Physiology

Transcription

Physiology

CONTENTS
© by IAAF
29:2; 1, 2014
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Editorial 3
Physiology
Special Topic
}
A New Method for Non-Invasive Estimation
of Muscle Fibre Type Composition in Athletes
by Audrey Baguet, Wim Derave and Tine Bex 7
}
Monitoring Training Load in Sprint Interval Training
by Ari Nummela
19
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NSA Interview: Iñigo Mujika 33
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Exercise Protocol and Electrical Muscle Stimulation
in the Prevention, Treatment and Readaptation
of Jumper’s Knee
by Ángel Basas, Alberto Lorenzo, Miguel-Ángel Gómez ,
Carlos Moreno and Christophe Ramirez
41
Running With Poles to Increase Training Efficiency
and Reduce Injuries
°
by Aleš Tvznik and Milan Kutek
55
}
Perspectives of International Athletics
by Helmut Digel 73
}
Selected and Annotated Bibliography 81
}
Book Review 119
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Website Review
123
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Preview
127
Applied Research
Coaching
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Development
Documentation
2
Volume Twenty-nine, issue number 2; June 2014
New Studies in Athletics, printed by Druckerei H. Heenemann GmbH & Co. KG Berlin, Germany
New Studies in Athletics · no. 2.2014
14
1
NEW STUDIES IN ATHLETICS
The International Association of Athletics
Federations’ technical quarterly for:
Applied Research
Coaching
Development
Documentation
International Scientific Advisory Board
Prof. Helmut Digel (GER)
Prof. Tim Noakes (RSA)
Esa Peltola (AUS)
Prof. Eduardo De Rose (BRA)
Prof. Maijiu Tian (CHN)
Editor in Chief
Abdel Malek El Hebil
Consultant Editors
Nikos Apostolopoulos
Helmut Digel
Bill Glad
Harald Müller
Documentation Editor
Jürgen Schiffer
Editorial Assistant
Vicky Brennan
Printing
H. Heenemann GmbH & Co. KG
Bessemerstraße 83-91
D-12103 Berlin, Germany
Tel.: +49 30. 75 30 3 -0
Fax +49 30. 75 30 31 31
Photos
© Getty Images (unless otherwise noted)
Cover & Graphic Design
[email protected], Germany
Subscriptions
NSA is published quarterly, in March, June,
September, December four issues making
one volume.
The annual subscription rate is US$ 60 per
volume (shipping included).
A few copies of back issues are available on
request from the IAAF for US$ 10 each.
Manuscripts
The editors will consider all manuscripts
submitted but assume no responsibility
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index.html
Contact
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be addressed to:
New Studies in Athletics, IAAF
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ISSN
0961-933X
Views expressed in articles published in this magazine are those of the authors and not necessarily those of NSA or the IAAF.
2
EDITORIAL
A season of good ideas
and good news
s we come to the end of a busy 2014
season, there is a brief moment to
draw breath and reflect a little on
some positive developments in our sport.
Among the many highlights of the summer (in
the northern hemisphere, of course) were the
IAAF Junior World Championships in Eugene in
July and the Youth Olympic Games in Nanjing
in August. Both of these great events provided
notable examples of the innovation in athletics
that sometimes escapes the headlines but is
usually the underlying theme for NSA.
A
The two events were linked by great competitions across all the athletics disciplines
and the emergence of many athletes who
look ready to take their place among the next
generation of the sport’s stars, not the least
of which is Ethiopia’s distance wonder Yomif
Kejelch. Just as important for the future of athletics was the fact that medals went to athletes
from 34 countries in Eugene and 32 in Nanjing,
showing a healthy spread of talent and providing a strong platform for driving the future
popularity of the sport.
In Eugene, the attention grabbing competitive performances took place against the backdrop of a dynamic week off the track. Among
the notable special activities were the IAAF’s
anti-doping educational outreach programme,
which saw more than 950 of the young competitors interact with high-profile IAAF ambassadors encouraging them to a lifetime of fair
play and honesty. Also aimed at developing
the whole individual was the IAAF media training workshop, entitled “Making the Most of My
Athletics Career”, which gave more than 100
of tomorrow’s stars basic media training tips
© by IAAF
29:2; 3, 2014
as well as insight on how to make an impact,
and avoid pitfalls, with social media. And then,
right after the championships, there was the
highly successful IAAF World Junior Coaches Conference, attended by more than 200
coaches representing at least 60 IAAF Member Federations, which will be reported on in
detail in our next issue.
Finally, it must be said how important it was
for the championships just to be in the USA
and to attract the attention of fans in a highly
competitive sports marketplace. Congratulations to the organisers and the IAAF for this big
and successful step.
Turning to Nanjing, the experience of the
hosts and their commitment to providing an
excellent event were never in doubt and from
both the organisational and competition points
of view the results were spectacular across
all the sports. I would be remiss, however, if
I did not mention two special activities in athletics. The first was the strong Kid’s Athletics
programme, which was supported by Olympic
champions Liu Xiang, whose rock star status
in China helped draw hundreds of local children and allowed them to become active participants in the Games. This was important
for bringing our sport to the next generation
(and maybe the one after that) of Chinese athletes and demonstrating how it is well placed
to address the worldwide challenge of sedentary lifestyle. The second special activity was
the mixed 8x100 relay. This innovative event,
bringing together young athletes from different
countries and different disciplines to compete
on randomly selected teams, was one of the
most special moments of the whole Games.
3
It was certainly very popular with the participants and provided a wonderful illustration of
how our sport can be used to bridge almost
any social differences. Well done to everyone
involved.
Eventually, of course, there has to be a bottom line. These days, one of the key measures
of the popularity of any is its impact in the digital sphere of the Internet. I am please to note
that we are succeeding, as early indications
from IAAF activities this season are very positive. For example, it has been reported that the
IAAF website iaaf.org had a 365% increase in
the number of unique visitors during the championships in Eugene, 1.214 million compared
to 332,500 for the same event in Barcelona
two years earlier, showing that it is one of the
leading websites provided by an international
sports federation.
4
All of this highlights the many types of important developments in our sport that professionals need to keep up to date with. NSA
plays an important role here and this issue is
no different as our Special Topic section features the results of new research in the area of
Physiology that will be of particular interest to
coaches.
I invite you to enjoy this issue and I welcome
any comments you may like to share.
Abdel Malek El Hebil
Editor in Chief
[email protected]
Physiology
contents
g
A New Method for Non-Invasive
Estimation of Muscle Fibre Type
Composition in Athletes
by Audrey Baguet, Wim Derave and Tine Bex x
x
x
x
x
g
Monitoring Training Load in Sprint
Interval Training
by Ari Nummela
g
NSA Interview: Iñigo Mujika
x
x
Study
VIEWPOINT
A New Method for Noninvasive Estimation of Human
Muscle Fibre Type Composition
in Athletics
© by IAAF
29:2; 7-16, 2014
by Audrey Baguet, Tine Bex and Wim Derave
ABSTRACT
AUTHORS
The composition of an individual’s muscles
is a talent predictor in athletics. However, the invasive technique of muscle biopsy, the accepted means for determining
muscle fibre population, is unsuitable for
talent identification. Non-invasive possibilities tested to date are also unsatisfactory. Recently, proton magnetic resonance
spectroscopy (1H-MRS) has been used to
measure muscle metabolites including
carnosine, which is present in different
concentrations in type-I (slow twitch) and
type-II (fast twitch) fibres. The authors
aimed to determine if this means is suitable for estimating muscle fibre composition. Carnosine levels measured by 1H-MRS
in the gastrocnemius muscles of athletes
and control subjects and then compared
to untrained subjects who underwent both
1
H-MRS and muscle biopsies significantly
correlated to the area occupied by type
II fibres in explosive event athletes, with
endurance athletes registering lower levels compared to the reference population.
Similar trends were found in both young
and ex-athletes. The authors conclude
that the method is valuable for estimating
muscle fibre composition but point out its
limitations, including cost. This article has
been adapted from a manuscript previously
published by the Public Library of Science.
Audrey Baguet, PhD, is a post-doctora researcher in the Department of Movement
and Sport Sciences, Ghent University,
Ghent, Belgium.
Tine Bex is a PhD student in the Department of Movement and Sports Sciences,
Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
Wim Derave, PhD, is a professor in the
Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
Introduction
n important element of talent for specific athletics disciplines is undoubtedly the fibres of which a muscle is
composed. In humans, skeletal muscle fibres
exist in two main categories: the fatigue-resistant slow-twitch (ST) or type-I fibres, and the
fatigue-sensitive fast-twitch (FT) or type-II fibres1. Classical papers from the 1970s2,3 established that excellence in sports with short
and long exercise durations requires a high
proportion of FT and ST muscle fibres, respectively. With humans there is an ongoing nature
versus nurture debate about whether a fibre
can be modified into another type. However,
A
7
A New Method for Non-Invasive Estimation of Muscle Fibre Type Composition in Athletes
the effect of specific types of exercise training
on the transition between ST and FT fibre populations is probably limited4. Therefore, measurement of the muscle fibre type composition
can be a tool for talent identification and for
defining an athlete’s optimal exercise duration
in athletics and many other sports. Because of
the invasive nature and high sampling variance
of the muscle biopsy method, a non-invasive
alternative to measure muscle fibre type composition would be useful.
Several attempts have been made to determine muscle fibre type composition in a noninvasive way in resting muscles: magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)5-7, phosphorus magnetic
resonance spectroscopy (31P-MRS)8 or tensiomyography (TMG)9 (contracting muscles).
These results were either equivocal or in the
case of contracting muscles, too dependent
on training status and fatigue. Consequently,
this suggests that MRI, 31P-MRS and TMG are
less suitable to reliably estimate muscle fibre
type composition.
Recently, 1H-MRS has been used to measure muscle metabolites, such as intra- (IMCL)10
and extra-myocellular lipids (EMCL)10, trimethylamonium (TMA)11 and carnosine12. Two important requirements to use a metabolite for
the estimation of muscle fibre composition, are
that the concentrations are markedly different
between type-I and II fibres, and are largely independent of extrinsic factors such as diet and
training. With this in mind, carnosine seemed to
be a good candidate.
The dipeptide carnosine is present in
high concentrations and is a relatively stable
characteristic of human skeletal muscle (approximately 10% variation over a three-month
period13 and a high resemblance between dizygotic and especially monozygotic twins14).
Only high-dose beta-alanine supplementation
for several weeks can change the muscle carnosine content12. Short-term exercise training has little or no impact on muscle carnosine levels15-18. However, muscle fibre type is
a major determinant of carnosine levels with
8
FT fibres containing twice as much carnosine
as ST fibres19,20, explaining why marathon runners have low muscle carnosine content21. In
untrained subjects, positive correlations have
been found between FT fibre proportion and
carnosine content, using muscle biopsies22,23.
The aim of the current study was to develop
a new and non-invasive estimation method
of fibre type composition in human muscles,
based on proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) measurement of muscle
carnosine content.
Methods
Subjects
A total of 262 subjects volunteered to participate in this cross-sectional study. The study
population consisted of 170 controls (80 males
and 90 females) and 92 athletes (76 males and
16 females). None of the subjects were vegetarian or had taken beta-alanine in the three
months prior to the start of the study. All subjects gave their written informed consent with
the study being approved by the local ethics
committee (Ghent University Hospital, Belgium).
The reference population was physically active, but not involved in competitive sport or
organised training.
The athletes were divided in three subgroups: 1) 14 talented young male track-andfield athletes, 2) 64 active elite athletes (48
males, 16 females) and 3) 14 male ex-athletes.
All active and ex-athletes (groups 2 and 3) were
or had been competing at an international level, with 19 winning a medal at the Olympics,
World or European Championships. The active
elite athletes were recruited from triathlon (n=6)
and track-and-field (n=71). The track-and-field
athletes were assigned to one of the following
disciplines; 100-200m, 400m, 800m, 1500m,
3000m-marathon, jumps, throws, decathlon,
using the IAAF scoring tables of athletics24.
The young talented (n=14) and former athletes
(n=14) were divided into an explosive and endurance group.
Muscle fibre typing
Muscle biopsies were taken at rest from the
gastrocnemius of 12 males of the reference
group, with a 14 Gauge true-cut biopsy needle
(Bard Magnum Biopsy gun; Bard, Inc., New
Jersey, USA). With use of an ultrasonograph
for guidance (Ultrasonography Pro Sound
SSD-5000, ALOKA Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan.
with probe UST-5545, frequency 5-13MHZ),
three muscle samples were taken following
local anaesthesia (lidocaine 1%, Linisol®).
The samples were frozen in nitrogen-cooled
isopentane and embedded in Tissue-Tek for
immunohistochemical analysis. The samples
were stained for myosin heavy chain isoforms
and analysed according to DeBOCK et al25.
Muscle carnosine content
The carnosine content of the gastrocnemius
muscle of all 262 subjects was measured with a
proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1HMRS), as previously described26. With the subjects lying in the supine position the lower leg
was fixed in a holder with the angle of the ankle
at 20° plantar flexion. All the MRS measurements were performed with a 3 Tesla whole
body MRI scanner (Siemens Trio, Erlangen)
equipped with a spherical knee-coil. Single
voxel point-resolved spectroscopy1 sequence
with the following parameters was used: repetition time (TR)= 2,000ms, echo time (TE) =
30ms, number of excitations = 128, 1,024 data
points, spectral bandwidth of 1.200Hz, and a
total acquisition time of 4.24 min. The absolute
carnosine content (in millimolar; mM) was calculated as described by BAGUET et al26.
Previous studies showed a variation coefficient of gastrocnemius carnosine content over
a six-week period of 11.9% in untrained13 and
13.2% in trained subjects12,26. Given the higher
carnosine concentrations in men compared
with women27, Z-scores were used, instead of
absolute values. The Z-scores for both genders
were calculated using the mean and standard
deviation of the reference population.
Statistical Analysis
The correlation in Figure 2 was evaluated by
a Pearson correlation. Independent sample Ttests were used to compare the muscle carnosine content between explosive and endurance
Figure 1: Overview of subject population (Numbers of subjects per group and by gender are shown. Muscle
carnosine content was measured in all 262 subjects and muscle biopsies were taken from 12 untrained males.)
9
athletes in the talents, elites and ex-athletes
(SPSS statistical software, SPSS 17.0, Chicago,
IL). Values are presented as means ± SD with
significance assumed at p≤ 0.05. The sigmoidal
curve was designed with SigmaPlot 11 (Systat
Software Inc.).
Results
Relationship between muscle carnosine
content and fast-twitch fibre area
In the 12 untrained subjects, the biopsy-determined percentage of fast twitch fibres ranged
between 29 and 62%. Figure 2 shows a strong
positive correlation (p=0.009 and r=0.714) between 1H-MRS-based carnosine concentration,
expressed in Z-scores, and the percentage of
fast twitch fibres in gastrocnemius muscle.
Muscle carnosine content in active elite
athletes
Within the elite athletes, muscle carnosine
measured with 1H-MRS was ~25% higher
(p<0.001) in the explosive athletes (i.e. sprinters) than the reference untrained population.
In turn, carnosine was ~35% lower (p<0.001)
than normal in typical endurance athletes (i.e.,
3000m to marathon runners and triathletes)
(Figure 3). Sprinters (100-400m) had, on average, a 1.9-fold higher carnosine content than
marathon runners and triathletes (p< 0.001).
All 100m-400m runners had a higher muscle
carnosine content than the population mean
and all of the triathletes and marathon runners
had a lower carnosine concentration than the
average of the reference population. Athletes
competing in disciplines requiring both sprint
and endurance capacities, such as decathletes, showed intermediate carnosine levels.
We observed the same pattern in female athletes (data not shown), although absolute carnosine concentrations were consistently lower
in women than in men, in agreement with previous reports27. Figure 4 displays all male and
female active elite runners (n=45) ranked according to their best running distance. Interestingly, a negative sigmoidal (R²=0.9810), rather
than linear relation was found between the logarithm of the best running distance and muscle carnosine content, expressed in Z-scores.
Figure 2: Correlation between muscle carnosine content and percentage area occupied by type-II fibres in 12
untrained subjects (The X-axis displays the percentage of the total area occupied by type-II fibres. The muscle
carnosine content (expressed in Z-scores) is shown on the Y-axis. A significant positive correlation between
muscle carnosine content and percentage area occupied by type-II fibres is demonstrated.)
10
Figure 3: Carnosine content of gastrocnemius muscle in track-and field athletes and triathletes compared to an
untrained control population (Muscle carnosine content in various small groups of male elite athletes (n= 64) and in
a the male control population (n=170) ranked from low to high. Numbers per group are given in Figure 1. The primary X-axis shows the measured carnosine content (expressed in Z-scores), while the secondary X-axis displays
the estimated percentage area occupied by type II fibres (derived from Figure 2). The vertical line represents the
median of the control population. The medians (small vertical lines) and first and third quartile are shown by group.)
Muscle carnosine content in young and
former athletes
The muscle carnosine concentration remained significantly different between exsprinters (n=7) and ex-endurance athletes
(n=7) (p=0.01), who had discontinued training
for many years. Moreover, a similar difference
(p=0.03) was observed in young talents between explosive (n=6) and endurance (n=8)
athletes (figure 5).
Discussion
In order to develop a new non-invasive
method to estimate muscle fibre composition in humans, muscle carnosine content of
92 Belgian track-and-field athletes and 170
controls was measured using 1H-MRS. Sprint
athletes (100m-400m) all exhibited higher carnosine levels since these distances require
a higher percentage of fast-type muscle fibres3,28, as opposed to endurance athletes
(1500m-marathon), who expressed a lower
carnosine concentration. This is consistent
11
Figure 4: Carnosine content of the gastrocnemius muscle in male and female active elite runners, according
to their best running distance (All male (n=29) and female (n=16) elite runners were ranked according to their
best running distance (using the IAAF scoring tables). The X-axis displays running distance (m) in a logarithmic
fashion and the Y-axis shows the carnosine content, expressed in Z-scores. A Y-value of zero corresponds to
the average of the male/female reference population. The median Z-score per group is shown and the best
sigmoidal fit is presented (R²=0.9810).)
since these events require a higher percentage
of slow twitch fibres3,28. It is interesting to note
that the 800m runners’ carnosine levels where
roughly between the sprint and endurance
athletes, as indicated by the steepest part of
the sigmoidal curve (midpoint ~1000m).
Of the explosive athletes, the 100m sprinters had a mean Z-score of +2.28. This means
that the odds of finding a person in the general
Belgian population with this fibre typology is
approximately 1 in 100. When taking into account the many factors that define sprint talent
(anthropometry, trainability, reaction time, etc.),
this illustrates why talent detection and identification is very important and at the same time
very difficult.
Higher carnosine content in sprinters is not
an acute response to intensive training, but rather a reflection of the predominant percentage
12
of fast twitch muscle fibre type. This observation is supported since a significant difference
of muscle carnosine concentration was seen
when comparing ex-sprinters and ex-endurance
athletes. Moreover, a similar significant difference also existed when comparing young (1418 years old) sprinters to endurance athletes.
These young athletes are still at the start of their
career and their accumulated training history is
several thousands of hours less than their elite
adult colleagues, suggesting that the muscle
carnosine content is probably largely genetically
determined (Figure 5), as is the muscle fibre
type composition. Indeed, in 2012 BAGUET et
al found higher correlations in muscle carnosine
in monozygotic (r=0.86) compared to dizygotic
(r=0.51) twins14 . Therefore, we believe that this
new method may prove useful in the identification of talents in sports where muscle fibre type
composition is a determining factor.
Figure 5: Comparison of the gastrocnemius carnosine content in young talented male athletes (n=14), active
elite athletes (n=19) and ex-athletes (n=14) (The Y-axis shows the carnosine content (expressed in Z-scores).
The diamonds represent explosive athletes (talents n= 6; active n= 12 ; ex n= 7) and the squares represent
endurance runners (talents n= 8; active n=14; ex n=7). Data are shown as means ± standard deviation.
*Different from explosive athletes (p≤ 0.05).)
VAN DAMME et al29 explored the performance constraints in elite decathletes and
concluded that performances on different
sub-disciplines, like the 100m and 1500m,
correlate negatively, partly because of the
conflicting muscle fibre type requirements.
Moreover, excellence in a particular discipline
(specialist) is detrimental for overall decathlon
performance (generalist). Our findings seem to
agree with both of these points. With respect
to muscle carnosine, disciplines like the 100m
and 1500m indeed have antagonistic requirements (Figure 4). Additionally, the six elite decathletes we measured (Figure 3) had intermediate carnosine levels within a relatively narrow
range, suggesting that they were all generalists, rather than specialists.
This novel method provides a non-invasive
estimation of human muscle fibre type composition. Important advantages of this method are;
• it does not induce damage to the muscle
like the biopsy method,
• it can be used outside of a laboratory,
• it is infinitely repeatable and applicable to
special populations (i.e. elite athletes).
In turn, besides the muscle damage caused,
a disadvantage to biopsies is the fact that their
results are not very representative. Typically,
when a biopsy is taken the fibre typing is done
on a tissue sample representing less than
0.01% of the total muscle mass30 that contains
only a couple of hundred fibres and even fewer
motor units. Therefore, a single biopsy, is not
an ideal estimator of the whole muscles fibre
type distribution31,32 and multiple biopsies are
required to adequately estimate the muscle fibre type distribution33,34.
The current NMR-based 1H-MRS method
typically samples 10-15ml or grams of muscle,
including both superficial and deep parts of
the muscle representing approximately 5%
of the entire muscle. MRS-based carnosine
quantification has a relatively good repeatability in both untrained13 and trained12,26 humans.
Another advantage compared to the biopsy
method, is that the MRS technique is not labor
intensive; the scanning and analysis are performed in 30 min or less (effective scan time
~20 min). The MRS-based technique therefore
tackles most of the disadvantages of the biop-
13
sy method that have kept the technique from
evolving from a research tool towards a routine
screening method for predicting, and steering
athletic success35.
A potential weakness of this current method
is that it is based on indirect estimation through
quantification of a single metabolite, carnosine, which is a typical metabolite of FT fibres.
Certain nutritional interventions such as betaalanine supplementation12,36 can influence the
muscle carnosine content without altering the
fibre type composition, which will disrupt the
relationship between muscle fibre type composition and carnosine content. Beta-alanine
supplementation in the three months preceding the test was therefore treated as an exclusion criterion in the present study.
Some important considerations on the
practical use of this method are:
• it is not applicable prior to or during puberty, due to the influence of pubertal hormones on muscle carnosine14,
• its dependence on the availability of a
3 Tesla NMR scanner,
• the rental of a NMR scanner is often expensive.
14
Conclusion
The use of 1H-MRS based carnosine quantification is a valuable non-invasive approach
to estimate muscle fibre type composition.
This conclusion is based on the close level of
agreement with the performance characteristics of various small groups of elite athletes.
This fast and easy method may have useful
applications in talent identification and sport
discipline (re)orientation. More than 40 years
after the initial discovery by Gollnick &
Saltin3, documenting on the extremely large
proportion of ST fibres in the muscles of 1972
Olympic marathon champion Frank Shorter
(USA) and other truly elite distance runners, it
seems that the important role of muscle fibre
type composition in defining athletic success
is ready to be translated into practical application in athletics.
Please send all correspondence to:
Wim Derave
[email protected]
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L.; VOLKAERT, A.; PETROVIC, M.; TAES, Y. & DERAVE, W.
(2011). Effects of sprint training combined with vegetarian
or mixed diet on muscle carnosine content and buffering
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(1998). Carnosine and taurine contents in individual fibers
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15
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16
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Variability of fiber type distributions within human muscles.
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Study
Monitoring Training Load in
Sprint Interval Exercises
© by IAAF
29:2; 19-30, 2014
by Ari Nummela
ABSTRACT
AUTHOR
Current methods for assessing sprint training such as stopwatch timing and monitoring the athlete’s perceived exertion,
heart-rate recovery and blood lactate
measurements are useful tools, but none
provide unambiguous measures of training
load. The purpose of this three-part study
was to investigate the validity of different
training load descriptors, including a new
model for measuring training load in sprint
interval exercises (SIEs) and over the course
of a training period. The author compares
data collected from single sprints of various intensities performed on separate days
by eight athletes, from SIEs performed over
the course of three months by 16 athletes
and from the training of a single athlete in
two eight-week periods. He concludes that
a combination of methods is best for accurately monitoring training load but coaches
and athletes should be aware of individual
physiological responses, since similar training may not give similar adaptations for
each individual. In addition, he finds that
the index of sprint training load provided
by the new model has certain practical
advantages as it is non-invasive and does
not require expensive devices yet correlates
well to the other measures studied.
Ari Nummela, PhD, is a Director of a research unit at the Research Institute
for Olympic Sports (KIHU) in Jyväskylä,
Finland.
Introduction
he ultimate goal of any sports coach
and athlete is to improve the athlete’s
performance, producing a win or a
personal best at a specific competition. The
prescription of the training required to achieve
this goal is based on years of coaching experience and a thorough knowledge of the athlete.
The role of scientific research in the process is
becoming more important in order to prescribe
optimal training programmes preventing both
under- and over-training as well as injuries.
T
The intensity, duration and frequency of exercise determines the training load and effect,
with the load being dependent on the mode
of exercise, the muscles being used and individual factors like: performance profile, training background and state of the athlete, and
external conditions. Surprisingly little research
has been conducted into the quantification of
training programmes and their effects on training load, physiological adaptation and subsequent performance.
19
The training load of endurance exercises
has been described by heart-rate, oxygen consumption, blood lactate, rating of perceived
exertion (RPE), excess post exercise oxygen
consumption (EPOC) and exercise intensity
and duration4,5. In turn, BANISTER2 proposed
a training impulse (TRIMP) method to quantify
the training load of endurance exercises using
a person’s heart-rate response to exercise and
duration. In an attempt to simplify the quantification of training load, FOSTER7 introduced
the use of session RPE instead of using heartrate data or having to measure the intensity of
exercise.
useful but none of them provide objective and
unambiguous measures of the training load.
In speed endurance sports, such as running
distances from 100m to 800m, there is a need
for an objective method that can be used to
measure training load of a SIE.
Sprint interval exercises (SIEs) differ substantially from endurance training due to the
higher intensity, shorter duration and interval
nature of the exercise. In SIEs the intensity is
often greater than the velocity at maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max), suggesting that oxygen
uptake and heart-rate during the exercise are
not valid methods to describe training load. In
practice, coaches assess training load in SIEs
with a stopwatch and by monitoring the athlete’s RPE, blood lactate measurements and
heart-rate recovery. All these methods are
Methods
The aim of the present study was to investigate the validity and suitability of different
methods currently used to describe training
load in SIEs. A secondary aim was to investigate the validity of a novel model for measuring
the training load in SIEs and over the course of
a training period.
Single sprints
This study was divided into three parts. In
the first, three female and five male sprinters
performed three to eight single sprints on separate days (Table 1). The sprints were 200m,
300m and 600m performed at 65-92% of the
athlete’s personal best time (PB). All the runs
were timed and heart-rate was recorded (Suunto t6, Suunto Oy, Vantaa, Finland) from beatto-beat with RR intervals (the peak between
Table 1: Description of female and male sprinters in the single sprints and sprint interval exercises
Sprint Interval Exercises
Single Sprints
Men (n = 5)
Age (years)
25.7 ± 4.9
25.8 ± 5.1
24.7 ± 2.6
Height (m)
1.69 ± 0.02
1.85 ± 0.03
1.71 ± 0.06
Body mass (kg)
55.0 ± 1.0
78.5 ± 3.0
60.4 ± 7.2
198 ± 6
197 ± 2
196 ± 5
PB in 100 m (s)
12.64 ± 0.72
11.44 ± 0.45
12.37 ± 0.68
PB in 200 m (s)
25.24 ± 1.66
22.54 ± 0.68
24.90 ± 1.23
PB in 400 m (s)
56.58 ± 3.75
50.60 ± 3.37
56.55 ± 3.10
Maximal heart-rate
(bpm)
20
Women (n = 7)
Women (n = 3)
Men (n = 9)
25.8 ± 5.1
1.87 ± 0.04
83.1 ± 4.8
197 ± 4
11.17 ± 0.46
22.15 ± 0.80
50.47 ± 2.62
Table 2: Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale
used in the present study
0
0.5
1
2
3
Nothing at all
Extremely easy
Very easy
Easy
Moderate
4
5
Hard
6
7
Very hard
Sprint training period
In the third part of the study, the training of
a female sprinter (Age: 28yrs, Height: 170cm,
Body mass: 56kg, PB in 400m: 52.27 sec) was
monitored during two eight-week training periods separated by a four-week indoor competition season. The first training period was successful, with the athlete going on to record a
personal best time in the 400m indoors. During
the second training period, her performance
decreased significantly and she was unable to
recover completely during the following threemonth outdoor competition season. The athlete recorded details of each interval training
session in her training diary. The recorded data
included the distance and time of each sprint,
the recovery times between the sprints and
RPE (0-10+) for each training session.
8
9
10
Extremely hard
10+
Absolute maximum
one R wave and the next in the electrocardiogram) during the sprints and a 2 min recovery
in standing position. RPE was recorded after
the sprints using a 0 - 10+ scale (Table 2). To
measure blood lactate concentration, 20μl fingertip blood samples were taken immediately
and at 3 min after each sprint and analysed
(Biosen S_Line Lab+, EKF Diagnostic GmbH,
Magdeburg, Germany).
Sprint interval exercises (SIEs)
In the second part of the study, seven female and nine male sprinters participated,
(Table 1). In total, 95 different SIEs were performed over a three-month period. Running
and recovery times for each SIE were measured with a stopwatch, while heart-rate was
recorded with RR intervals from the beginning
of the exercise until at least 2 min after the exercise using the same devices as for the single
sprints. Similar to part one, RPE and blood lactate concentration levels were measured and
recorded (Table 2).
Furthermore, a maximal 30m speed test with
a running start and a maximal anaerobic running test (MART) were conducted in November
and April, after the first and second eight-week
training periods, respectively. The MARTs were
performed on a 200m indoor track and consisted of 10 x 150m with a 100 sec recovery
between the runs12. The desired running velocity was determined for the first nine 150m runs
with a light rabbit (Naakka Ltd., Lappeenranta,
Finland), in which red lights at intervals of four
meters were switched on according to preset
velocities. The velocity of the first run was 3.94
m/sec and thereafter the velocity of the light
rabbit was increased by 0.41 m/sec for each
consecutive run until the last run, performed
at maximal effort. Before the MARTs, 40 sec
after each run and 2.5, 5 and 10 min after the
last run, fingertip blood samples were taken
and the blood lactate concentrations were analysed (Biosen S_Line Lab+, EKF Diagnostic
GmbH, Magdeburg, Germany).
Analyses
Average velocity and relative running velocity
(% of the PB) were calculated for all the single
sprints and all the sprints in the SIEs. Furthermore, the total distance, total running and exercise times (exercise time = running time + recovery time) for the SIEs were also calculated. The
21
higher of the two lactate values after the single
sprints or the SIEs was selected to represent
blood lactate concentration of that particular
sprint or SIE. The peak heart-rate and heart-rate
recovery value was determined 30, 60, 90 and
120 sec after the single sprints and SIEs.
Sprint training load
Training load was calculated for the single
sprints and SIEs using a new method. In this
model, running intensity, distance and individual performance profile were used to calculate
the sprint load index of a single sprint (Figure
1A). With regards to the SIEs, in addition to
running intensity and distance the cumulative
training load and the time for recovery were included in the model to determine the training
load value (Figure 1B).
Statistical analyses
All statistical analyses and comparisons
were done by the SPSS/PC+™ program (SPSS
Inc. Chicago, USA). Standard statistical methods were used to calculate means, standard
deviations and coefficients of correlations. The
Standard t-test was used to compare the two
eight-week training periods. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.
Results
Single sprints
A total of 42 sprints by eight sprinters were
measured (Table 3). Correlation analysis between RPE and different variables of the single
sprints revealed that running intensity affected
the training load of single sprints to a greater extent than running distance. The highest correlations were observed between RPE and blood
lactate (r = 0.764, p < 0.001) and the new index
of sprint training load (r = 0.810, p < 0.001). Furthermore, a significant correlation was observed
between blood lactate and the new index of
sprint training load (r = 0.910, p < 0.001).
Sprint interval exercises
A total of 95 SIEs by 16 sprinters using different combinations of running distances from
100m to 600m at various intensities (from
22
46 to 99% of PB) and recovery periods were
measured. Correlation analysis between RPE
and SIE characteristics showed that running
intensity (either absolute or relative velocity)
was the most important factor determining
training load, (Table 4) with blood lactate being the best marker for sprint training load (r
= 0.771, p < 0.001). Unlike the single sprints,
a high correlation between heart-rate recovery
and RPE in the SIEs was observed (Table 4).
In addition, a significant correlation was seen
between blood lactate and the index of sprint
training load (r = 0.727, p < 0.001).
The data for the MARTs and 30m maximal
speed test as well as the average training data
for the two eight-week training periods before
and after the indoor season are shown in Table
5. The average data indicates that the training during the first period was harder than the
second, with the athlete experiencing a state
of over-training in the second period. RPE
and the index of sprint training load increased
gradually during both periods as shown in Figures 2A and 2B, respectively. Figure 3 shows
that in the first period similarly rated sprint
interval exercises achieved a higher index of
sprint training load than in the second. Correlation analysis regarding the relationship between RPE and the index of sprint training load
was higher during the first (r = 0.615, p < 0.001)
than the second (r = 0.377, p = 0.037).
Discussion
The aim of the present study was to investigate whether simple and user-friendly methods
can be used to describe training load in sprint
interval exercises. The athlete’s rating of perceived exertion was selected as a valid method
to describe training load. Although RPE may be
influenced by psychological factors, it has been
strongly correlated with heart-rate and blood
lactate measurements in a variety of populations and is widely recognised as an integrated
measure of the homeostatic disturbance during
exercise15. The results from the single sprints indicated that blood lactate concentration and the
Figure 1A: The effect of running intensity (% PB) and distance on sprint training load
Figure 1B: The effect of recovery on sprint training load
23
Figure 2A: RPE of sprint interval exercises during 8-week period before (blue) and after (red) the indoor
season
Figure 2B: Sprint training load of sprint interval exercises during 8-week period before (blue) and after (red) the
indoor season
24
Figure 3: Similarly rated sprint interval exercises before (blue) and after (red) the indoor season
new index of sprint training load were the best
methods to determine the training load in this
activity. Blood lactate was the best method for
determining the training load for the SIEs. Furthermore, the index of sprint training load and
heart-rate recovery (HRR) were significantly related to RPE. Based on the current results, this
relationship between HRR and RPE improved
with the recovery time with the highest correlation value attained at 2 min of recovery.
Blood lactate
It was no surprise that a high correlation
between blood lactate and RPE was observed
both in single sprints and in the SIEs. Lactate
is the end product of glycolysis, the anaerobic
pathway used to produce energy during high
intensity exercises. Glycolysis begins within
the first few seconds after the initiation of high
intensity exercise and contributes the bulk of
energy during short-term high intensity exercises3. Blood lactate concentration is related
to lactate production and concentration in a
muscle8. The high correlation between RPE
and blood lactate can be explained by the association of acidosis and fatigue1.
The measurement of blood lactate concentrations has become easier and more practical
with the development of portable measurement
devices requiring only a drop of blood from a
finger prick. Since blood lactate measure is invasive, however, it remains impractical to measure lactate during each sprint interval training session in order to quantify training load.
Furthermore, improvements in training status
and over-training have been associated with
decreases in maximal and submaximal blood
lactate concentration10, which may lead to erroneous interpretations of lactate measurements
and incorrect exercise prescriptions.
25
Table 3: Analysed variables of single sprints (n = 42) from eight sprinters and correlation coefficients (r) between RPE and different variables of the sprints
Mean ± SD
Minimum
Maximum
r
3.6 ± 1.9
0.5
8.0
1.000
Velocity (m·s-1)
5.81 ± 0.89
4.33
7.87
0.135
0.394
Velocity (% PB)
74.1 ± 7.9
64.0
91.7
0.732
< 0.001
Distance (m)
307 ± 160
200
600
0.455
0.002
Blood Lactate (mmol·l-1)
7.09 ± 2.65
3.88
13.78
0.764
< 0.001
Sprint training load index
31.0 ± 10.7
18.2
64.2
0.810
< 0.001
Heart-rate peak (bpm)
172 ± 11
145
192
0.438
0.004
HRR 30 s (% HRpeak)
92.4 ± 3.6
83.2
97.4
0.153
0.333
HRR 60 s (% HRpeak)
81.5 ± 6.2
61.6
91.3
0.294
0.059
HRR 90 s (% HRpeak)
74.5 ± 6.7
51.2
87.9
0.309
0.046
HRR 120 s (% HRpeak)
70.8 ± 6.3
47.0
86.8
0.316
RPE
p
0.042
Abbreviations: PB = personal best, HRR = heart rate recovery, HRpeak = peak heart rate during the exercise
Heart-rate recovery
Heart-rate recovery was calculated both for
absolute and relative values. Percentage values
from peak heart-rate of a single sprint or SIE
are presented in the final results, and are highly
correlated to RPE values. The heart-rate response to the cessation of exercise is governed
by the autonomic nervous system, specifically
parasympathetic reactivation and sympathetic
withdrawal13. Changes in the autonomic nervous system activity after exercise are affected
by either improved endurance performance
and/or over-training. Therefore, this may also
be a practical and reliable marker of training
load and fatigue providing information about
training induced changes in performance.
In single sprint training, HRR (% of peak
heart-rate) is not a reliable measure of load,
since it is not strongly related to RPE. On the
26
other hand, with regards to SIEs, peak heartrate is more reliable. Since sprints increase the
heart-rate, and this remains elevated during the
recovery, less time is needed to attain the peak
heart-rate. When measuring HRR, it is important that the athlete stays still during the recovery and in the same position every time. In the
present study, the athletes were measured in
the standing position approximately 2 min after
the single sprints and after the SIEs. According to the results, the correlation between RPE
and HRR increased with recovery time with the
highest values recorded after 2 min of recovery
for both the single sprints and the entire SIE.
It should be noted that with single sprints, 90
sec was needed to attain a significant relationship with RPE while with the SIEs, 60 sec was
enough to get a reliable measurement.
Table 4: Analyced variables of sprint interval exercises (n = 95) from 16 sprinters and correlation coefficients
(r) between RPE and different variables of the exercises
Mean ± SD
Minimum
Maximum
r
6.1 ± 1.8
2.0
10.0
1.000
Average velocity (m·s-1)
6.39 ± 0.83
4.77
8.61
0.400
Average velocity (% PB)
76.6 ± 7.3
62.5
95.9
0.433
Distance (km)
1.92 ± 0.72
0.80
3.90
-0.018
Sprint time (min)
5.20 ± 2.31
1.61
11.82
-0.194
Total time (min)
30.48 ±
14.00
5.33
66.03
0.338
14.30 ± 3.58
6.74
21.70
0.771
56.6 ± 21.6
16.9
102.2
0.506
HRpeak (bpm)
177 ± 11
151
194
0.025
HRR 30 s (% HRpeak)
95.1 ± 2.7
82.1
99.4
0.139
HRR 60 s (% HRpeak)
89.0 ± 4.7
74.2
98.9
0.278
HRR 90 s (% HRpeak)
81.5 ± 6.6
64.6
93.8
0.483
HRR 120 s (% HRpeak)
76.0 ± 7.3
58.1
92.2
0.546
RPE
Blood Lactate (mmol·l-1)
p
< 0.001
< 0.001
0.300
0.059
< 0.001
< 0.001
< 0.001
0.810
0.180
0.006
< 0.001
< 0.001
Abbreviations: PB = personal best, HRR = heart rate recovery, HRpeak = peak heart rate during the exercise
Index of sprint training load
The index of sprint training load is affected by the intensity and length of the sprint as
shown in Figure 1A. A scale from 0 to 100 is
used to measure the training load for single
sprints and SIEs, with values sometimes exceeding 100 for the SIEs. These values are represented by a curvilinear relationship between
sprint training load, intensity and distance. In
the model, the highest load values attained for
maximal intensity were between 400-500m.
This is supported by a previous study11, which
observed that ATP resynthesis from glycolysis
is highest in maximal exercises lasting 40-50
sec. Intensity in this model is a percentage value of the personal best result for the distance
of the sprint. The above approach represents
one way to individualise the model, with the
other being the use of the performance profile
of the athlete. With the SIEs, the determination
of the training load of a single sprint and the
effect of recovery on sprint training load needs
to be determined. This is calculated by adding the effect of each recovery period to the
index of sprint training load using the recovery
model in Figure 1B. In this model, the cumulative training load of the previous sprint(s) and
the recovery time are used to determine the
final training load. In this context, the index of
sprint training load had a greater correlation
with RPE than blood lactate in single sprints.
Furthermore, a significant correlation was observed between the sprint training load index
and blood lactate value suggesting that the
model is a valid method to measure training
load in sprinting.
27
Table 5: MART and 30m maximal velocity test data of the female sprint runner and the respective training data
of two 8-week training periods before and after the indoor season
November
Maximal 30m (m·s-1)
8.96
Maximal 150m (m·s-1)
8.11
Peak B-La (mmol·l-1)
15.7
v10mM (m·s-1)
7.38
v5mM (m·s-1)
6.22
Before indoor season
Number of all exercises
55
Number of SIE
31
Average velocity (m·s-1)
5.89 ± 1.39
Average velocity (% PB)
75.1 ± 12.8
Average distance (km)
2.12 ± 1.22
Total SIE distance (km)
65.7
Average SIE time (min)
28.5 ± 8.2
Average RPE all exercises
6.1 ± 1.4
Average RPE in SIE
6.8 ± 1.3
56.2 ± 27.2
April
8.77
8.06
13.9
7.40
6.46
After indoor season
52
25
6.03 ± 1.40
75.0 ± 11.6
2.13 ± 1.10
53.3
32.9 ± 11.1
6.0 ± 1.4
6.9 ± 0.8
46.4 ± 14.2
Abbreviations: B-La = blood lactate concentration, v10mM = velocity at 10 mmol · l-1 blood lactate level,
v5mM = velocity at 5 mmol · l-1 blood lactate level, SIE = sprint interval exercise, PB = personal best
With regards to SIEs, the correlation between RPE and the index of sprint training load
was lower than with blood lactate but is still
significant and is also close to the correlation
of HRR. Furthermore, a significant correlation
was observed between the sprint training load
index and blood lactate in SIE, suggesting that
the sprint training load model is a valid method
for determining the training load in SIEs. The
advantage of the index over blood lactate or
HRR is that it is non-invasive, and does not
require expensive devices such as heart-rate
monitors to determine sprint training load.
All that is needed is a stopwatch to measure
sprint and recovery times.
28
In the present study, a case was presented
in which the preparation for the indoor season
was successful but in the following eight-week
training period the athlete developed a state of
over-training and was not able to attain her personal best during the subsequent outdoor season. Based on the training summary of the two
eight-week training periods (Table 5) the training period before the indoor season was harder
than the training period after the indoor season.
As concluded by BORRESEN & LAMBERT4,
there is currently no accurate and quantitative
method with which to prescribe the pattern, du-
ration and intensity of exercise required to produce specific physiological adaptations. There is
no single physiological marker that can be used
to quantify the performance effects and training
load or fatigue responses to exercise or predict
performance with accuracy. As such, more research and innovations are needed to find measurable non-invasive physiological markers for
physical fitness, training load or fatigue. This will
help to improve the accuracy of performance by
predicting and preventing under- and over-training. The relationship between training characteristics and the observed changes in physiological
variables and performance are highly individual
depending on numerous factors influencing an
athlete’s tolerance to a training load. Even the
same exercise may have different physiological
responses on the same individual at different
times depending on the performance profile and
state of training.
One of the aims of sprint interval training is
to increase the ability of an athlete to run faster
at the same blood lactate level. In this study,
this was confirmed by the results for the MART
(Table 5). However, if a decrease in maximal anaerobic performance, maximal running speed
and peak blood lactate concentration occurs,
this is indicative of an athlete reaching a state of
over-reaching or over-training10. In the present
study, this observation was confirmed with the
athlete who was unable to achieve her personal
best during the outdoor season.
The ratings of perceived exertion of SIE was
at the same level and increased similarly during
both eight-week training periods (Figure 2A),
with the only difference being that the standard
deviation of RPE was smaller after the indoor
season. The RPE values after the indoor season were six to eight, with one SIE being rated
as a five, whereas prior, the RPE values varied
from five to nine. The slope of the increase of
the index of sprint training load during the second eight-week training period was lower than
the first (Figure 2B) confirming over-training,
indicated by the lower SIE values post indoor
season. Furthermore, the standard deviation
of the index of sprint training load was smaller
during the eight-week training period after the
indoor season than before it. The combined
RPE and index of sprint training load data indicates that after the indoor season the athlete
rated the SIEs with a lower training load similarly to the SIEs with a higher training load before
the indoor season (Figure 3). Moreover, the difference between the training periods increased
toward the end of the periods suggesting that
the sprinter gradually entered a state of overreaching in the post-indoor season.
The training data from this study suggests
that a possible reason for overreaching after
the indoor season was not enough variation in
training load in the SIEs. In turn, other influences
are possibly the unknown factors and stressors
outside the exercises such as: psychological
stressors, nutrition, rest and quality of sleep.
Therefore, training and the ability to recover are
significant factors in determining adaptation as
well as assessing over-reaching or over-training.
The data of this case study confirms the
conclusion of BORRESEN & LAMBERT4 that
there is currently no single accurate method
that can be used to monitor both physiological
adaptation and fatigue. Nevertheless, monitoring and combining different data from the
athlete’s training diary as well as physiological
measurements will enable a coach to observe
positive and negative changes related to a
physiological adaptation and fatigue.
Conclusion and Recommendations
It can be concluded that intensity is the
most important factor determining training
load in SIEs. In addition to RPE, blood lactate
concentration, heart-rate recovery and the index of sprint training load can also be used
to determine training load. However, none of
these methods alone are enough to accurately
monitor the training load and fatigue. Therefore, a combination of these methods as suggested in this study provides a method to best
monitor training data and different physiological responses in order to prevent under- or
over-training in sprinters.
29
In training for sprints, the running velocity
and intensity (% PB) in SIE are important factors to monitor for determining training load
and adaptation. In order to calculate the index
of sprint training load, running velocity, the intensity of the SIE, the distance sprinted and
the recovery time are needed. Therefore, it is
recommended to record the details of sprint
interval exercises in the training diary.
Training data alone does not give enough
information for the training adaptation and fatigue of a particular athlete. Coaches and athletes should be aware of the individual physiological responses to training, since similar
training may not give similar adaptations for
each individual. Based on the results of the
present study RPE, blood lactate concentration, heart-rate recovery and the index of sprint
training load are all valid and valuable measures to use in order to monitor physiological
adaptation, training load and/or fatigue in SIEs.
Dr Ari Nummela
[email protected]
REFERENCES
1. AMENT, W. & VERKERKE, G.J. (2009). Exercise and fatigue. Sports Med, 39: 389-422.
2. BANISTER, E.W. (1991). Modelling elite athletic performance. In: MacDougall JD, Wenger HA, Green HJ, eds.
Physiological testing of the high performance athlete.
Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics Publishers Ltd, 403–424.
3. BOOBIS, L.H.; WILLIAMS, C. & WOOTTON, A. (1983).
Human muscle metabolism during brief maximal exercise.
J Physiol, 338: 21P-22P.
4. BORRESEN, J. & LAMBERT, M. (2009). The quantification of training load, the training response and the effect of
performance. Sports Med, 39: 779-795.
5. BØRSHEIM, E. & BAHR, R. (2003). Effect of exercise intensity, duration and mode on post-exercise oxygen consumption. Sports Med, 33: 1037–1060.
6. ESTON, R. (2012).Use of ratings of perceived exertion in
sports. Int J Sports Physiol Perform, 7: 175–82.
7. FOSTER, C. (1998). Monitoring training in athletes with
reference to overtraining syndrome. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 30: 1164-1168.
8. HIRVONEN, J.; NUMMELA, A.; RUSKO, H.; REHUNEN,
S. & HÄRKÖNEN, M. (1992). Fatigue and changes of ATP,
creatine phosphate and lactate during 400 m sprint. Can J
Sport Sci,17: 141-144.
9. HULTMAN, E. & SJÖHOLM, H. (1983). Energy metabolism and contraction force of skeletal muscle in situ during
electrical stimulation. J Physiol, 345: 525-532.
10. JEUKENDRUP, A. & HESSELINK, M.K. (1994). Overtraining: what do lactate curves tell us? J Sports Med, 28:
239-240.
11. KINDERMANN, W. & KEUL, J. (1977). Lactate acidosis
with different forms of sport activities. Can J Appl Sports
Sci, 2: 177-182.
12. NUMMELA, A.; HÄMÄLÄINEN, I. & RUSKO, H. (2007).
Comparison of maximal anaerobic running tests on a
treadmill and track. J Sports Sci, 25: 87-96.
13. PIERPOINT, G.L. & VOTH, E.J. (2004). Assessing autonomic function by analysis of heartrate recovery from exercise in humans. Am J Cardiol, 94: 64-68.
14. SAVIN, W.M.; DAVIDSON, D.M. & HASKELL, W.L.
(1982). Autonomic contribution to heartrate recovery from
exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol, 53: 1572-1575.
15. SCHERR, J.; WOLFARTH, B.; CHRISTLE, J.W.,;
PRESSLER, A.; WAGENPFEIL, S. & HALLE, M. (2013). Associations between Borg’s rating of perceived exertion and
physiological measures of exercise intensity. Eur J Appl
Physiol, 113: 147–55.
30
NSA Interview
The Physiology of
Performance
© by IAAF
29:2; 33-36, 2014
An Interview with Iñigo Mujika
r Iñigo Mujika is a physiologist and
coach, who among his peers is widely
seen to be leading the amalgamation
of science and sport with the aim of improving
performance.
D
Mujika earned PhDs in the biology of muscular exercise (University of Saint-Etienne,
France) and physical activity and sport sciences (University of the Basque Country). In addition to his native Spain, he has held research
and training positions in Australia, France and
South Africa, through which he has gained experience working in several sports including
professional cycling, swimming, running, rowing, tennis, football and water polo.
His research in the physiological aspects
associated with sports performance includes
areas such as training methods and recovery
from exercise, tapering, detraining and overtraining. In the last decade he has published
nearly 80 articles in peer reviewed journals as
well as books entitled Tapering and Peaking
for Optimal Performance, Recovery for Performance in Sport and Endurance Training:
Science and Practice. He is also an associate editor of the International Journal of Sport
Physiology and Performance and has his own
website (www.inigomujika.com).
Among Mujika’s regular messages about
training for maximal performance in any sport
are the importance of the coach having precise,
in-depth information about volume, intensity
and frequency as the basis for monitoring and
manipulating the training programme and the
importance of the training-regeneration balance.
Earlier this year NSA contributor Jimson
Lee of Speed Endurance.com asked Mujika
to share his views and ideas on the training of
athletes, technology and recovery. Excerpts
from the conversation are published here and
the full interview can be found on Lee’s website
www.speedendurance.com.
NSA The fine line between tapering and detraining is getting smaller as competitive seasons are getting longer. With some metrics of
fitness and power varying, how does one know
if they are reaching a point of lost fitness?
Mujika: In my view, the key metric to assess
where an athlete is at any point in time is performance in training and in competition. If an
athlete is not performing at his or her expected
level, we need to make some kind of performance-fatigue assessment. If performance is
indeed declining, we should assess why this is
the case, starting with exclusion criteria such
as confounding illnesses. We should also as-
33
The Physiology of Performance – An Interview with Iñigo Mujika
sess whether there are clear errors in the athlete’s training programme: insufficient training
volume, intensity or frequency; excess or insufficient competition, nutritional errors, and other
confounding factors such as psychological
problems, social issues, travel fatigue, etc. We
can, of course, make use of biological markers such as resting cortisol levels or maximal
lactate production, but I have always believed
that communication with the athlete is the most
important way to assess what is going on.
NSA Some coaches are monitoring fatigue
but not managing training outside of formal sessions. What are ways to make non-specific training outside of sessions a combination of both
adaptation and monitoring physical abilities?
Mujika: Not assessing training or physical
activities outside of formal practice is equivalent to trying to make a nutritional assessment
including only the foods ingested by an athlete at meals, but ignoring what they eat once
they are on their own. We need to know what
the athlete does outside of formal practice, as
this may have a huge impact on the way they
adapt to training. All physical training should
be included in the quantification of an athlete’s
activity profile, and this can be done with the
use of physical activity questionnaires, or by
means of technological tools such as heart
rate monitors or accelerometers.
NSA Can you share any good workouts that
could help athletes monitor power or conditioning?
Mujika: In terms of tests or workouts that may
help monitor power or conditioning, I am sure
that every fitness coach has his or her own
method, which could be a reference training
set, a countermovement jump, a repeated
effort test, a maximal or submaximal Yo-Yo
Intermittent Recovery Test, etc. The most important thing is that these reference workouts
or tests should be carried out in standardised
conditions, be relevant to the sport, as well as
being valid, reliable and sensitive to changes in
an athlete’s fitness level.
34
NSA You mentioned years ago that longer
sprints may be important to prepare for injury
reduction in team sports?
Mujika: My philosophy is that we need to
identify the factors determining physical performance in sport, then try to find the right
training mix that includes proven methods to
improve each and every one of those factors.
For example, in most sports an elite athlete requires high levels of endurance, speed, power,
strength, and agility. We as coaches need
to make use of the best training methods to
improve each one of these qualities. We also
need to be aware that the technical and tactical areas are also key to performance, and after assessing an athlete’s strengths and weaknesses, we need to determine the training time
that will be specifically allocated to each of
these areas, and the time needed to optimally
integrate them to maximise each athlete’s contribution to overall performance.
NSA What can sport science do to help the
medical team and coach with during the season by integrating a balance between skill and
general training?
Mujika: Within this framework, injury prevention is a key aspect of daily training. In athletics,
the physical qualities required from athletes
should be trained in conjunction with injury
prevention (e.g. core training, proprioception,
use of eccentric overload training of thigh muscles, dynamic stabilisation through vibrations,
uneven and unstable surfaces, etc.). In this respect, I believe that it is better to have your athletes at 90% of their physical capacities, than
having them not compete due to injury.
NSA Many athletes are in tune with their
bodies while technology seems to be focused
on objective sensors. Is this a good direction?
Mujika: As I said in my recent editorial “The alphabet of sport science research starts with
Q”, I consider the quantification of training a cornerstone of athletic preparation for competition
and a key aspect of good sport science. In this
respect, any type of quantification is certainly
better than no quantification at all. Of course,
quantifying the external load imposed on an athlete is necessary, but we all know that individual
athletes will adapt differently to the same training load, so assessing the internal load is also
important. In my early studies with elite swimmers we quantified up to 28 training variables for
each athlete, daily, throughout an entire season,
year after year. We then applied a mathematical
model to relate the training input with the performance output, and later assessed the impact
of these training indices on various biological
markers. This type of quantification requires a
very methodical and systematic approach to
training, and generates a huge volume of data,
so we need to make sure that we can manage
and interpret the data to make it useful. At the
time, we did not include any psychological monitoring of the athletes, which was clearly an error.
NSA Where do you think things are going
with monitoring the athlete as a person versus
just a physiological body?
Mujika: Athletes’ performances improve or
decline not just due to physiological changes;
psychological status and mood states also
play a key role in an athlete’s ability to perform
in both training and competition, so being able
to continuously monitor their physiological and
psychological status is extremely important.
Whether this is done through technological
gadgets, questionnaires or by means of open
communication is less important, as long as
the quantification process is methodical, systematic, and provides valid and reliable information to optimize an athlete’s adaptation and
performance.
35
NSA Endurance training is a specialty of
yours but recovery and regeneration from
speed and power training is a growing need
in sports. What are the mechanisms we can
exploit without attenuating adaptations?
NSA Is legal regeneration outside of sleep,
eating right, and not doing too much training
possible? Are we just doing stuff to "feel" better and get a placebo effect or are there things
to make changes to our bodies for the better?
Mujika: This is certainly a very interesting issue. I have often stated that I see the training
process as a cycle that includes both the time
spent training and the time needed to recover
from a given training bout. Over the years, the
first part of this cycle has been emphasised
to enhance performance, with coaches and
athletes looking for ways to train longer and
harder. In the past fifteen years or so, however,
there has been a growing interest in the second part of the cycle, i.e. recovery, in an attempt to improve performance by recovering
better in between workouts, training cycles,
or even in between seasons. In this regard,
various recovery modalities and strategies are
gaining wide acceptance among athletes, and
sport governing bodies. Training centres and
professional teams are investing financial and
human resources to provide these recovery
modalities to athletes. Individual athletes are
also making use of popular proactive recovery methods. The big question here is whether
by facilitating recovery processes athletes are
blunting their adaptation to training. In other
words, by making use of such recovery modalities, do athletes get more benefit from their
training, or do they need to train more to get
the same benefit? Research in this area is still
inconclusive, so making general recommendations would not be wise.
Mujika: My view is that similar to physical
training, nutrition or psychological skills training, athletes should use a periodised approach
to proactive recovery. As my colleague Steve
Ingham from the English Institute of Sport puts
it, the focus should be on maximizing adaptation, not maximising training. So when adaptation is more important (such as during the
early and mid-season), athletes should focus
more on training and less on proactive recovery; but when recovery is more important than
adaptation (such as in the late season or in the
lead-up to and during major championships),
athletes should make use of all proactive recovery strategies proven to be physiologically
and/or psychologically effective for them. All
of this said, proper training, adequate sleep
and sound nutrition are still the most important
strategies to optimise training adaptations! In
my colleague Bill Sand’s words, no recovery
modality is powerful enough to overcome stupid coaching, bad planning and lack of talent.
36
37
38
Applied Research
contents
g
Exercise Protocol and Electrical Muscle
Stimulation in the Prevention, Treatment
and Readaptation of Jumper’s Knee
by Ángel Basas, Alberto Lorenzo, MiguelÁngel Gómez , Carlos Moreno and Christophe
Ramirez
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
study
Exercise Protocol and Electrical Muscle Stimulation in
the Prevention, Treatment and
Readaptation of Jumper’s Knee
© by IAAF
29:2; 41-51 2014
by Ángel Basas, Alberto Lorenzo, Miguel-Ángel Gómez ,
Carlos Moreno and Christophe Ramirez
ABSTRACT
AUTHORS
Jumper’s knee (patellar tendinitis) is a condition characterised by the appearance of
pain in the anterior part of the knee. It is
associated with sports activities involving jumping that place a great demand for
speed and force on the extensor muscles
of the knee. To date many different treatments have been described but no effective protocol has yet been found. In this
study six high-level athletes completed a
six-month knee readaptation programme
over two years consisting of eccentric,
isometric, concentric exercises and electrical stimulation with the patellar tendon
stretched to maximum tension. Pain was
assessed prior to the protocol and at intervals six month using a visual analogue scale
(VAS). A clear improvement was observed
comparing the initial mean versus those at
18 and 24 months. Diminished pain during
the 24 months suggests a direct benefit of
this protocol. However, though this study
produced hopeful results, the sample size
was small and more research is needed.
Ángel Bassas, PT, is the Head Physiotherapist
for the Royal Spanish Athletic Federation.
Alberto Lorenzo, PhD, is a lecturer at Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences.
Technical University of Madrid.
Miguel-Ángel Gómez, PhD, is a lecturer at
Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences. Technical University of Madrid.
Carlos Moreno, MD, is a Professor of Sports
Medicine School of Physiotherapy. University of Salamanca.
Christophe Ramirez, MD, is the head of the
Royal Spanish Athletic Federation’s Medical
Department.
Introduction
umper’s knee, also known as patellar
tendonitis, is a condition characterised by the appearance of pain in the
anterior part of the knee, usually located at the
proximal insertion of the patellar tendon on the
lower end of the patella. Pain may also appear
in the distal insertion of the patella into the tibia
as well as at the insertion of the quadriceps
tendon on the upper end of the bone.
J
41
Exercise Protocol and Electrical Muscle Stimulation in the Prevention, Treatment and Readaptation of Jumper’s Knee
Jumper’s knee is associated with sports
activities involving jumping1. It occurs mainly
in sports featuring a demand for speed and
force in the extensor muscles of the knee, such
as volleyball, basketball and athletics. With a
prevalence of up to 45% in high-level sports2
and 14.4% in recreational sports3, patellar tendonitis is one of the most frequent causes of
athlete withdrawal from training and competition. Clinical decisions about patellar tendonitis
are difficult to make owing to the lack of knowledge about tendonitis due to overuse. Hence
athletes may undergo long, frustrating periods
of rehabilitation, with unpredictable results4.
Different treatments have been described,
but an effective protocol has not yet been
found5.6. The literature suggests that treatment
should be designed on the basis of training using eccentric muscle strengthening exercises,
giving positive results in terms of the subjective
perception of pain as well as improved functionality-9. However, the ability of physicians’
to recommend a specific protocol is limited10,
especially in high-level sports, where the demands of tendon tension are much greater. No
positive results have been found if treatment
commences during the competition season,
which suggests that protocols should be initiated in the preparation period.11,
It is believed that the efficacy of an exercise
is in its ability to improve the isolation of the
extensor muscles of the knee. This result may
be achieved by subjecting the muscles to exercises involving direct tensions such as eccentric, concentric, isometric movements or
isometric electrical stimulation with the tendon
in a stretched position. This latter technique
has proved to be beneficial for influencing
muscle metabolism13-15 through physiological
adaptations. Although such adaptations are
not directly related to tendon metabolism it
has been observed that tendons respond to
progressive, controlled stress by increasing
their tensile strength, facilitating an increase in
collagen aiding in their repair and remodeling16.
Likewise, stress (mechanical load) is beneficial for the health of the tendon, influencing
structure, chemical composition and mechani42
cal properties17,18. If electrical stimulation is applied causing an isometric contraction, the
tendon itself will be subjected to a longitudinal stress and tension, provided the muscle is
stretched during the stimulation. The amount
of stretch may be influenced by the placement
of the limb in a flexed or extended position.
The use of an electric stimulation machine with
the muscle in a stretched position may prove
to be beneficial for jumper’s knee, and another
tool for trainers and therapists.
A search of the literature has revealed no
studies referring to the use of electrical stimulation for this pathology. This lack has prompted the design of the present study in order to
analyse the effects of electrical stimulation in
combination with eccentric, concentric and
isometric exercises with regards to pain reduction during a tendon readaptation programme.
This study specifically looked at various positions of the lower leg in order to generate an increased direct tension on the patellar tendon,
via a stretch, for the treatment of high-level athletes with jumper’s knee.
Methods
Subjects
Six high-level athletes (out of a possible 30)
were chosen for the study after meeting rigorous inclusion/exclusion criteria (Table 1). All were
males with a mean (±SD) age of 22.18 ± 2.14
years. Three of the athletes were high jumpers
with the remainder competing in the triple jump.
These athletes all competed at the international
level for the Spanish athletics team.
All participants signed an informed consent
form to participate in the study and to allow the
use and publication of the results. The protocol
was approved by the Ethics Committee of the
Medical Services of the Royal Spanish Athletic
Federation.
Study design
A two-year longitudinal retrospective case
study was conducted with repeated measurements of pain every six months after pre-season interventions (12 weeks in the winter and a
Table 1: Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Inclusion criteria
•
•
International athletes.
Diagnosed chronic patellar tendinopathy or jumper’s knee
by a specialist doctor in sports medicine, by means of ultrasound assessment and magnetic nuclear resonance.
•
•
Evolution of the condition over at least two years.
Failure during these two years of other medical and physiotherapeutic treatments, including surgery.
The application of the protocol of this study every six months
for 24 months.
Other associated pathologies of the knee.
•
Exclusion criteria
•
10 weeks in the summer). Assessments for the
study were taken from the database of the Department of Physiotherapy of the Royal Spanish Athletic Federation. During the two years of
the study, training remained the same as in the
previous years, including jumps from the third
week post start of the protocol.
The whole study was designed, implemented and supervised directly by the same physiotherapist at the sports facilities of the Madrid
Sports Council Medical Centre.
Figure 1: Graphic representation of the asymmetric
equalised current. Nomenclature used by the company Electromedicarin S.A.
Instruments
For the muscle tendon strengthening exercises by electrical stimulation, a Megasonic
313-Electromedicarin S.A. (Barcelona, Spain)
device was used enabling the variation of current parameters for the study. According to the
nomenclature for the device, the excite-motor
current applied was of an asymmetric twophase low-frequency19 (Figure 1). Medicarin
reusable electrodes were used (10 x 5cm and
5 x 5cm) placed in the following order ensuring
maximum stimulation of the whole quadriceps
muscle group (Figure 2)20: a) two 10 x 5cm
proximal electrodes, to stimulate the exit of
the femoral nerve; b) three 5 x 5cm electrodes
placed over the motor points of the vastus medialis, rectus femoris and vastus lateralis. In
order to complete the circuit, the two following
channels were created: a) an inferior proximal
electrode connected to the vastus medialis (Channel one), and b) a superior proximal
electrode connected to the anterior rectus and
vastus lateralis, joined at the same output with
a bifurcated cable (Channel two).
Figure 2: Electrical stimulation of the quadriceps
muscle
43
For the eccentric, isometric and concentric
exercises, inelastic bands were used, allowing
the athlete to be placed in a fixed, semi-squat
position with the centre of mass shifted backwards, as depicted in the exercises below (Figures 4.1 – 4.3).
Protocol
The protocol consisted of a combination of
two muscle strengthening exercises progressively subjecting the tendon to a controlled
stress from a low to a maximum load. The first
exercise involved the use of electro-stimulation
placing an isometric load on the quadriceps
muscle during various stretched positions.
The second exercise exposed the quadriceps
muscle to either an eccentric, concentric or
isometric load. All participants completed the
12-week (winter pre-season) and 10-week
(summer pre-season) protocol of three sessions/week, except during weeks 3, 6, 9 and
12, in which they performed two sessions/
weeks. The progression of the exercises and
the parameters are shown in Table 2.
Figure 3.1
44
Description of the exercises
Exercise one (E1) refers to the isometric electro-stimulation of the quadriceps muscle under
a stretch (Figure 3.1). With the athlete in a seated
position and the knee locked at 90º, the athlete
is asked to perform a voluntary contraction at an
intensity indicated in Table 2, prior to the electrical stimulation. The intensity of the current is
then increased until it surpasses the voluntary
contraction, which is maintained by the athlete
in order to conserve the neuromuscular connection from the brain. The intensities of the current
are increased progressively on a weekly basis
from a minimum to a maximum level, with the latter intensity being greater than the intensity of the
maximum voluntary contraction of the athlete.
Exercise two (E2) refers to the electrical stimulation of the quadriceps muscle, during an increased stretch (Figure 3.2). With the athlete in
the supine position and the knee locked at 90º,
the rectus femoris is lengthened as the athlete
lowers himself onto the plinth. This position increases the tension in the patellar tendon. The
Figure 3.2
Table 2: Patellar Tendon Protocol. Exercises, electrical stimulation parameters and progression
45
opposite leg is kept in the flexed on the plinth in
order to alleviate any stress in the lumbar region.
Exercise three (E3) consisted of eccentric,
isometric, and concentric bipedal exercises
of the quadriceps with the knee-hip joint at
90º (Figure 4.1). This exercise comprised three
steps: a) an eccentric phase, from standing to
the sitting position, with knee-hip angles from
Figure 4.1
0º to 90º, lowering slightly for 3 seconds, b) an
isometric phase, in which the knee-hip flexion
was kept at 90º for a further 3 seconds, and c) a
concentric phase, in which the athlete returned
to the standing position for one second. A progression from this initial exercise involves the
use of weighted jackets or weights placed on
the chest. This advanced exercise is referred to
as exercise three plus (E3+).
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.2
46
Exercise four (E4), consisted of eccentric,
isometric and concentric bipedal exercise of
the quadriceps with the knee at 90º and the
hip at 0º (Figure 4.2). The progression was
similar to the previous exercise (E3). The tension of the tendon was increased by means of
changing the angle of the lever arm and by the
tension exerted in the stretching of the anterior rectus muscle. Similar to E3, progression
involved adding loads. This advanced exercise
is referred to as exercise four plus (E4+).
Exercise five (E5) comprised eccentric, isometric and concentric single leg exercises of
the quadriceps with the knee at 75º (Figure
4.3). As in the previous two exercises (E3 &
E4), progression was accomplished by adding
loads, with the progression referred to as exercise five plus (E5+).
Clinical assessment
The initial assessment and the results of the
treatment protocol were obtained with use of
a visual analogue scale for pain (VAS)21. Visual
analogue scales have been shown to be efficient and reproducible and are widely used
in medical research7,22-24. This scale was anchored from zero (absence of pain) to 10 (maximum pain), incapacitating the athlete. Data
on pain levels were collected before starting
the protocol and three months after completing each protocol (6, 12, 18 and 24 months).
This coincided with the end of the competitive
phase and took into consideration the pain level after a season of a maximum demand on the
patellar tendon (Figure 5).
Statistical analyses
The data was analysed using the PASW statistics data editor program v. 18.0 (SPSS, Inc.
Chicago, Il. USA). To analyse the influence of
the treatment on the pain level of each participant, Friedman’s test for pre-post comparisons was employed. This test is an alternative
to one-way ANOVA of fixed effects of repeated
measurements (1F FE RM). With the sample
consisting of fewer than 30 subjects a post-hoc
Table 3: Subjective pain by visual analogue scale of
pain (VAS).
Mean ±SD
VAS 1. Baseline test 7.67 ±1.96
VAS 2. Month 6
3.67 ±2.34
VAS 3. Month 12
2.50 ±1.52
VAS 4. Month 18
1.00 ±1.67*
VAS 5. Month 24
0.33 ±0.52*
* p<0.001
Figure 5: Timeline of interventions. (Data collection by visual analogue scale of pain (VAS) and application
protocols.)
47
Figure 6: Subjetive pain by visual analogue sacale of pain (VAS)*Significant differences at 18, 24. (p<0,001)
Tukey test was performed, comparing the differences in ranks. The level of significance was
set at p<0.05.
Results
The readaptation protocol had an effect on
the athletes’ pain levels, and significant differences were observed between the measures of
the participants (χ2 (4) = 23,439; p<0.001). On
comparing the measurements specifically, the
results of the post-hoc Tukey test revealed that
pain was significantly decreased when observing the initial mean with measurements at 18
and 24 months (p<0.001). There were no significant differences in the comparisons between
the other measurements (Table 3; Figure 6).
Following analysis of all the measurements
(Table 3), the results showed that after fully
completing the first protocol the mean pain
level declined notably (VAS 2). However, no
statistically significant differences were observed (p>0.05) amongst the six participants.
48
This trend was also seen with the second protocol (VAS 3) in which the pain level continued
to decrease. However, this too was not statistically significant (p>0.05). Referring to both the
third (VAS 4 – 18th month) and fourth intervention (VAS 5 – 24th month) significant differences
were observed comparing the pain level with
the initial pain level (p<0.05).
Discussion
In the present study we used electrical stimulation with an excite motor effect as a means
to strengthen tendons. This is a novel approach to patellar pathologies and as far as we
are aware, the literature contains no references
to protocols combined with electrical stimulation such as the one reported here. Therefore,
our findings cannot be compared with previous
studies of treating Jumpers Knee in this way.
Although electric stimulation has not been
included in the design of previous research, the
proposal to use it is justified by the beneficial ef-
fects of progressive and controlled loading of
the tendon, as its tensile strength increases
together with the amount of collagen within
it16. Similarly, this isometric tension is translated into direct mechanical load on the tendon,
positively affecting its structure, chemical composition and mechanical properties18.
The efficacy of our proposal agrees with
the scientific literature, which shows satisfactory clinical results in decreasing pain as a response to strengthening exercises with use of
eccentric overloading in athletes with chronic
patellar tendinopathy6-10,22-25. However, it is still
not possible to strongly recommend a specific protocol10, 26-28. One of the causes of the
reduced efficacy is the performance of the
exercises limiting the tension applied on the
tendon7,12. In the present study, exercises that
place maximum direct tension on the patellar tendon were selected. The tension created
mimicked the tension required for the tendon to
adapt to the demands of an aggressive sport.
It should be noted that this protocol indicated benefits prior to the completion of the first
intervention. Although they were not statistically
significant owing to the small sample size (n=6),
this improvement increased progressively with
later applications. Based on the present results, it is necessary for three applications to
be implemented on a semestral basis for statistically significant differences to be obtained,
even though athletes reported a decrease in the
sensation of pain after the first two applications.
One important aspect emerging from this
study is the duration of the application of the
intervention and the follow-up over 24 months.
This is important as it takes into consideration
the athlete’s progress in lieu of the patellar tendinopathy and their exposure to other treatments.
This situation was remedied since this intervention can be used in combination with other treatments and training. The interventions made use
of and combined eccentric, isometric, concentric exercises and electrical stimulation.
The amalgamation of the present protocol
with the athlete’s current training programme
resulted in the reversal of the use of surgery for
three of the athletes, and the ability for all six to
continue high-level sports activities. Although
the results cannot be compared or contrasted
with other studies, the findings of our research
suggest promising results for high-level jumpers suffering from jumpers’ knee. Nevertheless,
our findings should be contrasted with further
research.
The diminishing of the athletes’ pain during the 24 months of the study suggests that
the findings reflect a direct benefit from the
proposed interventions. The only controlled
variable that changed with respect to the initial situation was the application of the protocol with the various exercises and the electrical
stimulation.
The limitations of this study were mainly the
lack of a control group and the reduced sample
size (n=6). Since the results observed before
18 months cannot be considered significant,
a larger sample size is needed as well as a
comparison with other exercises used to treat
jumpers’ knee. Therefore, more studies need
to be conducted comparing groups receiving
electrical stimulation combined with eccentric,
concentric and isometric exercises with other
groups using both techniques separately and
with a control group.
Conclusions
The results of the present study suggest
that use of an intervention combining eccentric,
concentric, isometric exercises and electrical
stimulation of maximum tension has a positive
effect in reducing pain in high-level athletes with
patellar tendinopathy. The reduction of pain
with use of this protocol suggests that highlevel athletes, whose sports involves use of
the patellar tendon at the limit levels of tension,
need to complete this protocol twice a year to
obtain an increase in the benefits. Furthermore,
it is suggested that this protocol should be part
of their training. However, since there was a low
number of subjects in this study, the data and
results should be taken with caution. In the future, randomised studies comparing different
models of exercise should be carried out.
49
The present proposal was designed for
high-level athletes. The demands and the
equipment (inelastic bands and electrical
stimulation device) make it difficult for the general population and recreational athletes to be
trained in this way. In these cases, the guidelines suggested by Cook & Purdam7 should
be followed making use of simpler eccentric
exercises (i.e., decline squats). However, the
present work could be adapted with lesser intensities and demands placed on the general
population and recreational athletes.
The recommendations are as follows:
1. The protocol presented in this study
should be used as a preventive measure
before a lesion in the patellar tendon
appears. If the lesion is present, the exercises will be beneficial as a means of
strengthening muscles and tendons, preventing future lesions.
2. Adapt to the progress in each individual
case. The interventions in this study can
benefit athletes who are not jumpers but
suffer from patellar tendinopathy due to
the demands of their training. In these
cases it would be wise to halt their training
progress before reaching maximum tendon loads.
50
3. It is important that work be coordinated with
the trainer, preventing any duplication of
strength building exercises that could lead
to an overload and or overuse effect. This
will diminish the progress of the athlete.
4. During the first 3-5 weeks of the protocol, the level of pain rose in the adaptive
process, after which it started to gradually
diminish. Therefore, athletes should be
warned that pain will increase during this
first phase.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Physiotherapy
School, University of Salamanca, the School
of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, Polytechnic University of Madrid and the athletes
and coaches of the Royal Spanish Athletic
Federation for their contributions to this study.
Ángel Basas
[email protected]
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1689-98.
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(2006). Decline eccentric squats increases patellar tendon
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13. REQUENA SANCHEZ, B.; PADIAL PUCHE, P. & GONZALEZ-BADILLO, J.J. (2005). Percutaneous electrical
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51
52
Coaching
contents
g
Running With Poles to Increase Training
Efficiency and Reduce Injuries
°
x
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x
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Study
Running With Poles to
Increase Training Efficiency
and Reduce Injuries
© by IAAF
29:2; 55-68, 2014
°
ABSTRACT
AUTHORS
Running makes significant demands on
the musculoskeletal system, which is heavily strained as it absorbs up to three times
the runner’s body weight each time the foot
strikes the ground. This strain often leads to
injuries that compromise an athlete’s training. The authors propose running with poles
or Nordic Running, a means they tested on
themselves, as a way to reduce orthopaedic strain and increase training efficiency.
They start by comparing Nordic Running to
cross-country skiing and Nordic Walking.
This is followed by a report on an experiment showing that when running with poles
the average maximum force on the feet is
approximately 5% less and the pressure is
redistributed to the front part of the foot
compared to normal running, confirming
the author’s central claim. They then outline
the case for including Nordic Running in the
training programmes of athletes and make
recommendations for the groups of athletes
that could benefit from the practice. Also
included are a description of the technique
of running with poles and a brief presentation of ancillary exercises that can be done
with the running poles.
Aleš Tvznik is a biomechanist working at
the Scientific and Service Centre for Physical Education and Sport (CASRI) in Prague,
Czech Republic
°
Milan Kutek
is secondary school teacher,
athletics coach and keen runner in Cheb,
Czech Republic.
Introduction
unning is the basis of athletics and a
number of other sports. As it involves
many of the body’s muscles, it is a
highly effective training activity that is suitable
for almost anyone – both performance-oriented sportsmen/sportswomen and individuals
with recreational or fitness motivations.
R
Running does, however, make significant demands on the musculoskeletal system, which
is heavily strained as it amortises the gravity at
the moment in each stride when the foot strikes
the ground (depending on the running speed,
the foot must absorb two to three times the
runner’s body weight with every foot strike and
there can be 1000 or more foot strikes per kilometre). It is an unfortunate fact that runningrelated injuries are common among athletes of
all levels and motivations. These include stress
fractures as well as various forms of tendon and
muscle damage in the lower limbs that can be
classified as over-use injuries resulting from the
55
Running With Poles to Increase Training Efficiency and Reduce Injuries
accumulation of stress linked to the runner’s
constant interaction with the ground. Any injury
can greatly compromise training effectiveness if
the athlete must reduce the quantity or quality
of his/her running and other training or, worse,
must undergo (often lengthy) treatment and rehabilitation.
To address this situation, we have proposed
the incorporation of a method of running with
poles, called Nordic Running, into the training
activities of athletes and other sportsmen and
sportswomen. Base on our subjective experiences of using this method regularly for more
than two years, we have found that running with
poles increases the physiological challenge and
energy consumption of running. This means
more work can be done in a shorter period of
time and, therefore, the number of foot strikes
the body is subjected to can be reduced with no
reduction in training effect. More importantly, we
feel that, with the proper technique, running with
poles reduces the force impact and pressure
changes on the feet during the support phase
of the running stride. This, in turn, diminishes the
stress on the lower limbs and can help to lessen
the orthopaedic risks associated with running.
Finally, running with poles can help remove
some errors in running style and thus improve it,
which could be of great interest for recreation/
fitness-oriented athletes.
The general contribution of Nordic Running
can be seen as a widening of the range of training methods currently used in all athletics disciplines as well as recreational or fitness training. Indeed, in the Czech Republic, a number
of top coaches, including national head coach
Tomas Dvorak, as well as top athletes like javelin throwers Barbora Sportakova and Vitezslav
Vesely, have already incorporated Nordic Running into their programmes. We have created a
website (www.nordicrunning.eu) that explores
all aspects and possibilities of this method.
An obvious analogy to Nordic Running can
be found with the increasingly popular fitness
activity of Nordic Walking, which developed
as a summer training means for cross-country
skiing. Here the use of poles provides greater
support and stability as well as a reduction
56
of the stains on the musculoskeletal system,
which are similar aims to those of running with
poles. However, unlike Nordic Walking and
cross-country skiing, which have both been
studied from the methodological, training and
medical points of view and developed into industries, none of these aspects of Nordic Running has been properly examined.
Our aim in this article is to explore the concept of Nordic Running. We will first compare
running with poles to cross-country skiing and
Nordic Walking. Then we will report on an experiment to test our central claim that running with
poles reduces the impact and strain on the runner’s feet. We will also describe the technique of
Nordic Running and discuss ancillary exercises
that can be done with the running poles. As a
conclusion, we will present our case and recommendations for including running with poles in
the training of performance-oriented and recreation/fitness-oriented athletes.
Comparisons
Both classical cross-country skiing and
Nordic Walking are widely practiced activities that have been scientifically analysed and
bear certain resemblances to Nordic Running.
However, there are considerable differences
between the three that should be understood
from the outset.
Like running, the main training advantage
of classic style cross-country skiing is its
relatively high intensity. Both activities lead to
a high consumption of energy, which makes
them good for both sport training goals and
body-fat reduction. As for running, there is the
disadvantage of the high impact on the musculoskeletal system. Classic style cross-country skiing, which can be considered as a very
convenient training or cross-training method
during the winter season, does not overstrain
the main joints so much. However, this activity requires prepared trails, which can often
be very limiting (most runners and other active
people are not lucky enough to live just next to
a skiing trail or track).
Compared to standard walking, Nordic
Walking - by involving the poles and arms - relieves a part of the impact put on the main leg
joints (ankle, knee, hip). Nevertheless, by using
standard poles for this activity, the higher intensity, which is necessary for reaching training
goals in the athletics training effectively, is not
guaranteed.
Nordic Running is different from abovementioned activities in key movement phases
and equipment. It requires a longer stride (not
an ultra-endurance stride) than walking or Nordic Walking. Compared to classic style crosscountry skiing, the take-off phase of the stride
in running with poles is shorter, both in time
and space. The take-off phase of the stride
in running with poles can be compared to
the middle phase for the cross-country skiing
stride (i.e. without moving the arms considerably in front of or behind the body). See the
box on page 53 for a description.
With regard to the poles used, the key consideration is the length of the pole. Those used
for Nordic Running should reach just below
the shoulder and therefore are approximately
10cm shorter than classic style cross-country
ski poles (which should come to just above the
shoulders). The grip and correct stroke movement require a narrow profile and smooth
surface of the handle, which allows the hand
to slide gently – similar to the poles used for
cross-country skiing. The lower part of running poles are similar to Nordic Walking poles
in that a longer tip allows penetration into the
ground or rubber endings can be used on
roads or other hard surfaces.
Figure 1: Olympic javelin champion Barbora Sportakova
57
Box 1
The Technique of Running With Poles
1
The mid-stance, as well as the other parts of the stance phase, is characterised by a
slight forward lean of the body. At this moment, when the foot in contact with the ground
is situated under the body centre of mass, the pole support is the greatest, significantly reducing the load of the foot. Similarly to running, the angle in the elbow is approximately 90°
at this moment. Pole support effectively eliminates potential hyper-pronation and prevents
overloading of the musculoskeletal system.
2-4 In the later parts of the stance phase, the body center of mass is moving forward and
so is the knee of the swinging leg. During this period the elbow extension is associated with
the pole support. Reduction of the load exerted on the feet depends on the power with
which the runner consciously sticks the pole in the ground with (the greater the force, the
greater the load reduction).
5 During the take-off phase when running slowly, the supporting leg is not fully stretched
in all three joints (ankle, knee and hip). At this moment, the pole/arm take-off is not finished
yet, but it terminates during the swing phase.
6-8 The pole support continues during the swing phase. Unlike in ordinary running, the
runner using the poles accelerates during this phase! The supporting arm is not getting
behind the trunk with the elbow flexed to 90° as in ordinary running, but terminates take-off
next to hip with elbow slightly flexed. When the swing phase is longer (longer stride) the
arm-pole push off is longer too, which allows the runner to fully extend the elbow. In the
second part of the swing phase the lower leg is swinging forward and is getting ready for
foot strike.
9
Here we see the foot strike with an active pull is taking place just in front of the trunk
with the knee slightly flexed. At this moment, the opposite lower leg is positioned in parallel
with the ground and, in more active and faster running closer to the buttock. The pole is
placed into the ground just under the centre of mass and starts to cooperate on the absorption of the impact.
10 When the runner is getting to mid-stance the pole support is increasing, which should
prevent the runner from lowering his or her body - “sitting down”, and eliminates excessive
knee flection which often causes injury problems.
11 The runner is getting to mid stance again and the entire stride cycle repeats while
arms and legs are being switched.
Note: When running uphill, the body is leaned slightly forward, the pace is lighter and shorter (rebounding more from the tiptoe) and the pole planting is more dynamic.
58
Running with poles on the
flat ground
Videos and further information and available at www.nordicrunning.eu.
59
The Experiment
Objectives and hypotheses
The objectives of our experiment were 1)
to compare the force impact and pressure
changes in the feet during the support phase
of running and running with poles and 2) to
evaluate potential changes in foot pressure
distribution and its affect on the rest of the
musculoskeletal system.
Hypothesis A: When running with poles
at the same velocity as normal running, the
impact on the foot, and the musculoskeletal
system, is diminished.
Hypothesis B: When running with poles,
the pressure distribution across the sole of the
food is changed.
Methods
The measurements were made on one test
subject, a male athlete-runner (weight: 74kg,
height: 180cm). An analysis of the foot pressure distribution onto the sole of the foot was
conducted during support phase of stride
while running and again while running with
special poles. The measurement was conducted on a grass surface, a track of 100m,
which was repetitively run through by the test
subject, at the same pace of 4:20 min/km. The
analysis is based on the average result of the
measured parameters for 30 strides.
on the pad as well as other time-space characteristics of the foot strike can be recorded and
displayed so that changes can be assessed.
For more detailed analysis, the insole surface is divided into seven segments: medial
heel area, lateral heel area, middle foot, medial forefoot, lateral forefoot, big toe and other
toes. Software enables to assess all the measured constants both for each segment separately and all together. Furthermore, it enables
observation of the data immediately on the
computer screen or to process and assess
the data through the database module Novel
database essential.
Results
When running without poles, the average
maximum force, measured in Newtons (N), affecting the left foot reached 1616N and 1700N
for the right foot (Figure 3a). When using poles,
the force was diminished to 1538N and 1610N,
respectively (Figure 3b). In the first case, the
difference is 78N (4.8%) and in the second it
is 90 N (5.3%). There is a similar picture when
we look at peak pressure, measured in kilopascals (kPa), as shown in Figure 4a and 4b.
The test subject wore elastic pressure-measuring insoles (Pedar-X System, Novel Gmbh,
Munich, Germany) in his running shoes. Cables
connect the insoles to a recorder, which is attached to the waist by a belt (Figure 2).
The system also comprises an internal Bluetooth device, a memory unit and software for
processing and evaluating of the data. The
shoe insoles fully cover the area of the sole of
the foot. Each insole’s surface is divided into 99
small fields, in which there are force sensors to
measure current vertical force at a frequency of
50 Hz. The system is able to detect and assess
the pressure changes between the foot and the
pad during the support phase of the walking or
running stride. Using this system, the pressure
60
Figure 2: The Pedar-X System
Figure 3a: Maximum force (N) on regions of the feet for one individual running without poles (left foot shown
in left graph)
Figure 3b: Maximum force (N) on regions of the feet for one individual running with poles (left foot shown in
left graph)
We also found that there are significant
functional changes in the distribution of pressure across the feet. When using poles, the
pressure centre moves more to the front part
of the foot. The average maximal force significantly decreases in the heel and mid-foot
area, while the differences in the forefoot are
relatively small. Figures 5a,5b, 6a and 6b demonstrate that concerning the pressure redistribution, the area of maximum figures on heels
(red colour) is significantly diminished when
running with poles.
Discussion
With regards to Hypothesis A, the experiment has shown a decrease of musculoskeletal system strain when running with poles.
This could be the result of involving the arms,
which provides both relief for the musculoskeletal system and greater stability for the runner.
The decrease of musculoskeletal system strain
at given pace (4:20 min/km) within one movement cycle is relatively small (approximately 5%
of the overall maximum force). However, we
can presume that it will have a significant injury
prevention effect with longer runs, where the
overall musculoskeletal main joint strain is cumulative from many thousands of foot strikes.
According to the distance covered, the resulting figures of decreased strain would be measurable in tons or even tens of tons.
Based on the assumption that vertical forces
are also influenced by the runner’s weight and
running pace, we can presume there would be
bigger differences (higher relief of the musculoskeletal system) for heavier athletes, for example throwers. Bigger differences can also be
expected on harder surfaces.
61
With regard to Hypothesis B, the experiment
showed that when using the poles, the whole
movement technique changed. The pressure
centre of the foot moved forward without significantly increasing the strain on the front area
of the foot, as can be observed when running
on the front part of the foot. The vertical force
decrease is significant mainly during the first
support phase. This means that running with
poles does not strain the musculoskeletal
structure involved in step amortisation (mainly
the heel and Achilles tendon) as much as running without poles.
Conclusion
Our finding from this simple experiment
is that running with poles makes a small but
potentially significant reduction in the load on
the runner’s musculoskeletal system demonstrated by the reduction of the maximal force
on the foot and the change in the distribution
of force across the foot compared to running
without poles.
Figure 4a: Peak pressure (kPa) on regions of the feet for one individual running without poles (left foot shown
in left graph)
Figure 4b: Peak pressure (kPa) on regions of the feet for one individual running with poles (left foot shown in
left graph)
62
Figure 5b: Averaged maximum pressure across the foot for one
individual running with poles
Figure 5a: Averaged maximum pressure across the foot for
one individual running without poles
63
Figure 6a: 3-D picture of averaged pressure across the foot for one individual running without poles
64
Figure 6b: 3-D picture of averaged pressure across the foot for one individual running with poles
65
The Case for Nordic Running
Based on our subjective experience and
the results of the experiment described above,
we believe Nordic Running should be incorporated into the training of all different types of
athlete as a supplement to normal running. To
start with, the method is universal (it can be
used by any athlete at all performance levels
or age groups) and it is inexpensive. The four
main arguments for running with poles are outlined below:
Injury prevention
In addition to the above confirmation our hypotheses about reducing the impact load and
strain on the musculoskeletal system, our experience has let us to the feeling that there is better
stability when running with poles. The poles help
the runner to remain upright and steady, even on
soft uneven terrain (parks, grass, fields, forest
paths etc.) or on the snow in winter, thus reducing slipping and straining. We believe that these
two factors could significantly decrease the risk
of injuries. Moreover, runners who already have
some injuries could use of poles to make a faster
return to full training.
Empirical statement: after two years of
regularly practising Nordic Running, one of the
co-authors can report that he has completely
avoided injuries (contrary to previous years)
and that the positive effect of the running with
poles manifested itself by strengthening of the
heal- and calf tendons and muscles (which
helps further to prevent injuries).
Training efficiency
Concerning our other subjective experience
of Nordic Running, we have to point out the
increased training effect. Running with poles
is much more physically demanding than ordinary running. We can say that there are actually
two runs in one: “up” (body, arms, shoulders),
where we are doing classic cross-country skiing technique, and “down” (legs) we are run-
66
ning. With poles the chest muscles, shoulders
and arms are more involved than without poles
and the breathing is more intense. A runner using poles has to move more muscles more vigorously and therefore has significantly higher
energy consumption than when only running.
When running with poles the runner naturally
strengthens the muscles of the upper limbs,
chest and abdomin. And, contrary to crosscountry skiing, when the arms relax while going downhill and legs relax while double poling
on a flat surface, when running with poles, neither arms nor legs relax at any time.
Therefore Nordic Running can be a great
advantage for professional athletes – especially, but not only, during winter season – that
the time spent at one training unit with a required energetic intensity can be significantly
cut down (the energy consumption is the same
in shorter time). There can be no discussion
about the value of the time saved, especially
with our modern busy daily routines; let alone
the fact that the athletes could “invest” this
time in rehabilitation and regeneration.
Training variation
Nordic Running and exercises that can be
done with poles (see Box 2) add a new set of
activities to the programme of the athlete and
can create new interest and motivation. The
activities can be used as a year-round method
of cross training or special training for specific
objectives.
Running style
Many athletes - and not just recreational
runners - run the wrong way. Nordic Running
can help remove some errors in our running
style and thus improve it. Wtih poles, the direction of the push-off diagonally backwards forces the runner to take the correct body position
(slight tilt). The poles´ bouncing when running
will automatically ensure the proper working
of the arms and the motion of elbows forward
and along the body.
Box 2
Exercises with running poles
If we include running poles in training, it is possible to use them for many other exercises.
Here we demonstrate a few ideas that coaches could explore and develop.
One area where the poles could be used is in the warm-up and stretching before or after
running itself. The poles allow the runner to bend forward in order to stretch the lower and
upper back muscles as well as the calf muscles. Side squats are also possible to help to
stretch the hip joints, knees, thigh muscles as well as shoulder girdle muscles (as the athlete
leans on the poles).
A second area where the poles could be valuable is with running drills, such as skipping,
kick-backs, straight-leg shuffle and jump stride, that are charactericed by a greater range
of motion. When using the poles, the load of the musculoskeletal system is more complex
and balanced compared to exercising without poles (part of the load is shifted from lower
extremity to arms and shoulders).
Photo 1: Back Stretch
Photo 2a Side Squat
Photo 2b:: Side Squat
Photo 3: Skipping
Photo 4: Kick-backs Photo 5: Straight-leg shuffle
Videos and further information and available at
www.nordicrunning.eu.
Photo 6: Jump stride New Studies in Athletics · no. 2.2014
67
Recommendations
We believe there are five main groups of
athletes that could profitably make the use
of Nordic Running a part of their training programmes. Below we list these groups and outline our reasoning.
Endurance runners
Nordic Running should become one of the
regular forms of any middle- or long-distance
runner’s training. Unlike standard fartlek or free
running, it enables the runner to reach desired
submaximal running velocities with reduced injury risk especially in difficult terrain or weather
conditions (mud, snow etc.). The added training effect of running with poles in any training
unit or time period would reduce some of the
time required for a high-volume programme.
Nordic Running could also liven up the programme and prevent monotony, which is another danger with a high-volume programme.
Sprinters and Jumpers
Endurance development is also a basic
physical training element for athletes in other
disciplines – sprinters, jumpers and combined
event competitors. Nordic Running enables
them to combine running exercises with dynamic elements to develop bouncing force and
power endurance (e.g. bouncing and steep uphill running). Their training is then extended with
very intense outdoor training units, which they
would obviously not carry out without poles.
Throwers
Shot putters, javelin, discus and hammer
throwers usually have more robust bodies than
endurance athletes or sprinters and jumpers,
which brings problems with keeping stability
during running. Although throwers normally
prefer strength training to running out of stadium, endurance running is nevertheless a necessary basic of their general fitness training.
68
Nordic Running therefore could be convenient
for them since it helps increase running stability as well as strengthens the arms and shoulders. It also gives them a more efficient use of
the time they do spend running and may even
inspire them to spend more time on this type of
training than they are currently inclined to do.
Athletes recovering from injuries
A very large target group is, unfortunately,
athletes recovering after injuries, trying to regain their pre-injury fitness level, or athletes
who have to reduce their training programme
due to overstrain. We are convinced that, apart
from the advantages of reduced impact and
increased stability, the psychological aspect
is also very important: a sportsman or sportswoman, used to regular activity, will not be only
walking with poles (which could lead to frustration), but will be able, within the realms of
possibility, to run with the stable support of the
poles. Presumably, the activity would be carried out only on safe and flat tracks.
Health & fitness athletes
We cannot leave out the people, whose current physical condition does not enable them
to make a full training effort. Our first thoughts
involve mainly overweight people, running beginners and occasional runners who practise
only jogging. In all their cases it is possible
to incorporate Nordic Running as an activity, which extends simple walking and Nordic
walking by its higher intensity and emphasises
the injury prevention contributions – mainly relieving of the musculoskeletal system.
°
Mgr.Milan Kutek
[email protected]
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70
Development
contents
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by Helmut Digel
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Perspectives of
International Athletics
© by IAAF
29:2; 73-76, 2014
by Helmut Digel
AUTHOR
Helmut Digel is a professor for Sport Science and Sport Sociology. He is an IAAF
Council member, chairman of the IAAF
Marketing and Promotion Commission, a
member of the IAAF Development Commission and a consultant editor for New
Studies in Athletics. He also holds various
leadership positions in both sport and sport
science in Germany.
What is the state of athletics?
t first sight, the sport of athletics appears to be extremely homogenous.
Forty-seven events define the contents of its world championship and are hence
the reference point for the term athletics, as it
is used almost all over the world. But, in fact,
the development of the sport is an uneven and
profoundly differentiated phenomenon.
A
The performance levels in the different disciplines vary greatly and from nation to nation
and from continent to continent. The same can
be said for public and media interest in athletics competitions. In respect to participation,
the numbers of men and women, children,
youths, grown-ups and masters athletes also
show wide differences.
If we look at the continents, Europe still
shows the best developmental situation, even
though the importance of the sport is declining
there. And the losses in Europe are only partly
compensated by gains in the other continents.
To a limited extent the reason for that can be
found in the problematic situation of the sport
in America. Athletics in the USA, or track and
field as it is known there, can only attract the
attention of the mass media and public through
the Olympic Games. In the ranking of the various sports in America, athletics plays a rather
subordinate role. Compared to American football, baseball, basketball and ice hockey, athletics only very rarely succeeds in attracting
large-scale spectator or media interest. This
is especially detrimental to the development of
the sport as a whole, as in many events the
best athletes still come from the USA.
In Asia, positive developments can be observed in both Japan and China. Since the
2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, a continuous
upswing in the popularity of athletics has taken
place in China. The Chinese athletic association has been succeeding with its efforts to attract public interest, which include systematic
work in training and hosting many international
competitions. The sport is gradually becoming
part of the scene in the Arab region, especially
in Qatar but in India it is not making much of
an impact at all.
African athletics is by no means as strong
and dynamic as the impression created in Europe by the long list of top performers from
Kenya, Ethiopia and occasionally other coun-
73
tries. The reality is that differentiated athletics
structures can be found in little more than 15
of the continent’s 50 countries. The situation in
South America is similarly critical, where, with
the exception of Argentina and Brazil, there are
hardly any intact athletics structures.
The problem becomes clearer when one
turns to the Youth age group, by which I mean
the 14- to 18-year-olds. Almost everywhere
in the world athletics is attractive to younger
children but at the same time there is a drop
off in participation in the early teen years. In
schools, athletics is losing its leading position
to sports that have simply been more aggressive in fighting their way into the physical education curriculum. It is probably still the biggest
sport in school competition systems, but in
some parts of the world school competitions
have lost much of their former importance. Importantly, if an educational system follows the
trends in the rest of a consumer society, as
we see many countries of the world, children’s
habits and interest in physical movement will
be neglected and athletics will be among the
sports that are hardest hit.
The issue, of course, is complex. For example, the question of coaches is extremely
relevant for both the quality of athletes and
the number of participants. One can see that
nearly everywhere in the world the situation
is marked by the fact that it is very difficult to
recruit and retain new coaches. The salaries
offered are rarely attractive and job security is
very low. In some countries the main source of
new coaches is the parents of young athletes,
but as their children leave the sport few of
these parent-coaches remain. Former athletes
who move into coaching often rarely help with
building up new stars or participation levels.
Moreover, investments to improve the quality
of coaching through education and certification systems suffer from the fact that the programmes offered are actually too good and
that many course participants intend all along
to take what they learn and their qualifications
to another sport or country where the personal
financial rewards are greater.
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A further problem can be found with regard
to competition officials and other volunteers.
Especially in the established athletics nations
we see an increasing number of elderly referees. Part of the picture is that in aging societies, which includes most of Europe, retired
people have the time to take on voluntary work
such as sports officiating. But another, more
worrying aspect is that not many young people are interested in this type of activity in any
society. The voluntary structures that athletics
depends on to deliver local competitions, and
to operate clubs, are endangered, especially
in Europe, and it is hard to see how they can
be revived.
How will the TV coverage of athletics
develop?
Without any doubt the media coverage of
the 2012 Olympic Games in London was a
highlight in the history of world athletics. In
a sold out stadium, top class performances
were presented every day, which met with a
positive worldwide response. The audience
numbers and market shares were higher than
ever before.
However, broadcast figures for world and
European championships have been stagnating for some time, though in both cases
the market shares are still sufficiently high,
so that it is possible to market the television
rights to these competitions. One hopes that
as the world recovers from the financial crisis
of 2007-2009, the position of these flagships
will strengthen. But it must be said that other
athletics events are finding little or no interest
from the mass media. The revenue generated
by indoor meetings comes to just 5% of the
total and all other meetings to below 1%. In the
coming years, this situation can improve with
the global economy, but it depends on how attractively athletics can present itself.
The current conditions for the IAAF are favorable, as the EBU (European Broadcasting
Union) has purchased the European rights for
the World Athletics Series of the IAAF for the
next four years. But in some European coun-
tries the situation is problematic, e.g. in several Eastern European countries, where state
TV stations have not been willing to purchase
global athletics broadcasting rights in the last
years, and it is critical in athletics nations like
Spain, Italy and Greece. For Asia the IAAF has
two powerful television contracts with Chinese
and Japanese broadcasters. The situation in
Africa is secured and there is a positive development in South America. But the biggest
challenge remains the US market, where there
is almost no television presence for athletics
apart from the Olympic Games and the Internet can only provide some compensation.
How will the athletes’ chances for advertisement develop?
Marketing the IAAF’s TV-attractive events
to sponsors can still be achieved successfully
with little effort. This fact can be documented
by the IAAF marketing contract with the Japanese agency Dentsu. Here an annual increase
can be recorded, and very important business
corporations are still partners of world athletics, including companies like Sinopec, Toyota,
Seiko, Mondo and TDK. Japan’s Canon corporation has lately been added to this group.
The number bibs at championship events
represent an especially attractive advertisement asset. The value, however, will only be
obtained as long as the sponsor is well-visible
on the bib and the athlete. If too many brands
want to advertise for their own products in the
relatively small space of the athlete’s vest, the
value is reduced drastically. Hence there are
restrictions in world athletics in respect to the
number and size of the logos. In this context
the question of the achievable surplus value
arises. Yet the possibilities of marketing the
athlete’s chest have to be called rather limited
in athletics. The question why the participating
nations must not wear any advertisement on
their national jerseys in world championships,
and why next to the national emblem one can
only see the outfitter and the race number
sponsor, is primarily a question of the signed
contracts and the rights gained from them.
In the interest of a mutually desired contract
loyalty, changes can only be applied jointly or
one can come to new agreements once new
contracts are negotiated. Presently the contract with Dentsu clearly regulates that additional sponsors are not allowed on the chest of
the athlete. But in European Athletics’ advertisement guidelines the association has granted one logo to the national associations, so
that a direct marketing of this logo is enabled.
What are the future challenges for
athletes and officials?
The quest for a positive image of athletics
can probably be counted as one of the sport’s
most important challenges. The doping abuse
of the past decades has made athletics the
sport in which the most anti-doping tests are
carried out worldwide. But the efforts to date
still do not meet the demands of the problem.
Top performances by athletes are generally
under suspicion and the clean athlete enjoys
almost no protection at all. The athletes are in
a performance trap from which the federations
have not offered them a way out until today. The
fraud of several top athletes leads to scandals,
which at regular intervals leads to a negative
public image of athletics. As an Olympic sport,
athletics is in danger of being pushed into a
similar role as has been the case with cycling
for a long time. Decisive counter measures are
necessary. The exemplary testing system of the
IAAF has to be maintained and extended. It has
to be examined whether there are any wrong
incentive systems in athletics that encourage
doping fraud rather than prevent it. But first
and foremost, measures have to be found that
enable the clean athlete to document her/his
integrity in a publicly comprehensible way. Additionally the punishments for severe doping
offences have to be increased.
The problem of financing future athletics
will not become any less important. Athletics is almost entirely dependent on financing
through the government. Without governmental support organised athletics is not imaginable today. In the face of the given doping
fraud the question arises if this governmental
75
support will be granted in the future. This issue is primarily about the continuation of the
pedagogical importance of athletics. It has to
remain dependable that athletics is important
in the public school system, and that athletics
as high-performance sport is of cultural significance for the respective society. Only in this
way the financial support through the governments can be ensured also in the future.
The question of the stadiums and facilities for
athletics is important as well. Until now it was
natural that athletics could rely on these being
made available by the government. Today this is
questioned. Athletics’ marriage with football has
been subject to a unilateral divorce. Nowadays
stadia are increasingly built as event arenas, in
which there is no space for athletics. Hence the
quest for athletics stadiums to host major events
is difficult. It is also problematic that local 400m
tracks are often not much used, which is why
their maintenance and their future are not secured any more.
A development that could become dangerous is single discipline competitions, which are
organised privately today. The high jump takes
place in the shopping mall, shot put on the market place, and pole vault on the beach promenade. The necessity to offer all 47 events is
now less understood and the consequences of
such a development are uncertain. Once athletics takes place outside of the stadia, one can
ask why athletics stadia will be needed at all. But
it is obvious that some disciplines urgently depend on a stadium, while others are treated in a
privileged way by this outsourcing. New means
of income become available to the relevant athletes and the involved people, which the other
events do not have at their disposal.
This raises the question of a fair evaluation
of sporting performances. This has been discussed for a long time. Fees for internationally outstanding performers vary considerably
from event to event. The same is true for the
achievement bonuses and sponsor contracts.
What matters in the future is finding an appropriate balance between athletic performance
and available resources.
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The adaptation and modernisation of athletics seems inevitable. From a temporal point of
view a further increase of events is not reasonable. On the contrary, a reduction is sensible.
This will probably lead to distribution conflicts
within athletics itself. Athletics in the Olympic
Games cannot be the standard for athletics as
it takes place apart from them, because the
success of athletics in the Olympic Games is
bound to the concept of Olympism. At best,
this concept is motivating for the rest of athletics, but it cannot be imitated.
Therefore the IAAF and its Member Federations have to find their own way of modernisation, and this must be marked by creative features. Socially, the spectators have
to come from all walks of life and comprise all
age groups. Athletics has to be equally attractive to both children and seniors, and wherever
athletics is publicly presented with its competitions, it has to be attractive enough to entertain people pleasantly. The entertainment
preferences are subject to constant changes. Meeting these interests of the spectators
means changing the presentation of athletics
constantly, as well. The same applies to the offered variety of events. As long as one remains
in the existing, traditional competition structures, one does not meet these needs.
In this context also the athletes events and
meetings must change. They have to adapt
their presentation to the expectations of the
spectators if they still want to be attractive
enough with their performances in the future.
This is equally true for both the duration of the
competitions and their dramatic content.
Modernising athletics means that all involved
must be willing to question themselves. If one
succeeds in this endeavor, then one does not
need to worry about the future of athletics.
Pleases send all correspondence to:
Prof. Dr. Helmut Digel
[email protected]
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Documentation
contents
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Selected and Annotated Bibliography
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Book review
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Website review
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SELECTED AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
No. 100
Exercise physiology
© by IAAF
29:2; 81-117, 2014
by Jürgen Schiffer
Introduction
n the Dictionary of Sports Studies
by Alan Tomlinson (Oxford University
Press, 2010), exercise physiology is
defined as follows: “The study of the function
of the human body during exercise; also sometimes known as sports physiology or work
physiology. Physiology is concerned with the
structures of the body (such as muscles, bone,
heart, and lungs), the metabolism of the body
(such as the biochemistry of energy supply),
and the coordination of processes (through the
nervous system and hormones).
I
Exercise physiology places a particular emphasis an responses to acute situations (single
bouts of exercise, such as running a race or
playing a football match) and to chronic situations (repeated bouts of exercise, such as
over three months of a physical training programme), and in the context of both the highintensity efforts of competitive sport and the
moderate-intensity efforts of exercise for
health. The primary biological systems involved are nutrition, energy metabolism, muscle, the heart and circulation, the pulmonary
system, fluid balance, thermoregulation, neural
control, growth, and ageing. The key contexts
to which exercise physiology is applied include
maximising power, endurance, and effective
muscle action during competitive sport; the
adaptations resulting from training; nutrition,
energy supply, and weight control; growth and
ageing; disease; and coping with unusual environments.”
As can be seen from this definition, exercise physiology is a vast topic which cannot be
dealt with in totality in one NSA bibliography.
Therefore, the following aspects of exercise
physiology are excluded from this bibliography:
• nutrition;
• altitude training;
• overtraining;
• anthropometry;
• traumatology.
Each of these topics would be worth a bibliography of its own because of the wealth of
literature available.
The following bibliography has been basically structured according to the events the
various articles focus on. Sometimes, the allocation of articles was not easy because many
articles deal with more than one event. For example, there are several articles in the sprint
chapter (Chapter 1) that also deal with middledistance events. These articles have been allocated to the sprint chapter simply because
the distance-running chapter (Chapter 2) is the
fullest.
The chapters of this bibliography and the
numbers of documents they contain are as follows:
1. Sprint events (12 documents)
2. Middle- and long-distance events
(47 documents)
3. Half-marathon, marathon and ultramarathon events (8 documents)
4. Differences between black and white
runners (10 documents)
5. Race walking (4 documents)
81
No.100: Exercise physiology
6. Throwing and jumping events
(5 documents)
7. General (7 documents)
All articles included in Chapter 4 could of
course have been allocated to Chapters 2 or 3,
as well, but the importance of this aspect of distance running and the numbers of publications
dealing with it deserve a separate chapter.
This bibliography has been compiled by using SPOLIT, the sports literature database of
the Federal Institute of Sport Science (BISp) in
Cologne, Germany (www.bisp.de, free but limited access), and SPORTdiscus, the database
of the Sport Research and Information Centre
in Ottawa, Canada (www.sirc.ca, no free access).
Readers interested in obtaining one or more
articles from this bibliograhy should contact
Dr. Jürgen Schiffer
[email protected].
Although this bibliography is rather expansive,
it, of course, does not claim to be complete.
Bibliography
1 Sprint events
Bret, C.; Messonnier, L.; Nouck Nouck, J. M.;
Freund, H.; Dufour, A. B.; Lacour, J. R.
Differences in lactate exchange and removal abilities in athletes specialised in different track running events (100 to 1500 m)
International Journal of Sports Medicine, 24 (2003),
2, pp. 108-113
The purpose of this study was to investigate
whether track running specialisation could be
associated with differences in the ability to exchange and remove lactate. Thirty-four male
high-level runners were divided into two groups
according to their speciality (100-400 m / 8001500 m). All performed a 1-min 25.2 km/h event,
followed by a 90-min passive recovery to obtain
individual blood lactate recovery curves which
were fitted to a bi-exponential time function:
[La](t) = [La](0) + A1(1-e exp-Gamma1t) + A2(1-e
exp-Gamma2t). The velocity constant Gamma1
82
which denotes the ability to exchange lactate
between the previously worked muscles and
blood was higher (p < 0.001) in middle-distance
runners than in sprint runners. The velocity constant Gamma2 which reflects the overall ability
to remove lactate did not differ significantly between the two groups. Gamma1 was positively
correlated with the best performance over 800 m
achieved by 16 athletes during the outdoor track
season following the protocol (r = 0.55, p < 0.05).
In conclusion, the lactate exchange ability seems
to play a role on the athlete’s capacity to sustain
exercise close to 2-min-duration and specifically
to run 800 m.
Dawson, B.; Fitzsimons, M.; Green, S.; Goodman, C.; Carey, M.; Cole, K.
Changes in performance, muscle metabolites, enzymes and fibre types after
short sprint training
European Journal of Applied Physiology, 78 (1998),
2, pp. 163-169
In contrast to endurance training, little research
has been carried out to investigate the effects
of short (< 10s) sprint training on performance,
muscle metabolism and fibre types. Nine fit male
subjects performed a mean of 16 outdoor sprint
running training sessions over 6 weeks. Distances sprinted were 30-80 m at 90-100% maximum
speed and between 20 and 40 sprints were performed in each session. Endurance (maximal
oxygen consumption; VO2max), sprint (10m
and 40m times), sustained sprint (supramaximal
treadmill run) and repeated sprint (6x40m sprints,
24 s recovery between each) performance tests
were performed before and after training. Muscle
biopsy samples (vastus lateralis) were also taken
to examine changes in metabolites, enzyme activities and fibre types. After training, significant
improvements were seen in 40m time (p < 0.01),
supramaximal treadmill run time (p < 0.05), repeated sprint performance (p < 0.05) and VO2max (p <
0.01). Resting muscle concentrations of ATP and
phosphocreatine did not change. Phosphorylase
activity increased (p < 0.025), citrate synthase
activity decreased (p < 0.01), but no significant
changes were recorded in myokinase and phosphofructokinase activities. The proportion of type
II muscle fibres increased significantly (p < 0.05).
These results demonstrate that 6 weeks of short
sprint training can improve endurance, sprint and
No. 100: Exercise physiology
repeated sprint ability in fit subjects. Increases in
the proportion of Type II muscle fibres are also
possible with this type of training.
Gorostiaga, E. M.; Asiáin, X.; Izquierdo, M.;
Postigo, A.; Aguado, R.; Alonso, J. M.; Ibáñez, J.
Vertical jump performance and blood ammonia and lactate levels during typical
training sessions in elite 400-m runners
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24
(2010), 3, pp. 1138-1149
This study described the effects of 6 typical highintensity intermittent running training sessions
of varying distances (60-300 m) and intensities
(80-105% of the individual best 400-m record
time) on blood ammonia and lactate concentration changes and on vertical jumping height, in
twelve 400-m elite male runners. At the end of the
training sessions, similar patterns of extremely
high blood lactate (14-23 mmol/L) and ammonia
levels (50-100 [mu]mol/L) were observed. Vertical jumping performance was maintained during
the initial exercise bouts up to a break zone of
further increase in the number of exercise bouts,
which was associated, especially in subjects
with the highest initial vertical jump, with a pronounced decrease (6-28%) in vertical jumping
performance, as well as with blood lactate concentrations exceeding 8-12 mmol/L, and blood
ammonia levels increasing abruptly from rest
values. This break zone may be related to signs
of energetic deficiency of the muscle contractile
machinery associated with the ability to regenerate adenosine triphosphate at high rates. It is
suggested that replacing some of these extremely demanding training sessions with other intermittent training sessions that preserve muscle
generating capacity should allow elite athletes to
practice more frequently at competitive intensity
with lower fatigue.
Grandys, M.; Majerczak, J.; Zapart-Bukowska,
J.; Kulpa, J.; Zoladz, J. A.
Gonadal hormone status in highly trained
sprinters and in untrained men
(2011), 4, pp. 1079-1084
It is a common view that strength and sprint
trained athletes are characterized by high plasma/
serum testosterone (T) concentration, which is
believed to be partly responsible for their perfor-
mance level. This opinion, however, has poor scientific background. The aim of this study was to
give evidence-based information on this issue. The
authors examined gonadal hormone status at rest
after overnight fasting in high and top-class track
and field sprinters (n = 16) and in untrained men (n
= 15). It was shown that basal T, free testosterone
(fT), bioavailable testosterone (bio-T), and sex hormone-binding globulin concentrations were not
significantly different (p > 0.05) in sprinters vs. untrained subjects. Further comparison of the results
of the basal serum T concentration in 8 sprinters
showed its significant changes during an annual
training period. Significantly higher T concentration during a low-intensity training period (beginning of December) than during heavy sprint specific training period (end of March) was observed
in these athletes (n = 8) (mean ± SD; 23.37 ± 5.28
vs. 20.99 ± 4.74 nmol/L, respectively, p = 0.04).
It is concluded that basal gonadal hormone concentration in high and top-class athletes (sprinters
and jumpers) did not appear to be significantly different when compared with untrained subjects.
Moreover, basal T concentration in sprinters can
differ significantly during an annual training period.
This fact should be taken into consideration when
interpreting the results of gonadal hormone status
in athletes at varied training stages.
Hautier, C. A.; Wouassi, D.; Arsac, L. M.; Bitanga, E.; Thiriet, P.; Lacour, J. R.
Relationships between postcompetition
blood lactate concentration and average running velocity over 100-m and 200-m races
6, pp. 508-513
The relationship between anaerobic glycolysis
and average velocity (v) sustained during sprint
running were studied in 12 national level male
sprinters. A blood sample was obtained within
3 min of the completion of semi-finals and finals
in the 100-m and 200-m Cameroon national
championships and blood lactate concentration
(< la > b) was measured. The 35-m times were
video-recorded. The 100-m and 200-m < la >
b were 8.5 (SD 0.8) and 10.3 (SD 0.8) mmol/l,
respectively. These were not correlated with the
performances. Over 200 m < la > b was correlated with the v sustained over the last 165 m
(r = 0.65). In the 9 athletes who participated in
both the 100-m and 200-m races, the difference
83
between the < la > b measured at the end of the
two races was negatively correlated to the difference in v sustained over the two races. Energy
expenditure during sprint running was estimated from the < la > b values. This estimate was
mainly based on the assumption that a 1 mmol/l
increase in < la > b corresponds to the energy
produced by the utilization of 3.30 ml O2/kg. The
energy cost of running was estimated at 0.275
(SD 0.02) ml O2/kg/m over 200-m and 0.433 (SD
0.03) ml O2/kg/m over 100-m races. These results would suggest that at the velocities studied
anaerobic glycolysis contributes to at least 55%
of the energy expenditure related to sprint running. However, the influence of both mechanical
factors and the contribution of other energy processes obscure the relationship between < la >
b and performance.
Javierre, C.; Calvo, M.; Diez, A.; Garrido, E.;
Segura, R.; Ventura, J. L.
Influence of sleep and meal schedules on
performance peaks in competitive sprinters
6, pp. 404-408
The influence of sleep and meal schedules on
performance in short distance running was assessed in a group of 8 national-class competition
male sprinters. They were tested on Saturdays for
five consecutive weeks. On each testing day, the
performance time for an 80 m sprint was registered on eight different occasions during days 1
and 4, on 9 occasions on days 2 and 5, and on
7 occasions on day 3. On control days (days 1
and 4) performance gradually improved during
the morning up to 13:00 h, decreased at 15:00
h, and again improved thereafter, with a maximum peak performance at 19:00 h. On day 2, in
which sleep/wake cycles and meal-times were
advanced for two hours, and on day 3, in which
timetables were delayed for two hours, maximum
peak performance was observed at 17:00 h and
21:00 h, respectively. At the time of maximum
peak performance on both days a statistically
significant improvement was observed as compared with the control day (day 2, p < 0.01; day
3, p = 0.001). On day 5, in which only the sleep/
wake cycle was advanced for two hours, performance in the afternoon and evening was similar
to that recorded on days 1 and 4. The authors
observed that easy manipulation of sleep and
84
meal schedules would allow competitive sprinters to synchronize peak power output with the
time of the athletic event, increasing the chances
for improvement in performance.
McDougall, J. D.; Hicks, A. L.; MacDonald, J.
R.; McKelvie, R. S.; Green, H. J.; Smith, K. M.
Muscle performance and enzymatic adaptation to sprint interval training
Journal of Applied Physiology, 84 (1998), 6, pp.
2138-2142
Our purpose was to examine the effects of sprint
interval training on muscle glycolytic and oxidative enzyme activity and exercise performance.
Twelve healthy men (22 ± 2 yr of age) underwent
intense interval training on a cycle ergometer for
7 wk. Training consisted of 30-s maximum sprint
efforts (Wingate protocol) interspersed by 2-4 min
of recovery, performed three times per week. The
program began with four intervals with 4 min of
recovery per session in week 1 and progressed
to 10 intervals with 2.5 min of recovery per session by week 7. Peak power output and total work
over repeated maximal 30-s efforts and maximal
oxygen consumption (VO2max) were measured
before and after the training program. Needle
biopsies were taken from vastus lateralis of nine
subjects before and after the program and assayed for the maximal activity of hexokinase, total
glycogen phosphorylase, phosphofructokinase,
lactate dehydrogenase, citrate synthase, succinate dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase,
and 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase. The
training program resulted in significant increases
in peak power output, total work over 30 s, and
VO2max. Maximal enzyme activity of hexokinase,
phosphofructokinase, citrate synthase, succinate
dehydrogenase, and malate dehydrogenase was
also significantly (p < 0.05) higher after training.
It was concluded that relatively brief but intense
sprint training can result in an increase in both
glycolytic and oxidative enzyme activity, maximum short-term power output, and VO2max.
Meckel, Y.; Atterbom, H.; Grodjinovsky, A.;
Ben-Sira, D.; Rotstein, A.
Physiological characteristics of female
100 metre sprinters of different performance levels
The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 35 (1995), 3, pp. 169-175
The purpose of this study was to compare physiological characteristics of three different levels of
100 m female sprinters. The 30 subjects in this
study (20 female track athletes and 10 recreationally trained females) were assigned, according to
their 100 m running time, to one of three different
groups: “Fast” (11.8 ± 0.1 sec), “Average” (12.7 ±
0.1) and “Slow” (14.2 ± 0.1 sec). All subjects were
tested for performance in the Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT), strength (squat exercise), fat%
(hydrostatic weighing), reaction time, flexibility
(sit-and-reach test), aerobic power (peak VO2)
and running skill. The data was analyzed by oneway Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with post-hoc
Tukey test, which was performed on each variable to find differences between the groups. The
ANOVA indicated significant differences among
all three groups for performance in the Wingate
Anaerobic Test and relative strength. Significant
differences in fat% and running skill were found
between the fast and the slow groups and between the average and the slow groups. However, no significant difference in fat% and running
skill existed between the fast and the average
groups. The differences in reaction time were
significant only between the fast and the average groups. No two groups were significantly
different from each other for flexibility and peak
VO2. Pearson correlation coefficients (r) were
calculated to determine the relationships between the 100 m running time and each of the
variables tested. Significant and negative correlations were found between the 100 m running
time and skill, relative strength, and performance
in the WAnT. Significant and positive correlations
were found between running time and fat%. No
significant correlations were found between running time and peak VO2, reaction time and flexibility. Stepwise regression analysis indicated that
the combination of performance in the WAnT and
strength provided the most efficient (R = 0.92)
prediction of 100 m run times. This study demonstrated that the main difference among female
sprinters of different performance levels lies in
their ability to produce muscular power, strength
and running technique. Other physiological components, such as flexibility, peak VO2, and reaction time do not differ among female sprinters of
different performance levels as represented in the
tested groups.
Olesen, H. L.; Raabo, E.; Bangsbo, J.; Secher,
N. H.
Maximal oxygen deficit of sprint and middle
distance runners
2, pp. 140-146
Anaerobic energy capacity was evaluated by
maximal oxygen deficit (MOD) as well as by
blood gas and muscle biopsy variables during short exhausting running in six recreational
(RR) and eight competitive sprint and middle
distance runners (SMDR). On 3 days runs to
exhaustion were executed. Two runs were performed at a treadmill gradient of 15% at speeds
which resulted in exhaustion after approximately
1 (R15%, 1min) and 2-3 min (R15%, 2-3 min),
respectively. On the 3rd day, the subjects ran
with the treadmill at a gradient of 1% at a speed
which caused exhaustion after 2-3 min (R1%,
2-3 min). The runner performance was assessed
from 400 m (RR, median 64.8 (range 62.2-69.6)
s; SMDR, median 49.4 (range 48.5-52.0) s) and
800 m (RR, median 158.8 (range 153.3-170.2) s;
SMDR, median 115.2 (range 113.3-123.3) s) track
times. Muscle biopsies from gastrocnemius
muscle were obtained before and immediately
after R15%, 2.3 min, from which muscle lactate
and creatine phosphate (CP) concentrations, fibre type distribution, capillaries per fibre, total
lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity and the
LDH isoenzyme pattern were determined. The
MOD increased with the treadmill gradient and
duration. During both treadmill and track runs,
SMDR performance was superior to that of RR,
but no significant differences were observed
with respect to MOD, muscle fibre type distribution, total LDH activity, its iso-enzyme pattern,
changes in muscle lactate or CP concentrations.
However, after treadmill runs, peak venous lactate concentration and partial pressures of carbon dioxide were higher, and pH lower in SMDR.
Also the number of capillaries per muscle fibre
and the maximal oxygen uptake were larger in
SMDR. These findings would suggest that the
superior performance of SMDR depended more
on their aerobic than on their anaerobic capacity.
Pendergast, K.
Energy systems and the 400 m race
Modern Athlete and Coach, 28 (1990), 2, pp. 37-40
Muscular contraction causes all movement by
85
rotating a limb about a joint. This contraction is
caused by a substance known as adenosine triphosphate, usually abbreviated to ATP. The following energy systems are sources for ATP, and
they are all used intensively in a 400 m race: 1.
aerobic energy system; 2. lactic anaerobic system;
3. alactic anaerobic system. The aerobic and the
two anaerobic systems are all triggered at different speeds. Success in 400 m depends on basic
speed, but it also depends on wise utilisation of
the energy systems. Inattention to any of the three
will inhibit performance. However, training alone is
not enough. The systems have to be used intelligently in a race, where everything hinges basically
on the use of the alactic system. Suppose you decide to save yourself as much as possible so that
you can accelerate home. You do this by saving
the alactic system until the last 100 m. If you run
100 m in 11 seconds, that means you cover first
300 m in 41.3 seconds at best, leaving you 8.7
seconds for the last 100 m to achieve 50 seconds.
On the other hand (still an 11-second 100 m runner), you decide to set yourself up with a fast first
200 m. You run close to flat out, say 22.5 sec.,
which would certainly deplete your CP stocks. The
fastest you could run after that would be at the rate
of 13.75 sec per 100 m, ie 27.5 sec. for the last 200
m, which would give you 50 sec. for the 400 m.
However, remember that the last 200 m now uses
the Iactic system which is necessarily decelerating. In fact, to run the first 200 m in 22.5 sec., you
would have been well into your Iactic system and
the Iactic acid would already be accumulating at
the 200 m mark. By the time you reached the finish
you would be down to your aerobic system, ie 16.9
sec., per 100 m pace. Assuming a linear deceleration, you would run 30.4 sec. for the last 200 m,
giving you a 400 m time of 52.9 sec. Obviously the
aim must be to string the alactic system out as long
as possible. We don’t know the precise relationship
between running speed and the rate of the use of
CP, but we can make some interpolations and intelligent guesses. A reasonable first estimate would
be that the optimal speed would be 90% of 100 m
speed, ie 12.22 sec 100 m pace for the first part of
the race. This is half way between no alactic system and the alactic system at its maximum output.
We don’t know whether this could be maintained
for all of the race but, if it could, it would lead to a
time of 48.9 sec. One factor indicates that it could
not be maintained – nobody does it. No top 400
86
m run is ever covered at constant speed. A factor
against constant speed being the optimum strategy is that it under-utilizes the Iactic system – there
is no deceleration. If the first 200 m is run at 90%,
the second is likely to slip to about 85%, ie 25.9
sec., giving a 400 m time of 50.3 sec. A reasonable
second estimate would be that the optimal speed
would be 95% of the 100 m speed, ie an 11.6 sec.
100 m pace for the first 200 m. This would give
a first 200 m of 23.2 sec. and, being reasonably
gentle for a 22-second 200 m runner, would not
completely tax the alactic system. However, the CP
source would be diminishing and the lactic system
would be contributing more and more, with a consequent build-up of lactic acid and the inevitable
deceleration. Good 400 m runners are at about
80% of their 100 m speed at the end of the race,
ie just at the end of the alactic zone. The deceleration from 95% to 80% indicates a second 200 m
of about 87.5% of the 100 m speed, ie 25.1 sec.
This would give a 400 m time of 48.3 sec., which
seems reasonable for a 400 m runner who can run
11 sec for the 100 m. The differential between the
first and second 200’s is 1.9 sec. which is within
the 1.5 to 2.0 sec range seen in all good 400 m
performances. The above analysis applies to all
400 m runners, although the percentage speeds
are typical only to the sprinters. A middle distance
type athlete, while short of the 100 m speed of a
sprinter, can run closer to his maximal further. He
has a better developed lactic system and also is
better trained in extending his alactic system. Consequently, if he is capable of a 23.0 sec. 200 m, he
could run at 97.5% for the first 200 m for 23.6 sec.
and at 92.5% for the second 200 m for 24.8 sec.
This would give a time of 48.4 sec.
Spencer, M. R.; Gastin, P. B.
Energy system contribution during 200- to
1500-m running in highly trained athletes
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33
(2001), 1, pp. 157-162
Purpose: The purpose of the present study was
to profile the aerobic and anaerobic energy system contribution during high-speed treadmill exercise that simulated 200-, 400-, 800-, and 1500m track running events. Methods: Twenty highly
trained athletes (Australian National Standard)
participated in the study, specializing in either the
200-m (N = 3), 400-m (N = 6), 800-m (N = 5), or
1500-m (N = 6) event (mean VO2peak (mL/kg/
min) ± SD = 56 ± 2, 59 ± 1, 67 ± 1, and 72 ± 2,
respectively). The relative aerobic and anaerobic
energy system contribution was calculated using
the accumulated oxygen deficit (AOD) method.
Results: The relative contribution of the aerobic
energy system to the 200-, 400-, 800-, and 1500m events was 29 ± 4, 43 ± 1, 66 ± 2, and 84 ± 1%
± SD, respectively. The size of the AOD increased
with event duration during the 200-, 400-, and
800-m events (30.4 ± 2.3, 41.3 ± 1.0, and 48.1 ±
4.5 mL/kg, respectively), but no further increase
was seen in the 1500-m event (47.1 ± 3.8 mL/kg).
The crossover to predominantly aerobic energy
system supply occurred between 15 and 30 s for
the 400-, 800-, and 1500-m events. Conclusions:
These results suggest that the relative contribution of the aerobic energy system during track
running events is considerable and greater than
traditionally thought.
Yano, T.; Matsuura, R.; Arimitsu, T.; Yamanaka,
R.; Lian, C. S.; Yunoki, T.; Afroundeh, R.
Ventilation and blood lactate levels after
recovery from single and multiple sprint
exercise
Biology of Sport, 28 (2011), 4, pp. 233-237, URL:
http://biolsport.com/fulltxt.php?ICID = 965487
The purpose of this study was to examine whether ventilation kinetics are related to blood lactate
level after 5 min in recovery after a sprint. Subjects
performed two tests, one test consisting of one
sprint with maximal effort and the other test consisting of five repeated sprints with time intervals
of 6 min. The recovery period from the last sprint
was 30 min. Oxygen uptake during recovery from
one sprint was the same as that during recovery
from five repeated sprints. Ventilation after 50 sec
in recovery after one sprint was the same as that
in recovery after five repeated sprints despite the
significantly higher blood lactate levels during recovery from five repeated sprints than that from a
single sprint. There was an exponential relationship between ventilation and blood lactate after 5
min in recovery. The curve shifted to the right in
the case of five repeated sprints. End tidal CO2
pressure after one sprint was higher than that
after five repeated sprints during recovery. From
these results, it seems that ventilation control related to blood lactate level is modified by end tidal
CO2 pressure.
2 Middle- and long-distance events
Araneda, O. F.; Guevara, A. J.; Contreras, C.;
Lagos, N.; Berral, F. J.
Exhaled breath condensate analysis after
long distance races
12, pp. 955-961
The impact of an endurance race on pulmonary
pro-oxidative formation and lipoperoxidation was
evaluated using exhaled breath condensate (EBC).
3 groups of 12, 12 and 17 healthy recreational runners of both sexes ran 10, 21.1 and 42.2 km, respectively. EBC samples were obtained before the
run and at 20 and 80 min post run. Concentrations
of H2O2, NO2 – , malondialdehyde and pH were
determined. The 10 km group showed no post-run
variations for H2O2 and NO2 – concentrations.
The 21.1 km group showed significant increments
for NO2 – , and H2O2 concentrations in 20 min
and 80 min samples. The 42.2 km group, showed
increased NO2 – concentration in 20 min and 80
min samples, while H2O2 concentration increased
only in the 20 min sample. In the 10 and 42.2 km
groups neither malondialdehyde concentration
nor pH showed differences. The 42.2 km group
exhibited ΔH2O2 and ΔNO2 – medians higher
than the 10 km group. ΔpH median decreased in
21.1 and 42.2 km groups, exhibiting values significantly lower than the 10 km group. ΔH2O2 y
ΔNO2 – correlated directly with race time, while
ΔpH, correlated inversely. In conclusion, intense
prolonged exercise favors the increase in pulmonary pro-oxidative levels, with no modifications
on lipoperoxidation. Running time relates to the
magnitude of acute post exercise pro-oxidative
formation.
Armstrong, L. E.; Maresh, C. M.; Whittlesey,
M.; Bergeron, M. F.; Gabaree, C.; Hoffmann,
J. R.
Longitudinal exercise-heat tolerance and
running economy of collegiate distance
runners
(1994), 3, pp. 192-197
To evaluate the effects of strenuous physical
training on the exercise-heat tolerance (EHT) and
running economy (RE) of endurance athletes, 5
male collegiate distance runners performed three
strenuous 20-min exercise trials in a hot environ-
87
ment during the winter (T1) indoor track and field
seasion and during the latter stages (T2 and T3)
of the outdoor track and field season. EHT was
highest at T1 and did not change during 17.5 wks
of training and competition. Similarly, RE was not
significantly enhanced from T1 to T3. RE was
strongly correlated with the change in rectal temperature pre- to postexercise, suggesting that RE
may be an important factor in the development of
hyperthermia during exrcise in the heat. The runners did not significantly improve their EHT and
RE during training and competition. However, the
magnitudes of change in mean RE and in sweat
rate suggest that these training related adaptations may have been physiologically though not
statistically significant.
Bertuzzi, R.; Bueno, S.; Pasqua, L. A.; Acquesta,
F. M.; Batista, M. B.; Roschel, H.; Kiss, M. A. P.
D. M.; Serrão, J. C.; Tricoli, V.; Ugrinowitsch, C.
Bioenergetics and neuromuscular determinants of the time to exhaustion at velocity corresponding to VO2max in recreational long-distance runners
(2012), 8, pp. 2096-2102
The purpose of this study was to investigate the
main bioenergetics and neuromuscular determinants of the time to exhaustion (Tlim) at the velocity corresponding to maximal oxygen uptake
in recreational long-distance runners. Twenty runners performed the following tests on 5 different
days: (a) maximal incremental treadmill test (b) 2
submaximal tests to determine running economy
and vertical stiffness (c) exhaustive test to measured the Tlim (d) maximum dynamic strength test,
and (e) muscle power production test. Aerobic and
anaerobic energy contributions during the Tlim
test were also estimated. The stepwise multiple
regression method selected 3 independent variables to explain Tlim variance. Total energy production explained 84.1% of the shared variance (p
= 0.001), whereas peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak)
measured during Tlim and lower limb muscle
power ability accounted for the additional 10% of
the shared variance (p = 0.014). These data suggest that the total energy production, VO2peak,
and lower limb muscle power ability are the main
physiological and neuromuscular determinants of
Tlim in recreational long-distance runners.
88
Bosquet, L.; Delhors, P.R.; Duchene, A.; Dupont, G.; Leger, L.
Anaerobic running capacity determined
from a 3-parameter systems model: relationship with other anaerobic indices and
with running performance in the 800 m-run
6, pp. 495-500
The purpose of this study was to compare anaerobic running capacity (ARC, i.e., the distance
that can be run using only stored energy sources
in the muscle) determined from a 3-parameter
systems model with other anaerobic indices and
with running performance in the 800 m. Seventeen trained male subjects (VO2max = 66.54 ±
7.29 ml/min/kg) performed an incremental test
to exhaustion for the determination of VO2max
and peak treadmill velocity (PTV), five randomly
ordered constant velocity tests at 95, 100, 105,
110, and 120% of PTV to compute ARC and oxygen deficit (O2def, at 110% of PTV), and a 800m time trial to determine running performance
(mean velocity over the distance, V800 m) and
peak blood lactate concentration ([La-]b, peak).
ARC (467 ± 123 m) was positively correlated with
O2def (56.35 ± 18.47 ml/kg; r = 0.57; p < 0.05),
but not with [La-]b, peak (15.08 ± 1.48 mmol/l;
r = -0.16; p > 0.05). The O2 equivalent of ARC
(i.e., the product of ARC by the energy cost of
running; 103.74 ± 28.25 ml/kg), which is considered as an indirect estimation of O2def, was significantly higher than O2def (p < 0.01, effect size
= 1.99). It was concluded that ARC is partially
determined by anaerobic pathway, but that it
probably does not provide an accurate measure
of anaerobic capacity, if, however, O2def can be
considered as a criterion measure for it.
Bragada, J. A.; Santos, P. J.; Maia, J. A.; Colaço, P. J.; Lopes, V. P.; Barbosa, T. M.
Longitudinal study in 3000 m male runners: relationship between performance
and selected physiological parameters
Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 9 (2010), 3,
pp. 439-444, URL: http://www.jssm.org/vol9/n3/12/
v9n3-12text.php, http://www.jssm.org/vol9/n3/12/
v9n3-12pdf.pdf
The purpose of the present study was to analyze longitudinal changes in 3,000 m running
performance and the relationship with selected
physiological parameters. Eighteen well-trained
male middle-distance runners were measured
six times (x3 per year) throughout two consecutive competitive seasons. The following parameters were measured on each occasion: maximal
oxygen uptake (VO2max), running economy (RE),
velocity at maximal oxygen uptake (vVO2max),
velocity at 4mmol/L blood lactate concentration
(V4), and performance velocity (km/h) in 3,000
m time trials. Values ranged from 19.59 to 20.16
km/h, running performance; 197 to 207 mL/kg/
km. RE; 17.2 to 17.7 km/h, V4; 67.1 to 72.5 mL/kg/
min, VO2max; and 19.8 to 20.2 km/h, vVO2max.
A hierarchical linear model was used to quantify
longitudinal relationships between running performance and selected physiological variables.
Running performance decreased significantly
over time, between each time point the decrease
in running velocity was 0.06 km/h. The variables
that significantly explained performance changes
were V4 and vVO2max. Also, vVO2max and V4
were the measures most strongly correlated with
performance and can be used to predict 3,000
m race velocity. The best prediction formula for
3,000 m running performance was: y = 0.646 +
0.626x + 0.416z (R2 = 0.85); where y = V3,000 m
velocity (km/h), x = V4 (km/h) and z = vVO2max
(km/h). The high predictive power of vVO2max
and V4 suggest that both coaches and athletes
should give attention to improving these two
physiological variables, in order to improve running performance.
Brisswalter, J.; Legros, P.
Daily stability in energy cost of running, respiratory parameters and stride rate among
well-trained middle distance runners
5, pp. 238-241
The purpose of this study was to quantify total
intraindividual variability in energy cost of running
(C), ventilation (VE), respiratory frequency (RF),
heart rate (HR), lactate concentration (La) and
stride rate (SR) at usual training pace in French
elite middle distance runners. Subjects were
monitored four times a week during submaximal
treadmill tests at 75%VO2max speed (15.8 ± 0.2
km/h). No significant differences (p < .05) were
found between tests in C, VE, RF, HR, SR. Significant day to day differences were found in La
(0.5 ± 0.3, p < .025). However, a wide range of
individual coefficients of variation were observed
for C (0.2-10.6), VE (0.9-8.8) and RF (0.7-9.3). SR
appears to be the most stable parameter (0.22.6). No correlation was found between these
individual variations. These results suggest that
in well-trained runners C, VE, RF, HR and SR are
stable measures for assessing the efficacy of
procedures aimed at improving the energy cost
of running. For the speed used in testing, the respiratory parameters and energy cost of running
presented a wide range of individual variation
whereas stride rate appeared to be a very stable
measure.
Camus, G.
Relationship between record time and
maximal oxygen consumption in middledistance running
6, pp. 534-537
The relationship between record time (tr) and
maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) has been examined in 69 male physical education students
who had taken part in 800-m and 1500-m footraces. It was found that tr and VO2max were inversely related. The relationships tr = f(VO2max)
have been fitted by two exponential equations: tr
(1500 m) = 698 e**-0.0145 VO2max; tr (800 m) =
272e**-0.011 VO2max; p < 0.001. A mathematical
formulation of the energy conservation principle
in supramaximal running, based on the exponential increase of the oxygen uptake as a function
of time with a rate constant of 0.025/s has been
applied to the tr calculation from VO2max. As
calculated tr were highly correlated to measured
tr (p < 0.001), it was concluded that the relationships tr = f(VO2max) can be interpreted on the
basis of the model described in this study.
Daniels, J.; Daniels, N.
Running economy of elite male and elite
female runners
(1992), 4, pp. 483-489
20 female and 45 male elite middle and longdistance runners served as subjects. Each completed a VO2max and a series of submax treadmill runs, in order to compare heart rate (HR),
VO2, and blood lactate (HLa) among men and
women and among runners of various events.
Results showed the men to be taller, heavier, to
have a lower skinfold sum and a higher VO2max,
89
than the women. When compared in running
economy, men used less oxygen at common
absolute velocities, but VO2 (ml/km/kg) was not
different between men and women at equal relative intensities (VO2max). When men and women
of equal VO2max were compared, the men were
significantly more economical, using any method
of comparison. Also when comparisons of men
and women of equal economy were made, it was
found that the men had an even greater advantage over the matched women subjects than the
mean VO2max comparison using all subjects.
In looking at the SD (800-/1500-m runners), MD
(3-K/5-K/10-K runners) and LD (marathon runners), it was found that the SD runners used the
least oxygen at speeds of marathon race pace
and faster, but not at slower speeds. Men and
women responded similarly in this regard. Running economy data for speeds slower than typical race paces, tended to show the LD runners to
be most economical, suggesting that the speeds
over which runners are tested plays an important
part in determining which subjects are the most
economical. It was concluded that at absolute
running velocities, but not as expressed in ml/
km/kg, men are more economical than women.
Duffield, R.; Dawson, B.; Goodman, C.
Energy system contribution to 1500- and
3000-metre track running
Journal of Sports Sciences, 23 (2005), 10, pp. 9931002
The aim of the present study was to quantify the
contributions of the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems to 1500- and 3000-m track running
events during all-out time-trials performed individually on a synthetic athletic track. Ten 3000m (8 males, 2 females) and fourteen 1500-m (10
males, 4 females) trained track athletes volunteered to participate in the study. The athletes
performed a graded exercise test in the laboratory and two time-trials over 1500 or 3000 m. The
contributions of the energy systems were calculated by measures of race oxygen uptake, accumulated oxygen deficit (AOD), race blood lactate
concentration, estimated phosphocreatine degradation and some individual muscle metabolite
data. The relative aerobic energy system contribution (based on AOD measures) for the 3000 m
was 86% (male) and 94% (female), while for the
1500 m it was 77% (male) and 86% (female). Es-
90
timates of anaerobic energy expenditure based
on blood lactate concentrations, while not significantly different (p > 0.05), were generally lower
compared with the AOD measures. In conclusion, the results of the present study conform
with some recent laboratory-based measures of
energy system contributions to these events.
Ferley, D. D.; Osborn, R. W.; Vukovich, M. D.
The effects of uphill vs. level-grade highintensity interval training on VO2max,
Vmax, Vlt, and Tmax in well-trained distance runners
(2013), 6, 1549-1559
Uphill running represents a frequently used and
often prescribed training tactic in the development of competitive distance runners but remains largely uninvestigated and unsubstantiated as a training modality. The purpose of this
investigation included documenting the effects of
uphill interval training compared with level-grade
interval training on maximal oxygen consumption
(V O
̇ 2max), the running speed associated with
VO
̇ 2max (Vmax), the running speed associated
with lactate threshold (VLT), and the duration for
which Vmax can be sustained (Tmax) in welltrained distance runners. Thirty-two well-trained
distance runners (age, 27.4 ± 3.8 years; body
mass, 64.8 ± 8.9 kg; height, 173.6 ± 6.4 cm; and
VO
̇ 2max, 60.9 ± 8.5 ml/min/kg) received assignment to an uphill interval training group (GHill
= 12), level-grade interval training group (GFlat
= 12), or control group (GCon = 8). GHill and
GFlat completed 12 interval and 12 continuous
running sessions over 6 weeks, whereas GCon
maintained their normal training routine. Pre- and
posttest measures of V O
̇ 2max, Vmax, VLT, and
Tmax were used to assess performance. A 3 ×
2 repeated measures analysis of variance was
performed for each dependent variable and revealed a significant difference in Tmax in both
GHill and GFlat (p < 0.05). With regard to running
performance, the results indicate that both uphill and level-grade interval training can induce
significant improvements in a run-to-exhaustion
test in well-trained runners at the speed associated with V O
̇ 2max but that traditional level-grade
training produces greater gains.
Grant, S.; Craig, I.; Wilson, J.; Aitchison, T.
The relationship between 3 km running
performance and selected physiological
variables
Journal of Sports Sciences, 15 (1997), 4, pp. 403-410
The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between a number of physiological variables
and running velocity at 3 km (v-3km) in a group
of male runners. Sixteen well-trained middle- and
long-distance runners (mean ± s: age 22.4 ± 4.2
years, body mass 63.5 ± 6.2 kg, VO2max 73.3
± 6.7 ml/kg/min) underwent laboratory treadmill
tests to determine their maximum oxygen uptake
(VO2max), running economy at three submaximal
velocities (12.9, 14.5 and 16.1 km/h or 14.5, 16.1
and 17 km/h), predicted velocity at VO2max (vVO2max), velocity (v-Tlac) and VO2 (VO2-Tlac) at
the lactate threshold and their velocity (v-4mM)
and VO2 (VO2-4mM) at a blood lactate concentration of 4 mM. Distance running performance
was determined by 3 km time-trials on an indoor
200 m track for which the average time was 9.46
± 0.74 min. The mean( ± s) velocities for v-Tlac,
v-4mM and v-VO2max were 16.0 ± 1.8, 17.1 ± 1.9
and 20.7 ± 2.1 km/h respectively, all significantly
different on average (all p < 0.05) from that for v3km (19.1 ± 1.5 km/h). Many of these physiological variables were found to be individually (and
significantly at 5%) related to v-3km. The best single predictors of v-3km were v-Tlac and v-4mM
(both with a sample correlation, r, of 0.93), while
v-VO2max was slightly poorer (r = 0.86). Neither
VO2max nor running economy was strongly correlated with v-3km. A stepwise multiple-regression analysis revealed that v-Tlac alone was the
best single predictor of v-3km and explained 87%
of the variability in 3 km running velocity, while
the addition of any of the other physiological variables did not significantly improve the prediction
of v-3km. We conclude that, in a group of welltrained runners, the running velocity at the lactate
threshold was all that was required to explain a
large part of the variability in 3 km running performance.
Halvorsen, K.; Eriksson, M.; Gullstrand, L.
Acute effects of reducing vertical displacement and step frequency on running
economy
(2012), 8, pp. 2065-2070
This work studies the immediate effects of altering the vertical displacement of the center of
mass (VD) and step frequency (SF) on the metabolic cost of level treadmill running at 16 km/h on
16 male runners. Alterations of VD, SF, and the
product VD x SF was induced using a novel feedback system, which presents target and current
values to the runner by visual or auditory display.
Target values were set to 5 and 10% reductions
from individual baseline values. The results were
expressed as relative changes from baseline values. Alterations led to an increase in metabolic
cost in most cases, measured as VO2 uptake
per minute and kilogram of body mass. Correlations were weak. Still, linear multiple regression
revealed a positive coefficient (0.28) for the relationship between VD x SF and VO2. Separate
rank correlation tests showed negative correlation (τ = -0.19) between SF and VO2 and positive correlation (τ = 0.16) between VD and VO2.
There is a coupling between VD and SF caused
by the mechanics of running; hence, isolated reduction of either factor was hard to achieve. The
linear model also showed a negative coefficient
for the relationship between the height of the center of mass above the ground (CoMh) and VO2.
The effect size was small (multiple R2 0.07 and
0.12). Still the results indicate that reducing VD
x SF by reducing the vertical displacement can
have a positive effect on running economy, but a
concurrent reduction in CoMh may diminish the
positive effect. Midterm and long-term effects of
altering the technique should also be studied.
Hanon, C.; Thomas, C.; Chevalier, J. M.; Gajer,
Bruno; Vandewalle, H.
How does VO2 evolve during the 800 m?
New Studies in Athletics, 17 (2002), 3/4, pp. 61-68
The purpose of this experiment was to examine
the evolution of the ventilatory parameters during 800 meters when 800 meters are realized according to the competition model: fast departure
and drop in the speed in the final 100 meters. To
date, concerning supramaximal exercises only
studies realized in constant power had been proposed. Our results indicate that, regarding VO2,
the 800 m can be described by 3 different phases: 1) during the first 315 metres, VO2 increases
gradually to reach VO2max, 2) during the 215 m
which follow or until the 530 m, VO2max is maintained, and finally 3) during the last 270 m, VO2
91
decreases gradually to reach 80% of VO2max at
the end of running. lt thus seems that the fact of
leaving faster than the average speed of running
allows to reach VO2max and it more quickly. lt
also seems that at the same time as the fall of the
speed, one can observe VO2’s fall at the end of
the running
Helenius, I.; Tikkanen, H. O.; Helenius, M.;
Lumme, A.; Remes, V.; Haahtela, T.
Exercise-induced changes in pulmonary
function of healthy, elite long-distance
runners in cold air and pollen season exercise challenge tests
4, pp. 252-261
Exercise-induced changes in postexercise pulmonary function have not been studied in healthy
elite athletes in normal training conditions. Twelve
healthy elite runners volunteered. They showed
normal resting spirometry and bronchial responsiveness to histamine, and were non-atopic. They
performed free running exercise challenge tests
(ECT) at subzero temperature and immediately
after highest birch pollen season. The mean maximal postexercise changes in FEV1, PEF, FVC,
and FEV1/FVC did not differ between the cold
air and pollen season ECTs. Compared with preexercise values, FEV1 increased significantly at
10 min (p = 0.028) and 20 min (p = 0.033) postexercise in the cold air ECT, as well as at 10 min (p
= 0.024) and 20 min (p = 0.010) postexercise in
the pollen season ECT. The mean (SEM) maximal
postexercise change in FEV1 was mostly small +
2.6 (0.6)% in the winter and + 2.7 (0.9)% in the
pollen season. In contrast, significant decreases
in PEF, compared with baseline, were found at 10
min (p = 0.071) and 20 min (p = 0.0029) postexercise in the cold air ECT, as well as at 10 min (p
= 0.060) and 20 min (p = 0.010) postexercise in
the pollen season ECT (p = 0.0076). The mean
(SEM) maximal postexercise fall in PEF was 5.9
(1.0)% in the winter and 6.0 (1.8)% in the pollen
season. Heavy exercise challenge tests in extreme conditions increased FEV1 post-exercise,
while PEF decreased as compared with pre-exercise values. Thus, even small postexercise falls
in FEV1 may be considered as deviate exercise
responses in elite athletes.
92
Hewson, D. J.; Hopkins, W. G.
Specificity of training and its relation to
the performance of distance runners
3, pp. 199-204
Validated six month retrospective questionnaires
were completed by 119 female and 234 male
coached distance runners (59% compliance)
for a descriptive study of relationships between
specificity of training and best performance in a
summer season. Runners were aged 26 ± 10 y
(mean ± SD), specialising in distances from 800
m to the marathon, with seasonal best paces of
82 ± 7% of sex- and age-group world records.
They reported typical weekly durations of interval and strength training, and typical weekly
durations and paces of moderate and hard continuous running, for build-up, precompetition,
competition, and postcompetition phases of the
season. The training programs showed some
evidence of specificity, especially for runners preparing for longer events. A potentially beneficial
effect of specificity was evident in a significant
correlation between performance and seasonal
mean weekly duration of moderate continuous
running for runners specialising in longer distances. The only other significant correlates of performance were seasonal mean relative training
paces of moderate and hard continuous running,
which exemplified detrimental effects of specificity for most runners. Thus, the training of better
runners is not characterised strongly by greater
specificity.
Hoffman, R. L.
Effects of training at the ventilatory
threshold on the ventilatory threshold and
performance in trained distance runners
(1999), 2, pp. 118-123
This study compared the effects of different frequencies of training specifically at the ventilatory
threshold (VT) in already trained distance runners. The purposes of the investigation were to
determine if the training elicited favorable performance enhancements and, if so, to provide information regarding a more beneficial frequency
of VT training. Eight trained distance runners underwent maximal testing to determine VO2peak
and VT and completed a timed performance run
on the treadmill. Four subjects then added three
20-minute runs per week at the velocity that elicited the VT to their training for 6 weeks (3X), while
the other 4 subjects added 1 VT run per week
(1X). When retested at 3 weeks, the 3X group
exhibited a significant increase in VT but after
3 additional weeks of training no further significant changes were detected. Conversely, the 1X
group showed no alteration in VT after 3 weeks
but showed a similar overall increase in VT as the
3X group at the conclusion of the study, despite
the much lower frequency of VT training. Both
groups also exhibited significant increases in VO2peak and an increase in performance of approximately 36%. It was confirmed that training at the
VT is an effective method for improving middle
distance running perfomance and that the beneficial changes observed can be achieved just as
readily with VT sessions of moderate frequency.
Houmard, J. A.; Costill, D. L.; Mitchell, J. B.;
Park, S. H.; Chenier, T. C.
The role of anaerobic ability in middle distance running performance
1, pp. 40-43
The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between anaerobic ability and middle
distance running performance. Ten runners of
similar performance capacities (5 km times:
16.72, SE 0.2 min) were examined during 4
weeks of controlled training. The runners performed a battery of tests each week (maximum
oxygen consumption (VO2max), vertical jump,
and Margaria power run) and raced 5 km three
times (weeks 1, 2, 4) on an indoor 200-m track
(all subjects competing). Regression analysis revealed that the combination of time to exhaustion
(TTE) during the VO2max test (r(square) = 0.63)
and measures from the Margaria power test (W/
kg, r(square) = 0.18; W, r(square) = 0.05) accounted for 86 of the total variance in race times (p <
0.05). Regression analysis demonstrated that
TTE was influenced by both anaerobic ability
(vertical jump, power (W/kg)) and aerobic capacity (VO2max, ml/kg/min). These results indicate
that the anaerobic systems influence middle distance performance in runners of similar abilities.
Houmard, J. A.; Hortobagyi, T.; Johns, R. A.;
Bruno, N. J.; Nute, C. C.; Shinebarger, M. H.;
Welborn, J. W.
Effect of short-term training cessation on
performance measures in distance runners
8, pp. 572-576
This study examined if measures associated
with distance running performance were affected by short-term (14d) training cessation in
12 distance runners. VO2max decreased by ca.
3 ml/kg/min (mean ± SE, 61.6 ± 2.0 vs 58.7 ±
1.8 ml/kg/min, p < 0.05) with training cessation.
Time to exhaustion (TTE) during the incremental
VO2max test decreased by 1.2 min (13.0 ± 0.5
vs 11.8 ± 0.5 min, p < 0.001) and maximal heart
rate increased (p < 0.001) by 9 beats per minute
(BPM). No changes in running economy (75 and
90 VO2max) were evident, although submaximal
heart rate increased by 11 BPM (p < 0.001) at
both running speeds. Other evidence for detraining were decreases in estimated resting plasma
volume (-5.1 ± 1.9) and muscle citrate synthase
activity (-25.3 ± 2.6, p < 0.05). Muscular atrophy
(muscle fiber cross-sectional area) was not evident TTE and submaximal heart rate exhibited
relatively large percent changes (-9 and +6, respectively) compared to VO2max (-4). These
findings indicate that the reduction in VO2max
with short-term training cessation is relatively
small. TTE and submaximal heart rate may be
easily measured, yet more sensitive indicators of
decrements in distance running performance.
James, D. V. B.; Doust, J. H.
Oxygen uptake during moderate intensity
running: response following a single bout
of interval training
6, pp. 551-555
Eight male endurance runners (mean ± (SD):
age 25(6) years; height 1.79(0.06) m; body mass
70.5(6.0) kg; % body fat 12.5(3.2); maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) 62.9(1.7) ml/kg/min)
performed an interval training session, preceded
immediately by test 1, followed after 1 h by test
2, and after 72 h by test 3. The training session
was six 800-m intervals at 1 km/h below the velocity achieved at VO2max with 3 min of recovery between each interval. Tests 1, 2 and 3 were
identical, and included collection of expired gas,
measurement of ventilatory frequency (fr), heart
rate (fc), rate of perceived exertion (RPE), and
blood lactate concentration ([La-]B) during the final
93
5 min of 15 min of running at 50% of the velocity achieved at VO2max (50% v-VO2max). Oxygen
uptake (VO2), ventilation (VE), and respiratory exchange ratio (R) were subsequently determined
from duplicate expired gas collections. Body mass
and plasma volume changes were measured
preceding and immediately following the training
session, and before tests 1-3. Subjects ingested
water immediately following the training session,
the volume of which was determined from the
loss of body mass during the session. Repeated
measures analysis of variance with multiple comparison (Tukey) was used to test differences between results. No significant differences in body
mass or plasma volume existed between the
three test stages, indicating that the differences
recorded for the measured parameters could not
be attributed to changes in body mass or plasma
volume between tests, and that rehydration after
the interval training session was successful. A significant increase was found from test 1 to test 2
(mean (SD)) for VO2 (2.128(0.147) to 2.200(0.140)
l/min), fc (125(17) to 132(16) beats/min), and RPE
(9(2) to 11(2)). A significant decrease was found
for submaximal R (0.89(0.03) to 0.85(0.04)). These
results suggest that alterations in VO2 during
moderate-intensity, constant-velocity running do
occur following heavy-intensity endurance running
training, and that this is due to factors in addition
to changed substrate metabolism towards greater
fat utilisation, which could explain only 31% of the
increase in VO2.
Jones, A. M.
A five year physiological case study of an
Olympic runner
British Journal of Sports Medicine, 32 (1998), 1, pp.
39-43
Objective: To study physiological changes
caused by long-term endurance training in a
world class female distance runner, and to compare these changes with alterations in 3000 m
running performance. Methods: The subject underwent regular physiological assessment during
the period 1991-1995. Physiological measures
made included body composition, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), running economy, and lactate threshold. In addition, the running speed at
VO2max was estimated. Test protocols, laboratory equipment, and laboratory techniques used
were the same for each test session. Results: The
94
3000 m race performance improved by 8% from
1991 to 1993 after which it stabilised. In contrast,
VO2max fell from 1991 (73 ml/kg/min) to 1993
(66 ml/kg/min). Submaximal physiological variables such as lactate threshold (from 15.0 to 18.0
km/h) and running economy (from 53 ml/kg/min
to 48 ml/kg/min at 16.0 km/h) improved over the
course of the study. Despite no increase in VO2max, the reduction in the oxygen cost of submaximal running caused the estimated running
speed at VO2max to increase from 19.0 km/h
in 1991 to 20.4 km/h in 1995. Conclusions: Improvement in 3000 m running performance was
not caused by an increase in VO2max. Rather,
the extensive training programme adopted, together perhaps with physical maturation, resulted
in improvements in submaximal fitness factors
such as running economy and lactate threshold.
These adaptations improved the running speed
estimated to be associated with VO2max, and resulted in improved 3000 m running performance.
Karp, J. R.
Heart rate training for improved running
performance
Track Coach (2001), 158, pp. 5035-5039
In response to physical activity, heart rate increases in a predictable manner. In fact, the relationship between exercise intensity and heart rate
is an extremely linear one – the greater the intensity, the higher the heart rate, with the relationship
becoming more curvilinear (heart rate begins to
plateau) at very high intensities. Because of its
predictability, heart rate can be used to prescribe
running intensities. lt can also be used to monitor the athletes’ progress over time. For example,
as athletes get in better shape, they will be running at a faster pace when at the same heart rate
and their heart rate will be lower when running at
the same pace. There are generally two ways to
use heart rate to determine intensity. The first is
to simply take a percentage of the athlete’s maximum heart rate (max HR). The approximate max
HR can be determined by subtracting an athlete’s
age from 220. For example, a 20-year-old’s max
HR would be approximately 200 beats per minute
(220-20), and a target range of 70 to 80% would
correspond to 140 to 160 beats per minute. The
second method of using heart rate to calculate a
target range involves the athlete’s resting heart
rate. This method is called the Karvonen method,
named after its founder. To calculate an athlete’s
target heart rate, subtract resting HR from max
HR before multiplying by the desired percentage. The resting HR is then added back to the
product. The difference between the max HR
and the resting HR is called the heart rate reserve
(HRR). If the 20-year-old in the above example
has a resting HR of 50 beats per minute, a target
heart rate of 70-80% HRR would be calculated
as follows: HRR = (220-20) – 50 = 150 beats/
min. Lower Limit = (150 x 0.70) + 50 = 155 beats/
min. Upper Limit = (150 x 0.80) + 50 = 170 beats/
min. The Karvonen formula is especially attractive
to use since it also estimates the running intensity in relation to the athlete’s maximum oxygen
consumption (VO2max). For example, 75% HRR
equals 75% VO2max. Keeping all this in mind, the
author determines target heart rates for specific
training goals (improvement of aerobic endurance, anaerobic threshold, VO2max, anaerobic
glycolysis). The author also provides information
about the use of heart rate monitors.
Karp, J. R.
“I can’t catch my breath”: lungs and distance running performance
Track Coach (2005), 175, pp. 5577-5579
Studies clearly show that the lungs do not limit
the ability to perform endurance exercise, especially in untrained people. That limitation rests on
the shoulders of the cardiovascular and metabolic systems, with blood flow to and oxygen use by
the muscles the major culprits. If the size of our
lungs mattered, one would expect the best distance runners to have large lungs that can hold a
lot of oxygen. However, the best distance runners
in the world are quite small people, with characteristically small lungs. Total lung capacity, the maximal amount of air the lungs can hold, is primarily
influenced by body size, with bigger people having larger lung capacities. There is no relationship
between lung capacity and distance running performance. What is important in the lungs, however, is the process of oxygen diffusion from the
alveoli of the lungs into the pulmonary capillaries.
The pulmonary capillaries feed into the left side of
the heart, which is responsible for pumping blood
and oxygen to your organs, including your running muscles. This elegant process of diffusion
is already more than adequate, even when running at racing speeds. The adequacy of oxygen
transport from the lungs into the blood is elucidated by the often-presented oxyhemoglobin
dissociation curve. Oxygen saturation of arterial
blood is affected by the pressure oxygen exerts
in the arteries (called the oxygen partial pressure).
While one sitting and doing nothing, the hemoglobin in the arterial blood is 97-98% saturated
with oxygen and your oxygen partial pressure is
about 100 millimeters of mercury (mmHg). Even
while running a race, this near-maximal saturation
is maintained in healthy people. A slight reduction in partial pressure does not have a significant
effect on arterial oxygen saturation. However, if
the oxygen partial pressure decreases below approximately 70 mmHg, arterial oxygen saturation
begins to decrease rapidly. This latter situation
only happens at very high altitudes, in patients
with cardiovascular or pulmonary pathology, and
in some elite endurance athletes who exhibit a
condition known as exercise-induced hypoxemia. Unlike the cardiovascular and muscular
systems, the pulmonary system, including the
lungs, is believed to not adapt to training. Therefore, the lungs may limit performance in elite endurance athletes who have developed the more
trainable characteristics of aerobic metabolism
(e.g., cardiac output, hemoglobin concentration,
and mitochondrial and capillary volumes) to capacities that approach the genetic potential of the
lungs to provide for adequate diffusion of oxygen.
In other words, the lungs may limit performance
by “lagging behind” other, more readily adaptable
characteristics. But this is only a problem when
those other characteristics have been trained
enough to reach their genetic potential.
Karp, J. R.
An in-depth look at VO2max
Track Coach (2007a), 180, pp. 5737-5742
VO2max is the maximum volume of oxygen that
your muscles can consume per minute. It is
therefore referred to as aerobic power since it’s
a measure of the rate at which oxygen is consumed. VO2max is considered to be the best
single indicator of a person’s aerobic fitness. Although a high VO2max alone is not enough to
attain elite-level performances, it gains one access into the club. An athlete simply cannot attain a high level of performance without a high
VO2max. It is especially important for the middle
distances (800 to 3000 meters) – events that are
95
run at or close to 100% VO2max. Physiologists
are fascinated with the use of oxygen. Indeed,
VO2max is the most often measured variable in
exercise physiology. With this in mind, the author
deals with the following questions and aspects
concerning VO2max: 1. What determines VO2max? 2. Central vs. peripheral limitation? 3. How
is VO2max measured? 4. Estimating VO2max. 5.
Improving VO2max. 6. What pace should athletes
run intervals? 7. Racing at VO2max.
Karp, J. R.
An in-depth look at running economy
Track Coach (2008), 182, pp. 5801-5806
Running economy is the volume of oxygen (VO2)
consumed at submaximum running speeds. Running economy is likely more important than either
VO2max or lactate threshold in determining distance running performance because it indicates
the fraction of the VO2max that is needed to run
at a given speed. For example, if two runners have
the same VO2max, but runner A uses 70% and
runner B uses 80% of that VO2max while running
at 7:00 pace, the pace feels easier for runner A
because runner A is more economical. Therefore,
runner A can run at a faster pace before feeling
the same amount of fatigue as Runner B. There
are many things that can influence how much oxygen is consumed to run at a given pace, including
biomechanics, muscle fiber type, leg mass, clothing, shoe weight, wind and air resistance, and terrain. The more optimal the athletes’ biomechanics
(e.g., proper foot placement on the ground with
just the right amount of pronation to absorb shock
upon landing), the more economical they’ll be.
In addition, runners with a greater proportion of
slow-twitch muscle fibers (typically long-distance
runners) are more economical because slowtwitch fibers are more suited for aerobic activities.
Anatomically, slim, non-muscular legs, like those
of the Kenyans and Ethiopians, are more economical since it takes less energy to lift a light leg
off the ground. Despite the obvious significance
and performance implications of how much oxygen is needed to maintain a given speed, running
economy is the most difficult of the three players (besides running econmy, VO2max and lactate threshold) to specifically train. Research has
shown that runners who perform high volumes of
endurance training tend to be more economical,
which has led to the suggestion among scientists
96
that running high mileage (greater than 70 miles
per week) improves running economy. Economy
is improved largely from increases to mitochondrial and capillary density, which are both enhanced
with high mileage. Runners also tend to be most
economical at the speed at which they train the
most, so the athletes should train at race pace to
improve economy at race pace. It is possible that
the greater repetition of the movements of running
results in better biomechanics and muscle fiber
recruitment patterns. Additionally, economy may
be improved by the weight loss that usually accompanies high mileage, which leads to a lower
oxygen cost. Since VO2max plateaus with about
70 to 75 miles per week, improved economy may
be the most significant attribute gained from running high mileage. Because it’s hard to prove
cause and effect, it is not entirely clear whether
high-mileage runners become more economical
by running more miles or are innately more economical and can therefore handle higher mileage
without getting injured. In addition to running lots
of miles, both tempo running (e.g., 20 to 30 minutes at lactate threshold pace) and long interval
training (e.g., 4 to 6 x 4:00 with 2:00 recovery)
have been shown to improve economy, which is
no surprise since, as VO2max and lactate threshold improve, the oxygen cost of any submaximal
speed is also likely to improve. However, it is
also possible to become more economical without improving VO2max or lactate threshold. An
important factor in distance running, as in most
sports, is to produce and apply muscle force as
quickly as possible. One of the keys to becoming
a more economical runner is to enhance the steps
involved in muscle fiber recruitment and contraction, improving the speed at which muscles produce force. A number of studies have shown that
power training with heavy weights or plyometric
exercises improves running economy, possibly
by a neuromuscular mechanism. Research has
shown that running economy is improved when
athietes include explosive or heavy weight training in their training programs. Contrary to heavy
weight training, which focuses on the strength
component of power, plyometric training focuses
on the speed component. Plyometric training,
which includes jumping and bounding exercises
involving repeated rapid eccentric and concentric
muscle contractions, has also been shown to improve running economy.
Karp, J.
Chasing Pheidippides: the science of endurance
Modern Athlete and Coach, 47 (2009), 3, pp. 10-13;
also in: New Studies in Athletics, 24 (2009), 4, 9-14
The main physical factors that influence endurance can be grouped as follows: 1. cardiovascular,
2. muscular, 3. metabolic, 4. neuromuscular. 1.
Cardiovascular factors: The main cardiovascular
factors that influence endurance are cardiac output and blood flow to the muscles. The larger the
left ventricle, the more blood it can hold; the more
blood it can hold, the more blood it can pump.
One of the hallmark adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training is an increase in the size of
the left ventricle. So characteristic is a large heart
of genetically gifted and highly trained endurance
athletes that it is considered a physiological condition, called Athlete’s Heart, by the scientific and
medical communities. 2. Muscular factors: Once
oxygen is delivered to the muscles, they have to
use it to regenerate energy (ATP) for muscle contraction. The amount of oxygen extracted and
used by the muscles is largely dependent on the
muscles’ mitochondrial and capillary volumes. The
more capillaries that perfuse the muscle fibres,
the shorter the diffusion distance for oxygen from
the capillaries to the mitochondria, which contain
the enzymes involved in aerobic metabolism. The
number of mitochondrial enzymes is also an important determinant of endurance, since enzymes,
through their catalysing effect on chemical reactions, control the rate at which ATP is produced.
Together, the cardiac output and the amount of
oxygen extracted and used by the muscles determine aerobic power (VO2max), the maximum
volume of oxygen that the muscles can consume
per minute. VO2max is considered by many as the
best single indicator of a person’s aerobic fitness.
3. Metabolic factors: Endurance is also influenced
by a number of metabolic factors, including the
removal of lactate and the buffering of metabolic
acidosis. For example, at relatively slow running
speeds, lactate is removed from the muscles as
quickly as it is produced. At greater velocities, there
is an increased reliance on anaerobic glycolysis for
the production of ATP, as the aerobic metabolism
(Krebs cycle and electron transport chain) cannot
keep up with the production of pyruvate from glycolysis. The pyruvate, therefore, is converted into
lactate and lactate removal starts lagging behind
lactate production, causing lactate to accumulate. Concomitant with lactate accumulation is the
accumulation of hydrogen ions in muscles and
blood, causing metabolic acidosis and the development of fatigue. The lactate threshold (LT) is the
running velocity above which lactate production
begins to exceed its removal. At this point, blond
lactate concentration begins to increase exponentially. The LT demarcates the transition between
running that is almost purely aerobic and running that includes significant oxygen-independent
(anaerobic) metabolism. 4. Neuromuscular factors: There are a number of steps in the process
whereby muscles contract and produce force.
First, the central nervous system sends a signal
to a motor neuron, which integrates with a number
of muscle fibres, creating a motor unit. When this
signal reaches the end of the axon of the motor
neuron, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine is released at the neuromuscular junction. This causes
a change in the polarity of the muscle membrane
(called depolarisation), as sodium ions rush in and
potassium ions rush out. The signal, now called an
action potential, propagates deep into the muscle
to the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which stores calcium ions. The calcium diffuses from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the area of the contractile
proteins (actin and myosin) and binds to a protein
called troponin, which integrates with actin. Upon
calcium binding to troponin, another protein called
tropomyosin is removed from the active binding
sites on the actin, exposing those sites to myosin.
Myosin then binds to the actin, forming a crossbridge. Finally, an ATP molecule contained inside
the myosin is broken down into its constituents, releasing the energy contained within that molecule,
allowing the muscle to contract.
Klein, R. M.; Potteiger, J. A.; Zebas, C. J.
Metabolic and biomechanical variables of
two incline conditions during distance
running
(1997), 12, pp. 1625-1630
The purpose of this experiment was to examine the
effects of an incline during distance running on selected metabolic and biomechanical variables. Six
(4 males, 2 females) trained distance runners (age
27.2 ± 7.8 yr; VO2max 63.7 ± 7.5 mL/kg/min) performed three 35-min runs at speeds corresponding to each individual’s anaerobic threshold. The
97
first run (Control) was performed at 0% grade. The
remaining two runs were randomly assigned and
included a 5% incline during min 5-15 (Run A) or
20-30 (Run B). Heart rate via telemetry (HR), and
oxygen consumption (VO2), minute ventilation (VE),
RER, and tidal volume (TV) were measured by indirect calorimetry. High speed videography was used
to measure time in support phase, time in swing
phase, step length, trunk lean, vertical oscillation of
the hip, knee flexion in support, shank angle during
toe-off, and ankle flexion at heel strike during the
runs. Significant increases were found during the incline conditions of Run A for VO2 (+18%), HR (+11%),
VE (+24%), and RER (+8%) and Run B for VO2
(+19%), HR (+10%), and VE (+25%) compared with
the Control. No significant differences were noted
between Run A and Run B during incline running
in the physiological variables. No significant differences were observed in any of the biomechanical
variables among the runs. These data indicate that
the energy expenditure required during incline running is the same regardless of incline location during a 35-min run, and running mechanics are not
significantly altered during a 5% incline lasting 10
min. In addition, following a 5% incline for 10 min,
runners experience no significant physiological or
biomechanical changes during subsequent level
running at anaerobic threshold pace.
Kutsar, K.
Some physiological aspects of middle
distance training
In: J. Jarver (ed.), Middle distances: Contemporary
theory, technique and training (pp. 56-57). Mountain
View: Tafnews Press, 1997; first published in: Modern
Athlete and Coach, 30 (1992), 3, pp. 38-40 (title: Some
physiological aspects of middle distance running)
There are many physiological factors to consider
in the planning of middle distance running training. This text recommends considering a slightly
reduced training volume with more emphasis on
the development of local muscular endurance.
Lake, M. J.; Cavanagh, P. R.
Six weeks of training does not change
running mechanics or improve running
economy
(1996), 7, pp. 860-869
Running technique and economy (VO2submax)
were examined before and after a 6-wk period
98
of running training. Fifteen males were filmed
and performed 10-min economy runs at 3.36
m/s on a treadmill. An incremental treadmill test
was used to record running performance and
maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max). Subjects were randomly assigned to a training group
and a control group that did not participate in
any running program. There were no significant
changes in kinematic variables between pre- and
post-training tests for either group. Neither were
there any significant physiological changes over
the 6 wk in the control group. However, the training group demonstrated a significantly (p < 0.01)
increased VO2max (57.7 ± 6.2 vs 61.3 ± 6.3 ml/
kg/min) and running performance. VO2submax
in the training group was significantly (p < 0.05)
worse (41.0 ± 4.5 vs 42.4 ± 4.3 ml/kg/min) posttraining, although the percent utilization of VO2max (71.6 ± 7.9 vs 69.3 ± 6.9%) and submaximal heart rate (169 ± 15 vs 161 ± 15 beats/min)
were significantly lower (p < 0.05). The traininginduced improvements in running performance
could be attributed to physiological rather than
biomechanical modifications. There were no
changes in biomechanical descriptors of running
style that signaled changes in running economy.
Lemberg, H.; Nurmekivi, A.; Maegi, T.; Nirk, A.
A simple guide to energy-based selection
of training means in distance running
In: J. Jarver (ed.), Middle distances: Contemporary
theory, technique and training (pp. 61-63). Mountain
View: Tafnews Press, 1997
One of the problems in the planning of training in
middle and long distance running is the selection
of individual training loads for the development of
different energy supply mechanisms. In this text,
the authors outline how this problem can be simply solved in practice by using heart rate-based
training and load intensities.
Loftin, M.; Warren, B.; Mayhew, J.
Comparison of physiologic and performance variables in male and female
cross-country runners during a competitive season
Sports Medicine, Training and Rehabilitation, 3
(1992), 4, pp. 281-288
Five men and five women from a university
cross-country team were tested during the first 2
weeks and at the conclusion of a 7-week cross-
country season. Maximal and submaximal cardiorespiratory responses, body composition,
and performance variables were compared for
seasonal and gender differences by analysis of
variance and analysis of covariance. Male runners had significantly less body fat, more fatfree body (FFB) mass, a larger cardiorespiratory
capacity, and ran more economically and faster
than female runners. The difference in cardiorespiratory capacity and performance may have
been due to a larger FFB (muscularity) and the
increased training volume practiced by the male
runners. Several gender but no seasonal differences were observed during a running economy
test (214 m/min). A difference in oxygen uptake
(VO2; ml/min/kg BW) during the running economy test between male and female runners was
unexpected and may habe been due to fatigue
in the female runners since their late season
performance relative to early season worsened
by 5. A moderate negative correlation (ranging
from an r = 0.48 to r = -0.71) was found between
body weight (BW), FFB, or height and running
economy. Consequently, as BW, FFB, or height
increased, VO2 measured in subjects running at
214 m/min decreased.
MacDonald, R.
Heat acclimatisation strategies for endurance athletes
There are certainly conflicting scientific views
regarding strategies involved in heat acclimatisation (e.g. length of phase, intensity of exposure
session, habituation, erosion of adaptation etc.),
but one thing is clear, that is by incorporating an
acclimatisation phase as part of the overall periodised training plan the athlete will more readily
handle the thermal conditions. There are varied
methodologies employed in the acclimatisation
process, one method is through long-term adaptation which takes a subtle approach consisting of living, training and performing in the
same or similar environment to where the actual
performance(s) are to take place. This type of acclimatisation usually requires a lengthy period of
time (e.g. months to years. A second form of acclimatisation encompasses a six-week period directly before the major performance. The athlete
is exposed to the competition type environment
at least every second day (i.e. the aim of this ses-
sion is to elevate body temperature to 39° and
hold it there for at least 20 minutes). Gradually
build their exposure time over the first days (e.g.
increasing training duration from 60 to 90 min).
Between these exposure sessions the athlete
would complete a short duration event specific
training session (e.g. middle distance athlete, 3 x
2 x 200 m x 26 sec x 60 sec, with 5 minutes active
rest between sets). This session would hopefully
be done at a cooler time of day. A third strategy
is by way of a short term acclimatisation plan
utilising a 14-day period. Recent research suggests that at least fourteen days are required for
significant gains to be made and that most rapid
adaptations occur in the first three to six days,
with programs extending beyond 14 days gleaning no further benefits. So, a 14-day acclimatisation phase of daily gradually building exposure
sessions could be seen as all that is needed for
a full heat acclimatisation to take place (i.e. given
the bodies systems and organs adapt at varying
rates). For the athlete, who for whatever reason
cannot acclimatise under actual event conditions,
some form of supplementary acclimation training
must be undertaken. This type of training makes
use of artificial means as a heat aid (e.g. sauna,
spa, heat chamber, heated room, heat lamps,
etc.), as a method of heat gain is a contentious
issue. The added clothing may restrict the bodies evaporation process. The restriction of heat
loss caused by the layers of clothing creates a hot
and humid micro-climate around the body, leading to dehydration and thermoregulatory strain. In
assessing the acclimatisation plans mentioned,
the author suggests the six-week block plan has
most to offer the endurance athlete, while the
short term (14 days) plan would certainly benefit
the athlete whose commitments (e.g. time frame,
travel constraints, performance schedule) have
not allowed other forms of acclimatisation to take
place. The long-term plan. the gradual adaptation over a lengthy period, would only be of use
to the long distance athlete (e.g. marathonerwalker), who could not only subtly adapt to the
environmental conditions but also possibly familiarise themselves with the actual course (e.g. hills.
turns, changes in road surfaces, shaded areas
etc.). Acclimatisation by artificial means could be
seen as better than no attempt at acclimatising
at all with the athlete hopeful of achieving partial
adaptation and at the very least a slightly higher
99
degree of heat tolerance. As the athlete undertakes the heat acclimatisation phase there will be
stimulated adaptive responses occurring that will
enhance thermoregulatory capacity and improve
exercise performance, as weil as tolerance time.
Along with this will be a reduction in physiological
strain and less chance of incurring some type of
heat illness.
Maffulli, N.; Testa, V.; Lancia, A.; Capasso, G.;
Lombardi, S.
Indices of sustained aerobic power in
young middle distance runners
(1991), 9, pp. 1090-1096
Sixteen young endurance athletes underwent
physiological testing to determine their maximal
oxygen uptake (VO2max), lactate threshold (lacAT), ventilatory threshold, and the slope variation point (SVP) of the linear relationship between
running speed (RS) and heart rate (HR) both
on the treadmill and during a field test, and the
onset of blood lactate accumulation point. The
RS, HR, VO2, and blood lactate concentration
at which the different thresholds occurred were
highly correlated, with r ranging from 0.82 to
0.90. The highest correlation was shown by RS
at lacAT and RS at SVP during the field test. Various indices of sustained aerobic power in athletic children examined were shown to occur at a
percentage of their VO2max similar to adult endurance runners. The tests developed for older
athletes can be used in theis age group as well.
Magness, S.
The fallacy of VO2max
New Studies in Athletics, 24 (2009), 4, 15-21
This article calls into question the use of VO2max,
both as a physiological parameter for measuring
performance capacity and as a variable for planning the training programmes of distance runners
and other endurance athletes. Looking first at the
rise, starting in the 1920s, of VO2max as a measurable parameter, the author explains why it has
become ingrained in Sport and exercise science.
This leads to a look into the current research, particularly the Central Governor Model, and a reassessment of the importance of VO2max and its
practical use in training. Citing research that shows
training based on VO2max leads to a wide range
of individual responses, even among homogenous
100
groups, and that VO2max does not increase in well
trained runners, the author suggests that training
at a velocity that corresponds with VO2max is not
the magical training stimulus it is sometimes portrayed to be. This leads to the author’s conclusion
in which he asks why is so much training focused
an a variable that does not change in well trained
athletes, barely changes in the moderately trained,
levels off after a short period of time, leads to a
wide range of adaptations, and does not even correlate well with performance?
McConell, G. K.; Costill, D. L.; Widrick, J. J.;
Hickey, M. S.; Tanaka, H.; Gastin, P. B.
Reduced training volume and intensity
maintain aerobic capacity but not performance in distance runners
1, pp. 33-37
It has recently been shown that a 70% reduction
in training volume, while maintaining training intensity, results in the maintenance of VO2max and 5
km running performance in distance runners. The
purpose of this study was to examine the effects of
a 4 wk reduction in training volume and intensity in
distance runners. Ten well-conditioned males (VO2max = 63.4 ± 1.3 ml/kg/min) underwent 4 wks
of base training (BT) at their accustomed training
distance (71.8 ± 3.6 km/wk) and intensity (76% of
total distance > 70% VO2max). Training volume
(-66%), frequency (-50%), and intensity (all running
< 70% VO2max) were then decreased for a 4 wk
reduced training period (RT). Treadmill VO2max
was unchanged with RT as were resting plasma
volume, estimated from haemaglobin and haematocrit levels, and resting heart rate (HR). Submaximal treadmill exercise VO2, ventilation and HR
were also unchanged, however, submaximal exercise RER and blood lactate accumulation following
4 mins at 95% VO2max (8.39 vs 9.89 mmol/l) were
significantly elevated by RT. Estimated percent
body fat also increased (10.4 vs 11.8). Five km race
completion time significantly increased from 16.6
± 0.3 mins at week 4 of BT to 16.8 ± 0.3 mins (12
s) at week 4 of RT. Nine of the 10 subjects were
slower after RT. It is concluded that aerobic capacity was maintained in these runners, despite
the combined reduction in training volume and intensity. However, it appears that training intensity
during RT is important for the maintenance of 5 km
running performance.
Morgan, D. W.; Daniels, J. T.
Relationship between VO2max and the
aerobic demand of running in elite distance runners
7, pp. 426-429
The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between VO2max and the aerobic demand of running (VO2submax) in elite distance
runners. On at least one occasion, VO2max and
VO2submax values were obtained on 22 male
subjects (age = 27 ± 2 yrs; height = 178.6 ± 6.8
cm; body mass = 64.1 ± 5.6 kg; 10 km run time
= 28.89 ± 1.05 min) training for the 1994 Olympic Trials. Subjects performed 6-min, submaximal
level-grade treadmill runs at four speeds (ranging
from 4.47 to 5.50 m/s) to determine VO2submax.
VO2 during each run was calculated by analyzing
a 2-min gas sample collected during the last 2 min
of running. These values were expressed relative
to distance traveled and averaged to derive an
overall VO2submax value. Shortly following these
submaximal runs, VO2max was measured. When
more than one set of VO2submax and VO2max
data were available for a particular subject, the
average of all tests was used. Results indicated
that mean VO2max and VO2submax values were
75.8 ± 3.4 ml/kg/min and 184.6 ± 8.6 ml/kg/km,
respectively. Correlational analyses also revealed a
significant relationship (r = 0.59; p < 0.01) between
VO2max and VO2submax. These data suggest
that among similarly-performing elite distance runners, a positive relationship exists between VO2max and the aerobic demand of running.
Morgan, D. W.; Craib, M.
Physiological aspects of running economy
(1992), 4, pp. 456-461
The study of running economy has important
perforance implications for the long-distance
runner and may provide insight into mechanisms
underlying economical human locomotion. Physiological aspects of running economy discussed
in this paper include intraindividual variability,
body temperature, heart rate, ventilation, muscle
fiber type, gender, air and wind resistance, altitude, fatigu, and training. The lack of consensus
evident in the literature regarding many of these
variables and their influence on economy supports the use of expanded sample sizes featuring
both genders, standing testing conditions, and
cross- and interdisciplinary approaches to help
explain group economy differences observed in
descriptive and experimental paradigms and to
extend the generalizability of research findings.
Nurmekivi, A.; Lemberg, H.; Maaroos, J.; Lusti,
J.; Jürimäe, T.
Running performance and aerobic working capacity in female runners
Medicina Dello Sport: Rivista Trimestrale Della
Federazione Medico-Sportiva Italiana, 51 (1998), 2,
pp. 221-225
The aim of this study was to determine which
physiological variables are most representative in
running performance in middle- to long-distance
female runners. Twenty runners, ranging from
club to international level, were divided into three
groups: (A) 400-800 m runners (n = 8); (B) 15003000 m runners (n = 7); and (C) half marathon runners (n = 5). Maximal O2 consumption (VO2max),
anaerobic threshold (AT), aerobic threshold (AERT)
and running economy (RE) at running speed of 13
km/h were measured. VO2max/kg was the lowest
in a group A and the highest in a group C (52.0 ±
2.6 - 59.9 ± 2.4 ml/min/kg, p < 0.05-0.01). VO2/
kg at AERT was lowest in a group A (p < 0.05)
and the heart rate (HR) at the same intensity was
lowest in a group C (p < 0.05). Running economy
calculated as a percentage from VO2max/kg and
HRmax was the lowest in a group C (p < 0.01). In
group A the VO2 at AT and AERT correlated significantly (both r = -0.65, p < 0.05) with running
performance. In a group B, only RE (as% from
VO2max/kg) correlated significantly (r = 0.90, p <
0.01) with running performance. In a group C only
the body weight influenced negatively the running
performance (r = -0.94, p < 0.01). When all used
physiological variables were entered into a forward
stepwise multiple-regression procedure only in a
group B the RE accounted for 94.9% (R2) of the
variance in running performance results. It was
concluded that in homogenous groups of female
middle- and long distance runners only RE can account for a large part of the running performance
in middle distance runners.
Padilla, S.; Bourdin, M.; Barthelemy, J. C.;
Lacour, J. R.
Physiological correlates of middle-distance running performance
101
6, pp. 561-566
To compare the relative contributions of their
functional capacities to performance in relation
to sex, two groups of middle-distance runners
(24 men and 14 women) were selected on the
basis of performances over 1500-m and 3000-m
running races. To be selected for the study, the
average running velocity (v) in relation to performances had to be superior to the best French v
achieved during the season by an athlete of the
same sex. VO2max and energy cost of running
(CR) were measured in the 2 months preceding
the track season. This allowed to calculate the
maximal v that could be sustained under aerobic conditions, va,max x Av/va,max ratio derived
from 1500-m to 3000-m races was used to calculate the maximal duration of a competitive race
for which v = va,max (tva,max). In both groups
va,max was correlated to v. The relationships
calculated for each distance were similar in both
sexes. The CR and tva,max also showed no difference. The relationships between VO2max
and body mass (mb) calculated in the men and
the women were different. At the same mb the
women had a 10 lower CR than the men; their
lower mb thus resulted in an identical CR. In
both groups CR and VO2max were strongly correlated, suggesting that a high level of VO2max
could hardly be associated with a low CR. These
relationships were different in the two groups. At
the same VO2max the men had a higher va,max
than the women. Thus, the disparity in track
performances between the two sexes could be
attributed to VO2max and to the VO2max/CR
relationships.
Ramsbottom, R.; Williams, C.; Kerwin, D. G.;
Nute, M. L. G.
Physiological and metabolic responses of
men and women to 5-km treadmill time trial
Previous studies have reported strong correlations between 5-km performance times and
maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and also for
running speeds equivalent to blood lactate concentrations of 4 mM. However, there is little information on the physiological responses of individuals during races over this distance. Therefore,
the aim of the present study was to measure the
102
physiological and metabolic responses of endurance trained male (n = 9) and female (n = 8)
runners during a 5-km time trial using an instrumented treadmill. Performance times were 18.77
± 1.27 min for the men and 21.80 ± 1.98 min for
the women. The corresponding times on the athletics track were 17.68 ± 0.39 min for the men
and 20.70 ± 2.16 min for the women. During the
treadmill time trials, both the men and women
were able to utilize approximately 90 VO2max,
82 VE max, 98 HR max and produce similar
concentrations of blood lactate. Although the
physiological and metabolic responses of these
endurance-trained men and women to 5-km
treadmill running were similar, the faster running
times recorded by the men in this study were the
result of their higher VO2max values.
Rolim, R.; Santos, P.
Stress intensity evaluation in cross country running for elite young athletes
In: J. T. Viitasalo, The way to win: proceedings of the
International Congress on Applied Research in
Sports held in Helsinki, Finland, on 9-11 August
1994 (pp. 247-250). Helsinki: Finnish Society for Research in Sports and Phys. Education, 1995
The aim of this study was to study the effects of
cross-country running (CCR) in young female athletes in an attempt to clarify and define the stress
intensity and metabolic predominance in this kind
of competition. The study was carried out in eight
young female athletes which were selected according to their endurance running performance.
The girls were 12.51 (± 0.38) years old, 38.6 kg of
weight (± 4.8) and 150 cm of height (± 5.8). They
were training three times a week in a beginners’
group of middle distance runners. The research
was divided into two different experimental parts: 1.
Laboratory tests: determination of maximal blood
lactate concentration (BL) and maximal heart rate
(HR) on a treadmill, with incremental work loads,
using the Bruce protocol. 2. Field tests: a) a 1500
m CCR competition (the HR was monitored every
5 sec using a Sport Tester; the split times were
recorded at the 500, 1000 and 1500 m mark); b)
a 500 m CCR with the split time corresponding
to the 500 m time of the 1500 m competition; c)
a 1000 m CCR with the split time corresponding
to the 1000 m time of the 1500 m CCR competition. These three field tests were carried out in the
same cross-country track, with an interval of 48
h in order to allow the recovery of muscle glycogen stores. In each test (laboratory and field tests)
samples were taken from the ear lobe at 5 and
10 min recovery to determine the maximal BL using an YSI 1500 Sport analyser. The findings of the
study suggest that: 1. CCR is a maximal intensity
stress. 2. CCR is a very demanding discipline and
should therefore be carefully used in children. 3.
CCR should be introduced in children’s sport activities gradually and pedagogically, taking into account the appropriate distances, profiles, surface
conditions and running speed.
Svedenhag, J.; Sjoedin, B.
Body-mass-modified running economy
and step length in elite male middle- and
long-distance runners
6, pp. 305-310
To minimize the influence of body mass on oxygen uptake (VO2) during running, submaximal
and maximal VO2 should preferentially be expressed as ml/kg**0.75/min. In this study, the
levels of such body-mass-modified running
economy were investigated at different velocities
in elite runners and related to step lengths and
anthropometric measures. Twenty-six Swedish
National Team middle- and long-distance runners performed submaximal (4 velocities) and
maximal treadmill tests. In 17 runners repeated
(2-4) tests were performed within 6 months. The
maximal oxygen uptake and running velocity at
4 mmol/l blood lactate were higher in the long
(n = 12) than in the middle-distance group (n =
14). The oxygen uptake at 15 km/h (VO2-15) was
lower and the VO2/velocity slope higher in the
long-distance runners, with similar VO2-18 to in
the two groups. Step lengths at 18 (168 vs 173
cm) and 15 km/h did not differ significantly between the groups, but the increase in step length
per km/h velocity raise was greater in the middledistance runners. Step lengths at these velocities
were positively related to body mass and stature,
negatively to relative leg length. Stature and leg
length were greater in runners displaying low
VO2-15, whereas no corresponding difference
was seen for VO2-18. The figures for running
economy at 15 and 18 km/h were poorly related
to the concomitantly determined step lengths at
the respective velocities. In conclusion, the present results demonstrate greater running economy
slope but lesser step length slope in elite long- as
compared to middle-distance runners. Furthermore, even body-mass-modified running economy seems to be poorly related to the step length.
Telford, D.; Saunders, P.
Heat strategies for Olympic track and
field team: Athens 2004
Unlike most other sporting disciplines in the
Olympics, track and field athletes are extremely
heterogeneous in nature due to the extremes of
events within the sport. Athletes have a great variety of training programs, precompetition preparations, competition in-arena durations, as well
as anatomical, physiological, and psychological
make-ups. lt follows that athletes and coaches
will have a variety of preferred and optimal approaches to competition in warm to hot conditions. This paper mainly addresses the acclimatisation needs of the middle and long distance
runner and walker as these athletes may need
to produce power continuously for various periods of time in high temperatures, humidity and
direct sunlight. Consequently these athletes are
most likely to have their performance adversely
affected by hot and/or humid conditions. Needless to say, sprinters, jumpers and throwers, who
all use lengthy warm-up procedures, and especially the jumpers and throwers who are often in
the competition arena for very long periods as
well, are also at risk of performance decrement
without appropriate acclimatisation to the Athens
environment. An important aspect, relevant to all
athletes is a psychological one, the knowledge
that all appropriate measures have been taken
to produce best performances in the Athens environment. This brief paper, in acknowledging
the varying needs and personal preferences of
track and field athletes, comments on a variety
of possible approaches for coaches to consider. These approaches utilise: 1. Acclimatisation
techniques in artificial environments, training in
Australia (southern hemisphere autumn and winter). 2. Acclimatisation techniques utilising natural warm and hot environments in the northern
hemisphere spring and summer.
Thomas, D. Q.; Fernhall, B.; Granat, H.
Changes in running economy during a 5-km
run in trained men and women runners
103
(1999), 2, pp. 162-167
Research indicates that running economy (RE)
changes during a 5-km run. However, the mechanisms accounting for this variation have not been
identified. This study expIored the effects of a
5-km run on the RE, minute ventilation (VE), blood
lactate (LA), and core temperature (CT) of 40 distance runners (21 men and 19 women). After an
initial testing session to determine maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max), each subject (age:
30.8 years, range: 21-48 years; VO2max: 54.9
ml/kg/min, SD ± 6.9) performed a 5-km run on a
treadmill at a constant pace selected to elicit an intensity equivalent to 80-85% of their VO2max. The
data provide response characteristics for an early
run phase (P1, 5 minutes into the run) and an endof-the-run phase (P2, during the last minute of the
run). Oxygen consumption was used to determine
RE. Heart rate (HR), VE, LA, and CT were measured during both phases. All variables increased
significantly between P1 and P2 (p < 0.01), and the
increases were similar for men and women. During
the 5-km run, changes in RE and VE were significantly related (r = 0.64; p < 0.05). When the data
were analyzed by sex, stronger correlations were
found for the women for RE and VE (r = 0.80; p <
0.05) compared with men (r = 0.59; p < 0.05). The
changes in RE and LA (r = 0.45; p < 0.05) and LA
and VE (r = 0.61; p < 0.05) were significantly related
only in the women runners, whereas the men runners did not demonstrate these relationships. The
combined contributions of changes in VE, LA, CT,
and sex were evaluated through stepwise regression. The multiple regression, using all subjects,
showed that only the change in VE was included
as an independent variable (p < 0.05). None of
the other variables contributed significantly to the
change in VO2. Conducting the same multiple regression on the men and women separately produced the same results for both groups, i.e., only
the change in VE was included as an independent
variable, and none of the other changes contributed significantly to the change in VO2.
Unnithan, V. B.; Timmons, J. A.; Brogan, R. T.;
Paton, J. Y.; Rowland, T. W.
Submaximal running economy in runtrained pre-pubertal boys
104
There is an increasing tendency for young children to participate in training and competitive
running. The impact long-term training has upon
stimulating functional physiological adaptation
has yet to be fully understood. In this study, cardio-respiratory and kinematic differences were
assessed at submaximal and maximal exercise
intensities in run-trained and non-run-trained
boys. Thirty three pre-pubertal boys volunteered
to take part in the study. The subjects were in
two groups: 15 run-trained subjects (age 11.7
± 1.06 yrs, mean ± SD) and 18 non-run-trained
(control) subjects (age 11.3 ± 0.90 yrs). Two separate (4x3 min) submaximal protocols were used
for the trained and non-run-trained groups, with
two of the speeds overlapping for comparison
purposes. In addition, all boys also performed
a maximal oxygen consumption test. Mean VO2max value for the run trained group was 60.5 ±
3.3 ml/kg/min and for the control group 51.1 ± 4.3
ml/kg/min (p < 0.001). No significant differences
were found for submaximal running economy at
either comparison speed. In addition, no significant differences were noted between the groups
for any of the kinematic variables at the two comparison speeds. However, selected physiological
differences did exist at the submaximal running
speeds. The source of the differences that did
exist between the two groups may be the result
of training, genetic pre-selection or developmental differences between the groups.
Vourimaa, T.
Running economy and its control
The author defines running economy as the total energy consumption/distance. As running on
a treadmill in the laboratory is not the same as
running on the track, it might be more valuable
in training to estimate running economy on the
track, although it is rather difficult. However, there
are some possibilities and measuring the heart
rate is one possibility to estimate running economy in aerobic running. Measuring the blood lactate allows to estimate running economy in an anaerobic situation. Another possibility is provided
by the measurements of biomechanical changes
at differenrt running speeds. This can be done
through film analysis or by measuring changes in
the stride cycles (stride length, contact and flight
duration) with the help of an electrical contact
plate. The most efficient ways to improve and
to maintain running economy are strength and
speed development methods. Event-specific
strength together with speed reserves are obviously the key to economical running.
Xu, F.; Montgomery, D. L.
Effect of prolonged exercise at 65 and
80% of VO2max on running economy
5, pp. 309-315
The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effect of prolonged exercise at 65 and 80% of
VO2max on running economy. Fourteen male
long distance runners performed two 90-min
runs on an outdoor 400 m track at velocities of
65 and 80% of VO2max. Prior to and following
each 90-min run, running economy was measured as the steady-state VO2 during treadmill
runs at speeds of 188 and 228 m/min. During the
90-min run at 65% of VO2max, the mean weight
loss was 1.3 kg. HR increased from 143 bpm between minutes 5-10 to 150 bpm between minutes
85-90. During the 90-min run at 80% of VO2max,
the mean weight loss was 1.4 kg. The HR was
161 bpm between minutes 5-10 and increased to
165 bpm between minutes 85-90. When the post
running economy test was conducted following
each 90-min run, there was a significant increase
in VO2 expressed in both l/min and ml/kg/min.
The increase in VO2 following the 90-min run at
80% of VO2max was greater than that following
the run at 65% of VO2max. These results suggest that 90-min runs at 65 and 80% of VO2max
alter running economy with a significant increase
in oxygen cost.
Zacharogiannis, E.; Farrally, M.
Ventilatory threshold, heart rate deflection point and middle distance running
performance
Physiological measures of performance capacity
have traditionally centered around the measurement of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). This
study examined the relationship between maximal
and submaximal laboratory measures of performance and running times within a group of trained
middle distance runners. Analysis of the data obtained from 10 male and 2 female athletes iden-
tified the running velocity corresponding to the
Ventilatory Threshold (VT) (X ± SD = 15.3 ± 2.36
km/h treadmill speed) as the major correlate with
3000 m (r = -0.984, n = 12) running performance.
Treadmill speed corresponding with the heart rate
deflection point (Vd) (X ± SD = 16.75 ± 2.38) and
the VO2max (X ± SD = 55 ± 6 ml/kg/min) was also
highly correlated (r = 0.94 and r = 0.82 respectively, n = 12) with 3000 m running performance.
The running velocity corresponding with VT alone
explained 96.3% of the variance in 3000 m performance time. The addition of VO2max and Vd
using multiple regression analysis did not further
improve significantly the predictive value of the
physiological measures. The results of this study
support the laboratory estimation of physiological
measures such as Vd and VT in the assessment of
middle distance running performance.
3 Half-marathon, marathon and ultra-marathon events
Burr, J. F.; Bredin, S. S. D.; Phillips, A.; Foulds,
H.; Cote, A.; Charlesworth, S.; Ivey, A. C.;
Drury, T. C.
Systemic arterial compliance following
ultra-marathon
3, pp. 224-229
There is a growing interest in training for and
competing in race distances that exceed the
marathon; however, little is known regarding
the vascular effects of participation in such prolonged events, which last multiple consecutive
hours. There exists some evidence that cardiovascular function may be impaired following extreme prolonged exercise, but at present, only
cardiac function has been specifically examined
following exposure to this nature of exercise.
The primary purpose of this study was to characterize the acute effects of participation in an
ultra-marathon on resting systemic arterial compliance. Arterial compliance and various resting
cardiovascular indices were collected at rest
from 26 healthy ultra-marathon competitors using applanation tonometry (HDI CR-2000) before
and after participation in a mountain trail running foot race ranging from 120-195 km which
required between 20-40 continuous hours (31.2
± 6.8 h) to complete. There was no significant
105
change in small artery compliance from baseline
to post race follow-up (8.5 ± 3.4-7.7 ± 8.2 mL/
mmHgx100, p = 0.65), but large artery compliance decreased from 16.1 ± 4.4 to 13.5 ± 3.8
mL/mmHgx10 (p = 0.003). Participation in extreme endurance exercise of prolonged duration
was associated with acute reductions in large
artery compliance, but the time course of this effect remains to be elucidated.
Cade, R.; Packer, D.; Zauner, C.; Kaufmann,
D.; Peterson, J.; Mars, D.; Privette, M.; Hommen, N.; Fregly, M. J.; Rogers, J.
Marathon running: physiological and
chemical changes accompanying laterace functional deterioration
6, pp. 485-491
21 experienced runners were studied during a
marathon race to ascertain whether either depletion of energy substrate or rise in body temperature, or both, contribute to late-race slowing of
running pace. 7 runners drank a glucose/electrolyte (GE) solution ad libitum throughout the
race; 6 drank water and 8 drank the GE solution
diluted 1:1 with water. Although average running
speeds for the 3 groups were not significantly
different during the first 2/3 (29 km) of the race,
rectal temperature was significantly higher and
reduction of plasma volume was greater in runners who replaced sweat losses with water. During the last 1/3 of the race, the average running
pace of the water-replacement group slowed by
37.2; the pace slowed by 27.9 in the 8 runners
who replaced sweat loss with GE diluted 1:1 with
water (1/2 GE) and 18.2 in runners who replaced
fluid loss with full-strength solution (GE). 11 runners (5 water group, 4 1/2 GE group and 2 GE
group) lapsed into a walk/run/walk pace during
the last 6 miles of the race. 10 of these had a
rectal temperature of 39 deg C or greater after 29
km of running, and plasma volume was reduced
by more than 10. Only 1 runner among those who
ran steadily throughout the race had such an elevation of temperature and reduction of plasma
volume. A significant reduction in plasma glucose
concentration was present in 5 of the 11 walk/
run/walk subjects and in none of those who rand
steadily. Thus, late-race slowing results from high
body temperature, diminished plasma volume
and low blood sugar.
106
Child, R. B.; Wilkinson, D. M.; Fallowfield, J. L.
Effects of a training taper on tissue damage indices, serum antioxidant capacity
and half-marathon running performance
5, pp. 325-331
This study investigated the effects of a training taper on muscle damage indices and performance.
Two matched groups of seven male runners each
performed two self paced half-marathons on a motorised treadmill. After the first half-marathon one
group maintained their normal weekly training volume, while the taper group progressively reduced
weekly training volume by 85%. Venous blood was
drawn immediately before and after the first halfmarathon. Subsequent samples were taken 7 days
later, immediately before and after the second halfmarathon. Serum samples were analysed for antioxidant capacity, urate concentration and creatine
kinase activity (CK). The plasma concentration of
malondialdehyde (MDA) was used as a marker of
lipid peroxidation. There were no differences in running performance either between the first and second half-marathon within each group, or between
groups (86.75 ± 2.65 min and 87.67 ± 2.87 min for
the “normal training” group vs 85.62 ± 2.81 min and
85.39 ± 3.52 min for the “training taper” group). Serum antioxidant capacity and CK were increased
over time (p < 0.05, ANOVA), with significant elevations after each half-marathon (p < 0.025, t-test). Elevations in MDA attained significance for the first
half-marathon (p < 0.05, t-test) when data for both
subject groups were pooled. There were no differences in serum antioxidant capacity, or urate concentration between groups. Post exercise CK was
lower following the training taper (149 ± 22% baseline, for the training taper vs 269 ± 55% baseline for
the normal training group, p < 0.05, t-test). Despite
evidence that the training taper reduced muscle
damage, relative to the normal training group, halfmarathon performance was not enhanced.
Gatterer, H.; Schenk, K.; Wille, M.; Raschner,
C.; Faulhaber, M.; Ferrari, M.; Burtscher, M.
Race performance and exercise intensity
of male amateur mountain runners during
a multistage mountain marathon competition are not dependent on muscle
strength loss or cardiorespiratory fitness
(2013), 8, pp. 2149-2156
The aims of this study were to quantify the cardiorespiratory fitness level of amateur mountain
runners and to characterize the related cardiorespiratory and muscular strain during a multistage
competition. Therefore, 16 male amateur participants performed an incremental treadmill test
before the Transalpine-Run 2010. Besides race
time, heart rate (HR) was monitored using portable HR monitors during all stages, and countermovement jump ability was assessed after each
stage. Overall race time and race times of the
single stages were not related to any of the cardiorespiratory fitness parameters assessed during the incremental treadmill test (e.g., VO2max,
ventilatory threshold). Average HR during the first
stage was 81 ± 7% of the maximal HR and decreased to 73 ± 6% during the following stages.
Creatine kinase activity as an indirect marker of
muscle damage and strain amounted to 1,100 ±
619 U/L after the third stage and was related to
the decrease in the mean HR between stage 1
and stage 2 (r = -0.616, p < 0.05). Jump ability
decreased continuously in the course of the race
but was not related to exercise intensity. In conclusion, this study showed that race performance
during a multistage mountain marathon does
not depend on cardiorespiratory fitness parameters determined in the laboratory. Furthermore,
the mean HR decreased after the first stage and
remained constant during the following stages
independent of the decreased muscle strength.
The authors interpret these data to mean that
performance differences were a result of insufficient recovery after the first day of multistage
mountain running and the different individual
pacing strategies. It is worth mentioning that also
other factors, not determined in this investigation,
could be responsible for the present outcomes
(e.g., nutrition, genetics, psychological and environmental factors, or different training programs).
Huebner-Wozniak, E.; Lerczak, K.; Sendecki, W.
Effect of marathon run on changes in
some biochemical variables in plasma of
amateur long-distance runners
Biology of Sport, 10 (1993), 3, pp. 173-181
In 15 subjects, amateur long-distance runners,
the effect of marathon run on the functional status of skeletal muscles was assessed by studying creatine kinease (CK) activity and concentrations of urea and glucose in blood sampled from
fingertips 1 h before and 15 min after the run.
The exercise resulted in significant increases in
plasma CK and CKMB activities and in urea concentration while blood glucose level remained
unchanged. These were true for all subjects together, as well as for those whose total run time
was short (Subgroup A) or long (Subgroup B).
However, the post-run CK and CKMB activities
were significantly lower in Subgroup A than in
Subgroup B. Post-run activities of CK and CKMB
were significantly, positively correlated with each
other but not with the total run time or with the
declared training experience. It was concluded
that all subjects were sufficiently adapted to prolonged exercises to complete the marathon run
although they markedly differed in their fitness.
Joyner, M. J.
Modeling: optimal marathon performance
on the basis of physiological factors
Journal of Applied Physiology, 70 (1991), 2, pp. 683687
This paper examines current concepts concerning limiting factors in human endurance performance by modeling marathon running times on
the basis of various combinations of previously
reported values of maximal O2 uptake (VO2max), lactate threshold, and running economy
in elite distance runners. The current concept
is that VO2max sets the upper limit for aerobic
metabolism while the blood lactate threshold is
related to the fraction of VO2max that can be
sustained in competitive events greater than ca.
3,000 m. Running economy then appears to interact with VO2max and blood lactate threshold
to determine the actual running speed at lactate
threshold, which is generally a speed similar to
(or slightly slower than) that sustained by individal
runners in the marathon. A variety of combinations of these variables from elite runners results
in estimated running times that are significantly
faster than the current world record (2:06:50).
The fastest time for the marathon predicted by
this model is 1:57:58 in a hypothetical subject
with a VO2max of 84 ml/kg/min, a lactate threshold of 85 of VO2max, and exceptional running
economy. This analysis suggests that substantial improvements in marathon performance are
physiologically possible or that current concepts
regarding limiting factors in endurance running
need additional refinement and empirical testing.
107
Loftin, M.; Sothern, M.; Koss, C.; Tuuri, G.;
Vanvrancken, C.; Kontos, A.; Bonis, M.
Energy expenditure and influence of
physiologic factors during marathon running
(2007), 4, pp. 1188-1191
This study examined energy expenditure and
physiologic determinants for marathon performance in recreational runners. Twenty recreational marathon runners participated (10 males
aged 41 ± 11.3 years, 10 females aged 42.7 ±
11.7 years). Each subject completed a VO2max
and a 1-hour treadmill run at recent marathon
pace, and body composition was indirectly determined via dual energy X-ray absorptiometry.
The male runners exhibited higher VO2max (ml/
kg/min) values (52.6 ± 5.5) than their female
counterparts (41.9 ± 6.6), although ventilatory
threshold (T-vent) values were similar between
groups (males: 76.2 ± 6.1% of VO2max, females:
75.1 ± 5.1%). The male runners expended more
energy (2,792 ± 235 kcal) for their most recent
marathon as calculated from the 1-hour treadmill
run at marathon pace than the female runners
(2,436 ± 297 kcal). Body composition parameters correlated moderately to highly (r ranging
from 0.50 to 0.87) with marathon run time. Also,
VO2max (r = -0.73) and ventilatory threshold (r =
-0.73) moderately correlated with marathon run
time. As a group, the participants ran near their
ventilatory threshold for their most recent marathon (r = 0.74). These results indicate the influence of body size on marathon run performance.
In general, the larger male and female runners
ran slower and expended more kilocalories than
smaller runners. Regardless of marathon finishing time, the runners maintained a pace near
their T-vent, and as T-vent or VO2max increased,
marathon performance time decreased.
Nurmekivi, A.; Lemberg, H.; Kaljumaee, U.;
Maaroos, J.
The relationship between marathon running performance and indices of aerobic
power during the competition period
Sports Medicine, Training and Rehabilitation, 9
(2000), 4, pp. 253-261
The aim of the present research was to investigate: (1) the connections of marathon running
competition results with aerobic power output
108
indices immediately prior to a top competition;
(2) whether the revealed relationship is compatible with training strategy logic preceding a competition. Five marathon runners of good training
condition were examined. An incremental treadmill test to maximum was performed. VO2max,
maximal test time, maximal heart rate, O2 uptake at the aerobic and anaerobic threshold level,
aerobic and anaerobic threshold onset time and
a marathon running competition result were recorded. Correlation analysis revealed a high relationship between the competition result and
maximal test duration (r = -0.89) and anaerobic
threshold onset time (r = -0.95). The% of VO2max at the anaerobic threshold is also an important index of the competition result. The relation between the marathon run time and aerobic
power output indices during the competition period proved that the preceding training methods
based on the principle of stimulating an anaerobic threshold increase, a greater aerobic power
and greater aerobic efficiency, promotes an optimal racing condition at the time of competition.
4 Differences between black and
white runners
Bosch, A. N.; Goslin, B. R.; Noakes, T. D.; Dennis, S. C.
Physiological differences between black
and white runners during a treadmill marathon
1-2, pp. 68-72
To determine why black distance runners currently out-perform white distance runners in
South Africa, the authors measured VO2max,
maximum workload during a VO2max test
(Lmax), ventilation threshold (VThr), running
economy, inspiratory ventilation (V1), tidal volume (VT), breathing frequency (f) and respiratory
exchange ratio (RER) in sub-elite black and white
runners matched for best standard 42.2 km
marathon times. During maximal treadmill testing, the black runners achieved a significantly
lower Lmax and V1 max, which was the result of
a lower VT as fmax was the same in both groups.
The lower VT in the black runners was probably
due to their smaller body size. The VThr occurred
at a higher percentage VO2max in black than in
white runners (82.7, SD 7.7 vs 75.6, SD 6.2 respectively) but there were no differences in the
VO2max. However, during a 42.2-km marathon
run on a treadmill, the black athletes ran at the
higher peercentage VO2max (76, SD 7.9 vs 68,
SD 5.3), RER (0.96, SD 0.07 vs 0.91, SD 0.04)
and f (56 breaths/min, SD 11 vs 47 breaths/
min, SD 10), and at lower VT. The combination
of higher f and loweer VT resulted in an identical V1-Blood lactate levels were lower in black
than in white runners (1.3 mmol/l, SD 0.6 vs 1.59
mmol/l, SD 0.2 respectively). It appeared that the
only physiological difference that may account
for the superior performance of the black runners
was their ability to run at a higher percentage VO2max during competition than white runners.
Fudge, B. W.; Kayser, B.; Westerterp, K. R.;
Pitsiladis, Y.
Energy balance and body composition of
elite endurance runners: a hunter-gatherer
phenotype
In: Y. Pitsiladis, J. Bale, C. Sharp & T. D. Noakes,
East African running: towards a cross-disciplinary
perspective (pp. 85-101). London: Routledge, 2007
This contribution provides an eloquent discussion on the implications for health and performance of short-term negative energy balance,
practised as a form of body-mass cycling, such
that the elite Kenyan endurance runners may
start their races several kilograms, or 5-10%,
lighter than their routine body mass. In this they
are similar to some other sports (e. g. martial
arts, boxing and light-weight rowing) in which
competitors have to ‘make the weight’. The authors provide data on Kenyan runners, and on
the effects of reducing body mass on endurance
running performance, and on the effects of experimental variation on the distribution of body
mass. They look to road-cycling and migratory
birds for comparison, and speculate on what is
tantamount to an evolutionary origin of the practice, via a hunter-gatherer culture, which involved
seasonally variable food-store (and body-mass)
cycling, with lowering of body mass providing a
possible ergogenic effect on endurance running
ability. They end their chapter with the splendid
conjecture that the rationale for their hypothesis
‘is reflected by the hegemony in world endurance
running for the last several decades’ of east African competitors.
Luery, H. M.; Eleftheriou, K. I.; Montgomery, H. E.
Genetics and endurance performance
In: Y. Pitsiladis, J. Bale, C. Sharp & T. D. Noakes, East
African running: towards a cross-disciplinary perspective (pp. 234-256). London: Routledge, 2007
The authors critically view genetic markers associated particularly with: VO2max; with oxygen
delivery and utilization (involving ventilation, cardiac output, oxygen extraction, skeletal muscle
mass and running economy); and with elite longdistance running. They note that there are over
100 gene variants related to human performance,
but that there are ‘virtually none to explain the
physiological differences between elite African
endurance athletes and their Caucasian counterparts’. In the case of Montgomery’s pioneering
ACE I-allele, associated with fatigue resistance
and enhanced endurance performance in east
African runners, but neither genotype seemed
associated with elite endurance status.
Moore, B.; Parisotto, R.; Pitsiladis, Y.; Kayser, B.;
Sharp, C.
Erythropoietic indices in elite Kenyan
runners training at altitude: effects of descent to sea level
The authors have researched (in conjunction
with the Australian Institute of Sport) changes in
a variety of blood parameters in Kenyan athletes
in terms of their altitude training camps. In addition they provide important information regarding
the ‘OFF-hr’ detection model of EPO use, and
examine a variety of (independent) haematological parameter changes on descent from altitude
camp. The data provide a very strong argument
that the high haemaglobin values recorded at altitude among the Kenyan athletes are certainly not
due to any form of ‘blood doping’, and indicate
the significantly improved discriminatory power of
these parameters relative to standard haemaglobin and haematocrit detection protocols.
Myburgh, K. H.
Understanding the dominance of African
runners: exercise biology and an integrative model
109
The author aims to understand the dominance
of the African runners through a very ambitious
model of exercise biology. Here, she comprehensively and holistically considers the contribution
of multiple biological systems, but with a major
focus on running economy which many consider
to be a factor of paramount importance in east
African running ability. The holistic approach of
this contribution covers almost the entire exercise physiology syllabus and emphasizes the
interplay between biology and sport science
disciplines and the importance of an in-depth
understanding.
Noakes, T. D.
Studies of physiological and neuromuscular function of black South African runners
The authors begin by making the point that inter-individual differences in performance are the
product of many different mechanisms, none
of which is the exclusive ‘limiting factor’. They
authoritatively and clearly discuss relevant anthropometric, cardio-respiratory, biomechanical,
metabolic, neuromuscular and central nervous
system (CNS) factors in their integration, noting pertinently that ‘fatigue during exercise involves both descending signals from the CNS
to the periphery, as well as ascending signals to
the CNS from the periphery’. They hypothesize
that a ‘central governor’, involving the integrated
function of multiple interrelated biological factors,
might provide a higher final CNS motor output in
black African runners, causing them to maintain
a higher mean running speed over the course
of a race than their Caucasian colleagues. The
authors specifically comment that they do not
include genetic, nutritional, psychological, social
or environmental factors in their consideration.
Saltin, B.; Larsen, H.; Terrados, N.; Bangsbo,
J.; Bak, T.; Kim, C. K.; Svedenhag, J.; Rolf, C. J.
Aerobic exercise capacity at sea level and
at altitude in Kenyan boys, junior and senior runners compared with Scandinavian runners
Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in
Sports, 5 (1995), 4, pp. 209-221
110
The aim of this study was to characterize Kenyan
runners in regard to their oxygen uptake and
blood and ammonia responses when running.
Untrained Kenyan boys (14.2 ± 0.2 years) and
Scandinavian runners were included for comparison. The studies were performed at altitude
(ca. 2.000 m.a.s.l.) and, for several Kenyan and
Scandinavian runners, at sea level as well. At
altitude sedentary adolescent Kenyan boys had
a mean maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) of 47
(44-51) ml/kg/min, whereas similarly aged boys
regularly walking or running but not training for
competition reached above 62 (58-71) ml/kg/min
in VO2max. Kenyan runners in active training had
68 ± 1.4 ml/kg/min at altitude and 79.9 ± 1.4 ml/
kg/min at sea level, with individuals reaching 85
ml/kg/min. The best Scandinavian runners were
not significantly different from the Kenyan runners in VO2max both at altitude and at sea level,
but none of the Scandinavians reached as high
individual values as observed for some Kenyan
runners. The running efficiency, determined as
the oxygen cost at a given running speed, was
less in the Kenyan runners, and the difference
became more pronounced when body weight
was expressed in ml/kg**-0.75/min. Blood lactate concentration was in general lower in the Kenyan than in the Scandinavian runners, and the
Kenyans also had extremely low ammonia accumulation in the blood even at very high exercise
intensities. It is concluded that it is the physical
activity during childhood, combined with intense
training as teenagers that brings about the high
VO2max observed in some Kenyan runners.
Their high aerobic capacity, as well as their good
running economy, makes them such superior
runners. In addition, their low blood lactate and
ammonia accumulation in blood when running
may also be contributing factors.
Saltin, B.
The Kenya project – Final report
New Studies in Athletics, 18 (2003), 2, pp. 15-24
The author reports on the work and key findings
of a twin study project, funded by the International
Athletic Foundation, to investigate possible explanations for the success of Kenyan middle and long
distance runners. The first study looked at groups
of boys from the Kenyan town of Eldoret, a rural
village in north-western Kenya, and Denmark. The
findings include comparisons of daily physical
activity, athropometric measures, maximal oxygen consumption, blood lactate and heart rate,
muscle fibre composition and enzyme activity,
running economy, fractional utilisation of maximal
oxygen consumption, trainability and performance
in a 5000 metres competition. The second study
was on elite Kenyan and Danish runners. The
findings include comparisons of anthropometric
measures, maximal oxygen consumption, blood
lactate, muscle fibre composition and enzyme activity, and running economy. The report concludes
with the original articies resulting from the study
that will be published in appropriate publications.
Scott, R. A.; Goodwin, W. H.; Wolde, B.; Onywera, V. O.; Boit, M. K.; O’Connell, W.
Evidence for the ‘natural’ east African
athlete
The authors review the “Evidence for the ‘natural’
east African athlete”, partly via a clever look at the
unique maternal and paternal genetic contributions. They begin by reminding the reader that
all human populations are composed of subsets
of African genetic variation. Thence they discuss
nuclear variants and polymorphisms in mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA), which are subject to
matrilinear pattern of inheritance (mitochondria
DNA), which are subject to a matrilinear pattern
of inheritance (mitochondria not being transmitted by spermatazoa: and mtEVE being there at
the beginning). In particular they have looked at
mtDNA polymorphisms in their running success.
Switching their attention to the partilinear Y-chromosome – the male equivalent of mtDNA, whose
haploid nature implies that Y-haplotypes pass
on undisturbed in their non-recombing state
(apart from mutation) from one generation to the
next – they have found three Y-chromosme haplogroups which are associated with elite athlete
status in Ethiopians – possible modulating their
response to altitude? However, they are careful
to note that such candidate genes may well not
be unique to east Africa, but may confer advantage on any population, and their conclusion is
that any single gene may simply ‘fine-tune’ performance, and that it is ‘unjustified at present to
identify the phenomenon of east African running
success as genetically mediated’. Thus, the au-
thors are very careful to distance themselves
from perpetuating a myth of genetic distance
running superiority in terms of its presenting ‘stereotype threat’ to non-African runners.
Saunders, P.
Physiological differences that contribute
to East African dominance of distance
running
The continual dominance by runners from East
Africa has led to much discussion on why runners from this region are so good. There are a
number of mechanisms that have been proposed
to account: 1. living at altitude; 2. genetic endowment; 3. running as children; 4. psychological advantage; 5. cultural factors. The author examines
each of these mechanisms in detail and arrives at
the conclusion that it appears that there are genetic and physiological factors that pre-dispose
athletes from East Africa to perform better at
distance events than athletes from other countries. However, there have been non East African
runners who have consistently been competitive
against East African runners suggesting that other factors, such as economic benefits and a perceived psychological advantage, may also play a
role in the success of East Africans.
5 Race walking
Brisswalter, J.; Fougeron, B.; Legros, P.
Effect of three hours race walk on energy
cost, cardiorespiratory parameters and
stride duration in elite race walkers
3, pp. 182-186
The purpose of this study was to quantify changes in energy cost of walking (C), ventilation (VE),
respiratory frequency (RF), heart rate (HR), expiratory ratio (RER), blood lactate concentration
(LA), body mass (W) and stride duration (SD)
after a 3 hour race walk at competition pace in
elite race walkers. Subjects were tested during
2 submaximal treadmill tests at 12.2 ± 0.5 km/h
(74.7% VO2max speed) before and after a 3 hour
overground walk. Significant increases (p < 0.05)
were found in C, HR and significant decreases
were found in RER, W, VE whereas no changes
were observed in LA or SD (means and intrasubject variability). However, a wide range of in-
111
dividual coefficients of variation were observed
for C, VE, RF, HR, SD, W. These results suggest
that in well trained walkers the energy cost of
walking increases with exercise duration but that
walkers are able to maintain the same stride duration after the test when treadmill speed is controlled. Furthermore, some individuals appear to
be more sensitive to fatigue. Discussion set out
a possible effect of substrate utilisation changes,
thermoregulation or a decrease in mechanical
efficiency for maintaining the race walk gait apart
from the effect of fatigue.
Brisswalter, J.; Fougeron, B.; Legros, P.
Variability in energy cost and walking gait
during race walking in competitive race
walkers
(1998), 9, pp. 1451-1455
Purpose: The aim of this study was to examine
the variability of energy cost (Cw) and race walking gait after a 3-h walk at the competition pace
in race walkers of the same performance level.
Methods: Nine competitive race walkers were
studied. In the same week, after a first test of
VO2max determination, each subject completed
two submaximal treadmill walks (6 min length,
0% grade, 12 km/h speed) before and after a
3-h overground test completed at the individual
competition speed of the race walker. During the
two submaximal tests, subjects were filmed between the 2nd and the 4th min, and physiological
parameters were recorded between the 4th and
6th min. Results: Results showed two trends. On
the one hand, we observed a significant and systematic increase in energy cost of walking (mean
delta-Cw = 8.4%), whereas no variation in the
gait kinematics prescribed by the rules of race
walking was recorded. On the other hand, this
increase in metabolic energy demand was accompanied by variations of different magnitude
and direction of stride length, of the excursion of
the heel and of the maximal ankle flexion at toeoff among the race walkers. Conclusion: These
results indicated that competitive race walkers
are able to maintain their walking gait with exercise duration apart from a systematic increase in
energy cost. Moreover, in this form of locomotion
the effect of fatigue on the gait variability seems
to be an individual function of the race walk constraints and the constraints of the performer.
112
Yoshida, T.; Udo, M.; Iwai, K.; Muraoka, I.; Tamaki, K.; Yamaguchi, T.; Chida, M.
Physiological determinants of race walking performance in female race walkers
British Journal of Sports Medicine, 23 (1990), 4, pp.
250-254
The purpose of this study was to determine
the relationship between race pace on a 5 km
walking performance and velocity at the lactate
threshold (V-LT), VO2 at the lactate threshold
(VO2-LT), velocity at which blood lactate corresponded to 4 mM level (V-OBLA), VO2 at
which blood lactate corresponded to 4 mM level
(VO2-OBLA), walking economy (steady state
VO2 at a standard velocity) and maximal oxygen
uptake (VO2max) in eight female race walkers.
A multiple stepwise linear regression analysis
was employed to predict the race pace on a 5
km walking performance as dependent variable. Since V-OBLA was highly correlated to 5
km race walking performance it was selected as
the first predictor. When VO2max was added to
V-OBLA as the second predictor the predictive
accuracy increased significantly, but multiple R
did not increase significantly by adding variables
of walking economy or other parameters as independent variance. As a result, the combination of
V-OBLA and VO2max as independent variables
accounted for the greatest amount of total variance (97 per cent). It is suggested that blood lactate variable such as V-OBLA can account for a
large portion of the variance in race pace on a 5
km walking performance.
Yoshida, T.; Udo, M.; Chida, M.; Ichioka, M.;
Makiguchi, K.; Yamaguchi, T.
Specificity of physiological adaptation to
endurance training in distance runners
and competitive walkers
3/4, pp. 197-201
This study was designed to evaluate the specificity of physiological adaptation to extra endurance training in 5 female competitive walkers and
6 female distance runners. The mean velocity (v)
during training, corresponding to 4 mM blood
lactate (OBLA) during treadmill incremental exercise (training v was 2.86+-0.21 m/s in walkers
and 4.02+-0.11 m/s in runners) was added to
their normal training programme and was performed for 20 min, 6 d/wk for 8 weeks, and was
called extra training. An additional 6 female distance runners performed only their normal training programme every day for about 120 min at
an exercise intensity equivalent to their lactate
threshold (LT) (i.e. a running v of about 3.33 m/s).
After the extra training, there were statistically
significant increases in blood lactate variables
(i.e. VO2 at LT, v at LT, VO2 at OBLA, v at OBLA)
and running v for 3.000 m in the running training
group. In the walking training group, there were
significant increases in blood lactate variables
(i.e. v at LT, v at OBLA) and walking economy.
In contrast, there were no significant changes
in lactate variables, running v and economy in
the group of runners which carried out only the
normal training programme. It is suggested that
the changes in blood lactate variables such as
LT and OBLA played a role in improving v of both
the distance runners and the competitive walkers. Furthermore, the significant improvement in
walking economy brought about by extra endurance training might be a specific phenomenon
for competitive walkers.
6 Throwing and jumping events
Berkoff, D. J.; Cairns, C. B.; Sanchez, L. D.;
Moorman, C. T.
Heart rate variability in elite American
track-and-field athletes
(2007), 1, pp. 227-231
Prolonged training leads to changes in autonomic cardiac balance. This sympathetic and
parasympathetic balance can now be studied
using heart rate variability (HRV). Studies have
shown that endurance athletes have an elevated
level of parasympathetic tone in comparison to
sedentary people. The effect of resistance training on autonomic tone is less clear. We hypothesized a significant difference in HRV indices in
endurance-trained vs. power-trained track-andfield athletes. One hundred forty-five athletes
(58 women) were tested prior to the 2004 U.S.A.
Olympic Trials. Heart rate variability data were
collected using the Omegawave Sport Technology System. Subjects were grouped according to
training emphasis and gender. The mean age of
the athletes was 24.8 years in each group. There
were significant (p < = 0.01) differences by sex
in selected frequency domain variables (HFnu,
LFnu, LH, LHnu) and for PNN50 (p < = 0.04) for
the time domain variables. Two-factor analyses
of variance showed differences for only the main
effect of sex and not for any other grouping method or interaction. Elite athletes have been shown
to have higher parasympathetic tone than recreational athletes and nonathletes. Our data show
differences by sex, but not between aerobically
and power-based athletes. Whether this is due
to an aerobic component of resistance training,
an overall prolonged training effect, or some genetic difference remains unclear. Further study is
needed to assess the impact of resistance training programs on autonomic tone and cardiovascular fitness. This information will be valuable for
the practitioner to use in assessing an athlete’s
response to a prescribed training regimen.
Faber, M.; Spinnler-Benade, A.-J.; Daubitzer, A.
Dietary intake, anthropometric measurements and plasma lipid levels in throwing
field athletes
2, pp. 140-145
Since little descriptive data for field athletes is
available, the anthropometric measurements, dietary intake and plasma lipid levels of 22 male and
15 female field athletes (throwers) are reported.
Percentage body fat was calculated by using four
skinfold thicknesses. Using this measurement
as criterion, 53 of the females were obese. Percentage body fat and body mass index showed
a positive correlation with total plasma cholesterol and plasma triacylglycerol and a negative
correlation with percentage HDL cholesterol for
males and females. Five of the males and three
of the females were hypercholesterolaemic. The
seven day estimated dietary record was used to
determine their dietary intake. The males as well
as the females consumed a diet that was high in
fat and cholesterol content. Their diets were low
in carbohydrate. It is recommended that these
athletes increase their carbohydrate intake and
lower their total fat intake. It is also recommended that the obese subjects should lose weight.
Kyriazis, T. A.; Terzis, G.; Boudolos, K.; Georgiadis, G.
Muscular power, neuromuscular activation, and performance in shot put athletes
at preseason and at competition period
113
(2009), 6, pp. 1773-1779
The aim of this study was to investigate changes
in shot put performance, muscular power, and
neuromuscular activation of the lower extremities, between the preseason and the competition period, in skilled shot put athletes using the
rotational technique. Shot put performance was
assessed at the start of the pre-season period as
well as after 12 weeks, at the competition period,
in nine shot putters. Electromyographic (EMG)
activity of the right vastus lateralis muscle was recorded during all shot put trials. Maximum squat
strength (1RM) and mechanical parameters during the countermovement jump (CMJ) on a force
platform were also determined at pre-season
and at competition period. Shot put performance
increased 4.7% (p < 0.05), while 1RM squat increased 6.5% (p < 0.025). EMG activity during
the delivery phase was increased significantly
(p < 0.025) after the training period. Shot put performance was significantly related with muscular
power and takeoff velocity during the CMJ, at
competition period (r = 0.66, p < 0.05 and 0.70,
p < 0.05), but not with maximum vertical force.
One RM squat was not related significantly with
shot put performance. These results suggest
that muscular power of the lower extremities is
a better predictor of rotational shot put performance than absolute muscular strength in skilled
athletes, at least during the competition period.
Liu, H.; Yu, B.
Effects of phase ratio and velocity conversion coefficient on the performance of
the triple jump
Phase ratio is a measure of effort distribution in
the triple jump. Hop-dominant, balanced, and
jump-dominant techniques were three triple jump
techniques defined based on phase ratio. The
purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the phase ratio on the performance of the
triple jump. Three-dimensional kinematic data of
13 elite male triple jumpers were obtained during
a competition. Computer simulations were performed using a biomechanical model of the triple
jump to optimise the phase ratio for the longest
actual distance using each of the three techniques
for a given athlete with altered velocity conversion
114
coefficients. The velocity conversion coefficient
affected which technique achieved the longest
actual distance. The actual distance obtained using the hop-dominant technique was significantly
longer than that obtained using the other two techniques (P = 0.007, P = 0.001) when the velocity
coefficient was between 0.35 and 0.55. The actual
distance obtained using the jump-dominant technique was significantly longer than that obtained
using the other two techniques (P = 0.001, P =
0.002) when the velocity coefficient was between
0.80 and 1.30. No consistent optimum technique
across participants and no significant difference
in performance among the three techniques were
found (P > 0.524) when the velocity coefficient was
between 0.60 and 0.75.
Terzis, G.; Spengos, K.; Kavouras, S.; Manta,
P.; Georgiadis, G.
Muscle fibre type composition and body
composition in hammer throwers
Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 9 (2010), 1,
pp. 104-109, URL: http://www.jssm.org/vol9/n1/15/
v9n1-15text.php, http://www.jssm.org/vol9/n1/15/
v9n1-15pdf.pdf
Aim of the present study was to describe the
muscle fibre type composition and body composition of well-trained hammer throwers. Six experienced hammer throwers underwent the following
measurements: one repetition maximum in squat,
snatch, and clean, standing broad jump, backward overhead shot throw and the hammer throw.
Dual x-ray absorptiometry was used for body
composition analysis. Fibre type composition and
cross sectional area was determined in muscle
biopsy samples of the right vastus lateralis. Eight
physical education students served as a control
group. One repetition maximum in squat, snatch
and clean for the hammer throwers was 245 ± 21,
132 ± 13 and 165 ± 12kg, respectively. Lean body
mass was higher in hammer throwers (85.9 ± 3.
9kg vs. 62.7 ± 5.1kg (p < 0.01). The percentage
area of type II muscle fibres was 66.1 ± 4% in hammer throwers and 51 ± 8% in the control group (p <
0.05). Hammer throwers had significantly larger
type IIA fibres (7703 ± 1171 vs. 5676 ± 1270μm2,
p < 0.01). Hammer throwing performance correlated significantly with lean body mass (r = 0.81, p <
0.05). These data indicate that hammer throwers
have larger lean body mass and larger muscular
areas occupied by type II fibres, compared with
relatively untrained subjects. Moreover, it seems
that the enlarged muscle mass of the hammer
throwers contributes significantly to the hammer
throwing performance.
7 General
Cort, M.
Keeping you cool in summer
Dehydration in exercise can lead to a reduction
in performance. Both mental and physical skills
are affected. When exercising, fluid loss from the
body is higher than when you are relatively sedentary. During exercise, fluid intake is enhanced
when beverages are cool (15°C), flavoured and
contain sodium. This makes sports drinks or
sports water (lower in kilojoules) a good choice
during lengthy exercise. Water drinkers need to
be aware that during exercise water does not
stimulate fluid intake to the same extent as sodium containing fluids. Drinking to a plan is therefore crucial when drinking water. Estimate how
much fluid you need to replace after sessions by
weighing yourself on a set of scales both before
and after an exercise session. The body weight
lost indicates the fluid you did not replace during the exercise session. Re-hydrating with 1½
times the weight lost plus sodium over the next
few hours is crucial to ensuring you start your
next session in a well hydrated state. (eg: if you
lose 1kg in a session this equates to 1L of fluid.
Re-hydrate with 1½ L of fluid with added sodium).
The additional sodium can be in the form of an
electrolyte sachet added to your fluid (eg: Gastrolyte, Hydralyte etc...), or consuming your fluid with
high sodium foods such as sandwiches, pretzels,
sauces etc.. Note that if you become significantly
dehydrated over an exercise session, “re-hydrating” with low sodium fluids only, such as water
or cordial, will not result in effective rehydration.
Dempster, S.
Energy systems and the developing athlete
Physiologically and psychologically children are
different to adults, they are not mini adults but
youngsters possessing a different physiological and psychological profile. Energy systems
in physically immature youngsters are underde-
veloped. Children are constantly growing and
developing so thereby utilising energy in copious
amounts and in an inefficient and irregular manner in comparison to their adult counterparts.
lndeed the anaerobic lactate energy system will
not fully mature until well into the 20s. This has
implications for how we construct the work our
future athletes do and so an energy systems
pathway can be constructed linked to biological
age. lt is actually simple as the best route to high
levels of performance are to develop the speed
(anaerobic alactic) early then go to high intensity
lactic work as a senior mature athlete. This has
major implications for any youth development
program, as the focus is totally different due to
the very special requirements of the growing
child and youth athletes. Psychologically children want to be in groups up until around 14-15
years of age. Some may be able to work oneon-one from a relatively early point whilst some
will prefer to leave this until much later. Physically youngsters are not yet capable of many of
the high intensity lactic based physical sessions
but seem to be like sponges when it comes to
learning the skills and movements required by
all sports movement patterns. Huge gains are
male if development is focussed in this direction.
Psychologically, this enables the young athlete to
retain an appetite for the process rather than, as
in too many cases, many feeling that they have
had enough by the age of 17, with the best years
of their careers ahead of them.
Karp, J. R.
Muscle fiber types and training
Track Coach (2001), 155, pp .4943-4946
Humans have basically three different types of
muscle fibers. Slow-twitch (ST or Type I) fibers are
identified by a slow contraction time and a high resistance to fatigue. Structurally, they have a small
motor neuron and fiber diameter, a high mitochondrial and capillary density, and a high myoglobin
content, Energetically, they have a low supply of
creatine phosphate (a high-energy substrate used
for quick, explosive movements), a low glycogen
content, and a wealthy store of triglycerides (the
stored form of fat). They contain few of the enzymes involved in glycolysis, but contain many of
the enzymes involved in the oxidative pathways
(Krebs cycle, electron transport chain). Functionally, ST fibers are used for aerobic activities requiring
115
low-level force production, such as walking and
maintaining posture. Most activities of daily living
use ST fibers. Fast-twitch (FT or Type II) fibers are
identified by a quick contraction time and a low resistance to fatigue. The differences in the speeds
of contraction that gives the fibers their names can
be explained, in part, by the rates of release of calcium by the sarcoplasmic reticulum (the muscle’s
storage site for calcium) and by the activity of the
enzyme (myosin-ATPase) that breaks down ATP
inside the myosin head of the contractile proteins.
Both of these characteristics are faster and greater
in the FT fibers. Fast-twitch fibers are further divided into fast-twitch A (FT-A or Type IIA) and fasttwitch B (FT-B or Type IIB) fibers. FT-A fibers have
a moderate resistance to fatigue and represent a
transition between the two extremes of the ST and
FT-B fibers. Structurally, FT-A fibers have a large
motor neuron and fiber diameter, a high mitochondrial density, a medium capillary density, and a
medium myoglobin content. They are high in creatine phosphate and glycogen and medium in triglyceride stores. They have both a high glycolytic
and oxidative enzyme activity. Functionally, they
are used for prolonged anaerobic activities with
a relatively highforce output, such as racing 400
meters. Fast-twitch B fibers, on the other hand, are
very sensitive to fatigue and are used for short anaerobic, high-force production activities, such as
sprinting, hurdling, jumping, and putting the shot.
These fibers are also capable of producing more
power than ST fibers. Like the FT-A fibers, FT-B fibers have a large motor neuron and fiber diameter,
but a low mitochondrial and capillary density and
myoglobin content. They also are high in creatine
phosphate and glycogen, but low in triglycerides.
They contain many glycolytic enzymes but few
oxidative enzymes. At any given velocity of movement, the amount of force produced depends
on the fiber type. During a dynamic contraction,
when the fiber is either shortening or lengthening,
a fast-twitch (FT) fiber produces more force than a
slow-twitch (ST) fiber. Under isometric conditions,
during which the length of the muscle does not
change while it is contracting, ST fibers produce
exactly the same amount of force as FT fibers.
The difference in force is only observed during
dynamic contractions. At any given velocity, the
force produced by the muscle increases with the
percentage of FT fibers and, conversely, at any
given force output, the velocity increases with the
116
percentage of FT fibers. There is great variability
in the percentage of fiber types among athletes.
For example, it is well known that endurance
athletes have a greater proportion of slow-twitch
fibers, while sprinters and jumpers have more fasttwitch fibers. The greater percentage of FT fibers
in sprinters enables them to produce greater muscle force and power than their ST-fibered counterparts. Differences in muscle fiber composition
among athletes have raised the question of whether muscle structure is an acquired trait or is genetically determined. Studies performed on identical
twins have shown that muscle fiber composition is
very much genetically determined, however there
is evidence that both the structure and metabolic
capacity of individual muscle fibers can adapt specifically to different types of training. On the basis
of this theoretical information, the author deals
with the recruitment of muscle fibers, determining
fiber type, and implications for training.
Karp, J. R.
My love affair with lactate
Track Coach (2005), 171, pp. 5463-5465, 5468
There has never been any experimental evidence
that has shown a cause-and-effect relationship
between lactate production and fatigue. While
lactate increases dramatically during intense exercise, so do other metabolites, most notably hydrogen ions, which are considered the major threat to
the muscle’s acid-base balance. Lactate doesn’t
even reveal all of herself unless the exercise uses
anaerobic glycolysis as the predominant metabolic pathway. When anaerobic glycolysis is the
predominant energy system being used, hydrogen ions, like lactate, accumulate in muscles and
blood. However, it is the accumulation of hydrogen
ions, which are produced from the breakdown of
ATP during muscle contractions and from other
chemical reactions of glycolysis, that decreases
muscle pH, causing metabolic acidosis and, ultimately, fatigue. But even hydrogen’s role in fatigue
has been questioned by some scientists, who lay
the blame on yet other metabolites. Not only does
lactate not cause fatigue, her production in muscle
is vital during intense exercise, as she serves a
number of roles. Lactate production maintains the
ratio of certain biochemical molecules, supporting
the continued ability of glycolysis to keep working.
Lactate is also used as a fuel by the heart, is used
by the liver to make new glucose (blood sugar) by a
process called gluconeogenesis, and is converted
back into glycogen (the stored form of carbohydrate) by a reversal of the chemical reactions of
glycolysis. Both the new glucose and glycogen
are then themselves used as fuels by muscles so
exercise can continue at the desired intensity. So
much for lactate being a waste product. Biochemically, a lactic acid value indicates the status of pyruvate metabolism, with a high value indicating
conditions that favor the conversion of pyruvate to
lactate instead of its transportation into the Krebs
cycle. Athletes who achieve high maximal lactate
values (the highest point on the graph’s curve) do
so because they have many fast-twitch muscle fibers that use anaerobic glycolysis as their primary
energy system. Being able to increase an athlete’s
maximal lactate value through training would help
Performance in those events that rely on anaerobic glycolysis and therefore result in high lactate
values, such as 400 and 800 meters. Being able to
produce lots of lactate is a good thing.
O’Connor, H.; Olds, T.; Maughan, R. J.
Physique and performance for track and
field events
Journal of Sports Sciences, 25 (2007), Suppl. 1, pp.
49-60
Evidence of the importance of physique in the athletics disciplines is supported by the persistence of
certain characteristics over long periods, despite
marked secular changes in the source population.
These characteristics may also result in physiological benefits such as effective thermoregulation or
a greater power-to-weight ratio. Coaches and athletes are often convinced of weight or fat loss benefits based on personal or anecdotal experience,
intuition, and “trained eye” observation of successful competitors. This may entice athletes into
adopting unbalanced, erratic or highly restrictive
eating patterns that increase the risk for nutrient
deficiencies, and disordered eating. Despite heavy
training loads and often extreme diets, some athletes fall short of their physique goals as ultimately
phenotype is under genetic control. Profession-
als assisting athletes with physique management
need to be highly skilled in anthropometry and require a thorough understanding of sports-specific
nutrition requirements. Careful assessment of the
risks and benefits of various approaches to weight
and fat loss is required before they are recommended to athletes.
Platonov, V. N.
Principles of biochemical adaptation in
training
In: J. Jarver, Middle distances: Contemporary theory, technique and training (pp. 71-75), Mountain
View: Tafnews Press, 2002
Biochemical rules that govern adaptation are
employed to substantiate some specific principles of training, taking into consideration specificity, regulation metabolisms and biochemical
changes during training.
Thibault, G.; Péronnet, F.
It is not lactic acid’s fault
New Studies in Athletics, 21 (2006), 1, pp. 9-15
Lactic acid and lactate are widely believed to be
the cause of fatigue, cramps and soreness in athletes. The authors take issue with this orthodoxy,
citing a number of recent studies to support their
view. They point out that it is possible to observe
muscle fatigue while the lactic acid concentration in the muscle remains low and observe an
absence of fatigue when the lactic acid concentration in the muscle is high. They argue that in
many situations performance does not depend
on the ability of the runner to produce less lactic
acid, as many people think, but in the ability to
produce more. They also question the existence
of the anaerobic threshold – the point in exercise
intensity beyond which the source energy moves
from an aerobic metabolism to a combination of
aerobic and anaerobic metabolisms – arguing
that current scientific knowledge does not support its existence. If an anaerobic threshold really
does exist, they say, it does not have oll the uses
people currently ascribe to it.
117
118
BOOK REview
Wörterbuch Bewegungsund Trainingswissenschaft
Deutsch-Englisch / English-German
(2nd ed.)
© by IAAF
29:2; 119-121, 2014
by Jürgen Schiffer & Heinz Mechling
Cologne: Sportverlag Strauß, 2013, 431 pp., ISBN: 978-3-86884-149-7
look at today’s market of dictionaries
shows that printed versions are on the
retreat. World-famous encyclopedias
such as the Encyclopedia Britannica or the
German Brockhaus will no longer be published
in paper form. At the end of 2012 Macmillan
also announced that they will not in future be
publishing dictionaries in book form. While
some think that sad news, others called it a
“day of liberation from the straitjacket of print”.
A
Online encyclopedias such as Wikipedia or dictionaries such as leo or dict.cc are
successful because they cover an extremely
broad range of words, even from very special
areas, they are very up-to-date and in some of
them (leo, for example) users can ask questions regarding words that are not yet included
and hope to get an answer from other users.
On the other hand, some people seem to
have more trust in printed dictionaries. They
see data found on the internet as slightly suspect and inherently less ‘serious’. This idea is
linked to the supposed unreliability of crowdsourced dictionaries such as Wikipedia.
Be that as it may, the days of printed dictionaries seem to be numbered and the younger generation are already currently using their
iPhones to look up words and translations
quickly online.
With this in mind, the publication of a German-English Dictionary of Movement and
Training Science in print form seems to be
a questionable undertaking. So, what are the
advantages of this dictionary?
First, it must be said that a lot of the words
included in this dictionary, which has been
compiled by the German sport-science and
language experts Professor Dr. Heinz Mechling (former director of the Institute for Movement and Sports Gerontology at the German
119
Wörterbuch Bewegungs- und Trainingswissenschaft Deutsch-Englisch / English-German (2nd ed.)
Sport University in Cologne) and Dr. Jürgen
Schiffer (Deputy Head of the Central Library
of Sports Sciences at the German Sport University in Cologne, author of several sportsrelated dictionaries and the Documentation
Editor of NSA) can neither be found in available
special dictionaries in print format nor in any
online dictionary.
Let’s take for example one arbitrary page.
On page 76 of the dictionary the following 19
German words are translated into English:
Bewegungsrückkopplung, Bewegungsschema, Bewegungsschnelligkeit, Bewegungsschwierigkeit, Bewegungssehen, Bewegungsselbstkonzept, Bewegungssinn, Bewegungssonifikation, Bewegungsstabilität,
Bewegungsstärke,
Bewegungsstereotyp,
Bewegungssteuerung, Bewegungsstil, Bewegungsstörung, Bewegungsstruktur, Bewegungssystem, Bewegungstalent, Bewegungstaxonomie, and Bewegungstechnik.
Only Bewegungssinn, Bewegungsstörung,
and Bewegungssystem can be found in the
leo online dictionary, with the English translations of Bewegungssinn and Bewegungssystem being questionable, to say the least.
This is, by the way, also typical of a lot of
special dictionaries: The translations of the
terms are often not the ones really used by
experts speaking the respective target language. Schiffer and Mechling are well aware
of this difficulty and have therefore verified
the target-language words by using monolingual dictionaries from sports science, sportsscience monographs, and original specialised
texts in English. Only in exceptional situations,
German source terms for which no equivalents
could be found in the literature were translated
with English neologisms. Since an English native speaker was ultimately responsible for the
approval of these neologisms, the German
source terms have been accurately translated
into English and are neither artificial nor culturally foreign to English-language readers.
Another problem of the Dictionary of Movement and Training Science is its scope. Due
to their great practical relevance and applicability, both movement and exercise science
120
are core disciplines of sports science. Both
disciplines are especially closely related to
sports medicine including exercise physiology
and neurophysiology, and biomechanics and
motor-oriented sports psychology. Therefore,
terms from these disciplines have also been
selected for this dictionary. Even movement
and training-science terms from other fields,
e.g. physiotherapy, have been included.
In the first edition of the Dictionary of Movement and Training Science (2007) all references were integrated into the main part of the
dictionary. In order to avoid an unnecessary
extension of the main section, however, a continuation of this method did not seem useful for
the new edition. Therefore, all inverted references have been separated from the main part
and are now included in the “inverted reference” section. Although the method of including both the non-inverted and inverted forms of
multi-word terms in the dictionary may seem a
bit cumbersome at first sight, it ensures that all
multi-word terms can be looked for from every
direction, as it were. For example, the German
term aerobes Ausdauertraining (word field
aerob …) can also be found under Ausdauertraining, aerobes (word field Ausdauer …).
However, all other referenced terms, i.e., the
ones consisting of only one word, are still included in the main section of the dictionary
as they would otherwise be missed there. For
example, this applies to the terms Abprallwinkel (see Rückprallwinkel), Ambidextrie (see
Beidseitigkeit), Ausbelastung (see Maximalbelastung), Blutlaktatspiegel (see Blutlaktatkonzentration), Kraftplattform (see Kraftmessplatte), Stretching (see Dehnen), and
Trainingsfrequenz (see Trainingshäufigkeit).
The first edition of the Dictionary of Movement and Training Science contained approximately 5,320 main German terms, of which
about 1,770 refer to other terms, and about
4,800 English sub-terms. This second edition
includes about 8,820 main German terms,
about 3,075 of which refer to other main terms
(about 885 references in the main part of the
dictionary and approximately 2,190 references
in the separate reference section), and about
8,660 English sub-terms. This means that as
Wörterbuch Bewegungs- und Trainingswissenschaft Deutsch-Englisch / English-German (2nd ed.)
far as the German terms are concerned, the
dictionary has been extended by 66 percent
and as far as the English sub-terms are concerned by 100 percent. This expansion can
first be explained by considering the additional
areas of science (e.g. physiotherapy) and secondly by the use of additional primary texts as
sources for the terms.
of the dictionary. The Dictionary of Movement and Training Science is available both
in print and online format. These advantages
make this dictionary a worthwhile purchase
for all people interested in dealing with sportscience texts from a bilingual, i.e., EnglishGerman, perspective.
Although this is basically a German-English
dictionary, it can also be used as an EnglishGerman dictionary by using the index which
allows selective access to the English terms
listed as sub-terms in the dictionary.
In addition, every buyer of the dictionary will
be given a code which provides access to the
online digital version of the dictionary. In this
digital version, the English sub-terms can be
accessed independently of the index by using
a text search.
To sum it up then, the majority of terms
included in the Dictionary of Movement and
Training Science cannot be found in any other dictionary available. This dictionary is particularly different from existing sports-science
dictionaries because the terms originate from
original English texts as well as from literary
sources listed in the bibliography at the end
Jürgen Schiffer & Heinz Mechling
Wörterbuch Bewegungs- und Trainingswissenschaft Deutsch-Englisch / English-German
(2nd ed.)
Cologne: Sportverlag Strauß, 2013, 431 pp.,
ISBN: 978-3-86884-149-7, EUR 34.80
Reviewed by Harald Müller
121
122
website review
The “Track and Field all-time
Performances Homepage”
© by IAAF
29:2; 123-125, 2014
Introduction
Form
he “Track and Field all-time Performances Homepage” (http://www.
alltime-athletics.com) is an athletics
results and record website maintained and
updated by the Swedish track-and-field expert
Peter Larsson. Larsson draws his statistical
data from many different sources, mainly from
the ATFS annuals from the past years, but for
the latest years much information has come
from newsletters and the Internet. Today, the
Internet has become more and more the main
source for the information provided.
The “Track and Field all-time Performances
Homepage”, which was established in May
1997, has a very simple structure, there is no
advertising distracting the user’s attention, and
the navigation through the website is very easy.
T
From the entry page one learns at first sight
that the information provided is very up-todate, which is perhaps the most important
quality criterion for a page like this (Figure 1).
Figure 1: “Track and Field all-time Performances” entry page
123
The “Track and Field all-time Performances Homepage”
Starting from the website’s entry page, the
user has basically three search options:
clicking this button, the advanced search mask
will open (Figure 2).
1. By clicking either of the two buttons on
the left sidebar (“Men” or “Women”),
which will lead to a list of either the men’s
or women’s standard and special events.
2. By putting in, for example, an athlete’s
name into the search slot, which will lead
users to an overview of the events in which
this athlete has competed.
3. By clicking the “What’s New on this site”
button on the right. This will provide a list
of the latest entries.
By putting in this mask, for example, an athlete’s name combined with a certain place, one
will get all results achieved by this athlete at this
place (Figure 3).
By scrolling down this list, one learns, for
example, that on July 18, 2014, a new result
was added to the Men’s 800m list. By clicking
this entry, this list opens, and now one is at a
loss, at first, where to look for this new entry.
This problem can only be solved by putting in,
for example, “07.2014” into the search slot of
the browser. By pressing the enter key several
times one will get all the new results for July
2014. Although this method is certainly somewhat cumbersome, it is the only way to find
the new results added. It would certainly be
better to present these results separately, for
example at the top of the list.
At the top right of the list of search results
there is also an “advanced search” button. By
Contents
Although the way of presenting the search results could be improved as far as visual clarity
is concerned, the sheer contents of the “Track
and Field all-time Performances Homepage”
may be hardly beatable. The lists seem to
absolutely complete and up-to-date. For example, the men’s marathon list includes 2494
performances down to a time of 2:10:29. As
with all other events, too, there is not only a list
of legal marks but also a list of non-legal marks:
short course, questionable performances, and
drug abuse (Figure 4).
Conclusion
The “Track and Field all-time Performances
Homepage” is an easy to navigate website that
features very complete, up-to-date, and detailed statistical track-and-field information. It is
very clearly structured, and there is no information distracting from the page’s main purpose:
Figure 2: Advanced Search mask
124
The “Track and Field all-time Performances Homepage”
Figure 3: Advanced search results for the race times achieved by the German distance runner Uhlemann in
Helsinki
Figure 4: List of non-legal marks for the men’s marathon
to provide the user with up-to-date information
about world-best performances in all trackand-field events. Mainly because of the volume
and quality of this information, the “Track and
Field all-time Performances Homepage” is a
must to look at for all people interested in trackand-field results and records.
Reviewed by Jürgen Schiffer
125
126
PReview
Preview
Special Topic
Technology
including:
} Force Plate Use in Performance
Monitoring and Sport Science Testing
by George Beckham, Tim Suchomel and
Satoshi Mizuguchi
} Elite Level Development Rates and AgeBased Performance Patterns for the Men’s
Throwing Events
by Don Babbitt and Mohamad Saatara
3
Volume Twenty-nine issue number 3; September 2014
New Studies in Athletics, printed by Druckerei H. Heenemann GmbH & Co. KG Berlin, Germany
'14
NSA is translated into Chinese, French, Russian, Spanish and Arabic
Contact: Vicky Brennan, [email protected]
127
128
New Studies in Athletics ·no. 2.2014

Physiology

Transcription

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