Now! - Reality of Aid

Country Case Studies
The Reality of Aid
Published in the Philippines in 2016 by the Reality of Aid Network
IBON Center, 114 Timog Avenue, Quezon City 1103, Philippines
Editor: Pio Verzola Jr.
Managing Editor: Jennifer del Rosario-Malonzo
Layout & Cover Design: Jennifer Padilla
Cover Photos: UN Photo/Kibae Park
Printed and bound in the Philippines
All rights reserved
ISBN 978-971-9657-07-1
Acknowledgments
This collection of Country Case Studies on South-South Cooperation is a project of the CSO Partnership for
Development Effectiveness (CPDE) Working Group on South-South Cooperation (WG-SSC) led by the Reality of
Aid (RoA) Network. We would like to thank those who have generously contributed their knowledge and expertise.
The WG-SSC was assisted by Pio Verzola Jr. as content editor and Jennifer del Rosario-Malonzo as managing editor.
Contents
List of Acronyms
1
In
19
50
78
Rutendo Hadebe
88
115
for Developing Countries
123
131
Chinara Aitbaeva
137
AAA Accra Agenda for Action
AEFJN Africa Europe Faith Justice Network
ABC Agência Brasileira de Cooperação
(Brazilian Cooperation Agency)
ABONG Brazilian NGOs Association
ACP
ADB Asian Development Bank
AfDF African Development Fund
ALBA Alianza Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra América
(Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America)
BAPA Buenos Aires Plan of Action
BNDES Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social
BRL Brazilian Real
Caribbean Community
CELAC Comunidad de Estados Latinoamericanos y Caribeños
(Community of Latin American and Caribbean States)
CGFOME
COP Conference of Parties
CPLP Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portugues
(Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries)
CSO civil society organization
DDC District Development Committee (Nepal)
DRR Disaster Risk Reduction
ELAM Escuela Latinoamericana de Medicina
Embrapa Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária
(Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation)
Fiocruz Fundação Oswaldo Cruz
FOCEM Fundo para a Convergência Estrutural do MERCOSUL
(MERCOSUR Structural Convergence Fund)
G20 Group of 20
G77 Group of 77
Vaccine Alliance
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GON Government of Nepal
GPEDC Global Partnership for Effective Development Cooperation
Acronyms
LAC Latin America and the Caribbean
MDG Millennium Development Goals
middle-income countries
MRE Ministério das Relações Exteriores
NAM
NDB
NGO
NSC
ODA
OECD
OECD-DAC
PAA
Non-Alignment Movement
non-government organization
North-South Cooperation
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OECD’s Development Assistance Committee
Programa de Aquisição de Alimentos
PABA Plan of Action of Buenos Aires
PALOP
PRC People’s Republic of China
SADC Southern African Development Community
SDP small development project
SELA
(Latin American and Caribbean Economic System)
SME small and medium enterprises
SSC South-South cooperation
TAC Technical Aid Corps (Nigeria)
UNASUR
(Union of South American Nations)
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
USD US dollars
VDC Village Development Committees (Nepal)
WFP World Food Programme
WTO World Trade Organisation
8
Introduction: South-South Cooperation
Evolves in the Midst of 21st Century Realities
Background of SSC
Aware of neocolonial attempts to preserve
South-South Cooperation (SSC) is by no means new.
developing countries realised the advantages
of uniting under one framework rather than
aligning with one or other global power. This led
to bilateral and multilateral ties of solidarity and
efforts to build and sustain cooperation programs
This history is rooted in the common struggle of
developing countries (also called the global South)
against the colonialism mainly of Western capitalist
powers (the global North) throughout much of
aspirations of post-colonial development.
the needed institutional framework. These
various modes of cooperation were later broadly
categorized as SSC.
promote and achieve their own self-reliant development as individual countries and
collectively as countries of the global South.
and explore its various aspects or elements that make for its complexity—which is the
The Bandung era (1955-1980)
the socialist camp had been encouraging its own
version of building ties among colonized peoples
to wean them away from dependence on the
or threat of socialism-inspired solidarity among
these colonial and post-colonial peoples was a
major factor in the decision of the Western powers
to offer their own development initiatives through
the UN and later the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD).
Early South-South aid providers
took initial shape through the 1955 Bandung
Conference and its Declaration on Promotion
of World Peace and Cooperation.1 Attended by
institutions and developing countries such as
conference condemned all forms of colonialism
and upheld the call for development through
cooperation among the developing countries
and Asian states also decided to band together at
Arab Emirates (UAE) already operating as
development aid providers as early as the 1950s
Bandung-NAM-G77 spirit and principles of
The People’s Republic of China (PRC) started
giving development aid on a bilateral basis in
much broader Group of 77 (G-77).
The
establishment
of
the
Non-Aligned
“Eight Principles for Economic Aid and Technical
and their increased activism through the 1960s
and pushed the South-South agenda not just
in development cooperation but on all fronts.
expanded cooperation ties with more developing
countries and funded infrastructure projects after
it resumed its legal UN seat in 1971. (China 2011)
relied mainly on internal state-led development
to neighboring countries—Nepal from 1951
countries in the international arena.
on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in 1964.
st
session in Geneva
also participated in multilateral initiatives such
Africa and Asia to create the G-77. Through
and the UAE) were among the early non-Western
of Economic Cooperation among Developing
Countries (ECDC) and Technical Cooperation
among Developing Countries (TCDC). ECDC
and TCDC would eventually converge into the
broader UN framework of SSC.
in 1974. They also led in creating multilateral
funds such as the Arab Fund for Economic and
attended by 138 states. The conference adopted
the Arab Monetary Fund (1976). (CPDE 2014)
included 38 recommendations for promoting and
Broader UN and multilateral support for
SSC, 1972-1978
global levels. The UNGA promptly endorsed
Through a
Assembly and related agencies gradually articulated
their support for cooperation among developing
countries in the form of TCDC and ECDC as
the precursors of the broader arena of SSC. The
concepts of TCDC/ECDC were further expanded
in the 1976-78 period through a series of Southled or South-biased international conferences and
every two years to monitor its implementation.
Global shift
The next two decades after the Buenos Aires
Conference (1978-2000) saw major shifts in the
international economic system and geopolitical
countries alike.
The watershed event that tied all these was a
UN conference on TCDC in September 1978
Box 2.
The UN created a Working Group on TCDC in 1972 (renamed as Special Unit on
promoting TCDC: Declaration and Programme of Action on the Establishment of
The concepts of TCDC and ECDC were further expanded in such South-led or
Conference of Ministers of Labour of the non-aligned and other developing countries
3
from their major exports combined with higher
Southern countries were forced to increasingly
into severe debt crises in many cash-strapped
developing countries.2
aggressive “free-market” liberalization of trade
attached conditionalities in order to successfully
impose neoliberal reforms globally. (CPDE 2014)
development aid underwent a long and steep
of a balanced distribution among developing
throughout the world. Markets and production
went into East European “transition” economies
or high-tech revolution where the US-led North
saw the collapse of the Soviet Union-led bloc
and the end of the Cold War. But there was no
the 1997 meltdown.
These global trends put new constraints on
the ability of the global South to cope with
blunted the advances they gained in the 1960s
and 1970s. Only selected developing countries
stricken regions especially in the Middle East.
But precisely because Northern aid processes
remained as an attractive option for poor
countries seeking to cope with the crises and
boot-strap their
and other multilateral bodies where developing
countries are amply represented. The G-77
consistently pushed for implementing and
G-77 pushes for SSC.)
with its capitalist reforms. But they too were hit
SSC stumbles, reasserts itself
(1980-2000)
multilateral policy documents on SSC were
systematically elaborated.3
Commission was formally established.4 Three
These global trends produced major impacts on
The Challenge to the South (South
capacity of developing countries for SSC greatly
weakened from the 1980s onwards. Even the
South-South Consultation and Coordination
was established as an informal forum at the 9th
serve as a dialogue partner with the G7/G8.
4
Review of TCDC promptly supported the South
and UN agencies to include its recommendations
in their development plans.5 With a strong push
UN Secretary-General produced the report “New
The “New Directions” report took stock of the
great changes in the global situation and called
for a more strategic TCDC orientation focused
cooperation and private-sector funding. The
report also came up with the concept of “pivotal
were called upon to share their SSC capacities
and experiences with other developing countries
economic clout and cooperative interaction.6
push for bold South-South initiatives throughout the 1980s and 1990s.
steps towards a Global System of Trade Preferences (GSTP) among
initiatives in marketing and technology
development and economic cooperation among developing countries.
UN to convene a global conference on SSC (which was held 15 years later).
Jose (1997) raised the need to develop and strengthen SSC partnerships among
Action
on
“Regional
and
Subregional
Economic
Cooperation
strengthen SSC among developing-country regional and interregional groupings and through sectoral institutions and interactions.
5
SSC Into the 21st Century
have also strengthened economic ties among
themselves. South-South trade as a share of
th
years of the 21st
major trends emerge that are directly relevant to
of South-South relations.
trade fell from 46% to less than 30% over the
1980-2010 period. LDCs’ export to the South
as percentage of their total export soared from
35.1% in 1995 to 58% in 2012. China has become
by 2012 the value of South-South trade exceeded
that of Southern exports to Northern countries.
The economic “rise of the South”
OECD and other multilateral bodies that a
in 2011 when compared with 2001. (Freemantle
and Stevens 2012 as cited in CPD 2014)
experienced strong growth in the past three
countries with strengthened economic and
political clout in world affairs.
costs due to the advantage of geographic
gaining on the North in terms of their share
in global economic activity. Between 1980 and
opened alternative development paths for lesstrade partnerships and production systems.
from 25% to 47% with respect to world trade
The growing South-South trend is also seen
half of world GDP. All Southern regions have
experienced growth even during the worst years
of the post-2008 recession. The economic clout
The share of developing countries in global
in 1980 to 31% in 2012. (UNCTAD 2013a as
Developing countries are not simply showing
economic growth as individual countries. They
6
comprehensive global economic bloc.7
of USD 50 billion and the goal of mobilising
resources to support development projects
among member-countries and in the global South
as a whole.
past two decades. While developing countries only
The NDB bears special mention with regards
to over 50% by 2012 (including a 19% increase
and Africa only 5%. (OECD-DAC 2014)
The rise of major Southern aid providers
representation and participation of membercountries while avoiding the dangers of being
monopolized by a few member-countries based
on economic clout.
Riding the crest of the so-called rise of the
with an initial capital of USD 50 billion and a main
traditional circle of Northern countries that are
members of OECD’s Development Assistance
Committee (DAC). These new aid providers are
has so far accumulated USD 18 million.
even as several high-income countries in Eastern
Europe have also become non-DAC aid providers.
The volume of Southern development aid
Southern development aid is fast expanding
estimated at between USD 16.1 billion and 19
billion.8
reached over USD 4 billion. SSC aid is expanding
not just in volume but in its various modalities as
h public and private initiatives
and involving diverse partners.
160 million in 2005 to nearly USD 923 million in
2010. (OECD-DAC 2014)
Worsening North-South disputes and
global poverty amid multiple crises
Overlapping with this trend is the fast-expanding
nevertheless must be viewed in the longer-term
7
context of persistent and even worsening Northand social unrest amid recurring and multiple
crises throughout the world. The global South
itself is being pulled down by inequalities on
different levels. Such a context brings with it a
wide array of challenges and pitfalls for SSC.
The most developed countries led by the US have
the “increasing hierarchization of the Global
South” in which a few emerging powers such as
themselves into an “alternative North.”
differences in economic status. The OECD
groupings (OECD-DAC 2014):
Group
have also made extra efforts to strike a balance
among the various global blocs through UN
not risen above the many underlying disputes.
These have been further complicated by recurring
The South may have started to overtake the
North in such terms as GDP output and growth
multiple crises that has buffeted the world.
Developing countries as a whole remain more
their populations have markedly lower incomes
and living standards. The GDP slowdown for
inequalities within these countries. Some 1 billion
people—about 3/4 of the world’s poorest (living
under $1.25 a day)—now live in so-called middleincome countries which are basically just a notch
higher from LDCs. (CPDE 2014)
Economic
development
remains
extremely
development concentrated in a few emerging
8
1
are
LDCs
that
are
also
24% of the world’s poor live (33 countries
mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia)
where 6% of the world’s poor live (15
countries mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa)
13% of the world’s poor live (16 countries)
Group 4 are mainly lower-middle-income
live (22 countries in Asia or the Americas)
Group 5 are mainly upper-middleworld’s poor live (60 countries in Asia
upper-middle-income countries are still
SSC discourse and institutions take
center stage in the international arena
st
discourse and institutions have taken center stage
(including their various agencies and processes).
Consistent UN support for SSC remains
particularly important because of its global
9
A long chain of UN-organised summits and
conferences addressed key policy issues that
helped further mainstream SSC discourse and
institutions. These include:
demand from developing countries for capacity
support for SSC and TDC.10 (UN 2009).
This landmark conference was followed by other
the Third and Fourth UN Conferences
on the Least Developed Countries (UN
role and priorities in LDC development.
among others.
Conferences on Financing for Development
The Nairobi conference impelled the entire
UN system to be more strategic in setting up
July 2015) and their outcome documents
strengthen its current institutional framework for
in its operational development activities. UN
likewise upheld the role of SSC even as the
Northern commitment of providing 0.7%
The World Summit on Sustainable
Development
(Johannesburg
in
2002) adopted a declaration and an
implementation plan that endorsed SSC
with strong regional and subregional action.
meeting at the World Summit in New
York recognized SSC’s achievements and
support SSC through triangular cooperation.
programmes have moved to strengthen their own
capacities to support SSC and to mainstream it
indicators.
of its policies and programmes in its Strategic
which coordinates SSC on behalf of the UN
development system through its own 2014-2017
Strategic Framework. (UN 2013) UN member
States have also committed to strengthening and
enhancing system-wide coordination of SSC
regional and national levels.
UN Conference on SSC took place in
the basic principles of SSC (respect for
non-interference in domestic affairs and
Organization (FAO) and World Food Programme
(WFP) have quickly followed suit in incorporating
the SSC principles and best practices in their
policies and strategies. An annual Global
South-South Development (GSSD) Expo
exchange experiences on Southern development
9
mechanisms and explore their application in
High-Level Forums on Aid Effectiveness. The
G-77 summits.
produced the landmark Paris Declaration on
anniversary. All three
South Summits so far have consistently upheld
th
donor states to broaden support for SSC.
SSC-related issues in the face of the changing
global situation and the shifting terrain of
targets and broader initiatives and institutional
measures especially at the regional level.
was laying the groundwork for the 2003 Marrakech
the light of global economic and political changes.
Busan has built a consensus around a set of principles
on development effectiveness that apply to a wider
which therefore intersect more extensively with the
overarching principles of SSC. Central to the Busan
principles is a commitment to developing country
ownership and inclusive development partnerships.
and information systems as priority areas for SSC.
Proliferation
of
institutional
structures.
period of Southern resurgence is marked by the
proliferation of multi-state institutional structures
that serve SSC to a lesser or greater extent. These
South America-Arab countries Summits (ASPA).
This trend raises policy questions as to whether
such multifarious structures will enhance the SSC
role of existing multilateral institutions (UN and
of Southern fragmentation. (Stuenkel 2013)
Mexico City welcomed Southern initiatives that
“deepen the understanding of the nature and
modalities” of SSC committed to pursue “ways
and means to enhance its developmental impact
as well as its potential synergies with the efforts
of other development cooperation partners and
modalities.” (GPEDC 2014)
(RoA) has played a huge role in bringing civil
society to welcome the potentials and recognize
the challenges of SSC from the standpoint of
people’s rights. As one of the few truly global
civil society initiatives focusing on analysis and
lobbying for international aid reform and poverty
Agenda allotted an entire article extolling the
importance of SSC towards aid effectiveness.
support the post-2015 development agenda
“in ways that focus on the rights of poor and
marginalized populations and that advance a
development cooperation paradigm based on
of Aid 2014)
demanding that SSC “promote the development
of global economic nstructures and policies
Major SSC Players
literature on SSC from its partner CSOs to be
between 7.8% and 9.8% of total development
and potentials of South-South development
cooperation from a Southern civil society
perspective.” (Reality of Aid 2010)
at between USD 16.1 billion and 19 billion.11
envelop of SSC’s potentialities further (together
with triangular cooperation) by looking into its
a tentative list of major SSC aid providers in
the 2010-2013 period. Such a list would include
The latest available data from OECD-DAC
critical areas for global partnership towards
SSC-based partnerships are strongly urged to
TaBle 1.
n.a. = not available
key SSC providers are presented.
TaBle
1.
China
distributed more or less equally to some 120
partner countries
on its “Eight Principles for Economic Aid and
Technical Assistance to Other Countries” set
projects) as the most prominent modality. The
economic infrastructure.
compared to USD 2.6 billion in 2012 (which may
have reached USD 2.8 billion if its contributions
90% of China’s bilateral funding. Apart from its
China has also started to engage in triangular
India
aid going to Bhutan between 2000 and 2010. The
and information technology.
The Ministry of External Affairs (through its
Development
Partnership
Administration)
coordinates all bilateral aid. The Ministry of
Finance manages multilateral aid and oversees
South Africa
South Africa’s development aid dipped to USD
million in 2012 (OECD estimates) due to changes
when measured in South African currency. Of
multilateral organisations.
South African aid prioritises Africa and focuses
on member countries of the Southern African
Brazil
for managing and coordinating South Africa’s
it channeled USD 272 million through multilateral
organisations. Brazil’s 2010 ODA is a big increase
from 2009 mainly due to its additional expenses for
its post-earthquake humanitarian and peacekeeping
includes “the African continent” and “strengthening
plans to create the South African Development
Agency (which will replace the African Renaissance
development aid is through the UN.
Most of Brazil’s development aid goes to other
The Ministry of External Relations oversees
Brazil’s development aid and coordinates its
South Africa’s triangular cooperation is in
aid is mainly channeled through the African
Development Bank and the African Union.
Reiteration of SSC Principles and
Key Messages
The Nairobi outcome document (UN 2009)
principles that have been evolving through
principles are a hybrid of the distinctly Southern
politics of solidarity rooted in Bandung and
may be motivated by principles of solidarity in
equally driven by their own strategic interests and
corresponding foreign policies. A fast-growing
Southern power and its extremely poor neighbor
Normative principles
Respect for national sovereignty
Partnership among equals
Non-conditionality
Non-interference in domestic affairs
Operational principles
Mutual accountability and transparency
Development effectiveness
Coordination of evidence- and resultsbased initiatives
Multi-stakeholder approach
than proven its actual capacity and potential to
play a crucial and distinct role in development
an alternative to traditional aid. Northern aid
remains as a major source of ODA for developing
these South-South relationships may evolve into
new forms of inequalities and underdevelopment.
of all emerging Southern donors (as distinct
to closer scrutiny—equally as with traditional
Northern donors—and framed within a broader
analysis of their strategic economic and security
cultural agenda.
the most urgent and crucial issues that must
be resolved according to the widely accepted
play its historic development role and help achieve
Southern development goals more effectively in
the years ahead.
On tied aid
Tied aid has long been an issue in development
Southern aid is an additional resource to support
on eradication of poverty and social inequalities
and often exploitative restrictions on recipient
them to deal more assertively and effectively with
North-South development issues. The worldwide
agreement thus stands that SSC should be further
strengthened and promoted at various levels.
spillover effects to the local economy. (See Box 5.)
and inequalities in recent decades has also
shown the downside aspects of South-South
relations. While emerging Southern powers
The demand of developing countries to untie
foreign aid applies to both Northern and Southern
non-conditionality. Whatever advantages that
goods or services from the donor country may
applying its own procurement systems and standards
to SSC projects based on its own priorities and
Southern donor must practice transparency with its
partners on the comparative advantages of goods
and services provided through their aid relationships.
and CSOs at the national and local level.
On debt sustainability
Country ownership is a central and established
On country and democratic ownership
Poor countries seeking debt relief will surely
welcome new soft loans from Southern creditors
that are easier to avail of than from traditional
content and direction of the national development
strategy and the development partnership (the
when an emerging economic power such as China
is only too welcome to saddle cash-strapped
developing countries with unsustainable debt
burdens. Both Southern lenders and lendees
should both practice due prudence and due
diligence. As equally demanded of Northern
case not be dictated in unilateral fashion by the
donor country. Complying with SSC principles
are key conditions for country ownership.
democratic ownership. The recipient country’s
to be odious or illegitimate should be canceled.
On mutual accountability and transparency
Mutual accountability and transparency are
operational principles both of North-South and
South-South development cooperation. SSC
aid providers may face situations different from
Northern providers that prevent them from being
be limited to governments—which weakens the
ideal of country ownership—but rather expanded
to ensure the support and participation of other
stakeholders within the recipient country. This
CSO space in SSC processes.
On CSO engagement
(if gradual) steps towards adopting the same
standards of transparency and accountability as
DAC donors. Such steps should include expanding
public participation in monitoring and evaluation
CSOs have much to contribute to development
by the recipient country mainly on goods or services produced by
the donor country or by a small group of preferred countries. Such
and prevents recipient countries from considering alternative
sources of (possibly cheaper or better quality) goods or services.
and indirectly undermining domestic efforts
opportunities are too inadequate for CSOs to
engage SSC processes.
The institutional development of SSC should
may also lead to failure to adhere to social and
environmental safeguards and standards that are
already preset and applicable to the project.
recipients and by multilateral bodies at all levels
formal bodies and broad consultation processes
that will help determine and monitor SSC
non-conditionality and non-interference should
not serve as excuse to aggravate social and
because such an approach will defeat the
international standards on environment and
enabling environment for CSOs to be effective
development actors must also be secured.
On human rights, democracy and good
governance
While SSC’s principles of respect for national
interference in domestic affairs are attractive to
poor countries with limited development funding
issues can also have the unintended effects of
rewarding abusive and corrupt regimes that have
operations adhere to such laws and standards
as these apply to programmes and projects in
partner countries.
The succeeding articles in this compilation will
as their policies and practices of development
cooperation evolve in the midst of early 21stcentury realities.
References
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Centre
partnership.pdf (29pp)
(31pp)
th
Report1.pdf
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pdf (16pp)
th
Summit
the Non-Aligned Movement. New Delhi, India, 7-12
South Commission. 1990. The Challenge to the South (The
Towards-a-New-Paradigm.pdf (26pp)
Southeast Asia and the Role of Japan. VRF Series No. 489.
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th
download/4314031e.pdf (430pp)
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Countries, 9th session, New York, 30 May-2 June 1995.
th
th
Developing Countries, 13
th
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Session.
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(13pp)
America and the Caribbean). These countries, which included the fastest-growing economies) accounted for the bulk of
the world’s population.
Endnotes
1
ence and support of the People’s Republic of China, including the
adoption of some principles inherent in the PRC’s foreign policy.
7
The BRICS countries are still mostly part of the developing
world, although in many UN and OECD agencies they are now
often categorized separately as emerging economies.
2
By 2000, the debt service payments of developing countries
accounted for 6.3 per cent of their GDP.
8
3
Examples of such policy documents were the Non-Aligned Action
Programme for ECDC and the Caracas Programme of Action
adopted by the High-level Conference on ECDC in May 1981.
The real value of SSC aid is probably higher, because much
of it remains unreported and also some of it come in forms
that are hard to quantify.
9
In 2003, UNDP’s Special Unit for Technical Cooperation among
Developing Countries (TCDC) became the Special Unit for
4
5
The Non-Governmental and Independent Commission of the
South, or South Commission for short, was the result of a call for its
establishment at the 8th NAM Summit Meeting in Harare (1986).
mainstreaming of SSC by declaring 19 December as annual
UN Day for SSC (later changed to 12 September to mark the
The OECD-DAC was not to be outdone in this regard. As early as 1991, it adopted new orientations that emphasized the
relevance of SSC in multilateral technical cooperation.
and implementing TCDC was adopted).
-
10
6
Ghana, Mauritius, Nigeria, Senegal and South Africa (in Africa); China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Republic
of Korea, Singapore and Thailand (in Asia); Egypt and Tunisia (in the Middle East); Malta and Turkey (in Central and
Eastern Europe); Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa
Rica, Cuba, Mexico, Peru and Trinidad and Tobago (in Latin
come-21-Dec-09.pdf
11 These are mere estimates because there is paucity of reports
on hard data from many smaller aid providers, and also due
to varied categories of SSC aid. Most estimates also exclude
Southern contributions through multilateral facilities.
South-South Cooperation:
Argentina Case Study
Cecilia Milesi
Introduction
The following article presents a case study about
the experience of the Republic of Argentina in
South-South Cooperation (SSC).
of the CSO Partnership for Development
Effectiveness (CPDE)1
with Reality of Aid Network2 and the Red El
Encuentro de Argentina (Argentine Network El
Encuentro).3 CPDE is one of the main global
Section II. The debate about the SSC
approach in Argentina. This section sums
divergences on Argentina’s position on NorthSouth Cooperation (NSC)—complementarity
or contrast—or discussions about which SSC
civil society to improve international cooperation
supported.
development effectiveness. The objective is to
introduce Argentine SSC politics and practices
to key actors working on the national as well
Section III. SSC in Argentina and on the
principles agreed in the Accra, Busan
and Mexico HLFs
analyse some Argentinian positions regarding
the principles agreed in Accra to promote
development effectiveness. This allows us to start
general debates on international development
and analysis relevant to the following issues:
Section I. Origin, development and context
of SSC in Argentina. We present an analysis of
Argentina’s foreign policy and its evolution. The
analysis focuses on Argentina’s relations with
several multilateral cooperation agencies and
groups formed by North and/or South countries.
Section IV. Initiatives, processes and impacts
of SSC in Argentina. This section presents the
main initiatives of Argentina’s SSC—especially
those openly labelled as SSC. These include
multilateral cooperation in common workspaces
such as the Community of Latin American
South American Nations (UNASUR) and the
bilateral cooperation from the
de Cooperación Sur-Sur y Triangular (FO.AR). We
present qualitative and quantitative information
countries and regions. Note that we didn’t have
access to updated quantitative information by
FO.AR. We thus opted for systematising and
organising public information (programme’s
website) and other secondary sources (see
methodology below).
Section V. Argentine SSC good practices. This
section explores one of the most noteworthy
good practices of Argentina’s SSC: the Prothis single programme since both interviewed
people and consulted literature assert some of its
coordination and networking with several local
various agencies
the support of various international donors and
allows the experience to grow to an important
Section VI. Argentine civil society and SSC.
possible areas towards stronger development of
SSC projects involving Argentina’s civil society.
We present considerations about the joint work of
methodology is in line with SSC principles and
values.
Section VIII. Vision of Argentina’s SSC future
and challenges.
recapitulate some considerations on the future of
faced ahead.
We hope this paper contributes to strengthening
and improving Argentina’s SSC practices in a way
that favours a future of multilateral solidarity among
equal countries pursuing a world of development
with inclusion and peace worthy for all.
Note on methodology
This document has been made with information
structured interviews with some key national
taken from diverse sites such as the Foreign
programmes and agencies. We listed in Annex 1
(at the end of this article) the people who have
accessed websites.
Section I. Origin, development
and context of SSC in Argentina
to amplify direct participation in implementing
Argentinian civil society develops SSC projects
and institutional changes at the global level.
Section VII. Principles of SSC in practice.
Argentina—as one of the most active countries
in the UN and other bodies enabling political
particular attention to the FO.AR. Clarifying
some characteristics of the methodology and
own participation in debates and will propose
international development policies considering
among different development models marked by
by developing countries in cooperation
policies including in the decision making
by the right of veto of UN Security Council
stressed that development is related to
its notion of “South” by being distinguished (or
overcoming their role as suppliers of raw
materials and natural resources. Argentina
stood against the “trickle-down theory” as
a development model. According to social
sciences in Argentina as well as in Brazil
and Chile underdevelopment is explained
power with its positions related to semi-uniform
by banks and institutions which are created and
international cooperation based on its support (or
not) to ideas about international cooperation as
transformation of
the international
system’s foundations. Argentina took part
in alternative spaces such as the NonAligned Movement and the Group of 77.
alternatives and human rights-based models.
2.
different key historical moments that trace the
trajectory of its vision of international cooperation:
1.
context of decolonisation of African and
Asian countries. Political and technical
inequality and unbalanced development were
mainly related to structural asymmetries of
the international system and not so much
with notions of guaranteeing “trickle-down
economies” and stabilisation through aid
policies and international solidarity. The
main issue was to disrupt the forms of
control and work division sustained by
the countries of the “centre”—generally
by direct intervention in the sovereign
affairs of the least developed countries.
Bandung Conference (1955)4 and endorsed
given the diversity and various needs of
integration and dialogue. Argentina stood as
Aires was held (1978) and the Buenos Aires
Plan of Action5
as a process of exchange and collaboration in
technical capacities adapted to and developed
Argentina exerted efforts to highlight
complementarities with the Global North
and knowledge transfer. The possibility of
egalitarian cooperation that facilitates aid with
and institutional support became a leading
structural vision of development was
presented to complement the technical one.
The notion of Technical Cooperation among
Developing Countries is still today one of
the fundamental pillars of South-South
foreign policy. The Buenos Aires Plan of
Action is nowadays one of the fundamental
organising pillars of SSC global policies
include a multidimensional point of view
participation of the most excluded ones
(
Argentine foreign policy oscillates between
critical participation
in multilateral spaces (the UN and its
different programmes and sectors) and
partnership with and monitoring of the
policies of the Bretton Woods institutions.
Points 1 and 2 indicate two ways of conceiving
SSC: as a political one and as a technical one.
Argentina wants to develop both except in the
4.
participation and positions in the discussions
changes in the structural conditions of inequality
and which challenge the model and rules of the
the effectiveness of the international policies
for development and the action plans that
enforce them. Argentina takes part in these
collaborative work through technical exchange
adapted to local decisions and needs.
establishment of global development policies
body created by Northern donor countries.
3.
Argentinian
stand
on
international
decisions linked to the positions of the
prioritising multilateral axes of dialogues (e.g.
UN) or others dominated almost exclusively by
Northern countries (Bretton Woods and OECDised
its own interests and needs. On the other
to favour decision-making under the
multilateral framework of the UN General
are closely related to systemic transformation.
and policies must be created to challenge a system
United Nations Development Programme
governance agencies of the Global North.
debates and innovative positions that
on development effectiveness held by the OECD-
Argentina expresses criticism of principles agreed
touch with the reality of development cooperation
plus the voices of women and various others. The
previous uniformity generates and links itself with
the inclusion of new actors and varied forms of
questions and tensions regarding representation
collective can accompany and monitor the foreign
development effectiveness concerns and technical
details related to criteria and methodologies have
rules for the international political and economic
system draws on arguments regarding the need
to reduce differences between the “centre” and
Nowadays Argentina supports Latin American and
consolidated in their various forms of solidarity
web created from the solidarity and collaboration
upholds the creation of South Bank and diverse
North-South Cooperation a “soft variable” of
Northern powers’ international policy. On the
Argentina improves its experience in technical
cooperation with other countries in the region.
Argentina’s development cooperation strategy
was strengthened through the Strategic Action
driven international banks was rather favoured in
and effectiveness to SSC under a more integral
policies based on the Washington Consensus
and its bias for debt-driven development. This
partnership is now described as a nuisance in
of a technical bilateral nature were doubled.6 This
strategic framework consolidated the vision for
with countries such as China are being aimed at.
Argentinian CSOs as private actors started to
other initiatives linked to relief aid were left
out since these do not stimulate autonomous
development and synergies between peers.
consolidated. They also took part in the struggle
between political and conceptual forces. Many
CSOs achieved sustainability and professionalization
thanks to international cooperation of European
of thinking and acting are related both to their
internal organisation and to issues prioritised by
the international donor’s agenda. Nowadays there
is a search for various forms of organizing social
Program for the Strengthening of South-South
(October 2008) 7
of systematisation and exchange of information
and capacities among member countries as a
way to improve South-South initiatives in the
region.8
holistic way the national and international policies
for inclusive development.
particular ways of measurement used by Northern
on its gross per-capita income. Argentina considers
this criteria as not enough to evaluate the degree
needs for international cooperation. The concept
itself doesn’t consider the asymmetries that exist
to an obsolete idea of development that focuses
development cooperation policies will probably
be revised after the national elections and the
political changes that will start this year (2015).
discussion points on SSC that need to be considered
within the framework of the tensions and decisions
as presented in this historical introduction.
Section II. The debate about
the SSC approach in Argentina
in the development of the South-South concept
from Argentina’s perspective.
Extended or limited version of SSC
slowly become a new donor and support triangular
There is a historical debate in Argentina about
which concept of SSC should be chosen between
one that we may call “extended” and another one
called “limited”.
common funds with Northern agencies. There
are some Argentinian experiences on triangular
9
but these are not seen as an indicator
A “limited” concept would refer to SSC mainly as a
technical cooperation programme for exchanging
knowledge and good practices between Southern
on the struggle against asymmetries between
countries in Latin America although it is slowly
extending to a few African and Asian countries.
critical actor in the framework of the UN and the
advocate of a proposal to draw up a regulatory
framework for debt restructuring processes.
This will have consequences in the future of
policies on indebtedness and debt restructuring.
would integrate the need to build other political
economic decisions create internal conditions for
eradicating poverty and inequality.
internal processes and conditions of inclusive
various tasks assumed by different blocs such as
accordance with historical and global risks and
government changes in the country. Actual
This paper chooses to present a summarised
description of the extended SSC concept.
Complementarity or divergence of SSC
in relation to North-South Cooperation
the
the need to progress on equality between unequals
and collaborate towards the same aim without
SSC is strengthening its identity in relation to
North-South Cooperation (NSC).
to
coopera
that Argentine SSC completes NSC. Different
at the same level of the traditional cooperation
South and North-South processes complement
each another. This means that the two are not
of principles pronounced by the Development
Assistance Committee (in the Paris and Accra
and quality of SSC do not replace the developed
voices coming from countries expressing their
rcoming the idea of graduation and
complementarity exposed in the previous point.
commitments. The global pressure on the richer
and more powerful countries to invest 0.7% of
Both positions agree on the fact that SSC does
“emergent donor” are increasing. As already
choosing to drop purely economic measures
of development (such as per-capita income)
towards a more complete and holistic measure of
differences and inequities associated with capitalist
used in Latin America for years.
having a more independent and differentiated
10
Contributions to the debate) shows the value of
not frame its actions on the postulates of the
standardising logic of the Global North.
Differentiation of Argentina’s SSC
compared to other Southern countries
the interviews realise
it is necessary not to standardise the notion
of SSC. Argentina does not mean to develop a
cooperation similar to the one of Brazil or other
access and “soft” control through the support
of projects mainly in Africa.
Argentina has upheld again the essential principles
sovereignty in national and cultural decisions.
Section III. SSC in Argentina and on
the principles agreed in the Accra,
Busan and Mexico HLFs
initiatives are being jointly co-planned with local
governments and communities. Regarding the
them. These commissions represent a key space
which jointly and transparently decides what will be
position during the debates and work done in
the conferences and spaces for development
are not completely legitimate since they are
summoned and coordinated by the OECD-DAC
Multilateralism and the
UN. As already
development effectiveness should be addressed
in multilateral and international spaces such as the
and concrete results in economic security and
socio-economic inclusion of the majority of the
.11
Agreed principles in Accra are not relevant
to Argentine SSC. The literature and interviews
show that the principles of Paris Declaration are
not relevant to Argentina’s SSC. These principles
might be useful to the North but inadequate for
Argentina. This argument has a reasonable basis:
might be increased but not necessarily following
“ownership”
from the conception and methodological
approach of Argentina’s programs and projects.
dialogue-based and participatory logic considers
them as pillar of effectiveness from the
This is a key difference from traditional
cooperation tactics of Northern countries and
a joint decision making with local partners.
Communication between equal partners.
Another observable aspect of Argentina’s (and
Latin American) SSC processes is the so-called
good level of communication and exchange
between governments and professionals of
international cooperation regarding SouthSouth topics. The interviews show a conviction
that governmental spaces of conversation and
bloc meetings creates a level of mutual trust
progressive alignment on priorities and strategies.
the country to start efforts oriented towards
and therefore the conclusions are always an
outcome of this exchange between peers and of
the jointly recognised needs.
analysis about these points of contrast and
complementarity between the principles of
development effectiveness and the Argentinian
case. Even better perhaps would be to promote
a process of capacity development for
Northern stakeholders about the participatory
that reinforce the effectiveness of Argentina’s
strategic program of this directorate was outlined
Argentinian CSOs could probably play a
key moment of its crystallisation and massive
framework facilitated the direction and deepening
government agencies that need to strengthen
their openness for the complex work required in
complying with the principles of participation by
and mutual collaboration with local communities
and organisations. Argentinian CSOs have much
experience and lessons to contribute in this regard.
systematisation and dissemination of good
practices. The axis of work of this strategy are:
A. The widening of regional integration
applied to the strengthening of agreements
12
Section IV. Initiatives, processes
and impacts of SSC in Argentina
work of Argentina’s SSC. We focus on the
initiatives and processes outlined by the national
that is the level where the concept and experience
have consolidated enough to distinguish a truly
civil society level we only perceive an initial degree
of conceptualisation about the South-South
with
B.
emphasis
on
spaces
such
as
The Federal Plan of Cooperation
include the provinces and municipalities in the
national strategy for international cooperation.
C. The deepening of the alliance with
international agencies and the rest of the
world
experiences. Since there is no mechanism of
centralisation and analysis of South-South projects
government institutions aside from the Foreign
we present mainly details about the work of the
multilateral) and also some examples from civil
society and other government areas.
the Multilateral Cooperation Area
advances these initiatives that tend to build
policy consensus and international policies in
MERCOSUR and the UN. On the other hand
SSC work areas and programs within
Argentina’s foreign policy framework
advances one of the main initiatives of SSC: the
so called Argentinian Fund of South-South
and Triangular Cooperation.
Argentinian programs and initiatives for
international cooperation fall under the said
these areas for the development of the South.
1. SSC at the multilateral level:
regional integration and development
The Multilateral Cooperation Area of the
Directorate actively manages the Argentinian
work in UN agencies and regional agencies
and other multilateral frameworks such as the
The collaboration and intervention in these
Considering Argentina’s strategic foreign policy
one of the best practices in Fo.AR program.
The same declaration also highlights SSC as
a privileged tool for horizontal exchange of
common challenges and achieve sustainable
development and inclusive growth. This
perspective differs from the prevalent notion of
“aid” in many cooperation agencies of the North.
The importance given to human rights and
equity views citizenship as the axis that organises
mere principles about charity and alms.
development based on the Latin American
points summarise Argentina’s actions in these
multilateral spaces showing how the concept and
messages about SSC are built.
Argentina as CELAC member14 are the various
Community of Latin American
and Caribbean States (CELAC)
CELAC supports SSC in its processes of dialogue
and joint implemen
Cooperation13
in the UN Conference about Technical Cooperation
the idea that cooperation needs to contribute to the
expected to commit to the creation and support
of work and dialogue spaces with civil society
and social movements. This work on citizens’
participation is still in the early stages.
SSC’s value of not being tied to conditions nor
the identity of each country and the region.
Common Market of the South (MERCOSUR)
CELAC supports SSC at the
regional level with the aim of reducing regional
itises joint work
The General Directorate of International
Cooperation exercises the Coordination of the
National Section of the Committee for Technical
Cooperation (CTC) of the Common Market
Group of the MERCOSUR.
transmission and distribution of electric
and implementation of technical cooperation
infrastructure and environmental sanitation.
Advancing competitiveness: the promotion
group would be created with capacity to generate
be supported by its own development funds in
order to develop technical assistance oriented
towards regional integration. These projects are
Social cohesion:
improvement of hospital capacity in isolated
The Fund for Structural Convergence of
MERCOSUR (FOCEM)15 is cited in an
interview as a good practice of SSC at the
sectors in the poorest and border regions.
develop competitiveness and promote social
but the focus of this work as well as limited public
information do not allow us a more detailed analysis.
the institutional structure and the reinforcement
Union of South American Nations
(UNASUR)
are the following:
UNASUR is an international
body composed
with respect to the reality of each nation.
Unity is enhanced on the goals of suppressing
Structural
convergence:
projects
for
sovereignty and independence of member states.
As a conglomerate that initiates a process of fund
Creation of the Bank of the South: The
creation of the Bank of the South was
proposed by Argentina to President Lula da
Finance Ministers and Presidents of the
Central Banks from both countries had been
working. The Bank of the South is a monetary
social and environmental development of
member states. The following countries are
with Chile and Peru as observers. Colombia
did not join. The internal organisation
process is still in its initial phase. According
to a communiqué from Argentina’s Foreign
the Bank of the South Administration Council
took place in July 2014 in Buenos Aires. The
communiqué states that the bank will pursue
the strengthening of regional integration
Both initiatives will support the exchange and
union of efforts and resources to create the
political and institutional conditions that facilitate
public visibility and information about these
is important to facilitate citizens’ monitoring
of Argentina’s involvement in these solidarity
frameworks.
2. Bilateral horizontal SSC:
knowledge sharing between Argentina
and other countries through FO.AR
The
main
programme
for
implementing
between Argentina and associated countries is
the Argentine Fund for South-South and
Triangular Cooperation (FO.AR)16 of the
of the Argentinian Chancellery.
FO.AR is an instrument of Argentine foreign
and the connection of infrastructures and
The objectives of these
projects would be linked to the consolidation of
also through the distribution of investments
in order to reduce regional asymmetries.
knowledge transfer and better practices among
Argentinian agencies and organisations and
Creation of the South American
Defense School: This school has been
formed as a centre of high studies of
the development of methodologies to galvanise
technical assistance and maximise human and
oriented towards capacity development
of civilians and military on the subject of
defense and regional security. To initiate
be highlighted: (a) the thematic priorities are
meeting of the Ministries of Defense of
protocols and will index the Defense
Capacities of UNASUR member states.
how these principles would be applied in practice.
d
whose relative contributions range from 30%
highlights Argentina’s role as one of the main SSC
at Argentine bilateral relations it becomes evident
main country offering SSC to Argentina.18
1.
Argentinian
collaborate
specialists
with
local
travel
to
technicians
2.
Foreign specialists coming to Argentina
contact agencies and organisations and
their professionals to know more about
good practices and ideas for possible
implementation
in
their
countries.
3.
the idea of mutual support for development.
The FO.AR website contains details on each
of the projects implemented with the support
of Argentina’s fund. Each project description is
composed of a brief outline of objectives and
features of the activities developed in each country.
Only a few cases present more explicit details about
for public access doesn’t give funding details. The
information can be accessed by country or by
the latest publicly accessible is from 2013.19
Next we analyse this public information to
develop a more quantitative and holistic vision
:
regional and per-country range.20
Themes, Regions and Countries
ise
not directly access transparent information from
FO.AR about the total budgetary investment per
country. Thus we cannot conduct a deep impact
The following tables contain statistics organised
according to the thematic axis established by
analysis based on the initial review of the FO.ARsupported projects and cross-checks with literature
general considerations for deeper analysis.
2012 by Latin American countries and as analysed
17
almost 90% of the
or institutional process in Argentina in charge of
generating information or analysis about state and
non-state agencies and institutions implementing
is only relevant to technical cooperation initiatives
TaBle
the Ministry of
Region
Sustainable
development
Latin
America
Total
projects:
83
Total of
projects:
12321
Asia
Total
projects:
17
Africa
Total
Projects:
8
Countries
No. of
projects
Bolivia
Cuba
13
13
Mexico
8
Colombia
7
Paraguay
6
El Salvador
5
Nicaragua
5
Ecuador
4
Uruguay
4
Haiti
3
Panama
Saint Lucia
Peru
3
3
2
Dominican
Republic
2
Brasil
1
Chile
Saint
Vincent
Jamaica
Barbados
1
Paraguay
Bolivia
No. of
projects
11
9
1
Ecuador
7
1
1
Peru
5
El Salvador
4
Thailand
Cambodia
6
5
Uruguay
4
Colombia
2
Vietnam
2
Cuba
2
Philippines
2
Haiti
1
East Timor
1
Bolivia
1
Laos
Pakistan
1
1
Mozambique
South Africa
Algeria
6
1
1
themes include: technical exchange on bovine
We can deduce that Argentina’s wide experience
as an agro-export country and the basic role
of its primary economic sector is useful for
d food sovereignty.
TaBle
Region
Latin
America
Total
projects:
54
Administration
and
Governance
Countries
Dominican
Republic
Total of
projects:
12321
Argentinian projects for SSC are the most
numerous in the Sustainable Development
thematic axis. A majority have been realised
Trinidad and
Tobago
1
Saint Lucia
CARICOM
(Caribbean
countries)
Brasil
1
Mexico
1
Guatemala
Colombia are the four most involved contributors
in technical cooperation. We found no written
countries simply were the most active in terms of
dialogue and demand with Argentina.
Asia
Total
projects:
4
technical
Africa
Total
Projects:
3
exchange
activities
are
evidently
1
1
1
1
Chile
Granada
1
East Timor
2
Cambodia
1
Thailand
1
Mozambique
2
Algeria
1
1
SSC projects in the Administration and Governance
thematic axis are the second most numerous. The
majority have been realised in partnership with
Argentinian SSC projects are fewest in the
realise
two Asian countries.
and Ecuador received the biggest number of
technical cooperation projects from Argentina.
projects (eight in ten) were carried out by the
predominance of technical exchange projects
an NGO instead of a National Ministry area or an
institution of governmental public management.
This CSO involvement remains within the
management of local and international public
capacity
development
for
decentralisation
governmental authorities and the judiciary and/
or legislative powers of the country involved.
This relevant data denotes one of the main
principles of SSC in practice: to only implement
depending on its public policy strategy and its
strengthening of healthy communities.
scope among different Ministries and Secretariats
of the national government which are part of
as they are supported by needs established by
sovereign authorities and lined up with the
cases where cooperation is established with an
Argentinian CSO.
the Argentine Republic.
technical information for the research of bone
TaBle
Region
Human Rights
Latin
America
Total
projects:
6
data banks of disappeared people and forensic
Ecuador
No. of
projects
2
Bolivia
1
Paraguay
1
Colombia
1
about the technical and objective point of view
that seems to be highlighted under the human
rights axis: there are probably other dialogues
Countries
El Salvador
Total of
projects:
9
Asia
Total
projects:
3
1
Vietnam
2
Thailand
1
which are implemented by people in charge of
multilateral cooperation and other areas of the
33
Statistical Evaluation of Bilateral
Horizontal SSC under SEGIB
health and institutional strengthening themes.
The same report shows that both Mexico and
Argentina have a clear preference for economic
themes and for supporting productive sectors:
statistical systematisation effort for all SouthSouth initiatives in Latin America.
One of the main reports produced by this
data is needed on the types of projects that
have been included under the “remainder” and
America. The latest issue focuses on the evolution
for almost 45% of all Argentine South-South
initiatives.
check the information taken from the FO.AR
website (as presented in the three previous tables)
with statistical data selected by the South-South
Evaluation and transparent information
The institutional presentations of the FO.AR
thereby specifying that each South-South
exchange is evaluated by technicians both from
the Argentinian team and from the partner
standardise
Commissions and other meetings. Evaluation is a
just as with projects implemented outside.
The following table presents information on
areas of interest for Argentina according to
Theme
% of Projects
Farming
20.20%
Health
13.80%
Institutional Strengthening
13.80%
Industry
8.50%
Remainder
39.40%
Various
4.30%
34
access as citizens and organisations is limited to
descriptions of a long list of particular activities.
These are dissociated from a context analysis and a
deeper interpretation of how each action is linked
to a strategic decision on development issues of
that can be linked to the activities supported by
about
how
exchanges
between
specialists
positively impact a country’s development and
reduce internal asymmetries within the region.
region. This plan includes the organisation of
systematic and face-to-face meetings to share
stated that evaluating the
“sustainability” indicator has a very high cost and
improve the statistical analysis of SSC projects.24
22
American regional space must not be neglected.
an issue both in Argentina’s governmental as well
as non-governmental sector. Efforts to deepen
the evaluation processes and development
project thinking are relatively limited and publicly
inaccessible.
Some ad-hoc studies on Argentina’s SSC strategy
in
on. There are also some reports on the historical
development of the concept and approach
of SSC. FO.AR’s Newsmagazine
annual publications have some articles on how
Argentinian foreign policy is linked to SSC
principles.
reticently consider impact analysis of South-South
Argentina will advance in a complementary way
have been highlighted in the area of multilateral
which tend to create forms of common
democratic society for everyone.
seems to show a direct link of “evaluation” with
on this area’s progression appears linked to the
establishment and regular measure of numerous
South Cooperation
awareness of the decisions and steps needed to
strengthen the impact evaluation area.
contributions of CSS in Latin America and the
Caribbean” from the quoted UNDP article23
reported important achievements in impact
evaluation during recent years. We note in
particular joint efforts by Latin American
Plan of Action for strengthening SSC in the
foreseen as a way to measure key principles of
SSC such as horizontality and reciprocity/equity.
qualitative measurement which are cornerstones
cases and products. This qualitative evaluation will
have to prioritise the voices of the participants in
35
indirect
Current technology advances allow national
qualitative information
testimony of participants to be aggregated
in order to present transversal conclusions for
different countries.
systematise and document initiatives and budgets.
Ministries support and parallel as well international
cooperation programmes. Such is the case for the
Ministry of Social Development25 and Ministry of
Education.26
don’t seem to be associated in a coherent way.
about all initiatives at the national level.27
capacity in terms of consistent and effective
effectiveness and transparency analysis imposed by
several international agencies.
incipient development from this area in order
to contribute and bring alternatives for the
evaluation of impacts.
3. Decentralised Cooperation
of Argentina’s SSC impact evaluation area is
ise
transformations and processes that exist among
Ministry relies on a special initiative to promote
and recognise the “decentralisation” of
the need to put in practice more public policies
federalism with the support of the foreign
always taking into account citizens’ and direct
participants’ perceptions.
doesn’t fall into pure economics that are critically
alternatives and new modalities for measuring
effectiveness and valorisation of social change.
with different governments of the world.28
Cooperation agreements have been established
between cities and countries in order to link
these relations are established with Northern
and do not correspond with SSC concept and
in Argentina’s international cooperation are neither
central system managed by the Argentinian Foreign
Ministry or any other agency. This challenge appears
to be related to the nonexistence of a National
which would
36
lists of municipal and provincial governments
working more actively with Southern countries.29
movements and NGOs keep links and work
programmes with countries of the South.
Section V. Argentine SSC good practices
to local
needs. The network enabled
rural populations. Grassroots organisations
we describe the programme in some detail.30
programme. Networks facilitate common
based on volunteering and
thinking together about how to
build their farms and multiply
their effects. Promoters are
the management of a National
working with authorities and specialists from
are trained by Argentinian experts from
programme. This programme was developed
and through different workshops and
visits to Argentina. The network enabled
resiliency of the programme beyond the
earthquake and other climatic catastrophes.
headquarters of the Argentinian contingent
Articulation at the Argentina-wide level:
Stabilisation
institutional articulation in Argentina in order
to support the growth of the programme.
Development (MARNDR).
Objective: To promote food security
through self-production of food in
small organic farms. The experience
transfers the impact and knowhow
developed by the same programme in
Networks, local power and decentralised
transfer of knowledge for action: The form
of implementation pursues the strengthening
among government agencies at the national
level is being developed to increase local
the training chain. The Ministry of Social
which intends to be progressively replaced
by local production during the following
years. The Ministry of Defense takes
part in the international transport of the
medical security to Argentinian experts
highly participatory evaluation adapted
37
Section VI. Argentine civil society
and SSC
South-South and Triangular Cooperation:
The programme also counts on the support of
diverse countries and internal organisations.
SSC case study is an initiative of some of
the most important organisations and spaces
civil society in increasing the effectiveness of
cooperation. These are the CSO Partnership for
central department. The association with
Spain (2006) widened the activities in the
Reality of Aid Network and Red El Encuentro de
Argentina (Argentina’s El Encuentro network).
initial investigation on the role of Argentina’s civil
society in national SSC initiatives and policies.
programme to cover a few vacant zones.
UNASUR:
reaching more than a million inhabitants by
2019 (with a total cost of USD 35 million).
This new initiative will enable the programme
to cover zones never reached before.
Bilateral and regional strategy: The
programme is framed by a wider policy
intending to constitute a network of social
protection. Different regional agreements
The following points contain the main conclusions
of view from different interviews as well as the
researcher’s observations throughout these two
months of work with Argentina’s CSOs.
prominent examples of existing practices in
South-South initiatives. Note that CSOs do not
categorise these initiatives as originating from
of international solidarity work among
representative partners from developing countries
of alternative and innovative forms of action.
Mixed perceptions on civil society’s
role and participation
of actors. This complexity for long-term impacts is a
Our investigation seem to indicate two important
many other programmes and projects of Argentina’s
attempt a deeper analysis of how this form of action
is considered in other Argentine SSC initiatives.
38
common work and consultation of civil society
members is recognized in relation to Argentinian
policies on international cooperation and SSC.
the little progress achieved in this direction.
and in the recommendations and conclusions of
number of meetings between the Argentine
Participation of Argentinian civil society
in international dialogue: who facilitates?
as well as a lack of monitoring and strategic
structuring in order to improve SSC effectiveness.
Three main reasons may explain this lack of
who facilitates the active participation of CSOs
in international and national spaces for policy-
forums:
foundations from Global North (Open Society
strategic representation of civil society. This
leads to lack of clarity on the legitimacy of
CSOs maintain a strategic programme of action
in international cooperation policies beyond
confusing actors in choosing one
is linked to a concern that certain groups convene
their alignment with the national government’s
policy positions. Political dichotomies would
participation of these different groups would
offer an opportunity to think and acquire
common learning mediated by diversity.
of analysis and investigations on themes of
as well as representatives’ participation in
consultation processes. One expressed reason
for CSOs not being able to participate more
actively in projects from FO.AR is that only plane
tickets and travel expenses are covered. The other
b. The need for government functionaries to
fees and general logistics) are not covered and
have to be invested indirectly in order to support
the international exchange process. Because
structured and common spaces to strengthen
mutual knowledge and debate to promote civic
participation and its diversity.31
possibility of strengthening and contribution for
national organisations.
dissociated from more localised practices of
CSOs.
interest and participation in these areas beyond
a little group of organisations with their
associated academics or technicians which have
a particular interest in international relations.
39
and professionalizing the spaces/bodies of
CSOs will reinforce their role.
32
for the Argentinian government to support CSO
still hard to manage internal discussions about
limited resource base. Accountability procedures
support for a diversity of civil society voices
work at the international level.
Although we have little access to information from
for Argentina’s CSO exchange and participation
in plans of action with other governments is
relatively weak.
Forensic Anthropology Team has been a central
Lack of awareness, different concepts
of international cooperation among civil
society actors
The sustained investigation to produce this
report has proven that CSOs are not aware of
FO.AR or other areas of Argentina’s Ministry
of Foreign Affairs.
relatively limited knowledge and appreciation
opportunities for creating a fairer and more
egalitarian world driven by SSC.
great part of CSOs understand that cooperation
focused on how to engage with the Global
North and learn to adjust techniques and forms
a public policy that allows Argentina to establish
participated. This analysis has to be deepened and
shared with more transparency in the public media.
The paradoxes we present at this point could be
an opportunity to think about how and why the
direct involvement in projects for international
cooperation and global work initiatives. This is
the international regulations that promote (or
not) a more inclusive and fairer development
model. Those associated with this second group
participate more actively in global spaces of
trade policies or regional integration as facilitator
of a society more respectful of human rights.
details on some of the initiatives showing how
every citizen through their organisations and
social movements.
and SSC.
Questions about civic participation, CSOs
and alignment with foreign policy
and importance of shared areas and points of
by the Open Forum for CSO Development
representatives of civil society bring us to ask two
questions that might be further studied as a way
to reinforce associative work among government
and citizen organisations:
A.
road lies ahead in ensuring that CSO participation
and equity in a more and more globalised world.
Some good practices of solidarity and
international cooperation by Argentina
CSOs
subscribing to the state’s foreign policy?
Argentina’s CSOs in relation to the existence of
B.
of CSOs in solidarity and advocacy actions
for the development of international policies
and experiences of collaboration that show
principles and organised forms which seem to
The majority of these CSOs do not talk directly
about these experiences as relevant to SSC.
in recognising the value of citizen’s participation
among professionals and networks working for
the promotion of equality and inclusion. We
could therefore identify them as relatively aligned
with SSC principles.
NGOs. As
partnership with Argentina’s Ministry of Foreign
positioning and integration of Argentina’s foreign
has established formal cooperation agreements
with the governments of Uruguay and Paraguay
in such a way as to guarantee the transfer of good
practices and knowledge in harmony with these
countries’ public policies on education.
the policies that develop at the international and
national levels
are part of the government’s agenda.
the activities of this CSO network support and
strengthen the depth and range of the changes
proposed at a government level.
as a SSC experience.
we observe a practice
of integration and regional work in this case
with Brazil and Chile in a way that the positions
and knowledge of the South are considered more
thoroughly in the places of debate and elaboration of
that characterises Argentina.
rights and education for all at international and
national levels coincide with the objectives and
ear and concrete space
it would be useful to respond to the need
and to spread the work of organisations and
governments of Southern countries.
Section VII. Principles of SSC in practice
principles are applied to the Argentinian experience
in practice. Thus we describe with more detail the
methodologies and approaches that organise the
focus and implementation of SSC initiatives and
We begin with details of the methodology
a few general and starting considerations on
harder to deepen the study of the methodology
on their regional actions are not within this
these organisations.
and practices
interference in domestic affairs. They are realized
through the creation and joint work of Mixed
(Argentina’s and partner country’s) as well
as representatives of communities and/or
civil society (Fig. 1) when relevant.
The committee’s meetings initiate the
about needs and national contexts in which
a project will be implemented.
chain of actions linked to the project objective.
Committees is based on the idea that
compromise among governments and
community in terms of equality.
Mixed Committees promote the long-term
viability with a view to strengthen the
horizontal exchange of two-way ideas. From
is not necessary (as asserted in the Accra
and Busan Principles).
Accountability and evaluation are also
sense of co-responsibility.
The “human factor” and communication
for mutual knowledge and establishment
of deep relations in order to sustain project
effectiveness and legitimacy are fundamental
in the constant interaction through Mixed
Committees.
the FO.AR. The validity and effectiveness of Mixed
Committees is mentioned in several consulted texts as
well as in the interviews. The steps and fundamental
points of this approach are the following:
Mixed Committees are constituted
from the moment a country receives a
solicitation. The committees are composed
of representatives of both governments
emphasise that the programmes implemented
jointly with other countries are based on forms of
work aligned with the principles of SSC. Some of
these include:
43
Participatory methodologies: Argentina has
a wide knowledge and usage of participatory
These points of reference and their forms of
work show that there is a large body of civil
society experience in implementing the principles
interventions led by Argentina’s social
organisations have been inspired by the principles
middle and long term.
based on outcomes and taking into account the
qualitative more than the quantitative aspect.
One such experience is the realisation of local
participatory diagnostics for the consensual
experiences and to systematically compare them
Solidarity)33 jointly with its local partners.
Creation of complex networks for joint
decision-making
way as to analyse the advantages related to the
different forms of promotion of development
effectiveness. Only such a comparative analysis will
bring answers on cumulative impacts of different
forms of work proposed by the countries of the
South and the North in promoting a fairer world.
SSC future and challenges
which do not necessarily follow “professional”
governance frameworks often linked to Global
challenges and ideas based on our study.
symmetric relations of common cooperation
networks include: Latino-American Network on
34
Education Council for Adults of Latin-America
(CEAAL)35
Latino-American Campaign for the Right to
Education (CLADE)36. They show evidence of
these work processes’ existence and dynamics.
transition for Argentina. Presidential elections
will take place in October 2015. Possible
changes might result in continuity or change
of the pillars and policy proposals expressed in
Argentina’s international relations. Argentina’s
for horizontal cooperation with developing
Modules of action adaptable to local realities:
strategic alliances with countries such as Russia
Argentinian organisations have established forms of
modular work which can be multiplied while adapting
proposals of the US and its European allies.
Diagnosis approach was able to develop these processes
the possible changes in the next months. They
bring a complex context of transformations
local conditions that make cooperation and joint work
linked to events such as the Summit on Climate
adjustable and replicable work regarding professional
and educational intervention resulted from these local
consultations.
44
“SSC has a future”
b.
in the long term Argentina should be
able to inform transparently about any
that “SSC has a future”. We thus consider that
possible post-elections changes in foreign policy
and facilitate the development of other
Southern countries. Such resources include
work hours invested in exchange and
learning programmes in which Argentinian
favour international solidarity among the countries
We see two fundamental reasons relevant to this
by CSOs that could collaborate with the
government in the diffusion of the country’s
good practices and real achievements.
wished to move towards a world of multipolar
policies and dialogues invigorating forms of global
effective proposals for inclusive development. On
c.
document regularly how SSC principles
participatory and egalitarian principles and
mechanisms of SSC as practiced by Argentina
might be a solution to the ineffectiveness and
failure of NSC caused by its mechanisms which
are seen as imposed and determining.
challenges to Argentina’s SSC. Some of these are:
a.
The will to coordinate and highlight SSC
efforts and initiatives developed in the
unions and social movements. This means
to keep on working in collaboration with
to ensure that funds and initiatives existing
transformations in the long-term. As
should be fuelled by the voices of all direct
participants. Falling into a purely economic
evaluation might imply a reproduction of
the limiting practices criticised in NSC.
d.
joint work and the concrete support
of CSOs by favouring the inclusive
development of Southern countries. This
would require government efforts
open and support the areas of consultation
. This would
require as well the will and the persistence
of CSOs to develop and clarify real spaces
and forms of effective involvement. The
creation of formal and dynamic spaces
ministries) are followed and documented in
terms of quantitative and qualitative impact.
making between the two sectors would be
Cooperation might facilitate this process.
country’s civil society.
45
is needed not only at project or programme
levels as actors in pre-established national
including intangible costs of sustaining an
organisation’s functioning structure. This
is what Northern governments are doing
towards the reconstitution of a dynamic
participation.
Argentina’s
Annex 1.
Annex 2.
Bibliography
Montevideo, 2012
46
government
and Southern countries should draw
inspiration from their partners’ good ideas.37
might be added to this paper. We hope this
debate for action in South-South Cooperation
and more equitable world.
June 2011
y Ministerio de
2009
Solidaridad): www.fundses.org.ar
org/v2/
Kenia, 2012
gov.ar/
28 y 29 de enero de 2014
47
Endnotes
good practices and a map of Argentine cooperation.
We could not corroborate if these projects are currently
being pursued.
1
9
2
3
Red El Encuentro de Entidades No Gubernamentales
4
tween Africans and Asian states, most of which were
newly independent. It took place in 1955 at Bandung,
Indonesia. The 25 countries that participated at the
Bandung Conference represented nearly one-quarter
of the Earth’s land surface and a total population of 1.5
billion people. The conference’s stated aims were to
promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation
and to oppose colonialism and neo-colonialism by any
nation. The conference was a key step in creating the
Non-Aligned Movement.
5
6
48
10 Gabriela Catterberg and Ruben Mercado (Main research-
ers) and Julia Levi, Javier Surasky and Osvaldo Elissetche
(Main consultant researchers), “La Cooperación Sur-Sur
en la construcción de la agenda Post 2015, Aportes para
el Debate” in Aportes para el Desarrollo Humano en ArDesarrollo, Argentina, 2013.
in the framework of Technical Cooperation among Developing Countries conference, as an historical milestone for Latin America and the Caribbean. Take note
that Argentina was governed during those years by a
military dictatorship that aligned with U.S. interests.
“Cooperación Sur-Sur y Triangular de la Argentina”,
Special Bicentenary Edition, n°10, 2010, Ministerio de
Relaciones Exteriores, Comercio Internacional y Culto,
Fondo Argentino de Cooperación Horizontal (FO.AR).
We could not access data on investments updated by
the FO.AR, and thus cannot present information on
Cumbres Iberoamericanas de Jefes de Estado y de Gobierno (Ibero-American Conference of
Heads of State and Governments) was held in Guadalajara (Mexico, 1991) and is renewed each year. The
Ibero-American Summit is composed of the Spanishand Portuguese-speaking countries of Europe and
the Americas. For more information on Secretariat of
Ibero-American Summit and its programmes, including
8
As a limited part of this research, we choose not to
include analysis regarding Argentine experiences on
triangular cooperation. There is a debate on whether
triangular cooperation is a part of SSC or not. The
complexity of concrete themes and the need to focus
on them led us to limit ourselves to South-South Bilateral and Multilateral Cooperation (at the level of regional blocs). For more information on Argentine Triangular
Cooperation projects, see the website of Dirección de
Cooperación Internacional de la Cancillería Argentina.
One of the main tangible outcomes of this cooperation
was the “Yearly Report on South-South Cooperation
in Ibero-America”, published by the SEGIB. As mentioned in several consulted documents, the FO.AR
planned to organise a “Catalogue of Competences of
Argentine Organisation” in order to distinguish those
which had the possibility to take part in South-South
projects. A database would thus be created, containing
11
12 In his study “La política de la de la cooperación Argen-
tina en el contexto del Bicentenario”, the Foreign Minister Timerman note, concerning his work on regional
present in the heart and thought of the illustrious characters of our Continent such as Simon Bolivar – who
state, in the letter from Jamaica in 1815, his project to
constitute one country out of the New Wold -, Andrés
Bello, Francisco de Miranda, Bernardo O’Higgins and
of course the libertarian action of José de San Martin,
whose principal adviser, Bernardo Monteagudo, defends in 1824 the need to form a general federation of
Hispano-American States.” (Review N 10, FO.AR)
13 “Declaración Especial sobre la Cooperación Internac-
ional de la CELAC”, II CUMBRE Doc. 3.2 Español ,
28-29 January 2014.
14 The 2014 Action Plan is on the CELAC website in Cos-
y
-
celac.pdf
15 Fondo para la Convergencia estructural del MERCO-
16 Argentine Fund for South-South and Triangular Co-
28
aci%C3%B3n
“Report on South-South Cooperation in Ibero-America – 2013-1014”, Cristina Xalma, Secrétariat Général
Ibéro-Américain, 2014.
-
29 For more information, consult for example “La Coop-
eración Descentralizada en la Argentina, Estudios de
consutler, par exemple “La Coopération Décentralisée
18
and “La cooperación descentralizada para el desarrol-
19 Catalogue of projects of the South-South Cooperation,
la Fuente and Johanna Fernández, Instituto Universitario de Desarrollo y Cooperación Universidad Com-
20 The additional quantitative analysis is based on the
30 Other examples of good practices and interesting ex-
the Republic of Argentina, International Cooperation
-
public information available on the FO.AR website,
since we could not access the data of the Argentine
periences surely exist, but a deeper analysis of this
theme requires a more advanced comparative study
that matches more actors’ opinions and structures
21 In addition to the projects listed by country, several
tainable environment area, which is the reason for pro-
31
cies of the Global North were very effective in supporting formal spaces of consultation with civil society in
such a way as to feed the debate on public policies by
including international cooperation.
32
CUS Civil Society Index for Argentina (2008-2011)”; in
Argentina, the Investigation Project has been led by
the Group for Social Analysis and Development (GADIS) and the Sociology Department of Catholic University of Argentina (UCA), 2011.
projects in this thematic area.
22 “Generando Indicadores para la Cooperación Sur-Sur,
Una mirada al trabajo realizado desde el Programa
Iberoamericano para el Fortalecimiento de la Cooperación Sur-Sur” by Cristina Xalma, Documento de trabajo No. 4, Secretaria General Iberoamericana, 2013.
23 Opt. Cit. PNUD, 2014
24
33 Fundacion SES (Sustainability, Education and Solidar-
construir conocimiento desde la práctica”, Documento
de Trabajo No. 3, Programa Iberoamericano para el
Fortalecimiento de la Cooperación Sur-Sur, Secretaria
General Iberoamericana, 2013.
25 Area for International Cooperation of the Ministry of
www.fundses.org.ar
34
35 Consejo de Educacion Popular de América Latina y el
36 Campaña Latinoamericana por el Derecho a la Educa26 Area for International Cooperation of the Ministry of
We started writing this report with the objective of systematising SSC experiences in different Argentinian
regions and agencies. The non-existence of a centralised information system means a bigger funding need
to achieve a complete analysis.
For example, the “Programmeme Partnership Agreement” (PPAs) is a funding mechanism of structural
costs granted by the Deparment for International
Development (DFID, UK). It is open to other national
and international organisations. More information on
rangements-ppas
49
Complex SSC modalities in the largest Latin American Country
Centro de Estudos e Articulação da Cooperação Sul-Sul
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper aims to review the evidence-based
study of the Reality of Aid Network on Southmonitoring and the advocacy paper on Latin
American civil society.
countries and multilateral donors. According
resentment of the asymmetrical character of
effectively contributed to fostering national
human and institutional capacities in key
the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation
survey with Brazilian organisations.
engagement in technical cooperation.
Underlying the whole paper will be representative
examples showing the dynamics and an appreciation
how advocacy work in civil society agendas relates
with other countries is still seen as an important
tool in supporting Brazil’s development.
national discourse on aid effectiveness. The last
part of the paper is a bibliography.1
2. BRAZILIAN SOUTH-SOUTH
COOPERATION
Experts agree that Brazil was only marginally
Brazil is expected to play an increasingly greater role
in international affairs and in SSC. Building coalitions
and projecting soft power are seen as instruments
that can help ensure Brazil’s international role and
to reduce its structural dependence (Cepaluni y
Solidarity: This refers to the spirit of contributing
to the social and economic progress of other
peoples. Economic and geopolitical interests are
shared by developed countries—as clearly shown
by Brazil’s inclusion in international development
initiatives as well as its leading role in establishing
and in triangular arrangements with traditional
donors and developing-country aid recipients.
actor is a product of the interplay between its
foreign policy agenda and domestic politics. The
re-emergence of SSC in the 2000s has to be
understood within the realm of state activism in
Morais de Sá e Silva 2009) and also in the context
a dilemma. Brazilian technical cooperation is seen
as helping foster multifaceted relations between
Understanding
of
poverty
and
underdevelopment: Such an understanding
The practice of having public servants that
have experience in implementing policies and
programmes support this approach.
Non-interference: Respect for partners’
exercise of sovereignty leads to practices of nonconditionality and non-discrimination based on
good governance or democratic credentials.
transfers (Morais de Sá e Silva 2009) aiming at
achieving the Millennium Development Goals
were also fueled by this administration’s narratives
on global distributive social justice and “solidarity
the following principles:
Partner in development: Brazil does not see
a partner in/for development. SSC would help to
promote a spirit of equality that is operationalized
in an innovative way during the whole process
of identifying the partner’s demands and jointly
Br
and
multilateral
development
cooperation
territory. Financial cooperation is also an
important modality of Brazilian cooperation.
Recent initiatives have resulted in transparency
of the data on Brazilian SSC. Two reports by
government expenditures from 2005 to 2010
Demand-driven: By avoiding supply-driven
horizontal forms of cooperation.
costs and expenditures for the modalities shown
in Table 1.
TaBle
1.
2005-2009
Technical, scientific and technological
cooperation
2. Scholarships for foreigners
3. Contributions to international organisations
4. Humanitarian assistance
5. Peacekeeping operations
2010
1. Technical
2. Scientific and technological cooperation
Educational cooperation (including scholarships and
3.
other bilateral academic exchange programmes)
4. Contributions to international organisations
5. Humanitarian cooperation (including food aid)
6. Refugee support and protection
7. Peacekeeping operations (included in the total flows)
According to Brazilian Cooperation Agency
show that Brazilian development aid between 2005
and 2010 reached BRL 4.5 million in current values
160 million in 2005 to more than USD 900 million
for peacekeeping operations were included in total
these other modalities would mean a total
disbursement of over USD 4 billion from 2005
annual progression of each modality’s share (in
bars) as against the total expenditures (line).
variation in the share of each modality in total
disbursements (see Figure 2).
This data is not representative of the
which may indicate different trends due
to the freezing and reduction of available
resources for SSC since 2011.
The particular characteristics of each pattern show
different priorities with respect to geography.
equipment and treatments.
Institutional framework
of bilateral resource allocation recorded by the
civil society. With such an extremely fragmented
structure leads to a lack of coordination and
coherence between Brasil and other Southern
Timor (0.01 percent).
An in-depth analysis of 2010 Brazilian cooperation
with other LAC countries shows that:
region were destined for the mobilisation of
partners involved.
The role of the presidency: Although Brazil’s
Ministry of External Relations operates with
guidelines established by the presidency. During
regional organisations (e.g. Mercosul Structural
53
leveraged to favour his government’s external
Sectoral agencies: Such agencies include
diplomacy. These two priorities were used as tools
to gather international support for Brazil’s bid for
a Security Council seat and for Brazil’s position
at the patents’ litigation concerning antiretroviral
enjoy the advantage of a higher degree of
and conducted the cooperation agenda on
agriculture and social development with African
partner-countries. Dilma Roussef has focused on
advanced technologies and training for Brazilians
Ministry of External Relations (MRE) and
Brazilian Cooperation Agency (ABC): The
ABC is legally entitled to coordinate technical
there is no evidence that such coordination work
with the MRE.
Sectoral ministries: These ministries have the
legal mandate to sign international cooperation
been privileged aid recipients of traditional
donors and having traditionally taken part in
constituted a locus for diffusing their particular
experiences and thus creating a higher demand
for them.
Civil society: There are not many permanent
spaces beyond government in which policies
and practices related to SSC are discussed.
Government engagement with civil society and
the private sector on such issues tends to be
to SSC matters covering the whole of Brazil’s
SSC aspects. The main CSO demand is a public
debate on SSC as one of the areas addressed by
the Brazilian Foreign Policy Council.
Traditional donors and international
organisations: These donors and organisations
play an important role in SSC and trilateral
in international forums. By virtue of holding
to growing demands for cooperation and working
for its implementation. There are also innovative
actors in implementing technical cooperation.
Beyond their capacity to be part of agendas
in each administration with its own foreign policy
priorities. Such are the cases cited earlier under
the joint initiative of the Program for Food
Acquisition and FAO. We can fairly say that
such organisations must not be seen exclusively
Development and Social Development under
under Dilma Roussef.
54
Brazilian SSC agenda.
and priorities
convergence fund (FOCEM) alone received
BRL 565 million from the Brazilian government
Contribution to international organisations
modality is Brazil’s contributions to international
Development Association (World Bank).
constituted 51 percent of Brazilian expenditures
Peacekeeping operations
Figure 3 shows the distribution of Brazil’s
contributions to international organisations
Brazil has been engaging in UN peace missions
on strengthening multilateralism.
at least 30 percent of triangular cooperation
initiatives. And of this type of cooperation
most
ts structural
invested in such missions increased to BRL
55
The year 2004 was a turning point for
i
Brazilian troops and leadership are
Brazil’s cooperation projects are mainly
environment. Cooperation in the health
sector prevails in terms of the number
agreement between the two countries.
is notable for seeking help in the
patchwork of development challenges
whereby such projects respond to or
cover structural emergency operations.
and crisis response.2
Notable among civil society actors is
this initiative is mainly an expression of
Brazil’s political will to contribute more
and the active collaboration of the
Dessalines Brigade (landless peasants’
movement with the Vía Campesina) in
akin to the practical implementation of
a diplomatic doctrine that combines
security and development invoking the
framework of reconstruction in “fragile
and real face involves a multitude of
transparency are also targets of severe
criticism by the international donor
infrastructure. There has also been
a notable increase in the number of
Brazil’s decision to integrate and lead the
humanist and solidarity-driven foreign
which includes getting a seat on the UN
economic spillovers and the prospect
of possible eventual deployment of
national forces.
56
differentiates itself from traditional
development aid by promoting
autonomy for its partner countries.
expected to encourage preparing
together for the departure of the
economic reconstruction alternatives
decision-making without interference
motivated by outside interests.
one other food and nutritional security initiative
such as the More Food Africa programme and/or
Humanitarian cooperation
between 2005 and 2010. While representing
only 0.31 percent of the total amount spent in
the total in 2010 (USD 161 million). Especially
70 percent of all humanitarian cooperation.
that received the largest amount of Brazil’s
humanitarian cooperation was Latin America
by Asia (BRL 23.24 million) and Africa (BRL
Pomeroy y Suyama 2013).
Technical cooperation
been the major sectors of technical cooperation
than tripled in six years: from approximately BRL
27.6 million (USD 11.4 million) in 2005 to BRL 101
million (USD 57.7 million) in 2010. Between 2005
BRL 396.3 million (USD 180 million). Training and
courses took up 69 percent of the total amount spent
equipment amounted to 28 percent and 3 percent
respectively (Brasil 2010d).
million). Portuguese-speaking countries have
together received 8 percent of the amount given
top recipient.
The
notion
of
“sustainable
humanitarian
humanitarian action to “structuring actions and
local coordination” along the lines of supporting
socially sustainable development processes. The
intertwined with technical cooperation and
contributions to international organisations.
Such changes seek to add a strategy coherent
with the domestic priority of ending hunger and
poverty. The main example is PAA Africa (Africa
Data from the Brazilian Cooperation Agency
(ABC) sets out the sectoral distribution of
technical cooperation in 2013 (Figure 4). From a
in which public safety expenditures equaled that
Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries
cooperation (49 percent) b
followed by Africa (35 percent). (See Figure 5)
are strategic components of social and economic
cooperation is mainly focused in Europe and
million (FAO 2012). Nine out of ten countries
participating in PAA are also involved in at least
cooperation is focused on LAC and Africa.
57
58
Expenditures on scholarships for foreign
students reached USD 173 million between 2005
shown by the opening of common consulates
degree scholarships (73.7 percent) are granted
to PALOP3 students (especially Cape Verde and
for its opaqueness about available information
are mainly granted (70 percent) to South
investigative work and information dissemination
on loans and the list of other ODA. Even
Peru and Argentina). Another aspect of Brazil’s
educational cooperation is the prioritisation
education systems and those high on the list of
Brazilian foreign policy as development partners.
Financial cooperation
The National Economic and Social Development
Bank (BNDES) plays a remarkable role in
with
public
funding—also
mobilize
more
government and Brazilian companies. So there
are no direct fund transfers to the contracting
governments. The bilateral intergovernmental
agreements are thus alternatives in which
internationalize themselves through the bank:
Finen (support lines for internationalisation of
Brazilian companies and purchase of capital
goods) and BNDES Automático.
59
The long-term socioeconomic impact of
Brazilian loans to developing countries also calls
Brazilian industrial products.
Private sector investments. BNDES also plays
the challenge alongside other Latin American
rights or negatively impact the environment and
indigenous people.
development
abroad.
Engineering
and
construction conglomerates are able to use public
export credits to expand their activities in Latin
the regional companies’ internationalization
is reinforced by integration projects from the
investments.
Debt relief. Discounts granted to Brazil’s
developing country debtors amounted to USD
(80 percent) concerned heavily indebted poor
4
the presence of many of these companies is not
BNDES helped to expand such activities. These
projects are in:
and Andrade Gutierrez will construct the
eastern road corridor at a cost of over USD
to heavily indebted poor countries are seen as
key in coping with these countries’ structural
indebtedness (Brasil 2010b). New debt relief
efforts announced by Dilma Roussef also links
such efforts to Brazil’s intention to intensify trade
relations with Africa.
3.5 billion for national reconstruction
Public loans.
loans provided by the World Bank in that year
Brazilian products through accredited foreign
banks hosted in the buyer country. Exim started
operations in 2011 and today more than 140
banks in 42 countries are accredited to operate
BNDES Exim (BNDES 2013). BNDES Exim
and particularly note the tangle of modalities and
so-called “structural” cooperation.
f the main mission of Brazilian SSC is to
we can perceive traditional
universities and research agencies or capacity/
supply chains that increase the autonomy of the
partner country.
Cotton-4,
ProSavana
combines
technical
implemented
by
Embrapa
and
cooperation
through testing and adaptation of productive
technical cooperation with concessional credits.
Brazil’s peacekeeping operations are characterized
by its troops’ role in rebuilding infrastructure and
humanitarian assistance.
regional supply chain. Cotton-4 includes training
in techniques of cotton cultivation and the
establishment of a research unit.
the successful sharing of experiences in national
in the tropical savannah of Mozambique. The
initiative is accompanied by the Nacala Fund
whose objective is to attract private investment
to promote the development of agribusiness and
food production in the region. The actors involved
in ProSavana have been challenged by Brazilian
multilateral spaces where international trade
intersects with development concerns. This is the
case of the Cotton 4 Project and Drug Factory
ProSavana, a trilateral project in partnership with
at the WTO: the Efavirenz’s anti-retroviral drug
case (2007) and the cotton controversy (2002
onwards) against US cotton production subsidies.
These areas of convergence between modalities
could promote better coordination between
different aspects of cooperation and support
more comprehensive development strategies with
funding lines for CSO initiatives in some cases.
PAA-Africa is inspired by the Brazilian
counterpart program that constitutes one of the
agriculture through the creation of local food
supply chains. The program also supports local
food shopping projects related to the Purchase
Structural cooperation
Different Brazilian institutions that implement
SSC use the concept or approach of structuring
initiatives of the WFP and FAO respectively.
Medical drugs factory in Mozambique, run
the training of Mozambican technicians for
a common goal: to strengthen local capacities
and institutions in order to increase autonomy
especially anti-retrovirals. The project hopes to
support the distribution of medicines to other
African countries as well.
The health sector SSC agencies are the ones that
have analysed this modality in more detail and
conceptualized the approach. The literature notes
that structuring cooperation seeks to break with
the traditional and passive transfer of knowledge
endogenous capacities and capabilities. Some of
its aspects are:
partners as protagonists in the stage of
sustainable development.
projects that accelerate the integration of Latin
America and reducing regional inequalities and
announced in 2007 and had committed funds
of up to USD 20 billion has not yet become
operational. The Bank of the South also remains
a non-consensual vehicle among Latin American
countries. There are points for discussion about
The outcome of the analysis is that public
healthcare remains one of the areas that has
managed to survive the adverse effects of the
privatization process pushed by Brazil’s neoof cooperation has the major backing of social
movements defending human rights.
to the role of the Bank in developing alternatives
schemes for regional funding. A new regional
with three pillars: the Regional Contingency
the Regional Monetary Area (and eventually a
common currency).
and funding mechanism
We cannot speak of SSC without mentioning
with Southern partners in setting up alternatives
to address the issue of funding. These initiatives
aim to fortify a new multipolar international
main goal is to support projects contributing to
the people’s well-being and advancing MDGs in
has received awards from the international
involve risks and challenges.
emerges as an important supplement to the
UN recognition as South-South and Triangular
Cooperation Champions in 2012. On the other
USD 3 million annually and has been criticized
by civil society for its lack of transparency and
restricted access to information.
national development models and the evolution
of the architecture of development cooperation.
The main periods are as follows:
guaranteed by the 1988 Federal Constitution.
In the 1940–1960 period: Brazil and foreign
donors converged on a development model
advanced with the rise of left-wing governments
traditional integration models based on market
is imbued with political dimensions and social
receiving aid to support the development of basic
advances.
In the 1970s:
approach emerged with its focus on actions
regional agreements does not seem to have been
America-wide productive integration model in
liberalization.
impact on the country’s return to democracy
and on the democratic reforms that followed
Brazil’s leadership in South American regionalism
government’s will and ability to produce collective
an imbalance between Brazilian interests within
the region and its extra-regional agreements
export patterns from South American countries
and changes in the regional division of labour
generate new disparities.
3. RECEIVED COOPERATION
government perceived such international support
as interference in Brazil’s domestic affairs.
In the 1990s: Brazil abandoned its traditional
“developmentalist” strategy in favour of
macroeconomic stability. Structural adjustment
programmes began to be dominant and ODA
was reoriented mainly to poverty alleviation
projects (Cervo 1994).
bilateral donors in the period up to 1989 were
In the 2000s: There is a renewal of Brazilian
state-led developmentalism (Bresser-Pereira
e with a greater emphasis on
social inclusion (Arbix y Martin 2010). Social
development started to play a major role in
Brazilian demands for development cooperation.
Brazilian sectors covered by international aid
OECD Development Assistance Committee
63
were the main targeted sectors. The Brazilian
government also received international aid in
strategic sectors such as satellite technology and
Brazil’s democratic processes and economic and
political opening-up over the past three years have
in many cases the country has evolved from a
of state. There is a growing consensus with
the Brazilian Academy on foreign policy as a
continuum of national economic and political
primarily for economic and social infrastructure.
the many interests and concepts within society
4. BRAZILIAN CIVIL SOCIETY AND SSC
From a perspective of Brazilian CSO-driven
recognizing the inherent role of CSOs in the
entire process of development and from different
perspectives:
its incident role and participation in
governmental strategies and foreign policy
as recipient of aid from foreign development
There is thus an ever-growing appreciation
of foreign policy since it departed from the
traditional concept of
and approached
decision-making processes must be subjected to
more democratic control. The reason also extends
to practice in international cooperation. The
diversity of experienced actors that implement
the various Brazilian cooperation methods
but also the result of competing forces for access
as provider and cooperator in horizontal
or climate change.
cooperation has a social participation component
that determines their existence and success.
Policy on food and nutrition security is an
emblematic case study: nearly 50 percent of the
content of laws and decrees are inspired from the
recommendations of the National Conference
aforementioned perspectives.
Between the outcome of this process in the
cooperation policies
creating u
of social participation as an important constituent
part of Brazilian development.
64
on strong connections with various social
movements and workers from various
social sectors who were defending their
rights in the 1988 Constitution while
addressing concrete issues in the design
Trade Chamber’s Private Sector Consultative
policy
implementation
supported
by
CSOs
movements
through
has
been
and
social
participatory
Even though these initiatives are very focused
such policies provide for institutionalized
social control and spaces of social control
and their legitimacy and sustainability
advances and recognise the role of civil society
in development cooperation. Such initiatives have
been led by two institutions: the presidency’s
been an inherent part of CSO requests
for alternative formulas of the State’s
promoting
epistemic policy communities which
guarantee its sustainability and legitimacy
transparency and CSO involvement in Brazilian
technical
cooperation
initiatives
Department aims to foster citizen participation
in Brazil’s international agendas and international
organisation
participatory
spaces.
The
department promotes meetings and seminars
dialogues over civil society cooperation and other
and prominent academics) and its request for the
creation of the Foreign Policy National Council
and for Brazilian CSO involvement in debates on
or consultations with civil society (e.g. Rio+20
and UNDP’s Beyond 2015).
Although Brazilian foreign policy remained
experience of Brazil as aid recipient has led them
to the conclusion that development impacts
are more sustainable in cases where projects
connected international actors to local CSOs and
a number of CSO initiatives in decision-making
and implementation of government initiatives in
cooperation.
such as the Working Group of the Security
Affairs from the Council for Sustainable Rural
Portuguese Speaking Countries Civil Society
Forum and the Social and Participative Mercosul
Popular Farmers’ Movement (MCP) and the
Women Farmers’ Movement (MMC). The main
partners of the projects in Africa are the Ministry
Trust for Community Outreach and Education in
South Africa.
65
From a perspective of Brazilian governmentrecognizing the role of civil society as inherent
to the processes of policy making and local
need for at least three factors that allow a
good strategy of civil society participation
in decisions relating to cooperation: (i) the
theme which brings together sectors from civil
helps to promote this participatory perspective
with governments and partners in multilateral
organisations and involved countries. The
(ii) the openness of the government counterpart
with participation restricted to implementation.
existence of narratives in international networks
(intergovernmental or civil society) that produce
information for the articulation of proposed
alternatives by civil society.
ensure the implementation of the agenda for
development aid
are no signs of a government strategy to involve
social sectors have pressed government for more
recognition of CSO roles. Organized sectors of
civil society are contributing to the formulation
the development cooperation agenda. This
engagement seeks not only to ensure that their
perspectives are taken into account on certain
the participatory component of cooperation
initiatives and the ties among CSOs.
The following examples stand out: the role of the
Meeting on Family Agriculture in the Mercosul
CPLP’s Council for Food and Nutrition Security
A preliminary analysis from different sectoral
66
countries’ CSOs played important roles in the
decisive action in the democratization process of the
Brazilian political system during the 1980s and 1990s.
European funds of Christian Churches and nonreligious have supported research centers and
military dictatorship and supported the social
organizations played a key role in human rights work
and in strategic thinking and formulation of inclusive
public policies for the next decades.
exchange provided with this type of cooperation
contributed to strengthened Brazilian civil society
and its capacity for international and national
incidence. This process helped to create a popular
social foundation and also to formulate CSO
Brazilian state. Many proposals from the 1988
Constitution and subsequently for public policy
legislation are results of CSO work in this period.
their sustainability compromised in the medium
capacities. According to the Brazilian NGOs
balance its budget based on advisory services to
governments or in collaboration with private
partners had 81 percent to 100 percent of their
do not usually cover administrative and institutional
expenditures. Organisations see these as limits
There are several possible interpretations for
this scenario on international funding. On the
related to administrative management which often
e to the
most small organizations do not have.
indicators and successful consolidation of civil
and regional priority shifts in funding from
initiatives
argued that lower resource requirements for
valuation of the Brazilian real and decline of the
resources on fewer projects without any decrease
into Northern and Northeast Regions (Silva and
Most international organizations opt to maintain
shortage of evidence on CSOs’ traineeships and
apprenticeships as applicants and proponents
of SSC and on their effective contribution to
Southern countries’ inclusive development.
With the goal of encouraging SSC initiatives
important role in international governance
existing data does not indicate any downward
spaces. This has an impact not only in the
number of projects and in terms of prioritizing
conducted between November 2014 and January
2015 a survey of 22 Brazilian CSOs and movements
that promote initiatives with other Southern
funding to private actors.
perceived by most political and social rights
organizations as leading to a decrease in resources
CSO concepts of SSC
The result is that large and small organizations see
pursued through relations with Southern partners.
67
Among the cited objectives for South-South
links are the following: working for autonomy
about international momentum that has
society partners strengthen social sectors
that promote their agendas in international
integration among emerging countries.
Among the actors mentioned as being involved
have similar objectives or as equal cooperators.
Also listed as intrinsic characteristics of SSC
various organizations have reported that they
they could mobilize and formulate agendas
and strategies with their governments and
local counterparts. SSC is also seen as one
of the procedures that facilitate alternative
agendas against current development
with noticeable social and environmental
impacts common to the South.
South-South initiatives of Brazilian CSOs
between peoples and countries of the South
or developing countries (using such terms as
or solidarity with social movements with similar
objectives).
With regard to the main motivations to cooperate
Respondent organizations mentioned their
participation in a total of 46 initiatives located in
the global South. Partners from 40 countries or
many initiatives involved multiple-country partners.
The most cited are countries from Latin America
5
principles that justify such action and pursue these
objectives. Among the principles mentioned are
in Eastern Europe. Mozambique leads the number
The analysis of initiatives points to a diversity
of activities developed in the context of SouthSouthern CSOs’ role in development.
One of objectives mentioned is the potential of
SSC to strengthen agendas related to the CSOs’
CSOs suggest that the experience with other
Southern countries help develop institutional
knowledge of exi
for the extension of its experiences in impact
strategies or in view of the enlarged learning
68
CSO engagement in SSC is principally based
on activities which support mobilization and
and shared learning. Also included are various
projects aimed at sharing social technologies
developed in Brazil and promoted by NGOs.
Various CSOs have also mentioned Southern
partners looking for better Brazilian public
policies in which civil society plays a revelant role
in policy formulation and implementation.
The survey’s results tentatively show that
Brazilian civil society has been developing
SSC initiatives that mix objectives as activists
(seeking to politically support local counterparts’
sharing of social technologies and international
related to their work schedule.
existing obstacles between countries.
Learning in cooperation. A range of learning have
also been mentioned in the area of cooperation.
Many CSO respondents suggested that one core
initiatives and challenges faced by partners. This
constructive
of information needed in designing effective
empowerment on the topic. Other oft-mentioned
lesson was the importance of accompanying the
partner countries’ government (7). The ABC
same number of initiatives involved international
and unions or union federations from developed
solidarity and commitment among all partners.
CSO respondents also stressed the importance of
always adaptable to other realities but could provide
key inputs in devising initiatives and local policies.
CSO engagement. The experience of Triangular
civil society is a key to successful policies.
Among the outstanding examples of learning
Expansion of strategies inventory. CSOs
have noted the importance of establishing
dialogues and initiatives derived from social
knowledge about the reality in other Southern
range of learning has also been mentioned in the
the strengthening of capacities has also been
inventory is enriched has also been cited.
campaigns and coordination strategies.
Broader knowledge on Southern realities.
With regard to the expansion of knowledge about
point has been mentioned about learning other
in
a greater consciousness of similar problems and
and methodologies and institutional budgets
translated into action in the domestic area. New
assigned individual functions have been created to
attend to international action. South-South action
of Brazil as part of South America. Based on
consistent coordination can be established in
the context of seeking to reduce inequities and
has been noted that South-South action plays a
major institutional role enhancing otherness.
69
Various CSOs have mentioned that work with
partner countries often reinforces conviction for
There are also issues related to local articulation
movements’ reorganization in the face of growing
as well as a gratifying experience when results
are visible. Networks built up through SSC
articulating policies relating to CSOs’ international
strengthen action and capacity to take positions
in monitoring international action as a useful tool
proposed solutions to circumvent limitations in
funding and technical capability. These include
efforts to extend and reinforce partnerships and
arena. They also see the importance of strengthening
South CSO initiatives. Also listed as obstacles are
the language barrier and issues related to legal
limitations of CSO international action.
Sources of funding for South-South CSO
exchanges are seen as slim because of international
environment for international action.
A number of changes that could help step up civil
indicate a need to review national legislation and
establish helping mechanisms and instruments for
(through recognition of the centrality of civil
is a need to strengthen (both institutionally and
(as triangular cooperation) with international
Limitations in the number of professionals and
in deepening of cooperation activities. Another
challenge is in consolidating initiatives within the
well as promote transparency and information access
on SSC projects from all Ministries and other federal
government agencies. Respondents also see the need
to create a National Council for External Policy
(CONPEB) with effective CSO participation.
Possibilities related to strengthening South-
and desired impacts.
training activities among organizations and
of experience among organizations and social
reluctance to let CSOs participate in crafting
and the criminalization of social movements.
international agencies have to work together to
support such initiatives while not compromising
the existing aid.
contexts) and cultural diversity (by valuing the
identities and k
and also to promote income generation and
resilient rural livelihoods.
entation of Community Seed Banks and
Capacity Building to R
Use Native Seeds in Family-Based Agriculture” is
South Africa that is driven by CSOs and social
SSC with civil society roles. Based on principles
such as intercultural dialogue and appreciation of
structured actions for food sovereignty and social
and political mobilization of participants.
Among the project’s factors for success are
the following: building of trust and mutual
the training (which provided the knowledge
on the relationship between local realities and
exchanges based on mutual learning and
government’s non-interference on the creation
of project exchanges and methodology.
and the Women Farmers’ Movement (MMC).
The main partners of the projects in Africa are:
Farmers’ National Union in Mozambique and
six other participating organizations with the
TCOE (the Trust for Community Outreach
and Education) from South Africa. Participating
agencies of the respective governments are
Among the obstacles that were mentioned
are: communications-related challenges such
planning of visits according to the agricultural
in accompanying the project due to budgetary
government.
Community Outreach and Education in South
Planning in Mozambique alongside the country’s
National Farmers’ Union.
Among the outstanding results cited are
the following: greater political activism by
Mozambicans organizations working with
The project promotes the exchange of
networks (such as the UNAC and the Vía
well as establishing community native seed banks
of women’s participation and the creation of a
nd a better
perception of the common challenges posed
by agribusiness-based development models.
biodiversity (through the preservation of seed
varieties adapted to different agroclimatic
5.CONCLUSION
Brazil is going through a transitional period
seen as having reached a better international status
due to its so-called “inclusive growth”. This new
status has greatly helped in establishing Brazilian
policies and programmes as “best practices” to be
combination characterises the agricultural
development of the country. For civil society
logic undermines cooperation with partners.
ProSavana’s case is an example of this dynamic:
disputes around the project raises the question:
sectors represent losses for local communities?
directly work with multilateral agendas that
international recognition of certain Brazilian
policies and programmes has also led to further
legitimisation of such experiences within the
country.
related to the consistency of Brazil’s international
action and to its domestic governance.
which asymmetries in international trade equally
affect development in countries of the South.
regional asymmetries and gives public support for
Brazilian internationalization. These sometimes
impact badly on the populations of partner
should be regarded as a country of the global
South or a “big actor” in global governance.
promote policies that allow a synergy of efforts
of development in the face of various issues at
national and international levels. Building a global
a number of institutional challenges. These
include: a legal structure for the country’s role
autonomous coordinating agency to ensure that
to explain the “Brazilian development model”.
Brazil suffers from the absence of any policy with
projects and resolving issues regarding the agenda
transparency from the BNDES.
the formulation and sharpening of objectives
social control and accounting. The results of the
cooperation should also be subjected to public
shows tensions between different interests and
develoment strategies. Brazil shares international
agro-business with projects in technical and
the perspective of people of partner countries.
Opening up for transparent and informed debate
will not solve inherent tensions because of the
complexity of relationships among various social
it will provide a democratic environment for the
decision-making process.
The role of civil society as cooperative participant
or jointly responsible for the social advances in
recent decades strengthens its importance as
the validity and importance of the principles and
practices seeking to consolidate the discussion about
regarding risks of “single formulas” in ensuring
as a mod
regulatory framework for civil society as an area
for possible improvement.
and governance mechanisms that should exist in
order to appreciate the need of policy coherence
for the international action of national nonstate actors. This argument reinforces the appeal
among various sectors of civil society on the
creation of a Participatory Council of External
other areas of Brazilian public policy.
technicalities of the debate on aid effectiveness help
take away the participation of Southern actors.
failure of donor countries to reach the goal of
not lead to a decline in the level of assistance
bearing in mind the development challenges that
persist at the domestic level.
effectiveness in aid
remains a complex arena. Due to actors’ peculiarities
There is an important debate on the relation
between SSC and international development
framework and indicators to measure expected
of SSC in the debate on aid effectiveness.
We observe recent initiatives in cooperation
creation of the Global Partnership for Effective
use by Northern donors of the term partner
is structured according to the demand and envisaged
discussion on results and impacts into a completely
different conceptual matrix.
Countries of the South must improve themselves
theoretically and practically in the evaluation of
systematizing and disseminating information
about SSC experiences.
the position of both civil society and government
NEST (Network of Southern Thinks Tanks) and
in networks of Brazilian civil society be able to
be discussed at the multilateral level in the UN
73
it will become an essenti
concerning the democratic ownership of SSC.
approach on new development paradigms.
of development effectiveness elaborated at the
with noticeable impacts in providing cooperation
among Southern countries. Despite various
forces and interests involved in decisions on
concepts such as ownership or cooperation based on
experience offers learnings on the importance
of strengthening partnerships and political
of these terms might substantially differ.
On
the importance of discussing the notion of “model
of development”. The defense of economic and
commercial interests and the concerted action in
the
establishment
and
diversity
of
stress on demand and non-conditionality as
essential for the establishment of horizontal
evidence are necessary to assess the quality of
the importance of the recognition of the need for
experience demonstrates that the construction
of partnerships is a non-linear and much longer
for the self-reliant and sustainable development of
countries of the South.
individual projects and logical frameworks.
74
References
Disponible en
dez. 2007, p. 273-335.
Beyond Developmentalism
and Market
de Lima, M., &
98, abril, p. 189-204.
Bresser-Pereira, L. C. (2011). From Old to New Developmentalism
University Press, p. 108-129.
brasilien/07917.pdf
dodesenvolvimento
75
(2), 136-147.
Janeiro
of Development Studies.
Nova York:
76
517-552.
solidariedade-regional
CEPAL.
Vigevani, T. (16 de Dezembro de 2014). Os impasses da
de Janeiro: Elsevier.
horizontal post-2015 partnerships. Reality of Aid, 2014
Donor Forum 2012, Paris, May 15-16. Available at:
Notes
1
Items 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 and 3 are based on arguments from the research “Brazil’s Engagement in International Development Co-
social and political infrastructure. Brazil joined many other
countries in responding to a global call for helping Haiti in
post-earthquake reconstruction.
Pomeroy, 2014). Items 2.4 and 2.5 are elaborated in the paper
more horizontal post-2015 partnerships” (Suyama and Pomeroy,
2014), published by Reality of Aid 2014. The box about Brazilian
action in Haiti is based on a publication of the Observatório Brasil
e Sul (Waisbich and Pomeroy, 2014). Finally, item 3.4 comes from
preliminary results (not yet published) based on a survey of Brazilian CSOs on South-South cooperation initiatives as part of the
Observatório Brasil e Sul.
2
Haiti was struck by a powerful earthquake in 2010, incurring
massive loss of lives and extensive damage to its economic,
-
São Tomé Príncipe.
4
IIRSA means Initiative for the Integration of the Regional Infrastructure of South America.
5
Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (In Portu-
77
BRICS and Africa
A desk study on South-South cooperation
Rutendo Hadebe
Introduction
This desk study on South-South Cooperation
(SSC) was commissioned by the Reality of Aid
Africa (ROA-A). The SSC country case studies
aim to contribute to an enhanced evidencebased policy engagement on SSC by civil society
organizations (CSOs). The expected outcome of
the research is to strengthen civil society’s SSC
country-level monitoring.
receivers of aid and at the same time as providers
of development cooperation.
The
third
section
draws
evidence-based
interrogates possible CSO roles in providing
the voice of the voiceless who are caught in the
middle of the SSC execution. The section also
emphasises the roles of CSOs as monitors and
policy advocates of SSC’s positive aspects such as
provide a resource for CSOs to establish ways to
engage and monitor SSC within their respective
spaces and countries. Thus the study will focus on
1. SSC history, perceptions and
rhetoric
the wider development cooperation discourse.
South-South cooperation has become today’s
in no way exhaustive but instead has highlighted a
few examples to give a general comprehension of
the nature and parameters of SSC.
as the general antithesis of Northern aid. While
the term previously denoted cooperation links
that connect developing countries of the global
with particular attention on its rhetoric and
inclusion of Russia as one of SSC proponents
1
The
term now connotes an alternative concept of
South development narratives. The second
section contains a brief analysis of each of the
their position and their engagement with other
countries in the global South. This section
78
world economic power.
a conceptualisation of a regional imaginary called
BRICS and Africa:
in comparison to those characteristic of NorthSouth relations. South Space is viewed through its
in providing development aid and lines of credit
to other Southern countries.
Perceptions around SSC
Post-coloniality and increasingly harder and
Partly in opposition to perceived US and
Although reality it is open to a variety of
led by China has indeed caused tension among
formerly dominant Western donors and has
dissipated the unchallenged power that the West
represented. Speculations on the real implication
of the SSC began in the 1980s. Many researchers
from both East and West.
have positioned themselves as centres of South
often adopted foreign policies that encourage
assisting or engaging with other Southern
countries—particularly to push the socialist and
anti-Western imperialist platforms as in the case
of China and the former Soviet Union during
the Cold War. China provided arms to liberation
movements in Africa and was considered a
critical actor in driving colonial powers out of
early as 1970 when it provided USD 40 billion
for building the Tanzania-Zambia (TANZAM)
railway line. The former Soviet Union (of which
Russia was the biggest component) sponsored
several liberation movements and cultivated very
close relationships with Angola and Mozambique
among other African nations.
viewed it as the end of the West’s dominance in
development aid and discourse.
SSC’s continued rise led to efforts in Western
countries (using a Western lens) to countertheorise and make sense of this development shift.
economy) is portrayed as an authoritarian power
and human rights violator that seeks to dominate
critical factor in shaping the content and agenda of
SSC producing more results also whipped up
showed by rising socio-economic indicators in the
Disconnected acts of assistance between Southern
addressing hunger and poverty. China and Russia
not being included in this declaration meant that
possibility of a departure from conditionalitydriven aid to cooperation based on the principle
of equality and mutual interest.
79
BRICS and Africa:
1.
The underpinning ideology of SSC is at
by the Non
which was originally a response to the
Cold War and continues to play a role in
often represented as a set of economic and
political relations more horizontal rather
also important to separate the mainstream
rhetoric that surrounds SSC and the reality
receivers of Western aid even as they play
the role of aid providers as the poles of SSC.
following rhetoric:
typically unequal North-South interactions.
2.
The rise of SSC presents alternatives to
North-South aid arrangements which are
based on power imbalances and donor
hierarchies and often left the recipient
view SSC from a neo-Westphalian legal
framework. This means that their approach
is grounded on the principle of state
the neo-Westphalian sovereignty principle
and therefore would emphasize different sets
and themes that do not necessarily revolve
around a core ideological premise.
intervention of one state in the internal affairs
of another. This Westphalian approach has
impacts are also being expressed through other
aid without paying attention to governance
issues faced by receiving governments.
3.
have gone ahead to create what is termed
and civil society are expected to work
closely in policy formulation and to ensure
economic indicators of the recipient countries
enable them to seek alternative paths for their
own development agenda. The parallel decline of
some European countries (Greece and Spain are
recent examples) can also be juxtaposed with the
rise of Southern economic powerhouses such as
2. The supply/demand side of SSC
citizenship. This model is being projected
to other Southern countries as an alternative
to the exclusivist roles of the state and
market power in conventional governance.
4.
of SSC to better understand it and its location
have each framed themselves as alternative
reputations as providers of lines of credit to
BRICS and Africa:
a clean human rights record and ideological
assisted close to 160 countries.
become credible sources of foreign direct
An
poles within this arrangement.
India
Ethiopia in return for extensive land-lease deals.
in joining development aid
years as powerhouse has nonetheless enabled it
to use technology and economic cooperation as a
2004 energy supply by four times in order to
with the tree Jatropha curcas3 from which biofuel
development cooperation.
While the notion of horizontal partnership
is central to SSC (and increasingly becoming
particularly with Africa are guided by its foreign
policy objective—which is principally to gain
global recognition as a major player in facilitating
trade and investment within the Southern space.
ensures that real people’s resistance is avoided.
(Camordy 2013) Such land deals have been
which insist that these land deals are infused with
complex and multi-layered political-economic
agendas.
The land deals in Ethiopia have so far resulted in
infrastructure facilities with technology
and skills appropriate to their resources
technologies
and
human
engagement therefore brings up questions of
how such deals could be consistent with the SSC
notion of horizontal aid and rhetoric of solidarity.
resource
the course of its own development.
A number of bilateral projects are
of lines of credit through the Exim Bank has
and Small
and Medium Enterprises (SMEs).2
in Sub-Saharan Africa as well.
BRICS and Africa:
growing as Southern countries continue to look
as the ultimate strategy for the country to enhance
a coordinating agency to handle and coordinate
all its development cooperation efforts.
Despite its influence growing by the year and
its tapping new sources of energy to support
remains a receiver of aid from other donor
countries.
to the global South and particularly to Portuguesespeaking African countries.
support and capacity building for health personnel
and built a health research unit in Mozambique.
4
was inaugurated
in the capital city Maputo with a factory for antiretroviral (ARV) drugs as part of the research
institute. This initiative was categorized as a
for such cooperation is high in Mozambique and
sub-Saharan Africa as this region has the highest
But while Brazil promises to meet sub-Saharan
Brazil
engagements in Africa are guided by stateapproach to Africa is guided by a vision of
global cooperation driven by domestic class
politics avowing to reduce massive domestic
inequality. Brazil’s strategy is based on the
notion of wielding sof
as “consensual hegemony.” Part of this notion
so-called because the state and market power
blurring certain lines between the state and CSOs.
guided by its foreign policy agenda of expanding
its investment and trade in different parts of the
it also hopes to meet its own needs for investment
areas and biofuels by exploring opportunities in
the vast African continent has the potential to
provide Brazil with a platform for reinforcing its
position as a rising economic power.
Despite a narrative favouring Brazil as a
horizontal soft power with an activist state and
researchers such as Patrick Bond (2013) argue
that it is in reality a sub-imperial power—one not
only seeking investment outlets in other Southern
countries but also extracting resources such as
gas and ores in Paraguay. Bond also cites Brazil’s
and China) in voting for the non-recognition of
security and equality.
more greenhouse gases.
An example of Brazil’s development cooperation
Cooperation Agency (ABC) to oversee its external
Brazil and its Southern allies fought a public battle
patented many drugs required for the treatment
commitment.
BRICS and Africa:
receive aid from Western donors.
China
The ascent of China as a global power is of
with Africa has grabbed the world’s attention.
The main drivers of China’s rise remains a subject
cooperation is not clearly spelt. What is evident
is that China’s major role as global manufacturer
and exporter has underscored its growing energy
needs—which in many ways have shaped its
involvement with other countries as potential
countries the state and markets are in a constant
balancing act in shaping external economic
China. The country’s state power is highly visible
Russia
remarkable record of providing economic aid to
China and other developing countries that chose
with mixed positive and negative results. But it
component parts (such as Russia) being labelled
“transitional states” instead.
After and despite the collapse of the Soviet Union
and Cold War
programme to reestablish its power and challenge
key region in its drive to reconstruct its image and
reassert global power.
While Russia is a major energy producer and is not
between the years 2000 and 2006 (OECD 2008).
that between it and Africa they hold 60% of the
has now also positioned its national bank as
international provider of lines of credit as well
resource bloc exerting powerful leverage over the
rest of the world. This reinforces the important
role played by Africa in Russia’s foreign policy.
As a major global player engaged with the
with the Chinese yuan becoming an exchangeable
currency in such countries as Zimbabwe.
oppositional stance to the West’s “regime change”
paradigm by supporting regimes in various
uding despotic ones such as
Robert Mugabe in Zimbabwe and Jose Eduardo
dos Santos in Angola.
for their construction and also by importing its
own labour to undertake the work. This model of
resources exploration. Big companies such as
evoked questions around fair labour practice.
China’s insistence on providing its own labour is
in fact a way to circumvent compliance with the
receiving country’s fair-labour regulations.
and Lukoil concentrate on general mining and
83
BRICS and Africa:
expand into more countries.
particularly in Africa. Some 14 percent of Russiancountries such as Sudan.5
the military equipment of such states as Angola
and Ethiopia are of Russian origin. Russia’s
activities in the region and the rest of the
continent. South Africa remains a very important
international development actor because of the
size of its economy and its level of development
as compared to the rest of the continent.
or middle state for major powers and transnational
as it manipulates regional relations to navigate
of non-interference in such instances.
Other forms of Russian development cooperation
to promote economic liberalisation to facilitate
regional market access and governance by its
development aid is focused on African countries
that suffer from a plethora of crises from poverty
and underdevelopment to bad governance.
allows duty-free imports from least developed
countries and has increased imports from Africa
at a rate of 19 percent per year. Taking its
development aid agency although so far it has not
commitments yet.6
engaging SSC appears to be guided and informed
by broader foreign policy objectives in reasserting
its global power and challenging that of the US.
Russia’s framework can be problematic when
Africa coined Africa’s Renaissance and the
New Partnership for Development (NEPAD)
and adopted a framework for its increased
engagement in the region. This has enabled South
Africa to penetrate the rest of the African market
and to maintain an African leadership role in
international affairs.
South Africa has focused on energy and extractive
7
South Africa
South Africa has increased its involvement
in development cooperation programmes as
a provider of aid. On the basis of its foreign
and human development in the Southern Africa
84
Pick and Pay) thus displacing local and less
Africa is leasing millions of hectares in several
countries of the South African Development
Community (SADC)8 in order to grow food and
BRICS and Africa:
cash crops for its own domestic consumption.
skewed against the rest of the South space at best.10
into the rest of the continent.9
hierarchical channels of development aid and
that: rhetoric. SSC takes place neither in a vacuum
has found itself having to prop up despotic
African regimes through loans or military
support Zimbabwe’s Mugabe regime with more
loans when all other avenues of support had
economic contexts in which decisions remain
where peasant farmers (as in Ethiopia and
intervene in the Central African Republic (CAR)
which was then undergoing severe political crisis.
Despite growing concerns that South Africa’s
moves seem to hark bank to aggressive 19th
on the continent a large uptake of South African
as a middleman between the developed North
economic leader of the Southern African region.
to its development aid role by institutionalising its
efforts through the South African Development
Partnership Agency in 2013.
South offers possible alternative paths towards
global system change that is favourable to the
impoverished peoples and countries of the
a concerted effort to strategize equitable and
viable modes of SSC among the Southern
the opportunity for real change and poverty
alleviation is lost.
Future NGO engagement with SSC
The dominant agenda in development cooperation
3. Conclusion
Despite much speculation on whether SSC will
displace the power by the big donor countries
society involvement.
SSC however opens up potential space for CSOs
to receive some aid from the North (especially
their relationship with the major Western donor
countries in terms of development cooperation
donor-recipient relations require that CSOs be
85
BRICS and Africa:
realities. CSOs will have to become multifaceted to
common development agendas and policies to
guide how SSC should work and how its rhetoric
of equality can become a reality.
communities victimized by corporate landgrabs and
destructive mining operations provide a rich treasury
of lessons in building social movements that can
positively impact SSC.
economic elites continue to be the source and
mainstay of government policies and policy-
CSOs worldwide and in the global South must
projects undertaken through SSC. CSOs needs
and match them with their own countries’
in terms of actual and potential alignments as
democratic ownership of development.
assume their own development objectives and
corresponding policy advocacies and strategies.
that CSOs push for full access to overall aid and
(including the contracting of loans and agreement
instances are done away from public scrutiny
and other transparency mechanisms. CSOs must
therefore advocate for transparency and public
initiatives can help catalyze better coordination
and sharing of information between development
formulation and adoption of a common strategy
for development of the South Space.
and evaluation.
which CSOs are often in the best position to
the various international platforms with which
SSC development agendas and players (especially
campaigns for government accountability.
to be prepared to engage with continuing issues
of inequality and marginalisation of the working
evidenced in the more conventional North-South aid
relations. CSOs need to share SSC-related experiences
across countries and continents especially to gather
the best ways of advocacy or seeking recourse.
86
also engage the same platforms and use them as
advocacy spaces whether to obtain commitments
or to work for broader public rejection and push
for better alternatives. Recent history of CSO
combination of CSO actions with broad mass
support within and around such international
platforms can spell the difference.
BRICS and Africa:
References
BRICS in
, Vol 34 No.2 pp251-270
Volume 34, No.6 pp1091-1110, Rutledge Taylor and
Books
Vol 26. No. 4, pp171-200
Notes
1
A select group of developing countries consisting of Brazil,
Russia, India, China and South Africa believed to hold one of
two axes at the centre of rebalancing the global geography of
power (Camordy 2013)
3
Jatropha curcas is a non-edible oil crop predominantly used
country’s objectives, principles, priorities, and criteria for
assistance to partner countries. Instead of an independent
development agency, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the
Ministry of Finance will jointly supervise Russia’s work on development co-operation.--Editors.
integrates energy and chemical products, with oil- and gasbased energy projects in nearby Mozambique and elsewhere
in the region.
animal feed.
4
8
SADC, formed through a legally-binding treaty in 1992, is
composed of 15 member-states in Southern Africa to promote
regional development and integration.
9
“South Africa’s outward FDI stock grows,” Engineering News
-
Fiocruz is the largest biomedical research institute in Latin
America.
Africa to Sub-Saharan Africa”. Africa Europe Faith and Justice
-
eration policy paper (Concept of Russia’s Participation in
10 This conclusion will have to be reassessed in the light of
recent major developments, especially with the establishment of the BRICS-backed New Development Bank and
the China-led Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank both in
2015.--Editors.
87
Cuba and South-South Cooperation
Antonio F. Romero Gómez, University of Havana
Introduction
The basic aim of this document is to analyse
Cuba’s politics and actions in relation to
to share information about the peculiarities
and effectiveness of the cooperation
provided by Cuba to other developing
to assess these experiences in the framework
While the focus will be on Cuba’s provision of aid
to other developing countries—since the country
section will also summarise the external aid
received by Cuba in recent years.
This analysis is addressed to the civil society
organizations (CSOs) linked to the CSO
Partnership for Development Effectiveness
currently faced by Cuba.
of the history of Cuba’s international cooperation
conceptual elements and basic principles of
important to point out that Cuba and other
developing countries have raised serious questions
of developing countries of the global South. The
related to the negotiation processes and to the
relationship between the economic transformation
process in Cuba and development cooperation.
The last paragraph summarises the main concepts
of this work and future perspectives.
this document stresses the following objectives:
to provide a consolidated overview of Cuba’s
experience in South-South Cooperation
88
information (in terms of economic value) about
economic and social policy guidelines clearly
states the importance of establishing economic
and statistical records that will allow the required
analysis—especially in terms of costs—related to
of the collaboration has improved systematically.
Medical cooperation in particular has registered
1
1. Historical background
Almost since the revolution’s victory on 1
that took place in 1959.2
affected by a powerful earthquake that had left
Cuba has gradually opened many medical faculties
of foreign students who studied and graduated in
Cuba have been increasing.
doctors have provided help to 108 countries. As
tasks of this nature.
cooperation with developing countries
Castro announced Cuba’s decision to provide
medical assistance to other countries of the world.3
as sponsor of international cooperation was the
arrival in the early 1960s of research scholars
in Cuban institutes.
team composed of 55 collaborators was sent to
as
a
combination
of
collective
activities
and introduced by them to promote independent
these countries can get a better and fairer deal.
in December 2009:
“S
internationalism in health” has been associated
avoidance of using medical cooperation as means
to spread political doctrine or as an encouragement
of a business relationship or sales service.4
collaborators and countries receiving Cuban aid
89
For countries in Latin America and the Caribbean
some development cooperation projects linked
mainly from the UN.
while considering complementarities in their
capacities and development needs. There is
a mutually reinforcing relationship between
and encouraging collaborative activities to
strengthen interregional relations. One objective
from LAC is to share innovative proposals for
cooperation can mobilize additional resources for
Cooperation or NSC. Neither should it cause
industrialized countries to drop their commitments
based on the UN development framework.
the particularities and various historical contexts
solidarity among nations.
as complementary to North-South Cooperation
an expression of solidarity and principles based on
forms or structures by which the recipient country
can manage the collaboration.
The whole practice of development cooperation
which Cuba provides to Southern countries is
institutionalized through cooperation agreements
pursue the debate about international cooperation
architecture being aligned to the new development
which must retain their leading role in the design
of the Community of Latin American and
Caribbean States (CELAC)—that the international
community must adopt a different approach that
goes beyond GDP in determining the levels of
development of the various countries. As also
countries according to their per-capita GDP
institutions of the recipient governments.
challenges still faced by middle-income countries
relations with NGOs and other civil society
entities. According to the recipient country’s legal
for international cooperation.
recipient country. Cuba has also participated in
(as per the latest report on SSC in Latin America)5
on the need to build a system for classifying the
e.
This is to better guide the international community
in meeting the challenges and needs of the various
the further attempt to incorporate the
principles of the Paris Declaration on
type of cooperation—from its original
differentiated and sustainable approaches.
The Cuban governm
cooperation is undertaken always with full respect
for the fundamental principles that guide SSC:
action and implementation of projects and
programs according to the demands of the
recipient without any conditionality.
of Buenos Aires (PABA)—is conceptually
and operationally different from NSC
Although Cuban authorities view the agenda
proposed by the Paris Declaration and the Accra
Agenda for Action as addressing critical issues
that substantially determine the impact of such
7
Cuban opposition to the acceptance of some
international commitments—such as the
derivatives of the Paris Declaration6 and the
Accra Agenda for Action—in relation to the
principles and rules that should govern the
projects and actions of development cooperation.
a.
b.
c.
they originated in proposals of the
Development Assistance Committee (DAC)
of the OECD and thus have no “multilateral”
character since they were not the result of
a narrow view of the articles of
the Paris Declaration and the Accra
Agenda for Action could lead to some
conditionality in access to funds and
regulatory
frameworks
generalize these trends
attempt
to
and concerns
which is excessively focused on the issues of “aid
are not always due to lack of resources.
supported a document entitled “Position on SouthSouth Cooperation within the framework of the
8
not participate in any forum related to this new
architecture of international cooperation or those
linked to the Global Partnership for Effective
Development Cooperation (GPEDC).
relationships that encompasses the broader
According to the Ministry of Foreign Trade and
d.
the treatment of ODA effectiveness
in these policy documents express an
gives priority to “a partnership that is based not
overcome development challenges. This principle
and its consistent application are on the basis of
to developing countries. Most importantly
reduction and strong multiplier impacts on
developing countries.”9
tried to complement the potential it created
(especially in medicine) with resources that
developed nations or international organizations
experience in recent years
several cooperation projects within the Group of
the economic cooperation provided by Cuba to
1989.10 This placed the country as a major SSC
amount of aid represented an above-average
percentage compared to the corresponding
aid-to-GDP ratio of the 18 largest developed
nsensus that changes in the
international environment and their very adverse
implications for Cuba’s economy and society
strongly impacted the model of international
cooperation that prevailed in the country until
th
in more than 160 countries. The aid was focused
based on the process of economic recovery that
began in 1994. This process entailed the relative
although projects and actions were also found
Cuba had bilateral cooperation links with a total
of 141 developing countries.
events that greatly affected the Cuban economy.
Among these stood out the disintegration of
the Soviet Union and the disappearance of the
socialist camp—which served as Cuba’s main
of its external economic relations that reduced
its over-reliance on a few countries for external
trade. Accompanying these was the presence of
an institutional framework that always promoted
cooperation as a complement and not a substitute
for national socioeconomic development strategies
developing countries). (Alvarez 2000)
with the tightening of US economic sanctions
in recent years may be viewed as having regular
features such as the following:
of serious economic decline with pronounced
a.
the challenge of deep structural transformation.
Actions of Cuban cooperation with
developing countries have been implemented
as part of agreements or arrangements for
1990 and 1998 Cuba made donations of USD
agreements of regional or inter-regional
scope or as requested by international
out by Cuban cooperation have been
oriented to promote the development
of diff
or groups of countries. Both the objective
and the strategy of individual programs
and projects have been determined by
technicians for training and educational
activities in Third World countries.
at the request
of governments in developing countries.
Advice on the design and development of
national health programs.
Conducting health diagnostic studies
in various countries of the South.
the recipients have always been decisive.
One of the most successful examples of Cuban
were guided by a framework or institutional
Caribbean. The conception of this comprehensive
program stems from the devastating effects of
b.
c.
regulating relations among cooperators.
d.
for help from the international community. Cuba
responded by establishing a Comprehensive
11
whose general features were the following:
e.g. other countries as part of triangular
a.
organizations. There are also actions in
which the budgetary burden is shared by
countries or those that enjo
resources as in the case of some oil exporters.
Cooperation of Cuba would consist in
after which they would be relieved by other
b.
c.
a one-year length of stay was agreed on.
Cuba’s efforts to train human resources
served as a central element of the program.
Cuban health personnel brigades would
provide services especially in rural areas
would cover important but unmet needs for
successful types that continue to develop in Cuba
are those related to health. Thousands of patients
Asia and the Middle East have received medical
assistance and free medical treatment in institutions
of the Cuban health system. Collaboration in the
health sector has included the following:
with the doctors of the recipient country.
d.
cooperation under the P
Comprehensive health care at the primary
and secondary levels
Technical assistance
93
Training of human resources and support
for the training of professional and
technical personnel involved in the diverse
activities of the public health service
Development of health programs
Management of programs for the
acquisition and production of medicines
School of Medicine (ELAM) was created in
late 1999 as a basic element of continuity and
the 15 members of the Caribbean Community
2005 to twelve other Latin American countries.12
Cuba in recent years. Besides the traditional variants
of collaboration of Cuban medical personnel in
of political and diplomatic relations developed by
have stressed the particular value of Cuban
cooperation in child development from birth to
three years through the institutional strengthening
of “Children’s Centers of Good Living” and the
“Growing with Our Children” project.13
the modality of Special Programs emerges and
The strengthening of national capacity is a major
complete form of the Cuban medical cooperation
(in terms of services provided within a country).
continuity of the work of Medical Brigades abroad.
from other countries had been graduated in Cuba.
among the member countries of the Bolivarian
Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA).
Another important milestone in Cuban
international cooperation was the creation of the
in Disaster Situations and Serious Epidemics
earthquake in 2005. This contingent was also
activated to offer immediate assistance to the
United States in the wake of destruction wrought
in medicine and technical careers related to health
were enrolled at universities in Cuba and in other
schools abroad (which were formed with Cuban
medical brigades). The Latin American School of
a turning point in the conception of Cuban aid
train students in the remotest and marginalized
went on to diversify. The “Operation Miracle”
program started in July 2004 to undertake surgery
among Venezuelans with severely impaired
94
effort to help other countries pay their own social
debt. As of December
students in Community
Venezuela (began in April 2003) is directly
contributing to the sustainability of Cuban
medical cooperation actions. Foreign students
and boasts of having undertaken more than 363
The training of
Program Medical Brigades) also undergo the
is applied in Cuba for primary health care and
nearly 282 million educational activities and
attending to 16.5 million eye cases.
supports the training of technicians and nurses
All these patients have been treated in popular
opened a school with Cuban professors located
enrollment of about 150 students.
Centers inside Venezuela.16
cooperation in health
The main result of “Operation Miracle” has been
the improvement or return of vision to more
than 1.8 million people in 33 countries. Cuba
among the main results in recipient countries are
the strengthening of national capacities and the
patients in 60 ophthalmologic centers installed in
of more than 750 units or specialized health
Cuba and equipped with the highest technology)
17
and 160 new hospital services were opened as
reinforcement to everyday actions performed by
Cuban collaborators in primary care.14
developed in Cuba and later spread to other
treated nearly 164 million patients from various
on some 2.7 million patients. The health
infrastructure of these countries have been
per 100 disabled inhabitants. The study was
African countries.15
and clinical terms all persons with disabilities.
They were then provided with psychosocial and
Cooperation with the Bolivarian Republic of
and appliances as well based on their needs.18
The state cy
95
to be built in an existing installation and includes
and Neurosciences. The information from this
study allowed the government to improve the
Cuba has maintained an active solidarity and
cooperation with that country. The special
and to contribute directly to poverty reduction.
who are pursuing higher studies in many academic
Ecuador and Bolivia to make similar requests.
permanent basis of a Cuban contingent for
Cuba’s premises and aims are directed to
ensuring continuity in the improvement of
in all countries involved in Cuban medical
and actions tailored to the new realities of the
Cuban economy are key elements in Cuba’s
appro
of developing countries.
reduction in post-earthquake Haiti and
the anti-Ebola campaign in West Africa
counseling and training of Latin American and
Brigades from Cuba have operated in 30
countries hit by various natural disasters such
volcanic eruptions and others.
technicians to repair biomedical equipment.19
The Cuban medical brigade has about 600
Specialized in Disaster Situations and Serious
institutionalization of disaster medical care.
the health collaboration began. Note that after
developing infrastructure and ensuring continuity
institution was recently added: a laboratory of
bola virus
epidemic at the request of the UN Secretary
General and the Director General of the World
96
to a large group of earthquake v
who still carry injuries and could not be fully
rehabilitated.20
As part of a UNASUR project that works
Argentina and Venezuela) the establishment in
2014 of community hospital “Presidente Nestor
rate (52.3%) remained lower than the nationwide
22
The medical
workers’ performance was nothing short of
154 were able to leave the hospital.
to build this hospital and we did: Argentina
Coyah served as the reference center for the whole
of Guinea with its better results. Expressing
its wonderful training in health matters and
of Guinea noted that Cuba’s response was not
surprising because the country already hosted a
Anti-Ebola campaign in West Africa
there has been no other country in the world that
has helped Africa as Cuba did.23
The work of Cuban medical specialists has
also been very important in Africa. They made
headlines recently for their front-line involvement
remained in Sierra Leone between October 2014
which was spreading as a severe epidemic and
reached the proportions of a major disaster.
Cuban doctors and nurses arrived in the Republic
Ebola and to help in the important work of
prevention and education related to the deadly
who had been in Liberia had returned to Cuba. The
Cuban medical teams returned home from Sierra
Leone and Liberia only after Ebola’s eradication or
Sierra Leone and other West African countries.
achieved in the two African countries.
The Cuban medical contingent were based in the
Coyah Treatment Center (some 60 kilometers
front-line the battle against Ebola as it had been
receiving patients from all surrounding regions.
Because about 70 percent of those who had
cooperation against Ebola confrontation. Right
for specialists and managers on coping with
because the majority entered the center in an
advanced stage of infection (6th or 7th
lethality rate was high. Thanks to the discipline
and professionalism of the Cuban health staff21
workshop was attended by 278 experts from 34
the national action plans and to design a joint
anti-Ebola strategy for the Latin American and
97
Caribbean region. This was soon followed by the
risk reduction. One of the main objectives is to
of Tropical Medicine in Cuba in November 2014.24
climate change are a clear barrier to the sustained
development of many countries in the LAC
been giving priority to other cooperation projects
of strengthening international cooperation in
biodiversity. Cuba has been very active in various
territorial integrity of many small island states
unless immediate action is taken within the
framework of global cooperation and compliance
with international climate commitments.25
Caribbean region has a lot of large and small
small mountain villages. All its countries and
territories face a common major threat: an annual
hurricane season that could have devastating
exacerbate in terms of hurricane frequency and
have long encouraged regional and international
Cuban
government
since
2005
has
Development Programme (UNDP) in Cuba and
the UNDP Risk Management initiative in creating
the Center for Risk Reduction Management
98
aid to isolated and remote communities that have
receive equipment and training that enable them
order to take effective protection measures.
Cuban government has set up a total of 8
which are linked to 310 communities. Since
to raise the level of community disaster awareness
and preparedness.
Resident Representative in Cuba: “The essence
of CMRR is to reduce the risk of natural
disasters and promote collective knowledge and
information management for decision making
by the local government. This instrument
represents an investment in reducing the risk of
sent by the United Nations: for every dollar we
invest in risk reduction through prevention and
(DRR) strategies.
The
The Cuban CMRR model helps ensure disaster
management and development practices of other
countries receiving information related to risk and
response and recovery.”
The CMRR model has created widespread interest
the results from CMRR implementation in Cuba
and tourism.28
territories to adapt the model to their national
and health-based programs to almost all African
long term goal of this SSC initiative is to consolidate
order to better integrate DRR planning in disaster
management and territorial development.
African nationals in various specialties.29
helped set up medical schools in Gambia and
training and technical updating for professors of
agreement with El Salvador as recipient for
South Africa.
which both countries are active.
agreed to create a new program based on SSC
as an alternative cooperation approach in the
very active policy of cooperation with almost all
while Cuba provided human resources. The six
among the others. According to a recent SELA
26
cooperation policy towards the African region has
shown greater continuity since these proceedings
were initiated in 1962.27
Cuba has also practiced triangular cooperation
in favor of
Cuba has signed cooperation agreements with
program for Cuban medical brigades to maintain
an average of 177 health professionals per year
Cuba-South Africa-Rwanda cooperation starting
Tanzania and Togo. These agreements cover a
health sector.
99
state policy that has existed for decades in areas
Technical Cooperation between the regional
experience teaches the value of maintaining
countries in seeking greater rapprochement in the
objective was to provide technical assistance
to the authorities and technicians from the
provinces to achieve the goals of poliomyelitis
of each part.30
th
evaluation of the extended provincial and
municipal vaccination program activities.
Session of the
on the need to deepen existing ties mainly in the
specialists to Angola for a period of 6 months.
with the Cuban advice methodology to inform
and sensitize the most remote communities and
the general population about the necessity and
Another triangular cooperation project in recent
of meningococcal vaccine for Africa involving
transfer in the production of vaccines and drugs.
in Angolan students in the most diverse university
courses in Cuba (many of them concentrated in
public health) on the basis of a new cooperation
agreement that includes the modality of
government assumes the costs of maintaining
their students during their stay in Cuba.
collaborating with Africa. This is mostly because
Cuba’s cooperation with Africa responds to a
working in Algeria as collaborators.31
Still in the context of Cuba-Algeria health
in oncology agreements are being implemented.
32
A total of 900 Cuban professionals and
technicians work as health-sector collaborators
in 11 Algerian cities within the framework of a
their number to ensure comprehensive coverage
Two projects related to heart surgery for children
and the development of Algeria’s vaccine industry
uba has
also cooperated in the construction of several
hospitals in Algeria.33
Several bilateral cooperation agreements exist
and actions of SSC (bilateral and regionallevel) developed by member countries of the
This effort’s most visible and recognizable form
is the annual publication of reports on SSC in
institutions in Ghana are working with Cuban
Strengthening
of
South-South
Cooperation
and to expand the experience and collaboration
with other West African countries.34
states for their international cooperation policies.
the countries playing a major role in terms of SSC
country was devastated by an earthquake in 2005.
as a provider country of development cooperation.
260 others graduated from the Medical University
methodology for economic measurement not only
of efforts but also of results achieved by various
cooperation activities within its scope.36
various technical areas of health graduated in 2013
in the Cuban province of Villa Clara.
begun to apply indicators for SSC as methodological
more rigor and accuracy to such reports.
people from these islands were graduated in
islands were enrolled in the Latin American
35
available information on Cuban international
cooperation. To the extent that the methodology
and activities in Ibero-America
affected because Cuba has not submitted its
registered 139 cooperation projects (exceeded
37
and activities of a “bidirectional” character in
which the partners act as both providers and
recipients. The weight of these projects and
with losses equivalent to 20% of its GDP. Thus it
was forced from 2010 onward to concentrate its
resources inward to the detriment of the external.
The result was a sharp drop in Cuban projects
(from 139 to 53) and its consequent ranking from
implementing social projects amounting to
and 2012 the total number of “bidirectional”
about 10% of the projects and some 3.5 to 4%
of the actions. This category could contain some
of the most important cooperation projects
developed by Cuba in Venezuela as part of the
Comprehensive Cooperation Agreement.
and “Operation Miracle” eye surgeries for poor
people.
bilateral SSC with a total of 53 projects in Bolivia
had implemented a total of 586 projects and
229 actions in SSC. Just three countries carried
and Venezuela (19).
which account for almost 70% of the said
Cuba and Chile.
Andean and Central American countries were in
turn the main destination of Cuban cooperation.
countries (Venezuela and Nicaragua) as the
destination of 52.8% of its cooperation projects
and actions.
of participation changed from one year to the
as a donor of 17 cooperation projects in 10
Brazil registered an increase of projects from
continues to excel as a bilateral SSC project within
but not limited to the LAC region.
(after Brazil and Mexico) as the main cooperation
given by the Ricardo Martinelli government (2009the country’s Ministry of Social Development
in the Guna Negra and Guna Yala communities
with the help of a team of Cuban specialists.
Five other countries followed them: Uruguay and
undergo the literacy program in 2015.38
“third group” that lagged behind with a total of
Cuba also served as provider to Ecuador’s health
the start of the 2000s based on a comprehensive
study of literacy policies and projects in countries
Technical aid and knowledge transfer to the
people in 30 countries have learned to read and
successful program in the eradication of illiteracy.
Providing Cuban health professionals
to strengthening the governance of the
Aymara and Guarani.39
Cuba’s participation in Ibero-American
regional-level SSC programs
technical support and training of Ecuadorian
Community
participation
in
cooperation are organized into three areas
biological
Pilot Project for vector control in endemic
areas of Oro Province.
tripartite cooperation that sees Cuba as main supplier
2014). This cooperation is on a voluntary
ies participate
intergovernmental committee is in charge of
COUNTRIES
STARTING
YEAR
1. Ibero-American Plan
for Literacy and Basic
Education for Youth and
Adults (PIA).
18
2007
2.Ibero-American program
for the Development of
Science and Technology
(CYTED)
21
1995
3. Graduate Studies
Movement of Pablo
Neruda Program.
10
2007
4. Ibero-American Archive
Development Support
Program (ADAI).
14
1999
5. IBERMEDIA
Development Program
18
2013
6. Ibero-American
Network of Diplomatic
Archives (RADI)
13
1998
7. Ibero-American
Program to Strengthen
SSC (PIFCSS)
20
2008
PROGRAM
by the different countries and enabling exchange
this as a cooperation based on solidarity that
bridge the structural gaps in socio-economic
and inequality.
young people and adults. (See Table 1.)
The participation of Cuban institutions (academic
and science and research) in the programs of the
Graduate Studies Movement of Pablo Neruda
Program have contributed to the development
of certain research lines and the consolidation
America and their Cuban counterparts as well.
experiences that are adaptable to the contexts and
priorities of public policies in each country.40
MAIN ACTIONS
PIA is the framework for literacy and basic education for youth and adults in the region, defining shared
glossaries in relation to the issue of literacy. It has strengthened the internal processes of the countries,
expanded financing options and placed the issue at the political level. It is the cornerstone in the educational
policies of each country and, in a broader sense, as one of the objectives prioritized by the “Goals 2021: the
education we want for the generation of the Bicentennial” program adopted at the XX Iberoamerican Summit
(Mar del Plata 2010)
The CYTED program’s main objective is to contribute to the harmonious development of the Ibero-American
region by establishing mechanisms for cooperation among research groups from universities, R & D and
innovative companies in Ibero-American countries, which aim to achieve scientific and technological results
transferable to productive systems and social policies.
The CYTED program so far has generated 284 Thematic Networks, 197 Coordination Actions, 6 Joint Research
Projects, 3 Actions for Technology Transfer to business, and 695 certificates IBEROEKA Innovation Projects,
involving more than 8,400 research groups and involving more than 28,200 Ibero-American scientists and
technologists.
Ibero-American program that combines multilateral, horizontal and solidarity cooperation, capacity building
and regional integration. It has developed the form of technical assistance activities and technical cooperation
initiative.
The first public call for 2012 entailed 255 movements (85 students and 170 teachers). In the second call in
2013, the plan was to increase the number of movements to 392: 201 students and 191 teachers, in which 91
universities participated as thematic networks and 7, as horizontal cooperation scheme.
An annual call seeks to grant development aid to archival institutions to carry out projects such as:
Ibero-America, access to information through new technologies)
From 1998 to 2013, the program supported 1,975 projects, investing a fund of USD 77,560,014 and releasing
over 500 films. This benefited 54 institutions in the region (civil Associations, film libraries, research centers,
consortia, audiovisual and educational enterprises, foundations and universities), and 2,756 scholarships have
been awarded, benefiting professionals from 23 countries in the areas of conservation, project development,
documentary, screenwriting specialty Ending Movies, animation, TV production and distribution.
IBERMEDIA makes successful film training workshops and has an important bond with the School of San
Antonio de los Baños.
RADI has contributed to funding of digitization and existing legacy in the diplomatic archives, according to
international standards. Some 64% of the diplomatic archives have a system of documents classification.
It has established and consolidated a financial fund, according to the Operating Manual of Ibero-American
The PIFCSS has developed actions to support education and training; information systems, register and
calculation of cooperation; and the systematization and documentation of SSC experiences in Ibero-America. It
has published the annual report on SSC in Ibero-America; and discussion forums and training positions among
the cooperation officials from Ibero-American countries.
Cuba also participates in another Latin American
process: the Regional Cooperation Agreement for
the Promotion of Nuclear Science and Technology
programs:
cooperation—most of which with great value—
the country faced historically. Even if this paper’s
main purpose is to make a summary analysis of
the trends and characteristics of international
cooperation offered by Cuba to developing
international cooperation should also be noted.
Program to Modernize Justice and New
Technologies
Justice Observatory
of
Cuba faced problems of underdevelopment
and a complex process of economic and social
transformations that it decided to undertake
Training and Technology Program of
recognized these problems and process. Given
Program to Combat Organized Crime
Cooperation Program for the Reform of
Virtual Educa Program41
access to technical assistance and certain loans
for the construction and modernization of some
and innovation in certain sectors and specialties.
4. International cooperation in
Cuba from some developed nations (mainly the
Various factors have led Cuba to rely essentially
These factors include: the prevailing trends in the
and some international organizations (mainly
UN agencies and associated funds) stands
and the impacts of economic sanctions imposed
received in 2011 only USD 129 million as ODA
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) have
implemented most of the assistance projects in
Cuba’s agricultural sector.
GDP in those years.42
otechnology and
chemical industries have also received support
Cuba have had contributions from international
raised levels of domestic production to meet
the EU in recent years. As noted by Maria Cristina
the European Commission’s Directorate General
and has also contributed to promote the health
system’s emergence as a pivotal sector in the
complex process of international reinsertion of
the country.
higher studies in EU centers of excellence in the
framework of European cooperation program
cooperation that started from around 1995
research grants in Europe.
program is likely to increase the opportunities
and mechanisms of cooperation with Cuba. This
will apply to both research communities and
Nations Development Program (UNDP). The
support of these agencies was extended to the
most diverse kinds of generic drugs and training
of national human resources in institutions of
such UN assistance are research and production
entities as the Center for Genetic Engineering
43
projects involving infrastructure and services
development and support for productive
projects to support productive sectors (also under
cooperation with 19 projects (Argentina with
These institutions have managed to develop and
for 79.3% of all bilateral SSC received by the
high-tech pharmaceuticals such as meningitis B
vaccine and recombinant streptokinase (unique in
dimension” area (including productive sectors
such as infrastructure and services). South-South
other next-generation drugs.
recipient of several projects as shown in Table 2.
TaBle
Sectoral dimension of the project
Number of projects
and recipients
Support for the development of
infrastructure and services
Support for the development of
productive sectors
4
19
Offering country
Argentina (2) and Brazil (2)
Argentina (2), Brazil (8), México (8),
and Chile (1)
Support of institutional strengthening
2
Argentina (1) and Brazil (1)
Support to other sectors
1
Argentina (1)
Latin American countries served as recipient
only for maintaining but gradually improving
the development of its human resources and
grouped together
ed less than 7.4% of
share (77%) devoted to the economic dimension
(infrastructure and support to productive sectors)
and with only 13% to the social sector.
America (although reduced) seems to have been
aimed primarily at supporting the investor or
building productive capacities and infrastructure
of some economic sectors. Such SSC has also
contributed somewhat to the recovery of social
infrastructure in the eastern provinces affected by
case) were very few and mainly focused on the
5. The process of economic change
in Cuba and international cooperation
destination of all 2011 cooperation projects and
in the last three years: a project in the “social area”
infrastructure was severely damaged by hurricane
Sandy. This project started with the rehabilitation
and renovation of the residence of the Faculty
rooms for 700 students from various countries.
The latest stage (2014-2015) is devoted to building
systems that ensure safety and quality especially
designed to neutralize the impacts of earthquakes
and extreme weather conditions.
received by Cuba in recent years has allowed it
to improve and optimize the material basis not
Cuba’s economy and society have been impacted
by the changes due to the gradual implementation
from 2011 onwards of a set of economic policy
related to the implementation of Economic and
Social Policy Guidelines. These guidelines are the
“roadmap” of the changes taking place in the
country’s development model.
Raul Castro discussed the problems affecting
even if that means it would be less egalitarian.
The Guidelines for Economic and Social Policy44
explicitly states that the new Cuban model will
where the state companies (which will remain
essential) will be integrated with a non-state sector
in
the
planning
of
economic
regulation
government has amended various rules and
introduced new regulations aimed at promoting the
the integration of these new producers with the rest
of the economy. Such reform measures include:
regulating transactions of private and cooperative
system that can handle increasing amounts of
these segments’ production inputs.45
and other decisions would enable state companies
productivity and some operational disadvantages
that have characterized them compared to the
emerging non-state sector.
has embarked on the restructuring of central state
administration bodies and has created the socalled higher economic management organizations
(OSDE) that bring together state-owned economic
entities with only business functions.
are also expressed in the “external sector” of the
Law was approved (March 2014) as part of the
new strategy promoting special development
strategy of export promotion and import
modalities of international cooperation.
decentralization and divestiture of some units
that would be managed by non-state forms. This
Guideline No.
Note that within the Guidelines for Economic
Guidelines relating to cooperation within the chapter heading III
“External Economic Policy”
108
Ensure that all actions of international cooperation that Cuba receives and offers are
included in the Plan of National Economy, so that the entirety is assured.
109
Refine and complement the legal and regulatory framework, for the provision of economic
and scientific-technical cooperation both granted and received by the country.
110
Continue developing international solidarity through cooperation that Cuba offers, and
establish economic and statistical records necessary to perform the required analysis,
especially in terms of costs.
111
Consider, as far as is possible, at least a compensation of the costs in the joint
collaboration that Cuba provides.
112
Promote cooperation through multilateral channels, especially with UN institutions, to
channel financial resources and technology to Cuba according to its priorities of national
development.
113
Prioritize, in relations with international cooperation organizations, material and
technological support in development objectives particularly for the use of various
renewable energy sources.
Of the six guidelines on the subject of
positive triangular cooperation for Caribbean
since it aims to solve one of the major problems
that are highlighted in nearly all reports on Cuba’s
international cooperation: the severe limitations in
terms of systematic recording of information and
the economic value associated with cooperation
together with the Norwegian government and
UN agencies especially UNDP.
necessary to carry out comparative analysis of the
cooperation offered by Cuba over other donor
countries.
impact on the medium-term prospects of Cuba’s
(as far as possible) to get compensation for the
costs involved in the foreign aid actions of Cuban
trend of Cuban cooperation in the near future
which the recipient country (or a third country)
would assume part of the costs involved in
cooperation actions.
likely role that China could play as an important
partner in triangular development cooperation for
been giving priority to the region and has already
created the China Cooperation Forum-CELAC.
Cuba also could explore the likely involvement
of the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB)
or Asian regional banks could also contribute
certain amounts of resources for future Cuban
cooperation with developing countries in these
global regions.
governments have recently raised concerns about
the probable impacts of the changes in Cuba’s
Based on a realistic analysis of the global and
the same high level of cooperation as it did in the
1990s. New cooperation activities proposed and
carried out by Cuba need to undertake a process
mainly in regard to the granting (or not) of full
scholarships for Caribbean students in order to
been the practice so far. Given the vulnerability
and particular requirements of Caribbean
provided by Cuba will expect that the recipient
declaration of the 5th
needs.
scholarships for young nationals of the Caribbean
so they can study in Cuba free of charge.
directorate
of
international
cooperation
actions and projects with relevant partners
and approval of Cuba’s international cooperation
strategy based on the Guideline for Economic
institutionalization of triangular cooperation
Commission. There are similar experiences of
consistently with development plans of the
that priorities and general guidelines for Cuban
cooperation policy are kept disaggregated.
development cooperation is not meant as an end
consistently incorporate this dimension in the
new economic and social model that will emerge
from the guideline implementations. At the same
of Cuba’s international cooperation (both as
provider and as recipient) in line with its strategic
development in the medium and long term.
Summary and perspectives
led by Cuba—especially but not exclusively
in the public health sector—have shown the
continued willingness of its government to
strengthen national capacities and infrastructure
human resources of recipient nations. This has
to gradually build the capacity to train their
international cooperation to contribute to the
actions have been conducted within institutional
frameworks or through formal schemes of
relationships between donors. There have been
have been funded by third parties (other countries
or international organizations). There are also
actions whose budget has been assumed and
Although Cuba is recognized for its very active
participation in international cooperation as a
aid. This has allowed the country to develop its
in building productive capacities and economic
infrastructure as well as the recovery of social
infrastructure damaged by disasters.
Cuba is expected to continue to seek a leading
especially as a development cooperation donor.
cooperation with developing countries have been
implemented in the framework of agreements or
arrangements of cooperation for economic and
technical science cooperation between various
model of economic and social development that
Guidelines for Economic and Social Policy.
essence). Both the objective and the strategy of
including the modalities of its international
have always been decisive.
cooperation will be essential. As cumulative
possibilities for boosting projects and programs.
One of the improvements in Cuba’s international
cooperation policy is the impetus for its
participation in cooperation projects and programs
in the framework of regional-level processes or
integration and coordination schemes such as
on hands “, p. 8.
of China’s playing an important role in these
efforts should be assessed based on some of the
Cuba-led cooperation programs being included
in the plans of the recently constituted Forum
CELAC-China cooperation.
The probable participation of the Caribbean
Development Bank in Cuba-led cooperation
projects with other Caribbean countries should
also be explored. The same role could be played
8, May 15, 2013.
certain amounts of resources for future
cooperation that Cuba offers to developing
countries in their respective global regions.
References
18, 2015.
p. 3.
eferring
art of sharing what we have “, p. 8.
Publishing House, Havana.
Notes
1
See also the Guideline No.110, Chapter III (External Economics
Policy) from Economic and Social Policy Guideline and Revolution
2
In January 1959, the country had 6,286 health professionals,
and 50% of them emigrated in the early years of the Revolution.
3
Marimón Torres, Néstor and Evelyn Martínez Cruz (2010).
The development of Cuban medical collaboration in 100
years of the Ministry of Public Health, Public Magazine of
Health, Havana, pp. 254-262.
4
14 See Marimón Torres, Nestor Martinez and Cruz, Evelyn
(2010). Evolution of the Cuban medical collaboration in 100
years of the Ministry of Public Health. Cuban Journal of Public
Health; Havana, pp. 254-262.
15 Marimón Torres, N. Cruz Martinez, E. (2009). Paper presented at the Global Forum of Medical Research 2009 SouthSouth Cooperation. Cuban experience. Havana, (November
2009); updated with interview in the direction of international
relations of the Ministry of Public Health, Havana, January
2014.
16 Ibid.
Minrex (2009) Cuban Cooperation in the world. Informative
Havana, January 15.
18 Ibid.
5
SEGIB (2014). Report on South-South Cooperation in Latin
America. 2013-2014.
6
The Paris Declaration establishes the fundamental principles
of international cooperation, harmonization, ownership,
alignment, mutual accountability of donors and recipients,
and managing for results.
his hands “, p. 8.
ODA) included many derived from industrialized countries’
own actions, and which relate to global trade, foreign debt
technology, etc.
8
9
These countries were Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
Costa Rica, Chile, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala,
Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Dominican
Republic and Uruguay.
Conversation with Mr. Ruben Ramos Arrieta, CEO of Latin
America and the Caribbean MINCEX, Havana, 8 January 2015.
10 Including emergency medical assistance for natural disasters.
11 Cuba presented its proposed Comprehensive Health
Program (PIS) on 3 November 1998. As noted, the program
was initially designed for Central America and the Caribbean,
12 As of 2014, the Operation Miracle program operates in 31
countries, some in Asia and Africa. (Editor’s note)
Cuba in child development plan”, p. 1.
20 Ibid.
21 There were 38 Cuban health aid workers who were at the
center until the end-March 2015.
23 Louceny statements by Mr. Fall, Minister of State for Foreign
Affairs and Guineans Abroad of the Republic of Guinea, re-
prepared,” p. 1.
25 SELA (2014). Reporting services, referring PL information
agency, published in New York on December 18, 2014.
26 SELA (2013). “New forms of economic relations and cooperation between Latin America and the Caribbean and Africa,”
started from the time of its independence, when the country
was actively involved in politics, in some periods including
military presence to support the stated objective of independence processes.
28 SELA (2013). “New forms of economic relations and cooperation between Latin America and the Caribbean and Africa,”
29 Cuba Solidarity (2013). Cuba-Africa. A historic compromise.
(Cuba itself and its cooperating partners); while what is known
in 2012 depends only on the statements made by its partners.
2013, August 13]
30 SELA’s report (2013) concludes with proposals for new forms
of economic relations and cooperation, based on the success
of bilateral agreements between Cuba and Africa.
gram Yo, if I can,” p. 4.
39 Latin Press (2013). The Havana Reporter, CUBA, Year III, No.
8, May 15, 2013, p. 16.
40 SEGIB (2014). Report of the programs and initiatives of the
ties,” p. 2.
32 SELA (2014). Information service, information referring EFE,
published in Algiers on December 18, 2014.
41 Information drawn from SEGIB (2014). Report on SouthSouth Cooperation in Latin America. 2013-2014.
33 Idem.
42 In the case of the Dominican Republic (with an economy simtotal product generated by that country.
Ghana,” p. 5.
35 Prensa Latina (2013). The Havana Reporter, CUBA, Year III,
No. 8, May 15, 2013, p. 5.
36 So far, there have been seven annual reports on South-South
Cooperation in Ibero-America by the SEGIB.
ca, SEGIB notes that the number of projects and actions “registered” for each country is obtained by combining the data
of Cuba, the 2010 and 2011 data depend on various sources
43 SELA (2015). Information service referring to the Latin Press
information agency, published in Madrid on February 18, 2015.
44 The Guidelines for Economic and Social Policy of the Party
and the Revolution were adopted at the Sixth Party Congress
(Havana, April 2011) and were subsequently discussed and
approved by the National Assembly of Cuba in July 2011.
45 See also Torres, Ricardo (2013). “The transformation of the
model. Center for the Study of the Cuban Economy (CEEC) University of Havana. Social Sciences Publishing House, Havana.
Balancing state and community participation
in development partnership projects
Emerging evidence from Indian SDPs in Nepal
Sachin Chaturvedi, Sushil Kumar, and Shashank Mendiratta
Research and Information System for Developing Countries
Introduction
The effort to narrow development theories has
evolved around two different lines of argument.
400 in the period 2003-2013. This programme has
evolved over the years and is now being extended
high economic relevance on norms associated with
government in accomplishing development goals.
the Ministry of Finance for 2010-11 placed SDP
in the category of local development sector where
community takes the lead in forming groups that
Discussion
external actors that may include market-based
forces. This perspective can be further extended
The SDPs were launched on the basis of a
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed
association between public and private actors or
are developmentally successful.
and August 2011. The current MoU is valid until
August 2014. The MoU provides for a project
launched in Nepal in the form of Small
To ensure smooth operation and maintenance
responsibility to the local body or an NGO.
supports development projects. The idea of SDP
is to link development projects with community
agreement for SDP was signed in 2003.1 SDPs have
Some Nepalese legislation have further helped
in streamlining the project implementation. The
instrument that contains legal provisions making
Emerging evidence from Indian SDPs in Nepal
their aspirations about development needs in
in form of written request. The DDC upon
2
states that project proposals must indicate how the
project will be maintained and where its funding
The copy of the MoU is sent to the Ministry of
Local Development and the Ministry of Finance.
maintenance of the project.
commissions the project implementation through
its own procedures.
Nepal has a two-tier local administrative system.
The lower level consists of Village Development
Committees (VDCs) and Municipalities in
urban areas. The second tier consists of District
carry out development work. Some of these agencies
VDCs and Municipalities are formed on the basis
of direct popular elections. DDCs are formed
through indirect voting as their electorate consists
of all elected representatives of VDCs and
Municipalities. The DDCs represent institutions
of village and Municipal Governments at
district levels.3 The main purpose of DDCs is to
coordinate the development initiatives of district
closest and are more structured to represent the
needs and aspirations of the locals.
development initiatives such as building of
agencies such as the District Urban Development
and Building Corporation (DUDBC) primarily
Emerging evidence from Indian SDPs in Nepal
implementing agency while the proposals and
funds are routed mainly through the DDC. The
User Committee is often authorised to carry out
initiatives that are relatively smaller (less than
60 Lakh4
and renovation of historical places (very small
to Nepal’s Department of Road Development.
by the needs of the recipients and are essentially
locally owned. They contribute directly to the
welfare of the community and are not designed
in a complex manner. The popularity of projects
can be gauged from the fact that in many cases
Wide variety of stakeholders
The projects have a wide variety of stakeholders:
out through the Nepal Electricity Authority. For
Nepal Electricity Authority amounting to Rs. 10
crore5
Key features
implemented in a manner that is satisfactory to
each of these stakeholders. Each stakeholder
Supplementing local effort
The unique feature of the majority of the
SDPs is that they generally have short-gestation
of the projects.
Release of money linked with project
advancement
such projects were capped at an upper limit of
the development initiatives of the government
of Nepal (GoP) and those of various different
which otherwise might have taken a longer time
to include in the local budget plans.
The actual release of money from the project
through site visits or on the recommendation of
the committee responsible for monitoring and
execution of the work as per the norms of the
GoN. The committee comprises the chairperson
Direct partnership with community
assistance for small projects on socio-economic
development. This assistance is not only
restricted to physical infrastructure such as
case of projects relating to education).
Geographical and sectoral reach,
selected case studies
one-point focus but have varied emphasis. This
and community-driven. The projects are driven
Emerging evidence from Indian SDPs in Nepal
and equitable development model—an outcome
a low level of literacy can become an impediment to
initiatives focus on improving or providing for
and that of health was 13 percent. (See Figure 2)
investment
for
improving
people-to-people
contribution relative to other forms of assistance
has been under this programme. The SDPs
exhibited a growth rate of 44 percent in the period
2004-2013 while large and medium projects have
was 8 percent. This seems disproportionate when
number of projects expanded from 16 to nearly
of large and intermediate projects has expanded
only from 10 to 35.
increasing budgetary provision for the same. Most
of the SDPs have been in the education sector
followed by infrastructure and health respectively.
nearly 48 percent7 of Nepal’s total population.
The proportion of people living in Terai has
been increasing over time. This trend most likely
explains
the reason for the allocation of almost threedisproportionate distribution of population
is most likely due to unequal distribution of
Emerging evidence from Indian SDPs in Nepal
“One simple requirement which makes a
tremendous impact in women’s and girls’ lives
and their participation in education is appropriate
lack of access to information.
water for girls are still lacking in many schools.
schooling sector account for the highest share (62
by the infrastructure and health. This common
Nepal-wide development.
Focus on education
Education is the key requisite for any nation
women’s and girls’ natural needs should be taken
care of and that such needs should not hinder their
participation has contributed to this situation. At
an appropriate avenue to institutionalise gender
based needs but determinants of gender friendly
Aadikavi Bhanubhakta Multiple Campus
(Damauli Library)
Another important initiative as part of
supplementing the existing infrastructure is the
construction of a double-storied library building
development on two inter-related levels. At one
it focuses on creating institutional capacity in the
form of technical foundations such as training and
fund for its long-term maintenance. While the
management committee recognised the SDP’s
to facilitate education while it encourages the
target population through scholarships.
the release of funds. This was viewed as a serious
bottleneck in achieving quicker success of the
project as such delay accentuated the impact of
Aabookharreni Campus
This campus project in Nepal’s Tanahun district
is being supported under SDP. The district’s
of 209 per sq km. The sex ratio of the district
(number of males per 100 females) is 79.73 as per
the census report of 2011. The project is building
24 classrooms along with separate toilets for boys
and girls. This is often a major challenge in most of
8
observes:
Shree Nepal Rashtriya Primary School
(Auraha, Birgunj)
This school is in Southern Nepal. This project
is interesting because it shows the extent of
commitment of both sides to the development
projects. Since the school is located in a highly
carrying out development work in such an area
is a challenge. The school was assisted in setting
Emerging evidence from Indian SDPs in Nepal
which were non-existent in the neighbouring areas.
Though this programme is also supported
status of primary school. This was subsequently
upgraded to middle school and later in 2010 to
high school. (See Figure 3)
centres and 150 eye doctors with a staff of nearly
The school attracts students from nearby villages
and will eventually help in raising literacy rates
not just in that area but also in the surrounding
we found that at the time of approval the library
support was not a part of the programme. What
the authors found in Damauli was completely
missing from this programme. Even support for
furniture was not part of the programme. As a
larger objective of quality education is still far
border villages are now taking advantage of this
for Comprehensive Eye Care) and out of them
initiatives.9
There are several new programmes that NNJS has
SDP team from the Mission for initial assessment.
Focus on health
nal Trachoma
Emerging evidence from Indian SDPs in Nepal
people were prevented from becoming blind by
were treated with Zithromax against trachoma.10
addressed. One serious limitation is that there is
no systematic collection of local debate and media
coverage on impact of SDPs. The resources
at the mission need to be optimally utilised for
strengthening the library at the embassy. Digital
with a separate section covering media and other
local reports. There is also need for ensuring
outreach on the impact of SDPs.
cooperation to focus on preserving such a
temple was implemented as a cultural investment
project linking people through common faith and
30 percent complete. This project is remarkable
in that it is being implemented on tough terrain.
emotional links as well as historical importance to
people as it serves as important gathering point
initiatives as part of its policy in Nepal. At this
could have positive spillovers for the projects
a school in an area with minimal access to
transport or road may not achieve its intended
little or no linkage with the SDPs. Clusters for
strong community is directly associated with the
temple. They formed Peoples’ Association to
consolidate the work at the site.
Conclusions and policy recommendations
The ongoing political crisis since the late 1990s and
designed interventions and programmes that
meet pressing needs of the people and other
development assistance. The programmes are
proposed by local community members and
are channeled through local administrative
agencies. These agencies are also responsible for
implementation as per the national guidelines for
the national building code.
t research we
came across several limitations that need to be
could be transferred to that region and linked
with other mega-projects such as connecting
roads or school or health centers and other
social services.
These small SDPs can enjoy positive externalities
with the larger projects. Such a strategy will
social and economic development. The nature
of SDPs and and their areas of coverage have
expanded over the years.
SDPs of similar nature can be clubbed together
to health-sector SDPs for wider impact. These will
individual SDP will be complementary to another
Emerging evidence from Indian SDPs in Nepal
may be linked with school building construction.
manner may also lead to better targeting of SDPs.
more effective than an SDP that just builds a school
while another SDP builds a road in another part of
the country. Clubbing of SDPs for a more targeted
approach will thus enhance the development of
Notes
Acharya, Secretary, Ministry of Finance and Mr. Shyam
Saran, Ambassador of India.
of Nepal, National Planning Commission Secretariat, Central
Bureau of Statistics.
Kathmandu, 8 May 2013.
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Kathmandu.
3
However, the elections for DDCs has not taken place for quite
LNT (2013).
4
One lakh is equivalent to 100,000 rupees.
5
One crore is equivalent to 100 lakh, or 10 million rupees.
6
RIS. 2012. RIS Database on Small Development Programmes
(SDPs). RIS, New Delhi.
countries, held in November 1999 at Kathmandu. Similarly,
the Apex Body for Eye Health in September 2001 launched
National Plans of Action for Eye Care Services in Nepal
(Strategic plans for 2002-2019).
10 Zithromax is a drug of choice for trachoma treatment against
trachoma.
South-South development cooperation in Kenya
Vitalice Meja
Introduction and background
South-South Cooperation (SSC) is now a major
institutions and developing technologies in
agriculture for SSC. One such project is the East
Africa agricultural productivity project supported
by the World Bank. Although it is still in its infant
because of its core objectives of enhancing
collaborating in agriculture training and technology
aid and development cooperation. As their global
knowledge across national boundaries.
felt now in varying degrees through key channels
SSC and triangular cooperation for development.1
engagement and deepened its economic and
also been closer technical cooperation between
the East African Community2 to deepen regional
While there is a notion that SSC is mainly
associated with so-called emerging economies
and exchange of expertise with other regions of
badly needed secondary school science teachers
to help Rwanda implement a teaching assistance
nurses to support the management and treatment
military support
various pilot programs aimed at strengthening
parties to f
unable to fully fund by itself.
of identifying technical cooperation projects
under bilateral and multilateral arrangements.
dominate trade within the continent. The country
position to expand cooperation beyond its trade
ties within the continent.
Institutional framework
Turkey rising considerably over the last few years.
Despite the importance o
build a full-scale institutional and policy framework
to promote and develop the cooperation. The
government currently relies on political dialogue
and diplomatic engagement at the highest level to
promote and engage SSC—unlike its counterpart
institutions responsible for SSC.
medium chemical industries.
trade with the rest of Africa has grown faster than
has expanded with the rest of the South outside
What is encouraging however is the government’s
The center will seek to:
coordinate and promote all South-South and
triangular cooperation activities and act as the
clearing house for South-South engagements in
promote mainstreaming of SSC policy in all
sectors to capitalize on current programmes and
examine
regional
and
sub-regional
programmes and provide advice to the
Government on potential links that could
be established with other programmes and
initiatives within and outside the region/
cooperate
with
other
international
organizations and governments with the aim
goods and consumer manufactures.
Kenya in the eyes of SSC providers
point for South-South trade and other economic
cooperation with countries outside. Being warideal regional base for most Southern investors to
the country faces the same problems of rural
which could impel it to establish stronger ties
and closer cooperation with other developing
countries of the South.
Development ties with Kenya:
country cases
China
were increased to 71 for 2011-12.3
China is one
development partners—indeed the country’s
have executed engineering contracts in the power
energy sectors of the economy.
The two countries signed an oil exploration
contract allowing China’s state-controlled
offshore oil and gas company to prospect for
planned to be covered by the Pan African
e-Network Project that was launched in 2007 by
stakes in mining. Approximately 80 Chinese
include a USD 108 million grant to build the
of more than 60% over the amount of USD 2.4
billion in 2011-12. Exports were worth nearly USD
gauge railway from Mombasa to Malaba in 2014.
There are also scholarships and technical training
programmes between various government
r.
transmission equipment. Main
India
metal scrap. (See Table 1.)
Brazil
include cooperation in biofuel production.
provided a USD 80-million line of credit to
power transmission sector was signed 2010.
government offers over 100 scholarships annually
food production and raising incomes of rural
communities. The line allows the small-scale
farmer to invest in modernization by acquiring
new farm machinery and equipment.
TaBle
Nigeria
Cooperation is state-centric
cooperation that mainly cover private sector and
public sector exchanges. Trade relations between
The cooperation appears to be heightened by the
head of state visit. There is limited structured
and instutionalised framework of engagement.
Most of the delegations in the heads of state
exports to Nigeria falling to USD 33 million in
2014 from a peak of USD 37 million in 2008.4
the same period.
representatives. Civil society representation is
non-existent and is not privy to the deals signed
by the heads of states. Failure to structure and
institutionalise cooperation have undermined the
democratic ownership of country development
choose projects that give them more political
visibility rather than country priorities.
Short-term projects, not yet development
include mutual cooperation between the Foreign
Most of the signed projects appear to have been
narcotic
impact. While they will doubtless contribute to
and psychotropic substances.
Assessments in the Kenyan context
From
the
foregoing
examples
of
SSC
their long-term development impact remains
aid
projects have yet to directly support communities
found in the project areas:
thus cannot cover all the investment areas as
their ancestral ownership and occupation of
covers all the ministries. Given that SSC is a
allocate title deeds to them.
Local communities are not consulted properly
need to consider creating and strengthening an
SSC ministry or department not only to promote
the project or the relocation is not sought.
Communities are not offered proper
compensation. They have to vacate vast
acreage of land and be resettled on smaller
tracks of land. While they will gain modern
and enforce the laws governing SSCs.
the compensation package does not include
water or other provisions necessary for
sustainable livelihood. For a community
whose whole life revolves around livestock
views from consumers and communities to be
Lack of citizen participation
Citizen participation is absent in policy
development and also in project prioritization
lack a human face. The rights of communities in
sudden change of living conditions will
inevitably result in destruction of their
tackled in a humane way.
aggravation rather than alleviation.
Unclear use of ODA
Other key concerns
and unclear use of ODA.
Low capacity
Current SSC-related projects are scattered into
many government agencies and not run by a single
agency. The personnel for managing the projects
delineation of resources to separate ODA
from investment funds. All the funds provided
by the international development agencies are
captured as investment credits. The subsidies
provided to the projects have mainly come from
part of government contribution is however
not qualified in the overall project costs.
There will have to be transparency on what
and accountability purposes.
ANNEX
China
2014/2015
Draft Estimated
(KES)
GoK
Grant
Amount
AIA
Loan
Revenue
AIA
Revenue
6,042,000,000
0
103 - Ministry of
Devolution and
Planning
014 - Government of
China - Procurement
for Equipment for NYS
109 - Ministry of
Transport and
Infrastructure
003 - Government of
China - GambogiSerem Road
0
0
013 - Government of
China - Nairobi Eastern
and Northern Bypass
Project
2,000,000,000
015 - Government of
China - Nairobi-Thika
Highway Improvement
Project (LOT 3)
2,000,000,000
500,000,000
0
019 - Government of
China - Nairobi
Southern Bypass
Project
2,500,000,000
5,100,000,000
0
6,420,000,000
0
8,155,920,000
0
880,000,000
0
3,880,000,000
0
112 - Ministry of
Information and
Communications and
Technology
021 - Government of
China - NOFBI AND EGOVERNMENT
EXPANSION
PROJECT
115 - Ministry of Energy
& Petroleum
016 - Government of
China - Drilling of
Olkaria IV Geothermal
Wells
025 - Government of
China - Rabai - Malindi
- Garsen - Lamu
Transmission line
110,000,000
115 - MOE&P - Kenya
Pipeline Co.(KPL)
Unspecified
India
2014/2015
Draft Estimated
(KES)
GoK
Amount
115 - Ministry of Energy & Petroleum
Grant
AIA
Loan
Revenue
AIA
Revenue
002 - Government of India - KONZAMACHAKOS-KAJIADO-NAMANGA
430,000,000
3,192,000,000
003 - Government of India - Turkwell- OrtumKitale
102,000,000
1,117,000,000
1,000,000,000
2,550,000,000
115 - MOE&P - Geothermal Development
Company
Unspecified
Kuwait
2014/2015
Draft Estimated
(KES)
GoK
Grant
Amount
AIA
Loan
Revenue
AIA
Revenue
106 - Ministry of
Education
004 - Kuwait Fund for
Arab Development School Infrastructure
in North Nyamira/
Borabu
450,000,000
108 - Ministry of
Health
002 - Kuwait Fund for
Arab Development Wajir District Hospital
550,000,000
0
109 - Ministry of
Transport and
Infrastructure
003 - Kuwait Fund for
Arab Development Nuno-Modogashe
Road
500,000,000
110 - Ministry of
Environment Water
and Natural
Resources
001 - Kuwait Fund for
Arab Development Bura Irrigation
Scheme
Abu Dhabi
600,000,000
2014/2015
Draft Estimated
(KES)
GoK
Grant
Amount
AIA
Loan
Revenue
AIA
Revenue
109 - Ministry of
Transport and
Infrastructure
001 - Abhu Dhabi
Fund - NunoModogashi Road
450,000,000
115 - Ministry of
Energy & Petroleum
002 - Abhu Dhabi
Fund - RURAL
ELECTRIFICATION
PROJECT
950,000,000
0
Notes
1
2
The outcome document of the High-Level United Nations
dorsed-Nairobi-Outcome-21-Dec-09.pdf
The East African Community (EAC) is the regional intergovBurundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda.
3
This increase was made pursuant to the 2nd Africa-India Forum Summit held in Addis Ababa in May 2011.
4
Figures are from the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics.
Chinara Aitbaeva
Introduction
This research report is based on the analysis
external debt
1
basis of data from the Ministry of Finance of
The data we analysed includes the list of its
active credit agreements with donor countries
debtors for bilateral concessional loans are the
Russia (USD 300 million) and Japan (over USD
229 million).
the research is to determine the effectiveness of
the country’s development objectives and to offer
variants of solutions and recommendations.
Kyrgyzstan’s external loans: dynamics and impacts
2
credit agreements.
signed most loan agreements with the People’s
over USD 1.804 billion as of December 2013.
3
Kyrgyzstan’s external loans: dynamics and impacts
Almost one-fourth (24%) of all active credit
agreements have been signed for the development
amount of over USD 1.193 billion in loans. The
following provisions:
incurred with China.
shall pay a management fee to the creditor for
0.25% at the expense of the credit proceeds.9
All payments made by the borrower to the
Republic for transport (road) development.4 Of
any deductions or withholdings in respect of
any taxes.10
There will be no taxation (withholding or
USD 675 million were received from China.
respect to the signing and implementation
the energy sector.
Minister of the Transport and Communications
5
“only China provides big sums of
credits while the multilateral development banks
6
particular from China.”
received from China annually reached about a half
of roads and the energy sector.7
government clearly intends to acquire further
loans from China for road reconstruction and
rehabilitation. This will push up the country’s
external debt at a time when its annual budget
payment are increasing.8
with China
Analysis of credit agreements signed with the
Exim Bank of China shows that many of these
payments to be made accordingly. 11
prevail for this agreement to have legal
debtor) and its irrevocable declarations on
the decision of non-exclusive jurisdiction of
Chinese courts and appointment of Chinese
and binding. Any decision made by a Chinese
court shall be considered evidence of the
entry into force of any actions against the
12
The borrower’s obligations within one
agreement shall be independent of and
with other creditors. The borrower will not
ask from one creditor any comparable terms
and conditions set forth or which may be set
forth in agreements with other creditors.13
obligations of the parties will be governed
by Chinese law in all respects.14
Any disputable situations relating to
the agreement shall be submitted to the
Kyrgyzstan’s external loans: dynamics and impacts
information on credits is not available.
15
3. Analysis of review of public monitoring
of external loans by the civil society activists
30% will be local and 70% foreign.16
Summary
there is no easy access to online sites and information
on credits is not readily available.
provisions of credit agreements between its Exim
control and attain major advantages in the
1.
The main project contractors are from
equipment and personnel are employed to
2.
are governed by the laws of the creditor
The Working Group on external loan monitoring
a voluntary basis and exerting efforts. Based on the
following observations can be made:
There is a lack of a complete list of
documents associated with development
to non-English-speaking civil society
monitoring of loans and grants provided to
the agreement and project implementation
shall be settled by the arbitration court
also of China. This court’s decision
Such advantages enjoyed by China as creditor
overall development.
Bank site and from Russian creditors.
monitoring showed lack of effectiveness in
The multilateral development banks have their
has no structured plan and forecast for acquiring
source that can provide them.
Kyrgyzstan’s external loans: dynamics and impacts
Recommendations
3.
For bilateral donors: develop or provide all
4.
including required conditions to ensure the
welfare of employees (e.g. accommodation
and meals) within the framework of
contracts and subcontracts.
More actively involve civil society in the
The following recommendations are offered by
this research report on the basis of the interim
results of public monitoring:
1.
The Government should identify the
minimum requirements regarding the terms
and conditions in all credit agreements.
Clear indicators must be set for each project
mechanism must be developed for tracking
and monitoring the implementation work by
the contractors.
5.
2.
maximized use of local raw materials (not less
than 70%) and local working personnel (also
not less than 70%). The contract agreements
must focus on the use of local raw materials
in line with building the capacity of local
producers and local companies. Within the
breakdowns. Ensure that the relevant
websites carry ample information on
6.
the labor resources must consist of not less
than 80% of the local population.
independent monitoring and evaluation of
the implemented projects.
Appropriate agencies should maintain
statistical records on all projects covered
Prepare a well-structured plan for attracting
this area.
References
w.okmot.kg
the Kyrgyz R
http://news.mail.ru/inworld/kyrgyzstan/
sto ra ge / b u s i n e s s / i m a ge s /J a r k y n / i nfo g raf i ka /
nk.
Tazabek, 122-01-13, 11:08
Kyrgyzstan’s external loans: dynamics and impacts
Notes
1
Data from the website of the Ministry of Finance of the Kyrgyz
ky-karyz.html
9
Concessional loan agreement for the Osh-Sary-Tash-Irkeshtam road rehabilitation Project (section from 123 km to 190
km) between the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic and the
Export-Import Bank of China
countries and IFIs from the Kyrgyz Ministry of Finance.
10 Loan agreement for the Osh-Sary-Tash-Irkeshtam project.
Article 8.1, Taxes.
sis of information from the Ministry of Finance of the Kyrgyz
11 Loan agreement for the Osh-Sary-Tash-Irkeshtam project.
Article 10-h. Representations and guarantees.
12 Loan agreement for the Osh-Sary-Tash-Irkeshtam project.
Procedures aimed at entry into force of the Agreement.
13 Loan agreement for the Osh-Sary-Tash-Irkeshtam project.
Article 11. Obligations, paragraph 11.3.
6
A roundtable on intermediate results of monitoring loans and
14 Loan agreement for the Osh-Sary-Tash-Irkeshtam project. Article
8
Transport, are covered with asphalt covering. Tazabek.kg, 21
15 Loan agreement for the Osh-Sary-Tash-Irkeshtam project. On
Arbitration, paragraph 14.3.
Data from the website of the Ministry of Finance of the Kyrgyz
16 Loan agreement for the Osh-Sary-Tash-Irkeshtam project. On
material and technical support.
Different strokes in development cooperation
The challenges of Nigeria as aid recipient and aid provider
David Tola Winjobi, Ph.D.
CAFSO-WRAG for Development Nigeria
Summary
This paper is situated within the purview of SouthSouth Cooperation in relation to Nigeria’s efforts
in institutionalising her formidable position and
her relevance among the community of nations
government to allow these principles to bear
on the development relationships with its own
CSOs. The paper concludes that although civil
society is regarded as a development actor in
its own right according to the Accra Agenda
is one of the aid recipient countries although the
total amount of aid she receives in a particular
Nigerian government has been involving CSOs in
Nigeria’s Technical Aid Corps scheme.
countries that are majorly aid-dependent. The
Nigeria and South-South Cooperation
does not suggest that aid has not been effective
although there is minimal involvement of civil
society organizations (CSOs) in development.
The paper also delves into a summary of various
elements of development cooperation that
the case study of Nigeria as aid provider with
focus on Technical Aid Corps that has positioned
Nigeria as a promising developing country among
the ranks of emerging development players
principles upon which the Paris Declaration on
Aid Effectiveness and the Global Partnership for
Effective Development Cooperation (GPEDC)
South (developing countries) seem not to be in
SouthSouth Cooperation
before
crept its way into the
conventional vocabulary of development actors
around 2010. SSC can be simply considered as
mutual collaboration or exchange of expertise
between or among governments or organizations
and development. Understanding “cooperation
The challenges of Nigeria as aid recipient and aid provider
developing country’s contributions to multilateral aid
and loans to the private sector. (CDPE 2014)
activities aimed at combating terrorism—does
Refugees and to return the Liberian refugees back
to their country. Although the agreement was
is not the thrust of this discussion. One thing
refugees themselves were neither consulted nor
believes in SSC bringing about development
solutions as he encouraged “countries of the South
and all development partners to come together
grain to the Niger Republic to assuage hunger
development solutions and technologies.”1
Nigeria: a recipient country in essence
bilateral power supply to Niger.
South-South cooperation is not novel as it dates
of a recipient country than provider although
she has shown good example as aid provider in
African subregions. According to data (see Table
extended to Africa especially Tanzania and
Zambia in the 1960s. The prominent role played
the struggle for independence in some African
into Nigeria continued to increase from less than
human and material resources to countries such
capita has been consistently increasing from
Zambia during their struggle for independence
from their colonial masters. Even to her
been playing a big-brother role in providing both
military support and humanitarian assistance.
the military putsch both in Togo and Equatorial
to many refugees from different African countries
donors of gross ODA with a sum of USD 414
EU institutions contributed USD 111 million
followed by Japan with USD 43 million placing
seventh. Among other development agencies
and country donors to Nigeria between 2011
The challenges of Nigeria as aid recipient and aid provider
million closely followed by Canada with USD 34
million. (See Table 1)
humanitarian aid while health and population
the highest sector receiving ODA.
According to OECD-DAC and World Bank
Nigeria continues to receive ODA not only from the
OECD and donor countries in the global North but
also from Southern donors (see Table 2 below).
TaBle
TaBle
S/No
Donor
Sectoral Focus
1
China
Trade, infrastructure, agriculture, industry, health, and education
2
India
Infrastructure and finance
3
Korea
4
Kuwait
5
Saudi Arabia
MDGs and cultural exchange
Energy, environment, infrastructure, agriculture, water and
communication
Women, children, health, education and agriculture
6
Thailand
7
Tunisia
8
Turkey
Agriculture, health and education
Environment, agriculture, education, water, private sector
development, communication, and gender
Agriculture, health, culture, trade and investment
The challenges of Nigeria as aid recipient and aid provider
Table 2 shows that Nigeria has a network of
cooperation with Nigeria focuses on only
enabling environment for private sector investment
recorded a four-year average of 117.8 percent in
credit to the private sector and 124.3 percent in
is Nigeria’s largest source of imports and third
largest trading partner. The trade volume between
the two countries increased to USD 10.3 billion—
the highest in history.2
year credit facility to the private sector and 37.9
13.2 percent for three-year average in credit to the
record is not available.3 Doing business or broader
development efforts in Nigeria becomes all the
Turkey’s added attention to culture and investment.
having received ODA from both the OECD and
although she is not aid-dependent like Rwanda
or Burundi. This does not suggest however that
Nigeria is not aid provider even though she has
limited capacity for development assistance.
most parts of the country.
TAC: X-ray of Nigeria as aid provider
Background
Cooperation comes in two types: technical and
the recipient country’s capacity by enhancing
its manpower resource in terms of knowledge
Africa) largely of the global South that are
rated Nigeria 147th out of 189 countries—a
further deterioration from its ranking of 137th
in 2013 due to inadequate infrastructure and
and related pecuniary issues. Nigeria’s role in
Nigeria’s bilateral cooperation with other Southern
domestic credit to the private sector is abysmally
Nigeria also ranked poorly compared to other
cooperation provider that might eventually get it
The challenges of Nigeria as aid recipient and aid provider
Military image launderer or development
cooperation?
3.
promote cooperation and understanding between
4.
the biting Structural Adjustment Programme
facilitate meaningful contacts between
the youths of Nigeria and those of the
recipient countries. TAC is an integral part
still able to assist other developing countries in
Directorate as its seven-member governing
establishment of Technical Aid Corps (TAC)
scheme. The 1980s through 1990s was a period in
Nigerian history when the military regime reached
Director chairs the Directorate. One person
for Nigeria to gain acceptance among the
community of nations then was the TAC scheme.
Being associated with an authoritarian regime
eligible for re-appointment for one further
period of four years and shall be entitled
to such allowances and expenses as may be
approved by the Minister.” Only the Director
because the Commonwealth countries boycotted
Nigeria at the time due to its military regime’s
anti-people policies and growing unpopularity.
eligible for re-appointment for another one
The TAC was established by then President
Some of the functions of the Directorate include:
share the Nigeria’s technical expertise with ACP
countries and organisations in those countries by
way of assigning volunteers to the said countries.
TAC’s purpose was to promote international
cooperation and mutual understanding between
Nigeria and other developing countries through
Nigerian youths) to serve for at least two years
in these needy and willing countries and help
enhance their socio-economic development.
1.
share Nigeria’s know-how and expertise with
2.
give assistance based on the assessed and
4
1.
being
responsible
for
TAC’s
overall
2.
3.
organising orientation courses for selected
4.
5.
assigning selected volunteers to recipient
6.
maintaining regular contacts with recipient
countries to determine their technical aid
7.
return from recipient countries after their
service in those countries.
The TAC volunteer is open to any Nigerian with
at least
working experience. This suggests that the
programme is in fact targeted at Nigerian youths
The challenges of Nigeria as aid recipient and aid provider
regardless of their having served or not under
the one-year compulsory National Youth Service
of 30 years. While the NYSC is required for
Nigerian students 30 years old and below for
TAC is not compulsory but a voluntary service.
A TAC volunteer serves overseas for at least two
years or as may be determined by the Directorate.
Nigeria’s bilateral cooperation through TAC is
including the required technical know-how and
knowledge transfer. The TAC is dependent on
the request by recipient countries as volunteer
allowances and various expenditures as may be
to receive technical assistance as Nigeria cannot
they are not treated as paid civil servants.
the recipient country cannot demand from
Nigeria the man-power skills that the latter does
not have. The whole relationship is based on
mutual trust and understanding of needs and
While the Nigerian government covers for the
responsible for certain needs of the volunteers
assigned to it. Some of these are: (a) free medical
exportation of goods for the volunteers’ personal
interests and other payments subject to exchange
and (ii) such other payments and facilities as
may be agreed upon by the Directorate and the
recipient country.5
recipient country need not unnecessarily return
for a Memorandum of Understanding guiding
the bilateral relationship.
The TAC programme is unique in that it is focused on
South-South technical cooperation. Because of the
programme’s wider acceptance and meaningful
participating countries requesting for volunteers has
Countries in Africa that have participated in the
offer employment on completion of a volunteer’s
may be agreed upon by them. This offer gives
volunteers a chance for cultural integration into
the country of assignment—to live and work in
supposed to defect to other countries or foist
a continuous service after their international
for permanent or contract jobs as the host country
may decide.
it has been granting requests from countries
ACP and beyond have indicated interest and the
Directorate is giving due consideration to their
The challenges of Nigeria as aid recipient and aid provider
request. Nigeria is responsible for volunteers’
declined participation in the scheme are all
renewing the TAC country Agreement.”6
As there is mutual understanding among the
employment to a volunteer after the completion
of his assignment.8
the recipient countries’ willingness to accept
7
the recipient country’s disposition.
that since TAC’s inception Nigerian volunteers
notorious Nigerian military regime after the 1984
every opportunity to redeem its battered image
as gr
human rights record reached its worst shortly
Challenges facing TAC
and ideals of SSC as an important mode of
mutual cooperation and understanding between
Nigeria and other countries. This is aside from
other bilateral relationships between Nigeria and
the recipient countries and promoting cultural
integration—although there are no records of
how many volunteers have settled down in the
offered permanent or contract jobs.
Abiola. After General Sanni Abacha seized
did not intend to relinquish power to civilian
the global community and was suspended by
These affected the TAC scheme for several years.
are showing renewed interest in the scheme.
number of requests by participating countries who
realized TAC’s value in supplying their manpower
as compared to most bilateral cooperation
between developed and developing countries
as volunteers is becoming unbearable—making
simple and non-cumbersome Memorandum
responsibilities of both countries. The recipient
country accepts volunteers based on its own
buoyant to deploy them.
The challenges of Nigeria as aid recipient and aid provider
The recruitment process
deployment of volunteers is always blamed as
challenge. Most of these countries are less
stronger economy including solid human capital
The lack of transparency in volunteer recruitment
and technology—but without corresponding
people view TAC as a form of brain drain for
Nigeria but brain gain for the recipient countries.
been recruited but had not been posted over the
years.9
10
Too many applicants competing for too few
Poor data management by TAC operators poses a
big challenge to transparency and accountability.
“ingrate and unappreciative of our contributory
efforts” while others are hostile because Nigerian
volunteer professionals come in to “share in and
plunder [the recipient country professionals’]
their minimal responsibilities to the volunteers as
Shrinking CSO space in SSC
inception in 1987. Others estimate that from 1987
while still other statistics show that in 2014 alone
Directorate of TAC website and the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs website both provided only scant
data. Files were kept in an irretrievable manner in
This report has gone to show that Nigeria is an aid
recipient as well as SSC technical support provider.
the forefront hustling for relevance and hopefully
achieve a prominent international position.
Cooperation with civil society organizations
Nigeria is more a recipient rather than donor
The TAC scheme offers different strokes to
different folks. Some ex-volunteers praise it as
cross-cultural
the Democratic Ownership principle of the Paris
Declaration on Aid Effectiveness as well as that
of the GPEDC.12 The Paris Declaration called
for broad consultative processes and dialogue
with donors and encouraged the participation of
of recipient countries. The unhealthy rivalry
between Nigerian volunteer professionals and
recipient country professionals is a noticeable
calls for ownership of development priorities by
developing countries and inclusive development
partnerships. Nigeria has generally failed to
11
The challenges of Nigeria as aid recipient and aid provider
observe this key principle for transforming the
current global aid architecture to a more equitable
one—both in terms of democratic ownership
and inclusive development partnerships. CSOs
have never been part of Nigeria’s aid architecture
for global development. While the government
has not engaged the AAA or Paris Declaration
society
has
actively
collaborated
through
being a good example of this aberration.
CSO Partnership for Development Effectiveness
Nigerian CSOs have always been proactive and
monitoring of
including ODA.
as the government has not supported their work
over the years. Restrictions on the enabling
environment for development actors impere
participatory governance and transparency. This
government’s impunity and anti-people laws and
development
cooperation
The Nigerian government’s apathy and noncooperative attitude to CSOs negate the principles
of the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness and
especially the principle that recognizes CSOs as
development actors in their own right.13 No wonder
that in all available literature on development
development effectiveness of CSOs.
An example of such obnoxious legislation
tabled before the National Assembly is the
“Establishment of the Non-Governmental
involvement in the process leading to the formation
and implementation of the SSC paradigm. This is
particularly evident in Nigeria’s TAC scheme.
might be an initial example of good practice in
technical cooperation among the countries of the
requires complicated procedures for project and
Nigeria needs to adhere to both AAA and
Busan GPEDC principles of democratic
CSO operations. One provision of the bill
requires NGOs to register with the government
agency. Apart from the exorbitant registration
and irrelevant since there are enough regulatory
and legal frameworks for NGO/CSO operations
in Nigeria such as the Corporate Affairs
transparency and accountability. Until CSOs are
provided enabling environment to maximally
operate as development actors in their own
will continue to suffer lack of transparency and
accountability. The call for inclusive partnership
is meant to ensure that no one is left behind in
and related structures at the state level.
nothing if it does not apply equally to CSOs as to
Despite this exclusivist approach to development
continued to play active roles in development
cooperation especially in relation to Millennium
partnership would merely stand as an aspirational
political expression that would need greater
efforts to realize.
The challenges of Nigeria as aid recipient and aid provider
References
Reality of Aid 2011 Report. IBON Books, Phillippines.
er
Thailand.pdf
pearl of So
November 2011 06:38:17
http://www.ilo.org/pardev/partnerships-andrelations/
Philippines.
Country ownership of development:
by: admin August 5, 2014 in News
la-vietnam
-
t to Establish
en.mfa
http://www.giz.de/en/SIDEAC6B786-5ECB74D8/aboutgiz/profile.html
Notes
1
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, Message for the UN Day of
South-South Cooperation, September 12, 2014.
8
TAC Act, Part III Section 8.
Technical Aid Corps for ACP countries to expand to Brazil,
3
6
Chijioke Nelson, “Nigeria ranks low on domestic credit among
BRICS and MINT’s economies”. The Guardian. November 11,
2014, p. 23.
NAN, September 10, 2014.
12 The Global Partnership for Effective Development
Cooperation reiterated and elaborated the Democratic
Ownership principle at the 4thHigh Level Forum in Busan,
South Korea in 2011.
13 Accra Agenda for Action, paragraph 22.