Rock Features at Mirror Point Site - How to Find Rock Art

Transcription

Copyright by Kish LaPierre 2012
All Rights Reserved
Investigations of a Rock Feature Complex at the Mirror Point
Site (CA-SBR-12134/H), Western Mojave Desert,
San Bernardino County, California
By
Kish D. La Pierre
B.A. (California State University, Fresno) 2003
Thesis
Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts in
Anthropology
Graduate Division
California State University Bakersfield
2012
TO THE OFFICE OF MASTERS OF ARTS GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ANTHROPOLOGY
The member of the committee examining this thesis of Kish LaPierre find it satisfactory and
recommend that it be accepted.
Brian Hemphill
Mark Sutton
)
Robert Yohe II, Chair
iii
Dedicated to the memory of Jay von Werlhof
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It took a whole village to raise this archaeologist. I would first like to thank my committee
chairman Dr. Robert Yohe II. Dr. Yohe introduced me to the Naval Air Weapons Station, China
Lake and Russell Kaldenberg who in-turn introduced me to the Mirror Point site. Without Dr.
Yohe I would not be where I am today in my career. I want to thank Dr. Mark Sutton and Dr.
Brian Hemphill for their support and guidance on this project. I want to thank Russell
Kaldenberg and Sandy Rogers, both of these brilliant men have been important mentors to me
during these past few years. I also have a great CRM mentor in my boss Mike Baskerville. I owe
a special thanks to my friend and colleague Audry Williams for her much needed technical
support (beautiful maps!) in the final stages of this document. Finally, I want to thank Dr. Alan
Gold for his advice and support over the years.
I owe much gratitude and thanks to the following people: Mike Darcangelo, Dr. William
Hildebrandt, Three Girls and a Shovel, my friends at Far Western Anthropological Group Inc.,
my friends at ASM Affiliates Inc., my friends at Epsilon Systems Inc., Fran Rogers, Rebecca
Orfila, Barb Gossett, Bill Gossett, Jeanne Murrin, Bill Wight, Jerry Grimsley, Louie Wren, Kristina
Roper, Brian Wickstrom, Dr. Elmer Eerkins, Craig Skinner, Lit Brush, Jim Fairchild, Victoria
Harvey, Dr. David Whitley, Dr. Frank Yancey, and Lynn Johnson.
I especially would like to thank my forever dedicated and awesome mother Susan LaPierre and
my step-father Lawrence Sargosa, I love you both. Finally I would like to thank my supportive
husband Michael Berthold, I love you and thank you for being there when I needed you.
v
ABSTRACT
This thesis describes and interprets a large rock feature complex and associated artifact
caches from the Mirror Point site (CA-SBR-12134/H) located on the east side of Searles Lake
within the boundaries of the South Range, Naval Air Weapons Station (NAWS) China Lake,
California. The objectives of this investigation: to access the lifeways of the inhabitants that
once occupied this site; activities of the occupants at this site; time period(s) when this site was
occupied; and purpose or function of rock features and associated artifact caches.
Archaeological investigations of CA-SBR-12134/H included four surface scrapes and the
excavation of eight test units, mapping of the overall site surface, and analysis of recovered
materials. Artifacts recovered from this site include large obsidian bifaces, glass, silver, and
shell beads, a bow fragment, pottery, debitage, historic bottles, mining debris, and several
types of projectile points. Because the rock features and artifacts seem to serve no utilitarian
purpose it is assumed that this site was visited for ideological reasons. Diagnostic artifacts span
from the Early Period (before 6600 BP) to Historic times (circa 1900). It is possible if not likely
that these artifacts were collected from other sites and brought to CA-SBR-12134/H as part of a
ritual offering and that the site was visited from prehistoric to historic times.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………….…………….……iii
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………vi
Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Design
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1
Site Description .................................................................................................................. 3
Chapter 2: Theoretical Perspectives
Theoretical Perspectives .................................................................................................... 11
Chapter 3: Regional Background
Regional Background ........................................................................................................ 23
Environment..................................................................................................................... 23
Ethnography and Ethnohistory ........................................................................................... 25
Archaeological Background ................................................................................................ 35
Chronology Developed for the Mojave Desert ...................................................................... 35
Chronology Developed for the Great Basin .......................................................................... 40
Curate Behavior ................................................................................................................ 43
Previous Archaeological Research in the Region .................................................................. 44
Chapter 4: International and National Perspectives Regarding Anomalous
Rock Features
Cairns .............................................................................................................................. 48
Rock Alignments ............................................................................................................... 51
Hunting Blinds .................................................................................................................. 52
Prayer Seats ..................................................................................................................... 54
Cache Pits ........................................................................................................................ 55
Medicine Wheels ............................................................................................................... 57
Rock-Rings/Tipi Rings/Stone Rings ..................................................................................... 61
Earthen Mounds/Mounds ................................................................................................... 75
Research Design ............................................................................................................... 78
Chapter 5: Investigations at CA-SBR-12134/H
Investigations at CA-SBR-12134/H ..................................................................................... 88
Field Methods ................................................................................................................... 88
Field Investigations ........................................................................................................... 89
Test Excavation Units ........................................................................................................ 89
Rock Cairns and Alignments at Loci A, B, and D .................................................................. 98
Rock Features Containing Artifact Caches ........................................................................... 99
Locus C (aka Mill Pond Site) ............................................................................................ 116
Chapter 6: Artifact Assemblage
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 119
Flake Stone Tools and Debitage ....................................................................................... 119
Projectile Points .............................................................................................................. 119
vii
Bifaces ........................................................................................................................... 120
Edge Modified Flakes ...................................................................................................... 125
Cores ............................................................................................................................. 125
Debitage ........................................................................................................................ 126
Interpretations ............................................................................................................... 130
Ground Stone ................................................................................................................. 130
Wood ............................................................................................................................ 132
Ceramics ........................................................................................................................ 133
Beads ............................................................................................................................ 135
Miscellaneous Paraphernalia ............................................................................................ 140
Faunal Remains .............................................................................................................. 142
Obsidian Studies ............................................................................................................. 143
Thermoluminescence dating ............................................................................................ 150
Protein Residue Analysis .................................................................................................. 150
Typology and Chronology of Beads .................................................................................. 151
Chapter 7: Discussion and Conclusions
Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 156
Middle Holocene Western Nexus ...................................................................................... 162
Hunter-Gatherers as Optimal Foragers.............................................................................. 162
Puha.............................................................................................................................. 163
Cultural Transmission ...................................................................................................... 164
Landscape Archaeology ................................................................................................... 164
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 165
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
1. View west of Mirror Point site-p. 4
2. Project location map-p.5
3. Map of Owens River system-p.6
4. Specific location of Mirror Point site-p.7
5. View east of semi-enclosed area at Locus A-p.9
6. Map of Loci A, B, C, and D-p.10
7. Cultural learning mechanisms-p.13
8. Puha and the bow and arrow partnership-p.21
9. Locations of various Numic groups in the Mojave Desert and Great Basin-p.27
10. George Hanson in Death Valley-p.30
11. George Hanson, ca. 1910 Darwin, CA-p.30
12. George Hanson, ca. 1930-p.31
13. George Hanson, November 18th, 1936-p.31
14. Indians at Darwin, CA in early 1900s-p.31
15. Panamint Tom-p.33
16. Panamint Tom’s Sweat Lodge-p.34
17. Panamint Tom’s House-p.34
18. Map of Mirror Point site in relations to other known sites in this region-p.44
19. Proposed Middle Holocene Western Nexus-p.86
20. Map of Locus A excavation units and surface scrapes-p.91
21. Map of Locus B-excavation units and surface scrapes-p.92
22. Map of Locus D-excavation units and surface scrapes-p.93
23. Profiles for Test Units 2 and 3-p.94
24. Profiles for Test Units 4 and 5-p.95
25. Profiles for Test Unit 6-p.95
26. Overview of Feature 12 during excavation-p.96
27. Features with artifact caches Locus A-p.101
28. Features with artifact caches Locus D-p.102
29. Features with artifact caches Locus B-p.103
30. Artifact cache Feature 5-p.104
42. Mining related features at Locus C-p.117
43. Green slate biface or digging tool (Cat.#134)-p.122
44. Biface stages represented-p.122
45. Biface from Feature 24 (Cat.#167)-p.124
46. Biface cache from Locus A-p.124
ix
LIST OF FIGURES (continued)
47. Lithic debitage by material-p.127
48. Biface blank with associated debitage-p.128
49. Debitage analysis results-p.128
50. Results of platform analysis-p.130
51. Bow fragment (Cat.#171)-p.133
52. Drilled ceramic fragment (Cat.#88)-p.134
53. Bead types and quantities-p.136
54. Glass beads-p.137
55. Steatite beads-p.137
56. Dentalium beads-p.137
57. Clam disc bead-p.138
58. Ceramic bead-p.141
59. Silver bead-p.141
60. Sandstone discoidal-p.142
61. Map of site in relation to obsidian sources-p.146
62. Obsidian from Buck Mountain-p.147
63. Scatterplot of Zirconium versus Strontium for analyzed artifacts-p.147
64. Obsidian hydration results-p.150
65. Glass beads and associated complexes-p.153
x
LIST OF TABLES
1. Ideal Characteristics of Travelers and Processors-p.17
2. Differences between Scientific and Humanized Space-p.17
3. Rock Feature Attribute Table-p.99
4. Feature with artifact caches-p.100
5. Feature number and type at Locus C-p.116
6. Artifact assemblage-p.119
7. Attributes for projectile points-p.-119
8. Biface staging-p.122
9. Biface attributes-p.123
10. Core attributes-p.126
11. Debitage attributes-p.129
12. Flaked stone artifacts by material-p.131
13. Attributes for groundstone-p.132
14. Steatite beads-p.138
15. Shell beads-p.138
16. Faunal remains-p.143
17. Results of trace element studies-p.144
18. Obsidian flaked stone by source-p.145
19. Sourced specimens-p.145
20. Hydration results-p.148
21. Specimens hydrated-p.148
22. Pottery dates-p.151
23. Titchenal’s glass bead chronology-p.153
24. Glass bead data-p.154
xi
APPENDICES
Appendix A………………………………………………………………………...…Historic Background
Appendix B……………………………………………Hydration Analysis by Alexander K. Rogers
Appendix C………………………….Hydration Analysis by Northwest Obsidian Laboratories
Appendix D……………………………………………………………………….Rock Feature Drawings
Appendix E……………………………………………………………..………………….T-Test’s Results
xii
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………........166
xiii
Investigations at the Mirror Point Site (CA-SBR-12134/H) CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
There has been a long standing and ongoing interest in rock features found at
archaeological sites. Although many archaeologists’ methods for interpreting rock
features lack empirical support due to the minimal artifacts noted and lack of
chronometric analyses, many efforts have appeared in scholarly journals and
monographs that attempt to explain archaeological rock features and their probable
function. However, until recently, most of the information regarding rock features of the
southwest and western North America lay buried in reports and articles that offered only
passing references to these features. Indeed as Wilke and McDonald (1989:50) note
with regard to rock-lined cache pits:
These features have received almost no attention in California
because excavations traditionally have emphasized the recovery
and analysis of portable artifacts. Studies in which nonportable
structural features of any kind have been discovered, exposed,
and systematically investigated in California are few. Failure to
more consistently investigate nonportable facilities has hindered
interpretation of the archaeological record in the desert region.
Rock features should be considered of great importance for several reasons. First,
rock features have traditionally posed interpretive problems for archaeologists. Binford
(1962) argued long ago that ideotechnic aspects of archaeological remains inherently
pose interpretive problems due to their symbolic nature. The exact nature of the
relationship between the symbolic reference and meaning is often difficult to pinpoint
unless Native American cultures of the particular area have some continuity from
prehistoric times to the present, thereby enabling the anthropologist to gain insight into
this relationship through historically-grounded analogy and interpretation. Unfortunately,
this is rarely the case with rock features. Consequently any attempt, theoretical or
1
methodological, to infer function or use offers a potential step toward unraveling the
interpretive problems.
Second, it is often pointed out that archaeological research tends to focus on
subsistence-settlement patterns, assuming that such patterns serve as primary variables
in the shaping of cultural systems. Similar to Binford’s aforementioned comments
(1962), Chartkoff (1983:745) asserts that elements of a traditional religious systems
have not endured the archaeological record. Because of this, archaeologists typically
extract interpretations of anomalous rock feature sites using snippets of ethnographic
data and applicable theoretical methods to garner interpretations.
As noted by Wilke (1983), Simms (1989), and Basgall and Delacorte (2003),
artifacts found in association with rock features are often rare. Though many sites with
rock features lack empirical data for archaeological interpretation, this is not the case,
for the Mirror Point site. Instead, this site contains large quantities of cultural material
including beads, groundstone implements, projectile points, bifaces, pottery fragments,
historical items, and lithic debitage in a variety of types, that when analyzed shed light
on the very intriguing behavioral patterns of indigenous peoples of the southwestern
Great Basin/western Mojave Desert (Krieger 1944:272; Bennyhoff and Hughes 1987:86;
Titchenal 1994).
Not long after the initial appearance of anatomically modern humans (Homo
sapiens) in Africa some 160 thousand years ago, early modern human populations came
to occupy enormous areas where they encountered a variety of climates and local
settings. Faced with these environmental differences, local human populations
2
developed various means of adaptation that are reflected by such cultural elements as
tool crafting.
In addition to these cultural elements, nothing stands out on the archaeological
landscape like architecture in demonstrating variability and adaptation to a given
environment. Early archaeologists, such as Waterman (1924:1), examined and described
indigenous structural variations across the North American landscape and concluded that
a Paiute village was “so simple that nothing could be more startlingly primitive,” while
he exulted that structures at Pueblo Bonito were “…very large…hundreds of feet in
dimensions. Some were made of tremendous beams in a cyclopean style of carpentry.”
The purpose of this research, somewhat like that of Waterman’s (1924), is to
investigate and describe architecture, in this case anomalous architectural remains or
rock features (and associated artifacts/attributes) cross-culturally in an effort to interpret
the meaning of such structures at the Mirror Point site (CA-SBR-12134/H) (see Figures
1.1,1.2,1.3,1.4), which is located on the east side of Searles Lake in the western Mojave
Desert/southwest Great Basin, where a total of 110 rock alignments and cairns were
discovered and recorded.
SITE DESCRIPTION
The Mirror Point site, CA-SBR-12134/H, is located in a restricted area of the Mojave B
Range, Naval Weapons Station, China Lake. The site is situated along the western front
of the Slate Mountain Range near the terminal end of an alluvial fan that extends west
towards the eastern edge of the Searles Lake playa. There is no permanent water
3
Fig. 1.1. Rock features looking northwest toward Argus Range, from CA-SBR-12134/H.
source nearby and the ancient Searles Lake bed is approximately 1000 meters from the
site (Hildebrandt and Darcangelo 2004) (see Figure 1.4).
The site is situated at approximately 550 meters above mean sea level
(Hildebrandt and Darcangelo 2004). The local vegetation falls within the Mojave Desert
geographic region. The most conspicuous plant growing naturally is desert holly
(Atriplex hymenelytra), though creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) was also noted at the
eastern edge of the study area (Baldwin et al.2002: 264-517).
Searles Lake is a dry lakebed. The western portion of its basin is located in the
vicinity of Trona and Pioneer Point. This area of the lakebed is currently the location of a
4
Fig. 1.2. Location of CA-SBR-12134/H site on South Range NAWS, China Lake, California.
5
Fig. 1.3. Owens River system connecting Searles Lake, (Smith 1984),
arrow pointing to Searles Lake bed.
mining operation (Searles Valley Minerals, Inc.) involved in the extraction of
commercially valuable mineral deposits including borax and potash. These evaporated
deposits appeared as the lake began to retreat. Searles Lake is also known for its
massive calcareous tufa deposits, which are referred to as “The Pinnacles”.
6
Fig. 1.4. Location of CA-SBR-12134/H, (Searles Lake and Layton Springs 7.5” quad).
7
These deposits were recently investigated by Erwin and Schorn (2006) who suggested
that these “pinnacles” are tufa-encrusted trees that are most similar to juniper (Juniperus
sp.).
Four distinct loci were identified at the site during a 2004 survey by Far Western
Anthropological Group, Incorporated (Hildebrandt and Darcangelo 2004). Locus A was
noted as being relatively small, measuring only 50 X 30 meters, but contained 26 rock
features. Locus B was described as quite large (160 X 40 meters) and was found to
contain a large number of features (n= 35), including 27 cairns and eight alignments.
Locus C contained high frequencies of mining-related features and artifacts including
two settling ponds, and a pile of slag, waste rock, and broken bricks. Locus D was
relatively large (120 X 50 meters), but had a lower density of rock features (n= 21)
(seven cairns and 14 alignments). No rock alignments or cairns were noted at Locus C
and historic artifacts decrease in frequency outside this area. Locus C lies in the
southwest portion of the site below a historic road, whereas loci A, B, and D extend
across the site in a northeasterly direction.
Few prehistoric artifacts were noted during the 2004 survey (Hildebrandt and
Darcangelo), likely due to the fact that windswept desert sands covered the rock
features. During a later preliminary visit for this research (2006) winds had blown away
most of the sands that had previously covered the rock features. Prehistoric artifacts
were visible on the ground and inside several rock features. Artifacts noted at the time
included one amber-colored bead, one mano, and an abundance of several types of
lithic debitage (e.g., chert, obsidian). Charcoal was noted in association with several of
8
the features at Locus A and several of the cairns formed a semi-enclosed U-shaped
formation (Figure 1.5).
Fig. 1.5. Features 2, 3, and 5 forming a semi-enclosed area at Locus A;
view east toward Slate Range.
It was unclear whether this formation of features was a habitation area or remnants of a
house foundation. Features designated as 2, 3, and 5 make up this semi-enclosed
structure.
A total of 82 rock features spread over three loci was identified during the 2004
(Hildebrandt and Darcangelo) investigation. In 2006, additional features were noted,
bringing the total number of rock features to 110. The four distinct loci remain and the
site now measures approximately 750 meters north/south x 575 meters east/west
(previously measured 600 meters north/south x 200 meters east/west) (Figure 1.6)
(Hildebrandt and Darcangelo 2004).
9
Fig. 1.6. Locations of Loci A, B, C, and D at CA-SBR-12134/H, datum NAD 83.
10
CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
The following section outlines three theoretical approaches for addressing and
understanding human behavior at the Mirror Point site. Cultural Transmission, HunterGatherers as Optimal Foragers, and Archaeology of Landscape theories are applied in
conjunction with reference to ethnographic accounts of religious practices of prehistoric
and modern Native American groups in the Great Basin and California; specifically, Puha
places and Puha Journeys.
CULTURAL TRANSMISSION
Cultural Transmission (CT) theory is a series of models rooted in neo-Darwinian
theory that are treated as biological analogs, as though they were referring to genetics.
However, the expected results differ from classic genetic models due to different mode
of transmission behind human behavior (Bettinger 1991:181; Eerkins and Lipo 2007;
Johnson 1999). The intent of CT theory is to predict behaviors in humans as pointed out
by Bettinger (1991:181):
In comparison to evolutionary ecology, however, this nonsomatic
approach to transmission and reproduction in many ways better
accounts for behaviors that have from the start interested
anthropologists and been central subject matter of their theories.
Among the more important of these altruism and the tendency of
humans to act cooperatively as groups rather than individuals and
the value that humans assign to symbols and prestige.
Although altruism is difficult to prove from the archaeological record, cultural
transmission theory provides a means to explain variation, similarity, and relatedness in
behavior. Specifically, cultural transmission theory nests on the assumption that
similarity in artifacts and behavior is caused by the exchange or information by way of
nongenetic mechanisms, but with similar processes as genetics (Eerkens and Lipo
2007:240).
11
There are several mechanisms that guide cultural evolution and these have been
outlined in a number of different ways (Bettinger 1991; Boyd and Richardson 1985;
Eerkins and Lipo 2007; Henrich and McElreath 2003;). Henrich and McElreath (2003)
explain that cultural learning mechanisms build atop other social and cultural learning
abilities and can be categorized into content biases and context biases (Figure 2.1).
Content biases, also referred to as direct biases (Boyd and Richardson 1985)
and culturgens (Lumsden and Wilson 1981), can be explained as exploiting informative
cues of an idea, belief, or behavior itself. Content biases may reflect the direct action of
natural selection on our prepared learning abilities such as language, folk biology, and
color categories. These types of biases may result from either genetically transmitted
cognitive structures or culturally acquired mental representations (Henrich and
McElreath 2003:129), though it is complicated or sometimes impossible to determine
which.
Context biases refer to the social and physical setting in which cultural information
is transmitted. It has been shown that the physical and social context of transmission
can alter the perception of the recipients (Eerkins and Lipo 2007). Henrich and
McElreath (2003:129) offer two main categories of context biases to explain the
psychological mechanisms behind acculturated learning: 1) success and prestige bias;
and 2) conformity bias.
Success and prestige bias is a preference for copying the strategies of successful
individuals, which generates an evolutionary dynamic that is distinguishable,
mathematically from natural selection acting on genes. Once success-biased
transmission appears in a population a social learner must compete for access to the
most skilled individuals. This often involves an exchange in return for such access that
12
may include gifts or some type of assistance (Henrich and McElreath 2003:130), and
might be considered a necessary form of social bonding or balanced reciprocity (Sahlins
1972).
Figure 2.1 Cultural learning mechanisms (Henrich and McElreath 2003).
An alternative to success and prestige bias is conformity bias. Conformity bias
copies the behaviors, beliefs, and strategies of the majority, thus allowing individuals to
aggregate information from many individuals or the majority (also referred to as
producer-scrounger (Kameda and Nakanishi 2002). It is argued that this type of
transmission is in many situations the best route to adaptation in an information poor
environment (Henrich and McElreath 2003:130). However, if everyone used conformist
transmission then no cultural evolution would occur. Thus, for evolution to occur there
has to be interplay between success and prestige bias with conformity bias (Henrich and
McElreath 2003:131).
13
One example of CT theory has been proposed by Bettinger and Eerkins (1999)
for the spread of the bow and arrow in the Great Basin. Two projectile point typologies
have been developed from archaeological collections in eastern California and central
Nevada. The first is the Berkley system (developed by Robert F. Heizer) based on
projectile point weight, which was developed for application in eastern California. The
second is the Monitor Valley system (developed by David Hurst Thomas) based on
projectile point basal width and developed for application in central Nevada.
Bettinger and Eerkins (1999) demonstrated that these typologies fit the
geographic areas for which they were developed. That is, in eastern California weight is
a better indicator of age and types, while in eastern Nevada basal width is a better
indicator. However, in eastern Nevada, Rosegate projectile points fit both typologies.
From these observations Bettinger and Eerkins (1999) proposed that the spread
of bow and arrow technology involved acquisition from local recipient groups with whom
they had minimal contact. Thus, these local groups had to perfect their knowledge of
bow and arrow technology through their own learning processes. This case study
exemplifies cultural transmission based upon both success and prestige bias and
conformity bias.
HUNTER-GATHEREERS AS OPTIMAL FORAGERS
Optimal foraging theory is rooted in biology, but is frequently applied in
anthropology. The basic anthropological version asserts that in certain arenas, such as
choices of diet, foraging location, foraging time, foraging group size, and settlement
location, human decisions are made to maximize the net rate of energy gain for the
amount of energy expended. The most common versions of the model are related to:
diet breadth, patch choice, foraging time, and central place foraging. The most
14
frequently applied model is diet breadth; however the diet breadth and patch choice
models are central in this discussion (Bettinger 1991).
Foragers encounter many situations in which there is variability in the amount
and type of foods available. These include: abundance; amount of energy produced per
item; and amount of energy required to acquire energy from each. The original diet
breadth model refers to these instances overall and this model can be applied to a
number of situations involving rational choices (Bettinger 1991).
While the diet breadth model refers to abundance of food resources in time in
the real world, the patch choice model refers resource abundance through space. The
diet breadth refers to resources ranked from highest to lowest, however the patch
choice model refers to net rate of energy intake per unit of foraging time. If patches are
widely spaced the time spent in travel between them may render the overall rate of
energy return suboptimal. In contrast, an increase in overall resource abundance leads
to decreases in both travel time and foraging time, therefore optimizing a given situation
(Bettinger 1991).
Bettinger and Baumhoff (1982) applied diet breadth and patch choice models to
deduce a range of hunter-gatherer strategies dubbed as the traveler-processor model
found among Numic speaking peoples from southeastern California and the Great Basin.
It was argued that demographic pressures in southeastern California caused these
groups to adopt a processor strategy that emphasized low mobility in conjunction with
the intensive use of low-ranked resources that required extensive processing (e.g.,
seeds).
Key to this argument is the assertation that processor strategists compete for all
of the resources important to traveler strategists, while traveler strategists compete for
15
only a fraction of the resources important to processor strategists by ignoring the lower
ranked resources. Also noted, processor strategists can sustain themselves on tracts of
land too small or too marginal to sustain traveler strategists (Bettinger and Baumhoff
1982).
According to Bettinger and Baumhoff (1982), Numic-speaking populations, by
A.D. 1000, were firmly committed to this processor strategy, which enabled them to
spread further east into the Great Basin. The groups they replaced had embraced
traveler strategies that emphasized high residential mobility and the selective use of
high-quality resources, large game in particular.
Further evidence assists in arguing the fact those basic patterns of subsistence
and settlement, including archaeological and ethnographic evidence, would be subtler
regarding the traveler processor model and highly mobile groups. Whereas there data
related to processor groups would be more substantial (Bettinger and Baumhoff 1982)
(Table 2.1).
However it is possible that these were simply changes in strategies or cultural
transmission via success and prestige. Or that these earlier traveler groups assimilated
or adopted subsistence and settlement strategies of less mobile processor groups.
LANDSCAPE ARCHAEOLOGY
The term “landscape” is defined as a construct of mind as well as a physical and
measureable entity (Tuan 1979). With such a definition, landscape archaeology can be
described as a combination of geography as a spatial science coupled with archaeology
as a science. The major differences in these approaches can be outlined in two
categories: abstract space and human space; however these categories overlap (Table
2.2).
16
In landscape archaeology space is viewed as medium for action, what is more
space, or spaces, are socially produced and are always centered in relation to human
agency (Tilley 1994). Tilley explains that a centered meaningful space
Table 2.1. Ideal Characteristics of Travelers and Processors (Bettinger 1991).
Traits
Duration of settlement residency
Travelers
Brief
Processors
Extended
Distance between settlements
Long
Short
Population density
Low
High
Sensitivity to demographic change
High
Low
Resource selectivity
Narrow spectrum
Broad spectrum
Sex ratio
Female-poor
Female-rich
Major costs of subsistence
Travel, search, scouting
Procurement, processing
Competitive fitness
Low
High
Table 2. 2.
Differences between Scientific and Humanized Space (Tilley 1994).
Abstract Space
Human Space
(idealist, irrational)
(materialist, rational)
Container
Medium
Decentered
Centred
Geometry
Context
Surfaces
Densities
Universal
Specific
Objective
Subjective
Substantial
Relational
Totalized
Detotalized
External
Internal
System
Strategy
Neutral
Empowered
Coherence
Contradiction
Atemporal
Temporal
involves specific links between the physical space of the non-human created world,
affects to the human body, awareness of space, and encounter and interaction between
persons and between persons and the human and non-human environment (1994:111).
17
It has been argued that rock art was an attempt by prehistoric peoples to
control the lands around them with sympathetic magic (David and Wilson 2002).
Perhaps more telling is the effects of humans on the landscape in early agricultural
societies, for such studies have outlined how early agricultural systems were
symbolically approached by the people that created them, where outlines of these
systems were often shaped like animals or other discernable symbols (Fleming 1988;
Hodder 1990; Thomas 1991). By contrast, during the Middle Ages the carving up of
landscape was synonymous with the carving up of society (Biddick 1993). Thus it
appears that, prehistoric ceremonial use of landscape required more imagination, indepth analysis of remaining artifacts, and a range of imaginative approaches to viewing
the associated landscape.
Tilley (1994) provides an especially illuminating example of how landscape
archaeology may be applied. A series of (Mesolithic era) chambered long cairns and flint
sites have been recorded in the Black Mountain area of southeastern Wales in the Usk
and Wye Valleys. The Black Mountains constitute an upland area of red sandstone
separating areas of limestone rock and millstone to the south. The Black Mountains are
steep and are associated with a number of valleys (including the Usk and Wye) that
have been carved by stream systems (p. 111).
Jacobi (1980) proposes an annual Mesolithic population movement in southeastern Wales that featured occupation of coastal areas during the winter while inland
areas were occupied by hunters in the summer. The Usk and Wye valleys have long
provided routes into and from mid-Wales, thus forming a conduit between lowland and
highland areas (p. 117).
18
All of the monuments are stone-built cairns of the “Cotsworth-Severn” type/style,
though there is considerable diversity amongst the 14 recorded monuments found at
different sites in this region. Seven cairns are long mounds with terminal and/or lateral
chambers. One of the cairn differs from the others in that it consists of only one
chamber while the rest display two or more chambers. Feature lengths also vary from
15 to 60 meters (p.118). Orientation and altitude of the features also vary.
Nevertheless, primary axes are always pointed toward either prominent mountain spurs
or river tributaries. Excavations in some of the chambers revealed the remains of sheep,
cow, and pig possibly indicating the ritual importance of feasting cycles at the
monuments, though there is no evidence of fully-fledged pastoral economy (p.120).
Artifacts were rarely found, but human remains were noted in association with several of
the features (p.136).
From these investigations it was concluded that while these features were not
major sites for the deposition of artifacts, the deposition and arrangement suggests the
human remains in the cairns was of great significance. In addition the presence of
animal bones suggests the use of these features in feasting cycles. Finally, the features
draw out or point toward significant features of the landscape, thus fixing the human
remains to particular places and axes of symbolic significance (p.140).
RITUALISM: PUHA PLACES AND JOURNEYS
Indigenous southwest Great Basin religion has been described as a “simple direct
relationship with the supernatural” (Thomas et al. 1986). Though lacking a formal
priesthood, shamanistic specialists or Pohakanti (Shoshone), Puhaga (Northern Paiute),
Puhagetu (Mono), or Pohagadi (Kawaiisu), were individuals believed to possess power.
Each term, except Wegeleyu (Washo) is derived from the word Puha (Mono, Western
19
Shoshone, and Northern Paiute), Poha (Eastern Shoshone), or Puhwa (Kawaiisu) (Numic
and Hokan languages), aided in curing certain ailments (Fowler 1984; Fowler and
Liljebland 1986; Hultkrantz 1986; Shimkin 1986; Steward 1941: 320; Thomas et al.
1986: 271). A shaman obtained his or her power and songs in secrecy, usually at night,
taking along visual representations of each one of their spirit powers (Hultkrantz 1986;
Park 1938).
These individuals gathered power from most things in nature, including eagles,
bats, snow, springs, different geographic features, rocks, thunder, clouds, wind, and
rock art. In addition, some shamans were known to obtain powers from bears, could
transform themselves into this creature, and had the power to make bears kill people
(Hultkrantz 1986; Steward 1938; Stoffle and Arnold 2006).
To reiterate more explicitly, power or Puha, is found in certain objects, including
elements that share in the bow and arrow partnership. These basic elements include
stones, animals, birds, minerals, trees, bushes, and reeds. From these elements
materials were extracted then utilized in creation of the bow and arrow. The bow and
arrow exemplifies a cooperative relationship between two revered objects created
ritualistically by humans from several elements of nature. This symbiotic relationship is
complex, cyclical, and necessary to human existence in the Great Basin/Mojave Desert
during the Late Holocene (Figure 2.3) (Stoffle and Arnold 2006). Additionally, Puha was
conceived as recyclable, continuously flowing back and forth from the center of the
universe connecting every element of the universe (Miller 1983; Stoffle and Arnold
2006).
It is has been recorded that Puha, like water, moves downhill and concentrates
attracting elements of the spiritual world (Stoffle and Arnold 2006). Puha is recorded as
20
occurring in such places as Mt. Dana in the Sierra Nevada Mountains (Western
Shoshone); pictograph sites, such as Dinwoody Canyon on the Wind River Reservation
in Wyoming (Eastern Shoshone); an isolated rock with pictographs north of Walker Lake
near Schurtz, Nevada (Northern Paiute); Black Mountain east of Death Valley in western
Fig. 2.3. Puha and the bow and arrow partnership (Stoffle and Arnold 2006).
Nevada (various tribes); Jobs Peak in the Stillwater Range, Nevada (Northern Paiute);
Charleston Peak in the Spring Mountains west of Las Vegas, Nevada (Southern Ute);
certain caves (locations unknown) in Northern Paiute territory; and certain caves in
Southern Paiute territory, including Gypsum and a location on Kwi’nava mountain across
the Colorado River in Yavapai country (Fowler and Liljebland 1986; Kelly 1936; Miller
1983; Shimkin 1986; Steward 1933: 308).
21
Pilgrimages to Black Mountain still occur and have been exhaustively described in
recent ethnographic studies (Stoffle and Arnold 2006; Stoffle 2008). These pilgrimages
take place along extensive trails that connect several locations in the southwest Great
Basin including California, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona. Typically offerings of obsidian,
pottery, and crystals are made on the Puha path and at the Puha spot/place. Cairns, or
“shrine piles,” were/are also expected as marking these Puha paths and/or Puha spots.
Once at Black Mountain, a vision quest begins by way of the vision seeker interacting on
a spiritual level with the surrounding landscape. After the vision quest is achieved the
pilgrims revisit the trail shrines before returning home (Stoffle and Arnold 2006; Stoffle
et al. 2008).
Human and animal trails are also regarded as sacred by Great Basin groups, not
only as travel corridors, but as sacred pathways that symbolize cultural continuity or an
association with the ancients. The association of power flow, water, and trails is
demonstrated in Shoshone words for these: power (Puha), water (paa), and path (po’ia)
(Crapo 1976; Miller 1983).
The Southern Paiute and Western Shoshone of Eastern California are hesitant to
discuss religious practices with outside observers. However known traditional
ceremonies are practiced at two significant places to this day: Coso Hot Springs and
Renegade Canyon (NAWS China Lake). It is likely that these areas are/were regarded as
Puha places.
22
CHAPTER 3: REGIONAL BACKGROUND
There is no archaeological or ethnographic evidence at this time to demonstrate
that the eastern side of Searles Lake was at any point a resource-rich environment
capable of sustaining humans for any great length of time. This is probably due to the
fact that the carrying capacity of the area was and still is severely limited by the scarcity
of potable water. However there are data that indicate prehistoric peoples intermittently
visited or passed through this area (Hildebrandt and Darcangelo 2004; LaPierre 2007).
ENVIRONMENT
Searles Valley is located in the western Mojave Desert and in the extreme
southwestern region of the Great Basin. The valley is approximately 64 kilometers long
by 24 kilometers wide with a mean elevation of 492 meters. Searles Valley receives very
little rain (no more than 10 centimeters per year). To the east are the Slate and
Panamint mountain ranges, the Argus mountain range borders the west side of the
valley. The modern town of Trona lies in the southwest portion of the valley.
The mean daily maximum temperature is 37.7oC during the summer months of
July and August, and the mean daily minimum temperature is 0.5oC during the winter
months of December and January. Rainfall usually occurs in late winter to early spring,
though summer rain showers are not unprecedented (Ramirez de Bryson 2004:1).
It has been reported that Searles Valley was covered by water for most of the
last 2.5 million years. This ancient lake was supplied by water from the Owens River
system; however, water discharge varied continually in response to climatic conditions.
The Owens River system was connected and fed into a chain of pluvial lakes, with the
northernmost being Mono Lake. When Mono Lake overflowed it added its surplus water
to the headwaters of the Owens River, which directly fed into several lakes to the south,
23
including Owens, China, Searles, Panamint, and Manly lakes. Reportedly Searles Lake
had to reach a level of 690 meters before it overflowed into Panamint Lake (Smith and
Street-Perrott 1983:198).
Most researchers agree that Searles Lake reached a high water mark sometime
between 15,500 and 14,000 B.P., and experienced recession thereafter. Water levels
appear to have been variable in the 4,000 years following the recession, with only one
or two overflows from China Lake before the “Clovis Drought,” which occurred around
11,500 B.P. After the Clovis Drought, Searles Lake was probably nearly or completely
dry (Benson et al. 1990; Rosenthal et al. 2001; Smith 1984). The typical vegetation
within Searles valley is a desert scrub type dominated by creosote (Larrea tridentata),
salt brush (Atriplex sp.), white bursage (Ambrosia dumosa), jumping cholla (Opuntia
bigelovii), cheesebrush (Hymenoclea salsosa), spiny senna (Senna armata), desert holly
(Atriplex hymenolytra), Mormon tea (Ephedra sp.), squaw bush (Rhus trilobata), and
jimson weed (Datura sp.) (Baldwin et al. 2002).
This sparse creosote scrub community provides for fauna such as mule deer
(Odocoileus hemionus), coyote (Canis latrans), kit fox (Vulpes macrotis), black-tailed
jackrabbit (Lepus californicus), a variety of bats (Order Chiropetra), California ground
squirrel (Spermophilus beechyi), longed-tailed pocket mouse (Chaetodipus formosus
mohavensis), sidewinder (Crotalus cerastes), long-nosed leopard lizard (Gambelia
wislizenii), and the common raven (Corvus corax) (Rowlands et al. 1982).
Vegetation patterns throughout Searles Valley differ slightly as a result of some
minor variation in landforms, elevations, and substrates. There is a small region in the
southwest section of Searles Valley that supports a sparse Joshua tree (Yucca brevifolia)
woodland community. This area is contained within a small valley situated at an
24
elevation of approximately 1,158 meters (Giambastiani 2007:16). In contrast, vegetation
is absent, or nearly so, on substrates that are physically or chemically inhospitable to
plant growth, such as open dunes and salt-encrusted playas (Baldwin et al. 2002:37).
ETHNOGRAPHY AND ETHNOHISTORY
At the time of European contact Native Americans in the Great Basin and
portions of the Mojave Desert spoke languages belonging to the Uto-Aztecan family,
which has been divided into four branches: Hopic, Takic, Tubatulabic, and Northern
Numic. The most northerly branch is Northern Numic. The Numic branch encompasses
three sub-branches, Western (Owens Valley Paiute and Northern Paiute), Central
(Panamint, Western Shoshone, Comanche (central Wyoming and west Texas), and
Southern (Kawaiisu and Southern Paiute/Ute) (Fowler and Fowler 1971; Miller 1986: 9899).
In ethnographic times the Searles Valley area was occupied by speakers of
Central and Southern Numic languages. According to Steward (1938: 71), “the
inhabitants of the southern end of Panamint Valley, the Argus Mountains, probably the
region around Trona, and the territory to the south and west to an undetermined extent
were called Mugunuwu.” The Mugunuwu according to Steward’s informants, were mixed
with Shoshone and Kawaiisu (the Owa’dzi) from the central part of Panamint Valley and
possibly the vicinity of Trona (or the region known as Uwa’gatu). According to Steward,
the word “Mugunuwu” corresponds with Kroeber’s (1907:274-275) Kawaiisu vocabulary
list to the areas of Tejon and Tehachapi. Correspondingly, Zigmond’s (1981) extensive
ethnobotanical studies of the Kawaiisu indicate that Searles Valley was visited during
seasonal rounds.
25
Steward gives several probable derivations of the word Mugunuwu. Mugu is said
to mean “point” and muwu is said to mean “people.” It is suggested that Mugunuwu
was taken from Telescope Peak in the Panamint Mountains, which is known as
“Mugudoya,” or from the Argus Mountains sometimes referred to as “Mugu.” However,
the Southern Paiute and Death Valley Shoshone (and anthropologists) refer to the
Mugunuwu as “Panumunt” or “Panamint” (1938:71).
One of Steward’s informants (identified only as TSp), who resided at Grapevine
Canyon in the Sierra Nevada, is self-described as being half-white, one-quarter
Shoshone, and one-quarter Mugunuwu. It is reported by TSp that there was only one
other surviving Mugunuwu, who went by the name of Long Jim and who lived in
Pahrump Valley, Nevada (Steward 1938:71).
Because the Shoshone (Central Numic) and Kawaiisu (Southern Numic) are
differentiated linguistically, they have been treated as two separate cultural entities; for
this reason they are described below separately (Figure 3.1).
Panamint Shoshone
Prior to the influence of Euro-Americans, Shoshone hunters and gatherers
exploited areas in and around Searles Valley. Because the region is arid and mostly
infertile, their hunting and gathering economy likely supported only very sparse and
highly mobile populations. It was common, if not typical, in ethnographic times for
several families to travel together, especially when gathering staple foods, such as pine
nuts, which are seasonal and gathered in upland areas. Communal rabbit and pronghorn
26
Figure 3.1 Ethnographic groups associated with the study area.
27
hunts were atypical in that they were the only activities that involved the cooperation of
several families (Steward 1938:72).
A large proportion of the foods sought were vegetal, and these included seeds of
the single leaf pinyon pine (Pinus monophylla) from the Coso or Panamint Mountains,
Indian rice grass (Achnatherum sp.) found in mountain and valley areas, nuts (acorns)
of the black oak (Quercus kelloggii) in the southern Sierra Nevada, seeds of mesquite
(Prosopis sp.) in low areas of Panamint, Death, and Saline valleys, and buds of the
Joshua tree (Yucca brevifolia) (Baldwin et al. 2002; Steward 1938:72; Zigmond 1981).
Small animals were relied upon heavily for protein and include the black-tailed
jackrabbit (Lepus californicus), desert cottontail (Sylvilagus audubonii), badger (Taxidea
taxus), chuckwalla (Sauromalus ater), and a variety of snakes, birds, and rodents.
Larger animals consumed included bear (Ursus sp.), pronghorn (Antilocapra americana),
mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), horse (in historic times) (Equus caballus), and desert
big horn sheep (Ovis canadensis). In addition, insects were consumed on a regular basis
(Steward 1938:83).
Camps were ideally situated close to good quality springs, and consisted of a small
group or a few family members sharing several conical shelters. Shelters were
constructed of mesquite poles and were covered with brush (e.g., willow). The interiors
of sleeping structures were dug out, and woven mats were laid on the ground (Fowler et
al. 1994:35-36; White 2008:91).
Socializing between discrete camps occurred formally during fall festivals, which
took place following the annual pine nut harvest and rabbit hunt. Several areas noted by
Steward (1938:75) as being main locations for these festivals include Koso Hot Springs,
Olancha, Saline Valley or Sigai, and northern Death Valley. These communal events
28
gave people a chance to share stories and ideas, dance, and eat. These festivals
became less common in historic times and were noted by Steward as being “abandoned
a few years ago.”
These traditional subsistence and settlement strategies were severely altered as
a consequence of the mid-19th century California gold rush. Native families adapted to
the situation by accepting employment as miners, ranchers, cooks, and builders.
However many women continued to harvest mesquite and pine nuts, and many made
baskets that were sold (White 2008:220).
Symbolic of these changes was Panamint George Hanson, who was chief of the
Panamint Indians (Figures 3.2-3.6). He was born around 1841 at To-me-sha (Surveyor
Well) in Death Valley and lived to be over 100 years old. As a boy, George, then known
as Bah-vanda-sava-nu-kee (boy who runs away), “wandered over the desert far from
home, always looking for something to eat” (Boyles 1940). When he was eight or nine,
George witnessed the Jay Hawker/Manley-Bennett party of 1849 enter Death Valley
(Pipkin 1976). The United States Indian Census (circa 1932) lists George Hanson age 92
as a Snake Shoshone Indian.
In his later years, George resided more or less permanently at the Indian Ranch
Reservation. Indian Ranch is located at the mouth of Hall Canyon in Panamint Valley.
While residing at Indian Ranch, George raised, among other things, angora goats
courtesy of the “Indian Department” (Pipkin 1976; Progress Citizen 1937).
George was also a frequent visitor to Trona until the day he died. With his pack
burros in tow, he would head into town to collect rent on property he owned at Wilson
Canyon, purchase supplies, and sell baskets made by his daughters Mabel and Isabel
(Pipkin 1976; White 2008:222).
29
Figure 3.2 George Hanson (right) in Death Valley (date unknown)
(courtesy of Eastern California Museum).
Figure 3.3 George Hanson, ca. 1910 Darwin, California
30
Figure 3.4 and 3.5 George Hanson, circa 1930 and November 18, 1936
Figure 3.6 Indians at Darwin, CA in early 1900s, George Hanson is second from right
31
Desert Kawaiisu
Like the Shoshone of this region, the Desert Kawaiisu migrated in small
independent families depending on the season and availability of resources. Grasses and
other seed plants, such as Indian rice grass (Oryzopsis hymenoides), sage (Salvia sp.),
chia (Salvia columbariae), and cotton cactus (Echinocactus polychephalus) important
food sources. Pine nuts (Pinus monophylla ) were a staple food (not found in the Slate
Range, but available in the Panamint Range above 6,000 feet) (Steward 1938;
Underwood 2006). The Desert Kawaiisu were likely influenced by the Shoshone and as a
result they adopted the practice of pine nut procurement (Zigmond 1986). Assimilating
with the Shoshone was an easy transition because, unlike the Southern Paiute, the
Shoshone did not assert grove ownership over resource patches (Steward 1938; Thomas
et al. 1986; Underwood 2006).
In addition to plant resources, a wide array of animals were eaten (lizards, birds,
rabbits, deer), though game was scarce and only supplemented a mostly vegetal diet.
Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) were hunted with bow and arrow on occasion in the
Panamint Range; however, jack rabbits (Lepus californicus) were populous at certain
times of the year and were taken in large quantities during rabbit drives using nets and
clubs (Steward 1938).
House structures were conical with a light frame and covered by brush, similar
to Southern Paiute and Western Shoshone. One of these structures was recorded in
known Desert Kawaiisu territory at Pleasant Canyon east of Ballarat (Ritter 1980). Other
artifacts and features noted at this Pleasant Canyon site include bedrock milling slicks,
metates, petroglyphs, historic cans, and incised green slate (Ritter 1980).
32
There is no strong evidence to suggest that there was any formal leadership
among the Desert Kawaiisu though it is possible that they had a single chief that
organized rabbit drives, fiestas, and pine nut collections (Thomas et al. 1986). Saline
and Death Valleys were within convenient distances for fiestas. One rumored Desert
Kawaiisu chief was Panamint Tom (related to Panamint George Hanson through
marriage) who resided during winter months in Pleasant Canyon and summer months on
the west side of the Panamint Mountains (White 2006). Panamint Tom gained notoriety
in connection with hostilities against white settlers (Steward 1938; Underwood 2006)
(Figures 3.7 and 3.8).
Despite the mystery that surrounds the Desert Kawaiisu, archaeological evidence
suggests that the Desert Kawaiisu were more similar to the Shoshone and Paiute than
their direct relatives the Mountain Kawaiisu who resided in the Tehachapi Mountains
(Underwood 2006).
Figure 3.7 Panamint Tom at Indian Ranch, Panamint Valley
(courtesy of Death Valley National Park Services).
33
Figure 3.8 Panamint Tom’s sweat lodge at Furnace Creek, Death Valley
(courtesy of Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California Berkeley).
Figure 3.10 Panamint Tom’s House at Indian Ranch Reservation Panamint Valley, built before
1920, floor covered with goat skins in 1950 (courtesy of Eastern California Museum).
34
ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
The chronology developed for the Mojave Desert will be utilized in the following
chapters; however for comparative purposes the chronological framework developed for
the Great Basin is examined. These frameworks are based on models developed by
Warren (1984), and Warren and Crabtree (1986) for the Mojave Desert, and Bettinger
and Taylor (1974), and Bettinger (1989) for the southwestern Great Basin.
Despite many regional differences, anthropologists consider the Mojave Desert an
extension of the Great Basin and, as a result, archaeologists working in the Mojave
Desert and southwestern Great Basin have traditionally worked from the same basic
assumptions (e.g., Kroeber 1939; d’Azeverdo 1986; Grayson 1993; Lawlor 1995:43).
From an environmental standpoint, the Mojave Desert is part of the hydrographic Great
Basin, which means that Mojave Desert rivers flow inland rather than emptying into the
sea (Smith and Street-Perrott 1983). Furthermore, at the time of European contact
thenative people of the Mojave Desert were materially and linguistically related to
people of the Great Basin (Lawlor 1995:4), and it has been demonstrated that long-term
trends in prehistoric subsistence and settlement systems were largely similar. However,
there are discrepancies with respect to subsistence strategies, settlement systems, and
chronology (Basgall 2007:15; Bettinger 1989; Bettinger and Taylor 1974; Sutton et al.
2007; Warren 1984; Warren and Crabtree 1986).
Chronology Developed for the Mojave Desert
Late Pleistocene. The Paleo-Indian era (10,000-8,000 cal B.C.) of the Mojave
Desert appears to have been occupied by humans using the Clovis technology. Over the
years there have been many claims for a pre-Clovis presence, (e.g., Leakey et al. 1972;
Schuiling 1979; Simpson 1958, 1961, 1980) but these claims cannot be substantiated.
35
However there are data (e.g., Clovis projectile point) to support human occupation of
the Mojave Desert at the end of the Pleistocene (Basgall and Hall 1991; Brott 1966;
Davis and Shutler; Rogers 1939; 1969; Skinner 1984; Warren and Phagan 1988; Warren
et al. 1989). The occurrence of Clovis points in conjunction with dry lakes in areas of the
north and west sectors of the Mojave Desert (e.g., China Lake, Thompson Lake) is a
seemingly common theme indicating that these areas were lush and well-watered at the
end of the Pleistocene (Davis 1978; Rosenthal et al. 2001; Sutton et al. 2007). Perhaps
future research will confirm or refute whether Paleo-Indians actively hunted and relied
upon megafauna.
Early Holocene. The Early Holocene (8,000-6,000 cal B.C.), or Lake Mojave
and Pinto cultural complexes, is marked by various stemmed projectile point forms
(e.g., Lake Mojave, Silver Lake) crescents, steep-edged unifaces, flake tools, some
heavy core-cobble tools, and very little or no milling equipment (Sutton et al. 2007;
Warren 1984).
Earlier studies equated Lake Mojave settlements with a lacustrine-based
subsistence adaptation that featured a heavy emphasis on the procurement of large
mammals (e.g., deer, pronghorn, bighorn sheep) (Bedwell 1973; Hester 1973). Running
counter to this is a significant amount of data from early Holocene sites at Fort Irwin
that indicate significant exploitation of small mammals and reptiles rather than a focus
on large game. In fact, the excavators of these sites describe early populations as
subsistence generalists (Basgall et al. 1986; Basgall 1990b; Basgall and Hall 1990;
Douglas et al. 1988). These interpretive differences in subsistence strategies are
perhaps due to biases developed by early survey programs that deliberately focused on
studying playa shorelines where there is a high potential for locating Lake Mojave
36
deposits (Basgall 1993, 2000; Basgall and Hall 1994a; Giambastiani 2007; Basgall 2007;
Waters 1988).
Middle Holocene. The Middle Holocene (7,000-3,000 cal B.C.), which includes
the Pinto and Deadman Lake cultural complexes, is slightly reminiscent of the early
Holocene, but is typified by an abundance of milling equipment, bifaces, formal unifaces,
simple flake tools, core cobble implements, bifurcate stemmed Pinto points, and
contracting stemmed and leaf-shaped points. However, leaf-shaped points and
contracting-stem Gypsum points have been found in association with Pinto forms, thus a
cultural complex referred to as the “Pinto-Gypsum” was noted in Rogers’s 1939 scheme
(Basgall 2000; Basgall and Hall 2000; Basgall 2007; Giambastiani 2007; Hall and Basgall
1994; Schroth 1994). Several studies at Fort Irwin, Twentynine Palms, and in the
Antelope Valley have suggested that fine-grained igneous stone, such as basalt and
rhyolite, was favored for bifaces and points during this period (Basgall 1993a; Basgall
and Hall 1993; Basgall and Giambastiani 2000).
Few sites in the China Lake region have extensive Pinto components (CA-INY134; CA-INY-182) (Whitley et al. 2005), though there is substantial hydration data
supporting a middle Holocene occupation (Gilreath and Hildebrandt 1997). Milling
artifacts (e.g., milling stones, hand stones) are typically found with Pinto assemblages.
These artifacts are usually very worn non-portable types (Basgall 2000; Basgall and Hall
1994a, 1994b).
The Pinto Complex was initially interpreted as a time of large game hunting
supplemented by vegetal use and small animal exploitation by small highly mobile
populations that resided in seasonal camps along streams, lakeshores, and adjacent to
springs (Rogers 1939; Wallace 1962; Warren 1986). More recent findings suggest Pinto
37
Complex populations were centrally sited, reoccupying the same settlements that were
situated on the landscape (including at springs) in an effort to exploit food resources by
way of logistical foraging strategies (Basgall 2002a). Like the early Holocene, small
game was heavily exploited. Large mammals (artiodactyls) were taken but are sparsely
represented in most assemblages (Basgall 1990b; Basgall and Hall 1990; Douglas et al.
1988; Hall 1992). The fact that milling technology is present in Pinto assemblages
provides a further indication that these populations were not only generalists, but broadspectrum foragers who exploited vegetal foods similar to their predecessors of the early
Holocene (Basgall 2007; Basgall and Giambastiani 2000).
The Deadman Lake Complex was recently proposed by Sutton and coworkers
(2007:239-241). Data collected from Deadman and Emerson Lakes (indicative of the
southeast Mojave Desert) characterizes this complex, which is distinctively marked by
small-to medium-size contracting-stemmed points, moderate amounts of milling
equipment, Olivella shell beads, abundant bifaces, simple flake tools, battered cobbles,
and core tools. Tools were predominately crafted from non-silicate material, including
coarse-to fine-grained igneous rock and only small amounts of obsidian. Deadman Lake
is also more focused on lakeside (playa) environments.
The artifact assemblage and faunal data supporting the Deadman Complex
seems to indicate that there was, like the Pinto Complex, an emphasis on vegetal food
processing and the taking of small animals such as lagomorphs, rodents, and reptiles
(Sutton et al. 2007). The Pinto and Deadman Lake complexes both suggest that Middle
Holocene humans were rather generalized with regard to dietary choices. Distinct tool
types between these two complexes suggest variability in strategies indicating separate
38
time periods and/or distinct cultures. Deadman Lake is very reminiscent of PintoGypsum complexes with only slight differences.
Late Holocene. The late Holocene (2,000 cal B.C.-Contact) is represented by
three major complexes: Gypsum (2,000 cal B.C.-cal A.D. 200), Rose Spring (cal A.D.
200-1100), and Late Prehistoric (cal A.D. 1100-Contact). The Gypsum Complex is
typified by several types of dart points, including the Gypsum contracting-stem, Elko
corner-notched or eared, and basal-notched Humboldt forms. The Rose Spring Complex
assemblage reflects the introduction of the bow and arrow and contains medium-sized
arrow points including Rose Spring and Eastgate Series points. The Late Prehistoric
Complex assemblage consists of small arrow points, such as the Desert Side-notched or
the (un-notched) Cottonwood triangular (Sutton et al. 2007; Warren 1984). Other tools
found in association with this temporal period include various types of bifaces (e.g.,
cores, knives, refined blades), simple flake tools, milling stones, hand stones, pestles,
brownware pottery, incised stone, and mortars. Milling equipment is more common and
formalized during the late Holocene, perhaps suggesting more sophisticated adaptive
strategies for the exploitation of plant resources (Sutton et al. 2007; Wallace 1955;
Warren 1984).
Warren (1984) and Warren and Crabtree (1986) proposed that soon after the
Pinto period there was a return of moister and cooler environmental conditions that
resulted in an increase in the number of artiodactyls (neo-glacial ca. 4,000 BP). As a
result of these environmental changes, the hunting of large game re-emerged, which
supplemented the already steady vegetal diet of Mojave Desert populations (Hunt 1960;
Wallace 1977; Williams and Orlins 1963).
39
Yohe and Sutton (1999) argue that as a result of the Medieval Climatic Anomaly,
which occurred during the middle of the Rose Spring Complex, lakes began to desiccate
and permanent water sources became ephemeral ones. In addition, the introduction of
the bow and arrow may have taken a toll on resource availability (e.g., artiodactyls).
These conditions likely both led to the end of the Rose Spring Complex around ca A.D.
1100.
During the Late Prehistoric Complex agriculturalists appear in portions of the
eastern Mojave Desert (Virgin River Anasazi). During this complex the environment
appears to continually decline as a result of the Medieval Climatic Anomaly and new
adaptations to the changing environment that led to the development of separate
cultural complexes (Sutton et al. 2007:242). Cultural indicators for the northern Mojave
Desert include Desert side-notched and Cottonwood projectile points, brownware
ceramics, and use of Coso obsidian. Sutton and coworkers (2007:243) note that groups
in the eastern Mojave Desert were not participants in the Coso obsidian trade.
Chronology Developed for the Western Great Basin
Pre-Archaic (pre-7000 BP). The Pre-Archaic occupation (to ca. 7000 BP) in
the Great Basin and eastern California is seemingly sparse, being represented by only a
few sites that are widely scattered across a large geographic area (Basgall 1987, 1989;
Eerkens and King 2002; Hall 1990). Most of the data that supports a Pre-Archaic
occupation has been found on the surface (Elston 1986; Halford and Carpenter 2005).
These sites are typically marked by the presence of Great Basin Stemmed or fluted
projectile points, although Pinto points are sometimes found as well (Eerkens and King
2002). Other indicators include bifaces, formalized flake tools, and, in very rare
instances, milling equipment. The lack of milling equipment is attributed to the popular
40
notion that the Pre-Archaic humans of this region were highly mobile foragers who
focused intensely on hunting game, both small and large (Eerkens and King 2002; Hall
1990; Halford and Carpenter 2005).
Early Archaic (7000-3500 BP). The Early Archaic (7000-3500 BP), otherwise
known as the Little Lake Period (Bettinger and Taylor 1974), is better represented than
the Pre-Archaic. Not unlike the Pre-Archaic, it is still marked by Pinto points, bifaces,
flake tools and highly mobile forager patterns (Basgall and McGuire 1988; Bettinger
1991; Delacorte et al. 1995; Eerkens and King 2002; Gilreath 1995; Halford and
Carpenter 2005; Hall 1980; Jackson 1985; Jenkins and Warren 1984; Peak 1975).
However, milling equipment is more common during this period suggesting an increased
exploitation of vegetal resources, perhaps in response to warmer environmental
conditions (altithermal) (Warren 1986).
At the same time, the Stahl site, located at Little Lake in the southern portion
of Owens Valley, is one definitive exception to theories of highly mobile humans during
the Early Archaic. The Stahl site differs from other Early Archaic sites in that hearths,
graves, ground stone, and residential structures have all been recorded; these indicators
are consistent with long-term residential use (Bettinger 1989; Eerkens and King 2002;
Harrington 1957; Schroth 1994;). However, it should be noted that drying conditions
were not homogenous across the Great Basin, and various micro-habitats (like Little
Lake) could have provided long-term viable resource bases for some hunter-gatherers
during this period (Halford and Carpenter 2005:23).
Newberry Period (3500-1350 BP). The Newberry Period (3500-1350 BP) is
marked by Elko and Humboldt series projectile points, well-used milling implements
(indicating a substantial increase in vegetal processing), increased obsidian quarrying,
41
vigorous trans-Sierran trade, and more logistically organized adaptive systems (Basgall
1989; Basgall and McGuire 1988; Basgall and Giambastiani 1995; Bettinger 1989;
Bettinger et al. 1984; Delacorte 1990; Gilreath 1995; Hughes 1984, 1989; Singer and
Ericson 1976). Great Basin and eastern California groups appear to have had seasonal
residential bases during this time, in which they wintered in the valleys and then moved
to higher elevations during the summer. This theory is based upon substantial
archaeological evidence from the lowlands (structures, features, pinyon, mountain
sheep, marmot) that are consistent with archaeological data from upland areas (pinyon
cache features, house foundations, hearths) (Bettinger 1991; Delacorte 1990; Eerkens
and King 2002:14; Wallace 1958).
Haiwee Period (1350-650 BP). The Haiwee Period (1350-650 BP) is marked
by the introduction of the bow and arrow, Rose Spring and Eastgate projectile points,
bedrock milling features, extensive milling gear, formal bifaces, flake tools, increasing
settlement centralization, such as temporary upland camps and more centralized seed
processing stations in the valleys, sociopolitical elaboration, and subsistence
intensification (Basgall and McGuire 1988; Bettinger 1989; Delacorte et al. 1995;
Gilreath 1995;). The decline in residential mobility is perhaps most apparent in the
decrease of flaked stone material diversity (mainly obsidian) and seemingly greater use
of expedient tools (Basgall and McGuire 1988; Basgall and Giambastiani 1995; Bettinger
1989, 1999; Bettinger and Baumhoff 1982).
Marana Period (650 BP-Historic or AD 1850). The Marana Period (650 BPAD 1850) reflects a continuation of trends seen during the Haiwee Period. However,
Cottonwood and Desert Side-notched projectile points, Owens Valley brownware
pottery, more elaborate and more permanent house features, and Euro-American items
42
such as tools and glass beads mark this late prehistoric period. There is a substantial
reduction of mobility during this time, with an increased reliance on more local
resources, including obsidian. The archaeological record shows increased reliance on
small seeds and a focus on the use of wetland taxa in the valleys, pine nuts in the
intermediate zones, and root crops and small mammals in the alpine zones. These
patterns also match ethnographic data of Numic-speaking populations (Basgall and
Giambastiani 1995; Bettinger 1989, 1977a; Bettinger and Baumhoff 1982; Eerkens and
King 2002; Halford and Carpenter 2005).
Curate Behavior
When a place is abandoned this sets in motion a set of processes that deposits
artifacts or de facto refuse. De facto refuse consists of the tools, facilities, structures,
and other cultural materials that are still usable, but are left behind when an area is
abandoned. Curate behavior designates the process of removing and transporting these
still-usable or repairable items from an abandoned activity area for continued use
elsewhere (Binford 1973, 1976, 1979; Schiffer 1987). Schiffer (1987:90) explains the
motions that begin these processes:
Curate behavior affects formation processes at two localities: the donor and
recipient activity areas or settlements. From the standpoint of the original
location, the removal of artifacts produces the donor curate set. From the
standpoint of the destination, one may speak of a founding curate set, or items,
that in some cases form the nucleus of a new systematic inventory.
Although these processes are often difficult to interpret in the archaeological
record there are variables to consider, key ones include the rate of abandonment,
means of transportation, and whether or not return is anticipated (Schiffer 1987:90).
In addition, curate behavior and de facto refuse deposition vary according to
whether or not return was anticipated. Often times, especially amongst hunter-
43
gatherer’s objects will be cached when return is anticipated. Hence this type of planning
leaves sites bereft of de facto refuse. In contrast, rapid departures, including natural
catastrophic events and warfare, will produce greater amounts of de facto refuse
(Schiffer 1987; Stevenson 1982).
It should also be noted that curate behavior can occur as a series of acts involving
several trips to a new settlement. Reasons for this type of behavior may be several;
however, it certainly may be expected when 1) the distance between settlements is not
great or 2) the abandoned settlement is located along well-traveled routes (Schiffer
1987:94).
These types of behaviors can account for the variability in types of projectile
points or other artifacts found at a site, presence of reworked stone tools, and variation
in dates in analyzed artifacts (e.g., obsidian hydration dating, bead chronology,
thermoluminecence dating). Hence what might seem like several episodes of occupation
at a site might actually be the result of curate behavior.
Previous Archaeological Research in the Region
Several archaeological sites (Figure 3.10) and isolates have been located and
recorded during surveys in the vicinity of the Searles (Dry) Lake Basin and Slate Range
(e.g. Giambastiani 2007; Hildebrandt and Darcangelo 2006; Reed and Hangan 1998;
von Werlhof 1989), however only a few subsurface investigations have been conducted.
In 2004 Ramirez de Bryson tested three sites on the west side of Searles Lake. Materials
recovered from these investigations include bifaces, cores, flake tools, hammerstones,
and lithic debitage. Obsidian hydration was conducted on several stone tools from one
of these sites (CA-SBR-1010) yielding dates ranging from the middle to late Holocene.
44
One innovative, and non-intrusive, study by Cerveny and coworkers (2006)
analyzed anthropogenic modifications to rock coatings by way of radiocarbon dating of
pedogenic carbonate and rock-varnish microlaminations on rock features in the Searles
Valley. Results from these investigations suggested some of the features (e.g., rockring, rock alignment) date to the mid-Holocene, at about 4110
alignment) to 3860
+
+
40 B.P. (rock
50 B.P. (rock ring).
Besides the Mirror Point site, Hildebrandt and Darcangelo (2006) recorded two
other prehistoric sites on the east side of Searles Lake, both of which lie to the south of
Mirror Point. The first and closest, CA-SBR-12135/H, is located amongst a series of large
“house-sized” rocks. One of these large rocks was used as a rock shelter. The site is
described as being “quite large” and includes two loci where most of the artifacts were
found. Two historic mining claims were also found at this site. The artifact assemblage
includes several projectile points that were identified as belonging to Lake Mojave, Silver
Lake, Gypsum, and Desert types. Other recorded artifacts include six bifaces, flake tools,
one handstone, three millingslabs, and lithic debitage (chert, obsidian, rhyolite). Both of
the historic cairns contained rusted tobacco tins, but with no mining claims. In addition,
many sites have been recorded in the Slate Range Mountains (see Figure 2.10).
45
Figure 3.10 Location of Mirror Point site (CA-SBR-12134/H) in relation to
CA-SBR-12135/H and CA-SBR-12136.
46
Hildebrandt and Darcangelo (2006) suggest that CA-SBR-12135/H represents a
short-term camp, used occasionally by people passing through the area, for no midden
or cooking features were observed.
Site CA-SBR-12136 is recorded as being situated across a deep drainage from CASBR-12135/H, and contains a small concentration of artifacts. This site is concentrated
around several large granitic boulders that were probably used as protection from the
elements (sun, wind). The artifact assemblage includes a late stage biface fragment, an
Olivella saucer bead, two handstones, and one possible rock alignment (Hildebrandt and
Darcangelo 2006).
Hildebrandt and Darcangelo (2006) suggest that like CA-SBR-12135/H, CA-SBR12136 likely represents a short-term camp occupied occasionally by humans passing
through the area. The only temporal indicator is the Olivella saucer bead (G series),
which according to Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987), is indicative of the Middle Period (200
B.C.-A.D. 700) in central and southern California.
Hildebrandt and Darcangelo (2006) also recorded sixteen isolates during their
survey, and these include nine historic-period cairns, three bench marks, a mine shaft,
an old road segment, a single coin, and one chert flake. The historic-period cairns were
mostly located at the base of the mountains (Slate Range) and likely represent mining
claims. The mineshaft is located on an alluvial fan just east of the Mirror Point site and is
lined by wood at the top of the opening and also is surrounded on the perimeters by
barbed wire. The three benchmarks are located just above the dry lake and they date to
1918, 1918, and 1943. The coin is a British shilling dated 1943. The old road is assumed
as leading to the “New York mines.” The chert flake is a secondary reduction flake of red
chert.
47
Investigatioins at the Mirror Point Site (CA-SBR-121234/H) CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 4: INTERNATIONAL/NATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
REGARDING ANOMOLOUS ROCK FEATURES
AND RESEARCH DESIGN
Several styles of rock features, with large amounts of variation, have been
identified in several regions of North America (and other areas of the world). Cairns,
alignments, stone circles, and semicircular enclosures have all been recorded in several
areas/sites (e.g., Basgall and Giambastiani 1995; Giambastiani 2007; Haynal 2000;
Vierra 1986; von Werlhof 1987).
CAIRNS
Cairns are common features that consist of piled stacks of rocks placed in a
circular fashion. Jett (1986:615) identified 35 native ethnic groups in North America that
employed trailside cairns (aka trail markers). The functions of cairns are not always
obvious, although there are instances where they were used in mortuary practices to
cover the dead (cairn burials).
Moratto (1984:129-130) noted several sites in the Santa Barbara, California
region (Glen Annie, Little Sycamore, Zuna Creek, and Mesa) where there are known
mortuary patterns that involve use of milling stones in cairns. Similarly, King (2000)
reported on nine sites in eastern California where single intermittent burials were
discovered beneath stacked large rocks and/or milling equipment.
A more common tradition of burying the dead with rock is that of the Wintu of
Shasta County, California. The Wintu traditionally buried their dead in grave pits lined
with rock, and then after interment covered the corpse with soil and more rock
(Hildebrandt and Darcangelo 2008: 43).
Historically speaking, rock cairns were/are commonly used by miners of western
North America (and likely elsewhere) as claim markers. These are typically associated
48
with a wooden post and/or tobacco tin containing a slip of paper that recognizes the
claim (Giambastiani 2007:39; Hildebrandt and Darcangelo 2006).
Southern Oregon and northern California tribes east of the Cascade Range
consider rock cairns sacred or spiritually significant, and these cairns are generally
associated with the traditional practice of vision questing. They are considered so sacred
that many tribes prohibit touching or photographing rock features in general. The cairns
of this region are typically found in the high elevation areas of what is known as
Klamath/Modoc territory (this includes the Yahooskin Paiute). Cairns from this region are
reported as occurring in two physical forms: a stacked rock column, where one rock is
placed directly on top of the other; and conical-shaped, where a variable number of
rocks form the base and taper in a cone/mound shape. Linear rock features (rock
alignments) are also common to this region and some contemporary Klamath/Modoc
speculate that these are simply embellished cairns built during power quests (Haynal
2000:171).
Three sites known as the Keeler sites consist of cairn complexes that were
discovered on the northeast shore of Owens Lake in Owens Valley, California during a
survey for the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (Halford and Carpenter
2005). A total of 124 cairns and numerous artifacts were recorded. Artifacts included
brownware pottery, ground stone, faunal remains, flaked tools, and a few historic-period
artifacts (e.g., buttons, rivets, eyelets, bottle fragments). Seven cairns were later
excavated and partially cremated human remains (radiocarbon date from burial matrix:
530 cal BP) was discovered in one of these. Although one cairn obviously marked a
burial, the other six lacked burials, thus function is unknown of these latter rock features
(Halford and Carpenter 2005:67).
49
A later ethnographic investigation of the Keeler sites (Tono’ Musa) (Davis-King
2007) concluded that the cairns at the Keeler sites are morphologically similar to a
number of cairns found at sites in the Great Basin, but differ due to the high number of
artifacts associated with these features. Davis-King (2007:58) emphasized that, “Without
additional archaeological investigation of the features and paleoenvironmental data
analysis, few additional conclusions can be made.”
Several sites with cairns and rock-rings were recorded during an expansion
project in the Carbon Mines permit area in Carbon County, Wyoming. Native American
consultations suggested that several of these sites with cairns were likely used as animal
drives, some as lookouts, and a few could be burials. Stone circle sites were interpreted
as camping sites or ceremonial sites. It was also suggested that these site types should
be considered as eligible for Traditional Cultural Property (TCP) or Indian Sacred Site
criteria (Lowe 2004: 106).
Common to many western landscapes are rock stacks marking trails. Historic as
well as prehistoric peoples constructed these, but in many cases it is impossible to
determine when these features were built.
A large cairn complex (CA-SBR-2823) consisting of 424 cairns located along a
steep ridge above Lake Cahuilla in Riverside County California was recorded by Sutton
and Wilke (1988). The size of these rock features varied; however, the average size was
50 centimeters or more (diameter). One artifact was noted at this site: a plainware
sherd. Function of this site could not be discerned though possible functions were
offered and these include ceremonial structures or water control devices.
50
ROCK ALIGNMENTS
Rock alignments are another somewhat common feature and can be described
as dry-laid masonry features constructed in a linear fashion. Rock alignments have been
recorded along mountain trails in arc shapes, with some running parallel to the trail and
others crossing the trail. They are also commonplace in deserts in flats and around
playas and river drainages. The combination of rock alignments and cairns has been
recorded at many sites in several areas of western North America (from Montana to Baja
California), and are relatively common in the western Mojave Desert (Davis and Winslow
1965:14-15; Hunt 1960:147-162; LaPierre 2007; von Werlhof 1987). Rock alignments
have been noted in association with prayer seats (Davis and Winslow 1965; Chartkoff
1983:752; Haynal 2000; LaPierre 2007).
Davis and Winslow (1965) and von Werlhof (1987) reported on several sites in
the California deserts (Yuha and western Mojave areas) composed of giant ground
figures (also known as earthen art or geoglyphs). Two feature types were described as
depicting this art form: rock alignments and gravel effigies. Rock alignments are
described as rows of stones set in huge wandering configurations, whereas gravel
effigies are described as desert gravels scraped into piled windrows, thus exposing a
strip of pale subsoil. The configuration or design of these rock formations is compared to
petroglyph symbols observed in several areas of eastern California and western Nevada.
Artifacts found in association with these features were reportedly uncommon, and cairns
are present at number of sites (mostly in Panamint Valley). Though ethnographic
information on these types of sites is lacking, several possible ideotechnic functions have
been offered: graphic daydreaming, prehistoric zodiac, cosmic religion, and sacred
projections for rain magic, healing, hunting, and/or fertility magic.
51
HUNTING BLINDS/DUMMY HUNTERS
Hunting blinds are common on the western landscape and, like rock alignments,
are typically, but not always, constructed by stacking rocks in a linear fashion, although
they sometimes incorporate naturally occurring rock formations. The function of these
structures has been described as “camouflaged shelter in which hunters concealed
themselves” (Hudson and Blackburn 1979:78). Some (Hudson and Blackburn 1979:78)
have postulated that the distribution of hunting blinds may be indicative of their use by
all North American mainland groups. Sutton (1988:66) pointed out that hunting blinds
were only known at two sites in the western Mojave Desert (CA-LAN-296 and CA-KER1481). Sutton also stressed that it was possible some of these features may have been
lean-to shelter foundations; perhaps due to the fact that four of the features were
located next to large boulders, however this is only speculative.
In an effort to conduct a miles-long rock art survey in the area of Powder Wash,
Wyoming, Keyser and Poetschat (2008) stumbled upon four possible hunting blinds. One
of these was found in association with a rockshelter, and is described as “just large
enough for a person to lie down inside the wall.” The blind is described as being in the
form of stacked rocks deliberately placed in front of the shelter, thus forming a wall to
hide behind (Keyser and Poetschat 2008:37).
The other blinds are described as circular, low-walled enclosures all constructed
atop high conical knolls. One of these blinds was found in association with a cairn. Three
of the structures were built from flat slabs of rock and juniper logs. All of the blinds
measured 60 centimeters high, but are noted as significantly different in diameter
(between 3 and 8 meters).
52
Keyser and Poetschat pointed out those similar type stone structures in this
region have been identified as vision quest fasting beds. However, given the
construction methods and environmental setting, these structures at Powder Wash seem
more like historic Native American rifle pit fortifications rather than vision quest rock
features (2008:38).
Many rock art sites in eastern California are found in conjunction with hunting
blinds and “dummy hunters,” which are reminiscent of cairns, but are used to hide
hunters from the game being hunted (Grant et al. 1969; Gold 2007:131; Muir 1901).
Grant and coworkers stated “Almost without exception, the aboriginal rock drawings (in
the Coso Range) were located on migratory game trails, near hunting blinds in narrow
gorges” (1969:29). With regard to dummy hunters, Muir (1901) noted while observing
eastern California Indians, “they were compelled to build dummy hunters out of stones,
along the ridge-tops which they wished to prevent the game from crossing” (Grant et al.
1969:31). Grant and coworkers also took notice that dummy hunters are always on the
north side of a mountain facing the shady side of the canyon so that the shadow
appears in silhouette from below (1969:31).
Hunting “walls” or blinds were recorded in several areas of the Absaroka
Mountains, northwestern Wyoming (Kinneer et al. 2005). These walls could not be
definitely linked with either prehistoric or historic Native Americans, though the
qualitative data suggested that humans hunting without the aid of horseback and guns
might have constructed these walls. These data included placement and orientation (not
for containment but for directing animals), and lichen growth (thus assuming these
features were not constructed within the last 100 years) (Kinneer et al. 2005). Further
research needs to be conducted to verify these contentions.
53
Several hunting blinds have been recorded at Yaqui Pass near Borrego Valley in
southwest California (Schneider et al. nd). Construction methods are described as both
free standing features and those that enhance a natural bedrock outcrop. All of the
blinds overlook drainages; or rather the fronts of the blinds face drainages. A number of
cairn complexes were also recorded in this area. Both feature types, blinds and cairns,
are interpreted as being related to the taking of big horn sheep: blinds hide the hunter;
while cairns served as “dummy hunters” to channel escaping sheep (p.1-14).
PRAYER SEATS
Prayer seats have been described as three-sided or semicircular dry-laid
masonry enclosures. One Native American name for these, tsektsels, is derived from
Yurok and means “a place” (Wylie 1976). Reportedly, few artifacts are found in
association with these features. Ethnographically referenced, these features were
traditionally visited by medicine women to gain powers for healing (Chartkoff 1983:746).
The Klamath and Modoc of southern Oregon and northern California refer to
prayer seats as “prayer circles,” which are described as sacred areas, circular or Ushaped in form, where certain people, such as powerful leaders and shamans, would go
to pray. Recent ethnographic studies from this area reveal that powerful leaders or
shamans would have used prayer seats during prolonged vision quests. A brush roof
was often added to the seat for protection from the elements, and often an individual
might return to the same prayer seat year after year. In addition, rock cairns are
commonly found in association with prayer seats as they act as a focus for meditation,
as well as an offering to the spirit powers (Haynal 2000: 176).
54
CACHE PITS
A seemingly important type of rock feature in western North America is the
cache pit. Wilke and McDonald (1989:57) identified 19 sites (rockshelters) in the
California deserts and the Southwest containing rock-lined cache pits. Cache pits in the
California deserts were described as being up to a meter in diameter and having depths
of up to 30 centimeters. Most pits were described as being carefully constructed and
typically “chinked with small rocks” (1989:69). Wilke and McDonald attributed this
careful construction as reflecting a deliberate effort on the part of the builder “to render
the pits rodent proof” (1989: 69).
Excavation of four cache pits at Chapman Rockshelter No.1 in the Coso Range
revealed features lined with basalt slabs. Metates were used in the construction of two
of these features. Three of the pits were lined with materials such as bunchgrass,
buckwheat plants, Joshua tree fiber, tule matting, and twined basketry. One of the pits
was not lined, but contained lithic debitage, a small biface, a basalt mano, a slate
pendent fragment, pinyon hulls, twined basketry, and a bone bead (Wilke and McDonald
1989:63).
Excavations at a rock shelter at Gold Butte, Nevada revealed a rock lined cyst.
Inside the cyst were remnants of yucca fiber. No other cultural materials were noted in
this feature. C-14 dating on one of these yucca fibers yielded a date of AD 130, which
corresponds to a Basketmaker II occupation. Artifacts noted on the surface and below
the surface include Humboldt, Elko, and Cottonwood projectile points, a metate, and a
single Olivella saucer bead (McGuire et al. 2010).
Wilke and McDonald (1989) also analyzed Southwest rock-lined cache pits for
comparative purposes. It was noted that a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and
55
construction methods were reported for excavated storage pits, although most of the
reports lacked sufficient detail. In the Southwest, cache pits lined with slab rocks are
known as cists. Again, the authors argued, “such features are so commonplace that
they often generate little enthusiasm on the part of Southwestern excavators, frequently
being reported only as “typical cists.”
It seems these “cists” are especially common on the Colorado Plateau in the
Four Corners area, where they are indicative of the Basketmaker II culture. Cache pits
excavated at Steamboat Cave near the upper Gila River in southwestern New Mexico
produced such artifacts as 27 ears of corn with sticks stuck in the end of them, perhaps
in an effort for drying. At Sun Flower Cave in Arizona, 12 cists were lined with slabs,
some of which were used to dispose of the dead. It was concluded that caches (cists)
were used for different purposes at different sites. Caches that are concealed
(rockshelter sites) are perhaps reflective of a lifeway in which people were more
seasonally nomadic (Wilke and McDonald 1989:65-66).
Cached religious objects have been documented at two areas in southern
California. Excavations at the Irvine site (CA-ORA-64) revealed two unusual cache
features deposited in dug out shale rock, and each containing a pair of large ceremonial
bifaces, though one of the caches also contained a plummet charmstone and globular
perforated stone. One of the bifaces was carved from Buck Mountain obsidian, which is
a source located several hundred miles north of the site. It was concluded that the
biface cache features provide evidence for ritual behavior and long distance trade
(Macko et al. 2005).
A ceremonial cache was found during a monitoring project at Huntington Beach
Mesa, Orange County, California. The cache lay 70 centimeters below ground surface
56
and was spatially separate from other site deposits suggesting planned isolation. Ritual
items included miniature phallic like pestles, an obsidian biface, and a steatite birdstone.
The authors argue that the direct association of phallic pestles and birdstones in this
cache and others supports the notion that birdstones communicated fertility symbolism
(Desautels et al. 2005).
MEDICINE WHEEL
Another type of feature, known as “medicine wheels”, are reminiscent of tipi
rings/rock-rings, but are somewhat different stylistically. Medicine wheels are found on
the Plains, with the majority being found in the Canadian prairie provinces of Alberta
and Saskatchewan. Medicine wheels are often confused with tipi rings, as they are
similar, but are typically larger. The Bighorn Medicine Wheel in the Bighorn Mountains
of Wyoming is 90 feet in diameter and is marked by 28 radiating spokes with six rock
cairns at its periphery (a style unlike any tipi ring) (Eddy 1979:1-24; Farrer 1984:379380; Malouf 1961:383;).
Eddy, an astronomer at the High Altitude Observatory in Boulder, Colorado,
hypothesized in his published thesis (1979) that medicine wheels, such as the Bighorn,
were observatories used by prehistoric people. Others (Farrer 1984:379-380), however,
hypothesize that medicine wheels were used in the construction of medicine lodges.
Although ethnographic evidence to support either argument is lacking, it is possible that
one copies the other, with respect to style (Eddy 1979:10).
Eddy (1979) admitted that astronomy and archaeology are the most speculative
sciences, in that both deal with very incomplete information. Nevertheless, although
there is no ethnographic evidence to support the theory that prehistoric people used
57
medicine wheels on the Plains as observatories, Eddy presented some compelling
evidence as a result of his investigations.
Eddy, being an astronomer, was struck by the fact that the number of spokes
(28) in the medicine wheel at Bighorn is close to the number of days in a lunar month as
well as the fact that two of the cairns were lined up on a symmetrical north/south line.
These astronomical suspicions were tested on June 20 at the time of summer solstice. It
was found that two of the cairns mark the rising and setting sun at summer solstice.
The remaining five cairns mark Aldebaran, the brightest star in the constellation Taurus;
Rigel, the brightest star in Orion; and Sirius, the brightest star in the sky. Eddy also
pointed out that that the heliacal rising of Aldebaran would have first shown at summer
solstice around 200 to 400 years ago, which coincides (according to Eddy) with
archaeologists’ estimates of when the Bighorn medicine wheel was built (1979:13).
EARTHERN ART/EARTHERN WORKS
Another universally found type of rock feature is earthen art, sometimes referred
to as stone intaglios or geoglyphs. This ancient prehistoric art form differs from rock art
in that it is “an arrangement of rock and earth” using various techniques (von Werlhof
1989:5, 10-11). Similar to rock alignments, these types are often curvilinear and spread
over a large area. In addition intaglios often incorporate cairns and uplifted slabs of
rocks that reflect a deliberate arrangement of rocks in a selected area, which seem to
serve no utilitarian purpose but exhibits a design or a deliberate shape. Often stones
unusual in shape, color, or size were used (perhaps by shamans), to “highlight” the
features, thus these are referred to as sighting stones (von Werlhof 1989: 12). Also
common are “centerpieces” or axis mundi, to which the rest of the design relates and
from which it is radiated (von Werlhof 1989: 12).
58
Von Werlhof (1989:10-11) noted that these types of features, common to North
American deserts, are most typically found on ancient terraces and are composed of
cobble-sized rocks. He also points out that while rocks were sometimes brought in for
construction, most often rocks occurring naturally in the immediate area were used.
Von Werlhof’s (1987) employed aerial photography for investigating (North
American) earthen art. From these studies von Werlhof determined the highest
concentrations of earthen art/rock alignments on earth are found in Panamint Valley or
in and around the former Pleistocene Panamint Lake. As a result, von Werlhof claimed a
definite relationship between geoglyphs and land features, specifically playas and/or
ancient water channels. Despite a lack of ethnographic support or datable materials, von
Werlhof theorized that shamans likely created these arrangements as a ritual response
to the drying of the Pleistocene water systems upon which these peoples depended.
A more in-depth investigation of over 30 sites in Panamint Valley and nearby
Wildrose Canyon demonstrated distinct differences in style. Von Werlhof notes the
Panamint style to be based on enclosed bodies while the Wildrose style is based on
open-ended lines, though both styles are present in each area. In addition, the
Panamint sites mostly occur along the former lakeshore, while the Wildrose sites occur
on edges of ancient tributaries. Panamint sites also differ in that they often include
cairns, lithic artifacts, and power stations (assumed prayer sitting areas) of quartz or
basalt; these features are not common at Wildrose, but they do occur. However trails
are indicative of the Wildrose sites, but were only noted in association with one site in
the Panamint Valley area.
Von Werlhof argues from these findings that the Panamint style predates the
Wildrose and hence the later style represents an outgrowth of ideas developed at
59
Panamint. Further, von Werlhof claims that these differing styles encompass a shared
ideology and cultural continuity. He also argues that sites were gradually elaborated
with each visit, because rocks are seemingly stock piled at some of these sites. Von
Werlhof ponders the lack of these types of features in the regions of China and Searles
Lake, but no definitive reasoning is offered (1989: 30-31).
Earthen art is found internationally, and construction methods differ as much as
design and reason. Sub-Saharan populations of east Africa are said to be responsible for
huge systems of ancient earthworks stretching from the “Bugoma Forest east of Lake
Albert to the south banks of Katonga River, including south of the Kagera in Tanganyika
and also in Ruanda” (Cole 1963: 319-322). These features are thought to date to the
early part of the second millennium A.D., are usually situated near the banks of a river
and often consist of a series of perimeter trenches that often encircle a hill(s). The
function of these features remains unknown, although some suggest that they served as
cattle kraals and/or defense systems. Excavations at Bigo, Uganda, on a flat top mound
situated across one centrally located ditch revealed numerous cattle and other animal
bones, potsherds, iron objects, and a copper bracelet; some of which date to the Babito
Dynasty of the 16th century. It is thought that this mound was once a royal enclosure
that was later vandalized and used as a dumping place (e.g., animal bones, pot sherds)
(Cole 1963: 319-322).
In the savanna lands of northeastern Bolivia there are many thousands of preSpanish earthworks that are believed to serve an array of utilitarian purposes. These
include drained fields, causeways, mounds, canals, and circular ditches. All of these
aforementioned features are associated with water diversion or protection/shelter from
the movement of flood waters (Dillehay 1990).
60
ROCK-RINGS/TIPT RINGS/STONE RINGS
Stone-rings are probably found universally, in both prehistoric and historic
contexts. They can be simply described as features composed of rocks laid in a circle
either with, or without, the individual rocks touching each other. When found in
association with charcoal and ash, function is most likely that of a hearth. When no
artifacts, charcoal, or ash is found in association then function is not so easily
deciphered.
Ancient stone circles are common to the British Isles and in many instances are
thought to be associated with Druid ceremonies (altars), burials, or perhaps
astronomical uses (Lewis 1888, 1909).
In 1989, Sullivan and coworkers (2001) conducted a survey to examine the
economic prehistory of the region around the Grand Canyon (Sullivan et al. 2001:367).
During this investigation, 126 piles of fire-affected rock were located and recorded.
Scatters of lithic and ceramic artifacts surrounded most of these features. It was noted
that these types of features are unique to the region.
Five of the features were thoroughly excavated to determine their function
(Sullivan et al. 2001:368). Methods of analysis included flotation and identification of
plant materials. A variety of plant foods was recovered and identified, including cactus,
Indian rice-grass, cheno-ams, pruslane, buckwheat, juniper, and pinyon nuts. No
domesticated plants were noted, despite the fact that maize was being produced during
this period and is present in the region. The authors suggested these features and their
associated lithic scatters may have been used for wild plant food processing (Sullivan et
al.2001:374).
61
Yohe and Sutton (1991) conducted archaeological investigations at CA-SBR-5728
in northwestern San Bernardino County that revealed a distinct bowl-shaped rock
feature made of fire-affected and non-native stones. The feature measured 50
centimeters in diameter and was 17 centimeters deep. The surrounding soil was dark
and contained bits of charcoal. In addition many low-grade chalcedony rocks were found
in association with this feature. Artifacts collected during this investigation were minimal
and included four metate fragments (rhyolite and fire-affected) and four flaked stone (all
low grade chalcedony and one piece of debitage is heat treated) specimens.
A single accelerator mass spectrometry (ASM) radiocarbon assay date of 1,855
radiocarbon years BP was obtained from the charcoal fragments located within this
feature. Despite these investigations the authors note that the purpose of this site
remains enigmatic. One likely possibility is that the heat treatment of siliceous stone for
the ease of flint knapping was being conducted. The presence of metate fragments is
not explained, but might indicate short term habitation use during stone tool production
(Yohe and Sutton 1991).
Delacorte (1995:257) found that rock-ring configurations (N=55) at the Volcanic
Tablelands in Owens Valley, California fell into four categories, which he labeled
house/habitation rings, threshing floors, walls or windbreaks, and cairns. These
determinations based on an analysis of variance in differences in ring measurements.
Still Delacorte pointed out, “These statistics do not, of course, confirm the absolute
accuracy or functional implications of this classification, but they do suggest that the
Tablelands samples represent at least four morphological and possible, functional types”
(1995:257).
62
Vierra (1986:115) used a similar classification system based on a set of
characteristics including both qualitative and quantitative data to determine rock-ring
feature function at Pahute and Ranier Mesas in western Nevada. The variables were
grouped into three overlapping categories “for ease of presentation” (Vierra 1986:115).
The first category contained two variables: geographic location and substrate, which
measure the environmental context in relation to the feature. The second category
contained four variables: presence or absence of charcoal, fire cracked rocks, associated
features, and artifacts, which may appertain to function. The third category contained
seven variables: number of rocks, rock size diversity, maximum inside diameter,
maximum outside diameter, inside to outside diameter, presence of openings, and
feature height. These last seven variables took into consideration the construction
aspect of the features (Vierra 1986:115). Rock ring features were divided into several
categories based upon this classification system, including pinyon caches (food storage
caches), hunting blinds, roasting ovens, and house rings (Vierra 1986:115).
Humans have occupied the Mojave Desert and Great Basin of eastern California
for thousands of years, but unfortunately for the archaeologist modern impacts (e.g.,
looting, land development, off road utility vehicles, camping) have taken a toll on
archaeological sites. Nevertheless, there have been a few situations where
archaeologists have been able to study large sites with excellent preservation,
outstanding artifact density, and distinct patterns of refuse in relation to structures
and/or the site in general. One such example of prehistoric Great Basin lifeways is the
Bustos wickiup site near Ely, Nevada (Simms 1989). This site was marked by “semierect remains of five juniper log structures dating to the last half of the eighteenth
century” (Simms 1989: 2).
63
Simms reported the presence of distinctive stumps left by prehistoric peoples by
way of fire and stone axes. Simms remarked, “In a romantic sense the only things
missing are the people, presumably the Shoshone” (1989:2). This presumption is based
on ethnographic evidence and site chronology (30 pieces of late brownware ceramics
and a single Rose Spring projectile point) (1989:16). A sample of pinyon charcoal taken
from an excavated hearth between two of the structures yielded a
14
C date of 110 B.P.
(1989:13).
One large hearth, which had been converted into a smaller roasting pit, was
excavated and the contents analyzed. Most of the hearth’s contents had been burned,
which hindered identification. However, carbonized juniper twigs and berries, and
carbonized pinyon branches, needles, and cone parts were identified. Also reported were
a number of carbonized fragments of pinyon nut hulls, suggesting a fall occupation at
this site (Simms 1989).
In addition to the Bustos wickiup site, eight additional sites were located in close
proximity or along the drainage. The sites fell into two basic categories, circular rock
rings and lithic scatters. Generally speaking, the rock-rings consisted of angular to
rounded stones (10 to 35 centimeters) arranged one to two courses high, with an
average inside diameter of 3.5 meters. The line of the rocks was described as “typically
very distinct on the inside of the circle, with the surrounding, outside rocks scattered,
forming a less distinct circle from 3.8 to 6 meters in diameter” (Simms 1989:17). The
rings were found where bedrock meets the ground surface, or “where sediments are
shallow, such as along ridge crests, similar to other Great Basin cases” (Simms 1989:17;
e.g., Vierra 1986:111-130). Artifacts were not common around the rings, although four
of these features yielded single flakes.
64
It was hypothesized that these rock-ring features were most likely the remains
of pine nut storage facilities. This is based on the fact that their location was in a
mature pinyon forest, that they were situated on bedrock, which is ideal for food storage
because it inhibits rodent invasion, and upon the fact that this type of storage
methodology has been documented ethnographically, where nuts or pinecones are piled
within the circle of the stones and then covered with branches (e.g., Hoffman 1878:473;
Simms 1989:17).
Hypotheses regarding feature function vary according to location and/or site
proximity. Early investigations by Wilke (1983) in Owens Valley, California at sites along
lower Cottonwood Creek reported on rock-rings surrounding bedrock associated with
milling slicks and hand stones. At the time Wilke postulated that these features were
threshing floors, however flotation samples recovered from one of the features did not
contain many seeds or other organics.
Bettinger (1989) investigated rock-ring occurrences at Crater Middens in Owens
Valley, California in association with large bedrock milling features. He hypothesized
that they were merely wind/sun shades for cover at grinding areas. Flotation was
conducted, but the results were not reported.
Surveys by Basgall and Giambastiani (1995) in the Volcanic Tablelands of
northern Owens Valley revealed numerous ground-level bedrock exposures with grinding
slicks, milling equipment, rock-rings, and carbon stains within the features. During this
investigation, Basgall and Giambastiani hypothesized that these features served as
threshing floors for seed processing by way of flash-burning methods. Flotation samples
were taken, but never fully analyzed; however, it was speculated that rice grass
processing occurred.
65
Basgall and Delacorte (2003) postulated that flash burning was introduced as an
alternative to, or an aid in, seed threshing. These researchers maintained that this
method would have decreased labor costs with the benefit of toasting the seeds while
loosening them from their chaff.
In addition to the alleged “threshing floors”, Basgall and Giambastiani (1995:102106) noted other rock-ring structures (Volcanic Tablelands CA-MNO-2190) that they
labeled “multi-course house rings.” A total of three multi-course house rings was
recorded, and one was excavated. The outer perimeter of the excavated house ring
measured 6.1 x 5.5 meters, with the walls having a maximum thickness of 2.3 meters.
A total of 85 “welded tuff boulders” were used in its construction. The entrance was
recorded as facing southeast, and the ring was described as containing carbon-stained
sediments and small finds identified as “residential debris”. Artifacts recovered included
five cobble implements, three hand stones and milling stones, two potsherds, two pieces
of modified tuff, one biface, a fragment of undiagnostic groundstone, several flakes, and
three pieces of animal bone. A large milling stone and three tuff boulders with cupules
were incorporated into the wall of the house.
Sutton (1988) reported a large rock circle with two smaller circles on the eastern
edge of the larger ring giving an appearance of a “Mickey Mouse” head at one site in the
southern Sierra Nevada (Kern County). Apparently, the shape does not indicate that the
feature is of historic times because similar features of prehistoric origin have been
reported elsewhere (Sutton 1988:64). Rock-ring function or site use at CA-KER 230 was
not offered.
Eckhardt and Hatley’s (1982) investigations at Owl Canyon and Stoddard Valley
in the Mojave Desert provided information on 20 rock features. Most appeared to be
66
rock-rings, although a few were identified as cairns. Detailed drawings of these features
demonstrated a great deal of diversity in shape. The rock-ring assemblages and cairns
were unique in that they included swept clearings, circles, semi-circles, alignments, or
other amorphous configurations (Eckhardt and Hatley 1982:81). Eckhardt and Hatley
suggested a wide range of interpretations for both the cultural affiliation and functions
of rock-rings noting, “other configurations have been proffered by many investigators”
(Eckhardt and Hatley 1982: 81).
Rogers (2005) has conducted numerous surveys and mapped seven sites on the
eastern slope of the El Paso Mountains in the western Mojave Desert, all of which are
located along a drywash that drains into China Lake. Test excavations were conducted
in 2005 on one of these sites known as the Terese site (CA-KER-6188). Recovered
artifacts include metates, manos, pestles, hammerstones, modified cobbles, lithic cores,
flakes, bifaces, projectile point fragments, and shell beads. Both the Terese site and the
other six mapped sites are marked by rock-rings, extensive milling implements, lithic
scatters, and rock art (Rogers 2005:7-12).
Allen (2004) has conducted numerous surveys and excavations at Red Mountain
(south of Searles Lake). Chronological evidence gathered from these investigations
suggests human occupation during the Gypsum, Rose Spring, and Late Prehistoric
periods (Marana/Haiwee), or rather continuity of occupation during and after the
Medieval Climatic Anomaly (Allen 2004:9). Surface features found within the Red
Mountain archaeological district were identified as late prehistoric and they include
hunting blinds, stone circles, cleared areas, cairns, and milling implements (Allen
2004:11).
67
Tipi rings on the North American Plains are morphologically similar to rock-ring
features in California and the Great Basin and, like their counterparts, are generally
ambiguous with regard to function. Tipi rings have been described as undoubtedly the
most visible sites on the northwestern Plains in prehistoric times. Although tipi rings
probably did not begin to appear in considerable numbers until the Late Archaic
(DeMallie and Frison 2001:141), it has been hypothesized that these features were at
least minimally present during the Middle Archaic. They have been recorded as isolated
features and in large groups. Typically they are found along butte tops, barren ridges,
small topographic rises, and along stream terraces (DeMallie and Frison 2001:141). Tipi
rings are also noted for their lack of cultural material, again similar to their rock-ring
counterparts to the west. To reiterate, there is speculation over the function of these
anomalous rock features, although most (Kehoe 1958; Malouf 1961) assume they
represent the remnants of skin covered housing structures hence the name “tipi rings”.
Nevertheless, others (such as Mulloy 1958) contend that these features are simply
problematic, and must be related in some way to medicine wheels, thus they are
ceremonial. It is also hypothesized that either the human groups who occupied these
sites were culturally impoverished or that their occupation was very brief (due to lack of
data to support otherwise) (DeMallie and Frison 2001:141).
North American artist George Catlin (1844) noted that out of all the tribes on the
Plains, the Crow Indians “make the most beautiful lodge.” Campbell (1927:87) argued
that the Crow pride themselves on the size and beauty of their tipis; one reason being
perhaps their proximity to the Bighorn Mountains, where lodge poles were readily
obtainable (1927:87).
68
Campbell referenced Plains tribes that constructed four-pole tipi lodges. These
included the Blackfoot, Sarsi, Ute, Shoshone, Omaha, Comanche, and Crow. Tribes that
constructed tipi lodges using three poles included the Kutenai, Flathead, Nez Perce,
Cheyenne, Arapaho, Teton Sioux, Assiniboin, Kiowa, Gros Ventre, Plains-Cree, Mandan,
Arikara, Pawnee, Ponca, Oto, and Wichita (1927:87-88).
Kehoe (1958:861) maintained that, despite the uncertainty over the function of
tipi rings, there was sufficient evidence in his investigations to demonstrate “that these
stone rings, concentrated in the Northern Plains, were actually what their popular name
implies; rings of stones employed by Indians to anchor the peripheries of their skin
lodges.”
Kehoe also argued that, although most of his fieldwork had been conducted in
north-central Montana and adjacent Alberta, “results probably apply also to similar rings
in neighboring regions, particularly the Dakotas and Wyoming” (1958:861). Kehoe’s
interpretations were based on a substantial amount of ethnographic evidence including
some historical accounts, as well as the results of intensive archaeological surveys.
One survey conducted by Kehoe in the autumns of 1952 and 1953 on the
Blackfoot Indian Reservation in Montana revealed the following facts to support his
identification of these rock features as tipi rings: thousands of these features in the
aforementioned district alone; correlations between location of rings and obvious
environmental settings favorable for camping; patterns of rings laid out in a camp-like
fashion; and finally, the average sizes of the rings demonstrating a temporal trend in the
depth of the rocks in the ground, which might imply a change in tipi size quite possibly
related to societal changes due to the introduction of the horse (1958:862).
69
As stated above, there were correlations between location of rings and
environmental settings favorable for camping, but this was not always the case. There
were also many less favorable locations where rings were recorded. Kehoe explained
such departures by making reference to one ethnographic account in which a South
Piegan woman recalled that her group would sometimes have to camp in unfavorable
locations, particularly if caught in a blizzard (1958:863).
Generally speaking, Kehoe (1958:863) argued that in quantity of stones and size
of circle, tipi rings on the Plains are consistent with the amount that would be necessary
to anchor a lodge. Kehoe suggested that following future research; patterning of rings
might provide a clue to ethnic affiliations at these sites. Kehoe (1958:864-65)
hypothesized that, given the highly nomadic life of indigenous peoples on the Plains,
minimal data can be expected when conducting excavations of these rock features.
In one report by Malouf (1950a), an archaeological investigation encompassing
500 square miles at Canyon Ferry Reservoir near Helena, Montana, revealed 16 sites
containing tipi ring clusters. Typically, these clusters were found in one of three types of
localities: 1) on low terraces along the Missouri River; 2) in low passes situated between
mountain valleys or low mountain saddles or ridges that were somewhat broad; and 3)
on terraces along year-round streams that would flow into the Missouri River.
Malouf (1961:381) provided a summary of studies of tipi ring sites in Montana,
Wyoming, and adjacent areas on the High Plains. He noted that, “Stones arranged in
circles are numerous throughout the western Plains of the United States and Canada,”
and that “Similar enclosures sometimes found in portions of adjoining areas, such as the
Great Basin, and the Columbia Basin, may be the remains of different types of
70
structures.” Despite the fact that these features are ubiquitous to areas of the Plains,
Malouf pointed out that there were very few published descriptions.
A total of 156 rings were recorded during these investigations (Malouf
1961:381), which varied in number from one to 50 in a cluster. It was reported that
these rings were typically double-coursed rather than single-coursed, and that on
average most rings had a circle of stones two to three feet wide encompassing
approximately 75 stones. The rings were described as having no openings or doorways.
Although sites were excavated, minimal data were recovered. No underground
features were located, no hearths or postholes, nor floor levels. It was observed that the
ground beneath the stones was no different than either inside or outside the ring. An
effort was made to locate fire hearths outside of the tipi rings, based on the assumption
that domestic chores had taken place outside the tipi rings. Nevertheless, despite
intensive efforts, which included the placement of trenches across entire sites (including
one that was 90 feet long), these efforts failed to produce any evidence of hearths. Yet,
regardless of the lack of data, given the locality of these sites, with their proximity to
water, fuel, and hunting, the position that these rings represent the remnants of
camping sites was not ruled out (Malouf 1961:382).
The dearth of artifacts associated with these rock features must be considered in
depth. For instance, several historic camps at Canyon Ferry were also investigated, and
they too were devoid of artifacts. Malouf asserted that “Roving Indian groups do not
necessarily leave masses of garbage behind, and most of it was organic materials left on
the surface of the ground where it decomposed” (1961:383). Historical accounts attest
to this assertion.
71
Malouf attempted to consider correlations between the distribution of rings and
cultural traditions. He noted that there was a correlation between the distributions of
rings and the former range of the Northern Shoshone as well as the early Comanche.
Although this might have been possible in the far west, in eastern Idaho and western
Wyoming, which is the heart of the Shoshone domain, stone rings are relatively few. In
addition to this theory, Malouf argued that Great Basin archaeologists have traditionally
attributed the side-notched points to the Shoshone, although this has yet to be proven.
Regardless, the majority of points found at tipi ring sites are corner-notched, which is
not typically representative of Shoshone according to Malouf (1961:387).
In a more recent investigation, Hull (1987) conducted microdebitage analysis on
soil samples collected from a tipi ring site known as the Bow Bottom site in Calgary,
Alberta. This northern Plains site is described as being situated on an exposed grassy
terrace at an estimated seven meters above the Bow River. Hull noted this site had been
excavated twice previously for two separate projects. These previous investigations
revealed upper and lower components that contained lithic material, fire-affected rock,
and faunal remains (Components 1 and 3), as well as 18 tipi rings with central hearths,
bone, fire-fractured rock, lithic debris, and several small features adjacent to the rings
(Component 2) (p.274).
A stratigraphic analysis indicated restricted periods of occupation between
floods. However, the tipi rings suggested that there was quite possibly two periods of
occupation. The cultural materials recovered from Component 2 were representative of
the Besant Phase of the Middle Prehistoric period on the Plains. Three radiocarbon dates
verified this chronological placement for they ranged from 2,300 to 2,800 years B.P.
(Hull 1987:774).
72
Component 2 was selected for microdebitage field-testing because of the
presence of tipi rings and the relative abundance of lithic materials. The soil samples for
microdebitage analysis were taken from three separate tipi rings. A total of 94 soil
samples were collected with 87 of them taken from inside the rings (Hull 1987:775).
Microdebitage diagrams were developed taking into consideration material types
(chert, quartzite) and distributions of primary flakes, secondary flakes, retouched flakes
and artifact frequency (Hull 1987:775). “Ring 16,” which was the largest of the three
rings, exhibited the clearest patterns of use and disposal of lithic material and
microdebitage. “Ring 17” contained the greatest quantity of microdebitage, but did not
exhibit any clear patterning of either micro- or macrodebitage. “Ring 18” contained the
least amount of macro- and microdebitage, with no distinct patterning (Hull 1987:778779). Hull argued that “Ring 16” lithic patterning fit well with expectations of disposal
based on ethnographic accounts specific to the Plains. More specifically, she pointed out
that “Secondary refuse was located among the rings, and the abundance of rocks in this
ring (nearly twice that of the other two rings examined) indicates that an interior liner
held in place by these extra stones may have been present” (p.781).
Janes (1989) argued against Hull’s theories of microdebitage patterning based
on his own contemporary studies of the Slavey Dene (Northern Athapaskans) of the
Arctic Circle in Canada’s western Northwest Territories. Observations of the Slavey Dene
showed that preparation of tools was accomplished on a piece of canvas, which would
allow for collection and easy removal of sharp and possibly dangerous stone fragments
from dwellings (p.853). Janes concluded that, given the circumstances at the Bow
Bottom site (haphazardly disposed lithic waste), it was quite possible that it was either a
short-term encampment or it was undergoing abandonment. Janes also argued that Hull
73
did not take into consideration the range of variation among Plains hunter-gatherers
when applying available ethnographic data to the microdebitage analysis (1989:865).
Recently, two large tent (rock) ring complexes along with two massive game
drive systems composed of hundreds of rock cairns were recorded in the Brooks Range,
Alaska at Agiak Lake (Wilson and Rasic 2008). The tent ring complexes date to
approximately 5600-4900 B.P., and are believed to be the remnants of what were
probably dome-shaped, caribou hide-covered shelters. It is suggested that these sites
were used by many families and on many occasions (seasonally). These tent ring
complexes represent the largest set of habitation features in northern Alaska known at
this time (Wilson and Rasic 2008: 128-145).
Cairns (1975) conducted a burial rescue excavation on a sand dune, at Cape St.
Francis, South Africa. Several (one in situ) circular-shaped stone features constructed of
tightly packed beach cobbles were observed nearby. Initially it was thought that these
features were grave caps, but further excavation proved different. In the absence of
artifacts or human remains, it was decided that these stone rings were hearths due to
the dark humic soil found beneath the rocks (p. 37).
Eight stone circle complexes were discovered in the harsh desert region of the
Cape Fria area, northern Namibia during a ten-day reconnaissance investigation (Noli
1987). The stone circles ranged from one to two meters in diameter and the stones
were embedded approximately one-third their length into the desert pavement. All of
the features had been severely sand blasted. The only artifacts recovered in the
immediate vicinity of the stone rings were two pieces of pottery and one unidentifiable
piece of iron. Shell middens and cryptocrystalline flakes were also recorded during
74
survey in a relatively close area, which is in the vicinity of hummock dunes and a seal
colony (p. 60).
No dates were obtained from the stone circle complexes although it is suggested
that these features were the stone bases for huts. Reportedly, stone foundations (bases)
stabilize structures against wind and chill factor (Noli 1987: 61).
Noli also argues that the constraints of a harsh environment will mask the usual
social differentiations that might be expected amongst individual groups. Because of this
it is not possible to identify the builders of stone circles at Cape Fria (1987: 62).
Elevated ring-shaped features consisting of rocks and dark soil are common to
areas of the Mojave Desert where mescal (Agave sp.) and tool (Dasylirion sp.) plants are
found. These features range in size between five and twenty meters, are often
constructed out of lime rock, and are surrounded by dark ashy soil with charcoal bits
mixed in. Soil analysis and ethnographic date have demonstrated that these features
were used as roasting ovens for mescal, tool, and other types of foods including animals
(Kroesen and Schneider 1991).
EARTHERN MOUNDS/MOUNDS
Earthen Mounds are another anomalous, but very intriguing, rock feature that
are composed of two media: earth and stone. Theories on function vary as do location,
substrate, construction methods, materials used, size, artifacts found in association, and
presence of human remains. Earthen mounds could be described as a less “showy”
(since they seem to blend with their given environments) version of the popular
Mexican/Central American/Egyptian pyramids vis-à-vis entombment of burials, ritual
items, and such.
75
For example, an Iron Age Complex of seventeenth century Komaland, northern
Ghana, West Africa, is distinguished by a number of stone-encircled earthen mound
tombs (Anquandah 1987). Excavations of several of these mounds revealed the remains
of animals and humans, pottery, grinding stones, iron implements, terracotta sculptures,
and brass castings (p. 172-173).
The human remains from the Komoland mounds were reportedly decorated with
brass or copper anklets, bracelets, and necklaces. The terracotta sculptures, some
depicting animals, are thought to represent departed clan ancestors or clan deities. Due
to the iconic value of some of the burial remains it seems obvious that the builders of
these stone-encircled mounds were probably guided by religious and social motives. Not
surprisingly, but nonetheless intriguing, modern religious studies (of the Bulsa) in this
region show parallels to spirits embodied in animals and the cult of burial under stone
encircled mound superstructures (Anquandah 1987 176-179).
Jennings (1946) reported on an earthen mound west of Franklin, Tennessee,
located on a knob 140 feet high. The site is described as a conical mound measuring 18
feet high by 80 feet in diameter and built of “stones and earth” (p. 126). The stones are
further described as large and numerous, and the mound is described as a “stone
mound” (p. 126). One deep excavation trench was cut into the side of the mound, but
no cultural materials were recovered. Though there is no telling evidence, Jennings
points out that there are several sites in the immediate area that are both Archaic and
Middle Mississippian in antiquity.
More telling are the Leake mounds of Cartersville, Georgia, which once
consisted of three mounds, one flat topped and two domed (Fairbanks et al. 1946).
These mounds were situated directly along the Etowah River until road builders
76
destroyed them in the 1940s and used mound soil as fill for a bridge at the same
location. One man, Pat Wofford, Jr., of Atco, Georgia, witnessed the destruction and
salvaged as much material as possible (p. 126).
A number of different types of pottery were identified from this salvage,
including types that obviously predated the known Etowah-Lamar period. Most notably
were the presence of numerous plummet stones with carved encircled grooves, a pipe
made of slate, one copper disk, and three green slate beads. These remains are thought
to resemble Adena-like remains from areas further north and perhaps indicate an early
occupation in Etowah Valley (Fairbanks et al.1946: 127).
Wallace and coworkers (1959) recorded 93 “stone mounds” in Death Valley,
California. Mound size varied from eight to eighteen feet in diameter and from one and a
half to three feet in height. Four of these features were excavated, three on the west
side of Death Valley and one at Mesquite Flat (northwest) yielding human burials and
mortuary items. Artifacts and features include Olivella beads, corner notched points,
long-bladed stemmed points, bone spatulas, flexed burials, and limpet rings. Wallace
and coworkers maintain that these traits are reflective of the Puebloid cultures of
southern Nevada and therefore suggest an early and direct connection (p. 1-9).
77
RESEARCH DESIGN
Occupation at the Mirror Point Site
Chronologies for the study area are discussed in the following chapters. These
data presented in this thesis will help refine, at least in part, the chronology of the
western Mojave Desert.
1. During what prehistoric periods was the site occupied?
2. Was the occupation of the site represented by a single period or is it a multicomponents expression?
Data Requirements: The collection and analysis of temporally sensitive artifacts (e.g.,
beads, projectile points) will identify when populations occupied the Mirror Point site.
Hydration analysis of obsidian samples collected from the site, along with
thermoluminescence dating of pottery, will further establish the chronology of site
occupation.
Rock Feature Function at the Mirror Point Site
A review of anomalous rock features is presented in Chapter 4. This review may
yield insight into function of rock features at the Mirror Point site. Two models
developed to determine rock feature function in the Great Basin are explored. Other
studies of anomalous features are also considered to explain the probable function of
these features.
3. Are any of the characteristics of the rock features found at the Mirror Point site
consistent with any of the categories established in the “Delacorte Model?”
4. Are any of the rock features found at the Mirror Point site consistent with the “Vierra
Model?”
78
Data Requirements: Several comparisons will be made to determine if the rock
feature characteristics found at the Mirror Point site are consistent with any of the
categories established by the Delacorte Model. Delacorte found that rock feature
configurations (n=55) from the Volcanic Tablelands, Owens Valley, California, fell into
four categories, which he labeled: house/habitation rings, threshing floors, walls or
windbreaks, and cairns (Delacorte 1995: 257). These determinations were based upon
statistical analysis, thus demonstrating differences in ring measurements.
For the rings to coincide with Delacorte’s house/habitation category they
would have to meet the following criteria: a mean circular measurement of
approximately 6.11 m x 4.62 m diameter (with a range in outside diameter, from 4.5 m
to 7.9 m and a width measured at a right angle diameter from 3.3 m to 6.0 m; well-built
and thick construction using multiple courses of rocks; hearths may be present; and
artifacts may include lithic debitage, Desert Site-notched or Cottonwood projectile
points, fire fractured rock, faunal remains, cobble implements, handstones,
millingstones, and possible rock art (diagnostic artifacts might coincide with the Late
Prehistoric Period) (Delacorte 1995: 257-258).
For the features to coincide with the threshing floor category they must meet
the following criteria: a mean circular measurement of approximately 5.24 m diameter
(with a maximum diameter ranging from 3.8 to 6.8 m); poor construction: a single
course of rocks, and a partial wall; grinding slicks and milling equipment may be
present, along with a lens of charcoal perhaps inside and outside the ring; rock art
absent. There may be some indication of use during the Late Prehistoric Period (e.g.,
charred plant remains) (Delacorte 1995: 259-260).
79
For the features to meet the criteria of the wall/windbreak category the
following attributes should be detected: a construction that is straight or L-shaped a
mean length of 5.87 m (ranging from 3.0 m to 8.5 m) and a mean width of 2.48 m
(ranging from 1.5 m to 3.5 m); walls low to the ground, perhaps located on bedrock;
few features found in association, but might include lithic debitage, Rose Spring
projectile points, Eastgate points, Desert Side-notched points, and Cottonwood points;
rock art should be absent and further evidence to suggest a Rose Spring to Late
Prehistoric occupation (Delacorte 1995: 260-261).
Enigmatic features, generically identified as “cairns”, were recorded in the
Tableland study. These features differ from stacked rock cairns common throughout the
Desert West in that they have a larger diameter and lower height. These examples had
a mean length of 4.18 m (with a range from 3.2 m to 5.6 m) and a mean width of 2.96
m (ranging from 2.2 m to 4.3 m), rocks varying from round to oval or sub-rectangular in
shape; three consists of a single rock layer and two others stacked two to five courses
high (60 to 104 cm). Artifacts recorded include a handful of fragmentary ground stone,
either built directly into the cairns or laying in the general vicinity. The only other
cultural item noted was a single cobble with five pecked cupules, this rock was
incorporated into one of the structures or cairns (Delacorte 1995: 261).
Inferences regarding the function of these enigmatic rock features/cairns are
speculative. The two stacked cairns are suggested as being possible burials, since
digging a burial on volcanic bedrock of the Tablelands would be near impossible. The
three remaining cairns, that are roughly circular in shape and smaller than houses,
might represent dismantled houses or caches/storage facilities. No direct temporal
information was obtained however lichen growth is minimal and the close association
80
with the other firmly dated structures imply a comparatively recent age (Late
Prehistoric) (Delacorte 1995: 261).
Several additional comparisons will be made to determine if the rock features
found at the Searles Lake site are consistent with any category of the Vierra Model,.
Vierra determined that rock features (n=110) found on the Pahute and Rainier Mesas
fell into four categories, which he labeled: 1. pinyon caches (food cache); 2. hunting
blinds; 3. roasting ovens; and 4. house rings. These determinations were initially based
upon three overlapping categories: 1. locational aspects, 2. aspects of use, and 3.
construction aspects (Vierra 1986:111-126).
For the rock features to coincide with Vierra’s pinyon/food cache category
they would have to meet most of the following criteria: location on bedrock; composed
of less than 100 and more than 40 rocks; moderate to high diversity in rock sizes; mean
maximum outside diameter of 3.86 m (with a range from 1.25 to 6.5 m); mean
maximum inside diameter ratio of 1.7 m ( with a range from 0.75 to 2.3 m); and a mean
maximum inside to mean maximum outside diameter with a mean value of 0.42 m (with
a range from 0.20 to 0.69 m) (Vierra 1986:118-123). Vierra did not note presence of
artifacts around the cache features.
For the rock features to coincide with the Vierra criteria for roasting ovens they
should display morphological similarities in construction to food caches, but with
evidence of burning. Inside diameters should range from 1.2 to 2.5 m and have outside
ratios ranging from 0.38 to 0.73 m. However, Vierra noted that some roasting ovens are
filled with rocks. To reiterate, there should be evidence of charcoal or fire cracked rocks
(Vierra 1986:123). The presence of artifacts was not noted.
81
For the rock features to be indicative of hunting blinds as defined by the Vierra
Model attributes would include; location on bench tops, bench edges, and/or other
lookout points where game could be spotted. The numbers of rocks used in the
construction would need to vary from 30 to 150, with low diversity regarding size of
rocks. Maximum inside diameters should range from 1.0 to 3.2 m. The inside to outside
diameter would typically be greater than 0.5 m Wall openings would be present,
representing ancient doorways. These openings should range from 0.50 to 1.5 m in
width, with no preference for a particular direction. For obvious practical reasons,
orientation of the door openings would mostly be influenced by the topographic setting
rather than the cultural standards (Vierra 1986:123-126).
Vierra noted that 73% of the hunting blind features analyzed had associated
artifacts, thus probable hunting blind rings at the Mirror Point site should also have
associated artifacts such as bifaces, cores, lithic debris and projectile points. Notably, no
female-related artifacts were recovered at any of the blinds according to Vierra
(1986:126), and only 36% of the blinds were in isolated areas.
For the rock features to coincide with Vierra’s category for habitation sites,
they should have characteristics similar to those of habitation sites recorded at Pahute
and Ranier Mesas. Those habitation areas had an average floor area of 15.9 m. Most of
the features contained fewer than 100 rocks with low diversity in size of rocks used for
construction. These aforementioned traits were noted as distinct characteristics not
found in pinyon caches or roasting ovens. In addition, the inside to outside diameter
ratio generally was greater than 0.50 m with a mean of 0.60 m. The maximum inside
diameter of the features averaged about 2.8 m. Most of the habitation features analyzed
appeared to have had entrances, most being rather narrow (mean=1.05 m). Several of
82
the analyzed habitation features were facing due south (1800) and northwest (3150)
(Vierra 1986:126-131).
It is important to consider that the inside diameter of habitation rings might be a
unique and direct reflection of their aboriginal use, or as Vierra pointed out, “Given the
amount of life space required to carry out domestic activities including sleeping,
habitation structures would appear, based on ethnographic analogy, to require at least a
minimum of 2.5 meters (8 feet) in diameter” (Vierra 1986:117-118). This will be taken
into consideration when analyzing possible habitation rings at the Mirror Point site.
Vierra noted that most of the habitation rings (77%) occurred in areas containing
artifacts. If the above holds true for any features at the Mirror Point site, then the
following types of artifacts might be recovered; manos, metates, pottery, lithic debitage,
and brownware pottery. Vierra noted “Rosegate” points occurring at two sites, and Elko,
Gatecliff, and Pinto series points occurring at seven sites. Vierra also noted that Desert
series projectile points occurred at one site.
Mirror Point Site Rock Features vs. Tipi Rings on the North American Plains
5. How do the rock features in the Mojave Desert and even more specifically at the
Mirror Point site compare to the ubiquitous rock features referred to as “tipi rings”
found on the North American Plains?
Data Requirements: A review of the style and characteristics of tipi rings on the North
American Plains is given in Chapter 4. This review is than compared with style, cultural
items, and characteristics of features at the Mirror Point site. Data requirements include
types and quantities of artifacts found at tipi ring sites (projectile points, faunal
remains), size/dimensions of tipi rings, and location (s) of tipi rings. A comparison of
hunter-gatherer behavior for these two regions is also considered.
83
Religious Use
Given its unique location it is possible that the Mirror Point Site was occupied for
ritualistic/ceremonial purposes. This possibility may yield insights into the ideology of
prehistoric populations in the Mojave Desert.
6. Is there data at this site that reveals what types of ceremonial activities were taking
place? How do these rock features at the Mirror Point site coincide with other known
religious sites?
7. Is there enough evidence to suggest that this site is a religious site?
Data Requirements: Rock cairns and alignments were analyzed with the intention of
determining their function. The recovery and analysis of non-utilitarian artifacts, such as
crystals, large bifaces, glass beads, and anomalous shaped stones may provide clues for
determining what types of ceremonial activities took place at the Mirror Point site. A
comparison of these types of artifacts/ rock features to similar archaeological
investigations will aid in determining what types of non-utilitarian hence, ceremonial
activities were being conducted. In addition, a review of ethnographic data related to
religion and rituals of groups associated with this region will perhaps be informative,
particularly with regard tom specified places and their environmental settings.
The Middle Holocene Western Nexus
Sutton and Koerper (2009) recently proposed an ideological interaction sphere
marked by a number of distinctive artifact types they designated the Middle Holocene
Western Nexus. This interaction sphere is characterized by Olivella grooved rectangular
(OGR) beads, large bifaces, stone spheres, and lozenge stones. This proposed
interaction sphere connected Southern California populations to the populations of
northwestern Great Basin and the population of the areas in-between. Sutton and
84
Koerper also asserted that San Joaquin Valley and the far western Great Basin provided
another avenue for these same types of interactions (Figure 4.1).
Sutton and Koerper (2009) further argue that this time period, the Middle
Holocene, was too early to account for the spread and differentiation Northern UtoAztecan groups. Thus the existence Western Nexus interaction sphere implies interaction
between Hokan- and Penutian speaking populations at a time when it is thought that
Penutian groups were moving into northern California from the north and east at the
expense of Hokan groups (Sutton and Koerper 2009: 21).
Sutton and Koerper (2009) conclude that this link between southern California
and the northwestern Great Basin around 5,000 BP is supported by the specific
aforementioned artifact types. This Middle Holocene Western Nexus interaction sphere is
identified as a long-distance exchange of materials and ideas related to complex
ideological/ritualistic systems. In addition it is noted that some of these artifacts have
been found in caches, in pairs or triads, and in mortuary contexts, thus supporting the
notion that these items were ritualistic (Sutton and Koerper 2009: 21).
Furthermore, Sutton and Koerper (2009) contend that the Western Nexus
interaction sphere was not associated with Northern Uto-Aztecan groups. Instead, they
argue that the Western Nexus interaction sphere involved interactions between
Penutian- and Hokan speaking groups during the time of said Penutian population
movements. It is also argued that these interactions came at the expense of Hokan
groups, though to what effect is not offered (Sutton 2009: 21-22).
85
Fig. 4.1. Proposed Middle Holocene Western Nexus connection (Sutton and Koerper 2009).
86
8. Is there evidence to support an ideological interaction sphere otherwise known as
the Middle Holocene Western Nexus?
Data Requirements: The collection and analysis of temporarily sensitive artifacts
(obsidian bifaces and projectile points) will assist in this determination. In addition
sourcing of these aforementioned artifacts will assist in determining whether if exchange
or trade was involved. The presence of Olivella grooved rectangular (OGR) beads, large
bifaces, stone spheres, and lozenge stones will further support this proposed theory.
87
Investigations at the Mirror Point Site, CA-SBR-12134/H CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 5: INVESTIGATIONS AT THE MIRROR POINT SITE,
CA-SBR-12134/H
The following describes field investigations that took place at CA-INY-12134/H on
the South Range at NAWS, China Lake. These investigations were guided by a research
design that evolved throughout the entirety of the project. A substantial amount of data
in the form of artifacts and rock features remains at the site. Collected artifacts and
other materials are at the NAWS China Lake, California curation facility.
FIELD METHODS
Recent fieldwork (January, March, May, 2007) focused on survey, surface
collection of artifacts, detailed recordation, GIS mapping, and photo documentation of
all 110 rock features. In addition, four surface scrapes and excavation of eight test units
were conducted to determine the extent of cultural materials associated with the rock
features. Units were excavated in 10-centimeter levels to depths between 10 and 65
centimeters. Cultural deposits proved to be very superficial, for most items were
recovered from 0-15 centimeters. This was due to an alluvial deposit situated
immediately below the sand, and there was no variation in soil (sand) below the surface.
Materials were screened using 1/16th and 1/8th inch screens.
Numerous artifacts were collected during survey and excavation. Collected
materials were processed at California State University, Bakersfield’s archaeology
laboratory. Items were catalogued using Microsoft Excel software. Tools were assigned
individual catalogue numbers, while bulk samples, such as lithic debitage, were assigned
a group number on the basis of provenience. Lithic debitage were later sorted by
material type and catalogued accordingly. All artifacts were packaged in plastic bags
88
labeled with a black marker and a paper artifact identification label was included in the
bag.
Special analyses were performed on temporally sensitive artifacts, such as glass
beads and obsidian artifacts. Titchenal’s (1994) regional chronology for the classification
for glass beads was used for the beads and a small sample of flaked stone artifacts were
submitted for obsidian hydration. The results are presented below.
One surface scrape (SSC-1) and seven excavated control units (CU 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8,
9) were conducted at Locus A, one control unit (CU-7) and one surface scrape (SSC-4)
were conducted at Locus B, and two surface scrapes (SSC-2, 3) were conducted at
Locus D (see Figures 5.1-5.3). During the early stages of excavation planning it was
decided to place Unit 1 in Locus D. However, the design changed (on site) due to
minimal surface data and lack of time, therefore a Unit 1 does not exist.
FIELD INVESTIGATIONS
Test Excavation Units and Surface Scrapes
Test units were placed directly on top of six randomly selected features (Features
5, 12, 38, 61, 109, and 111), which permitted exposure of two sides for profiling and
probing. This method also provided a means to determine whether any types of artifacts
were directly associated with the feature, and whether any burials were beneath the
rocks.
Locus A was determined the “artifact hot spot” during survey and is the location
of the U-shaped semi-enclosed feature. That is why excavation efforts were focused
here. No artifacts were noted during the survey at Locus D and only a few artifacts were
noted at Locus B. Locus C is a historic mining locus, containing only historic period
features and artifacts. Details of the findings are discussed below.
89
Unit 2. Unit 2 was 1.0 x 1.0 meter in size, placement was inside Surface
Scrape 1, and it was excavated to a depth of 40 centimeters (10-40 centimeters). The
reference point was the northwest corner. Many artifacts were noted during the survey
and surface scraping (e.g., beads, lithic debitage). Therefore, it was decided to explore
this area further, which is immediately south of Feature 5 (rock alignment). This unit
was terminated at 40 centimeters due to impenetrable alluvial debris flow (Figure 5.4).
Unit 3. Unit 3 was 1.0 x 1.0 meter in size and was excavated to a depth of 30
centimeters (0-30 centimeters). The reference point was the northwest corner. As with
Unit 2, it was decided to explore this artifact-rich area, which is immediately north of
Feature 5 and across (north) from Unit 2. This unit was terminated at 30 centimeters
because of impenetrable alluvial debris (Figure 5.4).
Unit 4. Unit 4 was 1.0 x 1.0 meter in size and was excavated to a depth of 30
centimeters (0-30 centimeters). This unit was placed along the east side of Unit 3 and
immediately north of Feature 5. The reference point was the northwest corner (or
northeast corner of Unit 3). Because Unit 3 produced an interesting array of artifacts
(e.g., brownware pottery, one shoe eyelet, lithic debitage), I decided to open an
adjoining unit to the east for further exploration. Unit 4 was terminated at 30
centimeters due to impenetrable alluvial debris (Figure 5.5).
90
Fig. 5.1. Locus A-excavation units and surface scrapes. Features are numbered.
91
Fig. 5.2. Locus B- Excavation units and surface scrapes. Features are numbered.
92
Fig. 5.3. Locus D-Excavation units and surface scrapes. Features are numbered.
93
Unit 5. Unit 5 was 1.0 x 1.0 meter in size and was placed inside Surface
Scrape 1 immediately east of Control Unit 2. The reference point was the northwest
corner (or northeast corner of Control Unit 2). The impenetrable alluvial debris lay closer
to the surface than in the previously described units, hence Unit 5 had to be terminated
at 20 centimeters (Figure 5.5)
Unit 6. Unit 6 measured 1.0 x 1.0 meter and was excavated to a depth of 20
centimeters (0-20 centimeters). The reference point was the northwest corner. Unit 6
was located immediately north of Feature 12 (rock alignment). Feature 12 is directly
west of Feature 5 and, like the areas around Feature 5 this area had an abundance of
surface artifacts (see Figures 5.6 and 5.7).
Fig. 5.4. Profiles for Test Units 2 and 3.
94
Fig. 5.5. Profiles for Test Units 4 and 5.
Fig. 5.6. Profile for Test Unit 6.
95
Fig. 5.7. Rock alignment (Feature 12) during excavation (Unit 6), CA-SBR-12134/H.
Unit 7. Unit 7, located at Locus B measured 2.0 x 2.0 meters and was
excavated to a depth of 40 centimeters (0-40 centimeters). The reference point was the
northwest corner. Unit 7 was placed directly across Feature 111 (a cairn) to determine
whether this outlying feature had any associated cultural remains. No artifacts were
noted.
Unit 8. Unit 8 measured 1.0 x 0.8 meters. The reference point was the
northwest corner. Unit 8 was placed directly across the middle section of Feature 5 to
determine whether any objects lay beneath the rocks and for side profiling. The sand
underlying the feature was seemingly “built up” before the rocks were laid. This made it
possible to excavate to a maximum depth of 65 centimeters before encountering alluvial
debris.
96
Unit 9. Unit 9 measured 1.0 x 1.0 meter. The reference point was the
northwest corner. Unit 9 was placed directly across Feature 12 for profiling and to
determine whether there were cultural deposits beneath the rocks. This unit was
terminated at 40 centimeters due to impenetrable alluvial debris.
Surface Scrape 1. Surface Scrape 1 measured 3.0 x 3.0 meters and was
excavated to a depth of 10 centimeters (0-10 centimeters). The reference point was the
northwest corner. Surface Scrape 1 was placed inside a semi-enclosed (rock feature
lined) area in Locus A. This area proved to be a “hot spot” for artifacts and therefore
was assumed to be the epicenter for activities at the site. Nine 1.0 x 1.0 meter units
were arbitrarily laid out. These units were further designated Surface Scrapes 1-1 to 1-9.
Surface Scrape 2. Surface Scrape 2 (Locus D) measured 1.0 x 2.0 meters and
was excavated to a depth of 5 centimeters (0-5 centimeters). The reference point was
the northwest corner. Surface Scrape 2 was placed directly across Feature 38 (cairn)
after the rocks were removed. No artifacts were noted on or below the surface.
Surface Scrape 3. Surface Scrape 3 (Locus D) measured 1.0 x 1.0 meter and
the northwest corner. Surface Scrape 3 was placed directly across Feature 61 (cairn)
after the rocks were removed. No artifacts were noted on or below the surface.
Surface Scrape 4. Surface Scrape 4 (Locus B) measured 3.0 x 3.0 meters and
the northwest corner. Surface Scrape 4 was placed directly across Feature 109, initially
believed to be a rock-ring; however, Feature 109 was later deemed natural and not
cultural. No artifacts were noted on or below the surface.
97
Rock Cairns and Alignments at Loci A, B, and D
A total of 110 rock features was identified and recorded at Loci A, B, and D.
Results of two t-tests (normal t-test and Student’s t-test) were applied and the results
showed thirty-four (31%) are circular-shaped rock-filled structures and were therefore
designated as “cairns”, while 76 (69 %) are distinctly linear or elongated and were
therefore designated as “rock alignments” (Table 5.1) To reiterate, the results showed a
significant difference in average length between rock “cairns” and rock “alignments”
(Appendices D and E). Thus, the probability of rejecting the notion of there being no
differences between the groups is very low (Meyer 1975; Rogers 2011).
All of the features were constructed along an east-west vector, thus aligning
them with the natural flow of the alluvial fan. There is definite internal variation with
regard to size and shape of these two types, but overall morphological and contextual
variability is low.
Not surprisingly, all of the structures were constructed predominately from the
naturally occurring alluvial debris that runs off of the Slate Range. Much of this debris is
in the form of granite and green slate. However, other types of rock not naturally
occurring in the local area, such as basalt, quartz, quartzite, rhyolite, jasper, obsidian
and chert were also used. Most of the rocks are angular, but some are sub-angular.
Overall construction and placement of these rocks differs stylistically with courses
ranging from one to seven to form low stacks. There are several deflated features in
areas of the site impacted by water runoff/drainage.
98
Table 5.1
Rock Feature attribute data.
Cairns, mean
Length
131.6
Width
122.3
Height
29.3
Courses
3.3
Total
rocks
51.1
Rock
length
24.5
Rock
width
16.8
Rock
height
14.0
Cairns , sd
38.4
30.2
9.2
1.1
21.8
6.6
5.1
6.1
Alignments
mean
165.0
70.0
40.0
6.0
65.0
20.0
14.0
9.0
Alignments, sd
161
33.2
17.0
1.1
62.3
15.1
10.3
4.3
Rock Features Containing Artifacts
Nineteen of the rock features were recorded as having artifacts stashed/placed
within the rocks or as having artifact caches (see Appendix A). Fifteen rock features
containing artifacts were recorded at Locus A, three were recorded at Locus D, and one
was recorded at Locus B (Figures 5.8-5.34). Artifact type and quantity varied, though
the most extensive features with associated artifacts occur at Locus A (Table 5.2).
Artifacts were most commonly placed under the rocks and around the edges of
the features. Whether these artifacts were cached for later use or simply placed under
or on top of the rocks as a symbolic gesture is unknown. However the term cache is
utilized in this thesis in reference to artifacts in direct association with some of the rock
features.
In addition, it is also uncertain whether the visitors/occupants of this site planned
to return to these artifact caches and reutilize them for future use or whether these
items are an example of curate behavior. The term cache is used undecidedly in this
research in that typically in the archaeological world the word cache refers to storing
99
items for future use or with a plan to return, also referred to as abandonment caches
(Binford 1976, 1979; Ebert 1979; Schiffer 1977, 1987; Rathje and Schiffer 1982).
Table 5.2 Features with artifacts and types.
Feature
No.
2
Locus
A
4
A
Artifact Types
Polished obsidian needle shaped; hanksite crystal; chert core; chert debitage; 3
obsidian biface blanks
2 obsidian biface blanks
5
A
mano; chert core; obsidian and chert debitage
12
A
Desert Side-notched projectile point; antler
13
A
14
A
obsidian flake
15
A
16
A
5 obsidian biface blanks; obsidian debitage
17
A
mano; cryptocrystalline biface blank; chert core
18
A
projectile point; antler hammer; 2 biface blanks
19
A
24
A
obsidian biface
27
A
4 chert bifaces; two obsidian bifaces
28
A
4 obsidian biface fragments
29
A
4 obsidian biface blanks; chert biface; chert debitage
111
B
Mano handstone; chert and obsidian debitage
49
D
53
D
obsidian biface (this piece was noted as being refitted with glue when recovered at
the site)
obsidian projectile point base (non-diagnostic)
61
D
chert biface
100
Fig. 5.8. Location Map of Features with artifact caches at Locus A
(red lines showing general vicinities or concentrations).
101
Fig. 5.9. Location Map of Features with artifact caches at Locus D
(red circles showing artifact concentrations).
102
Fig. 5.10. Location Map of Features with artifact caches at Locus B
(red circle showing artifact concentration).
103
Fig. 5.11. Artifacts (Cat #s 185b, 136, 183, 184, 185, 186) from Locus A, Feature 5.
Fig. 5.12. Locus A, Feature 5, Alignment.
104
Fig. 5.13. Artifacts(Cat.#s 173, 131) Locus A, Feature 12 (Mirror point).
Fig. 5.14. Locus A, Feature 12.
105
Fig. 5.15. Artifacts (Cat. #s 188, 189), Locus A, Feature 13.
106
Fig. 5.17. Artifacts (Cat.#s 138, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245) Locus A, Feature 16.
107
Fig. 5.19. Artifacts (Cat.#s 172, 162, 132) from Locus A, Feature 17.
108
Fig. 5.21. Artifacts (Cat.#s 135, 136) Locus A, Feature 18.
109
Fig. 5.23. Artifacts (Cat.#s 142, 143, 246, 247, 248, 249) Locus A, Feature 19.
110
Fig. 5.25. Artifact (Cat.# 167), Locus A, Feature 24.
111
Fig. 5.27. Artifacts (Cat. #s 225, 226, 228, 229, 230, 234) Locus A, Feature 27.
112
Fig. 5.29. Artifacts (Cat.#s 224, 238, 251, 252), Locus A, Feature 28.
113
Fig. 5.31. Artifact (Cat.# 174) with Locus D, Feature 49.
Fig. 5.32. Feature 49 Locus D.
114
Fig. 5.33. Artifact (Cat.# 175) with Locus D, Feature 61.
Fig. 5.34. Locus D, Feature 61.
115
Locus C (aka, M ill Pond Site)
Several historic period features and artifacts were recorded at Locus C, referred
to by some locals as the Mill Pond site (Gossett 2007 [Table 5.3; Figure 5.138]).
Table 5.3 Feature number and type (Locus C).
Feature No.
Feature Type
75C
Slag Pile
76C
Slag Pile
77C
Rock Pile
78C
4-in-ground bolts
79C
Settling pond
87C
Cairn
Features recorded at Locus C include two settling ponds, two slag piles, a pile of
broken bricks and rock, four in-the-ground mounting bolts, a concrete slab, and a cairn.
Artifacts recorded here include bailing wire, a boiler door, wire tubing, an angle iron,
one brick with the inscription “Snowball” (manufactured between 1854 and 1935), a
porcelain plate fragment, round nails, a metal cup, a feed bucket, a broken brown
bottle, and a small metal plate. These remains are likely related to the intensive belowground borax mining operations that took place on the east side of Searles Lake in the
early 1900s (Austin 1910).
A dirt road is located immediately south of this locus and leads to New York
Canyon where there are several mining sites; mostly gold or silver. Locus C is just one
example of the many borax mining areas in the vicinity of Searles Lake. The amount of
cultural debris at this location indicates that this area was mined very briefly, perhaps
one year.
116
Fig. 5.131. Location Map of Mining related features at Locus C; features are numbered.
Given the distance to any permanent settlements during the late 1800s or early 1900s
the remote location was probably a factor behind the short term use of Locus C. Water
would have been necessary for the settling ponds. A well was noted north of the site
117
and was likely used for this purpose. It is likely that the mining activities at Locus C were
contemporaneous with the New York mining activities and the well was probably used
collectively by miners in both areas (along lake bed and Slate Range).
118
Investigations at the Mirror Point Site (CA_SBR-12134/H) CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 6: ARTIFACT ASSEMBLAGE
The artifact assemblage from the Mirror Point site encompasses an eclectic
array of items from a number of categories for a total of 664 artifacts were collected and
analyzed (Table 6.1). These data hold promise for interpreting the function of cairns and
alignments, not only at this site, but also through interpolation to other sites in the area.
This potentiality will be explored in the remaining chapters.
FLAK EDSTONE TOOLS AND DEBITAGE
Projectile Points
A projectile point is a biface that contains a hafted area that can be fitted on a
spear or shaft. Projectile points include arrow points, dart points, and spear points
(Andrefsky 1998). Projectile points were classified using the projectile point typologies
for California and the Great Basin with specific reference to the Mojave Desert (Justice
2002). Six projectile points and point fragments were collected during survey and
excavation (five from Locus A; one from Locus B). Three are temporally diagnostic, and
include one Desert Side-notched (Cat. #131), one Pinto series (Cat.#8) (obsidian; dart),
and one Lake Mojave stemmed point (Cat.#221) (obsidian; dart). The three remaining
fragmentary projectile points (Cat.#10; Cat.#11; Cat.# 38) (all obsidian) could not be
identified by type (Table 6.2).
The Desert Side-notched projectile point is of mirror glass and is indicative of
bow-and-arrow technology. Desert Side-notched points are known to date to the Marana
Period (post-650 BP) (Bettinger and Taylor 1974; Justice 2002; Ruby and Hildebrandt
2006; Yohe 1992) and this specimen clearly was crafted during historic times.
119
Table 6.1 Artifact Assemblage from CA-SBR-12134/H.
Type
Lithics
Ground Stone
Miscellaneous
Paraphernalia
Ceramics
Modified Wood
Beads
Fauna
Historic-Period
Artifacts
Total
556
4
2
Locus A
547
2
1
Locus B
9
2
1
Locus D
-------
3
1
78
13
8
3
1
78
1
6
------10
1
------2
1
Table 6.2. Projectile Points Recovered from CA-SBR-12134/H
Type
Material
Desert Side-notched
(Cat.#131)
Pinto series
(Cat.#8)
Great Basin or
Mojave Lake (Cat.#221)
Point Tip (Cat.#10)
Mirror Glass
Late Stage Biface
Midsection (Cat.#11)
Projectile Point Base
type unknown
(Cat. 138)
Black
Obsidian
Black
Obsidian
Black
Obsidian
Black
Obsidian
Mahogany
And Black
Obsidian
Length
(cm)
3
Width
(cm)
1.6
Thickness
(cm)
0.3
3.5
2.2
0.7
3.8
2.6
1.0
2.2
1.5
0.3
2.0
2.0
0.7
2.1
1.8
1.0
Provenience
Locus A
Feature 12
Locus A Unit 2
Surface Scrape
Locus A Unit 2
Surface Scrape
Locus A Unit 2
Surface Scrape
Locus A Unit 2
Surface Scrape
Locus B Feature 53
Surface
Gold etching is still visible on the surface and approximately 65% of the surface has
been pressure flaked.
The remaining diagnostic points are dart points, which are larger than arrow
points and of greater antiquity. Dart points were designed to fit onto foreshafts launched
with an atlatl (Justice 2002). The Pinto type is common to the Middle Holocene (70004000 BP) (Justice 2002; Ruby and Hildebrandt 2006; Yohe 1992). The Lake Mojave type
is a subtype of the Great Basin Stemmed series and is indicative of the early Holocene
(10,000 - 7000 BP) (Justice 2002; Ruby and Hildebrandt 2006; Warren 1984).
120
Bifaces
A biface is a tool that exhibits flake scarring on two surfaces (Yohe 1992: 305)
Forty-two bifaces, including biface fragments, were collected and analyzed. Most were
found as a part of an artifact cache associated with a rock feature (Table 6.4). In
addition, one large biface (modified along one edge) crafted out of green slate
(Cat.#134), a material type that occurs naturally on site, was found on the surface at
Locus A (Figure 6.1). A large proportion of these were fashioned from obsidian (n= 28);
however, several were crafted from chert (n= 13). Several bifaces display cortex and
most represent early stage/biface blanks.
A few of the bifaces are well-crafted, while others are casual and/or irregular.
Most were made using simple percussion methods, but several have a small amount of
pressure flaking on the peripheral or outer edges.
Early stage bifaces, or biface blanks, possessing sinuous edges and little surface
topography, are the most common type of biface. There are several late stage
specimens that exhibit straight margins and complex surface topography. More
specifically, four reduction stages of lithic reduction were recognized in the collection
(Stages 1-4, Callahan 1979) (see Tables 6.3 and 6.4; Figures 6.2-6.4). One specimen
(Cat.#174), a biface blank with some pressure flaking along the outer edges (late Stage
2), is a refit that was glued together with what appears to be casein glue (Figure 6.3).
This specimen was soaked in distilled water for three days and the glue did not dissolve,
which is a characteristic of animal protein-based casein glue.
121
Fig. 6.1 Green slate biface or digging tool (Cat.#134) found on surface at Locus A.
Table 6.3 Biface Staging.
Stages
1
2
3
4
5
Description
Thick in cross-section, percussion flaking, limited degree of planar symmetry (Stage 1.5 includes the
aforementioned with slightly more planar symmetry)
Percussion flaked, increased symmetry, narrower cross-sections (Stage 2.5 includes the
aforementioned with some overall percussion flaking)
Thinned performs with planar symmetry, and extensive percussion flaking (overall)
Thinned performs, nearly symmetrical, uniform cross-sections, and lots of pressure flaking
Finished formed tools that are extensively pressure flaked on both surfaces (projectile points)
Biface Staging
Stage 4
1
Stage 3
3
2.5
2
Stage 2
15
Stage 1.5
1
Stage 1
20
0
5
10
15
Quantity
Fig. 6.2. Biface stages represented.
122
20
25
Table 6.4 Biface Attributes.
Cat #
9
11
109
110
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
137
142
143
144
186b
170
180
182
186a
190
224
226
228
229
237
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
Length
(cm)
3.4
2
7.6
3.3
6.2
8.4
9
10.4
8
7.2
8
11
13.2
13
14.6
9
26.2
6.9
7.3
16.5
13.8
5.5
7.5
9
8
3.1
7.3
5.5
5.8
3.9
4
2.6
15
11.3
11.7
9.5
12.6
10.8
12.3
8.8
6.5
3.1
Width
(cm)
2.2
2
3.6
2.7
7.5
4.5
4.5
7.5
4.7
2.8
6.8
5.5
7
6.5
7.2
7.5
14.6
5.8
6.8
10
8
5.2
3.5
6
4.6
2.1
5.1
2.3
2.5
3.9
6
2.5
6.6
6.9
4.6
9.5
6
8.8
4.2
4.9
3.1
5.1
Thickness
(cm)
0.6
0.7
1
0.6
4.4
1.5
1
2.6
2
1.1
2.2
2.5
5.2
2.6
3
3.5
3.7
3
4
3
3.1
3
1.7
2
3.3
0.5
2
5
0.5
1
2.2
1
3.6
3.8
2.3
5.1
4.9
7
5.1
3
1.8
1.5
Material
Stage
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
slate
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
chert
chert
obsidian
chert
chert
obsidian
chert
chert
chert
chert
chert
chert
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
chert
4
4
4
5
1
1
1
1
2
3
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
1
1
1
3
1.5
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
123
Location
Unit 2 Locus A Surface Scrape
Locus A Feature 4
Locus A Near Feature 11
Locus A Feature 18
Locus A Feature 18
Locus A Feature 15
Locus A Feature 17
Locus A Feature 17
Locus B Feature 49
Locus B Surface
Locus B Surface
Locus A Feature 28
Locus A Feature 27
Locus A Feature 27
Locus A Feature 27
Locus A Surface
Locus A Unit 5 Surface Scrape
Locus A Unit 5 Surface Scrape
Locus A Feature 16
Locus A Feature 16
Locus A Feature 16
Locus A Feature 16
Locus A Feature 16
Locus A Feature 19
Locus A Feature 19
Locus A Feature 19
Locus A Feature 19
Locus A Unit 2 0-10cm
Fig. 6.3 Biface (Cat.#174) from Feature 49 Locus D.
Fig. 6.4 Lithic cache (Cat #s 9, 11, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121,
122, 8, 221, 10) from Locus A.
124
Edge-Modified Flakes
Edge-modified flakes are flakes that were utilized as tools in which one or
more of the edges have been deliberately modified. Edge-modified flakes make great
cutting and butchering tools (Yohe 2002:49-50). Seven edge-modified flakes (five
obsidian [Cat#s 208, 189, 238, 251, 252], two quartzite) were identified during
laboratory analysis. These were made on simple percussion flakes with large bulbs of
percussion. The crafting is very casual, similar to many of the bifaces, with just a few
pressure flakes taken from one of the edges. The two quartzite edge-modified flakes
were found at Locus B (Cat# 220 Unit 111B 10-20cm, Cat#187 Surface) and the five
obsidian edge-modified flakes were found at Locus A (Cat# 189 Feature 13; Cat#208
Feature 14; Cat#238 Feature 28; Cat#s 251 and 252 Feature 28).
Cores
Cores are defined as the parent rock from which multiple flakes have been
detached (Yohe 1992). Eleven cores were analyzed. These include chert (n=3) and
obsidian (n=8). Most were multidirectional, with many flakes removed, while one is
spent. Percussion seems to be the method predominately used with little platform
preparation. Several cores show signs of tool use, such as microflaking of edges. All but
one (Locus B) of the cores came from Locus A (Table 6.5).
Biface Blanks from Cores
A biface blank, or preform, is an unfinished lithic artifact that exhibits pressure
flaking scars (Yohe 1992:305). Two obsidian biface blanks (Cat#138 Locus B Feature 4;
Cat#246 Locus A Feature 19) and one chert biface blank (Figure 6.6) (Cat#205 Locus A
near Feature 29) crafted from exhausted cores were identified. It appears these
125
exhausted cores, rather than being discarded, were reused by way of percussion flaking
along their surface and
Table 6.5 Core Attributes.
Catalog #
Material
136
166
183
185b
187
188
192
194
204
225
234
Obsidian
Obsidian
Chert
Chert
Obsidian
Obsidian
Obsidian
Obsidian
Obsidian
Chert
Obsidian
Length
(cm)
15
12.3
7.6
6.3
10.3
8
12.5
14.5
12.5
7.3
6.3
Width
(cm)
10
7.5
3.4
5.8
10
10
8
10
5.1
2
3.5
Thickness
(cm)
10
3.5
2
4.6
2.3
4.6
6
2.5
5.6
1.6
2.9
Location
Locus A Feature 4
Locus A Unit 9 0-40cm
Locus B Featue 61
Locus A Feature 5
Locus A Feature 15
Locus A Feature 13
Locus A Feature 2
Locus A Feature 2
Locus A Feature 29
Locus A Feature 27
Locus A Feature 27
edges in an effort to produce a stone tool/biface blank. Specimen #138 measures 9 X
7.5 X 3.5 centimeters, specimen #246 10.8 X 8.8 X 7.0 centimeters, and specimen 204
measures 7 X 6 X 3 centimeters.
Debitage
Debitage is defined as detached pieces of lithic material that occur during the
stone tool reduction process. Analysis focused on reduction stages developed by Yohe
(2002). All flakes were identified by material, type, size, and presence or absence of
cortex and platforms. A total of 488 pieces of lithic debitage from Locus A were collected
during survey and excavation. All, including broken flakes, were analyzed to determine
flake type and platform type when possible. Most were chert (n=396) of a variety of
colors, however there was a fair amount of obsidian (n=90). There were only traces of
basalt (n=1) and quartzite (n=1) (Figure 6.5).
Most of the debitage was determined to be interior late stage biface thinning
flakes (ILBT) (53%), though several other types were also identified. These include
secondary early stage biface thinning (SEBT) (8.4%), secondary late stage biface
126
thinning (SLBT) (2.8%), interior early stage biface thinning (IEBT) (18%), pressure (4.9
%), shatter
Percent
0.2
18.4
Quartzite
0.2
Obsidian
Basalt
Chert
81.1
Fig. 6.5 Lithic debitage by material.
(2.2%), bipolar (0.9%), with a fair number remaining indeterminate (10.2%). These
data, featuring a predominance of interior late stage biface thinning flakes accompanied
by a lack of notching flakes and minimal numbers of pressure flakes, indicate that little
or no finished tools (e.g., projectile points) were being produced on site. The dominance
of interior biface thinning flakes suggests secondary biface manufacture was taking
place (Whittaker and Kaldahl 2001:51; Yohe 2002:58) (see Figures 6.6 and 6.7; Table
6.6).
Platform analysis was conducted on 451 pieces of debitage (shatter was not
included). Most (71.8%) were unidentifiable or had broken platforms. The largest
portion of the diagnostic platforms was single non-cortical (25.5%). In addition, there
were small amounts with multifaceted platforms (1.8%), and with cortex (0.9%).
Whittaker and Kaldahl (2001:54) assert that lithic collections consisting primarily of
cortical and/or single non-cortical platforms are indicative of the production of large
bifacial tools (Figure 6.8).
127
Fig. 6.6. Biface blank (Cat #205) from core with associated debitage.
Fig. 6.7. Debitage analysis results.
128
Table 6.6. Debitage Attributes.
Locus A
Unit 2 0-10cm
Surface Collect
Surface Collect
Surface Collect
Unit 2 0-10cm
SS 1-Unit 1 0-10cm
SS 1-Unit 2 Surface
SS 1-Unit 2 0-10cm
SS 1-Unit 3 0-10cm
SS 1-Unit 4 0-10cm
SS 1-Unit 4 0-10cm
SS 1 Unit 5 0-10cm
SS 1 Unit 5 0-10cm
SS 1 Unit 6 0-10cm
SS 1 Unit 6 0-10cm
SS 1 Unit 8 0-10cm
SS 1 Unit 8 0-10cm
SS 1 Unit 9 0-10cm
Unit 2 10-20cm
Unit 2 20-30cm
Unit 3 0-10cm
Unit 3 10-20cm
Unit 3 0-30 sidewalls
Unit 4 0-10cm
Unit 4 10-20cm
Unit 4 20-30cm
Unit 8 0-65cm
Locus A
Unit 8 0-65cm
Feature 2
Feature 2
Feature 3
Feature 5
Feature 5
Featur12
Feature 12
Feature 16
Feature 19
Feature 22
Feature 24
Feature 24
Feature 27
Feature 27
Feature 28
Feature 28
Feature 29
Feature 29
Locus B Surface
Locus B Surface
Totals
Material
obsidian
basalt
CCS
obsidian
CCS
CCS
obsidian
CCS
obsidian
obsidian
CCS
CCS
obsidian
CCS
obsidian
CCS
obsidian
CCS
CCS
CCS
CCS
CCS
CCS
CCS
CCS
obsidian
CCS
Material
obsidian
CCS
obsidian
obsidian
CCS
obsidian
obsidian
CCS
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
obsidian
CCS
obsidian
CCS
CCS
obsidian
CCS
obsidian
Quartzite
CCS
0
SEBT
SLBT
1
2
4
2
1
IEBT
6
ILBT
3
1
3
7
1
2
1
4
1
29
47
1
Pressure
Shatter
Indeterminate
Bipolar
2
1
1
2
16
5
11
2
2
1
3
3
2
9
1
1
2
5
17
1
20
3
6
1
2
1
2
1
1
SEBT
SLBT
1
10
1
1
2
IEBT
13
2
2
7
1
1
8
ILBT
1
Pressure
Shatter
13
Indeterminate
Bipolar
1
1
5
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
5
2
1
2
1
1
20
2
3
1
5
1
2
1
12
122
1
17
3
12
1
2
1
44
2
1
37
4
5
1
251
24
129
2
4
1
11
47
1
Totals
9
1
12
4
3
6
1
99
19
3
7
23
4
38
1
3
2
1
2
1
2
7
2
10
2
1
25
Totals
13
3
1
1
22
5
1
16
2
2
6
4
55
1
48
7
5
3
3
1
1
488
324
Cortical Platform
71.8
115
8
4
Number
(N=451)
1.8
25.5
Single Non-Cortical
Platform
Multifaceted Platform
Unidentifiable/Broke
Platform
0.9
Percent
Fig. 6.8. Results from platform analysis.
Interpretations
The lithic debitage assemblage is indicative of secondary biface production onsite. One interesting pattern is that the debitage material type to biface material type
ratio is disproportionate. The lithic debitage collection is predominately chert (n= 396),
though collected chert bifaces (n= 13) are out-numbered by obsidian bifaces (n= 26)
(see Table 6.7). Such discordant numbers and identification of flake material identical to
cores and bifaces suggest that chert bifaces were being produced on-site while most
obsidian bifaces were crafted off-site (Figure 6.8). This scenario can be supported by
obsidian hydration data, which shows pronounced variation in dates (see below).
GROUND STONE
Ground stone is a generic term for stone artifacts used to mill, pulp, or grind
substances including, but not limited to seeds, nuts, dried meat, herbs, and insects.
Ground stone categories include manos and pestles. Manos are used to grind materials
130
Table 6.7 Flaked Stone Artifacts by Material.
Type
Projectile Points
Bifaces
Flake Tools
Biface Blanks from
Cores
Cores
Debitage
Total
Obsidian
5
28
5
2
Non-Obsidian
0
14
2
0
Total
5
42
7
2
8
90
138
3
398
417
11
488
555
against a milling unit such as a milling slab or bedrock milling station. Manos may exhibit
one or multiple ground surfaces and may be used with one or two hands. Manos are
sometimes deliberately shaped (Adams 2002). The ground stone assemblage recovered
from the Mirror Point site includes four manos and one disc (Table 6.8). All ground stone
artifacts were recovered from either Locus A or Locus B, and all but two (Cat.#’s 133
and 177) were recovered from a cache feature. Three specimens (Cat.#s 133; 236; 132)
were determined to be of strategic design; that is, they were deliberately pecked and
ground into a specific shape. One (Cat.#219) was expediently designed; that is, it has
one or more grinding surfaces, but no other modifications. One anomalous piece has an
unknown function (Cat.#177) it is shaped on both surfaces and on the edges to form a
disc shape, material is limestone.
Locus A Specimens
One specimen (Cat.#236) is of strategic design and was recovered from Feature 5 at
Locus A. It is an ovoid, fine-grained, quartzite cobble with two very polished areas on
the same surface, with one very battered edge/end. One of these polished surfaces
represents a finger polish (groove) that was likely developed for hand comfort (Adams
2002:99). The other polished area is on the general flat surface of the mano. The
second specimen (Cat.#132) is of strategic design and was recovered from Feature 17
131
at Locus A. It is a highly polished, multifacial mano made from granite with small circular
incising in at least three areas (two on one surface and one on its side). One surface of
this specimen is highly pecked, and there is also some battering or pecking along the
outer edges.
Table 6.8 Attributes for groundstone.
Accession Number
And Location
133-Locus B
Surface
132-Locus A
Feature 17
236-Locus A
Feature 5
219-Locus B
Feature 111
177-Locus B
Surface
Length
(cm)
8.2
Width
(cm)
7.5
Thickness
(cm)
3.3
Material
(cm)
Quartzite
9.4
9.2
4.4
Granite
13.5
10
5.2
Quartzite
9.3
3.8
2.4
Granite
3.5
3.5
1.2
Limestone
Locus B Specimens
The first ground stone specimen (Cat.#133) was recovered from the surface at
Locus B and is a round quartzite cobble that is severely eroded on one surface. The
intact surface is moderately polished and there is some light polish along the edges. The
second (Cat.#219) is of causal or expedient origin and is a rounded cobble. This
specimen was recovered from Feature 111 at Locus B and has at least two lightly
polished surface areas with some battering on one end. The third specimen (Cat.#177
was recovered from the surface at Locus B and has highly polished surfaces and shaping
along perimeter; its function is thought to be for ritual or recreational purposes.
WOOD ARTIFACTS
The dry conditions at the Mirror Point site provide excellent preservation and
therefore it was possible to recover one modified wood specimen. This specimen
(Cat.#171) is a bow fragment recovered from the surface at Locus A (Figure 6.9). The
132
bow was developed to launch arrows and was introduced in this region approximately
1600 BP. This mechanism allowed for greater casting power, thus enabling a hunter to
launch more shots in a shorter period of time than its predecessor the atlatl (Yohe
1992). The fragment measures 15.6 x 2.1 x 1.1 centimeters. The type of wood has not
Fig. 6.9. Bow fragment artifact #171 found on the surface at Locus A.
been identified. Because the bow is fragmented, it is unknown whether this specimen is
the remnant of a basic self-bow or of a more advanced composite recurved bow.
CERAMICS
Ceramics were identified as Shoshonean Brown Ware. Shoshonean Brown Ware
pottery is not uncommon to this region and can be described as a utilitarian type of
plain ware formed by coiling, thinned by scraping, and fired in a poorly controlled
atmosphere. The cross-section of a Shoshonean Brown Ware body sherd exhibits a black
core and a reddish brown surface (Sutton and Arkush 2002). One rim sherd, one body
sherd, and one bowl fragment of brown plain ware pottery were recovered at Locus A.
133
All are irregular in shape and range in thickness from 2.7-0.8 centimeters. All appear to
have been oxidized from initial firing or from use.
The first (Cat.#88) was recovered from Feature 5 at Locus A and is a rim sherd
that measures 8.5 x 4 x 1 centimeters and exhibits a biconically drilled repair hole on
one end (Figure 6.10). This drill hole indicates the vessel cracked during use and
Fig. 6.10. Drilled ceramic fragment (Cat.# 88) found at Feature 5 Locus A.
someone attempted to mend the break. Cordage would have been strung through the
drill hole in an effort to tie the cracked pieces together (Sutton and Arkush 2002:120123). It is also possible that this piece was strung and used as a pendant. The temper is
fine grit and the manufacturing method used appears to be paddle-and-anvil, which is
characteristic of ceramics from southern California (Sutton and Arkush 2002:119).
The second specimen (Cat.#90), recovered from Feature 12 at Locus A,
measures 2.8 x 2.2 x 0.8 centimeters and is highly oxidized. The temper and
manufacturing technique appears the same as the previous specimen.
134
The third specimen (Cat.#89) includes a portion of both the side and base of a
small bowl. This specimen was recovered from Unit 3 near Feature 5 at Locus A, and
measures 6.2 x 4.5 x 2.7 centimeters. The temper is finer and the exterior smoother
than the other two specimens. There are scratches on the interior that could be the
result of using a serrated tool to smooth the clay (e.g., shells, sticks, small rocks). It is
well-known that scraping techniques were common among groups of the Great Basin
and Colorado Plateau (Nelson 1999:82; Sutton and Arkush 2002:109; Steward
1933:267).
BEADS
Seventy-seven beads were recovered from Locus A (largely from the Unit 2
surface scrape) during surface collections and excavations. A majority of the beads (n=
59; 75.6%) are glass trade beads found in a variety of shapes and colors (see below for
a description and typology of glass beads). Six steatite (9.0%), eight shell (seven clam
disk and one Dentalium) (10.3%), two ceramic (2.6%), and two silver (2.6%) beads
make up the remainder of the recovered beads (see Figure 6.11 and 6.12).
Steatite Beads
Six steatite (soapstone) beads were recovered from Unit 2 (0-10 centimeter)
surface scrape (Figure 6.13). The average size of these beads is 0.7 x 0.2 x 0.7cm
(Table 6.9). Steatite beads have been noted at numerous sites, including Middle and
Late Archaic Period sites, throughout California and the Great Basin (Garfinkel et al.
2007; Heizer and Whipple 1971:218-219; Moratto 1984:231, 382; Ruby and Hildebrandt
2008) for there are many steatite quarries in California (Barrett and Gifford 1933:211;
Heizer and Whipple 1971: 218-219). Steatite artifacts are especially prevalent in
135
Southern California and at Santa Barbara Channel Island sites (Chumash territory); in
fact, there are several known steatite sources on Santa Catalina Island (Grant 1978).
Shell Beads
Eight shell beads were identified during analysis (Figures 6.14 and 6.15). Seven
were identified as clam disk beads (Mytilis californianus), while one was identified as a
Dentalium bead. The average size of these beads is 1.2 X 0.3 X 0.3cm (Table 6.10). All
were recovered from
Beads
Steatite
6
Type
Silver
2
Shell
8
Glass
59
Ceramic
2
0
10
20
30
40
Value
Fig. 6.11. Beads: types and quantities.
136
50
60
70
Fig. 6.12. Glass bead specimens (Cat.#s 38, 26, 31, 39).
Figure 6.13 Steatite Bead (Cat#42).
Fig. 6.14. Dentalium Bead Cat.#61.
137
Fig. 6.15. Clam disk bead (Cat. 13).
Table 6.10 Steatite Bead Attributes.
CAT #
41
42
45
46
55
56
Location at Locus A
Unit 2-S.S.
Unit 2-S.S.
Unit 2-S.S.
Unit 2-S.S.
Unit 2-S.S.
Unit 2-S.S.
Level
0-10cm
0-10cm
0-10cm
0-10cm
0-10cm
0-10cm
Diameter
(cm)
0.9
0.7
0.8
0.7
0.8
0.7
Thickness
(cm)
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
Perforation
(cm)
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
Table 6.10 Shell Bead Attributes.
CAT #
Thickness
(cm)
0.6
Perforation
(cm)
0.3
Type of Shell
Description
13
Diameter
(cm)
2.2
Clam (Mollusk)
43
17
34
52
61
87
15
0.9
1.1
1.0
0.7
1.2
0.6
1.5
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.7
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
Clam
Clam
Clam
Clam
White raw
shape
White disk
White disk
White disk
Pink disk
White tubular
White disk
Blackened disk
(Mollusk)
(Mollusk)
(Mollusk)
(Mollusk)
Dentalium
Clam (Mollusk)
Clam (Mollusk)
138
Unit 2 (0-10 centimeters) surface scrape. There is some variation in size and coloration
amongst the clam disk beads. The Dentalium bead is tubular and fragmentary. Both
clam and Dentalium beads often served as a form of currency among many Northern
California and some Great Basin groups (Barrett and Gifford 1931:253; Sutton and
Arkush 2002:138-139).
Dentalium beads were noted as being the most important form of shell artifact
in northwestern California both prehistorically and ethnographically. These beads were
derived from the north coast and have been recorded being traded down the Klamath
River from the ethnographic Modoc. Dentalium beads were used predominately as
wealth and in ceremonies (Elsasser 1978).
Clam shell (Mytilis californianus) beads are commonplace at northern California
sites, but are also found frequently in central California. Characteristics of late
prehistoric sites in the southern Cascade Mountains include clamshell disk beads; pinenut beads; spire-lopped Olivella beads; Dentalium shell beads; flexed burials; and Desert
series projectile points (sometimes serrated ) (Elsasser 1978). Clam shell beads also
served as a medium of exchange, a standard of value, and a means of storing wealth for
the Pomo of northwestern California. It has been reported that the Pomo made
expeditions to Bodega Bay, just north of San Francisco, to acquire clam shells in
hundred pound loads. The shells were brought back and broken into small pieces,
shaped, drilled, strung, and ground on a flat stone to smoothen (Gifford 1926; Lowell
and Theodoratus 1978).
Ceramic Beads
Two ceramic beads (Cat.#s 32, 33) were recovered from Unit 2 (0-10
centimeter) surface scrape at Locus A (see Figure 6.16). These beads are of a flat disk
139
shape, are similar in size (1.1 centimeter in diameter), and have the same thickness (0.4
centimeters). Both are coated with a dark blue glaze on one surface.
Silver Beads
Two silver beads were recovered from the Unit 2 (0-10 centimeter) surface
scrape. The first (Cat.#14) is of biconical shape with no adornments; it measures 0.8 X
0.4 centimeters with a perforation of 0.2 centimeters. The second (Cat.#27) is
doughnut-shaped with no adornments; it measures 0.8 X 0.5 centimeters with a
perforation of 0.4 centimeters (Figure 6.17). These beads are believed to have been
crafted by Native Americans from the Southwest culture area.
MISCELLANEOUS PARAPHERNALIA
This assemblage includes two items assumed to be paraphernalia or
personal/group ritual items. The first (Cat.#177) was recovered from the surface at
Locus B and is a circular-shaped almost flat stone or limestone disc with rounded edges
and a slight depression on one side. This object is deliberately shaped and appears to
have been ground to smooth the surfaces and edges. The depression on one side
appears intentional.
The function of this artifact is unknown; however similar stones of this shape/size
(3.5 centimeters in diameter and 1.2 centimeter thickness) have been identified at
140
Fig. 6.16. Ceramic bead (Cat# 33).
Fig. 6.17. Silver beads (Cat.#s 14 and 27).
several southwestern sites, and are suggested to be gaming pieces and sometimes used
in (rain) rituals (Adams 202:194-195; Roberts 1940:126; Woodbury 1954:173).
Similar artifacts labeled discoidals have been noted at a number of sacred sites in
southern California and seem to serve no utilitarian function and are likely personal, for
gaming, or group ritual equipment. However southern California discoidals are
considerably larger on the average (average diameter size 9.3 cm and average thickness
of 5.3 cm) than specimen 177 (Figure 6.18) (McGuire and Hildebrandt 1994; Sutton
1978; Sutton and Koerper 2009; True and Beemer 1982; Warren et al. 1961).
141
Fig. 6.18. Limestone disc (Cat.#177).
The second (Cat.#166) miscellaneous item was recovered from Feature 2 at
Locus A and is a Hanksite crystal measuring 3.8 centimeters in length and 3.6
centimeters in diameter. These crystals are indigenous to the area and are just one that
makes up the abundant minerals of the evaporative deposits found at Searles Lake.
Hanksite crystals are found below the surface or by pumping brine to the surface and
are usually located at depths between 20 to 60 feet (Fairchild 2005).
FAUNAL REMAINS
The Mirror Point site faunal collection consists of 13 bone fragments. These
include a variety of horse or burro (Equus sp.) skeletal materials and one broken tine
from a small artiodactyl, probably a young deer (Table 6.12). The tine was likely used as
an antler hammer and is part of the Feature 12 artifact cache. The equid remains do not
142
Table 6.12 Faunal remains.
Faunal (bone)
Artiodactyl
(antler tip)(Cat.#173) (Feature
12)
Equus (burro/horse)(Cat.#150)
(Feature 38)
Equus (burro/horse) Surface
Finds
Locus A
1
Locus D
----
Locus C
----
Locus B
----
----
2 + fragments
----
----
----
-----
----
10 + fragments
appear to have been deliberately placed or brought to this area by humans. Wild burros
were noted grazing along the Slate Range during field investigations, so these remains
are likely the result of natural occurrences.
OBSIDIAN STUDIES
Thirty-five specimens were submitted for obsidian sourcing and dating.
Fourteen samples produced both a source and a reading. These results are compared to
indicate period of particular exploitation of obsidian resources and trade distances (Table
6.13).
Obsidian Sourcing
Eighteen obsidian artifacts were submitted to Northwest Research Obsidian
Studies Laboratory for energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence trace element provenance
analysis. A nondestructive trace element analysis of the samples was completed using a
Spectrace 5000 energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (Skinner and
Thatcher 2008:1).
Five geochemical groups, all of which were correlated with known obsidian
sources, were identified among the 18 obsidian artifacts analyzed. These analyses
produced both expected and unexpected results. Fifteen artifacts, including three
projectile points, eleven bifaces, and one edge modified flake correlated with sources
143
from the Coso Volcanic Field, two artifacts, one obsidian needle and one projectile point,
correlated with the Buck Mountain source in northeast California, and one biface
Table 6.13 Results of trace element studies.
Obsidian Source
Buck Mountain
Totals
2
Percentage
11.1
Coso (Sugarloaf Mountain)
Coso (West Cactus Peak)
Coso (West Sugarloaf)
Wild Horse Canyon
Total
2
2
11
1
18
11.1
11.1
61.1
5.6
100
correlated with the Wild Horse Canyon source in southwest Utah (Tables 6.14, 6.15;
Figures 6.20, 6.21, 6.22) (Skinner and Thatcher 2008:1).
The presence of obsidian from the Coso Volcanic Field is a common place
occurance at an array of sites throughout the southern Great Basin/northern Mojave
Desert (Elston and Zeier 1984; Gilreath and Hildebrandt 1997). However, the probability
of obsidian from Buck Mountain, located in northeast California, and Wild Horse Canyon,
located in southern Utah, being found at a southern California site while very slim, is not
unheard of (Macko et al. 2005; Skinner and Thatcher 2008: 3).
The Northwest Research Obsidian Studies Laboratory database was searched for
comparative data (Skinner 2010). Only six instances (including the Mirror Point) are
reported of Wild Horse Canyon obsidian showing up in California. Three came from CASBR-2033, one from the Mirror Point Site, one from CA-INY-378, and one from Deep
Springs Valley (Haarklau et al. 2005).
Buck Mountain obsidian in southern California is also rare, however a Buck
Mountain biface cache was found in Orange County (Macko et al. 2005). Besides the two
specimens from the Mirror Point site, there are only two other artifacts from this source
in San Bernardino County (Big Boulder Site and CA-SBR-1197). Additionally there are a
144
few other Buck Mountain artifacts that have shown up in Tulare, Inyo, and Kern
counties (N=4) (Skinner 2010).
Table 6.14 Obsidian flaked stone by source.
Artifact Type
Buck Mountain
Projectile Points
Bifaces
Obsidian Needle
Edge Modified
Flake
Total
1
Coso
(Sugarloaf
Mountain)
Coso
(West Cactus
Peak)
2
1
Coso
(West
Sugarloaf)
3
8
Wild
Horse
Canyon
1
11
1
1
1
2
2
2
Total
4
12
1
1
18
Table 6.15 Sourced Specimens
Specimen No.
Catalog No.
Geochemical Source
1
188
Artifact
2
189
3
175
Wild Horse Canyon
4
224
Biface blank
5
168
Buck Mountain
Obsidian (needle shaped piece)
6
138
Buck Mountain
7
113
Unknown type-projectile point
base
Biface blank
8
115
Biface blank
9
116
Biface fragment
10
117
Biface fragment
11
122
Biface fragment
12
221
Stemmed projectile point
13
8
Pinto projectile point
14
9
Biface fragment
15
10
Point tip
16
11
Biface midsection
17
109
Coso (Sugarloaf)
Biface
18
110
biface
biface blank
edge modified flake
flake
Rogers (2010) applied analysis correcting rim values for effective hydration
temperature (EHT) to the chemically sourced obsidian samples. Appendix C outlines the
results, and gives a detailed description of the theory and methods.
145
Obsidian Hydration Data
Seventeen obsidian specimens were submitted to Wickstrom (2008) for
obsidian hydration measurement (see Tables 6.16 and 6.17). The hydration rims were
measured using a stainfree 63 power objective and a Bauche & Lomb 10 power filar
micrometer eyepiece on a Leitz Ortholux model petrographic microscope with a 1.25
Fig. 6.20. Location of Mirror Point site in relation to obsidian sources.
146
Fig. 6.21. Needle shaped obsidian from Buck Mountain source (Cat.#168).
Fig. 6.22. Scatterplot of Zirconium (Zr) plotted versus Rubidium (Rb) for analyzed artifacts.
147
Table 6.16 Hydration Reading Results.
Cat. #
8
9
9
10
11
109
110
113
115
116
117
122
138
175
188
188
189
221
224
Description
Pinto point
Biface
Biface
Point tip
Biface midsection
Biface
Blade
Biface
Biface
Biface
Biface
Biface
Point
Biface
Core
Core
Edge-modified flake
Point
Point
Microns
1.9
4.2
2.9
4.2
13.1
12.4
9.1
11.2
15.1
6.4
6.5
5.7
3.1
3.1
13.4
11.4
Table 6.17 Hydrated and Sourced Obsidian Specimens
Cat #
Type
Pinto point
Hydration
Rate Rim
-
8
9
Biface
1.9
9
Biface
4.2
10
Point tip
2.9
11
Biface midsection
4.2
109
Biface
13.1
Coso (Sugarloaf)
110
Blade
12.4
113
Biface
9.1
115
Biface
11.2
116
Biface
15.1
117
Biface
6.4
138
Point Base
-
Buck Mountain
175
Biface
-
Wild Horse Canyon
188
Core
5.7
188
Core
3.1
189
3.1
221
Edge-modified
flake
Point
13.4
224
Point
11.4
148
Obsidian Source
power condenser. This yields a 787.5-power magnification of the specimen. Most of the
specimens (14 of 17) produced accurate readings.
Hydration values vary tremendously measuring from 1.9 to 15.1 microns. The
larger of the readings, 15.1 microns, came from a biface blank fragment recovered from
Unit 2 inside Surface Scrape 1 at Locus A. Other artifacts were examined from this same
location, but there is no real correlation in hydration values. In fact, the smallest reading
of 1.9 microns, taken from a retouched projectile point preform, was recovered from the
same locale as that which yielded the largest reading.
The readings do not signify a specific period in time, but represent several
episodes. Using the Coso hydration rate developed for lowland hydration studies by
Rosenthal and coworkers (2001), a mean value of less than 3.7 microns equates to
within the past 650 years BP or the Marana Period, 3.7 to 4.9 microns equates to 6501275 BP or the Haiwee Period; 4.9 to 7.65 microns equates to 1275-3500 BP or the
Newberry Period, 7.65 to 11.4 microns equates to 3500-6600 BP or the Little Lake
Period, while greater than 11.4 microns equates to anytime before 6600 BP or the Early
Period (Paleo-Indian times).
Twelve specimens have continuous hydration rims on their manufactured flaked
surfaces and were placed in a graph format (Figure 6.23). These specimens
demonstrate a high level of variability in age, thus it appears that all time periods are
represented. Two specimens (16.7%) date to the Marana Period, one (3.3%) falls into
the Haiwee Period, two date to the Newberry Period (16.7%), three date to the Little
Lake Period (25%), and four date to the Early Period or during Paleo-Indian times
(33%).
149
Thermoluminescence
Thermoluminescence (TL) dating was conducted at the Laboratory of
Archaeological Sciences, University of California, Davis on three ceramic sherds. These
include one rim sherd (Cat.#88), one body sherd (Cat.#90), and one base sherd
(Cat.#89). The buried sherd (Cat.#89) produced an older date the, however the dates
were fairly recent (Table 6.18).
Protein Residue Analysis
Cross-over immunoelectrophoresis (CIEP) analysis was conducted at the
Laboratory of Archaeological Sciences, California State University, Bakersfield on five
artifacts.
33.3
25.0
Marana (<650 BP)
Haiwee (650-1275 BP)
16.7
16.7
4
3
8.3
2
1
2
Percent
Number
(N=12)
Fig. 6.23 Obsidian hydration results.
150
Newberry (1275-3500
BP)
Little Lake (3500-6600
BP)
Early (>6600 BP)
Table 6.18 Pottery Dates
Artifact
Rim Sherd (Cat.#88)
Base Sherd (Cat.#89)
Body Sherd (Cat.90)
Location
Feature 5 Interior
Feature 5 Unit 3
0-30cm
Feature 12 Surface
Calibrated Date
AD 1749 +/- 19
AD 1298 +/- 59
AD 1940 +/- 24
These include two flaked (points) stone artifacts (Cat.#s 5, 25), two ground stone
artifacts (Cat.#s 10, 19), and one brownware rim sherd (Cat.#13). The residues were
tested against a variety of animal and plant antisera relevant to the study area. One
positive reaction for protein was registered on the brownware rim sherd. A positive for
bear indicates the presence of bear protein from either black or grizzly bear (Ursus sp.).
The absence of identifiable proteins on the remaining artifacts is likely due to either the
poor preservation of protein or because proteins present did not match up with any of
the organisms included in the available antisera (Yohe et al. 1991).
Typology and Chronology of Glass Beads
A total of 59 glass beads were recovered at Locus A during survey and
excavation. It has been pointed out that “most of the archaeological documents which
describe glass beads from the western Great Basin simply list the perceived attributes of
recorded varieties and make no pretext of standard description or classification
(Titchenal 1994:23).” This is perhaps due to time constraints or lack of interest on the
researcher’s part.
There are a handful of classification systems related to glass trade beads in
California and the Great Basin. One of the earliest attempts to explain and describe glass
beads was undertaken by Meighan (1955). Meighan’s system has endured over time in
some respects and has been used as a foundation for other classification systems in this
region (e.g., Gibson 1976; Titchenal 1994).
151
There are a few excellent methodologies that could have been applied for this
study (Ross 1990; Karklins 1982a; Karklin 1982b, Karklin 1982c; 1985; Kidd and Kidd
1970); however, Titchenal’s (1994) chronology for glass beads from California and the
western Great Basin was selected. This chronological system seems the most thorough,
practical, up-to-date, and applicable. Titchenal’s scheme was developed from analysis of
38,000 glass beads recovered from 10 sites in California. One of these sites was from
Colusa County, four were from Owens Valley, and five were located in the White
Mountains.
Titchenal’s approach is relatively simple and uses a three-step process that
creates a code for each bead. This analytical process begins with identification of the
method of manufacture using the following basic categories: cane bead (C), wire wound
bead (W), or molded bead (M). The next step involves identification of color, and for
this Titchenal assigns a number (0-9) to the 10 different acrylic colors outlined on a
color chart. The final step involves identification of the size category to which a bead
belongs: small-c (<4 mm), medium-b (4-10 mm), and large-a (>10 mm).
Using this three-step process, Titchenal identified 32 bead types. He then
extrapolated a time period for these types by way of temporal association or based on
the archaeological context from where these data were derived. Six time periods or
complexes were determined and are provided in Table 6.19 below.
Thirty-three beads could be placed within Titchenal’s chronology with certainty.
One is indicative of Complex A, five are indicative of Complex C, eight are indicative of
Complex D, 17 are indicative of Complex E, and two are indicative of Complex F . None
were indicative of Complex B. The remaining beads or nearly half of the beads (n=26)
152
did not fit exactly into Titchenal’s chronology and this lack of fit was typically due to a
difference in one variable, such as color or size.
Table 6.19 Titchenal’s glass bead chronology.
Complex
Date
A
1785-1820
B
1830-1845
C
1849-1856
D
1859-1864
E
1864-1880
F
1880-1900
Glass Bead Chronology
2
Complex F
17
Complex E
8
Complex D
5
Complex C
Complex B 0
1
Complex A
0
5
10
15
Fig. 6.25 Glass beads and associated complexes.
153
20
Table 6.20 Glass bead data.
Cat.
#
23
Unit 2-S.S.
Measurements lxwx
(Perf-diam)
7.74x6.46x(3.02)mm
28
Unit 2-S.S.
6.42x5.05x(2.21)mm
39
Unit 2-S.S.
9.72x8.28x(2.71)mm
67
Unit 2-S.S.
5.13x3.05x(2.13)mm
50
51
52
64
65
66
72
73
74
78
79
80
84
16
37
30
53
21
63
68
70
75
76
82
83
40
31
81
85
26
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
5.96x4.57x(2.5)mm
5.92x4.87x(2.41)mm
7.45x5.83x(2.54)mm
6.58x5.59x(2.60)mm
5.23x4.15x(1.94)mm
5.11x4.15x(1.93)mm
6.31x4.32x(2.85)mm
6.83x5.52x(2.74)mm
4.82x4.21x(2.56)mm
5.57x4.88x(1.30)mm
4.89x3.14x(2.23)mm
5.50x3.70x(1.79)mm
4.49x2.12x(1.94)mm
7.82x8.76x(3.53)mm
7.98x6.40x(2.07)mm
6.55x4.53x(1.36)mm
5.94x4.52x(3.15)mm
4.33x4.28x(2.03)mm
6.92x5.31x(3.25)mm
5.86x4.57x(2.34)mm
5.73x5.46x(2.57)mm
5.51x5.00x(1.99)mm
5.11x3.49x(3.01)mm
5.61x4.74x(1.98)mm
4.47x3.13x(1.78)mm
5.61x5.06x(2.04)mm
4.37x3.70x(0.16)mm
5.36x3.65x(2.90)mm
4.55x3.53x(2.05)mm
7.90x6.40x(2.73)mm
29
Unit 2-S.S.
6.34x6.51x(?)mm
71
Unit 2-S.S.
5.60x4.41x(2.43)mm
Location
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S
2-S.S
2-S.S
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
Bead Color (s)
Sand blasted-Blue?
Black painted on
White
White
w/gGold+Green
Flecks
White w/Green
paint
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
Creamy White
Blue
Black
Red w/White
Red w/White
Red w/White
Red w/White
Red w/White
Red w/White
Red w/White
Red w/White
Red on Black
Red w/Black
Red w/Black
Red and Green
Green and
Red/Fragmented
Red w/Green
154
Type
Complex
C?b
------
TimePeriod
-----
C?b
------
-----
C146b1
------
-----
C16b3
------
-----
C1b1
C1b1
C1b1
C1b1
C1b1
C1b1
C1b1
C1b1
C1b1
C1b1
C1b1
C1b1
C1b1
C1b2
C1b3
C1b1
C7b1
C?c
CC31b1
CC31b1
CC31b1
CC31b1
CC31b1
CC31b1
CC31b1
CC31b1
CC5?b1
CC5?b1
CC5?b1
CC56b1
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
--------D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
-----------------
1864-1880
1864-1880
1864-1880
1864-1880
1864-1880
1864-1880
1864-1880
1864-1880
1864-1880
1864-1880
1864-1880
1864-1880
1864-1880
1864-1880
1864-1880
1864-1880
--------1859-1864
1859-1864
1859-1864
1859-1864
1859-1864
1859-1864
1859-1864
1859-1865
-----------------
CC56b1
-----
-----
CC56b1
-----
-----
Table 6.20 (Continued) Glass bead data.
Cat.
#
35
36
49
25
59
38
56
57
58
62
Location
Type
Complex
C6b1
C6c1
CMG57b1
CMG5b1
CMG5b1
CMG6b1
CMG6b1
CMG6b1
CMG7b1
CMG7b1
A?
A
------------C
C
C
C
C
TimePeriod
1785-1820
1785-1820
------------1849-1856
1849-1856
1849-1856
1849-1856
1849-1856
CM556b1
-----
-----
CMS8b1
CMS8b1
CMS8b1
CMS8b1
CMS9b1
----------------F
----------------1880-1900
44
Unit 2-S.S.
7.83x7.74x(3.5)mm
20
24
48
77
22
Unit 2-S.S.
Unit 2-S.S.
Unit 2-S.S.
Unit 2-S.S.
Unit 2-S.S.
SurfaceLocus A
Locus A
Unit 2-S.S.
Unit 2-S.S.
SurfaceLocus A
Unit 2-S.S.
7.88x9.06x(3.95)mm
8.20x7.09x(3.75)mm
4.74x4.70x(2.73)mm
5.74x3.95x(2.26)mm
7.56x8.14x(4.74)mm
15.62x11.0(4.08)mm
Amber
W0a1
-----
-----
15.0x14.0x(4x6)mm
7.52x4.65x(2.37)mm
4.86x3.70x(2.10)mm
Amber
Red
Red
W0a1
W5b1
W5b1
-------------
-------------
14.96x11.07x(4.72)mm
Cobalt Blue
W7a1
E
1864-1880
9.75x5.53x(4.34)mm
Light Blue
W9a1
F
1880-1900
173
47
69
147
19
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
2-S.S.
Bead Color (s)
Green
Green
Red w/Blue
Red/Black/Hexigonal
Red w/Black
Green/hexigonal
Green/hexigonal
Green/hexigonal
Blue/Hexigonal
Blue/Hexigonal
Green w/RedHexigonal
Clear/Hexagonal
Clear/Hexagonal
Clear/Hexagonal
Clear/Hexagonal
Light Blue-Hexigonal
148
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Measurements lxwx
(Perf-diam)
7.53x4.17x(3.87)mm
2.77x1.43x(1.32)mm
6.08x5.12x(3.21)mm
7.95x6.25x(3.44)mm
4.47x4.15x(2.55)mm
8.52x6.47x(4.49)mm
5.25x5.42x(2.23)mm
5.70x5.18x(3.36)mm
4.75x5.01x(2.48)mm
4.52x5.41x(3.37)mm
Granted it was not possible for Titchenal to identify all possible colors for beads.
For example, blue or green, medium sized, hexagonal beads (CMG7b1 or CMG6b1) are
indicative of Complex C according to Titchenal, though the Mirror Point sample includes
(four) clear, medium size, hexagonal (CMG8b1), a type that is very similar, but a color
type that is not included. In addition, several of the beads from the Mirror Point site are
black or mixed with black (compound color (CC), a color not represented by Titchenal’s
color chart.
155
CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The objectives of the archaeological investigations at the Mirror Point site (CASBR-12134/H) were to extract information regarding rock feature function and the
ideotechnic beliefs of its prehistoric site occupants. The following material outlines the
results of the fieldwork and laboratory analysis from the site. These results are
generated from the research design as outlined in Chapter 4. Specifically, questions
include site chronology, ritual/ceremonial use, and interaction spheres between different
prehistoric groups.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Occupation at the Mirror Point Site
1) During what prehistoric periods was the site occupied?
2) Was the occupation of the site represented by a single period or is it a
multi-component expression?
Chronology of an archaeological site can be ascertained through relative dating
methods that include the recovery and analysis of temporally diagnostic artifacts, such
as projectile points, beads, milling equipment, and source specific temperature adjusted
obsidian hydration dates. Additionally, thermoluminescence dating of the pottery sherds
provided further chronological data on the occupation of CA-SBR-12134/H.
The European glass trade beads can be classified as a type spanning the late
18th century (AD 1785) to the early 19th century (AD 1900) with the majority dating
between AD 1864 and AD 1880 (Titchenal 1994).
Milling equipment has been present in the Mojave Desert archaeological record
since at least 7,000 BP. The presence of ground stone artifacts suggests that the site
was visited during a period when milling equipment was of importance. Though there is
156
no evidence to suggest that food was being processed at this site, the archaeological
chronology for this region indicates a marked increase in milling equipment during the
Late Holocene.
Thermoluminescence dating on the three pottery sherds produced various dates
(AD 1298-AD 1940). These include one rim sherd, one body sherd, and one base sherd
found below the surface which produced an older date.
Six projectile points and point fragments were recovered at the site. Three of
these points are temporally diagnostic and include one Desert Side-notched (post-650
cal. BP), one Pinto (7000-4000 cal. BP), and one Lake Mojave (10000-7000 cal. BP).
The obsidian hydration readings on the seventeen obsidian artifact specimens
indicate a high level of variability in age. Two specimens (16.7%) date to the Marana
Period (650 BP-AD 1850), one (3.3%) falls into the Haiwee Period (650 BP-1275 BP),
two date to the Newberry Period (1275 BP-3500 BP)(16.7%), three date to the Little
Lake Period (3500 BP-6600 BP) (25%), and four date to the Early Period (pre-7000 BP)
or during Paleo-Indian times (33%).
Together the data provide evidence to suggest that the site was visited
intermittently over an extremely long period of time from the Early to Late Holocene.
Despite the variation in dates, the majority of chronological data suggests site visitation
peaked during the Marana Period.
Rock Feature Function at the Mirror Point Site
A review of the anomalous rock features is presented in Chapter 4. This review
may yield insight into function of rock features at the Mirror Point site. Particularly, two
models were developed to determine rock feature function in the Great Basin. Other
studies of rock features are also considered to explore probable function.
157
3) Are any of the rock features characteristics found at the Mirror Point site
consistent with any category of the “Delacorte Model?”
4) Are any of the rock features characteristics found at the Mirror Point site
consistent with the “Vierra Model?”
There is no evidence to suggest that the rock features at the Mirror Point site
coincide with Delacorte’s Model (1995) regarding features described as
house/habitation, threshing floor, or wall/windbreak. However, there are some
similarities to what Delacorte labels enigmatic features or “cairns.” These similarities do
not include size in that the mean length/width/height of cairns on the Volcanic Tableland
is 4.18m/2.96m/60cm to 104cm and the mean length/width/height of alignments at the
Mirror Point site is 1.m/.50m/9cm and cairns are 1.31m/1.22m/14cm (Figure 5.1).
Delacorte (1995) suggests that the rock features at the Volcanic Tablelands were
constructed as either storage facilities, dismantled houses, or as burial tombs, though
these suggestions could not be substantiated because excavations were not conducted.
The rock features at the Mirror Point are similar in that they were used to cache
artifacts, however no burials were encountered. Further, there is no evidence to suggest
that any of the features are the result of dismantled houses. Similarities include cairn
style/design, and lack of artifacts with some (Locus B and D).
Furthermore, there is no evidence to suggest that any of the rock features at the
Mirror Point site are consistent with the rock features described by Vierra (1986),
including his attributes of pinyon caches, hunting blinds, roasting ovens, or house rings.
Locational aspects were considered for these determinations, as were aspects of use,
and construction aspects. None of these factors coincide with the rock feature traits at
the Mirror Point site. There are only slight similarities with regards to length and/or
158
width though specific shapes/ designs of these proposed feature categories did not
coincide with cairns or alignments at the Mirror Point site.
Mirror Point Site Rock Features vs. Tipi Rings on the North American Plains
5) How do the rock features in the Mojave Desert and even more specifically
at the Mirror Point site compare to the ubiquitous rock features referred to
as “tipi rings” found on the North American Plains?
As outlined in Chapter 4, tipi rings on the Plains of North America are morphologically
similar to some rock features in California and the Great Basin and, like their counterparts, are
generally ambiguous with regard to function. Typically tipi rings are found along butte tops,
barren ridges, small topographic rises, and along stream terraces suitable to support habitation
(DeMallie and Frison 2001). Tipi rings are also noted for their lack of cultural materials,
apparently more so than their rock feature counterparts to the west.
To reiterate, there is speculation over the function of these rock features, although most
assume they represent the remnants of skin covered housing structures. It has been
hypothesized that, given the highly nomadic life of indigenous peoples on the Plains, minimal
data can be expected when conducting excavation of these features (DeMallie and Frison 2001;
Kehoe 1958; Malouf 1961).
Comparatively speaking, rock features at the Mirror Point site are located in an area not
suitable for habitation, particularly in late prehistoric and early historic times. None of the rock
feature attributes for the Mirror Point site’s elements are similar to that of tipi rings or could
they best be considered as foundations for housing structures. Also, artifacts are present at the
Mirror Point site.
159
Religious Use
Given its unique location and abundance of non-utilitarian artifacts it is likely that the
Mirror Point Site was occupied for ritualistic/ceremonial purposes. This probability might yield
additional insights given these considerations into the ideology of prehistoric populations in the
Mojave Desert.
6) Is there data at this site that reveals what types of ceremonial activities were
taking place? How do these rock features at the Mirror Point site coincide with
other known religious sites?
7) Is there enough evidence to suggest that this site is a Puha or power site?
8) Is there evidence to support an ideological interaction sphere otherwise known as
the Middle Holocene Western Nexus?
The cairns and alignments at the Mirror Point site trend west to east. They face the
Searles Lake playa (west) with the Slate Mountains laying directly behind them (east). The view
north from the site is that of the Argus Mountain Range and to the south the Slate Range is
visible. On a clear day it is possible to see the Trona Pinnacles. The site itself is situated on an
alluvial fan below the ancient Searles Lake shoreline. There is some alluvial debris runoff from
the Slate Range; with debris and rocks being employed for construction of the rock features.
The layout of the features points towards Searles Lake playa, thus fixing visitors to an axis of
possible symbolic significance.
There are a number of known archaeological sites in the Slate Mountain Range
and there are a number of probable trail systems leading across this range to the Mirror
Point site. A specific prehistoric route to this area is not known at this time, however it is
possible there were several trails. Nevertheless, it is certain that historic roads/routes
were used during later visitations when mining activities were taking place. Ceremonial
160
activities and mining activities could possibly have been contemporaneous, however
there is no ethnographic evidence to support this (Garfinkel et al. 2007).
There are definite spatial gaps between Loci A, B, and D. Although artifacts were
noted at all of these areas the highest concentrations were consistently at Locus A.
Furthermore, charcoal, strategically placed rocks, and large numbers of artifacts
concentrated at Locus A suggest this area was used more than Loci B and D. Again, the
absence of utilitarian features/artifacts, lack of economic resources, water, and housing
structures indicates that this site was visited only occasionally for short periods of time
and not for conventional subsistence and settlement purposes.
The rock features at CA-SBR-12134/H appear to reflect a deliberate arrangement
of rocks that serve no known conventional utilitarian purpose but do exhibit a deliberate
shape/design with some features explicitly employed as cache receptacles, however this
cannot be definitively proven. Stones used in the construction of the features vary in
size and color. Some of the rocks being brought in from other areas as manuports, but
most of the other stones occurring natural in the immediate area. The semi-enclosed
rock feature at Locus A contains an uplifted rock (pointing up) centerpiece or what von
Werlhof (1989) refers to as an axis mundi or sighting stone.
The M iddle Holocene W estern Nex us
There is no evidence to suggest the site was part of an ideological interaction
sphere referred to as the Middle Holocene Western Nexus by Sutton and Kroeper
(2009). Sites attributed to this sphere are marked by four categories of cached artifacts.
Only a few markers from these four categories were noted at the site: large bifaces and
stone discoidals, though the presence of milling gear, Buck Mountain obsidian, and a
Pinto point are indicative. Hence, there is no substantial evidence in the form of artifacts
161
(style) or temporal grounds (markers) to argue that this site was occupied exclusively
during the Middle Holocene.
Hunter-Gatherers as Optim al Foragers
The occupants at the Mirror Point site seemingly exhibited several characteristics
similar of a traveler strategy as defined by Bettinger and Baumhoff (1982). Specifically,
to acquire artifacts such as shell beads, silver beads, Coso obsidian, Buck Mountain
obsidian, and Wild Horse Canyon obsidian the occupants or participants would have had
to trade/travel considerable distances or the objects could have been passed through
the hands of an unknown number of middlemen before being deposited at the Mirror
Point Site.
The duration of use of the site would have been brief and the distances between
site area and use areas would have been a considerable journey. It is assumed that the
population density at the Mirror Point site would have been low. The sex ratio is
speculative, however most of the artifacts are indicative of a male presence (bifaces,
projectile points, raw obsidian, bow fragment, antler/tine) however there are ground
stone and ceramics which are typically linked to women.
To the contrary these occupants would have likely fit the processor model in their
day to day life (Late Prehistoric Period; Ethnohistoric Period) (Table 2.1). As noted in
Chapter 2, according to Bettinger and Baumhoff (1982) Numic populations, by A.D.
1000, were firmly adapted to this processor strategy, which enabled them to spread east
into the Great Basin. The groups they were replacing had a differing subsistence
settlement mode known as a traveler strategy. It is possible that these behaviors were
likely carried over via cultural transmission or conformity bias from earlier behaviors
(Henrich and McElreath 2003). However, there is not enough data from this study to
162
support any of these models. In general, the meager evidence suggests this site was
visited only on occasion or/and intermittently.
Puha
There is, however, evidence to suggest that in late prehistoric and ethnohistoric
times the Mirror Point site was possibly used as a Puha site or a place in which
individuals gathered to collect power. This notion is based upon ethnographic data
collected on groups in the Great Basin (Steward 1940; Thomas et al. 1986; Stoffle and
Arnold 2006). Puha is said to come from certain items many of which were/are present
at the site: cairns, bow fragment, stones, obsidian, glue, crystals, pottery, bear (protein
detected on pottery). Puha is also described like water that moves downhill and
concentrates attracting elements of the spiritual world.
Cultural Transm ission
It is most logical that this site was visited intermittently for religious purposes.
Based on ethnographic data regarding Great Basin religion, it is likely that these
behaviors were caused by earlier exchanges of information by way of nongenetic
mechanisms or via conformity and success/prestige bias. These behaviors would have
almost certainly been ascertained by copying beliefs, behaviors, and strategies of known
successful groups or individuals. However these ideas needs to be further investigated
for validation.
Landscape Archaeology
Allen (2011) notes that “Archaeologists trapped in the confines of a site, or even
an immediate cluster of sites, are in danger of missing the big picture entirely.” With this
said, architectural evidence at the Mirror Point site is poor; however it does suggest that
these 110 rock features were laid out in a deliberate and meaningful way over the
landscape on an alluvial fan overlooking Searles Lake. The features are outlined as to
163
point towards the lake or in a westerly direction. The architecture is seemingly nonutilitarian, thus the overall approach seems to be a symbolic gesture and perhaps
synonymous with particular religious beliefs (Puha).
The rock structures are of deliberate construction; design and shape only slightly
vary. Based on the evidence collected to date it is possible that these features were
constructed for the following purposes: 1) to cache or store artifacts; 2) to mark a
symbolically important location; 3) to mark a travel route. Other potential purposes that
should be explored in the future: 1) astrological significance; 2) burials; 3) an overall
cohesive design or shape that has not been deciphered in this study but may exist.
Although speculative, it is believed that the rock features are situated and located
in a manner that is conducive to private rather than public viewing. This suggests that
the ideology is linked to the power and forces of nature and select visitors. While the
visitors could come and go, the features remain on the landscape perhaps paying
homage to a number of possible geographic features including Searles playa, Slate
Range, Argus Range, Trona Pinnacles, and the El Paso Mountains.
Summary
Interpretations of the material remains and rock features at CA-SBR-12134/H
suggest that the site was visited intermittently from prehistoric to historic times.
However there is no possible way at this time to date the construction of rock features.
This site was probably visited by pilgrims as part of a religious journey or a Puha
journey. The rock features mark the site for religious reasons. Due to the moderate
number of artifacts and artifact caches at Locus A it is believed that most of the site
activities took place there within the semi-enclosed rock feature. In support it has been
164
demonstrated that the maintenance of ritual paraphernalia by modern ceremonial
societies historically occurs in highly restricted areas (Whittaker and Kaldahl 2001).
The layout of the features points towards the Searles Lake playa, which was likely
considered sacred in addition to a number of aforementioned geological features which
can be seen from the site. Evidence strongly suggests this site was occupied in late
prehistoric and early historic times and on an intermittent basis, however an exact age is
difficult to pin point. Future research at this prehistoric site complex should focus on
trails and natural passageways that cut across the desert and mountains to reach this
remote area.
165
Investigations at the Mirror Point Site (CA-SBR-12134/H) REFERENCES CITED
REFERENCES CITED
Adams, J. L.
2002 Archaeological Approach: Ground Stone Analysis. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
Allen, M. W.
2004 Investigation at Red Mountain Paper presented at the Great Basin Anthropology
Conference, Sparks, Nevada, October 15, 2004.
-2011 Landscape Archaeology in the Mojave Desert. California Archaeology 3(1):11-30.
Ammerman, A. J., and M. W. Feldman
1974 On the Making of an Assemblage of Stone Tools. American Antiquity 39:610-616.
Anquandah, J. A.
1987 The Stone Circle Site of Komoland Ghana, in West African Archaeology. The African
Archaeological Review, Vol. 5, Papers in Honor of J. Desmond Clark, pp. 171-180.
Apostolides, A.
1969 Kern County, California – The Saltdale Quadrangle: Archaeological Survey, Summary to 1
Feb 1969. Copy on file at the Southern San Joaquin Valley Information Center.
Austin, S. W.
1910 S.W. Austin Diary on file at Trona Historical Society, Trona, California.
Baldwin, B. G., S. Boyd, B. J. Ertter, R. W. Patterson, T. J. Rosatti, and D. H. Wilken,
2002 The Jepson Desert Manual Vascular Plants of Southeastern California. Berkeley: University
of California Press.
Barrett, S. A. and E. W. Gifford,
1933 Indian Life of the Yosemite Region Miwok Material Culture. Bulletin of Milwaukee Public
Museum: Volume 2, Number 4.
Basgall, M. E.
1987 Paleoindian Occupation in Central-Eastern California: The Komodo Site. Current Research
in the Pleistocene 4:50-54.
-1989 Obsidian Acquisition and Use in Prehistoric Central-Eastern California. In Current
Directions in California Obsidian Studies, edited by R. E. Hughes, pp. 111-126. Contributions of
the University of California Archaeological Research Facility, No. 45.
-1990 Early Holocene Faunal Exploitation in the Mojave Desert. Paper presented at the 24th
meeting of the Society for California Archaeology, Foster City.
-1993 Early Holocene Prehistory of the North-Central Mojave Desert. Unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, University of California, Davis.
166
-2000 Morphological and Temporal Variation in Bifurcate-Stemmed Dart Points of the Western
Great Basin. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 22:237-276.
-2007 Prehistoric People in an Evolving Landscape: A Sample Survey of the China Lake Basin
and its Implications for Paleo-Indian Land Use. Archaeological Research Center Department of
Anthropology California State University, Sacramento. Draft report submitted to the
Environmental Projects Office, Naval Air Weapons Station, China Lake, California.
Basgall, M. E., and M. C. Hall
1990 Adaptive Variation in the North-Central Mojave Desert. Paper presented at the 55th annual
meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Las Vegas.
-1991 Relationships between Fluted and Stemmed Points in the Mojave Desert. Current
Research in the Pleistocene 8:61-64.
-1993 Observations on Morphological and Temporal Variation of Pinto Points from the
Southwestern Great Basin. Paper presented at the 27th Annual Meeting of the Society for
California Archaeology, Asilomar.
-1994a Variation in Prehistoric Milling Technologies of the North-central Mojave Desert. Paper
presented at the 24th Biennial Great Basin Anthropological Conference, Elko, Nevada.
-1994b Perspectives on the Early Holocene Archaeological Record of the Mojave Desert. In:
Kelso Conference Papers 1987-1992. Museum of Anthropology, California State University,
Bakersfield, Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 4.
-2000 Morphological and Temporal Variation in Bifurcate-Stemmed Dart Points of the Western
Great Basin. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 22:237-276.
Basgall, M. E., W. R. Hildebrandt, and M. C. Hall
1986 Some Perspectives on Middle Holocene Subsistence Strategies in the Mojave Desert,
California. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Great Basin Anthropological
Conference, October, Las Vegas, Nevada.
Basgall, M. E., and M.G. Delacorte
2003 Phase II Evaluations at Nine Archaeological Sites Near Independence, Inyo County,
California. Fresno, report to the California Department of Transportation.
Basgall, M. E., and M. A. Giambastiani
1995 The Role of Structures. In: Prehistoric Use of Marginal Landscape: Continuity and Change
in Occupation of the Volcanic Tablelands, Mono and Inyo Counties, California, M.E. Basgall and
M.A. Giambastiani, eds., pp.257-261. Davis: Center for Archaeological Research, Publication
No.12.
-2000 An Archaeological Evaluation of 13 Locations in the Deadman Lake Basin, Marine Corps
Air Ground Combat Center, Twenty-nine Palms, California. Report on file, Marine Corps Air
Ground Center, Twenty-nine Palms.
Basgall, M. E. and K. R. McGuire
167
-1988 The Archaeology of CA-INY-30: Prehistoric Culture Change in the Southern Owens Valley,
California. Report submitted to California Department of Transportation, Sacramento.
Bedwell, S. F.
1973 Fort Rock Basin: Prehistory and Environment of the Pluvial Fort Rock Lake Area of
Southcentral Oregon. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of
Oregon, Eugene.
Beldon, L. B. and M. DeDecker
2005 Death Valley to Yosemite: Frontier Mining Camps & Ghost Towns. Bishop, California:
Spotted Dog Press, Inc.
Bennyhoff, J. A. and R. Hughes
1987 Shell Bead Exchange Networks Between California and the Western Great Basin.
Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 64: 79-175.
Benson, L. V., D. R. Currey, R. I. Dorn, K. R. Lajoie, C. G. Oviatt, S. W. Robinson, G. I. Smith,
and S. Stine
1990 Chronology of Expansion and Contraction of Four Great Basin Lake Systems During the
Past 35,000 Years. Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology 78:241-286.
Bettinger, R. L.
1977 Aboriginal Human Ecology in Owens Valley, Eastern California: Prehistoric Change in the
Great Basin. American Antiquity 43:3-17.
-1982 Aboriginal Exchange and Territoriality in Owens Valley, California. In Contexts for
Prehistoric Exchange, edited by J. E. Ericson and T. K. Earle, pp. 103-127. Academic Press, New
York.
-1989 The Archaeology of Pinyon House, Two Eagles and Crater Middens: Three Residential
Sites in Owens Valley, Eastern California. American Museum of Natural History Anthropological
Papers 67.
-1991 Hunters-Gatherers Archaeological and Evolutional Theory. New York: Plenum Press.
Bettinger, R. L., and M. A. Baumhoff
1982 The Numic Spread: Great Basin Cultures in Competition. American Antiquity 47(3): 485503.
Bettinger, R. L., and J. W. Eerkens
1999 Point Typologies, Cultural Transmission, and the Spread of the Bow-And-Arrow Technology
in the Prehistoric Great Basin. American Antiquity, 64(2): 231-242.
Bettinger, R. L., and R. E. Taylor
1974 Suggested Revisions in Archaeological Sequences of the Great Basin and Interior Southern
California. In A Collection of Papers on Great Basin Archaeology, edited by R. Elston and L.
Sabini, pp. 1-26. Nevada Archaeological Survey Research Paper 5. Reno.
Bettinger, R. L., M. G. Delacorte, and R. Jackson
168
-1984 Visual Sourcing of Central California Obsidians. In Obsidian Studies in the Great Basin,
edited by R. H. Hughes, pp. 63-78. Contributions of the University of California Archaeological
Research Facility, 45.
Bettinger, R. L., and T. F. King
1971 Interaction and Political Organization: A Theoretical Framework for Archaeology in the
Owens Valley, California. Annual Reports of the University of California Archaeological Survey
13:139-150.
Biddick, K.
1993 Decolonizing the English Past: Readings in Medieval Archaeology and History. Journal of
British Studies 32(1):1-24.
Binford, L. R.
1962 Archaeology as Anthropology. American Antiquity. 28:217-225.
-1973 Interassemblage variability-The Mousterian and the “functional argument.” In The
explanation of cultural change: models in prehistory, edited by C. Renfrew, pp. 227-253.
Duckworth, London.
-1976 Forty-seven trips : a case study in the character of some formation processes of the
archaeological record. In The interior peoples of northern Alaska, edited by E.S. Hall, Jr., pp.
299-381. National Museum of Man, Mecury Series 49.
- 1978a Nunamiut Ethnoarchaeology. New York: Academic Press.
-1978b Dimensional Analysis of Behavior and Site Structure: Learning from an Eskimo Hunting
Stand. American Antiquity 43:330-361.
-1979 Organization and formation processes: looking at curated technologies Journal of
Anthropological Research 35:255-273.
-1987 Researching Ambiguity: Frames of Reference and Site Structure. In: Methods and Theory
for Activity Area Research: An Ethnoarchaeological Approach, S. Kent, ed., pp. 449-512. New
York: Columbia Press.
Boyd, R., and P. J. Richardson
-1985 Culture and Evolutionary Process. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Boyles, J. C.
1940 He Witnessed the Death Valley Tragedy of 49’. Desert Magazine 3:3-6.
Brott, C. W.
1966 Artifacts of the San Dieguito Complex. Ancient Hunters of the Far West, edited by M.J.
Rogers, pp. 141-193. Union Tribune Publishing Company, San Diego, California.
Brush, L.
2008 Personal Communication.
169
Cairns, P.
1975 A Report on Circular Stone Features Associated with Coastal Shell Middens at Cape St.
Francis. South African Archaeological Bulletin 30 (117/118): 36-39.
Callahan, E.
1979 The Basics of Biface Knapping in the Eastern Fluted Points Tradition: A Manual for
Flintknappers and Lithic Analysts. Archaeology of Eastern North America 7(1):1-80.
Campbell, W. S.
1927 The Tipis of the Crow Indians. American Anthropologist 29(1):87-104.
Catlin, G.
1844 Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians.
London 1:43.
Chartkoff, J. L.
1983 A Rock Feature Complex from Northwestern California. American Antiquity 48(4): 745-760.
Cerveny, N. V., R. Kaldenberg, J. Reed, D. S. Whitley, J. Simon, and R. I. Dorn
2006 A New Strategy for Analyzing the Chronometry of Constructed Rock Features in Deserts.
Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 21 (3): 281-303.
Cole, S. M.
1963 The Prehistory of East Africa. MacMillian Company. London.
Crapo, R.
1976 Big Smokey Valley Shoshone. Reno: Desert Research Institute Publications in the Social
Sciences No. 10.
Davis-King, S.
2007 Interpreting Tono’musa, A Place North of Keeler on Owens Lakeshore: Ethnographic
Overview of East Owens Lake with Comments on Western Great Basin Cairns. Bureau of Land
Management, Bishop, Field Office.
Davis, E. L.
1975 The Exposed Archaeology of China Lake, California. American Antiquity 40 (1):53-93.
Davis, E. L., and R. Shutler
1969 Recent Discoveries of Fluted Points in California and Nevada. Miscellaneous Papers on
Nevada Archaeology, edited by D.L. Rendall and D.R. Tuohy. Nevada State Museum
Anthropological Papers 14(7): 154-169. Carson City.
Davis, C. A., and G. A. Smith
1981 Newberry Cave. Redlands: San Bernardino County Museum Association.
170
Davis, E. L., and C. Panlaqui (eds.)
1978 The Ancient Californians: Rancholabrean Hunters of the Mojave Lakes Country. Los
Angeles County Museum of Natural History Science Series 29.
Davis, E. L. and S. Winslow
1965 Giant Ground Figures of the Prehistoric Deserts. Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society109(1):1-9.
d’ Azevedo, W. L.
1986 Handbook of North American Indians. Volume 11: Great Basin. Washington D.C.:
Smithsonian Press.
Dawkins, R.
1976 The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press, New York.
Delacorte, M. G.
1990 The Prehistory of Deep Springs Valley, Eastern California: Adaptive Variation in the
Western Great Basin. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California Davis.
-1995 The Role of Structures. In: Prehistoric Use of Marginal Landscape: Continuity and Change
in Occupation of the Volcanic Tablelands, Mono and Inyo Counties, California, M.E. Basgall and
M.A. Giambastiani, eds., pp.257-261. Davis: Center for Archaeological Research, Publication
No.12.
DeMallie, R. J. and G. C. Frison
2001 Handbook of North American Indians: Plains. Washington: Smithsonian Institution. Vol.13
Part 1 of 2.
Desautels, N. A., H. C. Kroerper, and J. S. Couch.
2005 A Birdstone and Phallic Pestle Cache. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology
25:109-118.
Dillehay, T. D.
1990 Mapuche Ceremonial Landscape. Social Recruitment and Resource Rights. World
Archaeology. Monuments and the Monumental 22 (2):223-241.
Douglas, G. A., D. L. Jenkins, and C. N. Warren
1988 Spatial and Temporal Variability in Faunal Remains from Four Lake Mohave-Pinto Period
Sites in the Mojave Desert. In Early Human Occupation in Far Western North America: The
Clovis-Archaic Interface, edited by J. A. Willig, C. M. Aikens, and J. L. Fagan. Nevada State
Museum Anthropological Papers Carson City 21: 131-151
Ebert, J. I.
1979 An ethnoarchaeological approach to reassessing the meaning of variability in stone tool
assemblages. In Ethnoarchaeology: implications of ethnography for archaeology, edited by C.
Kramer, pp. 59-74. Columbia University Press, New York.
171
Eckhardt, W. and M. J. Hatley
1982 The Archaeology of Owl Canyon and Stoddard Valley, Mojave Desert. Corner Stone
Research Publications, Bureau of Land Management, Riverside District Office.
Eddy, John A.
1979 Medicine Wheels and Plains Indian Astronomy. In Astronomy of the Ancients, edited by
Kenneth Brecher and Michael Feirtag, pp 1-24. The MIT Press, Cambridge Massachusetts and
London England.
Eerkens, J. W., and J. H. King
2002 Phase II Archaeological Investigations for the Sherwin Summit Rehabilitation Project, U. S.
Highway 395, Inyo and Mono Counties, California. Far Western Anthropological Research Group,
Inc., Davis, California. Report Prepared for California Department of Transportation, Fresno,
California.
Eerkens, J. W., C. P. Lipo
2007 Cultural Transmission Theory and the Archaeological Record: Providing Context to
Understanding Variation and Temporal Changes in Material Culture. Journal Archaeological
Research 15:239-274.
Elsasser, A. B.
1978 Development of Regional Prehistoric Cultures. In: Handbook of North American Indians
Volume 8, edited by Robert F. Heizer, pp. 37-57. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Elston, R. G.
1986 Prehistory of the Western Area. In Great Basin, edited by David B. Madsen and James F.
O’Connell, pp. 186-206. Society for American Archaeology Papers 2, Washington D.C.
Elston, R. G. and C. D. Zeier
1984 The Sugarloaf Obsidian Quarry. Intermountain Research for the Public Works Department
and Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, California
Erwin, D. M., and H. E. Schorn
n.d. Preliminary Report on Tufa-Encrusted Trees From Late Pleistocene Searles Lake, Pioneer
Point, Northwestern San Bernardino County, California. Paleontological Resource Assessment
Report Prepared for the Bureau of Land Management, Ridgecrest, CA Field Office.
Fairbanks, C. H., A. R. Kelly, G. R. Willey, and P. W. Wofford, Jr.
1946 The Leake Mounds, Bartow County, Georgia. American Antiquity 12(2): 126-127.
Fairchild, J.
-2005 Trona, California Geology, History, Mineral Extraction and Products. Searles Valley
Historical Society.
Farrer, C. R.
1984 Is There an American Stonehenge? The Journal of American Folklore 97(385): 379-380.
172
Fisher, J. W., and H. C. Strickland
1989 Ethnoarchaeology among the Efe Pygmies, Zaire: Spatial Organization of Campsites.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 78:473-484.
Fletcher, T. C.
1987 Paiute, Prospector, Pioneer The Bodie-Mono Lake Area in the Nineteenth Century. Bishop,
California: Community Printing and Publishing.
Flemming, A.
1988 The Dartmoor Reaves: Investigating Prehistoric Land Divisions. London: Batsford.
Fowler, C. S., M. Dufort, M. Rusco
1994 Residence without Reservation: Ethnographic Overview and Traditional Land Use Study,
Timbisha Shoshone, Death Valley National Monument, California. On file at Timbisha Shoshone
Tribal Office, Death Valley, California.
Fowler, C. S. and S. Liljeblad
1986 Owens Valley Paiute in Handbook of North American Indians. Ed., by d’ Azeverdo, W. L.,
262-283. Volume 11: Great Basin. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Press.
Fowler, Don D., and Catherine Fowler
1971 Anthropology of the Numa: John Wesley Powell’s Manuscripts on the Numic Peoples of
Western North America, 1868-1880. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology No. 14.
Gallagher, J. P.
1977 Contemporary Stone Tools in Ethiopia: Implications for Archaeology. Journal of Field
Archaeology. 4:407-414.
Gardner, J. K.
2002 Testing a Regional Model of Changing Settlement and Subsistence Patterns in the Western
Mojave Desert: Results from the Coffee Break Site. Coyote Press Archives of Great Basin
Prehistory, No. 6.
Garfinkel, A. P.
2007 Archaeology and Rock Art of the Eastern Sierra and Great Basin Frontier. Ridgecrest,
California: Maturango Press.
Giambastiani, M. A.
2007 An Archaeological Survey of 20,121 Acres in the Spangler Hills Open Area and on Adjacent
Lands Within Searles Valley, Inyo County, California. ASM Affiliates, Reno, Nevada. Prepared for
Bureau of Land Management Ridgecrest Field Office, Ridgecrest, California.
Gifford, E. W.
1926 Clear Lake Pomo Society. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and
Ethnology 18(2):287-390. Berkeley.
173
Gibson, R. O.
1976 A study of Beads and Ornaments from the San Buenaventura Mission Site (CA-VEN-87). In
the Changing faces of Main Street. Redevelopment Agency, City of San Buenaventura, California.
Gifford, D. P.
1977 Observations of Contemporary Human Settlements as an Aid to Archaeological
Interpretation. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
Gilreath, A. J.
1995 Archaeological Evaluations of Thirteen Sites for the Ash Creek Project, Inyo County,
California. Report submitted to California Department of Transportation, District, 9, Bishop,
California.
Gilreath, A. J., and W. R. Hildebrandt
1997 Prehistoric Use of the Coso Volcanic Field. Contributions of the University of California
Archaeological Research Facility 56. Berkeley.
Grant, C.
1978 Island Chumash. In Handbook of North American Indians Volume 8, edited by Robert F.
Heizer, pp. 37-57. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Grayson, D. K.
1993 The Desert’s Past: The Natural Prehistory of the Great Basin. Washington, D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution Press.
Garfinkel, A. P., G. Marcom, and R. A. Schiffman
2007 Culture Crisis and Rock Art Intensification: Numic Ghost Dance
Paintings and Coso Representational Petroglyphs. American Indian Rock Art Volume 33, Don
Christensen and Peggy Whitehead, editors, p. 83-103.American Rock Art Research Association,
Tucson, Arizona.
Gossett, B.
Gould, R.
1965 Archaeology of the Point St. George Site and Tolowa Prehistory. University of California
Publications in Anthropology 4.
Halford, F. K. and K. Carpenter
2005 Results of Limited Phase II Testing at the Keeler Dunes Sites, Owens Valley, California.
Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc. Prepared for United States of the Interior
Bureau of Land Management, Bishop, California.
Hall, M. C. and M. E. Basgall
1994 Lessons to Learn from Newberry/Gypsum Period Archaeology of the Mojave Desert. Kelso
Conference papers, 1987-1992: A Collection of Papers and Abstracts from the First Five Kelso
Conferences on the Prehistory of the Mojave Desert, edited by G. D. Everson and J. S.
174
Schneider, pp. 82-94. California State University Museum of Anthropology Occasional Papers in
Anthropology 4. Bakersfield.
Hall, M. C.
1980 Surface Archaeology of the Bodie Hills Geothermal Area, Mono County, California: A
Cultural Resource Inventory. Report submitted to Bureau of Land Management, Bakersfield,
California.
-1990 The OXBOW Archaeological Incident: Investigations at Twenty-three Locations Between
Owens Valley, Eastern California, and Walker Basin, Southwestern Nevada. Report submitted to
Oxbow Geothermal Company, Reno, Nevada.
-1992 Final Report on the Archaeology of Tiefort Basin, Fort Irwin, San Bernardino County,
California. Report Submitted to U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Los Angeles, California.
Haarklau, L., L. Johnson, and D. Wagner
2005 Fingerprints in the Great Basin: The Nellis Air Force Base Regional Obsidian Sourcing
Study. Prepared by Prewitt and Associates, Inc., Austin, Texas for Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada.
Harrington, M. R.
1957 A Pinto Site at Little Lake. Southwest Museum Papers 17, Los Angeles.
Haynal, P. M.
2000 The Influence of Sacred Rock Cairns and Prayer Seats on Modern Klamath and Modoc
Religion and World View. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 22 ( 2):170-185.
Heizer, R. F. and M. A. Whipple
1971 The California Indians A Source Book. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2nd edition.
Henrich J. and R. McElreath
2003 The Evolution of Cultural Evolution. Evolutionary Archaeology 12:123-135.
Hester, T. R.
1973 Chronological Ordering of the Great Basin Prehistory. University of California
Archaeological Research Facility Contributions No.17. Los Angeles.
Hildebrandt, W. R. and M. Darcangelo
2004 Exploratory Archaeological Survey of the East Side of Searles Lake. Far Western
Anthropological Research Group, Inc. Draft Report Prepared for Russ Kaldenberg at NAWS.
- 2008 Life on the River: The Archaeology of an Ancient Native American Culture. Heyday
Books, Berkeley, California.
Hildebrandt, W. R. and A. Ruby
2008 Pinyon East: Archaeological Survey of 2,067 Acres within the Coso Target Range at Naval
Air Weapons Station, China Lake, Inyo County.
175
Hodder, I.
1990 The Domestication of Europe. Oxford: Blackwell.
Hoffman, W. J.
1878 Miscellaneous Ethnographic Observations of Indians Inhabiting Nevada, California and
Arizona. United States Geological and Geographical Survey of Territories Tenth Annual ReportBeing a Report of the Progress of Exploration for the year 1876, by F.V. Hayden, Pt. 3, pp. 461478.
Hudson, T. and T. C. Blackburn
1979 The Material Culture of the Chumash Interaction Sphere. Santa Barbara, CA: Ballena
Press.
Hughes, R. E.
1989 A New Look at Mono Basin Obsidians. In Current Directions in California Obsidian Studies,
edited by R. E. Hughes, pp. 1-12. Contributions of the University of California Archaeological
Research Facility 48.
Hull, K. L.
1987 Identification of Cultural Site Formation Processes Through Microdebitage Analysis.
American Antiquity. 52(4):772-783.
Hunt, A. P.
1960 Archaeology of the Death Valley Salt Pan. University of Utah Anthropological Papers 47.
University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.
Hultkrantz, A.
1986 Mythology and Religious Concepts in Handbook of North American Indians. Ed., by d’
Azeverdo, W. L., 262-283. Volume 11: Great Basin. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Press.
Indian Census Rolls, 1885-1940; (National Archives Microfilm Publication M595, 692 rolls);
Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75; National Archives, Washington, D.C.
Jackson, R. J.
1985 An Archaeological Survey of the Wet, Antelope, Railroad, and Ford Timber Sale
Compartments in the Inyo National Forest. Report submitted to United States Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. On file, Inyo National Forest, Bishop. Far Western Anthropological
Group Inc., Davis, California.
Jacobi, R.
1980 The early Holocene settlement of Wales, in J. Taylor (ed.), Culture and Environment in
Prehistoric Wales, Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
Janes, R. R.
1989 A Comment on Microdebitage Analyses and Cultural Site Formation Processes Among Tipi
Dwellers. American Antiquity. 54(4):851-855.
176
Jennings, J. D.
1946 Hopewell-Copena Sites Near Nashville. American Antiquity12 (2):126.
Jett, S. C.
1986 Observations regarding Chartkoff’s California “Rock Feature Complex.” American Antiquity
51(3):615-616.
Jenkins, D. L., and C. N. Warren
1984 Obsidian Hydration and the Pinto Chronology in the Mojave Desert. Journal of California
and Great Basin Anthropology 6:44-60.
-1986 Test Excavation and Data Recovery at the Awl Site, 4-SBr-4562, a Pinto Site at Fort Irwin,
California. Fort Irwin Archaeological Project Research Report No. 22. Report on file at the San
Bernardino County Archaeological Information Center, San Bernardino County Museum,
Redlands.
Johnson, M.
1999 Archaeological Theory an Introduction. Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Malden, MA.
-2007 Ideas of Landscape. Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Malden, MA.
Justice, N. D.
2002 Stone Age Spear and Arrow Points of California and the Great Basin. Bloomington
Indiana: Indiana University Press.
Karklin, K.
1982a Guide to the description and classification of glass beads. History and Archaeology 59:83117.
-1982b The Levin Catalogue of mid-19th century beads. History and Archaeology 59:5-38
-1982c A sample book of 19th-century Venetian beads. History and Archaeology 59:39-82.
Kameda, T. and D. Nakanishi
2002 Cost-benefit analysis of social/cultural learning in a nonstationary uncertain environment
An evolutionary simulation and an experiment with human subjects. Evolution and Human
Behavior 23:373-393.
Keho, T. F.
1958 Tipi Rings: The Direct Ethnological Approach Applied to an Archaeological Problem.
American Antiquity. 60(5):861-873.
Kelly, I. T.
1936 Chemehuevi Shamanism. In Essays in Anthropology Presented to A.L. Kroeber in
Celebration of his Sixtieth Birthday, June 11, 1936, pp. 129-142.
177
Kent, S.
1984 Analyzing Activity Areas: An Ethnoarchaeological Study of the Use of Space. Albuquerque:
University of New Mexico Press.
Keyser, J. D.and G. Poetschat
2008 Ute Horse Raiders on the Powder Rim: Rock Art at Powder Wash, Wyoming. Oregon
Archaeological Society Publication #19.
Kidd, K. and M. A. Kidd
1970 A Classification System for Glass Beads for the Use of Field Archaeologists. Canadian
Historic Sites: Occasional Papers in Archaeology and History 1:45-89.
Kinneer, C. C., L. C. Todd, P. C. Burnett, C. Hurst, and A. Bohn
2005 I’m Pretty Sure That Thing I Just tripped Over Ain’t Natural. Poster presented at SAA 70th
Annual Meeting Salt Lake City, Utah.
Krieger, A. D.
1944 The Typological Concept. American Antiquity, 9(3): 271-288.
Kroeber, A. L.
1907 Shoshonean Dialects of California. University of California Publications American
Archaeology and Ethnology, 4: 65-165, 1907.
-1939 Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America. University of California Publications in
American Archaeology and Ethnology 38.
Kroesen, K. W. and J. S. Schneider
1991 Ring Midden Roasting Pits at Clark Mountains, Mojave Desert, San Bernardino County,
California. Papers on the Archaeology of the Mojave Desert 2(32): 43-74.
La Pierre, K. D.
2007 Preliminary Report—Investigations of a Rock Features Complex at the Eastern Searles
Lake Site (CA-SBR-12134/H) in the Western Mojave Desert, San Bernardino County, California.
Submitted to NAWS, China Lake, California.
Lawlor, E. J.
1995 Archaeological Site-formation Processes Affecting Plant Remains in the Mojave Desert.
Dissertation, University of California, Riverside.
Leakey, L. S. B., R. D. Simpson, T. Clements, R. Berger, J. Witthoft, and participants of the
Calico Conference
1972 Pleistocene Man at Calico: A Report on the International Conference on the Calico
Mountains Excavations, San Bernardino County, California. San Bernardino County Museum,
Redlands, California.
Leonard, N. N. III, and C. Drover
1980 Prehistoric Turquoise Mining in the Halloran Springs District, San Bernardino County,
California. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 2:245-256.
178
Lewis, A. L.
1888 Stone Circles near Aberdeen. The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain
and Ireland 17: 44-57.
-1909 Stone Circles in Ireland. The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Ireland 39:517-529.
Lowe, J. A.
2004 Results of Native American Consultation for 42 Prehistoric Sites Within Arch of Wyoming’s
Proposed Carbon Mines Permit Area, Carbon County, Wyoming. TRC Mariah Associates, Inc.,
Laramie, Wyoming. Prepared for Arch of Wyoming LLC, Hanna, Wyoming.
Lowell, J. B. and D. Theodoratus
1978 Western Pomo and Northeastern Pomo. In Handbook of North American Indians Volume
8, edited by Robert F. Heizer, pp. 37-57. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Lumsden, C. J., and E. O. Wilson
1981 Genes, Mind and Culture. Harvard University Press. Cambridge, MA.
Macko, M. E., J. S. Couch, and H. C. Koerper
2005 Implications of Ritual Biface Caches from the Irvine Site. Journal of California and Great
Basin Anthropology 25:93-108.
Malouf, C.
1950a The Archaeology of the Canyon Ferry Region, Montana. Montana State University
Anthropology and Sociology Papers, No.4. Missoula.
-1961 The Tipi Rings of the High Plains. American Antiquity 26(3):381-389.
McGuire, K. R.
1981 Archaeological Investigations in the Kennedy Meadows/Rockhouse Basin Segment of the
Pacific Crest Trail. Report submitted to USDA Forest Service, Sequoia National Park, Porterville,
California.
McGuire, K.R. and W.R. Hildebrandt
1994 The Possibilities of Women and Men: Gender and the California Milling Stone Horizon.
Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology. 16(1):41-59.
McGuire, K. R., W. Hildebrandt, A. Gilreath, J. King, J. Berg,
2010 Volume 1 Prehistoric Resources Final Research Results for the Gold Butte Study Area,
Clark County, Nevada. BLM Report No. 5-2617.
Meighan, C.
1955 Occurrence and Distribution of Glass Trade Beads in California. Manuscript on file at the
University of California, Los Angeles.
179
Metcalfe, D., and K. M. Heath
n.d Micro-Refuse and Site Structure: An Archaeological Example. American Antiquity, in press.
Miller, J.
1983 Basin religion and Theology: A Comparative Study of Power (Puha). Journal of California
and Great Basin Anthropology, 5(2): 66-86.
Moratto, M. J.
1984 California Archaeology. Salinas, CA: Coyote Press.
Nelson, W. J.,
1999 Dietary Approach to Late Prehistoric Hunter-gatherer Settlement-subsistence Change in
Northern Owens Valley, Eastern California: The Fish Slough Cave Example. Ph.D. dissertation,
University of California, Davis.
Noli D. and G. Avery
2009 Stone Circles in the Cape Fria Area, Northern Namibia. The South African Archaeological
Bulletin 42(145):59-63.
O’Connell, J. F.
1987 Alyawara Site Structure and its Archaeological Implications. American Antiquity 52:74-108.
Park, W. Z.
1938 Shamanism in Western North America: A Study in Cultural Relationships. Northwestern
University Studies in the Social Sciences 2. Evanston, Illinois.
Peak, A. S.
1974 Archaeological Investigations in Inyo and Mono Counties, California. Unpublished M.A.
Thesis, California State University, Sacramento.
Pipkin, G.
1976 (September 29) Trona Memories Chapter XVII . Trona Argonaut.
Progress Citizen
1939 (October 29) Red Man to Again View Invasion of Whites Into Valley.
Ramirez de Bryson, L.
2004 Geoarchaeological Investigations of Terminal Pleistocene Shorelines at Searles Lake, Kern
County, California. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Rathje, W. L. and M. B. Schiffer
1982 Archaeology. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York.
Reed, J. and M. Hangan
1998 Site Record P-36-009611 (CA-SBR-9611). Bureau of Land Management, Ridgecrest Field
Office.
180
Roberts, F. H. H.
1940 Archaeological Remains in the Whitewater District, Eastern Arizona; Part I: Artifacts and
Burials. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 126. U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C.
Robinson, D. W.
2010 Land Use, Land ideology: An Integrated Geographical Information System Analysis of Rock
Art within South-Central California. American Antiquity 75:792-818.
Rogers, A. K.
2005 Survey and Excavations at the Terese Site (CA-KER-6188) in the El Paso Mountains, East
Kern County, California: A Progress Report Part I-Site Description and Research Results.
Ridgecrest: Maturango Museum.
-2010 This report describes the obsidian hydration analysis for the Mirror Point site, CA-SBR12134/H, located in eastern San Bernardino, California.
Rogers, M. J.
1929 Report on an Archaeological Reconnaissance in the Mojave Sink Region. San Diego
Museum of Man Papers 1.
-1939 Early Lithic Industries of the Lower Basin of the Colorado River and Adjacent Desert
Areas. San Diego Museum of Man Papers 3.
Rosenthal, J. S., K. L. Carpenter, and D. C. Young,
2001 Archaeological Survey Test Area Buffer Zones in the Airport Lake, Baker, and George
Ranges, Naval Air Weapons Station, China Lake, Inyo and Kern, Counties California. Report
prepared for Southwest Division, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, San Diego, California.
Rosenthal, J. S., and J. Eerkens
2003 The Archaeology of Cosos Basin: Test Excavations at 28 Sites Located in the North Ranges
Complex, NAWS, China Lake. Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis,
California. Submitted to the Southwestern Division, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, San
Diego, California.
Ross, L. A.
1990 Trade Beads from Hudson’s Bay Company Fort Vancouver (1829-1860), Vancouver,
Washington. Journal of Society of Bead Researchers (2):29-68).
Rowlands, P., H. Johnson, E. Ritter, and A. Endo
1982 The Mojave Desert. In: Reference Handbook on the Deserts of North America, edited by
G.L. Bender, pp. 103-162. Westport: Greenwood Press.
Ruby, A.
2007 A Section 110 Cultural Resources Inventory and Overview of 4,950 Acres West of the
Argus Range and East of Darwin Wash, Naval Air Weapons Station, China Lake, Inyo County,
California. Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis, California. Submitted to the
Southwestern Division, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, San Diego, California.
181
Ruby, A. and W. R. Hildebrandt
2006 Archaeological Survey of 1005 Acres in Upper Centennial Flat, Coso Mountains, at Naval
Air Weapons Station, China Lake, Inyo County, California. Far Western Anthropological Research
Group, Inc., Davis, California. Submitted to the Southwestern Division, Naval Facilities
Engineering Command, San Diego, California.
Sahlins, M.
1972 Stone Age Economics. Aldine de Gruyter. Hawthorne, New York.
Schiffer, M. B.
1987 Formation Processes of the Archaeological Record. University of Utah Press. Salt Lake City,
Utah.
-1977 The Cache Project Survey Design. In Conservation archaeology: a guide for cultural
resource management studies, edited by M.B. Schiffer and G.J. Gumermanm pp. 191-200.
Academic Press, New York.
Schneider, J. S., R. S. Begole, M. C. Jorgenson, E. S. Rubin
nd The Yaqui Pass Rock Features: A New Hypothesis- Interpretations of a Stone- Feature
Complex in Anza-Borrego Desert State Park.
Schroth, A. B.
1994 The Pinto Point Controversy in the Western United States. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation,
University of California, Riverside.
Schuiling, W. C.
1979 Pleistocene Man at Calico: A Report on the Calico Mountains Excavations, San Bernardino
County, California. San Bernardino County Museum Association, Redlands, California.
Shimkin, D. B.
1986 Introduction of the Horse in Handbook of North American Indians. Ed., by d’ Azeverdo, W.
L., 262-283. Volume 11: Great Basin. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Press.
Simms, S. R.
1989 The Structure of the Bustos Wickiup Site, Eastern Nevada. Journal of California and Great
Basin Anthropology 11(1): 2-34.
Simms, S. R., and K. M. Heath
n.d. Site Structure of the Orbit Inn: An Archaeological Application of Inferences from
Ethnoarchaeology. American Antiquity, in press.
Simpson, R. D.
1958 The Manix Lake Archaeological Survey. The Masterky 32:4-10.
-1961 Coyote Gulch: Archaeological Excavations of an Early Lithic Locality in the Mohave Desert
of San Bernardino County. Archaeological Survey Association of Southern California Papers 5.
182
-1980 The Calico Mountains Site: Pleistocene Archaeology in the Mojave Desert, California. Early
Native Americans: Prehistoric Demography, Economy, and Technology, edited by D.L. Browman,
pp. 7-20. Mouton Publishers, The Hague.
Singer, C. A. and J. E. Ericson
1976 Quarry Analysis at Bodie Hills, Mono County, California: A Case Study. In Exchange
System in Prehistory, edited by Timothy K. Earle and Jonathon E. Ericson, pp. 171-187.
Academic Press, New York.
Skinner, E. J.
1984 Data Recovery of Bow Willow Wash North, Fort Irwin, San Bernardino County, California.
Fort Irwin Archaeological Project Research Report. Prepared by Wirth Environmental Services,
San Diego.
Skinner, C. E. and J. J. Thatcher
2008 X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Artifact Obsidian from CA-SBR-12134/H, San Bernardino,
County, California.
Skinner, C. E.
Smith, G. I.
1984 Paleohydrolic Regimes in the Southwestern Great Basin, 0-3.2 my Ago, Compared with
Other Long Records of “Global” Climate. Quaternary Research 22: 1-17.
Smith, G. I. and F. A. Street-Perrott
1983 Pluvial Lakes of the Western United States. In: Late Quaternary Environments of the
United States, Volume 1, S.C. Porter ed., pp. 190-212. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press.
Stevenson, M. G.
1982 Toward an understanding of site abandonment behavior: evidence from historic mining
camps in the Southwest Yukon. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1:237-265.
Steward, J. H.
1938 Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Socio-Political Groups. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin
120.
-1933 Ethnography of the Owens Valley Paiute. Berkeley: University of California Publications in
American Archaeology and Ethnology Volume 33, No.3.
-1940 Native Cultures of the Intermontane (Great Basin) Area. Pp. 445-502 in Essays in
Historical Anthropology of North America, Published in Honor of John R. Swanton. Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections 100. Washington.
Stoffle, R. W.
2008 Volcano Quali-Signs Cultural Centrality of Self-Voiced Places. Unpublished.
183
Stoffle, R. W. and R. Arnold
2006 Puha Path to Black Mountain. Great Basin Anthropological Conference, Las Vegas, Nevada.
Sullivan III, A. P., R. A. Cook, M. P. Purthill, and P. M. Uphus
2001 Economic and Land-Use Implications of Prehistoric Fire-Cracked-Rock Piles, Northern
Arizona. Journal of Field Archaeology 28:376-382.
Sutton, M. Q.
1978 A Series of Discoidals from Northern San Diego County, California. Journal of California
Anthropology 5(2):266-270.
-1988 An Introduction to the Archaeology of the Western Mojave Desert, California. Salinas, CA:
Coyote Press.
-1990 Kohen Lake in the Prehistory of the Southwestern Great Basin. Paper presented at the
annual meetings of the society for American Archaeology, Las Vegas.
-1991a Late Prehistoric Environmental and Cultural Change in the Western Mojave Desert.
Paper presented at the annual meetings of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.
-1996 The Current Status of Archaeological Research in the Mojave Desert. Journal of California
and Great Basin Anthropology 18(2): 221-257.
-2008 At the Center of a Small Universe: A Diachronic Assessment of the Mojave Desert in the
Prehistory of the Great Basin and Southern California. Paper presented at the Great Basin
Anthropological Conference, Portland, Oregon.
Sutton, M. Q. and B. S. Arkush,
2002 Archaeological Laboratory Methods an Introduction. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt
Publishing Company.
Sutton, M. Q., M. E. Basgall, J. K. Gardner, and M. W. Allen
2007 Advances in Understanding Mojave Desert Prehistory. In: California Prehistory:
Colonization, Culture, and Complexity, T.L. Jones and K.A. Klar, eds. pp. 229-246. New York:
AltaMira Press.
Sutton, M. Q. and H. C. Koerper
2009 The Middle Holocene Western Nexus: An Interaction Sphere between Southern California
and the Northwestern Great Basin. Pacific Coast Archaeological Society Quarterly 41(2 & 3):1-30.
Sutton, M. Q., and P. J. Wilke
1988 Archaeological Investigations at the CA-RIV-2823 Rock Cairn Complex. Coyote Press
Archives of California Prehistory 20:15-20.
Thomas, J.
1991 Rethinking the Neolithic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Thomas, D. H., L. S. A. Pendleton, and S. C. Cappannari,
184
-1986 Western Shoshone. In: Handbook of North American Indians. Ed., by d’ Azevedo, W. L.,
262-283. Volume 11: Great Basin. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Press.
Tilley, C.
1994 Phenomenology of Landscape. Berg Publishers: Oxford, UK.
Titchenal, P. B.
1994 A Chronology for Glass Beads from California and the Western Great Basin. Unpublished
Masters Thesis, California State University, Chico.
True, D. L. and E. Beemer
1982 Two Milling Stone Inventories from Northern San Diego County, California. Journal of
California and Great Basin Anthropology 4(2):233-261.
Tuan, Y. F.
1979 Landscapes of Fear. Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press.
Underwood, J.
2006 Discovering the Desert Kawaiisu. A Frestchrift Honoring the Contributions of California
Archaeologist Jay von Werlhof, ed., by Russell Kaldenberg, pp. 179-189. Maturango Museum
Publication No. 20.
Vierra, R. K.
1986 In: An Overview of Cultural Resources on Pahute and Ranier Mesas of the Nevada Test
Site, Nye Co., Nevada. The Rock Ring Features of Pahute and Rainier Mesas, ed., by Lonnie C.
Pippin, Reno: Desert Research Institute Social Sciences Center Technical Report 45: 111-131.
von Werlhof J.
1989 Spirits of the Earth. A Study of Earthen Art in the North American Deserts, Volume 1. The
North Deserts. El Centro, CA: Imperial Valley College Museum.
Wallace, W. J.
1955 Early Man in Death Valley, Archaeology 8:2.
-1958 Archaeological Investigations in Death Valley National Monument. University of California
Archaeological Survey Reports 42:7-22.
-1962 Prehistoric Cultural Development in the Southern California Deserts. American Antiquity
28:172-180.
-1977 Death Valley National Monument’s Prehistoric Past: An Archaeological Overview. Report
submitted to National Park Service, Western Archaeological Center, Tucson, Arizona.
Wallace, W. J., A. P. Hunt, and J. P. Redwine
1965 An Investigation of Some Stone Mounds in Death Valley National Monument California.
Contributions to Archaeology No. 3, Part 1. Maturango Museum, Ridgecrest, California.
185
Warren, C. N.
1980 Pinto Points and Problems in Mojave Desert Archaeology. In: Anthropological Papers in
Memory of Earl H. Swanson, Jr., edited by L. B. Harten, C. N. Warren, and D. R. Tuohy, pp. 6776. Idaho Museum of Natural History Special Publication. Pocatello, Idaho.
-1984 The Desert Region. In California Archaeology, by M. J. Moratto, pp. 339-430. Academic
Press, Orlando, Florida.
-1986 Early Holocene Cultural Adaptation in the Mojave Desert, California. Paper presented at
the World Archaeological Congress, Southampton, England.
Warren, C. N., and R. H. Crabtree
1986 Prehistory of the Southwestern Area. In: Great Basin, edited by W.L. d’Azevedo, pp. 183193. Handbook of the North American Indians, vol. 11, W.C. Sturtevant, general editor.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Warren, C. N. and C. Phagan
1988 Fluted Points in the Mojave Desert: Their Technology and Cultural Context. Early Human
Occupation in Far Western North America: The Clovis-Archaic Interface, edited by J.A. Willig,
C.M. Aikens and J.L. Fagan. Nevada State Museum Anthropological Papers 21:121-130
Warren, C. N., K. A. Bergin, G. Coombs, D.D. Ferraro, J. D. Kent, M. L. Lyneis, and E. J. Skinner
1989 Archaeological Investigations at Nelson Wash, Fort Irwin, California. Fort Irwin
Archaeological Project Research Report 14. Prepared by Dames and Moore, Inc., San Diego.
Warren, C.N., D.L. True, and A.A. Eudey
1961 Early Gathering Complexes of Western San Diego County: Results and Interpretations of
an Archaeological Survey. Los Angeles: University of California Archaeological Survey Annual
Report 1960-61:1-105.
Waters, M. R.
1988 Geomorphology of Drinkwater Basin. In The Late Holocene Archaeology of Drinkwater
Basin, Fort Irwin, San Bernardino County, California, by M. E. Basgall, M. C. Hall, and W. R.
Hildebrandt, pp. 24-33. Report submitted to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Los Angeles.
Waterman, T. T.
1924 North American Indian Dwellings. Geographical Review 14:1-25.
Western Reporter
1971 (February 24) Indian Joe’s Liquid Gold. Volume IV, No. 2.
White, P. J.
2006 Troubled Waters: Timbisha Shoshone, Miners, and Dispossession at Warm Spring. The
Journal of the Society for Industrial Archaeology 32(1):5-24.
-2008 Chuckwalla and the Belligerent Burro: Timbisha Shoshone, Miners, and the Footprints of
the Dispossession in the Panamints. Ph.D. dissertation, Brown University, Providence.
186
Whitley, D.S., T.K. Whitley, and J.M. Simon
2005 The Archaeology of Ayers Rock (CA-INY-134). Maturango Museum Publication Number 19.
Whittaker, J. C. and E. J. Kaldahl,
2001 In: Lithic Debitage Context, Form, and Meaning. Where the Waste Went: A Knappers’
Dump at Grasshopper Pueblo. Ed., by William Andrefsky, pp. 32-60. Salt Lake City: University of
Utah Press.
Wilke, P. J.
1978a Cairn Burials of the California Deserts. American Antiquity 43(3):444-448.
-1983 An Archaeological Assessment of Certain Sites on Lower Cottonwood Creek, Inyo County,
California. Report on file, USDA Forest Service, Inyo National Forest, Bishop, California.
Wilke, P. J., and M. McDonald
1989 Prehistoric Use of Rock-Lined Cache Pits: California Deserts and Southwest. Journal of
California and Great Basin Anthropology 11(1):50-73.
Williams, P. A., and R. I. Orlins
1963 The Corn Creek Dunes Site: A Dated Surface Site in Southern Nevada. Nevada State
Museum Anthropological Papers 10. Carson City.
Wilson, A. K., and J. T. Rasic
2008 Northern Archaic Settlement and Subsistence Patterns at Agiak Lake, Brooks Range,
Alaska. Arctic Anthropology 45(2):128-145.
Woodbury, R. B.
1954 Prehistoric Stone Implements of Northeastern Arizona. Papers of the Peabody Museum of
American Archaeology and Ethnology No. 34. Harvard University, Cambridge.
Wylie, H. G.
1976 Archaeological Reconnaissance Report, Chimney Rock Section of the Gasquet-Orleans
Road (#05-10-26). Draft Environmental Statement. Gasquet-Orleans Road, Chimney Rock
Section, pp. 311-346. Ms. On file, Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka. Calif.
Yohe, R. M. II
1992 A Reevaluation of Western Great Basin Cultural Chronology and Evidence for Timing of the
Introduction of the Bow and Arrow to Eastern California Based on New Excavations at the Rose
Spring Site (CA-INY-372). Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Riverside.
-2002 Archaeological Laboratory Methods An Introduction. Analysis of Flaked Stone Artifacts,
ed., by M. Q. Sutton and B. S. Arkush, pp. 37-67. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing
Company.
-2007 Personal Communication.
187
Yohe, R. M. II, M. E. Newman, and J. S. Schneider
1991 Immunological Identification of Small-Mammal Proteins on Aboriginal Milling Equipment.
American Antiquity 56(4):659-666.
Yohe, R. M. II, and M. Q. Sutton
1991 The Excavation of an Unusual Rock Feature North of Kramer Junction, San Bernardino
County, California. Papers on the Archaeology of the Mojave Desert 2(32):75-84.
Zigmond, M. L.
1981 Kawaiisu Ethnobotany. University of Utah Press.
-1986 Kawaiisu. In: Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 11, Great Basin, Warren L.
d’Azevedo, ed., pp. 398-411. Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
188
Investigations at the Mirror Point Site (CA-SBR-12134/H) APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
HISTORIC BACKGROUND
HISTORIC PERIOD
Historical data are reported here to better understand activities that occurred in the
study area after ca. 1850 and pre-Navy occupation ca. 1943. Sources used in this brief overview
include both unpublished and published documents. Most of these documents were gathered
from the Searles Valley Historical Society, Trona, California.
There is minimal recordation of Euro-American activities in the western Mojave Desert
prior to 1850. The earliest year on record is 1826 when explorers/trappers Joseph Walker and
Jedediah Smith made their way west across the Mojave Desert following the Inconstant River
(now the Mojave). The purpose of this expedition was to explore the California coastline for
potential fur sources (Fletcher 1987:9). In the years following the Walker-Smith expedition(s)
(post 1849), the Mojave Desert was considerably impacted by large populations of EuroAmericans seeking to make their fortunes by way of mining. Discoveries of gold and silver in
and around Death and Panamint Valleys brought waves of people trekking across the northwest
Mojave Desert (Belden and DeDecker 2005:16-17).
One person stands out amongst the gold-seeking individuals that made their way into
the Mojave Desert during the mid 19th Century, and that individual is John Wemple Searles (see
Figure A.1). Unquestionably, John Searles is directly responsible, at least in part, for some of
the occurrences that took place at the Mirror Point site. At a minimum, he set off a chain of
events leading up to the mining activities that took place at Locus C.
In 1849, Searles a mining enthusiast, and his older brother Dennis headed to California
separately from New York by ship around Cape Horn to San Francisco. After settling in northern
California for a time, the two ended up, at around 1873, mining low grade gold ore at Slate
I
Range City, which overlooked the east side of Borax Marsh (now Searles Lake). It was during
this time when the brothers heard of the profitable discoveries of borax in Nevada. The two
wasted no time in identifying the locally occurring mineral, staking a claim upon the borax
encrusted dry lake below them, and forming the San Bernardino Borax Company (Pipkin 1963:
88).
Initially, a “crude” reduction plant was built on the eastern shore of the lake and
Chinese coolies were used to harvest the borax that lay on the lake surface. Shortly thereafter,
a larger plant was built near the present day town of Trona. During the first year of production
(ca. 1873) the company produced one million pounds of borax valued at $200,000. It took huge
borax wagons to haul the loads of mineral to the town of Mojave more than 150 miles away. A
little known fact is that John and Dennis Searles were the originators of the 20 mule team borax
wagons, contrary to popular belief that it was the locally famous Borax Smith (Pipkin 1963:89).
Aside from being a successful entrepreneur, John Searles was known as a “great bear
hunter” and courageous Indian fighter. There are several stories reporting how John Searles
was attacked by a grizzly bear on Walker Pass. He nearly lost his life after the bear “tore the
side of his face” (Pipkin 1963:89). Additionally it has been noted in many documents (Pipkin
1963) that John Searles had hostile exchanges with local Shoshone/Paiute, thus leading to the
conclusion that Searles was no friend of the Indian or the grizzly, and in turn they were no
friends of his. Standing in opposition to this well- known story, George Hanson claimed to be
Searles friend and denied any stories that John Searles killed Indians (Boyles 1940).
As one story goes, shortly after the establishment of the borax mining operations a
group of local Indians attacked John Searles’ camp and drove off his livestock. Searles retaliated
by gathering several men and following the Indians into Panamint Valley, where they “shot
them all and recovered the stock.” Reportedly the Indians did not return to the valley until after
II
the death of John Searles in 1897 (Pipkin 1963:91). If this is true it should be noted John
Searles was likely the culprit of these attacks. Some documents suggest Searles prompted the
local natives by placing his camp at a spring near the mouth of Wilson Canyon, thus driving out
the “only Indians living in Searles Valley when the first white men came” (The Western Reporter
1971).
It was because of John Searles’ effrontery and ingenuity that tremendous changes
occurred in the northern Mojave Desert, the most notable being the development of the San
Bernardino Borax Mining Company in 1873. The company operated until John Searles’ death
and was then sold to Francis M. “Borax” Smith (Brush 2008).
Figure A.1 John W. Searles (courtesy of the Searles Valley Historical Society).
Intensive mining operations under the auspices of the California Trona Company,
continued at the lake during the early 1900s. During this period, it was discovered that borax
minerals lay below the surface. Wells were drilled almost a 100 feet deep to reach brine
deposits through the hard crust. The brine was then lifted out via a pumping system, and
chemicals were separated using evaporation methods. This type of mining, not unlike the earlier
III
types, was labor intensive and adventuresome. As characterized by Stanford W. Austin, a
controller for the California Trona Company, on January 25, 1910 in his diary:
Both teams went out to the East side today. One took water & supplies, the other the
well boring outfit & beds for the men.
I went over on Indian pony & arranged for the Mexican Camp under Carruthers to be
moved to the East Side.
There are now 13 in all in the Camp at Slate Range City. There are still 3 Mexicans at
the Trona Camp in Sec 13.
Furthermore, Austin writes on October 23, 1910 (still working on the east side of the
lake) that claim jumpers made their way into the area and a confrontation occurred at the
jumper’s camp. Austin later discovers that one of the men known as Sprat was in fact, the
notorious Arizona lawman Wyatt Earp (Austin 1910).
There was a shift in mining operations just prior to World War I. The focus up until this
point had been on the extraction of borax and trona minerals. This new shift focused on the
extraction of potash, as the U.S. government realized it would soon be cut off from European
suppliers. Because of this demand, in 1916 two plants were constructed; one near the town of
Trona (American Trona Company), and one at Borosolvay. Borosolvay closed shortly after, but
the American Trona Company continued and then merged with the American Potash and
Chemical Corporation (Brush 2008). These mining operations continue to this day (Searles
Valley Minerals, Inc.), though the area under study came under the jurisdiction of NAWS, China
Lake in 1943. Historic-Period Artifacts
A few historic-period artifacts were collected at Locus A, these consist of two small clear
glass medicine bottles (Figure A.2), one shoe eyelet, one marble, many rusted and
unidentifiable metal fragments, and one “Spencer” cartridge. A wooden barrel fragment (near
the well) and a 1940s military style lead bullet were collected from the surface at Locus B. Also,
IV
one wooden bottle stopper, or cork, was collected from the surface at Locus D. In addition a
feed bucket, several brown (beer) bottle glass shards, bricks (one inscribed “Snowball”), wire
tubing, a small metal plate, bailing wire, an angle iron, round nails, a fragmented porcelain
plate, and mounting bolts were recorded, but not collected, from the Mill Pond site area or
Locus C (Table A.1).
The two clear glass medicine bottles (possibly salt bottles), a marble, and a shoe eyelet
were recovered from the vicinity of Feature 5. One of the bottles appears to have been fireaffected, for it is melted on one side near the base. The other is missing the finish and has a
heavy patina. Both bottles are very weathered and appear to be from the early 1900s. The
marble is white glass with orange and yellow swirl decorations. The shoe eyelet is made of
metal and is rusted.
Figure A.2 Medicinal bottles.
V
Table A.1 Historic-period artifacts.
COLOR
and Condition
Clear;
complete
DIMENSIONS
(INCHES)
1-4/16x3/4 diameter
Bottle
Clear;
near complete
1-4/16x3/4 diameter
Game piece
Marble
1/2
No available date. Locus A Feature 5
Wood
Water
container
Barrel
White, orange,
and yellow;
complete
N/A;
frgament
32x2.5x2
Found near well above Locus A
1
Wood
Cork
Bottle
Stopper
N/A; whole
2.5x3/4x7/8
Locus D
155
1
Metal
Shoe piece
Eyelet
N/A; whole
5/32x7/32
Recovered from Unit 3
0-30 cm; consistent with boot use Locus A
Feature 5
181
1
Lead
Military ammuniti Bullet
N/A; complete
2-5/16x1/4 diameter
From Surface Locus B;
probably 1940s high powered rifle
164
1
Lead
Ammunition
Cartridge
N/A; fired;
shape distorted
1-11/32x
1/4 diameter
Spencer Cartridge
Late 1800s; Locus A surface
In field
analysis
1
Metal
Boiler part
Door
N/A;
complete
14x14
Locus C
In field
analysis
1
Metal
Hay baling
Wire
N/A;
bundle
24x6
Locus C
In field
analysis
1
Metal
Tubing
Wire
N/A;
piece
6x28
Locus C
In field
analysis
1
Metal
Angle iron
Iron
N/A;
near complete
2x2x26
Locus C
In Field
analysis
6
Porcelain
Dinnerware
Plate(s)
White;
fragments
N/A
N/A
In Field
analysis
10
Metal
Hardware
Nails
N/A;
complete
N/A
N/A
In Field
analysis
1
Metal
dinnerware
Cup with handle N/A;
complete
3x2
N/A
In Field
analysis
1
Galvanized me Feed bucket
bucket
N/A;
complete
12/12
N/A
In Field
analysis
1
Glass
Beverage
Bottle
Brown;
fragment
N/A
N/A
In Field
analysis
1
Metal
Dinnerware
Plate
N/A; complete
12x5
Cast #789
In Field
analysis
1
clay
From collapsed fe brick
Yellow;
complete
2x4x10
Locus C; Brickmaker James
and George H. Snowball, Dates:
ca. 1854-1935;
Swalwell, County Durham, England
CAT. #
168
n
1
MAT.
Glass
CLASS
Medicinal
DESCR.
Bottle
169
1
Glass
Medicinal
12
1
Glass
145
1
235
VI
NOTES
Fire affected, melted on one side;
semi-rounded sides; screw type finish;
#4 marking in relief on bottom
Locus A Feature 5
Missing finish;
flat sides and square bottom;
#3 marking in relief on bottom
Locus A Feature 5
The cartridge, based on morphological characteristics, though exact dimensions are not
definitive, was likely made for a Spencer repeating carbine and rifle, which was widely used
during the Civil War and by the Union Army in the west after the Civil War (Fairchild 2007).
The historic period artifacts recorded at the Mill Pond site area were likely associated
with subsurface mining activities that were commonly taking place on the east side of the lake
during the early 1900s. No definitive date could be ascertained from any of the artifacts noted
at this locale, but some of the items/attributes are seemingly indicative of the early 1900s (e.g.,
round nails, concrete slab). Though not diagnostic, Snowball bricks were manufactured
between the years 1854 and 1935. The baling wire and feed bucket suggest workhorses/or
mules were associated with the mining activities taken place here, which was common both
during the 1800s and early 1900s (pre-automobile).
VII
APPENDIX B
ADDITIONAL OBSIDIAN ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
(Alexander Rogers)
This report describes the obsidian hydration analysis for the Mirror Point site, CA-SBR12134/H, located in eastern San Bernardino, California. The specimens include debitage (N = 1),
projectile points and fragments (N = 7), cores (N = 1), and biface fragments (N = 8). One
specimen (cat. no. 175) was sourced to Wild Horse Canyon; the other specimens were not
sourced, but are assumed to be from the Coso field due to its proximity.
The analysis corrects rim values for effective hydration temperature (EHT) by
temperature-dependent diffusion theory, and computes age estimates. Appendix A describes the
theory and method employed; appendix B contains the annotated computer program listing. Each
specimen was analyzed individually, without grouping of data, with the individual rim readings
treated as independent measurements. The altitude of the site is 1700 ft above mean sea level.
VIII
ANALYSIS
Table 1 presents the obsidian data as analyzed. Catalog numbers 8, 138, and 175 were excluded
from the analysis because no hydration rim data were obtained.
Cat No
8
9
9
10
11
109
110
113
115
116
117
122
138
175
188
188
189
221
224
Table 1. CA-SBR-12134/H Obsidian Hydration Data.
Hydration Rim, uncorr, u
Mean
SD
Description
Depth, cm
Pinto ppt
Point preform
1.87
0.06
0
Point preform
4.20
0.10
0
Point tip
2.90
0.06
0
Biface Midesection
4.23
0.08
0
Biface Blank end
13.05
0.15
5
Point blade
12.40
0.13
5
Biface Blank end
9.12
0.10
0
Biface Blank
11.15
0.08
0
Biface Blank
15.05
0.08
0
Biface Blank end
6.37
0.08
0
Biface Blank
6.50
0.06
0
Point base
Biface Blank
Core
5.73
0.12
0
Core
3.07
0.06
0
Edge-modified flake
3.05
0.08
0
Point
13.42
0.08
0
Point base
11.42
0.04
0
N
3
3
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
3
3
6
6
6
Source
Unknown
Assumed Coso Field
Assumed Coso Field
Assumed Coso Field
Assumed Coso Field
Assumed Coso Field
Assumed Coso Field
Assumed Coso Field
Assumed Coso Field
Assumed Coso Field
Assumed Coso Field
Assumed Coso Field
Unknown
Wild Horse Canyon
Assumed Coso Field
Assumed Coso Field
Assumed Coso Field
Assumed Coso Field
Assumed Coso Field
Table 2 presents the EHT-corrected rim data and computed ages, in radiocarbon years before the
present (rcybp, by convention referenced to 1950) and calibrated years before 2000 (cyb2k).
IX
Cat No
9
9
10
11
109
110
113
115
116
117
122
188
188
189
221
224
Table 2. CA-SBR-12134/H EHT-Corrected Rims and Computed Ages
Hydration Rim, EHT corr, u
Age,
Accuracy,
Mean
SD
RCYBP Age, CYB2K
yrs +/Description
1.56
0.05
94
106
11
Point preform
Point preform
3.64
0.09
514
578
62
Point tip
2.48
0.05
240
270
21
Biface Midesection
3.66
0.07
521
586
45
Biface Blank end
11.61
0.13
5242
5896
449
Point blade
11.11
0.12
4799
5398
411
Biface Blank end
7.80
0.09
2363
2657
203
Biface Blank
9.59
0.07
3578
4025
307
Biface Blank
12.52
0.07
6095
6855
523
Biface Blank end
5.42
0.07
1144
1286
98
Biface Blank
5.54
0.05
1191
1340
102
Core
4.89
0.10
930
1046
113
Core
2.63
0.05
270
303
33
Edge-modified flake
2.62
0.07
266
299
23
Point
11.33
0.07
4987
5609
428
Point base
9.82
0.03
3749
4217
321
Notes
Reuse?
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
The data of Table 2 can be plotted in histogram form to show usage through time. Figure
1 shows the grouping of ages according to the period definitions in Table 3.
6
5
Count
4
3
2
1
0
Marana
Haiwee
Newberry
Little Lake/
Pinto
Lake Mohave
Period
Figure 1. Histogram of obsidian dates from
CA-SBR-12134/H.
X
Table 3. Archaeological Period Definitions
Period
Time, rcybp
Marana
650 – present
Haiwee
1600 – 650
Newberry
3200 – 1600
Little Lake/Pinto
6000 – 3200
Lake Mohave
10000 - 6000
This figure does not provide a complete picture, however, since the archaeological
periods are of unequal length; if the data in Figure 1 are divided by the length of each period in
millennia, Figure 2 results, showing most intense use in the Haiwee and Marana periods.
10.00
Count/1000 yrs
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
Marana
Haiwee
Newberry
Little Lake/
Pinto
Lake Mohave
Pe riod
Figure 2. Age data for CA-SBR-12134/H, presented as
count per millennia, indicating intensity of site use.
Although the dates span the period from approximately 6000 rcybp to the Historic period,
the major use, as represented by the obsidian artifacts, appears to have been in the Haiwee and
Marana periods. The only temporally-sensitive projectile point was Pinto (Cat. No. 8), but no
hydration rim was obtained for it. It is possible that the older dates represent curated tools or
pieces of obsidian that were subsequently reused as toolstone.
XI
THEORY AND METHODS
This report describes the obsidian hydration analysis technique employed to generate
chronological data for archaeological analyses. The approach is based on temperature-dependent
diffusion theory, and has been thoroughly documented in the archaeological literature; references
to pertinent articles are provided. Appendices provide listings (in MatLab) of the computer
programs used.
THEORY
OBSIDIAN HYDRATION
Hydration of obsidian is known as a diffusion-reaction process (Doremus 2002). The
basis of chronometric analysis using obsidian hydration is the equation
t = k r2
(1)
where t is age in calendar years, r is rim thickness in microns, and k is a constant, the hydration
coefficient. Here k is the reciprocal of the hydration rate. Although other equations have been
proposed (e.g. Basgall 1991; Pearson 1994), equation 1 is the only form with both theoretical
(Ebert et al. 1991; Doremus 2002) and laboratory (Doremus 1994; Stevenson et al. 1998, 2000)
support.
The age parameter in equation 1 is in calibrated years before the hydration measurement
was made; for analysis purposes this can be taken as the year 2000, so the measurement is in
calibrated years before 2000, or cyb2k. When obsidian data are expressed in radiocarbon years
before the present (rcybp, by convention referenced to 1950), the quadratic form is still the best
fit, giving the smallest overall error in age estimation, but with a different rate constant.
XII
The hydration coefficients for Coso obsidian used herein are (Rogers 2009).
k = 38.87 rcybp/µ2
(2a)
k = 43.72 cyb2k/µ2
(2b)
for rim values
0 < r < 12µ
The hydration coefficient is affected by five parameters: ground-water chemistry
(Morgenstein et al. 1999); obsidian anhydrous chemistry (Friedman et al. 1966); obsidian
intrinsic water content (Zhang and Behrens 2000); humidity (Mazer et al. 1991); and temperature
(Rogers 2007a). Ground-water chemistry is only a problem in cases where potassium content is
very high, as in some desert playas; otherwise it can be ignored. Obsidian anhydrous chemistry is
controlled by sourcing the obsidian. Intrinsic water concentration can vary within an obsidian
source (Stevenson et al. 1993), and can affect hydration rate significantly (Zhang and Behrens
2000); there are no archaeologically appropriate techniques for measuring intrinsic water at
present, so its effects must be controlled statistically, by sample size. Humidity is a small effect
which can generally be ignored.
Temperature is the major effect which needs to be controlled in performing an obsidian
analysis. Archaeological temperatures vary both annually and diurnally, and the hydration rate is
a strong function of temperature. The key concept is “effective hydration temperature” (EHT),
which is defined as a constant temperature which yields the same hydration results as the actual
time-varying temperature over the same period of time. Due to the mathematical form of the
dependence of hydration rate on temperature, EHT is always higher than the mean temperature.
The mathematical derivation is given in Rogers 2007a.
The equation for EHT, which specifically accounts for average annual temperature, mean
annual temperature variation, mean diurnal temperature variation, and burial depth, is
XIII
EHT = Ta×(1-Y×3.8×10-5) + 0.0096×Y 0.95
(3)
where Ta is annual average temperature, and the variation factor Y for surface artifacts is defined
by
Y = Va2 + Vd2 ,
(4a)
in which Va is annual temperature variation (July mean minus January mean) and Vd is mean
diurnal temperature variation. All temperatures are in degrees C.
For buried artifacts, Va and Vd represent the temperature variations at the artifact burial
depth, which are related to surface conditions by
Va = Va0exp(-0.44z)
(4b)
Vd = Vd0exp(-8.5z)
(4c)
and
where Va0 and Vd0 represent nominal surface conditions and z is burial depth in meters (Carslaw
and Jaeger 1959:81). Depth correction for EHT is desirable, even in the presence of site turbation,
because the depth correction, on the average, gives a better age estimate.
Once EHT has been computed, the measured rim thickness is multiplied by a rim
correction factor (RCF) to adjust the rims to be comparable to conditions at a reference site:
RCF = exp[-0.06(EHT-EHTr)]
(5)
XIV
where EHTr is effective hydration temperature at the reference site. The EHT-corrected rim value
rc is then
rc = RCF × r
(6)
The value of EHTr for Coso obsidian is conventionally taken to be that of Lubkin Creek,
or CA-INY-30, which is 20.4ºC by this technique. Since most Coso work uses CA-INY-30 as a
reference, correcting the rim to these conditions allows direct comparison of EHT-corrected rim
data with other published data.
Temperatures have varied slightly over archaeological time scales, which can introduce a
small error (<7%) into age estimates made based on current conditions. A technique to correct for
this has been described (Rogers 2010), but is generally needed only in Paleoindian studies. A
procedure for implementing this calculation is given in Rogers 2010 and in the programs in
Appendices A and B.
TEMPERATURE ESTIMATION
Most archaeological sites are not collocated with meteorological stations but temperature
parameters for them can be estimated by regional temperature scaling (Rogers 2008a). It is
important to use long-term data in these computations, and 30 years is the standard for
determining climatological norms (Cole 1970). Such data can be down-loaded from the web site
of the Western Regional Climate Center. The scaling principle is that desert temperature
parameters are a strong function of altitude above mean sea level, and the best estimates of
temperature are determined by scaling from 30-year data from large a number of meteorological
stations.
With this technique, in the northern Mojave Desert, annual average temperature can be
XV
predicted by the equation
Ta = 22.25 – 1.8h,
0.94 ≤ h ≤ 11.8,
(7)
where h is altitude in thousands of feet. The accuracy of this model is 0.98ºC, 1-sigma.
The annual temperature variation can be predicted by
Va = 1.65 + 0.94Ta,
(8)
with Ta defined as above. The accuracy of the prediction is 0.27ºC, 1-sigma.
The best fit between Vd and altitude is relatively poor, and, in the absence of other data
about a site, the optimal estimate is
Vd = 15.8ºC
(9)
for locations in the western Great Basin and deserts, irrespective of altitude. The accuracy of this
estimate is 1.67ºC, 1-sigma.
These equations are for air temperatures. Obsidian on the surface is exposed to surface
temperatures, which can be significantly higher than air temperatures in areas devoid of
vegetation (Johnson et al. 2002; Rogers 2008b). However, a detailed analysis based on data from
Rose Spring (CA-INY-372) has been shown that meteorological air temperature gives a good
estimate of surface ground temperature in situations in which even intermittent shade is present
(Rogers 2008c).
PALEOTEMPERATURE EFFECTS
XVI
Since climate has not been stable over
periods of archaeological interest, the effects
of resulting temperature changes must be
included in some cases. Figure 1 shows a
reconstruction of the variation of regionalscale mean temperature since the late
Figure 1. Changes in regional-scale mean
temperatures since the late Pleistocene, based on
multi-proxy data (West et al. 2007:17, Fig. 2.2)
Pleistocene, based on multi-proxy data (West
et al. 2007).
Computation of the effective hydration coefficient for ancient artifacts, including the
temperature variations in Figure 1, results in the relative hydration coefficient curve of Figure 2.
Figure 2 shows that temperature
changes probably did affect the hydration rate
of obsidian throughout the Holocene to a
noticeable degree. The effect is especially
significant for the Holocene Maximum around
Relative hydration coeff
1.10
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.90
6,000 years ago, and more recently during the
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
Age, kyears
Medieval Climatic Anomaly and the Little Ice
Figure 2. Hydration coefficient relative to
present conditions.
Age. Use of the present-day hydration rate is
not appropriate in these age ranges. Accounting for this effect requires an iterative computing
technique.
ACCURACY AND RESOLUTION
Age is computed from equation 1, after appropriate temperature corrections. However, in
actuality experimental errors occur in both r and k. Errors occur in r because of material
inhomogeneities and due to the finite accuracy of laboratory procedures. Errors arise in k due
XVII
14.0
primarily to unpredictable variations in water content in the obsidian (Ambrose and Stevenson
2004; Rogers 2008d; Stevenson et al. 1993, 2000; Zhang et al. 1991; Zhang and Behrens 2000).
Since these effects are independent, but cannot be easily separated in practice, it is useful to
examine two limiting cases.
The simplest case is to assume that the hydration coefficient k is known and error-free,
and all errors are in the measurement of the rim r. For this case it can be shown that the standard
deviation in the age estimates due to the standard deviation of errors in r (σr) is
σtr = 2×t×(σr/r)
(10)
This is the familiar sample standard deviation.
For the second case we assume that all error is arising from uncorrected variations in k,
which is a function of the individual obsidian flow and has been published for Coso (Stevenson et
al. 1993; Rogers 2008d). The standard deviation in age due to such flow-related uncertainties is
σtFlow = CVFlow × t
(12)
where CVFlow is the measured uncertainty in hydration rate specific to the flow. Values of
CVFlow are given in Table 1; for the Coso volcanic field as a whole, CVFlow = 0.21 (Rogers
2008d).
XVIII
Table 1. Values of CVFlow for Coso Obsidian Sources
Flow Source
CVFlow
Sugarloaf Mountain
0.07
West Sugarloaf
0.20
West Cactus Peak
0.25
Joshua Ridge
0.20
Finally, the point accuracy σa is given by
σa = σt/√N
(13)
where σt is either σtr or σtFlow , whichever is greater.
COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURE
Appendix B provides a listing of an analysis program, written in MatLab. It reads input
from an Excel-generated comma-separated variable (.csv) file, and outputs to a similar file. For
OHAMatrix, specimens may be grouped by site and level, and mean and standard deviation
computed, prior to chronometric analysis.
The paleoclimatic correction is made by an iterative fit to the Holocene curve of Fig. 1.
Point accuracy and sample standard deviations are computed. Note that the program also outputs
the number of iterations required for the paleo-correction routine to converge, and provides a
warning if the calculation is outside the valid range of the equation.
XIX
REFERENCES CITED
Note: References from the International Association for Obsidian Studies are available to
download from their web site, http://members.peak.org/~obsidian/
Ambrose, W. R., and C. M Stevenson
2004 Obsidian Density, Connate Water, and Hydration Dating. Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry 4(2):5-16.
Basgall, Mark E.
1990 Hydration Dating of Coso Obsidian: Problems and Prospects. Paper presented at
the 24th Annual Meeting of the Society for California Archaeology, Foster City.
Carslaw, H. S., and J. C. Jaeger
1959 Conduction of Heat in Solids, 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Cole, F. W.
1970 Introduction to Meteorology. Wiley: New York.
Doremus, R. H.
1994 Glass Science, 2nd. ed. New York: Wiley Interscience.
2000 Diffusion of Water in Rhyolite Glass: Diffusion-reaction Model. Journal of NonCrystalline Solids 261 (1):101-107.
2002 Diffusion of Reactive Molecules in Solids and Melts. New York: Wiley
Interscience.
Ebert, W. L., R. F. Hoburg, and J. K. Bates
1991 The Sorption of Water on Obsidian and a Nuclear Waste Glass. Physics and
Chemistry of Glasses 34(4):133-137.
Friedman, Irving, Robert I. Smith, and William D. Long
1966 Hydration of Natural Glass and Formation of Perlite. Geological Society of
America Bulletin 77:323-328.
Hull, Kathleen L.
2001 Reasserting the Utility of Obsidian Hydration Dating: A Temperature-Dependent
Empirical Approach to Practical Temporal Resolution with Archaeological
Obsidians. Journal of Archaeological Science 28:1025-1040.
Johnson, Michael J., Charles J. Mayers, and Brian J. Andraski
2002 Selected Micrometeorological and Soil-Moisture Data at Amargosa Desert
Research Site in Nye County near Beatty, Nevada, 1998 – 2000. U.S. Geological
Survey Open-File Report 02-348. USGS, Carson City, Nevada. With CD
containing meteorological data records.
Mazer, J. J., C. M. Stevenson, W. L. Ebert, and J. K. Bates
1991 The Experimental Hydration of Obsidian as a Function of Relative Humidity and
Temperature. American Antiquity 56(3):504-513.
Morgenstein, M. E, C. L. Wickett, and A. Barkett
1999 Considerations of Hydration-Rind Dating of Glass Artefacts: Alteration
Morphologies and Experimental Evidence of Hydrogeochemical Soil-zone Pore
Water Control. Journal of Archaeological Science. 26(1999):1193-1210.
Pearson, James L.
1995 Prehistoric Occupation at Little Lake, Inyo County, California: A definitive
Chronology. Unpublished MA thesis, Department of Anthropology, California
State University, Los Angeles.
Rogers, Alexander K.
2007a Effective Hydration Temperature of Obsidian: A Diffusion-Theory Analysis of
Time-Dependent Hydration Rates. Journal of Archaeological Science 34:656665.
XX
2008a Regional Scaling for Obsidian Hydration Temperature Correction. Bulletin of the
International Association for Obsidian Studies No. 39, Summer 2008, pp. 15-23.
2008b Field Data Validation of an Algorithm for Computing Effective Hydration
Temperature of Obsidian. Journal of Archaeological Science. 35:441-447.
2008c An Evaluation of Obsidian Hydration Dating as a Chronometric Technique,
Based on Data from Rose Spring (CA-INY-372), Eastern California. Bulletin of
the International Association for Obsidian Studies, No. 40, Winter 2008, pp. 1232.
2008d Obsidian Hydration Dating: Accuracy and Resolution Limitations
Imposed by Intrinsic Water Variability. Journal of Archaeological Science.
35:2009-2016.
2009 An Estimate of Coso Obsidian Hydration Rate, Based on Obsidian-Radiocarbon
Pairings and the “Weighted Total Least-Squares” Method. Bulletin of the
International Association for Obsidian Studies, No. 41, Summer 2009, pp. 9-20.
2010 How Did Paleotemperature Change Affect Obsidian Hydration Rates? Bulletin of
the International Association for Obsidian Studies, No. 42, Winter 201, pp. 1320..
Stevenson, Christopher M., E. Knauss, J. J. Mazer, and J. K. Bates
1993 The Homogeneity of Water Content in Obsidian from the Coso Volcanic Field:
Implications for Obsidian Hydration Dating. Geoarchaeology 8(5):371-384.
Stevenson, Christopher M., J. J. Mazer, and B. E. Scheetz
1998 Laboratory Obsidian Hydration Rates: Theory, Method, and Application. In:
Archaeological Obsidian Studies: Method and Theory. Advances in
Archaeological and Museum Science, Vol. 3, M. S. Shackley, ed., pp.181-204.
New York: Plenum Press.
Stevenson, Christopher M., Mike Gottesman, and Michael Macko
2000 Redefining the Working Assumptions for Obsidian Hydration Dating.
Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 22(2):223-236.
Zhang, Y., E. M. Stolper, and G. J. Wasserburg
1991 Diffusion of Water in Rhyolytic Glasses. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
55:441-456.
Zhang, Y, and H. Behrens
2000 H2O Diffusion in Rhyolitic Melts and Glasses. Chemical Geology 169:243-262.
XXI
COMPUTER PROGRAM
% Program OHAMatrix (Obsidian Hydration Analysis)
% Computes age in rcybp and cyb2k for a matrix of obsidian data.
% Includes EHT for current conditions and paleoclimatic adjustment.
% Present conditions typical for southwestern Great Basin.
% Rates updated per IAOS paper 2009. Updated 3/2/2010.
%*********************************************************************
%*********************************************************************
% Set up paleo temperature correction
clear
raterc = 38.87; %rcy/u^2
ratecal = 43.72; %calyrs/u^2
syms FL;
TAz = 16.0;
VAz = 1.65 + 0.94*TAz;
VD = 15.8;
EHTz = TAz*(1-3.8e-5*(VAz^2+VD^2)) + .0096*(VAz^2 + VD^2)^.95;
Kez = exp(-10000/(273.2+EHTz));
% Age in years for temperature profile.
age = [18000,17500,17000,16500,16000,15500,15000,14500,14000,13500,...
13000,12500,12000, 11500, 11000, 10500, 10000, 9500, 9000, 8500, ...
8000,7500, 7000, 6500, 6000, 5500, 5000, 4500, 4000, 3500, ...
3000,2500, 2000, 1500, 1000, 950, 900, 850, 800,750,700,650,600,550,...
500,450,400,350,300,250,200,150,100,50];
N = length(age);
% Mean annual temperature difference from present, deg C.
DT = [-4.5,-4.3,-4,-4,-3.8,-3.8,-4,-3.5,-3,-1.5,-.5,-1,...
-1.3, -1.8, -1.3, -2.8, -0.5, 0.3, 0, -0.5, -0.5, 0,...
0.5, 1.0, 1.2,1.3, 1.3, 1.0, 0, -0.5, -0.5, -0.3,-.2,...
-.1, 0,.2,.3,.3,.4,.2,.3,0,-.3,-.3,-.5,-.5,-.55,-.3,-.5,...
-.2,-.6,-.5,.2,.3];
M = length(DT);
% Weighting factor for time intervals
for i = 1:35
WT(i) = 10;
end
for i = 36:54
WT(i) = 1;
end
% Compute corresponding annual temperature variation, deg C. Then compute EHT and Ke.
for i = 1:N
TA(i) = TAz + DT(i);
VA(i) = 1.65 + 0.94*TA(i);
EHT(i) = TA(i)*(1-3.8e-5*(VA(i)^2+VD^2)) + .0096*(VA(i)^2 + VD^2)^.95;
Ke(i) = exp(-10000/(273.2+EHT(i)));
end
% Compute effective Ke for an artifact which originates in age bin j
for j = 1:N
KE(j) = 0;
WTSUM(j) = 0;
XXII
for i = j:N
KE(j) = KE(j) + Ke(i)*WT(i);
WTSUM(j) = WTSUM(j)+WT(i);
end
KEP(j) = KE(j)/WTSUM(j);
EHTE(j) = -10000/log(KEP(j))-273.2;
KEN(j) = KEP(j)/Kez;
RCF(j) = 1/sqrt(KEN(j));
ANS(j,1) = age(j);
ANS(j,2) = RCF(j);
end
% A is age and RCF matrix, with age increasing monotonically
A = sortrows(ANS, [1]);
%***********************************************************************
%***********************************************************************
% Input conditions for analysis
EHTR = 20.4; % EHT for INY-30
% Read input data
INDATA = CSVREAD('C:\MATLAB701\work\kishinput.csv');
L = size(INDATA,1);
%alt = Altitude of archaeological site, kft
%rim = Uncorrected rim thickness, microns
%sig = Rim standard deviation, microns
%z = Burial depth of artifact, meters
%NS = Sample size
%FL = Obsidian source flow: SLM=1,WSL=2,WCP=3,JRR=4,FLD=5
for jj = 1:L % j is index for sequence number.
No = INDATA(jj,1);
alt = INDATA(jj,2);
rim = INDATA(jj,3);
sig = INDATA(jj,4);
z = INDATA(jj,5);
NS = INDATA(jj,6);
FL = INDATA(jj,7);
%***********************************************************************
%***********************************************************************
% Compute temperature parameters for site.
STA = 22.25 - 1.8*alt;
SVA = 1.65 + .94*STA;
SVD = VD;
SVAB = SVA*exp(-0.44*z);
SVDB = SVD*exp(-8.5*z);
EHTZ = STA*(1-3.8e-5*(SVA^2 + SVD^2)) + .0096*(SVA^2 + SVD^2)^.95;
EHTS = STA*(1-3.8e-5*(SVAB^2 + SVDB^2)) + .0096*(SVAB^2 + SVDB^2)^.95;
% RCF for current conditions
RCF = exp(-.06*(EHTS-EHTR));
% Estimate age of artifact
t1 = raterc*(RCF*rim)^2;
% Build matrix for interpolation of age correctiions.
for j = 1:N
X(j) = A(j,1);
XXIII
Y(j) = A(j,2);
end
% Iterate to get best answer
Error = 0.1;
i = 1;
t(1) = t1;
err_flag = 0;
while Error >= 0.005
RCFA = interp1(X,Y,t(i));
i = i +1;
% Modified estimate of age
t(i) = raterc*(RCF*RCFA*rim)^2;
Error = abs((t(i)-t(i-1))/t(i));
if t(i)>=18000
RCFA = 1;
%t(i) = 38.34*(RCF*RCFA*rim)^2;
t(i) = 0;
Error = 0;
err_flag = 1;
end
end
% EHT corrected rim
rimprimenp = rim*RCF;
rimprime = rim*RCF*RCFA;
SDprime = sig*RCF*RCFA;
% Age in cyb2k
t3 = ratecal*(RCF*RCFA*rim)^2;
CV = [.07,.20,.25,.20,.21];
% Sample standard deviation of age
SD = 2*(sig/rim)*t(i);
% Flow standard deviation
FSD = CV(FL)*t(i);
% Accuracy of age point estimate due to sample
ACC1 = SD/sqrt(NS);
% Accuracy of age point estimate due to flow
ACC2 = FSD/sqrt(NS);
%***********************************************************************
%***********************************************************************
% OUTPUT DATA
OUTDATA(jj,1) = No; % sequence no.
OUTDATA(jj,2) = alt; % site altitude, kft
OUTDATA(jj,3) = rim; % uncorrected rim mean, microns
OUTDATA(jj,4) = sig; % Uncorrected rim sd, microns
OUTDATA(jj,5) = z*100; % artifact burial depth, cm
OUTDATA(jj,6) = NS; % sample size
OUTDATA(jj,7) = FL; % Obsidian flow
OUTDATA(jj,8)= i; % Number of iterations
OUTDATA(jj,9) = rimprimenp; %EHT corrected rim mean, no paleo, microns
OUTDATA(jj,10) = rimprime; %EHT corrected rim mean, microns
OUTDATA(jj,11)= t1; % Age, rcybp, no paleo correction
OUTDATA(jj,12)= t(i); % Age, rcybp, with paleo correction
XXIV
OUTDATA(jj,13)= ratecal*(rim*RCF)^2; %Age, cyb2k, no paleo correction
OUTDATA(jj,14)= t3; % Age in cyb2k, with paleo correction
OUTDATA(jj,15) = SDprime; % EHT corrected rim SD, microns
OUTDATA(jj,16)= SD; % Sample standard deviation, yrs
OUTDATA(jj,17)= FSD; % Flow standard deviation, yrs
OUTDATA(jj,18)= ACC1; % Sample Accuracy of age estimate, yrs +/OUTDATA(jj,19)= ACC2; % Flow Accuracy of age estimate, yrs +/end
dlmwrite('kishoutput2.csv', OUTDATA, ',')
fprintf('Run Complete')
XXV
APPENDIX C
OBSIDIAN HYDRATION ANALYSIS
(Northwest Obsidian Laboratories)
XXVI
Appendix D
Rock Feature Drawings
Fig. 1. Locus A at Datum, Cairn.
XXVII
Fig. 2. Locus A, Feature 14, Cairn.
Fig. 3. Locus A, Feature 3, Alignment.
XXVIII
XXIX
XXX
XXXI
XXXII
XXXIII
XXXIV
XXXV
XXXVI
XXXVII
XXXVIII
XXXIX
XL
Fig. 29. Locus A, Feature 28 Cairn.
XLI
XLII
XLIII
XLIV
Fig. 38. Locus B, Feature 73, Cairn.
XLV
Fig. 40. Locus B, Feature75, Cairn.
XLVI
XLVII
XLVIII
XLIX
L
Fig. 50. Locus B, Feature 87, Alignment.
LI
LII
LIII
LIV
LV
Fig. 59. Locus B, feature 96, Cairn.
LVI
Fig. 61. Locus B, feature 98, Cairn.
LVII
LVIII
Fig. 66. Locus B, feature 103, Alignment.
LIX
LX
Fig. 70. Locus B, feature 109, Alignment.
LXI
Fig. 72. Locus D, Feature 36, Cairn.
LXII
LXIII
Fig. 75. Locus D, Feature 41 Cairn.
Fig. 76. Locus D, Feature 42, Alignment.
LXIV
LXV
LXVI
LXVII
LXVIII
LXIX
LXX
LXXI
LXXII
LXXIII
Fig. 96. Locus D, Cairn
LXXIV
Appendix E
Statistical Analysis
(Alexander Rogers 2011)
Problem:
Analyze the data of Table 1 to evaluate whether the mean values are significantly
different, given the sample standard deviations and sample size.
Table 1. Attribute data
Cairns, mean
Cairns , sd
Alignments
mean
Alignments, sd
Length
131.6
38.4
165.0
Width
122.3
30.2
70.0
Height
29.3
9.2
40.0
Courses
3.3
1.1
6.0
Total
rocks
51.1
21.8
65.0
Rock
length
24.5
6.6
20.0
Rock
width
16.8
5.1
14.0
Rock
height
14.0
6.1
9.0
161
33.2
17.0
1.1
62.3
15.1
10.3
4.3
The sample size is nc= 34 for cairns and na = 76 for rock alignments.
Analysis:
The significance of difference can be evaluated by two methods, the normal t-test and
Student’s t-test (Meyer 1975: 279 ff.). For large sample sizes the two should give the
same result, while for smaller sample sizes the Student’s t-test is more accurate. In each
case the t statistic is computed for each attribute by equation 1.
t = (µc - µa)/sqrt(sc2/nc + sa2/na)
(1)
where µ represents the mean values, s represents the sample standard deviation, and n is
the sample size; the subscripts “c” and “a” refer to cairns and alignments, respectively.
For the normal test, the probability P that t is less than the computed value is obtained
from tables of the cumulative normal distribution (e.g. Meyer 1975: 462, Appendix VI
Table A.VI.3).
For Student’s t-test the effective degrees of freedom must be computed as
d.f. = [(sc2/nc + sa2/na)2/D] - 2
(2)
D = (sc2/nc)2/(nc-1) + (sa2/na)2/(na-1)
(3)
where
(Meyer 1975: 281). The corresponding probability that t is less than the computed value
is then determined from a table of the cumulative t-distribution (e.g. Meyer 1975: 483,
Appendix VIII Table A. VIII). The probability that the observed value of t could have
LXXV
occurred randomly is Pr = 1 - P. Table 2 shows the results for the normal test, and Table
3 for Student’s t-test.
Table 2. Analysis results for normal t-test
Cairns, mean
Cairns , sd
Alignments
mean
Alignments, sd
t-statistic
P
Pr
Length
131.6
38.4
165.0
Width
122.3
30.2
70.0
Height
29.3
9.2
40.0
Courses
3.3
1.1
6.0
Total
rocks
51.1
21.8
65.0
Rock
length
24.5
6.6
20.0
Rock
width
16.8
5.1
14.0
Rock
height
14.0
6.1
9.0
161
1.70
33.2
8.14
17.0
4.27
1.1
11.90
62.3
1.72
15.1
2.17
10.3
1.90
4.3
4.32
0.9554
0.0446
>0.9999
<0.0001
>0.9999
<0.0001
>0.9999
<0.0001
0.9573
0.0427
0.9850
0.0150
0.9713
0.0287
>0.9999
<0.0001
Table 3. Analysis results for Student’s t-test.
Cairns, mean
Cairns , sd
Alignments
mean
Alignments, sd
t-statistic
df
P
Pr
Length
131.6
38.4
165.0
Width
122.3
30.2
70.0
Height
29.3
9.2
40.0
Courses
3.3
1.1
6.0
Total
rocks
51.1
21.8
65.0
Rock
length
24.5
6.6
20.0
Rock
width
16.8
5.1
14.0
Rock
height
14.0
6.1
9.0
161
1.70
92
0.9537
0.0463
33.2
8.14
69
>0.9999
<0.0001
17.0
4.27
104
0.9999
0.0001
1.1
11.90
64
>0.9999
<0.0001
62.3
1.72
104
0.9539
0.0461
15.1
2.17
108
0.9849
0.0151
10.3
1.90
107
0.9698
0.0302
4.3
4.32
48
0.9999
0.0001
Two points emerge here. First, for practical purposes the large sample criterion is
satisfied, and the tests give the same results at the 5% level. Second, all the attributes are
statistically distinguishable at the 5% level, i.e. there is less than 5% chance that the
actual attribute means could be the same, given the sample standard deviations and
sample sizes.
Reference
Meyer, Stuart L.
1975 Data Analysis for Scientists and Engineers. New York: Wiley.
LXXVI

Rock Features at Mirror Point Site - How to Find Rock Art

Transcription

Similar documents

MirrorLite Illuminated Mouth Mirror INSTRUMENTS

LED Wing Mirror - Helio Dynamics

Figure 1. Susanna`s (Winona Ryder) narrative silences

How Women ROCKED THE VOTE in Little Rock

CLICK : The Bug garden

Reflect action - Travis Walton

Why Ukraine?

KIMSOOJA Respirar- Una mujer espejo

A New Mirror Lock Design for a C11 SCT

Song List - Gator James Band