM)
Polar coordinates
A coordinate system that locates points in space by defining an angle and a
distance from a fixed reference pole.
Post spacing
Elevation or z-values at evenly spaced grid intervals in the horizontal or ‘x’
and ‘y’ direction. In airborne LIDAR, the nominal post spacing is defined as
the typical separation distance between points.
PPK (post-processed
kinematic)
A method of improving GPS receiver positioning by using a precisely
calculated post-flight ephemeris instead of the pre-flight predicted
ephemeris.
PPM
Parts per million. Often used to discuss the degradation with distance. For
example, 1 ppm would mean a loss of accuracy of 1 ft per 1 million feet of
distance.
See Figure 65.
Precision
Closeness of agreement between independent test results obtained under
stipulated conditions. (ASTM).
RAID
RAID (redundant array of independent disks, originally redundant array of
inexpensive disks) is a storage technology that combines multiple disk drive
components into a logical unit (from Wikipedia).
Random error
Result of a measurement minus the mean that would result from an infinite
number of measurements of the same measurand carried out under
repeatability conditions. (ASTM)
Range resolution
The distance, in units of length, between a point in space and an origin fixed
to the 3D imaging system that is measuring that point. (ASTM)
Range
The distance, in units of length, between a point in space and an origin fixed
to the 3D imaging system that is measuring that point. (ASTM)
Rapid static GPS
Collection of 15 minutes to 2 hours of GPS data over a point location which is
then submitted to OPUS for accuracy enhancement via post processing.
Raw scan data
Unprocessed data as it is initially captured from the scanner..
Reference frame
The coordinate system or location that is used to refer to an object or point
location.
Reflectance
A measure of how much light is reflected off a surface compared to how
much initially hit the surface.
Registration
The process of determining and applying to two or more datasets the
transformations that locate each dataset in a common coordinate system so
that the datasets are aligned relative to each other. (ASTM)
Relative Accuracy
The level of accuracy than can be obtained within a local coordinate system.
Repeatability
(of results pr
measurements)
Closeness of the agreement between the results of successive
measurements of the same measurand carried out under the same
conditions of measurement. (ASTM)
Reproducibility
See Repeatability. However, repeatability typically refers to a single
system\person’s ability to produce a result, whereas reproducibility can refer
to someone’s ability to follow someone else’s work.
Resolution
The degree of detail which can be seen. See density.
Rigid body
transformation
Refers to the translation and rotation of a point cloud in which the point
cloud is treated as a rigid body that has no deformation of the points with
relation to other points in the cloud.
RINEX
Receiver INdependent EXchange Format. A common data interchange
format for raw GPS data.
RMS(E) (root mean
square (error))
An indicator of precision by measuring the differences of an estimated or
modeled object to the values of the physically observed object.
Roll
Refers to the rotation about the X axis in a Cartesian coordinate system.
Rotation matrix
A matrix that is used in linear algebra to rotate a point in 3D space.
RTK (real time
kinematic) GPS
An enhancement to satellite navigation that utilized carrier phase
measurements for better positioning; allows for GPS corrections in real time.
Scan
The result of a LIDAR scanner, often interchangeable with point cloud.
Spot size
Beam width on the target.
State Plane
Coordinate System
(SPS, SPCS)
A set of 124 geographic zones developed in the 1930’s to minimize
topographic distortion from map projections. Each state has one or more
zone. A variety of map projections are used for each zone.
Static GPS
Collection of 2 hours to 48 hours of GPS observations over a point location
which is then submitted to OPUS for accuracy enhancement via post
processing.
Stop-and-go
A simplified mode of mobile mapping that utilizes non-continuous
movement of the mobile mapping platform, data points are only collected
while the platform is stationary.
Strip Adjustment
A process of registering two or more adjacent scan passes together to
correct for errors in the trajectory.
Subsample
A lower density of points, or a small collection of points taken from a larger
sample.
Supplemental
vertical accuracy
A verification of vertical accuracy over ground cover that does not consist of
bare, open ground.
Systematic error
Mean that would result from an infinite number of measurements of the
same measurand carried out under repeatability conditions minus a true
value of the measurand. (ASTM)
TIN (Triangulated
Irregular Network)
A type of DTM created by generating triangles to connect points that are
irregularly spaced. The three points that form each triangle are used to
create a plane that is used for interpolation (typically for elevation) between
the points.
Time-of-flight
A method of measuring distance by observing the time it takes for a laser
beam to travel from the scanner, reflect off a surface, and return to the
scanner.
TLS (terrestrial laser
scan)
Laser scans that take place from a momentarily fixed platform, typically
tripod based.
Transformation
matrix
A matrix that is used in linear algebra to translate and rotate point(s) in 3D
space. Depending on the type of transformation, the matrix can also include
scaling and skewing parameters.
Uncertainty of
measurement
Parameter, associated with the result of a measurement, which characterizes
the dispersion of the values that could reasonably be attributed to the
measurand. (ASTM)
In other words, how well you can trust the measurement.
UTM
Universal Transverse Mercator. A coordinate system developed by the US
Army Corps of Engineers for horizontal positioning that divides the Earth into
sixty zones, representing six degrees of longitude and uses a secant
transverse Mercator projection for each zone. .
Validation
Verification that data meets certain criteria.
VDOP (vertical
dilution of
precision)
An indicator of how well a satellite receiver can be vertically located in 3D
space based on the geometry of over-head satellites.
Voids
Areas within a point cloud which were not well detailed, typically due to
blocking of the scanner line of sight.
VRS (virtual
reference station)
A method of assigning a virtual base station near the survey location to
permit RTK corrections along short baselines.
Waveform
See Full Waveform.
XYZRGBI
Any combination of these letters may be used to define a scanner file
format, represented by X, Y, and Z point coordinates, (R)ed, (G)reen, (B)lue
color values assigned to the point, and (I)ntensity value assigned to the
point.
Yaw
Rotation about the Z axis in a Cartesian coordinate system.
Not Accurate
Precise
Accurate
Precise
Not Accurate
Not Precise
Accurate
Not Precise
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