AESA based IPM – Onion

Transcription

AESA BASED IPM Package
Important Natural Enemies of Onion Insect Pests
Parasitoids
Ceranisus menes
Trichogramma spp.
Bracon spp.
Carcelia spp.
Tetrastichus spp.
Chelonus spp.
Lacewing
Ladybird beetle
Spider
Predatory thrips
Praying mantis
Hover fly
Predators
The AESA based IPM - Onion was compiled by the NIPHM working group under the Chairmanship of Dr. Satyagopal
Korlapati, IAS, DG, NIPHM, and guidance of Shri. Utpal Kumar Singh, IAS, JS (PP). The package was developed taking into
account the advice of experts listed below on various occasions before finalization.
NIPHM Working Group:
Chairman
: Dr. Satyagopal Korlapati, IAS, Director General
Vice-Chairmen : Dr. S. N. Sushil, Plant Protection Advisor
: Dr. P. Jeyakumar, Director (PHM)
Core Members:
1. Er. G. Shankar, Joint Director (PHE), Pesticide Application Techniques Expertise.
2. Dr. O.P. Sharma, Joint Director (A & AM), Agronomy Expertise.
3. Dr. Dhana Raj Boina, Assistant Director (PHM), Entomology Expertise.
4. Dr. Satish Kumar Sain, Assistant Director (PHM), Pathology Expertise
Contributions by DPPQ&S Experts:
1. Shri. Ram Asre, Additional Plant Protection Advisor (IPM),
2. Dr. K.S. Kapoor, Deputy Director (Entomology),
3. Dr. Sanjay Arya, Deputy Director (Plant Pathology),
4. Dr. Subhash Kumar, Deputy Director (Weed Science)
5. Dr. C.S. Patni, Plant Protection Officer (Plant Pathology)
Contributions by NCIPM Expert:
1. Dr. C. Chattopadhyay, Director
Contributions by External Experts:
1. Prof. S.A. Pawar, AICRP on Vegetable crops, MPKV, Rahuri
2. Dr. Abhishekh Shukla, Professor, Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Jabalpur, M.P.
3. Dr. (Smt) Usha Bhale, Associate Professor, Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Jabalpur, M.P.
4. Dr. K. Basanagoud, Professor and Head, Department of Entomology, UAS, Dharwad
5. Dr. H.P. Mishra, Univ. Professor, Rajendra Agricultural University, Bihar
6. Dr. Suresh D. Ekabote, Associate Professor, COH, Hiriyur
7. Dr. A.Y. Thakare, Associate Professor, Dr. PDKV, Akola
8. Dr. A.S. Halepyati, Professor of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Raichur
9. Dr. M.B. Patil, Professor of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Raichur
10. Dr. A.G. Sreenivas, Associate Professor, College of Agriculture, Raichur
Information on Region-wise Distribution of Pests Provided by:
1. Dr. N. Sathyanarayana, Director, Plant Biosecurity Division, NIPHM
2. Mrs. S. Latha, Scientific Officer, Plant Biosecurity Division, NIPHM
Citation
Satyagopal, K., S.N. Sushil, P. Jeyakumar, G. Shankar, O.P. Sharma,
D. Boina, S.K. Sain, Ram Asre, K.S. Kapoor, Sanjay Arya, Subhash
Kumar, C.S. Patni, C. Chattopadhyay, S.A. Pawar, Abhishekh
Shukla, Usha Bhale, K. Basanagoud, H.P. Mishra, Suresh D.
Ekabote, A.Y. Thakare, A.S. Halepyati, M.B. Patil, A.G. Sreenivas,
N. Sathyanarayana, S. Latha. 2014. AESA based IPM package for
onion. pp 50.
Front cover picture
Model AESA chart for onion
Back cover picture
Onion field
Published by
National Institute of Plant Health Management, Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad – 500 030
Copies:
1000
For internal circulation only. Not for sale.
Contact
APPA - IPM, Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage,
CGO Complex, NH IV, Faridabad, Haryana - 121 001.
Tel : 0129 2413020, e-mail: [email protected]
Printed at
Balaji Scan Pvt. Ltd., A.C. Guards, Hyderabad.
Tel : 040-23303424, balajiscan.com; [email protected]
Avinash K Srivastava
Additional Secretary
Government of India
Ministry of Agriculture
(Department of Agriculture & Cooperation)
Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi - 110 001
FOREWORD
Intensive agricultural practices relying heavily on chemical pesticides are a major cause of wide spread ecological
imbalances resulting in serious problems of insecticide resistance, pest resurgence and pesticide residues. There is
a growing awareness world over on the need for promoting environmentally sustainable agriculture practices.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a globally accepted strategy for promoting sustainable agriculture. During
last century, IPM relied substantially on economic threshold level and chemical pesticides driven approaches.
However, since the late 1990s there is conscious shift to more ecologically sustainable Agro-Eco System Analysis
(AESA) based IPM strategies. The AESA based IPM focuses on the relationship among various components of an agroecosystem with special focus on pest-defender dynamics, innate abilities of plant to compensate for the damages
caused by the pests and the influence of abiotic factors on pest buildup. In addition, Ecological Engineering for pest
management - a new paradigm to enhance the natural enemies of pests in an agro-ecosystem is being considered
as an important strategy. The ecological approach stresses the need for relying on bio intensive strategies prior to
use of chemical pesticides.
Sincere efforts have been made by resource personnel to incorporate ecologically based principles and field
proven technologies for guidance of the extension officers to educate, motivate and guide the farmers to adopt
AESA based IPM strategies, which are environmentally sustainable. I hope that the AESA based IPM packages
will be relied upon by various stakeholders relating to Central and State government functionaries involved in
extension and Scientists of SAUs and ICAR institutions in their endeavour to promote environmentally sustainable
agriculture practices.
Date : 6.3.2014
(Avinash K. Srivastava)
Joint Secretary
Government of India
(Department of Agriculture & Cooperation)
Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi - 110001
FOREWORD
IPM as a holistic approach of crop protection based on the integration of multiple strategies viz., cultural, physical,
mechanical, biological, botanical and chemical. Over the years IPM underwent several changes, shifting its focus
from damage boundary, economic injury to economic threshold. Currently most stake holders rely upon economic
threshold levels (ETL) and tend to apply chemical pesticides at the first instance in the event of a pest attack,
through Government of India has advocated need based and judicious application of chemicals. This approach
is likely to cause adverse effects on agro-ecosystems and increase the cost of agricultural production due to
problems of pest resurgence, insecticide resistance and sustainability.
During the late 90s FAO started advocating Agro-Ecosystem Analysis (AESA) based IPM. Experience in
different countries have sine show that AESA, which takes into account ecological principles and relies on the
balance that is maintained by biotic factors in an ecosystem has also resulted in reduction in cost of production
and increase in yields. AESA based IPM also takes into account the need for active participation of farmers and
promotes experiential learning and discovery based decision making by farmers. AESA based IPM in conjunction
with ecological engineering for pest management promotes bio-intensive strategies as against current chemical
intensive approaches, while retaining the option to apply chemical pesticides judiciously as a measure of last
resort.
The resource persons of NIPHM and DPPQ&S have made sincere efforts in revising IPM packages
for different crops by incorporating agro-ecosystem analysis, ecological engineering, pesticide application
techniques and other IPM options with the active cooperation of crop based plant protection scientists working
in state Agricultural Universities and ICAR institutions. I hope this IPM package will serve as a ready reference for
extension functionaries of Central / State Governments, NGOs and progressive farmers in adopting sustainable
plant protection strategies by minimizing the dependence on chemical pesticides.
(Utpal Kumar Singh)
National Institute of Plant Health Management
Department of Agriculture & Cooperation
Government of India
Dr. K. SATYAGOPAL, IAS
Director General
Rajendranagar
Hyderabad-500030
http://niphm.gov.in
Telephone : +91-40-24015346,
E-mail : [email protected]
Tele-Fax : +91-40-24015346
PREFACE
Need for environmentally sustainable agricultural practices is recognised worldwide in view of the wide spread
ecological imbalances caused by highly intensive agricultural systems. In order to address the adverse impacts
of chemical pesticides on agro-ecosystems, Integrated Pest Management has evolved further from ETL based
approach to Agro-ecosystem Analysis based Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
In AESA based IPM the whole agro-ecosystem, plant health at different stages, built-in-compensation
abilities of the plant, pest and defender population dynamics, soil conditions, climatic factors and farmers’
past experience are considered. In AESA, informed decisions are taken by farmers after field observation , AESA
chart preparation followed by group discussion and decision making. Insect zoo is created to enable the farmer
understand predation of pests by Natural Enemies. AESA based PHM also results in reduction of chemical pesticide
usage and conserves the agro-ecosystems.
Ecological Engineering for Pest Management, a new paradigm, is gaining acceptance as a strategy for
promoting Biointensive Integrated Pest Management. Ecological Engineering for Pest Management relies on
cultural practices to effect habitat manipulation and enhance biological control. The strategies focus on pest
management both below ground and above ground. There is growing need to integrate AESA based IPM and
principles of ecological engineering for pest management.
There is a rising public concern about the potential adverse effects of chemical pesticides on the human
health, environment and biodiversity. The intensity of these negative externalities, through cannot be eliminated
altogether, can be minimized through development, dissemination and promotion of sustainable biointensive
approaches.
Directorate of Plant Protection Quarantine and Storage (DPPQS), has developed IPM package of practices
during 2001 and 2002. These packages are currently providing guidance to the Extension Officers in transferring
IPM strategies to farmers. These IPM package of practices, have been revised incorporating the principles of AESA
based IPM in detail and also the concept of Ecological Engineering for Pest Management. It is hoped that the
suggested practices, which aim at enhancing biodiversity, biointensive strategies for pest management and
promotion of plant health, will enable the farmers to take informed decisions based on experiential learning and
it will also result in use of chemical pesticides only as a last resort & in a safe and judicious manner.
(K. SATYAGOPAL)
CONTENTS
Onion plant description ............................................................................................................................................................
1
I. Pests ..............................................................................................................................................................................................
2
A. Pests of National Significance .........................................................................................................................
2
1. Insect and mite pests ..................................................................................................................................
2
2. Diseases .............................................................................................................................................................
2
3. Weeds ..................................................................................................................................................................
2
B. Pests of Regional Significance .........................................................................................................................
3
1. Insect pests .......................................................................................................................................................
3
2. Diseases .............................................................................................................................................................
3
II. Agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA) based integrated pest management (IPM) ............................................
3
A. AESA ...........................................................................................................................................................................
3
B. Field scouting ..........................................................................................................................................................
9
C. Surveillance through pheromone trap catches for Agrotis, Spodoptera and
Helicoverpa ................................................................................................................................................................
10
D. Blue pan water/sticky traps ..............................................................................................................................
10
E. Light traps ................................................................................................................................................................
10
III. Ecological engineering for pest management ........................................................................................................
10
A. Resistant/tolerant varieties ..............................................................................................................................
14
IV. Crop stage-wise IPM ............................................................................................................................................................
14
V. Insecticide resistance and its management ...............................................................................................................
21
VI. Nutritional deficiencies .......................................................................................................................................................
22
VII. Description of common weeds ......................................................................................................................................
24
VIII. Description of insect and mite pests .........................................................................................................................
28
IX. Description of diseases .......................................................................................................................................................
32
X. Safety measures ......................................................................................................................................................................
42
A. At the time of harvest ..........................................................................................................................................
42
B. During post-harvest .............................................................................................................................................
42
XI. Do’s and Don’ts in IPM .........................................................................................................................................................
42
XII. Safety parameters in pesticide usage ........................................................................................................................
44
XIII. Basic precautions in pesticides usage ......................................................................................................................
47
XIV. Pesticide application techniques ................................................................................................................................
48
XV. Operational, calibration and maintenance guidelines in brief .....................................................................
49
XVI. References ..............................................................................................................................................................................
50
AESA BASED IPM PACKAGE FOR ONION
Onion plant description:
Onion (Allium cepa L.; Family: Amaryllidaceae) is one of the most important commercial vegetables. It is grown in
western, northern as well as in southern India. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Karnataka, Tamilnadu,
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Bihar are Major onion growing states in India.
India stands 2nd position in Onion production after China in the World. In India, Gujarat stands 2nd position in Onion
cultivation after Maharashtra state. The productivity of Onion is 12,580 Kg/ha all over the India while in Gujarat
state, the productivity is the highest (22,120 Kg/ha) .
Onion is a cool season crop. However it can be grown under a wide range of climatic conditions. It grows well under
mild climate without extreme heat or cold or excessive rainfall. In areas where average annual rainfall exceeds
75-100 cm in the monsoon periods, it can be grown only as a summer crop.
The ideal temperature requirement of the onion crop is 12.8-21° C for growth development and 15.5-25° C for bulb
development. Very low temperature in the early stages favors bolting, where as sudden rise in temperature favour
early maturity in rabi, resulting in small–sized bulbs.
Onion can be grown on all type of soils. However, Goradu, and medium black soils are best for its successful
production. Good drainage, weeds free plots and presence of organic matter favor production of good crop. It
cannot be grown in alkaline or low-lying marshy lands. The optimum pH is 5.8-6.5.
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I. PESTS
A. Pests of National Significance
1. Insect and mite pests
1.1
Onion thrips: Thrips tabaci Lindeman (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)
1.2
Onion maggot: Delia antiqua Meigen (Diptera: Anthomyiidae)
1.3
Bulb mite: Rhizoglyphus robini Claparédè (Sarcoptiformes: Acaridae)
1.4
Eriophyid mite: Aceria tulipae (Keifer) (Prostigmata: Eriophyidae)
1.5
Red spider mite: Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Boisduval) (Trombidiformes: Tetranychidae)
2. Diseases
2.1
Damping off: Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani ( Kühn), Fusarium oxysporum
(Schlecht), F. oxysporum f. sp. cepae (Schlecht. emend. Snyder & Hansen); Sclerotium
rolfsii (Sacc.) & S. cepivorum (Berk ) and Colletotrichum sp
2.2
Purple blotch: Alternaria porri (Ellis)
2.3
Stemphylium leaf blight: Stemphylium cesicarium/ vesicarium [(Wallr.) E.G. Simmons]
2.4
Colletotrichum blight/Anthracnose/Twister disease: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
[(Penz.) Penz. and Sacc]
2.5
Onion yellow dwarf: Onion yellow dwarf virus
2.6
Iris yellow spot: Iris yellow spot virus
3. Weeds
3.1 Major kharif
Broad leaf
3.1.1 Pigweed: Amaranthus viridis Hook. F. (Amaranthaceae)
3.1.2 Swine cress: Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. (Brassicaceae)
3.1.3 Black nightshade: Solanum nigrum L. (Solanaceae)
3.1.4 Common purselane: Portulaca oleracea L. (Portulacaceae)
3.1.5 False amaranth: Digera arvensis Forssk. (Amaranthaceae)
Grassy
3.1.6 Rabbit/crow foot grass: Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Beauv. (Poaceae)
3.1.7 Crab grass: Digiteria sanguinalis (L.) Willd. (Poaceae)
3.1.8 Barnyard grass: Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Scop. (Poaceae)
Sedge
3.1.9 Purple nutsedge: Cyperus rotundus L. (Cyperaceae)
3.1.10 Flat sedge: Cyperus iria L. (Cyperaceae)
3.2 Major rabi weeds
Broad leaf
3.2.1 Lamb’s quarter: Chenopodium album L. (Chenopodiaceae)
3.2.2 Scarlet pimpernel: Anagallis arvensis L. (Primulaceae)
3.2.3 Sweet clover: Melilotus indica (L.) All. (Fabaceae)
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3.2.4 Fine leaf fumitory: Fumaria parviflora Lam. (Fumariaceae)
3.2.5 Corn spurry: Spergula arvensis L. (Caryophyllaceae)
3.2.6 Carrot grass: Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Asteraceae)
Grassy
3.2.7 Blue grass: Poa annua L. (Poaceae)
3.2.8 Canary grass: Phalaris minor Retz. (Poaceae)
3.2.9 Chinese love grass: Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees. Ex Steud. (Poaceae)
3.2.10 Goose grass: Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertner (Poaceae)
Sedge
3.2.11 Purple nut sedge: Cyperus rotundus L. (Cyperaceae)
B. Pests of Regional Significance
1. Insect pests
1.1
Gram pod borer: Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) (Punjab)
1.2
Tobacco caterpillar: Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
1.3
Cutworm: Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) (Assam)
2. Diseases
2.1
Downy mildew: Perenospora destructor (Berkeley) Caspary (Himachal Pradesh, Delhi)
2.2
Fusarium basal rot/ Basal rot: Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cepae Schlecht (Rajasthan, Maharashtra,
Karnataka)
2.3
White rot: Sclerotium cepivorum Berk.
2.4
Pink root rot: Phoma (Pyrenochaeta) terrestris (Hansen) Gorenz, Walker & Larson,
Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. (Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu)
2.5
Black mold: Aspergillus niger van Tiegham
2.6
Green mold: Aspergillus fumigatus Fresenius, A. alliaceus Thom & Church
2.7
Bacterial brown rot/ Slippery skin: Pseudomonas aeruginosa
(Schroter) Migula Pseudomonas allicola Starr and Burk (Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh)
2.8. Soft rot: Erwinia carotovora pv. carotovora Jones
II. AGRO-ECOSYSTEM ANALYSIS (AESA) BASED INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT (IPM)
A. AESA
The IPM has been evolving over the decades to address the deleterious impacts of synthetic chemical pesticides
on environment ultimately affecting the interests of the farmers. The economic threshold level (ETL) was the
basis for several decades but in modern IPM (FAO 2002) emphasis is given to AESA where farmers take decisions
based on larger range of field observations. The health of a plant is determined by its environment which includes
physical factors (i.e. soil, rain, sunshine hours, wind etc.) and biological factors (i.e. pests, diseases and weeds). All
these factors can play a role in the balance which exists between herbivore insects and their natural enemies.
Understanding the intricate interactions in an ecosystem can play a critical role in pest management.
Decision making in pest management requires a thorough analysis of the agro-ecosystem. Farmer has to
learn how to observe the crop, how to analyze the field situation and how to make proper decisions for their crop
management. This process is called the AESA. Participants of AESA will have to make a drawing on a large piece
3
of paper (60 x 80 cm), to include all their observations. The advantage of using a drawing is that it requires the
participants/farmers to observe closely and intensively. It is a focal point for the analysis and for the discussions
that follow, and the drawing can be kept as a record.
AESA is an approach, which can be gainfully employed by extension functionaries and farmers to analyze
the field situations with regards to pests, defenders, soil conditions, plant health and the influence of climatic
factors and their relationship for growing a healthy crop. The basic components of AESA are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Plant health at different stages
Built-in compensation abilities of plants
Pest and defender population dynamics
Soil conditions
Climatic factors
Farmers past experience
Principles of AESA based IPM:
Grow a healthy crop
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Select a variety resistant/tolerant to major pests
Treat the seed/planting material with recommended pesticides especially biopesticides
Select healthy seeds/seedlings/planting material
Follow proper spacing
Soil health improvement (mulching and green manuring wherever applicable)
Nutrient management especially organic manures and biofertilizers based on the soil test results. If the
dosage of nitrogenous fertilizers is too high the crop becomes too succulent and therefore susceptible to
insects and diseases. If the dosage is too low, the crop growth is retarded. So, the farmers should apply an
adequate amount for best results. The phosphatic fertilizers should not be applied each and every season
as the residual phosphate of the previous season will be available for the current season also.
Proper irrigation
Crop rotation
Observe the field regularly (climatic factors, soil and biotic factors)
Farmers should
•
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•
Monitor the field situation at least once a week (soil, water, plants, pests, natural enemies, weather factors
etc.)
Make decisions based on the field situation and P: D ratio
Take direct action when needed (e.g. collect egg masses, remove infested plants etc.)
Understand and conserve defenders
•
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Know defenders/natural enemies to understand their role through regular observations of the agroecosystem
Avoid the use of chemical pesticides especially with broad-spectrum activity
4
Insect zoo
In field various types of insects are present. Some are beneficial and some may be harmful. Generally farmers
are not aware about it. Predators (friends of the farmers) which feed on pests are not easy to observe in crop
field. Insect zoo concept can be helpful to enhance farmers’ skill to identify beneficial and harmful insects. In this
method, unfamiliar/unknown predators are collected in plastic containers with brush from the field and brought
to a place for study. Each predator is placed inside a plastic bottle together with parts of the plant and some
known insect pests. Insects in the bottle are observed for certain time and determined whether the test insect is a
pest (feeds on plant) or a predator (feeds on other insects).
Pest: Defender ratio (P: D ratio):
Identifying the number of pests and beneficial insects helps the farmers to make appropriate pest management
decisions. Sweep net, visual counts etc. can be adopted to arrive at the numbers of pests and defenders. The P: D
ratio can vary depending on the feeding potential of natural enemy as well as the type of pest. The natural enemies
of onion pests can be divided into 3 categories: 1. parasitoids; 2. predators; and 3. pathogens. The important natural
enemies of onion pests are given in ecological engineering table on page number 13-14
Model agro-ecosystem analysis chart
Date:
Village:
Farmer:
Decision taken based on the analysis of field situations
Soil conditions
Weather conditions
Diseases types and severity
Weeds types and intensity
Rodent damage (if any)
No. of insect pests
No. of natural enemies
P: D ratio
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
The general rule to be adopted for management decisions relying on the P: D ratio is 2: 1. However, some
of the parasitoids and predators will be able to control more than 2 pests. Wherever specific P: D ratios are not
5
found, it is safer to adopt the 2: 1, as P: D ratio. Whenever the P: D ratio is found to be favourable, there is no
need for adoption of other management strategies. In cases where the P: D ratio is found to be unfavourable,
the farmers can be advised to resort to inundative release of parasitoids/predators depending upon the type
of pest. In addition to inundative release of parasitoids and predators, the usage of microbial biopesticides and
biochemical biopesticides such as insect growth regulators, botanicals etc. can be relied upon before resorting to
synthetic chemical pesticides.
Feeding/egg laying potential of different parasitoids/predators
Predators/ Parasitoids
Feeding potential/ Egg laying
capacity
Predatory rate of adult coccinellid on
aphids is 50 aphids per day
Predators/ Parasitoids
Feeding potential/ Egg laying
capacity
Predatory rate of adult is 20-35
phytophagous mites/female/day
http://www.eduwebs.org/bugs/
predatory_mites.htm
Ladybird beetle
Predatory mite
1st instar larva can consume 15-19
aphids/day. 2nd instar larva can
consume 45-52 aphids/day. 3rd instar
larva can consume 80-90 aphids/day.
In total life cycle they can consume
approx. 400 aphids.
Hover fly
Egg laying capacity is 100-200 eggs/
female. 1-8 eggs/larva
Each larva can consume 100 aphids,
329 pupae of whitefly and 288 nymphs
of jassids during entire larval period
Bracon hebetor
Egg laying capacity is 20-200 eggs/
female.
Green lacewing
5 big larvae/adults per day
Trichogramma sp
Spider
Decision making
Farmers become experts in crop management
Farmers have to make timely decisions about the management of their crops. AESA farmers have learned to make
these decisions based on observations and analysis viz. abiotic and biotic factors of the crop ecosystem. The past
experience of the farmers should also be considered for decision making. However, as field conditions continue to
change and new technologies become available, farmers need to continue improving their skills and knowledge.
•
•
Farmers are capable of improving farming practices by experimentation
Farmers can share their knowledge with other farmers
AESA methodology
•
Go to the field in groups (about 5 farmers per group). Walk across the field and choose 20 plants/acre
randomly. Observe keenly each of these plants and record your observations:
•
•
Plant: Observe the plant height, crop stage, deficiency symptoms etc.
Pests: Observe and count pests at different places on the plant.
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•
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•
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•
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•
•
Defenders (natural enemies): Observe and count parasitoids and predators.
Diseases: Observe leaves and identify any visible disease symptoms and severity.
Weeds: Observe weeds in the field and their intensity.
Water: Observe the water situation of the field.
Weather: Observe the weather condition.
While walking in the field, manually collect insects in plastic bags. Use a sweep net to collect additional
insects. Collect plant parts with disease symptoms.
Find a shady place to sit as a group in a small circle for drawing and discussion.
If needed, kill the insects with some chloroform (if available) on a piece of cotton.
Each group will first identify the pests, defenders and diseases collected.
Each group will then analyze the field situation in detail and present their observations
and analysis in a drawing (the AESA drawing).
Each drawing will show a plant representing the field situation. The weather condition, water level, disease
symptoms, etc. will be shown in the drawing. Pest insects will be drawn on one side. Defenders (beneficial
insects) will be drawn on another side. Write the number next to each insect. Indicate the plant part
where the pests and defenders were found. Try to show the interaction between pests and defenders.
Each group will discuss the situation and make a crop management recommendation.
The small groups then join each other and a member of each group will now present their analysis in front
of all participants.
The facilitator will facilitate the discussion by asking guiding questions and makes sure that all participants
(also shy or illiterate persons) are actively involved in this process.
Formulate a common conclusion. The whole group should support the decision on what field management
is required in the AESA plot.
Make sure that the required activities (based on the decision) will be carried out.
Keep the drawing for comparison purpose in the following weeks.
Data recording
Farmers should record data in a notebook and drawing on a chart. Keeping records of what has happened help us
making an analysis and draw conclusions
Data to be recorded
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•
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Plant growth (weekly) : Height of plant ; Number of leaves
Crop situation (e.g. for AESA) : Plant health ; Pests, diseases, weeds ; Natural enemies ; Soil condition ;
Irrigation ; Weather conditions
Input costs ; Seeds ; Fertilizer ; Pesticides ; Labour
Harvest : Yield (Kg/acre) ; Price of produce (Rs./Kg)
Some questions that can be used during the discussion
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Summarize the present situation of the field?
What crop management aspect is most important at this moment?
Is there a big change in crop situation compared to last visit? What kind of change?
Is there any serious pest or disease outbreak?
What is the situation of the beneficial insects?
Is there a balance in the field between pests and defenders?
Were you able to identify all pests and diseases?
Do you think the crop is healthy?
What management practices are needed at this moment?
When will it be done? Who will do it? Make sure that responsibilities for all activities are being discussed.
Are you expecting any problems to emerge during the coming week such as congenial weather conditions
for pest buildup?
What problems? How can we avoid it? How can we be prepared?
Summarize the actions to be taken.
7
Advantages of AESA over ETL
One of the problems of the ETL is that it is based on parameters that are changing
all the time, and that are often not known. The damage or losses caused by a
certain density of insects cannot be predicted at all. In ETL the due recognition
of the role of natural enemies in decreasing pest population is ignored. Farmers
cannot base their decisions on just a simple count of pests. They have to consider
many other aspects of the crop (crop ecology, growth stage, natural enemies,
weather condition, etc.) and their own economic and social situation before
they can make the right crop management decisions. In ETL based IPM, natural
enemies, plant compensation ability and abiotic factors are not considered. In
AESA based IPM emphasis is given to natural enemies, plant compensation ability,
abiotic factors and P: D ratio.
AESA and farmer field school (FFS)
AESA is a season-long training activity that takes place in the farmer field. It is
season-long so that it covers all the different developmental stages of the crop
and their related management practices. The process is always learner-centered,
participatory and relying on an experiential learning approach and therefore it
has become an integral part of FFS.
Farmers can learn from AESA
•
•
•
•
•
•
Identification of pests and their nature of damage
Identification of natural enemies
Management of pests
Water and nutrient management
Influence of weather factors on pest buildup
Role of natural enemies in pest management
FFS to teach AESA based IPM skills
8
B. Field scouting
AESA requires skill. So only the trained farmers can undertake this exercise. However, other farmers also can do
field scouting in their own fields at regular intervals to monitor the major pest situation.
Surveillance on pest occurrence in the field should commence soon after crop establishment after transplanting
and at weekly intervals thereafter. In each field, select five spots randomly (four in the corners, at least 5 feet inside
of the field borders, and one in the center). Select five random plants at each spot for recording counts of insects
as per procedure finalized for individual insects.
For insect pests:
Mites: Count and record the number of both nymphs and adults on five randomly selected leaves per plant.
Thrips: Count and record the number of nymphs and adults of thrips present on five terminal leaves per plant
(tapping method also can be used to count thrips).
Agrotis, Spodoptera and Helicoverpa: Total number of leaves damaged due to Agrotis, Spodoptera and Helicoverpa
and number of larvae on individual plants should be counted and recorded.
For diseases:
Whenever scouting, be aware that symptoms of plant disease problems may be caused by any biotic factors such
as fungal, bacterial, viral pathogens or abiotic factors such as weather, fertilizers, nutrient deficiencies, pesticides
and abiotic soil problems. In many cases, the cause of the symptom is not obvious. Close examination, and
laboratory culture and analysis are required for proper diagnosis of the causal agent of disease. Generally fungal
diseases cause the obvious symptoms with irregular growth, pattern & colour (except viruses), however abiotic
problems cause regular, uniform symptoms. Pathogen presence (signs) on the symptoms can also be observed
like fungal growth, bacterial ooze etc. Specific and characteristic symptoms of the important plant diseases are
given in description of diseases section.
Root sampling: Always check plants that appear unhealthy. If there are no obvious symptoms on plants, examine
plants randomly and look for lesions or rots on roots and stems. Observe the signs of the causal organism (fungal
growth or ooze). It is often necessary to wash the roots with water to examine them properly. If the roots are well
developed, cut them to examine the roots for internal infections (discolouration & signs). Count the total number
of roots damaged/infested/infected due to rot should be counted and incidence should be recorded.
Leaf sampling: Examine all leaves and/or sheaths of each plant for lesions. Leaf diseases cause most damage
during the seedling and flowering stages of plant growth. Observe for the symptoms and signs on the infected
plant parts. Determine the percent area of leaf infection by counting the number of leaves (leaf area diameter)/
plant infected due to disease and incidence should be recorded.
Flower and bulb sampling: Carefully examine the flower and bulb of plants for symptoms and signs of fungal or
bacterial diseases. The flower and bulb should be split or taken apart and examined for discoloration caused by
fungi and bacteria. Count the number of flowers and bulbs infected due to disease and percent disease incidence
should be recorded.
For weeds:
The goal of weed scouting is to assess the infestation level of known weeds as pests and detect new weeds that
may be at very low levels so that action can be taken to control or prevent them from becoming an economic
concern. In some cases, early detection of a weed can make eradication possible.
Begin scouting as soon as weeds appear in the field and continue until freeze-up. Record stages of growth of all
the weeds and the number of each weed species/square metre.
Frequently, all scouting patterns must be used since weed habitat can be very species specific. Each field usually
requires a pattern for a uniform sample and samples in low areas and field margins or ditches to assess immediate
or future risk from problem weeds left uncontrolled. Detailed counts of the number of weeds per square metre
provide the ideal record of a weed problem. If this is not possible, the following rating system may be useful:
9
Group I - Wild oats, stinkweed, wild buckwheat, lamb’s-quarters, redroot pigweed, hemp-nettle, smartweed, rape,
wild mustard, Russian thistle, tartary buckwheat, cow cockle, shepherd’s-purse, kochia.
Light
1-10 plants/m2
Medium
10-30 plants/m2
Heavy
More than 30 plants/m2
Group II - Chickweed, green foxtail, corn spurry.
Light
1-20 plants/m2
Medium
20-70 plants/m2
Heavy
70 or over plants/m2
Group III - Canada thistle, sow-thistle, dandelion
Light
1-2 plants/m2
Medium
2-10 plants/m2
Heavy
10 or over plants/m2
These definitions can be used to help standardize ratings. With experience, infestations can be visually
estimated. These groupings are based on the competitive characteristics and life cycles of these
weeds.
C. Surveillance through pheromone trap catches for Agrotis, Spodoptera and Helicoverpa:
Pheromone traps for insects viz., A. ipsilon, S. litura and H. armigera @ 4-5/acre have to be installed, if
available. Install the traps for each species separated by a distance of >75 feet in the vicinity of the selected
field. Fix the traps to the supporting pole at a height of one foot above the plant canopy. Change
of lures should be made at 2-3 week interval (regular interval). During each week of surveillance, the
number of moths/trap/week should be counted and entered. The trapped moths should be removed
and destroyed after each recording.
D. Blue pan water/sticky traps
Set up blue pan water/sticky traps 15 cm above the canopy for monitoring thrips @ 4-5 traps/acre. Locally available
empty tins can be painted blue and coated with grease/Vaseline/castor oil on outer surface may also be used.
E. Light traps
Set up light traps @ 1 trap/acre 15 cm above the crop canopy for monitoring and mass trapping insects. Light
traps with exit option for natural enemies of smaller size should be installed and operate around the dusk time (6
pm to 10 pm).
III. ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING FOR PEST MANAGEMENT
Ecological engineering for pest management has recently emerged as a paradigm for considering pest management
approaches that rely on the use of cultural techniques to effect habitat manipulation and to enhance biological
control. The cultural practices are informed by ecological knowledge rather than on high technology approaches
such as synthetic pesticides and genetically engineered crops (Gurr et al. 2004).
Natural enemies may require
1.
2.
3.
Food in the form of pollen and nectar for adult natural enemies.
Shelters such as overwintering sites, moderate microclimate, etc.
Alternate host when primary host are not present.
Ecological engineering for pest management – Above ground:
•
•
Raise the flowering plants / compatible cash crops along the field border by arranging shorter plants
towards main crop and taller plants towards the border to attract natural enemies as well as to avoid
immigrating pest population
Grow flowering plants on the internal bunds inside the field
10
•
•
Not to uproot weed plants those are growing naturally like Tridax procumbens, Ageratum sp, Alternanthera
sp etc. which act as nectar source for natural enemies,
Not to apply broad spectrum chemical pesticides, when the P: D ratio is favourable. The plant compensation
ability should also be considered before applying chemical pesticides.
Ecological engineering for pest management – Below ground:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Crop rotations with leguminous plants which enhance nitrogen content.
Keep soils covered year-round with living vegetation and/or crop residue.
Add organic matter in the form of farm yard manure (FYM), vermicompost, crop residue which enhance
below ground biodiversity.
Reduce tillage intensity so that hibernating natural enemies can be saved.
Apply balanced dose of nutrients using biofertilizers.
Apply mycorrhiza and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR)
Apply Trichoderma spp. and Pseudomonas fluorescens as seed/seedling/planting material, nursery
treatment and soil application (if commercial products are used, check for label claim. However,
biopesticides produced by farmers for own consumption in their fields, registration is not required).
Due to enhancement of biodiversity by the flowering plants, parasitoids and predators (natural enemies)
number also will increase due to availability of nectar, pollen, fruits, insects, etc. The major predators are a wide
variety of spiders, ladybird beetles, long horned grasshoppers, Chrysoperla, earwigs etc.
Good insectary plants belonging to Lamiaceae, Leguminaceae, Umbelliferae, Brassicaceae,
Asteraceae, Graminaceae etc. families
Buckwheat
Spearmint
Sunflower
Castor
French bean
Ryegrass
Alfalfa
Marigold
Chrysanthemum
Mustard
Coriander
Cowpea
The flowering plants suggested under Ecological Engineering for pest management strategy are known as
attractant plants to the natural enemies of the selected pests. The information is based on published research
literature, however, the actual selection of flowering plants could be based on availability, agro-climatic conditions
and soil types.
11
Biodiversity of natural enemies observed in Ecological Engineering field at NIPHM
Biodiversity of natural enemies: Parasitoids
Biodiversity of natural enemies: Predators
Biodiversity of natural enemies: Spiders
12
Flowering plants that attract natural enemies/repel pests
Natural enemies
Attractant/repellent/trap plants
Thrips:
Parasitoid: Ceranisus menes (nymph)
•
Attractant plants: Carrot family, sunflower
family, buckwheat, alfalfa, corn, shrubs, marigold,
spearmint (ladybug beetle, minute pirate bug &
lacewing, syrphid fly, damselfly)
•
Cosmos (praying mantis)
•
French bean (predatory thrips)
•
Sunflower, buckwheat and cowpea (braconid
wasp)
Parasitoid: A braconid wasp (Aphaereta pallipes).
•
Predators: Rove beetle, ground beetle, spiders
etc.
Interplant strips of ryegrass and cover crops,
mulch beds (rove beetle).
•
Amaranth, white clover, mulching etc (ground
beetle).
•
Repellant plants: Basil
•
family, buckwheat, alfalfa, corn, shrubs (minute
pirate bug & lacewing)
•
Nectar rich plants with small flowers i.e. anise,
caraway, dill, parsley, mustard, sunflower,
buckwheat and cowpea (braconid wasp)
•
Repellant plants: Basil
•
family, buckwheat, alfalfa, corn, and shrubs
(minute pirate bug and lacewing)
•
Nectar rich plants with small flowers i.e. anise,
caraway, dill, parsley, mustard, sunflower,
buckwheat and cowpea (braconid wasp)
Predators: Syrphid flies, minute pirate bug/
anthocorid bug (Blaptosthethus sp, Buchananiella
whitei, Orius tantilus), praying mantis, predatory
thrips (Aeolothrips fasciatum), damsel bug, lace
wings, coccinellids (Cheilomenes sexmaculata),
spiders etc.
Maggot:
Gram pod borer:
Parasitoids: Trichogramma chilonis (egg),
Tetrastichus spp. (egg), Telenomus spp. (egg),
Chelonus blackburni (egg-larval), Carcelia spp.
(larval-pupal), Campoletis chlorideae (larval),
Goniophthalmus halli (larval), Bracon spp. (larval)
etc.
Predators: Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi,
coccinellids, King crow, common mynah, wasp,
dragonfly, spider, robber fly, reduviid bug,
praying mantis, fire ants, big eyed bugs (Geocoris
sp), pentatomid bug (Eocanthecona furcellata),
earwigs, ground beetles, rove beetles etc.
Ovomermis albicans, a nematode
Tobacco caterpillar:
Parasitoids: Trichogramma chilonis (egg),
Tetrastichus spp. (egg), Telenomus spp. (egg),
Chelonus blackburni (egg-larval), Carcelia spp.
(larval-pupal), Campoletis chlorideae (larval),
Eriborus argenteopilosus (larval), Microplitis sp
(larval) etc.
Predators: Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi,
coccinellids, King crow, common mynah, wasp,
dragonfly, spider, robber fly, reduviid bug,
praying mantis, fire ants, big eyed bugs (Geocoris
sp), pentatomid bug (Eocanthecona furcellata),
earwigs, ground beetles, rove beetles etc.
Ovomermis albicans, a nematode
13
Mites:
Predators: Anthocorid bugs (Orius spp.), mirid
bugs, syrphid/hover flies, green lacewings
(Mallada basalis and Chrysoperla zastrowi
sillemi), predatory mites (Amblyseius alstoniae, A.
womersleyi, A. fallacies and Phytoseiulus persimilis),
predatory coccinellids (Stethorus punctillum),
staphylinid beetle (Oligota spp.), predatory
cecidomyiid fly (Anthrocnodax occidentalis),
predatory gall midge (Feltiella minuta), spiders
etc.
•
Citrus, avocadoes, bananas, papaya, palms, tea,
cassava, maize, strawberries, vegetables, and cotton,
as well as ornamental plantings, grasslands attract
Stethorus punctillum.
•
Daucus carota (Queen Anne’s lace) attract lady bugs.
•
Crop rotation: Marigold, Chrysanthemum spp.,
Sesbania spp., Crotalaria spp., Gaillardia spp., castor
and Desmodium spp., (parasitic nematodes)
•
Border crops: Strips of ryegrass, cover crops and
mulch beds (rove beetle).
•
Carrot family, coriander, bishop’s weed (spider mite
destroyer)
•
Sunflower family, marigold, buckwheat, spearmint
(ladybird beetle)
•
Carrot family, sunflower family, buckwheat, alfalfa,
corn, shrubs (minute pirate bug)
•
Mustard, radish, sweet clove, dill (aphid midge)
•
French bean (predatory mites)
•
Berseem clover and sub-terranean clovers (big-eyed
bugs)
Beauveria bassiana (entomo pathogen)
A. Resistant/tolerant varieties
Pest
Tolerant/Resistant Variety*
Purple blotch
TNAU hybrid CO2
Thrips
TNAU hybrids CO2, CO3, CO4
*For detailed and updated information nearest KVK, SAU / ICAR Institute may be contacted
IV. CROP STAGE-WISE IPM
Management
Activity
Pre-sowing *
Nutrients
Weeds
•
Before sowing, soil testing should be done to find out the soil
fertility status. Nutrient should be provided as per soil test
recommendations.
•
Add well rotten FYM @ 10 t/acre or vermicompost @ 4 t/acre.
Incorporate FYM at the time of field preparation at 2 to 3 weeks
before transplanting. Vermicompost should be incorporated one
week before transplanting.
•
Deep ploughing during summer.
•
At the time of field preparation, adopt stale seed bed technique or
soil solarization to minimize the weeds menace in field.
14
Soil borne pathogens,
nematodes, and resting
stages of insects
•
The boundary & bunds of the field should be free from weeds.
•
Keep the nursery weeds free by manual weeding.
Cultural control:
•
Deep ploughing of fields during summer to control juveniles and
adults of nematodes, and control the overwintering stages.
•
Soil solarization: Cover the beds with polythene sheet of 45
gauge (0.45 mm) thickness for three weeks before sowing for soil
solarisation which will help in reducing the soil borne pests.
http://www.nhrdf.com/documents/NHRDF-Research-Achievements.pdf
Damping off
Cultural control:.
•
Avoid excessive watering
•
Use raised beds: More than 15 cm height is better for water drainage
•
Biofertilizers: Seed/seedling treatment with Azotobacter and PSB
cultures @ 240 g each/acre seed/ seedling.
•
Apply NPK fertilizers @ 40: 20: 40 Kg/acre. Apply 1/3 of N, entire P
and 60 % K as basal dose at the time of planting.
•
Based on soil test for micronutrient, the deficient micronutrient
should be applied in soil at sowing / transplanting.
•
In high weed infested fields, apply approved herbicides as
mentioned below;
•
Spray oxyflourfen 23.5% EC @ 170-340 ml in 200-300 l of water/
acre on soil as pre-plant application or quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC @
300-400 ml 150-180 l of water/acre 20 days after planting of onion
seedlings followed by one hand weeding if required.
Sowing / planting*
Nutrients
Weeds
* Apply Trichoderma spp. and Pseudomonas fluorescens as seed/seedling/planting material, nursery treatment
and soil application (if commercial products are used, check for label claim. However, biopesticides produced
by farmers for own consumption in their fields, registration is not required).
15
Vegetative stage
Nutrients
Weeds
Onion thrips
•
Apply 1/3 of N at 21days and remaining 1/3 at 45 days after
transplanting.
•
Apply remaining 40 % potash as top dressing in standing crop at 21
days after transplanting.
•
Micronutrient application may be made after soil test.
•
The crop should be maintained weed free initially for 30-45 days by
following timely intercultural and hand weeding if required.
Cultural control:
•
Use resistant/tolerant varieties.
•
Practice field sanitation.
•
Avoid successive planting of garlic or other preferred/alternate host
such as cabbage, cotton, tomato, cucumber, melons, pumpkins,
strawberries etc.
•
Plant the new crop in upwind direction of already planted crop
which help in escaping infestation from old planting to some extent
in the initial stages.
•
Adjust the transplanting dates
•
Use of reflective plastic silver colour and aluminium painted black
mulches repel the thrips (seed crop)
•
Use of sprinkler irrigation reduces thrips population considerably
compared to drip and surface irrigation
•
Plant two rows of maize or inner row of wheat and outer row
of maize surrounding the onion plots as barrier crop (National
Horticultural Mission 2012)
Biological control:
•
Conserve parasitoids such as Ceranisus menes (nymph) etc.
•
Conserve predators such as syrphid flies, minute pirate bug/
anthocorid bug (Blaptosthethus sp, Buchananiella whitei, Orius
tantilus), praying mantis, predatory thrips (Aeolothrips fasciatum),
damselbug, lacewings, coccinellids (Cheilomenes sexmaculata),
spiders etc.
Chemical control:
Onion maggot
•
Spray dimethoate 30% EC @ 264 ml in 200-400 l of water/acre or
oxydemeton methyl 25% EC @ 480 ml in 200-400 l of water/acre or
quinalphos 25% EC @ 480 ml in 200-400 l of water/acre or lambda
cyhalothrin 5% EC @ 120 ml in 120-160 l of water/acre.
•
Use high pressure and volume for good coverage of the crop and
direct the nozzle at base of leaves
•
Add a spreader or sticker (0.05-1.0%) for retention and spread of
spray fluid on erect leaves of onion.
•
In seed crop, thrips should be controlled well before flowers open.
Cultural control:
•
Avoid close spacing while planting.
16
•
Follow crop rotation.
•
Field sanitation.
Biological control:
•
Bulb mite
Conserve predators such as ground beetle, rove beetles, spiders etc.
by providing grassy refuge strips.
Cultural control:
•
Avoid planting onion after cole crops, as decaying cole crops,
especially cauliflower, may harbour very high bulb mite populations
in the field.
•
Avoid planting successive onion or garlic crops.
•
Flood irrigation reduces mite levels in the soil.
Biological control:
•
Eriophyid mite
Conserve predators such as anthocorid bugs (Orius spp.), mirid
bugs, syrphid/hover flies, green lacewings (Mallada basalis and
Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi), predatory mites (Amblyseius alstoniae,
A. womersleyi, A. fallacies and Phytoseiulus persimilis), predatory
coccinellids (Stethorus punctillum), staphylinid beetle (Oligota spp.),
predatory cecidomyiid fly (Anthrocnodax occidentalis), predatory
gall midge (Feltiella minuta), spiders etc.
Cultural control:
•
Flood irrigation reduces mite level in the soil.
•
Avoid planting successive onion or garlic crops.
Biological control:
•
Red spider mite
Conserve predators such as anthocorid bugs (Orius spp.), mirid
bugs, syrphid/hover flies, green lacewings (Mallada basalis and
Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi), predatory mites (Amblyseius alstoniae,
A. womersleyi, A. fallacies and Phytoseiulus persimilis), predatory
coccinellids (Stethorus punctillum), staphylinid beetle (Oligota spp.),
predatory cecidomyiid fly (Anthrocnodax occidentalis), predatory
gall midge (Feltiella minuta), spiders etc.
Cultural control:
•
A thorough water spray washes off the mites from the plant.
Biological control:
•
Gram pod borer,
Tobacco caterpillar**
Conserve and augment the natural enemies. Conserve predators
such as anthocorid bugs (Orius spp.), mirid bugs, syrphid/hover flies,
green lacewings (Mallada basalis and Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi),
predatory mites (Amblyseius alstoniae, A. womersleyi, A. fallacies and
Phytoseiulus persimilis), predatory coccinellids (Stethorus punctillum),
staphylinid beetle (Oligota spp.), predatory cecidomyiid fly
(Anthrocnodax occidentalis), predatory gall midge (Feltiella minuta),
spiders etc.
Cultural control:
•
Field sanitation
•
Adopt ecological engineering of onion/garlic with growing
intercrops such as cowpea, maize, coriander, urdbean etc. and with
growing sorghum or maize in 4 rows all around onion/garlic crop as
guard crop.
17
•
Rotate the onion crop with a non-host cereal crop, cucurbit, or
cruciferous vegetable.
•
Adopt ecological engineering of garlic with repellant plants:
Ocimum/Basil and marigold as ovipositional trap crop.
•
Erecting of bird perches @ 20/acre for encouraging predatory birds
such as king crow, mynah etc.
•
Install pheromone traps @ 4-5/acre for monitoring adult moth
activity. Replace the lures after every 2-3 weeks
•
Setting up of light trap @ 1/acre
Biological control:
Damping off
Purple blotch
•
Inundatively release Tricogramma spp. T. pretiosum @ 40,000/acre
4-5 times from flower initiation stage at weekly intervals.
•
Conserve parasitoids such as Tetrastichus spp. (egg), Telenomus spp.
(egg), Campoletis chlorideae (larval) etc.
•
Conserve predators such as Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi, coccinellids,
King crow, common mynah, wasp, dragonfly, spider, robber fly,
reduviid bug, praying mantis, fire ants, big eyed bugs (Geocoris sp),
pentatomid bug (Eocanthecona furcellata), earwigs, ground beetles,
rove beetles etc.
•
Apply entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) @ 20-120 crore
infective juveniles of Steinernema feltiae/acre.
Cultural control:
•
Soil solarization of nursery beds with transparent polythylene sheet
for 30 days before sowing provides good control.
•
Continuous raising of nursery in the same plot should be avoided.
•
Avoid excessive soil moisture.
•
Follow crop rotation.
•
Maintain proper drainage by leveling the land, and installing drains.
•
Sow clean and healthy seed on raised beds.
•
Overcrowding of plants or dense sowing of onion seeds should be
avoided.
•
Well decomposed farmyard manure should be used in nursery.
Cultural control:
•
Use healthy seeds for planting
•
Follow crop rotation 2-3 years with non-host crops
•
Follow proper drainage at regular intervals
•
Use the recommended doses of N and P fertilizers.
•
Hot water soaking of onion seed (50 °C for 20 minutes).
•
Use resistant varieties.
Chemical control:
•
Spray difenaconazole 25% EC @ 40 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
kitazin 48% EC @ 80 ml in 80 l of water (or as required depending
upon crop stage and plant protection equipment used)/acre
18
Stemphylium leaf blight
Cultural control:
•
Field sanitation: Collect and burn crop residues
•
Follow long rotations with non-host crops.
•
Follow proper field drainage and reduce plant density.
•
Hot water soaking of onion seed (50 °C for 20 minutes).
•
Plant resistant varietieis such as Welsh onion (Allium fistulosum)
lines, which are moderately resistant to stemphylium leaf blight.
Chemical control:
•
Colletotrichum blight/
anthracnose/twister disease
Downy mildew**
Spray mancozeb 75% WP @ 600-800 g in 300 l of water/acre or zineb
75% WP @ 600-800 g in 300-400 l of water/acre or spray zineb 75%
WP @ 600-800 g in 300-400 l of water/acre
Cultural control:
•
Field sanitation: Destruction of infected plant debris.
•
Use of resistant varieties
Cultural control:
•
Select healthy bulbs for seed production.
•
Follow crop rotation for 3-4 years with non-host crop.
•
Crop sanitation: Dispose properly the infected crop debris and
refuse heaps of onion culled from storage.
•
Avoid late planting, poor drainage, higher doses of fertilizers and
frequent irrigation.
•
•
Onion bulbs meant for seed crop should be exposed to sun for 12
days to destroy the fungus.
Chemical control:
•
Fusarium basal rot/basal
plate rot**
Cultural control:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
White rot**
Spray zineb 75% WP @ 600-800 g in 300-400 l of water/acre
Follow crop rotation for 4-5 years with non-host crop.
Mixed cropping with tobacco and sorghum is effective in reducing
pathogen inoculum and the disease.
Soil solarization by using polythene sheet of 25 guage in summer
season for 30 days reduces the pathogen inoculum and in turn
reduces the disease.
Follow proper drainage practices.
Deep summer ploughing.
Avoid injury during cultural practices.
Flood the soil in the non-growing season for basal rot control.
Cultural control:
•
Use of disease free areas.
•
Follow crop rotation with cereal crops.
•
Hot water treatment of bulbs at 49 °C.
•
Solarization of soil at high temperature i. e. 35 °C for 18 hours or 45
°C for 6 hours reduces the disease incidence by 50-70%.
19
Pink root rot**
Black mold/green mold**
Cultural control:
•
Follow crop rotation with cereal and green manure crops.
•
Soil solarization by using polythene sheet of 25 guage in summer
season for 30 days reduces the pathogen inoculum and in turn
reduces the disease.
•
Use resistant varieties such as Welsh onion (Allium fistulosum) lines,
which are resistant to pink root.
•
Soil solarization reduces pink root incidence.
•
Late planting reduces disease incidence.
•
Follow long rotations with non-host crop.
Cultural control:
•
Leave onions for drying in the field for two days after harvesting.
These bulbs should be further dried in shade for 10-15 days before
storage.
•
Store seed and bulb after proper drying.
•
Maintain proper aeration in the storage
•
Avoid bruising of onion bulbs during harvest, storage or transport.
•
Store onion at 1-15 °C.
Bacterial rots (brown rot/soft
rot/slippery skin)**
Cultural control:
•
Grow the crop under optimum condition of tilth, fertilizer, drainage,
crop rotation and free from weeds.
•
Follow proper curing and rapid drying of the bulbs after harvesting.
•
Affected bulbs should be discarded before storage
•
Dry the crop quickly after harvest
•
During rainy season, artificial curing is required.
Onion yellow dwarf disease
Cultural control:
•
Manage the vector population.
•
Plant virus free transplants.
•
Follow crop rotation of at least three years.
•
Remove and destroy the diseased plants to check the spread of
disease.
•
Rogueing of diseased plants and isolation from other susceptible
crops or volunteer onions
•
Use blue sticky trap.
Biological control:
•
Conserve the predators such as coccinellids, lacewings, spiders,
wasps etc. for controlling thrips.
Iris yellow spot disease
Cultural control:
•
Plant healthy seedlings free from thrips and Iris yellow spot virus.
•
Follow three year or longer rotation between onion crops.
•
Eliminate alternate host plants, culls, and weeds in and around
onion field.
•
Use sprinkler irrigation for suppression of thrips and disease.
•
Avoid thin, patchy plant stands and crop stress.
20
Biological control:
•
As in onion yellow dwarf disease.
Reproductive stage
Nutrients
Cultural control:
•
Weeds
Apply third dose (second top dressing) of N i.e. 13.33 Kg N/acre at 60
days after transplanting.
Cultural control:
•
Insects and diseases
Left over weeds before shedding of seeds should be removed to
avoid further spread.
Cultural control:
•
Remove damaged leaves/shoot
•
Follow crop rotation with cereal and green manuring crops
•
Other practices same as in vegetative stage
•
Insect and disease management same as in vegetative stage
Note : The pesticide dosages and spray fluid volumes are based on high volume sprayer.
** Pests of regional significance
V. INSECTICIDE RESISTANCE AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Insecticide resistance: Resistance to insecticides may be defined as ‘a heritable change in the sensitivity of a pest
population that is reflected in the repeated failure of a product to achieve the expected level of control when used
according to the label recommendation for that pest species’ (IRAC). Cross-resistance occurs when resistance to
one insecticide confers resistance to another insecticide, even where the insect has not been exposed to the latter
product.
Causes of resistance development: The causes and rate at which insecticide resistance develops depend on
several factors, including the initial frequency of resistance alleles present in the population, how rapidly the
insects reproduce, the insects’ level of resistance, the migration and host range of the insects, the insecticide’s
persistence and specificity, and the rate, timing and number of applications of insecticide made. For instance,
insect pests that survive in large populations and breed quickly are at greater advantage of evolving insecticide,
especially when insecticides are misused or over-used.
General strategy for insecticide resistance management: The best strategy to avoid insecticide resistance is
prevention and including insecticide resistance management tactics as part of a larger integrated pest management
(IPM) approach.
1) Monitor pests: Monitor insect population development in fields to determine if and when control measures
are warranted. Monitor and consider natural enemies when making control decisions. After treatment, continue
monitoring to assess pest populations and their control.
2) Focus on AESA: Insecticides should be used only as a last resort when all other non-chemical management
options are exhausted and P: D ratio is above 2: 1. Apply biopesticides/chemical insecticides judiciously after
observing unfavourable P: D ratio and when the pests are in most vulnerable life stage. Use application rates and
intervals as per label claim.
3) Ecological engineering for pest management: Flowering plants that attract natural enemies as well as plants
that repel pests can be grown as border/intercrop.
4) Take an integrated approach to managing pests: Use as many different control measures as possible viz.,
21
cultural, mechanical, physical, biological etc. Select insecticides with care and consider the impact on future pest
populations and the environment. Avoid broad-spectrum insecticides when a narrow-spectrum or more specific
insecticide will work. More preference should be given to green labeled insecticides.
5) Mix and apply carefully: While applying insecticides care should be taken for proper application of insecticides
in terms of dose, volume, timing, coverage, application techniques as per label claim.
6) Alternate different insecticide classes: Avoid the repeated use of the same insecticide, insecticides in the
same chemical class, or insecticides in different classes with same mode of action and rotate/alternate insecticide
classes and modes of action.
7) Preserve susceptible genes: Preserve susceptible individuals within the target population by providing
unsprayed areas within treated fields, adjacent “refuge” fields, or habitat attractions within a treated field that
facilitate immigration. These susceptible individuals may outcompete and interbreed with resistant individuals,
diluting the resistant genes and therefore the impact of resistance.
VI. NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES
Nitrogen: Leaves become yellowish green erect and upright curled, wilted and dwarf.
At maturity tissue above bulbs become soft.
Correction measure: Foliar spray of Urea 1% or DAP 2% twice at weekly intervals.
Phosphorus: Slow growth, maturity blazed. Leaf colour becomes light green and
bulbs have few dried outer peals. Tip burn in older leaves.
Correction measure: Soil application of recommended dose of phosphorous should
be applied at the time of sowing or planting. Foliar spray of DAP 2% twice at fortnightly
intervals.
Potassium: Since potassium is very mobile within the plant, symptoms only develop
on young leaves in the case of extreme deficiency. Tip burn symptoms, leaves become
dark green and erect. Bolting promoted. Older leaves become yellow and necrotic.
Correction measure: Foliar application of K2SO4 @1% twice at weekly interval.
Sulfur: The leaves show a general overall chlorosis. The yellowing is much more
uniform over the entire plant including young leaves.
Correction measure: Foliar spray of K2SO4 or CaSO4 @ 1% twice at fortnightly
interval.
Manganese: Leaves show tip burn, light coloured and curling. Growth restricted.
Bulbing delayed with thick necks.
Correction measure: Foliar spray of MnSO4 @ 0.3% twice at fortnightly interval.
Zinc: Growth restricted. The leaves show interveinal necrosis. In the early stages of zinc
deficiency the younger leaves become yellow and pitting develops in the interveinal
upper surfaces of the mature leaves. As the deficiency progress these symptoms
develop into an intense interveinal necrosis but the main veins remain green.
Correction measure: Foliar spray of ZnSO4 @ 0.5% twice at for nightly interval.
Iron: Complete yellowing of young leaves. The most common symptom for iron
deficiency starts out as an interveinal chlorosis of the youngest leaves, evolves into an
overall chlorosis, and ends as a totally bleached leaf. Because iron has a low mobility,
iron deficiency symptoms appear first on the youngest leaves. Iron deficiency is
strongly associated with calcareous soils, anaerobic conditions, and it is often induced
by an excess of heavy metals.
22
Correction measure: Foliar spray of FeSO4 @ 0.5%.
Source: Epstein and Bloom (2004). Plant Nutrition, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.
http://5e.plantphys.net/images/ch05/wt0501d_s.jpg, http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/agriculture/agri_min_fldcrops_vegetables.
html, http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/agriculture/Plant%20Nutrition-Resized/images/Onion.jpg
Physiological and nutritional disorders
Sprouting of bulbs in the field is noticed sometimes towards the start of maturity stage of bulbs particularly when
there are winter rains or excessive soil moisture and nitrogen supply. This disorder is, however, not of permanent
nature and varies from variety-to-variety. Early-planting also causes sprouting. Splitting is also noticed sometimes
in some varieties, which is due to delayed harvesting or irrigation after long spell of drought. For past few years
rubberification problem is noticed in Rajkot area and also Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu. It is increasing day-byday. The effects of insecticides, fungicides, micronutrients and growth regulator were studied. It was observed
that rubberification was totally controlled by application of micronutrients i.e. zinc sulphate and ammonium
molybdate. It was also controlled by neem cake insecticides and growth regulator like gibberellic acid. The aerial
bulbil formation is also quite common in onion where lower temperature prevails for more period or there are
more temperature variation. It, however, does not affect much on yield or quality of bulbs and varietal variation
is noticed. The rubberification and premature sprouting of bulbs are main physiological disorders in onion. The
reasons for these disorders are summarized below for hill grown onion.
Rubberification and premature sprouting of bulbs are noticed mostly in fields which are located in low-lying areas
of watershed where there is heavy deposition of nutrients along with silt during heavy rains. These problems are
severe in onion fields which are more frequently irrigated than the normal requirements of onion bulbs. With the
application of higher levels of nitrogen, there is an increased level of pre-mature sprouting of bulbs which results
in splitting and rubberification of bulbs. Rubberification incidence also increases when higher level of nitrogen
is applied in the form of urea. Due to increased levels of nitrogen, in addition to the increased production of
rubberized, there is an increased level of thrips incidence in leaves during the later stage of crop. The thrips lacerate
leaves and cause severe damage to the crop. Through lacerated wounds by thrips, there is a severe incidence of
blast disease, caused by Boltrytis allii, when crops is 70-90 days old, which further deteriorates the quality of onion
bulbs. Short duration type of onion is more susceptible than long duration type. Premature sprouting of bulbs
is more in the crop (April-August) when there is high moisture level in soil at maturity of crop due to heavy rains.
Delayed harvest during rainy season has increased premature sprouting and splitting of bulbs. Wider spacing of
cloves at the time of planting increases uptake of nitrogen and water by the individual plants which increases
premature sprouting and rubbenfication of onion bulbs.
http://www.nhrdf.com/htmlfiles/Garlic/gar_plant.htm
23
VII. DESCRIPTION OF COMMON WEEDS
Major kharif
1) Pigweed: Amaranthus viridis Hook. F. (Amaranthaceae)
It is an erect 6 to 100 cm tall annual herb with especially upwards glabrous to
pubescent stem. Leaves are also glabrous or pubescent on the veins of the lower
surface; petioles long (up to 10 cm), occasionally longer than the blade; blade ovate to
rhombic-oblong, base tapered to blunt, tip rounded. Flowers green, unisexual, male
and female intermixed, in slender axillary to terminal paniculate spikes 2-12 cm long
and 2-5 mm wide, or in dense axillary clusters in the lower part of the stem. Fruits are
capsule almost round shaped 1.25-1.75 mm long with rough surface. Seeds 1-1.25
mm, round, slightly compressed, dark brown to black with a paler thick border.
2) Swine cress: Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. (Brassicaceae)
An annual herb with , horizontal or ascending stem, multiple from the base, radiating
from a central point; glabrous, green. Leaves are alternate, petiolate, pinnate, 4-5 cm
long, 2 cm broad, glabrous. Divisions of the leaves opposite, lobed or devided, linearelliptic to linear oblong. Inflorescence is a small raceme, up to 4 cm long, opposite to
one of the stem leaves, compact. Flowers minute, greenish. Fruits are glabrous, 3-4
mm broad, 2 mm long, slightly compressed, sub-globose, 2-seeded.
3) Black nightshade: Solanum nigrum L. (Solanaceae)
A variable annual herb upto 1 m tall with an erect, glabrous or sparsely pubescent
stem and staggered branching pattern. Leaves are 2.5-9 cm long and 2-5 cm wide,
ovate, glabrous, thin, margins toothed, tapering into the petiole, apex subacute.
Flowers small, white, borne in drooping, umbellate 3-8 flowered cymes. Fruits berries
globose, 5-8 mm in diameter, red, yellow or purplish-black. when ripened, fruits having
numerous, disc-shaped, 1.5 mm in diameter, yellow, minutely pitted seeds.
4) Common purselane: Portulaca oleracea L. (Portulacaceae)
An annual glabrous herb with prostrate and succulent stem. Leaves spatulate, flattened,
apex round nearly truncate. Flowers 3-10 mm diameter and yellow. Fruits capsules
ovoid, 4-9 mm diameter. Seeds black or dark brown, orbiculate or elongate, flattened,
0.6-1.1 mm; surface cells sooth, granular, or stellate, with rounded tubercles.
5) False amaranth: Digera arvensis Forssk. (Amaranthaceae)
An annual herb, 30-60 cm height with spreading branches. Leaves variable, 2-7.5 cm
long and 1.3-4.5 cm wide, ovate or elliptic, acute or rounded at the apex, sometimes
with reddish margins, glabrous. Flowers pink, borne in threes axillary, pedunculate
spikes, 2.5-12.5 cm long. Fruits globose, approximately 0.3 cm in diameter having
yellowish-brown.
Grassy
6) Rabbit/crow foot grass: Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd
(Poaceae)
Annual, very variable, grass, 10-44 cm height. Stem erect or creeping culms, rooting
from the profusely branched nodes. Leaves are linear, tapering to a fine point, 2-10 cm
long and 0.2-0.4 cm wide, flat, glaucous, glabrous or hispid; leaf sheaths striate, the
24
lower whitish; ligules membranous, very short. Inflorescence comprised of 2-6 digitate
spikes, 0.5-4 cm long, olive-grey; spikelets 2-5 flowered, spreading at right angles,
pendulous, strongly striate. Grain 0.5-1 mm long, subglobose, reddish, very rugose.
7) Crab grass: Digiteria sanguinalis (L.) Scop (Poaceae)
A prostrate or ascending annual grass with spreading, branched stem having rooting
at nodes. Leaves are 3-20 cm long, 3-10 mm wide, with hairs on both the surfaces.
Stem sheaths hairy and closed. Leaves and sheaths may turn dark red or maroon
with age. Seed head composed of 4-6 branches (spikes) at the top of the stems, each
approximately 3-15 cm long. Fruit caryopsis shiny, yellowish-brown, 2-3 mm long.
8) Barnyard grass: Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. (Poaceae)
Robust, tufted annual grass, erect or at the base decumbent and rooting at the nodes,
20-150 cm tall. Culms cylindrical, glabrous, filled with white spongy pith. Leaf sheaths
glabrous and 9-13 cm long. Leaf blades merging into the sheath, linear, with a broad,
rounded base and acute top; rough margined, glabrous or at the base with a few long
hairs, smooth or the upper surface minutely bristly. Inflorescence is an apical panicle
of 5-40 spikes like racemes. Fruit are caryopsis ovoid to obovoid, compressed, 1.5-2
mm long.
Sedge
9) Purple nutsedge: Cyperus rotundus L. (Cyperaceae)
A perennial sedge, hard, fragrant, globose-ovoid tubers, up to 1.2 cm long and 0.30.7 cm in diameter; culms solitary or few together, sparsely tufted, erect, 10-75 cm
tall, 3-angled at top. Leaves narrowly linear, sometimes longer than stem, 0.4-0.8 cm
wide, dark green above, pale beneath. Inflorescence is a simple or compound umbel,
rays 2-8, each up to 7.5 cm long, bearing short spikes of 3-10 spreading, red-brown
spikelets. Nuts oblong to ovate-oblong, 3-sided, 1.3-1.5 mm long and 0.5-0.7 mm
wide, maturing brown.
10) Flat sedge: Cyperus iria L. (Cyperaceae)
Annual sedge, sometimes behaving as a perennial with 8 to 60 cm height. The culms
are tufted, triangular, smooth, green and 0.6-3.0 mm thick. The roots are numerous,
short and yellowish-red. Leaves are linear-lanceolate, usually all shorter than the culm,
1-8 mm wide, flat, and rough on the margin and major ribs; leaf sheaths are green
to reddish-brown, membraneous and envelope the culm at the base. Inflorescence
is simple or compound, usually open, 1-20 cm long and 1-20 cm wide, with groups
of spikes which are either attached directly to stem or on 0.5-15.0 cm long peduncles
(rays). Spikelets are erect-spreading, crowded, 6-24-flowered, 2-13 mm long, 1.52.0 mm wide, golden to yellowish green. Nutlet, 1.0-1.5 mm long, 0.6-0.7 mm wide,
obovate, triangular in cross section, dark-brown to almost black; the surface is almost
smooth.
Major rabi
Broad leaf
11) Lambs quarter: Chenopodium album L. (Chenopodiaceae)
It is an annual weed found in agricultural fields. It is a polymorphous, non-aromatic,
erect herb, 0.3-3 m tall with angled stems that are often striped green, red or purple.
25
Leaves are variable in size and shape, lower leaves are toothed or irregularly lobes,
10-15 cm long, with petioles often as long as leaf blades. Flowers are green, borne
in clusters forming a compact or loosely panicled axillary spike. Fruits utricle, seeds
round, compressed, black and shining.
12) Scarlet pimpernel: Anagallis arvensis L. (Primulaceae)
A low-growing annual, up to 30 cm tall with branched or erect herbaceous, 4-angled,
glabrous to pubescent stem. Sometimes rooting observed at the nodes. Leaves are
opposite, entire, sessile, ovate variously pubescent, margins somewhat tuberculate.
Flowers are bright blue, solitary arising from the area between the stem and leaves
(leaf axils) and occur on relatively long stalks (pedicels). Fruits capsule, globose,
seeds1.3 mm long, trigonous, brown.
13) Sweet clover: Melilotus indica (L.) All. (Fabaceae)
It is a sweet-smelling erect herb, up to 10-60 cm height with hairless, spreading or
erect stem. Leaves odd-1-pinnate; leaflets 1-2.5 cm, inverted, lance-shaped to wedgeshaped, generally sharply toothed on the broader part. Flowers yellow; appear in
slender, compact racemes that are 1-2 inches in length. Plant bear papery, small, round,
2-3 mm long, yellow or grey, reticulately wrinkled and slightly hairy pods. Seeds 2 mm
long; 1.5 mm wide; broadly oval, one side plane, the other side rounded; yellowish
green; roughened by minute tubercles.
14) Fine leaf fumitory: Fumaria parviflora Lam. (Fumariaceae)
Annual herb, up to 60 cm tall. Stem Slender, much branched and succulent. Leaves 2-3
pinnatisect, 2-5 cm long, segments linear oblanceolate, apiculate. Flowers Purplishred, spurred, in terminal or leaf opposed bracteate racemes. Fruits are rounded nuts,
2-3 mm in diameter, wrinkled when dry.
15) Corn spurry: Spergula arvensis L. (Caryophyllaceae)
A diffuse annual herb. Stem branched from the root, grooved. Leaves are in pseudo
whorls, fleshy, linear-subulate, spreading. Flowers small, white. Fruits capsule rounded,
five valved. Seeds are circular, thick lens shaped in cross section; margins winged with
one small notch. Seeds are greyish black to black with margins usually light brown.
16) Carrot grass: Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Asteraceae)
It is one of the worlds’ worst weeds mostly found in uncultivated lands but now a - days
it can be seen invading cropped fields. It is a short-lived annual herb with an extensive
root system and erect shoot upto 2 m height. Upper half of the main stem becomes
highly-branched at flowering with strips due to longitudinal grooves or ribs and they
become woody with age. Leaves are pale green, deeply lobed and covered with fine
soft hairs. Flowers are creamy-white occurring at the tips of the stems. Clusters of
male and female florets are grouped as five-lobed flowers on the terminal branches
of the flower stem and measure 4–6 mm in diameter. Seeds are achene small (1–2
mm), flattened, triangular and dark brown–black with two thin, white, spoon-shaped
appendages.
26
Grassy
17) Blue grass: Poa annua L. (Poaceae)
Annual cool-season grass grows 6 to 8 inches height when left unmowed. It has
light green flattened stems that are bent at the base and often rooted at the lower
stem joint. Leaf blades are often crinkled part way down and vary from 1 to 3 inches
long with typical Poa boat-shaped leaf tips- a key characteristic of annual bluegrass.
Inflorescence is branched with three to eight flattened florets in each spikelet.
18) Canary grass: Phalaris minor Retz. (Poaceae)
A tufted annual bunchgrass, up to 1.8 meters in height. Stem is erect or horizontal
with long, linear leaves. Ligule is an oblong hyaline membrane, about 2-5 mm long,
often truncate and/or fringed; auricles absent, sheath smooth. Panicle more or less
protruding or entirely protruding from the uppermost swollen leaf sheath, ovate to
oblong, 5-8 cm long, green. Spikelets green, broadly lanceolate on short pedicels,
shining, 4 -6 mm long, strongly laterally compressed.
19) Chinese lovegrass: Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees. Ex Steud.
(Poaceae)
It is an erect annual grass with solitary or tufted stem. It is found in cultivated fields.
Leaves are opposite, elliptic or obovate, form an acute or obtuse base, acuminate
or rounded at apex. Inflorescence is an oblong panicle, 10 cm long, spikelets two
flowered, ovate-oblong, extremely compressed, purplish-red when mature. 4-7 mm
long, the florets closely imbricate. Seeds are caryopsis and compressed 0.8 mm long.
20) Goose grass: Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertner (Poaceae)
It is an annual grass with Erect, slender, flattened stem, radiating outwards from a
central distinctive white center. Leaves are 2-14 inches long, 3-8 mm wide, without
hairs or only sparsely hairy, and folded along the midvein. The ligule is 1-2 mm long,
fringed, uneven, and membranous. Leaf sheaths are flattened, whitish at the base, and
sparsely hairy in the collar region. Flowers or seed heads are composed of 2-13 spikes
each 1.5 to 6 inches long, 3-7 mm wide, in clusters at the top of stems. Two rows of
flattened spikelets occur along each spike. Seeds are light brown to black and 1-2 mm
long.
https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn ANd9GcSG4MuoFs9OR2DVI1kYn4zGBww30cuTCuflmyN7cq49wTYFIFJTjg
27
VIII. DESCRIPTION OF INSECT AND MITE PESTS
1) Onion thrips:
Biology:
Egg: White to yellow, kidney-bean shaped, microscopic in size. Develop within leaf tissue with one end near the
leaf surface. Egg stage is 5-10 days.
Larva: Instars I and II are active, feeding stages. White to pale yellow, elongate and slender body. Resemble adult,
but without wings. Antennae are short and eyes are dark in color. Feed on new leaves in the center of the onion
neck. Crawl quickly when disturbed. Larval stage is 10-14 days.
Pre-pupa and pupa: Instars III and IV are inactive, non-feeding stages called pre-pupa and pupa. Pale yellow to
brown; body more stout than younger instars. Antennae are bent to head; wing buds are visible. Found in the soil,
at the base of the onion plant neck, or underneath bulb scales. Lasts 5-10 days.
Adult: About 1.5 mm long; elongate, yellow and brown body with two pairs of fringed (hairy) wings. Mouthparts
are beak-like and antennae are 7-segmented. Spend the winter in protected sites under plants and debris in
onion, alfalfa and small grain fields, and other plant habitats. In the spring when temperatures warm, adults fly to
new onion fields. Parthenogenic (asexually reproducing) females; males are extremely rare. Feed on young leaves
in center of onion neck and insert eggs individually into leaves. Fly readily when disturbed. Adult life span is about
1 month; pre-oviposition period (time before egg-laying begins) is 1 week and females will lay eggs for about 3
weeks.
Damage symptoms :
Life cycle:
•
Both adult and larval thrips feed within the
mesophyll layer using a punch-and suck motion.
•
The beak and mandible is thrust forward to
puncture the leaf epidermis and sap released from
injured plant cells is sucked up.
•
Removal of chlorophyll causes the feeding area to
appear white to silvery in color.
•
Areas of leaf injury can occur as patches and
streaks.
•
When feeding injury is severe, leaves take on a
silvery cast and can wither.
•
Tiny black “tar” spots of thrips excrement are
evident on leaves with heavy feeding injury.
1,2,4. http://extension.usu.edu/files/publications/factsheet/ENT-117-08PR.pdf
Thrips on onion
Parasitoid of onion thrips:
Nymphal parasitoid:
Ceranisus menes
Onion crop affected by thrips
http://biocontrol.ucr.edu/hoddle/
avocadothrips.html
28
1. Syrphid fly
Predators of onion thrips:
2. Minute pirate bug 3. Praying mantis
4. Predatory thrips
6. Lacewing
7. Coccinellid
5. Damselbug
1. http://freepages.misc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~larsonmorgan/flies/
flies.html
2. http://plantdiagnostics.umd.edu/level3.cfm?causeID=246
3. http://www.kimthompsonartist.com/SingleImages/PrayingMantis.
html
4. http://bugguide.net/node/view/205042/bgpage
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabidae
6. http://www.redorbit.com/education/reference_library/animal_
kingdom/ insecta/2576160/neuroptera_lacewing/
7. http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/images/Predators_gallery/
pages/06coccinellid8584_jpg.htm
8. http://wakpaper.com/id154616/butterfly-insects-dangerous-spiderswallpaper-desktop-1600x1200-1600x1200-pixel.html
8. Spider
*For management refer to page number 16
2) Onion maggot:
Biology:
Egg: The onion fly deposits white elongated eggs. About 1/25 inch (I.25mm) in length on the soil near the stem
and occasionally on the young leaves and neck of the onion plant. Eggs hatch into maggots 2-3 days after being
laid.
Maggot: The legless maggots are tapered, creamy-white in color, and reach a length of about 1/3 inch (8mm).
Maggots develop through three larval stages in 2 to 4 weeks depending on the temperature. Most newly
hatched larvae crawl below the soil surface and feed upon the roots or burrow into the basal plate of the bulbs.
Some maggot larvae may enter into the sides of bulbs rather than through the basal plate, after undercutting
has occurred. Any injury site on the bulb facilitates the maggot’s entry.
Pupa: When full-sized, the maggot leaves the bulb and enters the soil to pupate at a depth of 1-4 inches (5-10
cm). The pupa is chestnut brown and 1/3 inch (7mm) long. First and second generation pupae remain in the
soil for 2-4 weeks before adult emergence. Larvae of the third (fall) generation develop into pupae and pass the
winter in that stage. Flies emerging the following spring constitute the spring flight.
Adult: Onion flies are slightly smaller than houseflies. They have longer legs, are more slender, and overlap their
wings when at rest.
Life cycle:
Damage symptoms:
•
Only the larva causes damage by using its hooked
mouth parts to enter the base of the plant.
•
Damaged seedlings first wilt, eventually become
flaccid, and die.
•
Frequently, attacked seedlings die before the
maggots are fully grown, forcing them to move to
adjacent plants.
•
Second generation maggot feeding on developing
bulbs usually results in distorted growth
accompanied by rotting tissue.
•
Feeding by third generation maggots on late
season onion bulbs results in an unmarketable
product.
1. http://m.animal.memozee.com/m.view.php?q=%EB%8B%B4%EB%B0%B0%EA% B0%80
%EB%A3%A8%EC%9D%B4&p=3
2. http://www.forestryimages.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=2511050
3. http://www.fera.defra.gov.uk/plants/publications/documents/factsheets/
bemisia.pdf
4. http://www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/inter/inmine/Whitefg.html
29
Predators of onion maggot:
1. Ground beetle
2. Rove beetle
1. http://organicemily.com/?p=313
2. http://www.ozanimals.com/Insect/Rove-Beetle/Staphylinidae%20family/.html
*For management refer to page number 16-17
3) Red spider mite:
Biology:
The carmine spider mite normally completes a life cycle from egg to adult in about a week. All stages of this mite
are present throughput the year. Reproduction is most favorable when the weather is hot and dry.
Egg: Eggs are spherical, shiny, straw colored, and hatch in 3 days. They are only about 1/254 inch in diameter. They
are laid singly on the underside of the leaf surface or attached to the silken webs spun by the adults.
Larva: Larvae are slightly larger than the egg, pinkish, and have three pairs of legs. This stage lasts a short time,
perhaps a day.
Nymph: There are two nymphal stages, the protonymph and deutonymph. The nymphal stage differs from the
larval stage by being slightly larger, reddish or greenish, and having 4 pairs of legs. This nymphal stage lasts about
4 days.
Adult: Adult females are about 1/50 inch long, reddish, and more or less elliptical. The males are slightly smaller
and wedge shaped. They have a black spot on either side of their relatively colorless bodies. The adult female may
live for up to 24 days and lay 200 eggs.
Damage symptoms :
Life cycle:
•
Adults and nymphs feed primarily on the undersides
of the leaves.
•
The upper surface of the leaves becomes stippled
with little dots that are the feeding punctures.
•
The mites tend to feed in “pockets” often near the
midrib and veins.
•
Silk webbing produced by these mites is usually
visible.
•
The leaves eventually become bleached and
discolored and may fall off.
1. Attack of red
spider mites
1. http://www.simplepestcontrol.com/spider-mite-control.htm
2. http://entomology.k-state.edu/extension/insect-photo-gallery/Corn-Insects.html
3. http://www.al.gov.bc.ca/cropprot/grapeipm/spidermites.htm
2. Mite infested bulb
1, 2. http://nhm.nic.in/Horticulture/IPM-Schedule-for-vegetables.pdf
30
Predators of red spider mite:
1. Syrphid fly
2. Minute pirate bug
3. Lacewing
4. Coccinellid
5. Predatory mite
6. Staphylinid beetle
1. http://freepages.misc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~larsonmorgan/flies/flies.html
2. http://plantdiagnostics.umd.edu/level3.cfm?causeID=246
3. http://www.redorbit.com/education/reference_library/animal_ kingdom/insecta/2576160/neuroptera_
lacewing/
4. http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/images/Predators_ gallery/pages/06coccinellid8584_jpg.htm
5. http://www.eduwebs.org/bugs/predatory_mites.htm
6. http://www.colpolon.biol.uni.wroc.pl/oligota%20pusillima.htm
4) Bulb mite:
Biology:
The developmental stages in the life cycle are egg, larva, protonymph, heteromorphic deutonymph, tritonymph
and adult.
Egg: Females lay up to 700 eggs each depending on the host. The eggs mature in 3 to 5 days. The egg is white and
translucent, 0.12 mm long, and ellipsoidal.
Larva: Larval period is 3 to 7 days. The protonymph period 3 to 5 days. This stage can be distinguished from
the tritonymph by having two genital suckers, whereas the tritonymph has three or four suckers. Deutonymph
or Hypopus- This quiescent stage is oval, convex on top, flattened below, brown, and 0.2 to 0.3 mm long. The
tritonymph is about 0.5 mm in length and has not yet developed a distinct genital aperture. Hypopi form when
the population becomes crowded, or the substrate becomes too polluted by decay. The hypopal stage attaches to
insects visiting the bulbs and may be carried to other bulbs.
Adult: The longevity male adult is 62 days and female is 31 days. Mature bulb mites vary from 0.5 to 0.9 mm long
and have four pairs of legs. Their bodies are shiny, white, somewhat transparent, and smooth with reddish brown
appendages.
The total life cycle from egg to adult could be as short as 12.2 days (at 25°C)
Damage symptoms:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bulbs infested with bulb mites may rot and fail to produce new growth, or new growth may be off color,
stunted, and distorted.
Although the bulb mite is not considered a primary pest of bulbs, it is often responsible for serious losses;
the slightest injury to a bulb will allow bulb mites to enter and become established.
Once the mites are inside the bulb, they rapidly turn the bulbs into rotten pulp.
Infestations of the bulb mite generally indicate that the bulbs have already been injured.
This damage could have been caused by other pests, such as the bulb scale mite or bulb flies, mechanical
injury, or improper storage.
The root primordia of freesia and gladiolus may be bruised at planting.
Apparently bulb mites can attack healthy new roots and corms, especially in greenhouses. The mites may
penetrate into lily stems which become brittle. Infested lilies are often dwarfed, distorted, and the stem
roots are suppressed.
Bulb mites may enter prematurely opened tulip buds (due to high storage temperatures or ethylene
generated by diseased bulbs in storage) and cause bud necrosis.
31
5) Eriophyid mite:
Biology:
The life cycle is composed of the egg, the larva, two nymphal stages (protonymph and deutonymph) and the
adult.
Egg: Egg incubation period 2-4 days; The eggs are attached to fine silk webbing and hatch in approximately
three days.
Nymph: Protonymphal and deutonymphal period is 2 to 3 days, each.
Adult: Adult mites survive about 8 days. Length 200 to 250 μm and width 36 to 52 μm. The adult female is capable
of laying several hundred eggs during her life.
Total life cycle 7 to 9 days. The length of time from egg to adult varies greatly depending on temperature.
Damage symptoms:
•
Both adults and immatures feed on the young leaves and between the layers in bulbs of onion
•
Their feeding causes stunting, twisting, curling and discoloration of foliage and scarification and drying
of bulb tissue
•
This damage has been attributed to various viruses thought to be transmitted by the mites
IX. DESCRIPTION OF DISEASES
1) Damping off:
Disease symptoms:
•
Two types of symptoms are observed-Pre-emergence damping-off : This results in seed and seedling
rot before they emerge out of the soil.
•
Post-emergence damping-off : The pathogen attacks the collar region of seedlings on the surface of
soil. The collar portion rots and ultimately the seedlings collapse and die.
Nursery affected with damping off
Survival and spread:
•
Pathogen(s) survives on infected crop debris and soil which are source of primary inoculum.
Favourable conditions:
•
The disease is more prevalent during kharif season/rainy season and causes about 60-75% damage.
•
High soil moisture and moderate temperature along with high humidity leads to the development of
the disease.
*For management refer to page number 15 & 18
32
2) Purple blotch:
Disease symptoms:
•
The symptoms occur on leaves and flower stalks as small, sunken, whitish flecks with purple coloured
centres.
•
The lesions may girdle leaves/stalk and cause their drooping. The infected plants fail to develop bulbs
1. Badly damaged leaves
2. Infection on stem
1. http://nhm.nic.in/Horticulture/IPM-Schedule-for-vegetables.pdf
2. http://www.nhrdf.com/documents/NHRDF-Research-Achievements.pdf
•
The disease is soil borne and fungus survives in soil, infected bulbs and may persist in plant debris or on
roots of weeds.
•
Hot and humid climate with temperature ranging from 21-30°C and high relative humidity (80-90%)
favour the development of the disease.
3) Stemphylium leaf blight:
Disease symptoms:
•
Infection occur on radial leaves of transplanted seedlings at 3- 4 leaf stage during late March and early
April.
•
The symptoms appear as small yellowish to orange flecks or streaks in the middle of the leaves, which
soon develop into elongated spindle shaped spots surrounded by pinkish margin.
•
The disease on the inflorescence stalk causes severe damage to the seed crop.
Stemphylium leaf blight
1.
2.
1. http://www.semena.org/agro/diseases3/stemphylium-leaf-blight-e.htm
•
The fungus survives in plant debris or soil.
•
Warm (18-25°C) humid conditions and long periods of leaf wetness (16 hours or more) favour disease
development.
33
4) Colletotrichum blight/anthracnose/twister disease:
Disease symptoms:
•
The symptoms appear initially on the leaves as water soaked pale yellow spots, which spread lengthwise
covering entire leaf blade.
•
The affected leaves shrivel and droop down.
1. Colletotrichum blight
2. Curling and abnormal
elongation of leaves
1. http://www.nhrdf.com/documents/NHRDF-Research- Achievements.pdf
•
The fungus can survive for many years as sclerotia in the soil or for shorter periods in infected plant
debris.
•
Disease is most severe in warm [25-30°C], moist soils that are high in organic matter.
•
Fungal growth rapidly decreases below 15°C, resulting in little disease development.
5) Fusarium basal rot/basal rot:
Disease symptoms:
•
Initially yellowing of leaves and stunted growth of plant is observed, which later on dry from tip to
downwards.
•
In early stage of infection, the roots of the plants become pink in colour and rotting take place later. In
advanced stage, the bulb starts decaying from lower ends and ultimately whole plant dies.
1. Rotting of onion in the field 2. Fusarial infection on bulbs
1, 2. http://nhm.nic.in/Horticulture/IPM-Schedule-for-vegetables.pdf
•
Pathogen survives in soil and onion bulb as a primary source of inoculum in the form of
Chlamydospore, resting spore) for many years.
•
Moist soil and 27°C temperature favours the development of disease.
34
6) White rot (Sclerotial rot):
Disease symptoms:
•
The initial symptoms are yellowing and dieback of leaf tips. Later, scales, stem plate and roots get
destroyed.
•
The bulbs become soft and water soaked.
•
Later, white fluffy or cottony growth of mycelium with abundant black sclerotia resembling mustard
grain develops on the infected bulbs.
Sclerotial rot on onion bulbs
http://nhm.nic.in/Horticulture/IPM-Schedule-for-vegetables.pdf
•
Fungus survives in soil as sclerotia for many years and it can over-winter in infected onion debris and in
diseased onion sets.
•
This disease is most severe in cool and dry soils.
7) Pink root rot:
Disease symptoms:
•
Reduced bulb size.
•
Roots turn pink or maroon when infected.
•
In severe cases the roots may die and the plants become weakened or stunted, especially in drier areas
of the field.
•
Crop suffering from heat or drought stress due to poor soil is more prone to yield losses.
Pink root rot due to Phoma
•
Fungus can survive in the soil, in diseased roots and the debris of susceptible crops for several years.
•
The fungus can be spread through soil movement and in irrigation water.
•
This disease can develop at all soil moisture levels that allow onion growth. Optimum temperatures
for growth of the pathogen and disease development are 24-28°C.
35
8) Black mould:
Disease symptoms:
•
Infection usually is through neck tissues as foliage dies down at maturity.
•
Infected bulbs are discolored black around the neck, and affected scales shrivel.
•
Masses of powdery black spores develop as streaks along veins on and between outer dry scales.
•
Infection may advance from the neck into the central fleshy scales.
Black mould
• Fungus survives in air, soil and infected plant debris.
• Spores of this fungus are very common in the air and soil which are the source of infection.
• Black mold is most common when temperatures are higher than 30°C (86°f ) in the field or 24°C in
storage.
• Free moisture for six hours or longer on the onion surface is necessary for infection to occur.
9) Bacterial soft rot:
Disease symptoms:
•
Bacterial soft rot is mainly a problem on mature bulbs. Affected scales first appear water-soaked and
pale yellow to light brown.
•
As the soft rot progresses, invaded fleshy scales become soft and sticky with the interior of the bulb
breaking-down.
•
A watery, foul-smelling thick liquid can be squeezed from the neck of diseased bulbs.
https://www.google.co.in/search?q=soft+rot+of+onion&espv=210&es_
sm=93&source=lnms&tbm
•
The pathogen is soil borne and after heavy rains and when leaves are drying the main sources of
inoculum are contaminated soil and crop residues.
•
The bacterium is also spread by splashing rain, irrigation water and insects.
•
This disease is favored by warm, humid conditions with an optimum temperature range of 20-30°C.
•
However, during storage or transit soft rot can develop when temperatures are above 3°C.
36
10) Iris yellow spot disease:
Disease symptoms:
•
Symptoms of iris yellow spot virus are often seen as a cream, elliptical spots on the leaves. The spots
also appear on onion scapes or flower stalks of onions.
•
As both infected leaves and scapes age, they can collapse at the site of the spots. The spots may be
clear or less obvious. Although the spots may at first be insignificant, the disease has the potential of
devastating the whole crop.
1.
Diamond shaped viral lesions
2.
Transmission and favourable conditions:
•
Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) transmit IYSV in a persistent manner. Disease severity is positively correlated
with thrips populations in the field.
•
This virus is not seed transmitted. over-wintering onions, volunteers from prior productions, infected
transplants and alternate hosts can all serve as sources of both vector and virus.
*For management refer to page number 20 & 21
11) Onion yellow dwarf disease:
Disease symptoms:
•
The first symptoms of onion yellow dwarf in young onions are yellow streaks at the bases of the first
true leaves.
•
All leaves developing after these initial symptoms show symptoms ranging from yellow streaks to
complete yellowing of leaves.
•
Leaves are sometimes crinkled and flattened and tend to fall over. Bulbs are undersized.
https://www.google.co.in/search?q=onion+yellow+dwarf+disease
Transmission and favourable conditions:
•
The virus is carried by infected seed bulbs, onion sets and volunteer onions. Many aphid species can
transmit this virus from infected to healthy plants.
37
12) Downy mildew:
Disease symptoms:
•
Leaves turn to pale green.
•
On leaves, cottony white mycelial growth develops and appears white. Gradually the leaves turn pale
yellow to dark brown and dries up.
1.https://www.google.co.in/search?q=downy+mildew+of+onion&sa=
•
Fungus survive in soil and infected plant debris.
Favourable condition:
•
Warm and humid climate favours the development of disease.
13) Green mould :
Disease symptoms:
•
Infection usually is through neck tissues as foliage dies down at maturity.
•
Infected bulbs are discolored green around the neck, and affected scales shrivel.
•
Masses of powdery green spores generally are arranged as streaks along veins on and between outer
dry scales.
•
Infection may advance from the neck into the central fleshy scales.
https://www.google.co.in/search?q=green+mould+onion&sa=X&
•
Spores of this fungus are very common in the air and soil which act as the source of infection.
•
Black mold is most common when temperatures are higher than 30°C in the field or 24°C in storage.
•
Free moisture for six hours or longer on the onion surface is conducive for infection to occur.
38
14) Bacterial brown rot:
Disease symptoms:
•
Field symptoms often appear as one or two wilted leaves in the center of the leaf cluster. These leaves
eventually turn pale yellow and dieback from the tip while older and younger leaves maintain a healthy
green appearance.
•
During the early stages of this disease, the bulbs may appear healthy except for a softening of the neck
tissue. In a longitudinal section, one or more inner scales become watery or cooked.
•
The disease progresses from the top of the infected scale to the base
•
Eventually, all the internal tissue will rot. Finally, the internal scales dry and the bulb shrivel.
•
Squeezing the base of infected plants causes the rotted inner portion of the bulbs to slide out through
the neck, hence the name slippery skin.
https://www.google.co.in/search?q=brown+rot+of+onion&espv
•
This bacterium is soil-borne and can be readily water-splashed to the foliage and necks where it can
enter through wounds.
•
This bacterium requires moisture for infection and grows in the temperature range of 5-41°C.
•
Heavy irrigation and persistent dews are also conducive to this disease.
39
Disease cycles:
1. Damping off
2. Stemphylium leaf blight
3. Purple blotch
40
4. Anthracnose
5. Fusarium basal rot
41
X. SAFETY MEASURES
A. At the time of harvest
Onions are ready to harvest when the tops start to turn yellow and die. The most important thing to remember
when harvesting (digging up) your bulbs is not to damage their protective outer layers. If the outer layer is
damaged, it leaves them exposed to disease and dryness. Use a hand tool or hand to dig the soil around the
bulb, and then pull it out by hand. Wet the soil first if it’s hard or rocky, and take the time to pull your bulbs gently
without damaging them.
B. During post-harvest
Bulbs intended for storage need to be cured (dry out) in a dark, dry place at 30-45 C and 60-75% RH for 1-4 days,
until the necks turn brown. When your onion bulbs are completely dry, cut off the necks to about an inch long.
Everything else can be stored in a cool, dry place (35 to 45 °F and 70-75% RH is ideal) for up to several months.
Avoid keeping bulbs in the sun, as they’ll age much faster that way.
XI. DO’S AND DON’TS IN IPM
S.
No.
1.
Do’s
Don’ts
Do not plant or irrigate the field after
ploughing, at least for 2-3 weeks, to allow
desiccation of weed’s bulbs and/or rhizomes
of perennial weeds.
2.
Deep ploughing is to be done on
bright sunny days during the months
of May and June. The field should be
kept exposed to sun light at least for 2-3
weeks
Adopt crop rotation.
3.
4.
Grow only recommended varieties.
Sow early in the season
5.
Always treat the seedlings/planting
material with approved chemicals/bio
products for the control of seed borne
diseases/pests
Do not grow susceptible varieties.
Avoid late sowing as this may lead to reduced
yields and incidence of white grubs and
diseases.
Do not use seedlings/ planting material
without seed treatment with biopesticides/
chemicals.
6.
7.
Grow nursery on raised seed beds.
Apply only recommended herbicides at recommended dose,
proper time, as appropriate spray solution with standard
equipment along with flat fan or flat jet nozzles.
8.
Maintain optimum and healthy crop stand which would be
capable of competing with weeds at a critical stage of crop weed
competition.
Use NPK fertilizers as per the soil test
recommendation.
9.
10.
Avoid monocropping.
Use micronutrient mixture after planting based test recommendations.
42
Do not raise nursery on flat bed
Pre-emergent as well as soil incorporated
herbicides should not be applied in dry soils.
Do not apply herbicides along with irrigation
water or by mixing with soil, sand or urea.
Crops should not be exposed to moisture
deficit stress at their critical growth stages.
Avoid imbalanced use of fertilizers.
Do not apply any micronutrient mixture after
planting without test recommendations.
11.
Conduct AESA weekly in the morning
preferably before 9 a.m. Take decision on
management practice based on AESA and
P: D ratio only.
Do not take any management decision without
considering AESA and P: D ratio
12.
Install pheromone traps at appropriate
period.
Do not store the pheromone lures at normal
room temperature (keep them in refrigerator).
13.
Release parasitoids only after noticing
adult moth catches in the pheromone
trap or as pheromone trap or as per field
observation
Do not apply chemical pesticides within seven
days of release of parasitoids.
14.
Apply HaNPV or SINPV at recommended
dose when a large number of egg masses
and early instar larvae are noticed. Apply
NPV only in the evening hours after 5 pm.
Do not apply NPV on late instar larva and
during day time.
15.
In case of pests which are active during night spray recommended
biopesticides/chemicals at the time of their appearance in the
evening.
Do not spray pesticides at midday since,
most of the insects are not active during this
period.
16.
Spray pesticides thoroughly to treat the
undersurface of the leaves, particularly for
mites, and other sucking pests harbouring
the low er side of leaves.
Do not spray pesticides only on the upper
surface of leaves.
17.
Apply short persistent pesticides to avoid pesticide residue in the
soil and produce.
Do not apply pesticides during preceding 7
days before harvest.
18.
Follow the recommended procedure
of trap crop technology.
Do not apply long persistent pesticides on trap
crop, otherwise it may not attract the pests
and natural enemies.
43
Pesticide
Classification
as per
insecticide
rules
3
2
Chlorpyrifos
Quinalphos
Highly toxic
Highly toxic
Organophosphate insecticides
1
Dimethoate
Highly toxic
S.
No.
Colour of
toxicity triangle
Class II Moderately
hazardous
Class II
Moderately
hazardous
Class II
Moderately
hazardous
WHO
classification of
hazard
44
Atrophine
sulphate
--
--
First Aid
measures
Severe – diarrhoea, pinpoint
and non - reactive pupils,
respiratory difficulty,
Excessive salivation,
sweating, rhinorrhea and
tearing. Muscle twitching,
weakness, tremor,
incoordination.
Hedache, dizziness, nausea,
vomiting, abdominal cramps,
diarrhea.
- Respiratory depression,
tightness in chest, wheezing,
productive cough, fluid in
lungs.
- Pin-point pupils, sometimes
with blurred or dark vision.
- Severe cases: seizures,
incontinence, respiratory
depression, loss of
consciousness.
Mild-anorexia, headache,
dizziness, weakness, anxiety,
tremors of tongue and
eyelids, miosis, impairment of
visual acuity
Symptoms poisoning
XII. SAFETY PARAMETERS IN PESTICIDE USAGE
For ingestion lavage
stomach with 5 % sodium
bicarbonate, if not vomiting.
For skin contact, wash with
soap
For extreme symptoms of
OP poisoning, injection of
atropine (2-4 mg for adults,
0.5-1.0 mg for children) is
recommended. Repeated
at 5-10 minute intervals
until signs of atropinization
occur.
For extreme symptoms of
OP poisoning, injection of
atropine (2-4 mg for adults,
0.5-1.0 mg for children) is
recommended. Repeated
at 5-10 minute intervals
until signs of atropinization
occur.
Treatment of poisoning
7 days
7
--
Waiting
period
from last
application
to harvest
(days)
Oxydemetonmethyl
Neonicotinoid
5
Imidacloprid
4
Highly toxic
Highly toxic
Class IbModerately
hazardous
45
Have person
sip a glass of
water if able
to swallow.
Do not
induce
vomiting
unless told
to do so by
a doctor,
do not give
anything by
mouth to an
unconscious
person
--
Harmful if swallowed,
absorbed through skin or
inhaled. Avoid breathing
vapor or spray mist. Causes
moderate eye irritation.
Do-
pulmonary edema, cyanosis,
loss of sphincter control,
convulsions, coma and heart
block.
No specific antidote.
Treatment is essentially
symptomatic.
and water (eyes – wash with
isotonic saline). Wear rubber
gloves while washing
contact areas.
In addition to atropine
give 2 – PAM (2 – pyridine
aldoximemethiodide). 1
g and 0.25g for infants
intravenously at slow rate
over a period of 5 minutes
and administer again
periodically as indicated.
More than one injection
may be required.
Avoid morphine,
theophylline, aminophylln,
barbiturates
Phenothiaznines
Do-
3
--
--
46
Slightly toxic
11
Quizalofopethyl
Slightly toxic
Not acutely
toxic
Herbicides
10
Oxyflourfen
9
Slightly toxic
8
Difenoconazole
Zineb
Slightly toxic
Fungicides
7
Mancozeb
Synthetic pyrethroids
6
Lambdacyhalothrin
-do-
-do-
Not listed
Unlikely to
be hazardous
Unlikely to
be hazardous
-do-
Unlikely
produce
acute hazard
--
--
Remove
contaminated clothes.
rinse and
then wash
skin with
water and
soap. Give
plenty of
water to
drink, then
take to a
doctor.
Do not
induce
vomiting
unless told
to do so by
a doctor,
do not give
anything by
mouth to an
unconscious
person
--
--
Cough. nausea. vomiting,
skin redness, diarrhoea.
-do-
Headache, palpitation,
nausea, vomiting, flushed
face, irritation of nose,throat,
eyes and skin etc.
Toxic if swallowed or inhaled.
Irritating to eyes and skin.
Vapors may cause drowsiness
and dizziness. May be
harmful if swallowed and
enters airway.
May cause temporary
itching, tingling, burning or
numbness of exposed skin,
called paresthesia
--
--
--
-do-
No specific antidote.
symptomatic
There is no specific antidote.
symptomatic.
4
7
--
--
15
10
XIII. BASIC PRECAUTIONS IN PESTICIDES USAGE
A. Purchase
1.
2.
3.
Purchase only just required quantity e.g. 100, 250, 500, 1000 g/ml for single application in specified area.
Do not purchase leaking containers, loose, unsealed or torn bags; Do not purchase pesticides without
proper/approved labels.
While purchasing insist for invoice/bill/cash memo
B. Storage
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Avoid storage of pesticides in house premises.
Keep only in original container with intact seal.
Do not transfer pesticides to other containers; Do not expose to sunlight or rain water; Do not store weedicides
along with other pesticides.
Never keep them together with food or feed/fodder.
Keep away from reach of children and livestock.
C. Handling
1.
2.
Never carry/ transport pesticides along with food materials.
Avoid carrying bulk pesticides (dust/granules) on head shoulders or on the back.
D. Precautions for preparing spray solution
1.
2.
3.
4.
Use clean water.
Always protect your nose, eyes, mouth, ears and hands.
Use hand gloves, face mask and cover your head with cap.
Use polythene bags as hand gloves, handkerchiefs or piece of clean cloth as mask and a cap or towel to
cover the head (Do not use polythene bag contaminated with pesticides).
5. Read the label on the container before preparing spray solution.
6. Prepare the spray solution as per requirement
7. Do not mix granules with water; Do not eat, drink, smoke or chew while preparing solution
8. Concentrated pesticides must not fall on hands etc. while opening sealed container. Do not smell pesticides.
9. Avoid spilling of pesticides while filling the sprayer tank.
10. The operator should protect his bare feet and hands with polythene bags
E. Equipment
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Select right kind of equipment.
Do not use leaky and defective equipment
Select right kind of nozzles
Do not blow/clean clogged nozzle with mouth. Use old tooth brush tied with the sprayer and clean with water.
Do not use same sprayer for weedicide and insecticide.
F. Precautions for applying pesticides
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Apply only at recommended dose and dilution
Do not apply on hot sunny day or strong windy condition; Do not just before the rains and after the rains; Do not
against the windy direction
Emulsifiable concentrate formulations should not be used for spraying with battery operated ULV sprayer
Wash the sprayer and buckets etc. with soap water after spraying
Containers, buckets etc. used for mixing pesticides should not be used for domestic purpose
Avoid entry of animals and workers in the field immediately after sprayer
Avoid tank mixing of different pesticides
G. Disposal
1.
2.
3.
Left over spray solution should not be drained in ponds or water lines etc. throw it in barren isolated area if possible
The used/empty containers should be crushed with a stone/stick and buried deep into soil away from
water source.
Never reuse empty pesticides container for any other purpose.
47
XIV. PESTICIDE APPLICATION TECHNIQUES
Equipment
Category A: Stationary, crawling pest/disease
Vegetative stage
Insecticides and • Lever operated knapsack sprayer (droplets of
i) for crawling and
fungicides
big size)
soil borne pests
• Hollow cone nozzle @ 35 to 40 psi
• Lever operating speed = 15 to 20 strokes/min
or
• Motorized knapsack sprayer or mist blower
ii) for small sucking
(droplets of small size)
leaf borne pests
• Airblast nozzle
• Operating speed: 2/3rd throttle
Reproductive stage
Insecticides and
fungicides
•
•
•
Category B: Field flying pest/airborne pest
Vegetative stage
Insecticides and
•
fungicides
Reproductive stage
•
(Field Pests)
•
•
•
Mosquito/ locust
and spatial
application
(migratory Pests)
Category C: Weeds
Post-emergence
application
Insecticides and
fungicides
•
•
Weedicide
•
•
•
Pre-emergence
application
Weedicide
•
•
Lever operated knapsack sprayer (droplets of
big size)
Hollow cone nozzle @ 35 to 40 psi
Lever operating speed = 15 to 20 strokes/min
Motorized knapsack sprayer or mist blower
(droplets of small size)
Airblast nozzle
Operating speed: 2/3rd throttle
Or
Battery operated low volume sprayer (droplets
of small size)
Spinning disc nozzle
Fogging machine and ENV (exhaust nozzle
vehicle) (droplets of very small size)
Hot tube nozzle
Lever operated knapsack sprayer (droplets of
big size)
Flat fan or floodjet nozzle @ 15 to 20 psi
Lever operating speed = 7 to 10 strokes/min
Trolley mounted low volume sprayer (droplets
of small size)
Battery operated low volume sprayer (droplets
of small size)
48
XV. OPERATIONAL, CALIBRATION AND MAINTENANCE GUIDELINES IN BRIEF
1.
For application rate and dosage see the label and leaflet of the
particular pesticide.
2.
It is advisable to check the output of the sprayer (calibration) before
commencement of spraying under guidance of trained person.
3.
Clean and wash the machines and nozzles and store in dry place
after use.
4.
It is advisable to use protective clothing, face mask and gloves while
preparing and applying pesticides.
Do not apply pesticides without protective clothing and wash
clothes immediately after spray application.
5.
Do not apply in hot or windy conditions.
6.
Operator should maintain normal walking speed while undertaking
application.
7.
Do not smoke, chew or eat while undertaking the spraying
operation
8.
Operator should take proper bath with soap after completing
spraying
9.
Do not blow the nozzle with mouth for any blockages. Clean with
water and a soft brush.
49
XVI. REFERENCES
•
http://www.postharvest.com.au/Produce_Information.htm
•
http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu/pfvegetable/Eggplant/
•
http://nhb.gov.in/vegetable/brinjal/bri0v08.pdf
•
http://www.ikisan.com/Crop%20Specific/Eng/links/ap_chilliHarvestingandStorage.shtml
•
http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu/pfvegetable/ChilePeppers/
•
http://www.icar.org.in/files/reports/icar-dare-annual-reports/2009-10/Post-harvest-Management.pdf
•
http://www.farmerfred.com/plants_that_attract_benefi.html
•
http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in
•
NHM manual for post harvest management and integrated pest management: http://www.nhm.nic.in
•
AVRDC the world vegetable center: http://www.avrdc.org
•
FAO Regional Vegetable IPM Programme in South & Southeast Asia: http://www.vegetableipmasia.org/
CropsSites.html
•
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research: http://www.iihr.ernet.in
•
Fiedler, A., Tuell, J., Isaacs, R. and Doug Landis . Attracting beneficial insects with native flowering plants.
January 2007. Extension bulletin. E-2973.
•
Acharya N. G. Agricultural University, Hyderabad: http://www.angrau.ac.in
•
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad: http://www.uasd.edu
•
Jawarharlal Nehru Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur: http://www.jnkvv.nic.in
•
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana: http://www.pau.edu
•
Personal communication with Dr. Krishnamurthy, IIHR, Bangalore
•
http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r783301511.html
•
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/00-055.htm
•
http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/biological-control-cutworm-cottton
•
Olson, S. M. 2012. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, http://edis.ifas.ufl.
edu.
•
Yumnam, A.; Mandal, A. R.; Thapa, U.; Maity, T. K.; Bhattacharya, S. P.(2009). Studies on weed management
in onion (Allium cepa L.). Journal of Crop and Weed 2009 Vol. 5 No. 1 pp. 325-326
•
http://www.organicauthority.com/organic-gardening/bulb-heaven-harvesting-and-storing-onions-andgarlic.html
•
Vegetable crops, onion maggot, New York State Experimental Station, Geneva, NY.
•
http://www.forumakad.pl/archiwum/2007/04/36_seks_i_przemoc_na_planecie_cebula.html
•
•
http://www.plantwise.org/KnowledgeBank/Datasheet.aspx?dsid=2613
http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/nr/2004/FS0447. p
•
http://www.agrarianworld.com/just-a-slight-change-in-weather/
•
Gurr Men SD, Altieri MA (2004) Ecological Engineering for Pest Management Advances in Habitat Manipulation for
Arthropods. CSIRO PUBLISHING, Collingwood, Australia.
•
Gurr GM, Wratten SD and Altieri MA (2004) Ecological Engineering: a new direction for pest management. AFBM
Journal 1: 28-35.
•
http://www.pesticideinfo.org/
50
Good insectary plants belonging to Lamiaceae, Leguminaceae,
Umbelliferae, Brassicaceae, Asteraceae, Graminaceae etc. families
Buckwheat
Spearmint
Sunflower
Castor
French bean
Ryegrass
Alfalfa
Marigold
Chrysanthemum
Mustard
Coriander
Cowpea

AESA based IPM – Onion

Transcription

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