The Dual Aesthetics in the Villa Lante at Bagnaia バニャイアのヴィラ

The Dual Aesthetics in the Villa Lante at Bagnaia
—Bellezza and Grazia in Mid-Sixteenth-Century Italy—
Noriko Kotani
バニャイアのヴィラ・ランテ
―16世紀中期イタリアのベレッツァとグラツィア―
小 谷 訓 子
本稿は、ローマから65キロメートル東北のバニャイ
先行研究についても述べ、1970年代から1990年代にか
アに造営されたヴィラ・ランテの庭園芸術の様式と構
けてのクラウディア・ラッツァロの研究業績を主とし
造に関る問題点を取り上げ、そこに表現された二つの
た既存のイコノロジー的解釈における限界と問題点を
美の概念：ベレッツァとグラツィアについて述べるこ
指摘する。次いで、16世紀中頃におけるベレッツァと
とを目的とする。庭園芸術は、専門用語の曖昧な定義
グラツィアの概念の定義について論じるのだが、それ
の問題や、時間的経過の中での形態変化の問題などを
は、ベネデット・ヴァルキのリブロ・デッラ・ベル
内包し、常にその特異性が強調されるため、他の造形
タ・エ・グラツィア（1590）に詳細にわたって説明さ
芸術と一線を画してきた。しかしながら、いかに他の
れているので、主としてこれを参照するものとする。
造形芸術から異なったものであろうとも、同じ視覚文
ここでは、アルベルティやヴァザーリ、バルダサー
化に属する以上、庭園芸術も、その地域でその時代に
レ・カスティリオーネらの著述も検証しながら、ベレ
育成された慣習と美学を以て制作されたものに他なら
ッツァとグラツィアの定義がルネサンス期においてど
ない。従って、ここでは、庭園芸術も特定の地域に育
のような変遷を経るのかを考察した上で、ヴィラ・ラ
った特定の時代の視覚文化を表すという前提で、ヴィ
ンテの様式的な特徴と二つの美の概念との関連を分析
ラ・ランテを、16世紀中頃のイタリア中部における特
していく。また、制作当時の社会的な背景として、ヴ
有の美学の文脈の中で解釈していく。
ィラ・ランテのパトロン、ジャンフランチェスコ・ガ
考察の手順として先ずは、現存する三つの複製：パ
ンバラ枢機卿の交友関係、彼とフィレンツェのリテラ
ラッツィーナ・ガンバラのフレスコ画、タルキニオ・
ッティとの繋がりについても述べ、ヴィラ・ランテが
リグストリの1596年の版画、ジョヴァンニ・グエラの
ベレッツァとグラツィアを体現するという拙論の妥当
素描を手掛かりに、ヴィラ・ランテに内在する二元的
性を強調する。
な構造と、庭園の名所の所在を明らかにする。その際、
65
subjects through the process of differentiation.
Sogliono il più de le volte gli alti e spaziosi alberi negli
orridi monti da la natura produ(o)tti, più che le coltivate
When a Renaissance man talked about gardens, he
piante, da dotte mani espurgate negli adorni giardini, a’
juxtaposed the two basic concepts of “nature” and “art” to
riguardanti aggradare...
1
elaborate his argument. Like Sannazaro’s passage above, in
More often than not the tall and spreading trees brought
the writings on gardens, “nature” and “art” mostly carried
forth by nature on the shaggy mountains are wont to bring
specific meanings: “nature” as “untouched nature” and “art”
greater pleasure to those who view them than are the
as “manmade garden.” However, the definitions of “nature”
cultivated trees pruned and thinned by cunning hands in
and “art” in the Renaissance dialogues were extremely
ornamented gardens.
2
elusive and various, since the interaction of human culture
and the natural world was also described with the paired
—Jacopo Sannazaro
concepts of “art” and “nature.” As Anthony J. Close
The above passage from Jacopo Sannazaro’s Arcadia
investigates in his essay, Commonplace Theories of Art and
(Venice, 1502, Naples, 1504) is a testimony to the way a
Nature in Classical Antiquity and in the Renaissance, there
Renaissance man perceived the world — i.e. a set of
were various meanings of “art” and “nature” circulating in art
juxtapositions. Here, Sannazaro refers to two different types
treatises and philosophical writings during the Renaissance.3
of landscapes; one is an ornamented garden tailored by
For example, in the common Renaissance notion: “art
artificial intention and the other is untouched nature. It seems
imitates nature,” the two terms conveyed broader meanings
that Sannazaro prefers the evocative elements of untouched
— “nature” as “the natural world” and “art” as “man’s
nature to those of the artificial garden. Regardless of his
action.”4 When the broader signification was applied in
preference, my point is that Sannazaro recognizes the two
describing gardens and landscapes, “nature” and “art” were
separate types of landscape — untouched nature and the
inseparable and they existed as one entity within a single
manmade garden — and presents them as juxtaposed
work of art. They amalgamated with each other just as Ovid
concepts.
described in Metamorphosis.
Juxtaposition was a common rhetorical formula used to
Since the terms themselves encompass broad and elusive
debate ideas in sixteenth-century Italy. This formula was
meanings, the dialogues on “art” and “nature” tend to be
called paragone and it became a conventional practice for the
more abstract and philosophical. Presumably because of this
cinquecento letterati, helping them develop the definitions
reason, the art of the garden, which requires using the paired
and concepts of the visual arts during the late Renaissance.
concepts of “art” and “nature” in discussion, was not a
Examples are: Leonardo da Vinci imposing a paragone on
favorable subject for the paragone polemic. Or, one may say
painting against sculpture; Vasari initiating a paragone of
that the cinquecento letterati were not “enlightened” enough
Florentine disegno versus Venetian colore; and the writings
to clarify the entangled meanings of “art” and “nature” in
of cinquecento letterati featuring a paragone of literature
order to discuss the art of the garden. In either case, the direct
versus the visual arts. By comparing two different subjects,
relationship with the natural world made the art of the garden
the paragone polemic emphasizes their differences, and
hard to frame in a theoretical way, and thus gardens were
argues the superiority of ones position over the other. As a
discussed with abstract expressions and philosophical notions
result, paragone provides a clearer definition of the two
in association with literature.
66
the relationship between Varchi and the patron of the villa,
Reflecting this non-theoretical yet philosophical and
Cardinal Gianfrancesco Gambara, will be discussed as well.
literary understanding of gardens, the scholarship of the
Italian Renaissance garden is mainly iconographical or
Focussing on the dual structure of the villa property, my
iconological. Some scholars may claim a theoretical
paper will begin with the formal analysis and iconographical
approach, but most likely this refers to the section where they
explanation of the Villa Lante, which owes very much to the
discuss the architecture of the garden and not the garden
achievement
itself. Also, among other visual arts, the art of the garden is
Gianfrancesco Gambara, and his ties to Farnese families will
the most difficult subject to deal with, as it goes through not
be addressed along with the discussion of the social
only drastic change over centuries, but also numerous minor
atmosphere and intellectual movement apparent in central
changes throughout every year, every season or every month.
Italy in the mid-sixteenth century. The relationship between
of
Claudia
Lazzaro.
Then
the
patron,
These characteristics of the subject and the previous
the papal court in Rome and the Florentine letterati will be
scholarship compel me to believe that Italian Renaissance
discussed here as well. Overall, I will emphasize the
gardens were created and appreciated in a different way than
interlocking relationship between the practice of paragone
other visual arts during the sixteenth century. However, no
and the dualism of the perception in sixteenth-century Italy.
matter how different the art of the garden is from the other
*
forms of art, it belongs to the same visual culture, sharing the
*
*
same aesthetics, which developed through experiences and
perceptions during the same time period in Italy. Therefore,
Contemporary with the Villa d’Este and the Palazzo
Italian Renaissance gardens must have shared some kind of
Farnese, the Villa Lante was built in Bagnaia on the wooded
universal element with other visual arts produced during the
slope of Monte Sant’Angelo (Fig.1&2). Bagnaia is a small
Renaissance in Italy.
town located near Viterbo, about 65 km northeast of Rome,
In this paper, I will examine the Villa Lante in Bagnaia
and the town had served as a country residence for
with the premise that it represents the ongoing aesthetic
genetations of the Bishops of Viterbo.5 It was a perfect
universal of central Italy in the mid-sixteenth century. That is
location for an otium and in fact it functioned as a hunting
to say, the aesthetics which underlies the design of the Villa
park of the Bishops, Cardinal Raffaele Riario, Ottaviano
Lante proper is attributed to the two familiar concepts of
Visconti Riario and Cardinal Niccolo Ridolfi successively.
sixteenth-century central Italy — bellezza and grazia. In
In 1566, Cardinal Gianfrancesco Gambara became the
order to argue this thesis, my paper will discuss the
Bishop of Viterbo and took over the governorship in 1568.6
definitions of bellezza and grazia in the mid-sixteenth
The construction of the Villa Lante began around the
century, both of which are clearly explained by Benedetto
commencement of Gambara’s bishopric in Viterbo. The
Varchi in his Libro della beltà e grazia (written in 1540s and
design of the Villa Lante is ascribed to Giacomo Barozzi da
published posthumously in 1590). I will analyze Varchi’s
Vignola, but the paucity of contemporary written sources
writings and the historiography of bellezza and grazia during
regarding the attribution of the villa makes it difficult to
the
stylistic
verify its architect with absolute certainty.7 His contemporary,
characteristics of the Villa Lante. For justifying the
Giorgio Vasari, was silent about the relationship between the
association of the Villa Lante and Libro della beltà e grazia,
Villa Lante and Vignola, as he wrote the second edition of the
Renaissance
in
association
with
the
67
Fig.1
Vite before the construction of the villa. Nevertheless,
proper except for the second palazzina. The second palazzina
Vignola’s involvement in the project is undeniable, as the
was built much later by Carlo Maderno for Cardinal
Villa Vecchia at Frascati and the hunting lodge at Caprarola,
Alessandro Peretti Montalto in the 1610s. Although the two
both designed by Vignola, show some stylistic affinities with
palazzine have a gap of forty years, they are identical in their
the Villa Lante.
style, as both Tommaso Ghinucci and Carlo Maderno
followed the design scheme of the original plan.
The formal garden, the adjacent park (bosco) and one of
the two palazzine were mostly completed by 1578, when
8
It is fortunate that the Villa Lante as it appears today
The local
remains in excellent condition and has not drastically changed
architect Tommaso Ghinucci, who worked for one of the
from the original state. In this paper, I will examine the
previous bishops (Cardinal Niccolo Ridolfi), continued to
original scheme designed by Vignola under the instruction of
serve for Gambara and executed the construction of the villa
Cardinal Gianfrancesco Gambara, as my objective is to
Pope Gregory XIII visited the Villa Lante.
68
Fig.2
examine the villa in relation to the aesthetics of mid-
architectural and horticultural characteristics. It also displays
sixteenth-century Italy. Therefore, my focus is not on the
the symmetrical structure of the villa with a strong axiality in
extant Villa Lante but on the three reproductions of the villa
the formal garden, where the two palazzine are located.
which were produced in the sixteenth century.
This strong axial structure of the formal garden is clearly
The earliest remaining reproduction is depicted within the
represented in another reproduction of the Villa Lante (Fig.4).
villa proper as the fresco painting in the loggia of the older
It was depicted by Tarquinio Ligustri in the form of an
plazzina, Palazzina Gambara (Fig.3). Raffaelino da Reggio,
engraving, dated 1596. The engraving was dedicated to
who had worked in the Palazzo Farnese in Caprarola
Cardinal Montalto, who owned the villa from 1590 and
decorated the frescoes of the Palazzina Gambara some time
completed
9
the
execution
of
the
original
plan
by
between 1574 and 1576. This fresco painting of the Villa
commissioning Carlo Maderno to build the second palazzina,
Lante is located on the west wall of the ground floor loggia.
the Palazzina Montalto. It shows the Villa Lante in a similar
There, the representations of the Villa d’Este and the Palazzo
manner to the fresco with a bird’s-eye view. On the upper
Farnese decorate the wall as well, in order to illustrate the
right hand corner of the engraving there is a set of rubrics,
stylistic affinities between the three villas, and to indicate the
identifying the numbered location on the plan. The rubrics
intimate relationships of the patrons — Farnese, d’Este, and
indicate the names of fountains recorded in the inventory of
Gambara. The fresco portrays the entire property of the Villa
the Villa Lante, which was made in 1588 after the death of
Lante — the two palazzine, the formal garden and the park
Cardinal Gianfrancesco Gambara.10 By far, the Ligustri
— with the schematic details which emphasize the
engraving provides the most detailed and the most precise
69
Fig.3
Fig.4
70
Fig.5
visual information regarding the original plan of the Villa
the adjacent park is the essence of the design of the Villa
Lante.
Lante. On one side, the villa manifests the geometric,
The third reproduction of the villa, which deserves our
symmetric, harmonious, regular and ordered structure, while
attention, is a pen and ink drawing by Giovanni Guerra,
the other side of the park preserves the natural and irregular
depicting the entire complex in a sketchy manner (Fig.5). The
layout of the woods and the random disposition of the
Guerra drawing shows a remarkable resemblance to the
fountains. In the formal garden, the strong axis piercing
Ligustri engraving in the overall structure, yet it depicts the
through the center demonstrates not only Vignola’s allusion
later addition of the four youths holding the Montalto device
to Bramante’s Belvedere Court, but also Villa Lante’s
in the fountain of the Moors. The four youths are recorded
connection to Papal Rome. The park, on the other hand,
neither in the Palazziana Gambara frescoes nor in the Ligustri
embraces the variety of nature, since it was originally planted
engraving. Therefore, most scholars agree that the sketch was
with various different fruit trees, groves of oak and beech, fir
executed later than the Ligustri engraving. Like the other two
trees and chestnut trees, cypresses, marine cherries and
reproductions, the Guerra drawing also clearly confirms the
vines.11
division between the formal garden and the adjacent park.
The chapter three of Lazzaro’s Ph.D. dissertation explains
As Claudia Lazzaro repeatedly asserts in her writings, the
that this duality of the Villa Lante represents Vignola’s
duality created by the juxtaposition of the formal garden and
intention to reproduce the ancient Roman villa in the style of
71
Renaissance practice. There, Lazzaro emphasizes the
intervention.13 By going down the steps of the formal garden,
Bramantian feature of the Villa Lante as the first step. She
“the creation of art out of nature” is gradually emphasized
points out that the entire organization of the formal garden
through the decreasing naturalness of the vegetation and by
— symmetrical arrangement along a single axis on a slope
enhancing the geometric pattern of the lower level. According
terraced into several levels with ramps, diagonal staircases,
to her interpretation, the crayfish (gambero in Italian),
circular steps and side pavilions — is modeled after
sculpted at the end of the water chain, along the central axis,
Bramante’s project for the Belvedere Court.12 Lazzaro then
is the metaphoric representation of Cardinal Gambara who
discusses the adjacent park in relation to the ancient practice
plays the role of agency for the transformation of nature into
of including natural beauty within the villa property by
art (Fig.6).
referring to Pliny the Younger’s Tuscan villa and the Domus
Lazzaro’s investigation of the iconographical program of
Aurea. By doing so, she successfully underscores the dual
the Villa Lante is a distinctive achievement. Her iconological
structure of the Villa Lante and convinces the readers that
interpretation not only explains the duality of the villa but
both the formal garden and the adjacent park have
also deciphers the political message of the patron. However,
authoritative precedents.
given the lack of primary sources, Lazzaro’s point of view
Following the conviction that the Villa Lante stylistically
can be nothing more than a speculative exercise. In fact, her
alludes to the Belvedere Court on one side and to the ancient
discussion on the fountains in the adjacent park exhibits a
Roman villa on the other side, Lazzaro takes her argument to
strong teleology, especially when she talks about the fountain
the next step — that the duality of the Villa Lante was the
of the Ducks and the Fountain of the Reservoir. Lazzaro
intention of Vignola so that it must carry a complicated
strives to demonstrate the element of the Golden Age in the
iconographical program. The succeeding chapters are devoted
Fountain of the Ducks and the Fountain of the Reservoir, yet
to her iconographical interpretation of the villa. According to
this arbitrary attempt indeed emphasizes her teleological
Lazzaro, the park represents an earthly paradise, the site of
approach to the Villa Lante.
the Golden Age, by featuring fountains in association with
Moreover, looking into the details of the Ligustri engraving
mythological symbols. She analyzes the Fountain of
and the Guerra drawing, the numerical order of the rubrics in
Parnassus, the Fountain of Acorns, the fountain of the
these reproductions proceeds in direct opposition to the
Unicorn (no longer exists), the Fountain of the Ducks, the
narrative
Fountain of the Bacchus, the Fountain of the Dragon and the
reproductions, the numbering begins at the gate of the formal
Fountain of the Reservoir in relation to the Golden Age.
garden, proceeds upwards to the Grotto of the Deluge and
order
of
Lazzaro’s
interpretation.
In
both
Regarding the formal part of the Villa Lante, Lazzaro reads
continues onto the rectangular pool at the upper right corner
the section as a representation of the Age of Jupitor, which
of the adjacent park until it reaches the Fountain of
was considered to be synonymous with the present age (that
Parnussus,
is Vignola and Gambara’s time period). Her interpretation of
interpretation. If Lazzaro’s interpretation was correct, then
the formal garden begins with the top of the hill with the
why do the reproductions of the Villa Lante have a numerical
Grotto of the Deluge. Lazzaro suggests that the flood here
order which does not correspond with the iconographical
signifies the chaos of nature represented as a “natural” grotto,
program? If the villa was meant to represent the narrative that
out of which the form is created through man’s artistic
begins with the Golden Age, it is very likely that the visitors
72
where
Lazzaro
begins
her
iconographical
but neither does Lazzaro have a reliable contemporary source
to support her argument. Despite her erudite approach to the
subject, Lazzaro’s idea of interpreting the duality of the Villa
Lante as the separate representation of the Golden Age and
the Age of Jupiter could be easily dismissed as speculative.
Then, the question rises again. How can we discuss the art
historical significance of the Villa Lante when we completely
lack the primary sources to help us read through this
remarkable work of art? In a way, Claudia Lazzaro’s
achievement points to the limitation of the iconological
approach to the Villa Lante. Without the primary sources, it is
almost impossible to figure out the intentions of the architect
and the patron. Given such circumstances, it is more fruitful
and valuable to analyze the villa in the larger cultural context
of the mid-sixteenth century. Therefore, I shall leave the
iconographical concerns and return to the problem of “nature”
and “art” in the late Renaissance understanding.
*
*
*
In the previous scholarship, including Claudia Lazzaro, the
Fig.6
duality in the Villa Lante — the Bramantian axial planning
are encouraged to experience the villa in the narrative
in the formal garden and the non-axial organization in the
sequence. However, the numerical order of the rubrics in the
adjacent park — has been understood as the embodiment of
reproductions suggests the itinerary in the opposite direction.
the Renaissance polarity between art and nature. This
Shouldn’t the visitors begin the tour from the Fountain of
understanding of “art” and “nature” and their interaction
Parnussus, go through the park, find the Grotto of the Deluge
underlies Lazzaro’s iconographical approach as well. Indeed,
and proceed to the formal garden in order to experience the
considering the heavy influence of Ovid’s Metamorphoses in
designed iconographical program?
Renaissance horticulture, the interaction of art and nature is
Of course, Lazzaro could suggest that the numbers on the
the major theme for the Renaissance gardens at a
Ligustri engraving and the Guerra drawing are related neither
philosophical level. However, this explanation does not
to Vignola’s intention nor to Gamabara’s expectation.
provide a clear picture of the patron and architect’s and even
However, what we have as evidence of the original Villa
contemporary visitor’s aesthetic concerns, which allowed the
Lante are these reproductions which represent the numerical
Villa Lante to have the dual structure. In order to clarify the
order contradicting her narrative sequence. I have no
objective of my paper, I shall approach the villa with a
evidence to disprove Lazzaro’s iconological interpretation,
broader cultural context to illuminate the mind-set apparent in
73
mid-sixteenth-century Italy — namely, the specific aesthetic
grace,” and Parmigianino is “exceedingly graceful.” As
that locates visual pleasure in the physical appearance of the
Barasch states, Vasari’s definition of grazia is hard to grasp,
Villa Lante.
yet it is more than evident that Vasari uses the term grazia to
describe the new element in the then contemporary art.
In his Theories of Art: From Plato to Winckelmann, Moshe
Barasch explicates the mind-set of the late Renaissance by
Originally, the word “grace” was a term frequently used in
examining treatises and writings of the era. According to
the life of ancient Greece, but it re-appeared with a new
Barasch, the late Renaissance begins around the 1540s and
meaning in Alberti’s writings during the fifteenth century.17
ends at the beginning of the seventeenth century. He
For Alberti, grazia was not so different from bellezza, as both
celebrates this period as the era of new authors and new
concepts stem from measurement and harmony. Similar to
readers.
bellezza, grazia in Alberti’s understanding is a term used to
describe a visual pleasure expressing a mathematical
...late sixteenth century thought lacks the naive belief so
regularity. A century after Alberti, Baldassare Castiglione
characteristic of the fifteenth century that everything in
wrote about grazia in his celebrated work, Il libro del
nature is susceptible to precise measurement, that a proper
cortegiano (published in 1528). Although still slightly
representation is one that follows accepted rules...14
ambiguous in definition, grazia here is separated from
bellezza to exist as an independent concept. Here Castiglione
Then, Barasch describes the new trend, which appeared in the
applies the term grazia for describing a person. In section 24,
late Renaissance and coexisted with the fifteenth century
25, and 26 of the First Book, he claims that grazia refers not
mathematical trend, as the emergence of “irrational factors.15”
to a physical characteristic but to an atmospheric “air” which
The discussion of this new movement is divided into
resides in the person. That is to say, it is a quality, which
following regions: central Italy (Florence and Rome), Venice,
accompanies every movement of an individual to whom it is
and northern Italy (Lombardy), for he thinks these three
ascribed. It is almost as a gift of nature and of heaven, which
regions developed their traditions apart from each other. He
cannot be learned easily.18
also thinks that the tradition of theory in Rome during this
About two decades after Castiglione, a Florentine humanist
period is not distinctive enough to claim an independence
and theorist, Benedetto Varchi, who was known for his
from the Florentine tradition. Therefore, Barasch unfolds his
funeral oration to Michelangelo, composed his thoughts on
analysis with a premise that the major Florentine figures
grazia and bellezza in a short essay in 1543. Although it was
dominated the formation of art theory in central Italy. The
posthumously published at the end of the century, Varchi’s
significance of Vasari in the development of the new trend
Libro della beltà e grazia was circulating in central Italy
was repeatedly emphasized here, and then Barasch discusses
through the agent of the Accademia Fiorentina where he
the rise of the concept: grazia, which played the pivotal role
belonged as an active member. It was rather short, but a fine
for the new aesthetic movement.
16
and condensed crystallization of the mid-sixteenth century’s
ideas on grazia and bellezza.
Even though it is protean and elusive, Barasch sees grazia
In the conclusion of the essay, Varchi strongly asserts that
as the central aesthetic value in Vasari’s view. According to
bellezza and grazia are inseparable.
Vasari, the style of the third era is “more free and graceful,”
E poi la sentenza vera degli intendenti, che la belleza e la
Leonardo da Vinci is “most divine grace,” Raphael is “most
74
grazia sie(a)no una cosa medesima e mai non si possano
the geographical location of the Villa Lante in Bagnaia,
separare l’una dall’altra, onde chi desidera l’una, desidera
Benedetto Varchi, a Florentine who settled in Florence, seems
ancora l’altra parimente.19
to be a bit remote to have influenced the aesthetic of the villa
with his ideas. However, the traffic between Florence and
Inseparable as they are, yet, Varchi defines the concept of
Rome during the Renaissance was more than frequent and
grazia different from that of bellezza. “La bellezza non è altro
Varchi himself had been to Rome on many occasions. Also,
che la debita proporzione e corrispondenza di tutte le membra
Rome during that period was eager to assimilate Florentine
20
(tra) loro. ” Bellezza, according to Varchi, is represented
intellectual cultures, as Rome was not self-sufficient enough
through harmonious proportions and the correspondence of
to develop its own ideas and theories of art. For example, the
all the members. It is a notion stemming from the
Academia di St. Luca in Rome was only founded in 1593 to
measurement and mathematical order that Alberti propagated
support local intellectual activities. As Moshe Barasch
in the fifteenth century.
confirms in his writings, there is no doubt that Rome and
Florence during the late Renaissance shared the same trend in
On the other hand, he defines grazia as unrelated to
art theory.
measurement, proportion, harmony and correspondence. “La
grazia è quella che ci diletta e muove sopra ogni cosa...21”
In addition, Benedetto Varchi belonged to the same circle
Grazia is an element to delight and to move us above all
of friends as Annibale Caro (1507-1566), who was the
thing. Varchi also states that grazia does not come from
secretary and chief artistic adviser to Cardinal Alessandro
material and body but it comes from art. “Perciò che in essi
Farnese. Needless to say that the relationship between
(qualità e grazia) non procedono della materia propiamente e
Cardinal Alessandro Farnese and the patron of the Villa
22
principalmente, ma dell’arte... ” From his description, it is
Lante, Gianfrancesco Gambara, was intimate. First of all,
not so clear if grazia resides in the object or in perception, but
Gianfrancesco’s mother was formerly the widow of Ranuccio
Varchi relates grazia with sensational evocation. In essence,
Farnese, and his uncle, Lorenzo Gambara, was a poet in the
he views grazia as a spiritual element or something to evoke
court of Alessandro Farnese.23 Gianfrancesco was educated
spirituality. For Varchi, grazia is something stimulating,
under the guidance of his uncle Uberto, but after Uberto’s
surprising, charming and spiritual in order to foster one’s
death, he was taken under the protection of Alessandro
imagination. It is an adjective for a creative and spiritual
Farnese,
element associated with love and divinity.
Gianfrancesco in the church hierarchy.24 As a matter of fact,
who
constantly
helped
the
promotion
of
Benedetto Varchi was one of the most active members of
on September 18th, 1568, Gianfrancesco Gambara wrote a
the Accademia Fiorentina, and had strong connections with
letter to Cardinal Alessandro Farnese in regard to a new villa
the art societies of Florence and Rome. He exchanged letters
project, requesting Alessandro’s architect Vignola to prepare
with Michelangelo, Vasari, Benvenuto Cellini, Bartolomeo
a design or to offer advice for a villa and gardens in the
Ammanati,
Jacopo
hunting park in Bagnaia.25 The ties between the Gambara and
Pontormo, Francesco da Sangallo, Battista di Marco del
Farnese families were quite firm to begin with, and the
Tasso, Niccolo Tribolo and so on. No doubt he was one of the
relationship between Alessandro Farnese and Gianfrancesco
most influential figures in the academic and artistic circles in
Gambara was especially intimate not only in political terms
central Italy during the mid-sixteenth century. Considering
but also at a private level.
Agnolo
Bronzino,
Pietro
Bembo,
75
Thus, Varchi’s ideas on bellezza and grazia were
divinity and love. These spiritual pleasures that one would
introduced from the Farnese circle to Viterbo through
apprehend in the adjacent park reflect Varchi’s concept of
Vignola and Annibale Caro. Or vice versa, the notions of
grazia.
bellezza and grazia were discussed frequently in the Farnese
Faithful to Varchi or not, the formal garden embodying
circle, the Medici court, the d’Este circle, or wherever
bellezza and the park conveying grazia exist as a whole, even
letterati and artists gathered, and Varchi might have been
though they exhibit a clear difference in the structure. The
merely an agent to publicize the dispute. Indeed Varchi
duality of the villa is apparent, but the formal garden and the
begins his writing with a question: “if grazia can exist without
park are not separated from each other. It precisely follows
bellezza or not?” which seems to be a popular theme of the
what Varchi says — namely, bellezza and grazia are
intellectual discussion. Also, Varchi indicates the familiarity
inseparable. By representing symmetrical beauty and
of the question by stating that “there are many other
harmony, the formal garden emphasizes the irregularity and
26
27
opinions on the relationship between bellezza and grazia.”
irrationality of the park on the opposite side, while the
The passage states that many others insist grazia is
immediate presence of the graceful irrationality and the
independent from bellezza, while Varchi believes the two
fantastic surprises in the park underscores the hard-core
concepts are inseparable despite their differences.
Baramantian structure in the formal garden.
The duality in style and structure is the essential character
During the Renaissance period, Italian humanists called
of the Villa Lante. The formal garden and bosco are together
gardens a “third nature.”28 This idea is referring to Cicero’s
as a whole, yet designed to represent two different concepts,
notion that agricultural and utilitarian gardens are a second
which correspond to the two contemporary aesthetic concepts
nature. The third nature therefore refers to non-utilitarian and
that Benedetto Varchi elaborated: bellezza and grazia. The
non-agricultural gardens where nature and art interact with
formal garden, which represents the Bramantian axial
each other to represent visual, spiritual, intellectual and
structure,
and
recreational pleasures. For humanists, that was the extent of
correspondence in all the members through the geometric
the theory regarding the garden in Renaissance Italy. Unlike
symmetry. It is laid out according to mathematical
other visual arts, the art of the garden directly deals with the
measurement, rendering a sense of order and regularity. That
natural world which is God’s creation. Therefore, it requires a
is what Varchi called bellezza. The adjacent park, on the other
more philosophical and spiritual foundation for its theoretical
hand, does not demonstrate characteristics similar to the
framework. Also, the vital terms with which to explain the art
formal garden. It is neither harmonious nor symmetric,
of garden — “art” and “nature” — have too many layers of
displaying a sense of irregularity and irrationality. It does not
meanings so that definitions and clarifications in this
embody bellezza in Varchi’s definition by any means.
discourse are difficult to establish.
exhibits
the
harmonious
proportion
However, the fountains spreading in the woods are designed
In sixteenth-century Italy, theoretical reflections on
to delight and move the visitors with their grotesque style,
painting, sculpture, and architecture were departing from the
charming subject matters and fantastic appearance. The
Albertian theory to develop into a new phase. The famous
sudden emergence of fountains along the route evokes
paragone polemic initiated by Leonardo da Vinci is one of
sensational surprise, which encourages visitors to indulge
the dominant thrusts generating this new phase. It is a well-
themselves in the imagination and the spiritual experience of
known fact that Renaissance painting and sculpture acquired
76
5
profundity and complexity in their definitions through the
For the provenance of the site of the Villa Lante, see, David Coffin,
The Villa in the Life of Renaissance Rome, Princeton, 1979, p.340.
practice of paragone. Undoubtedly, the cinquecento letterati
6
For further information regarding history of the Villa Lante, see
Claudia Lazzaro Bruno, The Villa Lante at Bagnaia, Ph.D.diss.,
and artists were deeply affected by this mind-set, so that they
Princeton, 1974, pp.10-35.
always looked for a counterpart to the subject and treated
7
Regarding Vignola and the Villa Lante, see David Coffin, “Some
them as a juxtaposed pair. This tendency is also apparent in
Aspects of the Villa Lante at Bagnaia,” in Arte in Europa: Scritti di
the writings which were not addressed as paragone.
storia dell’arte in onore di Edoardo Arslan, Milan, 1966,pp.569575, and Claudia Lazzaro Bruno, The Villa Lante at Bagnaia,
Examples include Jacopo Sannazaro, who recognized the
Ph.D.diss., Princeton, 1974, pp.88-110.
ornamented garden as a counterpart to untouched nature, and
8
Orbaan, J.A.F., Documenti sul barocco in Roma, Rome, 1920,
pp.389-390.
Benedetto Varchi, who discussed grazia in a juxtaposition
9
with bellezza.
David Coffin, The Villa in the Life of Renaissance Rome, Princeton,
1979, p.343.
The Villa Lante is full of allusive iconography and
10 Claudia Lazzaro Bruno, The Villa Lante at Bagnaia, Ph.D.diss.,
Princeton, 1974, p.39.
humanist spirit, emphasizing the significance of “water.” As
11 ibid., p.49.
Claudia Lazzaro claims, “the interaction of art and nature” is
12 For further information, see ibid., p.84.
clearly represented with a “perfect balance” in the Villa
13 For detailed interpretation of the formal garden, see, ibid., p.196.
Lante. However, it seems arbitrary to translate the duality of
14 Moshe Barasche, Theories of Art: From Plato to Winkelmann, New
York, 1985, p.208.
the villa as the result of an iconographical program
15 ibid., p.208.
representing the Golden Age and the Age of Jupiter. The
16 ibid., p.220.
duality in the Villa Lante is structural, so that it must be
17 For more detailed historiography of “grace,” see ibid., pp.220-228.
18 Count Baldassare Castiglione, The Book of Courtier, translated by
directly associated with the perception and the aesthetics of
Leonard Eckstein Opdycke, New York, 1929, p.33.
the period. It is bellezza and grazia that provided the dual
19 Benedetto Varchi, “Libro della Beltà e Grazia,” in Paola Barocchi
ed.,
structure in the art of the Villa Lante, illustrating the
Trattati
d’arte
del
cinquecento:
Fra
manierismo
e
controriforma, vol.1, Bari, 1960, p.91.
contemporary intellectual’s perception of the world, which
20 ibid., p.86.
developed through the practice of paragone.
21 ibid., p.86.
22 ibid., p.88.
23 Claudia Lazzaro Bruno, The Villa Lante at Bagnaia, Ph.D.diss.,
Princeton, 1974, p.19.
1
Jacopo Sannazaro, Arcadia, introduction and note by Enrico
24 ibid., pp.19-20.
Carrara, Torino, 1796, p.3.
2
25 See, David Coffin, The Villa in the Life of Renaissance Rome,
Jacopo Sannazaro, Arcadia and Piscatorial Ecologues, translated
Princeton, 1979, p.340; David Coffin, “Some Aspects of the Villa
with an introduction by Ralph Nash, Detroit, 1966, p.29.
3
Lante at Bagnaia,” in Arte in Europa: Srritti di storia dell’arte in
See, Anthony J. Close, “Commonplace Theories of Art and Nature
onore di Edoardo Arslan, Milan, 1966, pp.569-570.
in Classical Antiquity and in the Renaissance,” Journal of the
26 Emphasis, author’s own.
History of Ideas, vol.30, issue 4, 1969 (Oct.-Dec.), pp.467-486.
4
27 Benedetto Varchi, “Libro della Belta e Grazia,” in Paola Barocchi
There are other commonplaces using the paired concepts of art and
ed.,
nature: art ministers to, complements, or perfects nature; art is
Trattati
d’arte
del
cinquecento:
Fra
manierismo
e
controriforma, vol.1, Bari, 1960, p.91.
based on experience or study of nature; art has its beginnings in
28 For further understanding of a “third nature,” see, Claudia Lazzaro,
nature; art is inferior to nature; nature is an artist; and so on. See
The Italian Renaissance Garden: From the Conventions of
Anthony J. Close, “Commonplace Theories of Art and Nature in
Planting, Design, and Ornament to the Grand Gardens of
Classical Antiquity and in the Renaissance,” Journal of the History
Sixteenth-Century Central Italy, New Haven, 1990, pp.8-19.
of Ideas, vol. 30, issue 4, 1969 (Oct.-Dec.), pp.469-480.
77