Journal of Ornithology - University of South Carolina

Journal of Ornithology
Ecological differences in response of bird species to radioactivity from Chernobyl and
Fukushima
--Manuscript Draft-Manuscript Number:
JORN-D-14-00257R2
Full Title:
Ecological differences in response of bird species to radioactivity from Chernobyl and
Fukushima
Article Type:
IOC2010-Proceedings
Keywords:
Birds Chernobyl Coloration Fukushima Pigments Radiation resistance
Corresponding Author:
Anders Pape Moller
FRANCE
Corresponding Author Secondary
Information:
Corresponding Author's Institution:
Corresponding Author's Secondary
Institution:
First Author:
Anders Pape Moller
First Author Secondary Information:
Order of Authors:
Anders Pape Moller
Timothy A. Mousseau
Isao Nishiumi
Keisuke Ueda
Order of Authors Secondary Information:
Abstract:
Organisms differ in their susceptibility to ionizing radiation although the ecological
basis for such differences remain poorly understood. We hypothesized that ecological
characteristics such as body size, diet, migration and pigments of plumage would
predict the impact of radiation on abundance through effects on relative food
consumption rates, free radicals and antioxidants. We made 2398 breeding bird
censuses and quantified the impact of radiation on abundance at Chernobyl and
Fukushima providing statistical replication, but also analyses of interaction effects. The
impact of radiation on abundance of birds was stronger in Fukushima than in
Chernobyl. Species with small body size and hence relatively high food consumption
rates were more negatively impacted. Secondary consumers showed stronger
negative effects of radiation on abundance than herbivores, especially in Fukushima.
There was no main effect of migration, but migrants were more negatively impacted in
Chernobyl, while residents were more negatively impacted in Fukushima. Carotenoid
and pheomelanin plumage pigments associated with antioxidant status showed
stronger negative effects, especially in Chernobyl compared to Fukushima, while
eumelanic coloration that is not related to antioxidant status did not show such an
effect. These differences between Chernobyl and Fukuskima may reflect differences in
duration of exposure, differences in radioactive isotopes and differences in
accumulation of mutations.
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Ecological differences in response of bird species to
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radioactivity from Chernobyl and Fukushima
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A. P. Møller1, T. A. Mousseau2, I. Nishiumi3, K. Ueda4
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Laboratoire d'Ecologie, Systématique et Evolution, CNRS UMR 8079,
Université Paris-Sud, Bâtiment 362, F-91405 Orsay Cedex, France;
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Department of Biological Sciences and the Environment and
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Sustainability Program, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC
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29208, USA;
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4-1-1 Amakubo, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0005, Japan;
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Department of Zoology, National Museum of Nature and Science,
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Department of Life Science, Rikkyo University, 3-34-1 Nishi-ikebukuro,
Toshima-ku, Tokyo 171-8501, Japan
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Word count: 6339
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Electronic supplementary material: 1760
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Correspondence to APM:
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Tel: (+33) 1 69 15 56 88
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Fax: (+33) 1 69 15 56 96
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E-mail: [email protected], [email protected],
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[email protected], [email protected]
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Abstract
Organisms differ in their susceptibility to ionizing radiation
28
although the ecological basis for such differences remain poorly
29
understood. We hypothesized that ecological characteristics such as body
30
size, diet, migration and pigments of plumage would predict the impact of
31
radiation on abundance through effects on relative food consumption rates,
32
free radicals and antioxidants. We made 2398 breeding bird censuses and
33
quantified the impact of radiation on abundance at Chernobyl and
34
Fukushima providing statistical replication, but also analyses of interaction
35
effects. The impact of radiation on abundance of birds was stronger in
36
Fukushima than in Chernobyl. Species with small body size and hence
37
relatively high food consumption rates were more negatively impacted.
38
Secondary consumers showed stronger negative effects of radiation on
39
abundance than herbivores, especially in Fukushima. There was no main
40
effect of migration, but migrants were more negatively impacted in
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Chernobyl, while residents were more negatively impacted in Fukushima.
42
Carotenoid and pheomelanin plumage pigments associated with antioxidant
43
status showed stronger negative effects, especially in Chernobyl compared
44
to Fukushima, while eumelanic coloration that is not related to antioxidant
45
status did not show such an effect. These differences between Chernobyl
46
and Fukuskima may reflect differences in duration of exposure, differences
47
in radioactive isotopes and differences in accumulation of mutations.
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Keywords Birds Chernobyl Coloration Fukushima Pigments
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Radiation resistance
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Introduction
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There is considerable interspecific variation among organisms in
55
susceptibility to radiation effects (e. g. Asker et al. 2011; Romanovskaya et
56
al. 2002; Dighton et al. 2008; Møller and Mousseau 2013). Why that is the
57
case remains an open question. This may arise from differences in exposure
58
and hence differences in the intensity of natural selection that have resulted
59
in the evolution of mechanisms that sustain or even nullify such effects of
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ionizing radiation. This interesting scientific question has received little
61
attention despite the fact that many species are tolerant to extreme levels of
62
radiation (review in Møller and Mousseau 2013). A few studies that have
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attempted to assess interspecific differences in susceptibility to radiation
64
and interspecific differences in their ecological correlates (Møller and
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Mousseau 2007b, 2011b; Galván et al. 2011, 2014). Ionizing radiation
66
produces free radicals and thus promotes the generation of reactive
67
oxidative species that deplete antioxidant levels in animals (Riley 1994;
68
Ivaniota et al. 1998; Neyfakh et al. 1998). Not surprisingly, interspecific
69
variation in susceptibility to radiation can be linked directly to ecological
70
traits that are associated with high rates of use of antioxidants such as long
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distance migration, dispersal, allocation of antioxidants to coloration and
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allocation of antioxidants by mothers to their offspring (Møller and
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Mousseau 2007b). Field studies of individual birds in the vicinity of
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Chernobyl have shown increased rates of DNA damage at higher levels of
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background radiation (Bonisoli-Alquati et al. 2010b), and this effect can be
76
linked directly to an increased level of oxidative stress caused by
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background radiation (Bonisoli-Alquati et al. 2010a).
78
Among the pigments responsible for integument color, melanins
79
and carotenoids are some of the most prominent and widespread.
80
Phaeomelanin- and carotenoid-based colors share a strong dependence on
81
antioxidant status. Vertebrates synthesize two main forms of melanin:
4
82
eumelanin and pheomelanin, with the latter producing lighter colors than
83
the former. Glutathione (GSH) levels determine the melanin form that is
84
synthesized, as melanogenesis can either lead to the production of
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eumelanin when the activity of tyrosinase is high and the ratio of
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cysteine:dopaquinone is low, or to the production of pheomelanin or even
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an absence of melanin synthesis under opposite conditions (Ozeki et al.
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1997; Galván and Alonso-Alvarez 2009). Therefore, eumelanogenesis
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takes place when the levels of GSH are low and pheomelanogenesis when
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the levels of GSH are high, implying that pheomelanogenesis proceeds
91
with higher levels of endogenous oxidative stress as compared to
92
eumelanogenesis (Galván and Solano 2009). The evolutionary implication
93
of this mechanism is that species in which natural selection has favored the
94
development of pheomelanic traits may have a decreased capacity to
95
combat oxidative stress as compared to species with eumelanic traits, as the
96
maintenance of high GSH levels as required by pheomelanogenesis might
97
be metabolically costly under adverse environmental conditions that
98
generate oxidative stress and thus consume GSH resources (Galván and
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Alonso-Alvarez 2009; Galván and Solano 2009).
100
GSH is one of the antioxidants most susceptible to radiation (Bump
101
and Brown 1990; Navarro et al. 1997; Vartanian et al. 2004). Therefore,
102
species that have the molecular basis to produce large amounts of
103
pheomelanin may be more limited in their use of GSH to combat oxidative
104
stress, and may thus be more susceptible to ionizing radiation than species
105
in which melanogenesis has been selected to be directed toward the
106
production of eumelanin (Galván et al. 2011). Adaptation to radiation in
107
radioactively contaminated areas and naturally contaminated areas alike
108
may result in increased glutathione levels and body condition, while
109
oxidative stress and DNA damage has decreased with increasing
110
background radiation (Galván et al. 2014). This apparent adaptation to
5
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radiation appears to be linked to larger mounts of pheomelanin and smaller
112
amounts of eumelanin being costly as shown from decreased glutathione
113
levels, increased oxidative stress and DNA damage, and reduced body
114
condition (Galván et al. 2014). Finally pheomelanin has been shown to
115
induce a change towards the production of less pro-oxidant forms of
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pheomelanin that may help acclimatize birds to radiation exposure (Galván
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et al. 2014). Indeed levels of gluthathione and pheomelanin are
118
significantly correlated (Galván et al. 2014).
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Here we report the results of analyses of unique data on the
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abundance of breeding birds in Fukushima, Japan and Chernobyl, Ukraine
121
in relation to background levels of radiation. There has been accumulation
122
of mutations in Chernobyl since 1986 for more than 20 generations for
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many small birds that typically have very short lifespan (Møller and
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Mousseau 2011b), while only a couple of generations have passed since the
125
accident in 2011 in Fukushima. Thus, we predicted significant differences
126
in the association between abundance and radiation between Chernobyl and
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Fukushima for different species of birds implying a significant area by
128
ecological variable interaction.
129
The objectives of this study were to test (1) whether the effect of
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radiation reduced the abundance of birds; (2) whether this effect differed
131
among species; (3) whether body mass, diet, migration and pigment-based
132
coloration affected the abundance of birds; and (4) whether the effects of
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these predictors differed between Fukushima and Chernobyl, as predicted
134
from their different history of exposure to radioactive contaminants. Small-
135
sized species have relatively higher metabolism, higher intake rates and
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hence higher ingestion of radionuclides. Similarly, species at higher trophic
137
levels should suffer more from radioactive contamination as a result of
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bioaccumulation. Migratory birds through their high metabolic rate and use
139
of antioxidants should differ in impact of radiation compared to residents.
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Indeed, negative impacts of radiation on abundance are stronger on
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abundance of migrants than resident species (Møller and Mousseau 2007b).
142
This is contrary to expectation because migrants spend less time in the
143
contaminated breeding areas than residents. However, migrants deplete
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their stores of antioxidants during migration resulting in very low levels
145
upon arrival (Ninni et al. 2004). This effect is detrimental because breeding
146
birds start establishing territories, nest building and egg formation upon
147
arrival causing antioxidant levels to be severely depleted (Møller et al.
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2005). Finally, there is a trade-off between allocation of antioxidants to
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production of feather color and self-maintenance in birds with carotenoid-
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and pheomelanin-based plumage. Therefore, any individual that allocated a
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large fraction of antioxidant resources to plumage coloration without
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consideration of future uses for protection against oxidative stress caused
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by radiation would be at a selective disadvantage. Likewise, such
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individuals would also risk increased rates of mutations due to the lack of
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protection against oxidative stress thus reducing survival prospects.
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Methods
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Study sites
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The breeding bird census points were located at ca. 100 m intervals in
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forested areas west of the exclusion zone around the Fukushima Daiichi
161
power plants in 2011-2014 (Fig. 1A) or in forested areas within the
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Chernobyl Exclusion Zone or adjacent areas, or in areas in southern
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Belarus around Gomel during the breeding seasons 2006-2009 (Fig. 1B).
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At least one local ornithologist participated in the censuses in Japan to
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confirm the identity of some difficult bird species.
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Census methods
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We adopted the point count census method, which provides reliable
169
information on relative abundance of birds (Blondel et al. 1970; Møller
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1983; Bibby et al. 2005; Voříšek et al. 2010). The method is based on an
171
observer recording for a period of five minutes all birds seen and heard.
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Extensive national monitoring programs for breeding and wintering birds
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based on point counts occur in many different countries, and this effort is
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part of environmental monitoring by the European Union (Voříšek et al.
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2010). This method has provided highly repeatable results for birds and
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other animals at Chernobyl (Møller and Mousseau 2011a). It consists of
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counts lasting 5 minutes during which the number of birds seen or heard is
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recorded. APM conducted these standard point counts during 29 May – 9
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June 2006, 1 – 11 June 2007, 29 May – 5 June 2008, 1 – 6 June 2009 in the
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surroundings of Chernobyl (898 census points) and during 11 – 15 July
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2011, 14-19 2012, 14-19 2013 and 11-16 2014 in Fukushima (1500 census
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points). Thus one single five minutes count was recorded for each point in
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each of the study years. The fact that one person made all counts eliminates
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any variance in results due to inter-observer variability. There are no bird
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census data from Chernobyl or Fukushima before the accidents, nor have
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other scientists to the best of our knowledge conducted bird censuses
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comparable to ours in the years following the accidents.
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We directly tested the reliability of our counts by letting two persons
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independently perform counts, and the degree of consistency was high for
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both species richness, total abundance and abundance of individual species
191
(details reported by Møller and Mousseau 2007a for Chernobyl; similar
192
results exist for Fukushima (A. P. Møller, I. Nishiumi and T. A. Mousseau
193
unpublished data)).
194
Abundance estimates can be affected by numerous confounding
195
variables (Voříšek et al. 2010), and, therefore, it is important to control
196
such variables statistically to assess the underlying relationship between
8
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radiation and species richness and abundance. We classified habitats
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(agricultural habitats with grassland or shrub, deciduous forest, or
199
coniferous forest) and estimated to the nearest 10% ground cover by herbs,
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shrub, trees, agricultural habitat, deciduous forest and coniferous forest
201
within a distance of 50 m from the census points. We recorded altitude to
202
the nearest foot, using GPS. Weather conditions can affect animal activity
203
and hence census results (Voříšek et al. 2010), and we recorded cloud
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cover at the start of each point count (to the nearest eighth), temperature
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(degrees Celsius), and wind force (Beaufort). For each census point we
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recorded time of day when the count was started (to the nearest minute).
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Because activity may show a curvilinear relationship with time of day, with
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high levels of bird activity in the morning and to a lesser extent in the
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evening (Voříšek et al. 2010), we also included time squared as an
210
explanatory variable.
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Background radiation
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We measured radiation in the field and cross-validated these measurements
214
with those reported by the Ukrainian Ministry of Emergencies. Once
215
having finished the 5 minutes census we measured , , and  radiation
216
levels at ground level directly in the field at each point where were
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censused invertebrates using a hand-held dosimeter (Model: Inspector, SE
218
International, Inc., Summertown, TN, USA). We measured levels two-three
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times at each site and averaged the results. We cross-validated our
220
measurements in Ukraine against data from the governmental
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measurements published by Shestopalov (1996), estimated as the mid-point
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of the ranges published. This analysis revealed a very strong positive
223
relationship (linear regression on log-log transformed data: F = 1546.49, df
224
= 1, 252, r2 = 0.86, P < 0.0001, slope (SE) = 1.28 (0.10)), suggesting that
9
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our field estimates of radiation provided reliable measurements of levels of
226
radiation among sites.
227
In Fukushima we used the same dosimeters, and the measurements
228
were cross-validated with readings with a dosimeter that had been recently
229
calibrated and certified to be accurate by the factory (International
230
Medcom, Sebastopol, CA, USA). We cross-validated tests at Fukushima by
231
comparing our own measurements with measurements obtained at the same
232
locations with a TCS 171-ALOKA used by Japanese authorities. Again,
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there was a very strong positive relationship (linear regression on log-log
234
transformed data: F = 2427.97, df = 1, 20, r2 = 0.99, P < 0.0001, slope (SE)
235
= 1.120 (0.023)). We have made extensive measurements of internal dose
236
in hundreds of birds in Chernobyl and found very strong positive
237
correlations between internal dose and background radiation level (A. P.
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Møller and T. A. Mousseau unpublished manuscript).
239
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Ecological variables
241
Body mass
242
We extracted mean body mass of males and females during the breeding
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season from Cramp and Simmons (1977-1994), Lislevand et al. (2007) and
244
del Hoyo et al. (1995-2011). Body mass was estimated as the mean value
245
of the means for males and females.
246
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Diet
248
We scored the diet of different species on a two level classification based
249
on information in Cramp and Simmons (1977-1994) and del Hoyo et al.
250
(1995-2011): (0) mainly plant material, especially outside the breeding
251
season; and (1) primary predators eating herbivores such as insects and
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spiders, but also vertebrates.
253
10
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Migration distance
255
We estimated migration distance as the difference in latitude between the
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mean of the northernmost and the southernmost breeding distribution and
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the mean of the northernmost and the southernmost winter distribution,
258
relying on information in Cramp and Perrins (1977-1994) and del Hoyo et
259
al. (1995-2011). A strict classification of species as either residents or
260
migrants resulted in similar conclusions (unpubl. data)).
261
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Carotenoid-based coloration
263
We only considered pigment-based coloration in this study because we did
264
not have information on structural color for the species considered. The
265
extent of plumage patches colored by carotenoids was determined by
266
examining illustrations of adult breeding birds in Cramp and Simmons
267
(1977-1994) and Wild Bird Society of Japan (1982). We considered colors
268
that were yellow, orange and red to be caused by carotenoids (Tella et al.
269
2004; Olson and Owens 2005). We assigned scores that ranged from 0
270
(total lack of carotenoid-based color) to 5 (all carotenoid-based).
271
272
Melanin-based coloration
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We used a method for assigning coloration to melanin developed by
274
(Galván et al. 2011). Information on melanin-based plumage coloration
275
was obtained by examining illustrations of bird species censused in
276
Chernobyl and Fukushima in Cramp and Simmons (1977-1994) and Wild
277
Bird Society of Japan (1982). Eumelanic and pheomelanic traits are
278
generally of distinctive colors, the former being responsible for black and
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grey colors and the latter for yellowish, reddish, chestnut and brown colors
280
(Toral et al. 2008). Eumelanin and pheomelanin normally occur
281
simultaneously in tissues (Ozeki et al. 1997), but the darker colors
282
conferred by eumelanin (Toral et al. 2008) make evident the lower content
11
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of this pigment in chestnut and brown as compared to black and grey colors
284
(Galván and Alonso-Alvarez 2009). Furthermore, many bird species have
285
feather melanin contents of high purity (> 90% of either eumelanin or
286
pheomelanin; McGraw and Wakamatsu 2004; J. J. Negro pers. com.).
287
Therefore, we considered that black and grey plumage colors were
288
predominantly generated by eumelanin, while chestnut and brown colors
289
were predominantly generated by pheomelanin. We did not consider
290
conspicuous yellow or red colorations assumed to be generated by other
291
pigments (i.e. carotenoids), unless chemically identified as melanin-based
292
by Toral et al. (2008). Although a rough approximation to the real
293
proportion of eumelanic and pheomelanic plumage, the assumption that
294
black-grey colors are eumelanic and brown-chestnut colors are
295
pheomelanic should be adequate for comparative purposes (Owens and
296
Hartley 1998). Thus, we quantified the proportion of melanic plumage
297
parts by examining illustrations in Cramp and Simmons (1977-1994) and
298
and Wild Bird Society of Japan (1982). Illustrations of both resting and
299
flying adult birds in breeding plumage were examined. The method used by
300
Beauchamp and Heeb (2001) and Galván (2008) was followed to obtain
301
estimates of the proportion of eu- and pheomelanic color present in the
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plumage of each species, assigning scores that ranged from 0 (total lack of
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melanic color) to 5 (all melanic). When a species was sexually dichromatic
304
regarding melanin-based coloration, eumelanic and pheomelanic scores
305
were the average obtained for males and females. When a species had
306
different subspecies or color morphs differing in extent or type of melanin-
307
based coloration, we used the nominate subspecies or the most common
308
morph, respectively. It must be noted that eu- and pheomelanic color
309
patches can coexist in the same feathers, and thus the sum of both color
310
scores, in a species that presents both color types, is not always necessarily
311
5, but higher values are also possible.
12
312
313
All interspecific data are reported in Appendix 1 in the electronic
supplementary material.
314
315
Statistical analyses
316
Body mass, migration distance and radiation level were log10-transformed
317
and coverage with agricultural land, herbs, shrub and trees, deciduous
318
forest, coniferous forest and cloud cover were square-root arcsine-
319
transformed before analyses.
320
We quantified the relationship between abundance of different
321
species and level of radiation by estimating the Kendall rank-order
322
correlation for the relationship between abundance and log10-transformed
323
radiation while including all potentially confounding variables in the
324
statistical models (coverage by herbs, shrub, trees, agricultural habitat,
325
deciduous forest and coniferous forest, altitude, cloud cover, temperature,
326
wind force, time of day and time of day squared). We used non-parametric
327
rank order correlations because the assumptions of parametric analyses
328
were violated. We have previously shown that statistical control for the
329
confounding variables listed above did not affect the conclusions of
330
analyses (Møller and Mousseau 2011a). Therefore, we used the Kendall
331
rank-order correlations from analyses of abundance in relation to radiation
332
rather than partial rank-order correlations in the subsequent analysis. In this
333
model we included slope as the response variable and body mass, diet,
334
migration distance and area and the two-way interactions between body
335
mass, diet, migration distance and area as predictors. We did not include
336
other interactions because there were no a priori predictions.
337
It is a common underlying assumption of most statistical analyses
338
that each data point provides equally precise information about the
339
deterministic part of total process variation, i.e. the standard deviation of
340
the error term is constant over all values of the predictor variable(s) (Sokal
13
341
and Rohlf 1995). Because estimates of slopes depend on sample sizes, and
342
because sample sizes vary considerably among bird species, such variation
343
can have serious consequences for conclusions (Garamszegi and Møller
344
2010, 2011). The standard solution to this problem is to weight each
345
observation by sampling effort in order to use all data relative to their
346
importance, by giving each datum a weight that reflects its degree of
347
precision due to sampling effort (Draper and Smith 1981; Neter et al. 1996;
348
Garamszegi and Møller 2010). Therefore, we weighted the statistical model
349
by sample size. All analyses were made with JMP (SAS 2012).
350
351
Results
352
We investigated the impact of low-dose radiation on the abundance of 154
353
species of birds using 2398 standardized point counts, which resulted in
354
records of 15,811 individual birds. A total of 14 species are common to
355
Chernobyl and Fukushima allowing for comparison of the effect of
356
radiation on abundance of the same species in two different environments
357
(Møller et al. 2012a). The three species showing the strongest negative
358
correlated with level of background radiation level in Chernobyl were
359
yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella, chaffinch Fringilla coelebs and
360
blackcap Sylvia atricapilla. In Fukushima they were tree sparrow Passer
361
montanus, carrion crow Corvus corone and barn swallow Hirundo rustica.
362
The mean Kendall rank-order correlation between abundance and radiation
363
was -0.109 (SE = 0.012), N = 154 species, differing significantly from the
364
expected value zero in the absence of any effect of radiation (t = 9.18, df =
365
153, P < 0.0001). The mean correlation was -0.047 (0.008) in Chernobyl,
366
but almost three-fold stronger at -0.150 (SE = 0.022) in Fukushima, with
367
both the mean and the variance being significantly larger in Fukushima
368
than in Chernobyl (Welch ANOVA: F = 19.04, df = 1, 11735, P < 0.0001;
369
Levene’s test, F = 21.73, df = 1, 152, P < 0.0001).
14
370
The statistical model explaining variation in the correlations
371
between abundance and background radiation for different species
372
accounted for 64% of the variance (Table 1). Five out of seven main effects
373
were significant as were five out of six interaction effects between area and
374
ecological variables (Table 1). The correlations between abundance and
375
radiation level were more negative in species with smaller body mass, and
376
this effect differed significantly between Chernobyl and Fukushima as
377
shown by the significant interaction (Fig. 2; Table 1). Carnivorous species
378
showed more strongly negative correlations than herbivorous species and
379
this effect differed between areas with a larger difference in Fukushima
380
than in Chernobyl (Fig. 3; Table 1). Migration distance did not show a
381
significant main effect, but the migration effect differed between
382
Chernobyl and Fukushima with a stronger negative effect in migrants in
383
Chernobyl, and a stronger negative effect in residents in Fukushima (Fig. 4;
384
Table 1).
385
Plumage color pigments showed different relationships with impact
386
of radiation on abundance. Species with carotenoid-based coloration
387
showed a weaker negative effect than species without carotenoid-based
388
coloration (Table 1). The interaction between carotenoids and area was
389
significant with a stronger negative effect in species with than without
390
carotenoid-based plumage in Chernobyl, and a weaker negative effect in
391
species with than without such plumage in Fukushima (Fig. 5A). There was
392
only a weak and non-significant main effect of eumelanin and no
393
significant effect of the interaction (Fig. 5B, Table 1). There was no
394
significant main effect of pheomelanin (Table 1). A strong interaction
395
between pheomelanin and area implies that in Chernobyl species with
396
pheomelanin-based coloration experienced stronger negative effects of
397
radiation than species without such coloration, while in Fukushima species
15
398
with pheomelanin showed weaker negative effects than species without
399
pheomelanin in their plumage (Fig. 5C).
400
401
Discussion
402
The main findings of this extensive study of breeding birds at Chernobyl
403
and Fukushima were a negative impact of ionizing radiation on abundance
404
and a number of ecological characteristics explaining variation in
405
heterogeneity of this effect. We found significant main effects of body
406
mass, diet, migration and feather pigments on the impact of radiation on
407
abundance. Importantly, there were significant interactions between area
408
and ecological characteristics, implying that the effects of radiation were
409
not the same at Chernobyl and Fukushima. We will briefly discuss these
410
findings.
411
Body size is an important correlate of life history, physiology and
412
ecology (Bennett and Owens 2002). Small species eat disproportionately
413
more for their body size than large species due to their surface to volume
414
ratio. Therefore, we should expect small species to ingest
415
disproportionately more radionuclides than large species. Among bird
416
species in Fukushima there was a stronger negative relationship between
417
abundance and radiation in small-bodied species than among large species,
418
and a similar relationship was found in Chernobyl with a significant
419
interaction between radiation and area. Higher metabolism and higher rates
420
of ingestion by small species should also result in greater production of free
421
radicals and hence greater competition for anti-oxidants between use for
422
metabolism and use due to radiation exposure.
423
Diet and its interaction with study area was a significant predictor of
424
impact of radiation on abundance. We predicted and found an effect of
425
bioaccumulation of radionuclides in the food web (Voitovich and Afonin
426
2002; Yakushev et al. 1999). Animals at higher trophic levels generally
16
427
have higher levels of radionuclide concentrations than animals at lower
428
levels (e. g. Kryshev and Ryabov 1990; Kryshev et al. 1992; Smith et al.
429
2002). Here we found a stronger negative effect in secondary consumers
430
compared to herbivores, and the interaction between diet and area was
431
statistically significant, with a stronger effect in Fukushima compared to
432
Chernobyl.
433
Long-distance migration involves high metabolic effort and
434
extensive use of antioxidants. Møller and Mousseau (2007b) have
435
previously reported for birds from Chernobyl that species with longer
436
migrations had lower abundance at high radiation levels. Here we were
437
unable to document a significant main effect of migration on the impact of
438
radiation on abundance. However, we did show a stronger negative impact
439
of radiation on migrants in Chernobyl, but on residents in Fukushima. The
440
Japanese and the European avifaunas differ in their migration distance
441
because more than twice as many species of birds at Fukushima were
442
residents (54% of 57 species) as the species at Chernobyl (21% of 97
443
species). Furthermore, Western Palearctic species migrate longer distances
444
and cross more inhospitable deserts than Eastern Palearctic migrants, while
445
Japanese migrants have the possibility to stop at any of the many
446
archipelagoes during migration. Thus it appears that it is whether a species
447
is migrating or not rather than the actual migration distance that is the
448
important predictor of the effects of radiation on abundance.
449
The slope of the relationship between abundance and radiation was
450
significantly related to whether plumage color was based on carotenoids
451
and pheomelanin. In Fukushima, species without carotenoids in their
452
plumage had lower abundance at high radiation levels, while that was not
453
the case for species with carotenoid-based plumage color. We have
454
previously reported for Chernobyl that species with carotenoid-based
455
plumage are more strongly negatively impacted (Møller and Mousseau
17
456
2007b) as we report here. The slope of the relationship between abundance
457
and background radiation differed between species with and without
458
plumage containing carotenoids and phaeomelanin, but not eumelanin, as
459
we a priori had predicted. The two former kinds of pigment-based
460
coloration impose a trade-off between antioxidant use for maintenance
461
caused by radiation and use of antioxidant pigments allocated to plumage
462
(Møller and Mousseau 2007b; Galván et al. 2011). Interestingly, these
463
effects differed between Fukushima and Chernobyl for carotenoid- and
464
phaeomelanin-based coloration, but not for eumelanin coloration. The main
465
difference between Fukushima and Chernobyl is the duration of chronic
466
exposure to radiation (3 versus 28 years), the duration of accumulation of
467
deleterious mutations (Møller and Mousseau 2011b) and differences in
468
composition of radionuclides (cesium in Fukushima and strontium, cesium
469
and plutonium in Chernobyl). Galván et al. (2014) have previously
470
suggested and provided evidence for pheomelanin playing an active role in
471
resistance to radiation.
472
We have previously investigated the importance of similarity in
473
effect of ionizing radiation on abundance due to common phylogenetic
474
descent, showing that conclusions are independent of phylogeny (Møller
475
and Mousseau 2007b; Galván et al. 2011, 2014). Hence this justifies the
476
absence of phylogenetic analyses in the present study.
477
There may be many causes for differences in population trends of
478
birds. Here we have attempted to control statistically for a number of such
479
factors. We have previously shown that a habitat preference for human
480
proximity and other factors did not account for differences in population
481
trends among species (Møller et al. 2012a, b).
482
In conclusion, we have provided extensive information on the impact
483
of radiation on the abundance of breeding birds at Chernobyl and
484
Fukushima, and the ecological characteristics associated with such impacts
18
485
generally confirmed findings from previous studies at Chernobyl, although
486
most characteristics showed significant differences between Chernobyl and
487
Fukushima. This level of replication suggests that birds may constitute a
488
useful model system for investigating the impact of radiation and the
489
evolution of radiation-resistance in vertebrates.
490
491
Acknowledgments
492
help by Professor A. Hagiwara, T. Kanagawa, K. Kawai, Professor K.
493
Kawatsu and A. M. Smith in Japan. We are especially grateful to Namie-
494
cho and the people of Fukushima Prefecture who permitted and supported
495
us to conduct this study in the field. We gratefully acknowledge support
496
from the US National Science Foundation, the University of South Carolina
497
College of Arts & Sciences, CNRS (France), the Samuel Freeman
498
Charitable Trust, Qiagen GmbH, JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
499
26440254, and anonymous gifts from individuals in Japan.
500
We gratefully acknowledge logistic support and
19
501
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652
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653
Legends to figures
654
655
Fig. 1
Approximate location of census areas around Fukushima,
656
Japan indicated by dark blue dots (A) and Chernobyl, Ukraine and Belarus
657
indicated by light blue dots (B). Note that levels of radiation have only
658
been recorded at a limited number of sites
659
660
Fig. 2
Slope of the relationship between abundance and background
661
radiation in relation to body mass (g) in different species of birds
662
663
Fig. 3
Slope of the relationship between abundance and background
664
radiation in relation to diet in different species of birds
665
666
Fig. 4
Slope of the relationship between abundance and background
667
radiation in relation to migration in different species of birds
668
669
Fig. 5
670
radiation in relation to plumage color based on (A) carotenoids, (B)
671
eumelanin and (C) pheomelanin in different species of birds
672
673
Slope of the relationship between abundance and background
26
674
675
676
677
Fig. 1
27
678
679
680
681
682
Fig. 2
28
683
684
685
Fig. 3
29
686
687
688
689
690
Fig. 4
30
691
692
693
Fig. 5
31
694
32
695
Table 1
Model of slope of the relationship between abundance and level of background radiation in relation to
696
body mass (g), diet (0 – hervivory, 1 – carnivory), migration distance (º latitude), carotenoid score, eumelanin
697
score, pheomelanin score, area (Chernobyl, Fukushima), area x body mass, area x diet, area x migration distance,
698
area x carotenoids, area x eumelanin, area x pheomelanin in a model weighted by sample size. The model had the
699
statistics F = 22.16, df = 13, 140, r2 = 0.64, P < 0.0001
Source
df
Sum of
F
P
Estimate Error
< 0.0001
-0.267
0.050
squares
Intercept
Body mass
1
17.330
21.85
< 0.0001
0.099
0.021
Diet
1
10.303
10.30
0.0004
-0.045
0.012
Migration distance
1
0.237
0.30
0.59
-0.008
0.014
Carotenoids
1
10.821
13.65
0.0003
0.034
0.009
Eumelanin
1
3.019
3.81
0.053
-0.016
0.008
Pheomelanin
1
0.201
0.25
0.62
0.004
0.007
Area
1
22.620
22.62
< 0.0001
0.073
0.014
Area x Body mass
1
10.361
13.07
0.0004
-0.076
0.021
Area x Diet
1
15.959
20.12
< 0.0001
0.056
0.012
33
700
Area x Migration distance
1
12.148
15.31
< 0.0001
0.055
0.014
Area x Carotenoids
1
25.771
32.50
< 0.0001
-0.052
0.009
Area x Eumelanin
1
0.302
0.38
0.54
-0.016
0.008
Area x Pheomelanin
1
22.583
28.48
< 0.0001
-0.038
0.007
Error
153
111.023
Electronic Supplementary Material
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Authors' Response to Reviewers' Comments
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Dear Erik,
Thank you for your email. We have made all the changes that you suggested. Please find
enclosed this revised version.
All the best wishes,
Anders