agis maurice

CONTENTS
Synopsis
2
Evolving architecture
7
Industrial innovation
11
Methods of mobility
17
Ideas for ideals
20
Pressures on portability
24
The perils of politics
27
Solutions to sustainability
33
Travelling through Technology
42
Moving with the military
46
The art of mobility
50
Conclusion
61
Notes
63
Bibliography
66
1
2
Robin Halford – M09999 Dissertation - 14/01/02
Architecture, Mobility and Evolution
Towards a mobile future?
needed (Fig. 3 & 4).
Synopsis
Looking back at how architecture has
served our ancestors will reveal that
The subject of mobile architecture is
human beings find mobility in architec-
vast. The title could include anything
ture both desirable and necessary,
from artistic and social experimenta-
suggesting that the concept of mobil-
tion, such as the Homeless Vehicle
ity is not just about buildings that move
Project by David Lurie and Krysztof
but about deep seated social instincts,
Wodiczko, to the technically governed
such as warring over territory or mov-
practicalities of a North Sea oilrig (Fig.
ing to new pastures, that are a natu-
1 & 2). Later nomadic civilizations
rally occurring part of humanity. With
which brought with them temporary
war comes the need to move troops
structures, such as the Yurts of the
and equipment quickly. A portable
Mongols, are far removed from feats
bridge might be needed and troops
of engineering like the Eden Project
need to be sheltered with lightweight
in Cornwall; the latter, although not
structures they can carry with them.
specifically mobile, possessing the
Once the battle is finished refugees
potential to be easily de-mounted if
will need to be provided for and sheltered and the injured troops requiring
temporary hospitals and so on.
Establishing what mobile architecture
is will involve looking at its relationship
to vehicles and other closely related
fields such as modular and tension
structures. Apicella Associates’ Hong
Kong Tourist Association structure
transforms a standard truck into an inFig 1. Homeless Vehicle Project by David
Lurie and Krysztof Wodiczko
stant pavilion in one day (Fig. 5). It is
3
Fig. 2 Floating hotel for North Sea oil fields.
difficult to distinguish between vehicle
How much mobile architecture be-
or vessel and mobile architecture.
longs to the school of ‘form follows
Many ships possess all the services
function’ is closely linked with the pre-
and structures of a land building and
vious idea. There is often a division
are designed by naval architects. Our
between the architect and engineer.
innate love of mobility is also evident
It seems that many architects don’t
in the number of caravans on our
feel it necessary to become thor-
roads.
oughly familiar with the complicated
engineering and material science involved in mobile architecture, while
many engineers might not unleash the
potential of their expertise by ignoring
the psychological and social needs of
the public. I will investigate the
strengths and weaknesses of a marriage between architecture and the
scientific world.
Fig. 3 Components of a Mongolian Yurt or Ger.
4
Fig 4. Constuction of the Eden Project,
Cornwall.
Fig. 5 Hong Kong Tourist Association Pavilion,
Apicella Associates.
5
It follows that cross-referencing be-
technology if they are to continue fash-
tween different technologies could be
ioning our environment, especially in
essential to the program of mobile
the case of mobile architecture. Al-
architecture. The discovery of new
though I will suggest that architects
materials, such as duraluminium in
should play just as much of a role in
airship building and then aircraft, be-
the concept of mobility as engineers
ing transferred to the building trade
or scientist, I will make a case that
because of its strong lightweight na-
merging architect and scientist into
ture is an example. Although this
one and the same is a necessity for
seems logical, communication that
mobile architecture.
has naturally occurred through history.
can become a complicated procedure.
My main point is that mobile architecture is a living entity that can only flourish when not just architect and engineer work together but when all sides
of the technological and artistic areas
share information and all remain receptive to outside influence. For example, Michael Webb’s Suitaloon,
“The space suit that could be identified as a minimal house”18, would not
be constructed by an architect and
civil engineer like a normal building.
As our society becomes more reliant
on computer technology so its expectation of what is possible broadens.
People are getting used to seeing
amazing technology that only exists
as a concept being apparently
realised through films. Architects must
keep abreast of the most advanced
6
————————————————
Architecture, Mobility and Evolution
Towards a mobile future?
After a hard week at the office in a cold, miserable English winter wouldn’t it be refreshing to
fall asleep in your own bed and wake up the next
morning by the warm sands of a blue lagoon?
Impossible?
Fig. 6 Tropical lagoon in Fiji.
Evolving architecture
“A challenger for the title of oldest hu-
pentagons which are the remnants of
man ancestor has emerged from
two huts (Fig. 7). “it is the first good
Ethiopia”1 about 5.8 million years old.
evidence from 500, 000 years ago of
According to Claire Ainsworth “The
a hut structure”.2 From that point it
dawn of humankind occurred 5 to 7
took a good 494 000 years, give or
million years ago”.1 Another recent
take a 100 000, for the first civilisations
discovery in Chichibu, Japan un-
to evolve in Mesopotamia where
earthed the oldest structure yet, 10
“Some of the first cities were estab-
shallow holes, forming two irregular
lished, a writing was developed, em-
7
opment.
Why should the future of architecture
be static? The static buildings that
dominate
Fig. 7 Previous oldest hut found in France,
Terra Amata about 200,000 - 400,000 years
old.
the
architecture
of
civilisation, which includes our present
day office blocks and houses, accounts for just over 1% of the evolu-
pires were created and monumental
tion of architecture, again using the
buildings were constructed”.3 So ar-
Chichibu hut as a base point. So what
chitecture, from the Chichibu hut to the
did humankind do for the other 99%
present day, has been around for just
of architectural evolution? The
7% of the evolution of mankind. The
Chichibu hut was built by our ances-
speed of architectural evolution, since
tor Homo Erectus (Fig. 8). “They were
then, demonstrates just how ephem-
hunter-gatherers and had to move
eral the subject is and warns us to
where the resources were. Who
keep an open mind about its devel-
knows whether this was a shelter they
Fig. 8 From left to right; Homo Erectus, Neanderthal Man and Homo
Sapiens Sapiens.
8
Fig. 9 Maurice Agis’s Dream Space.
stayed in for one week, or one month”,
Neolithic Age, “characterised by the
2 said Chris Stringer, head of human
development of the earliest settled
origins group at London’s Natural His-
agricultural communities” 6 around
tory Museum. Although this hut may
9000 B.C., we have a period in the
or may not have been mobile we know
region of 489 000 years or 89% of
it was the product of a mobile society
architecture’s existence, where mobile
but this is literally just the beginning.
architecture was the norm to suit the
“The most primitive people known to-
hunter gatherer life style. So would it
day are nomadic as were Stone Age
be unreasonable to suggest that mo-
people all over the world”.4 If the,
bility and mobile architecture are
hunter-gatherer life style meant mov-
deeply seated in the human psyche?
ing from place to place the architecture had to follow suit as Robert
In today’s world one can see mobile
Kronenburg suggests; “moving build-
architecture ranging from the most
ings are amongst the earliest artifacts
functional realms of industry, for ex-
created by man”.5 As the Stone Age
ample the oilrig (Fig. 2), on one ex-
lasted from the Early Paleolithic Age,
treme, to creations of the artistic imagi-
about 3,500,000 years ago, to the
nation, such as Maurice Agis’s Dream
9
Space 7, on the other (Fig. 9).
ture simply moved into the factories
and mills. Although this technology
It is evident that the ability to develop
forced us to remain stationary it was
structures goes hand in hand with the
beginning to reflect our desire to be
ability to develop technology. “We
mobile. By 1808 Richard Trevithick
know that Homo Erectus used stone
had built the first steam powered car-
tools”2 and it follows that the better
riage (Fig. 10) and by 1829 people
your technology, the more efficient you
were able to travel long distances at
can be at your job, whether that is
great speed in relative comfort with
farming or building. Our early ances-
Stephenson’s Locomotive (Fig. 11).
tors were not able to farm the land to
This was a key step in the way soci-
produce food so the majority of the
ety viewed mobility. Traveling at higher
population would have taken respon-
speeds than those possible in previ-
sibility for finding enough to sustain
ous eras, these enormous and ornate
themselves. This left little time to de-
engines are still impressive today.9
velop technology. As soon as our ancestors possessed the tools and know
how to farm they stopped moving
around but much of the population
would still have been involved in farming. It is only recently that so few farmers can produce more than enough
food for the population. Less than 200
years ago over 90% of the population
was involved in food production
whereas today it is only 3%, leaving
the majority free to develop other
fields of human endeavour, such as
cars and computer technology. By the
time the industrial revolution8 started
in 1751, changes to the agricultural
system had already increased the efficiency of farming. Many of those who
worked the land and then lost their
jobs to the mechanisation of agricul-
10
Fig. 10 The first steam powered locomotive by
Trevithick created for Coalbrookdale ironworks.
Despite his numerous innovations, Trevithick,
died unrecognised and in poverty.
Fig. 11
Stephenson
and his
Locomotive.
Fig. 12 The first completely iron bridge over the River Severn at Coalbrookdale built by
Abraham Darby III in 1779.
Industrial innovation
The 1750’s saw great advances in
technology, one of the most impor-
now easier due to the refinement of
tant being iron manufacture. Many
the moulding process. This some-
of the advances were pioneered at
times caused anachronistic building
Iron Bridge where, in 1779, the first
styles, with neo-classical features ap-
completely iron bridge (Fig. 12) was
pearing on train station columns or
constructed by Abraham Darby III
Gothic a features appearing in train
over
staions (Fig. 13).
the
River
Severn
at
Coalbrookdale, Shropshire. Mass
production and construction was
Iron lent itself to engineering work and
Fig. 13 Paddington Station, London with various gothic and
neo-classical elements.
11
by 1860 spans of 200-300 ft. were
It was neither an engineer nor an ar-
regularly being achieved where ma-
chitect who realised the potential for
sonry and wood had rarely managed
a de-mountable building made out of
80 ft. Now engineers became domi-
iron and glass. Joseph Paxton (1801-
nant in the world of architecture de-
65) came from an ordinary family
signing with new materials, exposing
background but ran away from home
and shaping them in accordance with
and ended up working as a garden
function rather than whim or historical
boy at Battlesdon Park. Eventually he
compromise. Isambard Kingdom
became head gardener at Chatsworth
Brunel (1806-59) and Thomas Telford
where he developed an interest in
(1757-1834) were prolific builders of
greenhouse design. Although he was
bridges and aqueducts. In 1815
interested in steel and iron he pre-
Telford built the Menai Bridge linking
ferred to use wood in his construc-
Anglesea to Wales (Fig. 14) and by
tions. Paxton was concerned with the
1864 Brunel had built the famous
details in his designs. He preferred
Clifton suspension bridge, spanning
sun rays to hit the glass at right angles
the Avon Gorge (Fig. 15). The other
where possible and invented an inno-
notable advance was in glass produc-
vative internal guttering system, to
tion. New techniques for making glass
catch condensation, which became
enabled clearer, stronger glass than
known as Paxton Guttering. He de-
had been available before.10
Fig. 14 Menai suspension bridge by Thomas Telford.
12
Fig. 15 The Clifton suspension bridge I. K. Brunel.
signed The Great Conservatory in
be erected quickly. The whole build-
1836 which incorporated a boiler, a
ing was constructed in 17 weeks and
gallery and was big enough to let a
using 900,000 sq. ft. of glass, 3,300
carriage pass through. Unfortunately
iron columns and 32 miles of gutter-
the painting of the wood frame proved
ing. The massive solar gains were
too costly to maintain. It was from this
experience that Paxton developed the
first major de-mountable structure of
its kind. Designed to hold the great
exhibition of 1851, the iron and glass
structure of the Crystal Palace (Fig.
16a & b) covered an area of 69,892
sq. m which was about four times the
size of St. Peters in Rome (Fig. 17)
and comparable to the Millennium
Dome’s 80, 500 sq. m. The structure
consisted of 143 standardised parts
which were prefabricated and could
Fig.16a Inside Paxton’s Crystal Palace.
13
Fig. 16b Paxton’s Crystal Palace built for the great exhibition of 1851.
Fig.17 St. Peter’s in Rome.
14
dealt with by stretching unbleached
new materials and methods can pro-
calico over the glass which reduced
duce many characteristics of mobile
the glare. An army of 500 men painted
architecture including efficiency, good
the structure and a glazing wagon,
value and the potential for relocation.
using the beams as rails, could glaze
This architecture may have sparked
two girders every sixteen seconds.
an interest in mobile structures.
The building was only moved once
Paxton was knighted for his contribu-
from Hyde Park to Sydenham Hill,
tion and later went on to construct the
against Paxton’s will, where it, sadly,
Palm Houses at Kew (Fig. 18). Paxton
burnt down in 1936.11
had been building large conservatories for the Duke of Devonshire which
The industrial revolution has many
must have been instrumental in gain-
parallels with our present digital revo-
ing him the recognition of Prince Albert
lution including the availability of new
and winning the project from a politi-
materials and technology. Crystal
cal stand point. The fact that it was a
Palace shows how a balance between
gardener who made this seminal leap
technology and architecture can
is not a good reflection on the open
achieve a progressive, practical and
mindedness of the architectural pro-
inspiring structure. An awareness of
fession at that time.
Fig. 18 Paxton’s Palm Houses at Kew.
15
The technology that forced us to work
in the fields and then the factories is,
once again, developing sufficiently to
realise our in-built need and love for
mobility. The progression has already
taken us beyond the ability to travel
from A to B quickly and into a world
where banks, such as Apicella associates’ Mobile TSB (Fig. 19), can travel
as fast as a car and where space stations, like Mir (Fig. 20), are a reality.
With our technology forever decreasing in size and increasing in power
could it be that our future is on the
move?
16
Above : Fig. 19 Mobile TSB Bank and hospitality facility in vehicle form, Apicella
Associates.
Below : Fig. 20 (main picture) The Mir space
station, now history, having plunged to earth in
March 2001 and its successor the International
Space Station (top right).
Methods of mobility
The official definitions of architecture
as rich and powerful or demonstrat-
found in dictionaries are usually open
ing its function like a temple, the term
ended and the scope of architecture
architecture starts to apply to the so-
is as difficult to clarify as any art, so
cial side of a culture as well as the
the reasons for including and exclud-
necessary side. This supports the
ing certain structures as mobile archi-
concept of architecture as servant to
tecture must be justified. Early hu-
humanity. Architecture must fulfill the
mans were primarily concerned with
necessary, by sheltering and protect-
their own survival as we are today.
ing, as well as catering for our social
Their ability to design tools from the
instincts, for instance, praying or
surrounding environment enhanced
watching football. Although there are
their chances of staying alive, whether
other types of architecture, such as
the tool was a spear to kill an animal
monuments, the one that is most use-
or a sharpened flint to fashion wood
ful to us is that which shelters and
(Fig. 21).
serves people directly. This would in-
A hut could be looked at as a tool for
clude vehicles as architecture but a
division does exist between the two.
A vehicle separates itself because its
primary function is moving something
from one place to another. Although
Fig. 21 Prehistoric artefacts including flint
scrapers, a flint awl found in Thriplow
sheltering from the elements but “once
this function has been fulfilled the roll
of architecture then serves other purposes”12 When the structures’ initial
roll of shelter starts to take on other
Fig. 22 A bicycle is not architecture!
meanings, like representing its owner
17
Fig. 23 A Boeing 747 must protect its passengers in flight.
a bicycle (Fig. 22) serves humanity its
a traditional gypsy caravan (Fig. 24)
primary objective is to travel and not
is a permanent shelter as is a battle
shelter as is the case with a car where
ship to many sailors (Fig. 25). Thus
shelter is of secondary importance be-
we arrive at a grey area, somewhere
hind accommodating the engine and
in-between architecture and vehicle,
fitting on the road. However, some ve-
that can be described as mobile ar-
hicles’ ability to shelter is just as im-
chitecture. Also in this grey area are
portant as their ability to travel, for
a cross breed of vehicle and architec-
example, a Boeing 747 (Fig. 23). If it
ture that cannot be both at the same
didn’t shelter its passengers they
time but posses the ability to inter-
would die in transit. In a different way
change. A good example is the Hong
Fig. 24 A gipsy caravan from Wind in the Willows, as depicted by
Justin Todd.
18
Kong Tourist Pavilion13 (Fig. 5) by
have to undergo a change to become
Apicella Associates which is based
mobile, so could be thought of as de-
around two standard lorries. These
mountable-mobile architecture.
Fig. 25 A U.S. Battleship is home to its crew.
19
Ideas for Ideals
Mobile architecture has been around
is not the ideal environment for work-
since the beginning, from the nomadic
ing or resting. Archigram have come
shelter to the gypsy caravan and our
close to an ideal with their Instant City
present state of technology is allow-
(Fig. 26). The idea saw the ‘slow mov-
ing it to flourish. So the ideal form of
ing’14 countryside as producing young
mobile architecture might be able to
people who “have a suspicion that
travel freely for long distances whilst
they are missing out on things that
simultaneously providing an environ-
could broaden their horizons”.14 They
ment for work, rest and play. If you flew
suggest that the ‘metropolis’ 14 is
on an aeroplane today you could have
where these desires can be met but
the ability to make a phone call to any-
the ‘physical nature’14 of the metropo-
where in the world, play video games,
lis is such that it provokes a, presum-
watch films and even send e-mails to
ably detrimental, ‘reaction’.14 The
your office from your seat. This is an
main theme is: “if only we could enjoy
impressive step on the road to an ideal
it [the metropolis] but stay where we
mobile architecture but an aeroplane
are”.14 The solution to the problem
Fig. 26 Archigram’s Instant City in all its glory.
20
was an Instant City that could assemble overnight on the countryside
and provide “a network of information
- education - entertainment”.14 Although posing important questions
about the social uses of mobile architecture in society, the collapsible
trusses and ‘Audio-Visual Juke
Box’s15, are not as important to an
ideal mobile architecture as their
means of deployment. Initially they
proposed to carry it in twenty vehicles
but then became “interested in the
versatility of the airship... (a great and
silent bringer of the whole conglomeration)” (Fig. 27).16
Fig. 27 Stages in Archigram’s Instant City using an airship for deployment.
21
Fig. 28 The R100. airship built by the Airship Guarantee Company could lift
79 tonnes.
Haven’t they got a good point? The air-
helped to give airship travel a bad
ship is versatile because it can float
name. The airship evolved as a war
effortlessly in the universal medium of
machine and vehicle and was soon
air unlike a ship which is restrained to
overtaken by the development of pow-
an area of water or a plane that must
ered flight which proved a more prac-
use a runway. An airship does not
tical machine for fighting and travel-
need an engine to maintain lift as it is
ling. Admittedly, the airship, in its
lighter than air, has the potential to lift
present form, remains a vehicle but
and carry heavy loads (the R100, Fig.
couldn’t it form part of the ideal? The
28, had a payload of 79 tonnes)17 and
answer lies within our fundamental
can accommodate a large space for
urge to travel. If, idealistically, we want
living, working, etc. Unfortunately the
to go home to bed after a hard week
numerous explosions that occurred,
at the office and wake up to the warm
such as the famous Hindenburg (Fig.
sand of a tropical lagoon, mobile ar-
29) and R101 (Fig. 30) disasters, have
chitects must think laterally to gain
their inspiration.
22
Fig. 29 The Hindenburg explodes in May 1937 after an Atlantic crossing.
Fig. 30 The ill-fated R101. moored at Cardington before its final journey.
23
Pressures on portability
Archigram’s Plug-in (FIg. 31), Walk-
plex. In reality many of Archigram’s
ing (Fig. 32) and Instant Cities (Fig.
schemes, like the Suitaloon, required
26) begin to address some of mobile
more sophisticated technology than
architecture’s concerns such as its
was available, even when man first
effect on community, aesthetic form
landed on the moon in 1969, and thus
and function. Michael Webb’s
they still remain naive with technologi-
suitaloon “the building that could be
cal detail. How much Archigram’s
identified as a minimal house”18 (Fig.
structures were influenced by the
33) would require more advanced
space race of the late1960’s is a mat-
technology than a space suit to per-
ter of opinion but it can hardly be de-
form its amorphous functions and to
nied that they bear a resemblance to
debate what its form is and whether it
the sophisticated space architecture
follows its numerous functions is ei-
of today.
ther incredibly simple or rather com-
Fig. 31 Archigram’s Plug-in City.
24
Fig. 32 Archigram’s Walking City.
Technology is just one of many fac-
this at the moment by showing us a
tors influencing whether or not we can
world through the television and by
be mobile. Issues such as the nation
giving us the ability to live from the
state, culture, the desire of some
Internet but even if future technology
people to be static, legal systems, re-
can tap into our brains and stimulate
ligion, planning, energy use, crime and
us into a true virtual reality, as in the
population are some of the others.
film The Matrix, will our underlying
Planning, legal systems, money and
mobile instincts still prevail? It follows
population, have always tended to
that those who are less inclined to be
adapt around the numerous techno-
mobile might prefer a world where you
logical shifts we have had in the past
can travel without ever moving. What-
and there is no reason why that should
ever the case the future looks set to
change. The greatest threat to a mo-
be governed by advanced technology
bile future, might be, an ephemeral
and a mobile architecture, that feeds
future where technology enables to-
off this technology, could well prevail.
tal virtual reality. To an extent it does
25
Fig. 33 Michael Webb’s Suitaloon from the Archigram group
Fig. 34 Richard Roger’s Millenium Dome - given a bad name by political blunders.
26
The perils of politics
An aspiring new mobile technology
The first labour government came to
should be aware of political interven-
power on 21 January 1924 inheriting
tion. The humiliated Millennium Dome
the principle of a, six airship strong,
(Fig. 34) probably owes many of its
passenger and mail service to India.
problems to political interference as
To deal with the building of these craft
does the New Wembley Stadium (Fig.
the Airship Guarantee Company, a
35) which can’t seem to get its act to-
subsidiary of Vickers, had been set up
gether and what about Rail-Trak?
during the previous government. The
Perhaps the most relevant examples
new
of political interference are those nu-
MacDonald, chose Brigadier-General
merous blunders that destroyed our
C.B. Thomson, a retired army officer,
airship industry. These craft that have
as his Secretary of State for Air.
so much potential to get an ideal mo-
Thomson had offered himself three
bile architecture off the ground and
times for election into the House of
travelling free have been thwarted to
Commons and been rejected. Now he
no small extent by political interfer-
was given a barony and called him-
ence.
self Lord Thomson of Cardington. The
Prime
Minister,
Ramsey
Fig. 35 The New Wembley Stadium? - held up by political interference.
27
new government decided that they
England at that time. Unfortunately for
would build only two airships to prove
the government most of these experts
the feasibility of a service to and from
were already in highly paid private
India. The Air Ministry was to research
sector jobs putting the government at
and build a 5,000,000-cubic-ft. craft on
a disadvantage. The R.101 (Fig. 36
a budget of £1,000,000 and establish
& 30) was to be built in the Cardington
bases in Egypt and India. The Airship
hangers that had to be re-opened and
Guarantee Company was to build a
enlarged especially for the job (Fig.
second ship on a budget of £350,000.
37). The rival Airship Guarantee Com-
The Air Ministry intended their ship to
pany began work on the R.100 (Fig.
be used for military purposes after it
38a,b & 28) with a team headed by
had proved the reliability of the India
Barnes Wallis, the eminent engineer
service leaving the Airship Guarantee
best know for the bouncing bomb (Fig.
Company with the commercial ship.
39). The inevitable media attention to
It was an experiment by the govern-
the work at Cardington was quick to
ment, or more a demonstration, to
disclose any errors, something that
show how much better public enter-
Wallis didn’t have to worry about.
prise was than private enterprise. Both
companies would be in competition for
The R101. was plagued with problems
the few airship experts who existed in
from the beginning. Estimates of her
Fig. 36 The spacious promonade deck of the R101. airship.
28
Fig. 37 The enormous Cardington airship hangers reopened to build the R101.
29
lift suggested that she would not cope
with the hundred passengers and two
hundred troops specified and thus her
specifications were changed to accommodate only 50 passengers and
ten tons of mail. The delay that this
would cause to completion was substantial. The R101’s specified lift was
75 tons but when completed, estimated to be only 35 tons. The amount
Fig. 38a A drawing of the saloon in the
R100.
Fig. 38b A photograph of the lounge deck on the R100.
of gas she would have to shed on a
long journey meant that India would
not be possible and she would barely
be able to carry her own weight in fuel
half that distance. As a result removal
of her reefing girders, to allow her gas
bags a greater capacity, was recommended along with cutting her in half
Fig. 39 Barnes Wallis was the cheif
designer of the R100.
30
and inserting another segment so that
her capacity and thus her lift could be
further increased. All of this work
to India. It exceeded its contract lift of
would only add another 6 tons lift over-
sixty four tons by 15 tons and trav-
all. Lord Cardington insisted that her
elled 11 mph faster than its 81mph
maiden flight to India must take place
specification. A fast, stable and reli-
before the end of September 1930
able ship her only problems were
and that all of this complicated work
slight wrinkling on her envelop at
must be carried out beforehand. De-
speeds exceeding seventy mph and
spite finding over 100 holes in one of
a water getting through her envelope
her gas bags they were patched up
and wetting the gas bags. While the
and the major work continued with
modifications were taking place to the
only nine weeks to meet her politically
R101. the R100. made various flights
pressured deadline. Her trial flights
to Montreal across the Atlantic from
showed her to be substandard. She
Ireland. On one flight she made an
could not complete her speed test
average speed of 100 mph by taking
because her engines cut out although
advantage of favourable air currents.
she did manage 63 mph on one occasion. She could not use all of her
The pressure on the R101. to fly to
engines at the same time because
India caused various inspection pro-
they created unacceptable vibrations
cedures to be shammed and tests
and she managed only 31 hours of a
and flight trials were sacrificed to meet
48 hour endurance test. Whilst
Lord Cardington’s deadline. The ship
moored to a mast in Cardington a vio-
was unsafe, a fact acknowledged by
lent storm caused her to roll dramati-
its crew many of whom took out spe-
cally and the coxswain reported that
cial life insurances. The craft left
every roll caused her gas valves to
Cardington in bad weather on the
open and vent as well as chafing the
evening of 4 October, 1930. Lord
delicate hydrogen filled gas bags
Cardington was among the 12 pas-
against the structure. To remedy this
sengers and insisted on bringing a
her valves were adjusted and some
case of champagne and some orna-
of the structure was padded.
mental carpets as luggage. There
were also 42 crew members and 25
Meanwhile the R100. was told by the
tons of heavy oil to power the engines.
government it could not fly to India and
The ship could not rise from the mast
must fly to Canada instead because
without shedding four tons of ballast.
they wanted their ship to be the first
Rolling and Pitching, the ship made
31
slow headway flying as low as 1000
tion, the government was forced to buy
ft. at times. By 2am the R101. , soaked
the very successful R.100 in accor-
and weighed down with rain water,
dance with their contract only to rip her
reached Beauvais. Shortly after, she
to pieces, tear her engines and gas
dived to the ground and smashed into
bags out and literally steam roller her
a field. In the same instant she was
remains flat into a pit in an apparent fit
consumed by flame killing all but 8 of
of pique.19
her 54 passengers and crew (Fig. 40).
In the light of recent events it would
No one really knows what the exact
appear that politicians have learnt little
cause of the crash was. It is thought
of the difficulties of becoming involved
that the stormy weather caused her
in technologically advanced projects
to roll excessively and that she vented
and it is likely that they will cause many
too much gas although if this is the
unnecessary set backs along the road
case it is amazing that the R.101. got
to an ideal mobile architecture.
so far. The disaster was an unnecessary tragedy which also sealed the
R.100’s fate. After some procrastina-
Fig. 40 The R101 at Beauvais. The result of political interference?
32
Fig. 41 A massive Merseyside power station seen from Runcorn.
Solutions to sustainability
Today energy is created for us on
the moment urge us to become more
mass with huge power stations (Fig.
self sufficient by producing our own
41) catering for our electrical creature
energy and by recycling. These ideas
comforts and necessities. The popu-
are compatible with mobile architec-
lar ideas of sustainability we have at
ture and may become easier to
Fig. 42 Roof of Freiburg’s Ganter Brewery, where a 70kWp PV system satisfies 70% of power needs!
33
achieve as technology reveals, for
China or Africa, reach a comparable
example, more efficient dynamos or
standard of development to the USA
photoelectric cells (Fig. 42) and more
the pollution and drain on energy, if
compact ways of processing sewage.
the US is anything to go by, will be
considerable. People are slowly be-
In this age we are faced with a grow-
coming aware of their effect on the
ing problem: “Atmospheric pollution,
environment although perhaps
the contamination of rivers by un-
George Bush’s recent decisions21 is
treated sewage... the abuses result-
still an indicator of humanity’s willing-
ing from constantly expanding
ness to ignore the environment. Re-
conurbation’s are only a few symp-
cent advances in technology, such
toms to be found in many industrial
as more efficient photoelectric cells,
countries”20 As the population and its
wind turbines and nuclear power, all
expectations increase so does our
provide alternatives to fossil fuels and
demand on the earth’s resources.
it is interesting to consider the ways
When countries that are developing
in which a mobile society could use
at this present time, such as Brazil,
these to enhance their benefit to cur-
Fig. 43 The destruction of the rain forest is one of the many environmental issues of today.
34
rent ecological problems. Our ancient
regulate their own pollution? Imagine
nomadic ancestors did not have to
the effect of an industrial revolution
create mass power stations. Their
sweeping through China or Africa in
hunter gatherer life styles were eco-
the future.
logically friendly. They travelled round,
exploited natural resources such as
A great amount of our pollution is
food and wood and left, allowing the
caused by our desire to travel with
area to rejuvenate and a natural bal-
cars, buses, trains etc. which pump
ance to be achieved. Since we be-
out all manner of pollutants. It might
came static as a society our efficiency
be thought that mobile architecture
at exploiting nature has proved im-
would add to this problem with every-
mensely effective except we seem to
body having to move a large building
have been rather lax at forward think-
around with them, congesting roads
ing, ironically the trait that allowed us
and using fuel but the improved flex-
to build structures in the first place. In
ibility of life style could help to reduce
East Anglia, England the whole area
congestion and pollution (Fig. 44).
is fairly flat with few trees when only
seven hundred years ago most of it,
apart from the Fens, was covered in
forests. Now the only remnant of that
wood use are the few medieval buildings that remain standing. As we
speak people in Brazil are finding the
Fig. 44 The daily congestion of rush-hour
traffic.
best way to earn their living is to cut
down their own rain forest at the
Assuming that roads will be the main
alarming rate of 26 hectares or an
method of travel in the future is not
area the size of 37 football pitches per
necessarily correct and if a whole
minute (Fig. 43).22 Those of us in the
building were capable of moving eas-
developed world, who should be set-
ily by air-ship, anti-gravity or perhaps
ting an example, are only just getting
beamed from one place to the other,
the idea that environment is important.
the need for roads would decrease.
The implication is, if we in the devel-
The major congestion on our roads is
oped world have only just reached this
caused by people coming to and from
stage how long will it be before those
work as demonstrated by the morn-
other countries will be in a position to
ing and evening rush hour. We al-
35
ready know that the need for travel-
in 1979. This house was developed
ling to work is decreasing a small
to be totally self-sufficient using pho-
amount, due to the Internet, but in the
toelectric cells and batteries. It is also
future working from home might be
an example of lateral thinking in terms
more common than going to an of-
of construction, reusing a mobile of-
fice. If it is still necessary to go to a
fice chassis with silo sections as a
place of work mobile architecture
roof. It utilises plastic swimming pool
would enable employees to move
decking as floor and wall cladding and
closer to their office thus reducing the
canvas pouches with zips for storage.
need for many short car journeys and
Heat is provided by solar gains from
when they were not working or on
a glazed area that also acts as an
holidays they could take their home
airlock. There is also a small wood
elsewhere for a fraction of the energy
burning stove for back up and the
consumption. Many may see this vi-
thick fireproofed insulation ensures
sion of the future, i.e. owning your own
only minimal heat loss. Rain water
self-sufficient portable house, as ri-
caught from the gutter is channelled
diculous but less than a century ago
to a vinyl bladder that can contract
many people would have seen the
and expand. Fifteen minutes of rain-
idea of everyone owning an automo-
fall is said to be enough for a whole
bile laughable yet this is what has
month’s supply. Water pressure is
happened. This has lead to our cur-
achieved through manual pumps and
rent semi-mobile life style where we
a filter system allows grey water to be
travel between static buildings caus-
recycled in a tank.
ing pollution and congestion with our
vehicles. What we need is a self suf-
Another example is the Sustainable
ficient building that can move freely
Portable Housing (Fig. 46) designed
without excessively polluting our en-
for Cave Cay in the Bahamas.25 This
vironment.
housing had to be totally self-sufficient
as well easy to assemble and disas-
36
The idea that mobile architecture
semble for delivery from Texas, USA
could have a role in improving our fu-
to the island. The housing was the first
ture environment is not a new one. A
phase of a five part development
good example was The Autonomous
scheme of the island. Each unit uses
Dwelling Unit24 (Fig. 45) designed by
a standard metal shipping container
Ted Bakewell III and Michael Jantzen
as a structural basis and all of the ar-
Fig. 45 The Autonomous Dwelling Unit by Ted Bakewell III and Michael
Jantzen, 1979.
37
Staff House in context.
Unit packed for transport.
Side Elevation.
Architectural system assembly.
Front Elevation.
Fully assembled house.
Photovoltaic and electrical system.
Water catchment system.
Fig. 46 Computer models of the Sustainable Housing Development for Crab Cay, Bahamas.
38
chitectural and environmental compo-
grounded in the static, polluted world.
nents are designed to fit inside this
Their ‘Rokplug’ 26 and ‘Logplug’ 26
for shipping. Cave Cay has no fresh
(Fig. 47) concealed themselves in na-
water, electricity, oil or gas supply and
ture but were always a connection to
so to keep the project ecologically
the static life style. The architecture
friendly attention has been paid to cli-
of the future can gain its electricity
matic design issues such as cooling,
from the sun, filter its grey water, com-
ventilation, humidity, building geom-
post its sewage and recycle its rub-
etry and orientation. The building has
bish. Robert Kronenburg points out
to desalinate its water and can store
that “Structures and building... that
rain water when it is available. Mate-
have a minimal impact on the envi-
rials that were recycled, durable, re-
ronment... are now more relevant than
sistant to fungus and insect attack
ever before”27
were used to keep the building low
maintenance. The housing makes
Despite our concerns for our effect on
use of a prevailing 14 mph breeze for
the environment, it is prone to having
cooling ventilation and the roof pro-
devastating effects on us. Whether
vides as much shading and insulation
these come in the form of earth-
as possible from the sun. Environ-
quakes, tornadoes, or tidal waves
mental conditions on the island re-
they have the common effect of de-
main relatively constant minimizing
stroying static infrastructure and kill-
the need for heating and cooling en-
ing many people (Fig. 48a & b). If
ergy use. A wind generator and pho-
people’s homes were mobile they
toelectric cells provide electricity with
could move away from the disaster or
battery storage. This home seems to
if they possessed an architecture that
have found solutions to many of the
was lighter than air they could simply
perceived problems of mobile archi-
fly above an earthquake or a tidal
tecture. It is both portable and not re-
wave. Unfortunately we have not pro-
liant on a fixed supply of energy or
gressed to that stage yet but mobile
water.
architecture can play a roll in disaster
relief. Offering mobile housing to refu-
Archigram had seen the future of
gees can sometimes have detrimen-
mobile travel as essentially plug-in.
tal effects, according to Gordon
This does not help the environment
Browne of the Southampton Institute
because the mobility would always be
“Assistance should not breed depen-
39
Fig. 47 A drawing from the Archigram book (pg.111) describing
the Logplug and Rokplug.
40
Fig. 48a An earthquake in California destroys the infrastructure.
dency and change the desire for
utilising sustainable methods of en-
people to return home”.28 He goes on
ergy production and waste disposal.
to suggest that refugees from a disas-
It can also help in situations where
ter should be encouraged to rebuild
natural disasters have left many
their own settlement that has been
people homeless in a hostile environ-
destroyed and temporary shelter
ment.
should utilise local materials and building methods. However, in isolated disaster situations there may be a lack
of sanitation. Refugees and aid workers will require fresh water, heat etc.
In these circumstances couldn’t mobile architecture be used as a permanent solution?
We can see that mobile architecture
is fashioned by the environment in
which it exists but can also help to
tackle problems, like pollution, by
Fig. 48b Mobile architecture could move out of
the path of a tornado.
41
Travelling through technology
Out of all the factors that have been
ably still be tribal. So if we can develop
mentioned and discussed, technology
like this out of so many opposing cul-
is of overriding importance to mobile
tures then it seems reasonable to pre-
architecture. For the past thousand
sume that the future will adapt to a
years countries have been develop-
mobile world with few boundaries. Al-
ing from tribal nations, with small fac-
though this may be possible we do
tions fighting each other, to a single
have some way to go. Some cultures
nation that is, more or less, united. In
differ so much that they clash, the re-
England even the great Roman em-
sults of which we can see at the mo-
pire found it hard to crush the tribal
ment, but as Bill Clinton pointed out
factions during their time from 55 - 450
in the Dimbleby lecture 2001 “What
AD. After that the ensuing battles for
this is all about is that simple ques-
power between the Saxons, Angles,
tion: which will be more important in
Jutes not to mention the Celts divided
the twenty first century - our differ-
the country between 450 - 1066 AD.
ences or our common humanity?”30
It was probably when the Norman’s
invaded that the beginnings of a na-
We have already mentioned Apicella
tion evolved. Now we have the United
associates’ TSB pavilion (Fig. 19) but
Kingdom and we are part of the Eu-
it is helpful to look at it in more detail
ropean Union along with many other
to see how important technology has
countries. The course of history
been throughout its design process
seems to be moving towards ever
(Fig 49a & b). Drawing from Robert
larger political units and ultimately,
Kronenburg’s analysis, the design
perhaps, to a united world.29
was to act as a mobile bank and hospitality facility for TSB. The initial idea
was to create a pavilion that would
overriding effect on these issues?
take on a unique form when as-
Today the world is continually being
sembled from a standard unit that
made a smaller place and without
could fit on a 13.5 m articulated trailer.
technology, such as the boat, the
Even though the exact site locations
plane, the television, the phone, the
had not been established it was
Internet and satellites, it would prob-
thought that they might include exter-
42
So how does technology have an
Fig. 49a Apicella associates’ Mobile TSB in its erected state, welcoming and outward
looking.
nal exhibitions and public events dur-
need to run electronic equipment and
ing the summer months and at other
sustain its users working environment
times staff training around the UK. The
even when situated away from a
client specified that transportation and
power source and in harsh weather
assembly costs should not exceed
conditions. The final product was to
£4000 per deployment and that four
be brought to completion within seven
men should take no more than two
months, a surprisingly short time span
days to transform the vehicle into a
for such a complicated building.31
building. Great care was taken by
Apicella to investigate appropriate
The structure, when unfolded, seems
technology, materials and assembly
to relate very little to its mobile nature.
methods. This would ensure that the
Despite its technological approach
transformation process was highly
this type of architecture, rather than
efficient and that the final building
embracing its ephemerality, cleverly
would be of high quality, lasting for at
disguises the mechanisms that
least five years, as opposed to a tem-
moves it whilst simultaneously incor-
porary hut. The building would also
porating them into the structure: “the
43
trailer base was used for the lower
truck in such an innovative way dis-
floor and four hydraulic rams... lifted
plays the flexibility of mobile architec-
another ‘Russian doll structure’... to
ture when appropriate technologies
form an upper story”.32 Mobile archi-
are used.
tecture can learn a lot from this example. Stage set design specialists
Another example of technology shap-
were used for their knowledge in hy-
ing architecture is that of the Carlos
draulics. The design of the sunshade
Mosely Music Pavilion (Fig. 50) de-
and the use of a balcony along with a
signed by FTL Happold.33 The New
glazed facade work together to cre-
York Philharmonic and Metropolitan
ate the impression of an outward look-
Opera required a structure that could
ing yet welcoming building. The lateral
host a different concert in a different
approach of using a standard lorry
New York park each night. Goldsmith
saw that “the notions of deployability
require an even greater level of engineering, akin more to machinery than
to architecture”33. This project uses
six semi-trailers and three dressingroom trucks. The trailers contain all the
construction equipment for the structure “including forklifts, hydraulic opening devices and winches”. 33 The
structures also required foundations
which were provided by specially redesigned truck that could accommodate concrete ballast. The erected
building consists of three centrally
hinged trusses that can fold in half for
transportation. These create a tripod
that is maintained by the adapted concrete foundation trucks. A tension
structure membrane of PVC-coated
polyester fabric is used as a roof which
can be rolled up when in transit. To
Fig. 49b Sections showing the bank’s innovative transformation.
44
hold the roof in place metal cables
Fig. 50 The Carlos Mosely Music Pavilion set against the New York sky line.
were replaced by ropes so that they
mechanism and the cladding by its
could be rolled up without being de-
acoustic requirements creating “a mix-
tached. The structural elements were
ture of architecture, industrial design
governed by the pavilion’s erection
and engineering”.34
45
Moving with the military
Another reason why human kind has
although these were probably not mili-
developed mobile architecture is for
tary. Tents were often present at me-
fighting, an undeniable human in-
dieval battles and we can see ex-
stinct. The tent has always been used
amples in many medieval battle field
by armies on campaign. Relief carv-
paintings (Fig. 52). The construction
ings from Nineveh (Fig. 51) depict
of siege engines employed various
tents, similar to those found in the
portable elements although catapults
same area today, being used for mili-
and ballistas are more weapons than
tary purposes.35 Tents in themselves
architecture. The siege tower (Fig. 53)
have been around for over 40,000
is much more akin to mobile architec-
years with one of the oldest sites be-
ture being sturdy, and portable in de-
ing found in Molodova, Russia where
sign like a mobile fortress. Siege war-
an oval site 4-5 m in diameter was sur-
fare was around from the time of the
rounded by mammoth bones which
Hittites 1380 B.C. and lasted to the
may have been used for tent poles,
time of Sebastien de Vauban, Louis
Fig. 51 A relief carving from Nineveh shows the age tents being used
for military purposes.
46
Fig. 52 Tents in use at an engagement during the Wars of the Roses around 1455.
Fig. 53 A siege tower also known as a malvoisin (‘bad neighbour’) being
used in a heavy attack.
47
XIV’s cheif military engineer.36
the 1870’s cast iron improved and extended the versatility of mobile
An achievement pushed forward by
bridges. Modern mobile bridges are
the military is the development of the
designed and built from advanced
mobile bridge. This part of mobile ar-
materials and employ a number of
chitecture is strongly influenced by
modular techniques for deployment.
function but does reveal techniques
Often vehicle mounted bridges use
that could be used in other mobile
hydraulics to improve the efficiency of
structures. It also demonstrates how
deployment which is vital in military
important technology is in the devel-
situations. There are three types of
opment of mobile architecture: “The
military bridge, the most interesting
evolution of mobile military bridging il-
being the Close Support Bridge. This
lustrates how operational consider-
must be unfolded quickly in direct fir-
ations and material developments are
ing line and requires the crew to be
leading to more sophisticated con-
sheltered throughout the procedure.
cepts”.37 The need to cross obstacles
The other two types of bridge can be
has always been crucial in military
constructed more conventionally. The
campaigns. The Romans used huge
British Army use a No.10 CSB (Fig.
stone and timber constructions but by
54) that is transported on tracks and
Fig. 54 A closed support bridge is speedily deployed across a dried up river bed.
48
uses a three stage hydraulic proce-
half hours to erect and covers a space
dure for unfolding. Weighing in at 13
9m by 30m with a height of 6m. Spe-
tonnes, it takes just three minutes to
cialists are not required to erect it
bridge a 26 m gap and can be folded
which enables a team of soldiers to
up from either end in less than five
do the job. Although this structure is
which points to the potential of me-
intended to be primarily functional it
chanical systems within civilian mobile
creates an original appearance
schemes.38
unique to itself. Its designers believed
that the form “expresses its portable
The Transportable Maintenance En-
nature in every way as an entirely ‘soft’
closure (Fig. 55a & b) is often referred
organic structure”39 This type of inflat-
to in mobile architecture books. This
able environment does have various
is an air supported structure intended
downfalls such as a constant need for
to be light (1150kg) and quickly
air top up and high pressure air beams
deployable to provide shelter for the
run the risk of loosing their rigidity
maintenance of military vehicles, such
when a rupture occurs.
as helicopters. It takes just one and a
Left : Fig. 55a A computer model clearly showing the air filled supports.
Below: Fig. 55b The inside of the structure is
spacious and tall.
49
The art of mobility
Even if our ideal mobile architecture
bile architecture as a negative force:
is well designed and considers all
“The mobile box discourages open
technologies, social problems, envi-
form, balconies and bridges”23 This
ronmental issues and politics, isn’t
is a typical misconception about mo-
there still a danger of the world be-
bile architecture. We have seen, from
coming a giant trailer park? In many
the example of Apicella’s Mobile
cases technology’s need for efficiency
Bank, that mobile architecture does
leads to standardisation which is seen
not have to be “a capsule, whose skin
by some as a step away from the art
is pierced for access”23 as the bank
in architecture : “in human terms, in
includes a balcony and glass facade.
terms of allowing each man to shape
the objects he fabricates as well as
Arnheim addresses the problem of
his
force
context in mobile architecture: “Its in-
[standardisation] is absurd, if not ac-
dividual appearance derives from its
tively destructive”.40 There are many
own character, not from that of a par-
people who would agree and not find
ticular location it is intended to fit”23.
a Portakabin (Fig. 56) aesthetically
This reveals the potentials of mobile
environment,
this
architecture to stimulate its surroundings. Ada Kwiatkowska believes
“trace is a real deformation of
space”.41 A mobile building, whether
bank or house is ephemeral but its
“trace” on the landscape might be
Fig. 56 A Portakabin - aesthetically
pleasing?
more important than its physical effect. Kwiatkowska goes on to say:
“Such traces as handmarks printed on
an interesting view of mobile architec-
[a] cave’s wall in the Paleolithic age...
ture from 1977. He refers to Vincent
are signs of human beings’ identifica-
Scully who speculates that: “the mo-
tion”.41 However, even a mobile build-
bile home is the germ of tomorrow’s
ing can be designed to operate within
architecture, which will... make pos-
generalised contexts, such as town or
sible a more mobile architecture”.23
countryside, so its physical effect on
Arnheim himself seems to view mo-
the surroundings can still be designed
50
pleasing. Rudolf Arnheim represents
for. Arnheim suggests that mobile ar-
fetched and naive? If we told a medi-
chitecture “contravenes the wealth of
eval person that in the future they
local variation”.23 Doesn’t this pre-
could travel at the speed of their own
sume that mobile architecture is to-
voice, talk to people on the other side
tally standardised? Even if this were
of the planet and fly, would that be any
the case it can hardly be denied that
less far-fetched to them? The point
diachronic variation is present within
stands that technology will make
many standard things, such as the
many things possible in the future, as
personal touches in trailer parks or the
has been discussed, and although we
diversity of car styles. Arnheim defines
are all in a position to speculate no
local variation as the “urban apart-
one is in a position to tell us it can’t
ment, the rural farmhouse and the
happen. Arnheim sees “the traditional
mountain cottage”23 and one can see
house, rooted in the ground”23 as al-
his point. If mobile architecture were
ways serving the “productive role of
epitomised by the Portakabin one
counterpoint to human mobility”23a
might be concerned but we have es-
but we can see that the “traditional
tablished that this is not the case. The
house” is insignificant in terms of ar-
needs that have created Arnheim’s
chitectural evolution and thus serves
vernacular examples are the same
us as a product of our technologically
human needs that are pushing us in
governed existence. One of mobile
the direction of a mobile ideal. We
architectures’ appealing attributes is
have seen from examples that mobile
that of giving freedom. When we want
architecture does not have to be a
to be mobile our houses can be mo-
standardised “box”. Of course
bile and when we find it advantageous
standardisation may be a solution to
to be static our house could be as well.
the problem that Arnheim is con-
There is, of course, cause for endless
cerned with. If we become a totally
debate about planning issues in this
mobile society again our ideal mobile
changing world.
building could exist as standard modules that fit into the shell of a “tradi-
The initial stage of developing tech-
tional house”. Many rooms within
nology is an art in itself: “In technol-
buildings are standardised like a box,
ogy, inadequacy, not necessity, is the
of one size or another, so in theory
mother of all invention... The Imagi-
couldn’t most buildings be adapted to
nation feeds upon available mate-
accept standard modules? Far-
rial”.42 Thus it can create something
51
new as is the case in architecture. As
attention to its technological side.
Jurgen Joedicke stated in 1969: “if
Norman Foster’s and Anthony Caro’s
science is understood by the formu-
Millennium Bridge (Fig. 57), fancifully
lation of communicable, verifiable and
described as a ‘blade of light’, is un-
realisable propositions... wide areas
deniably spectacular but because of
of an architect’s work can be included
insufficient deference to engineering
in this category”43 Many architects
principles its shape caused a detri-
have regarded science and technol-
mental interaction between walking
Fig. 57 Foster and Caro’s Millennium Bridge, too little attention to practicalities
lead to its closure so repairs could be undertaken.
ogy as something that lacks artistic
crowds and the elasticity of the struc-
input and creativity. Throughout the
ture. On the other hand the motorway
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
bridges of the M1 (Fig. 58), although
“The task of the architect was clearly
including some aesthetic elements of
defined... his duty was to search for
an image... This meant attention to
‘style’ - the appearance of a building
rather than its substance”44 Of course
not all architects thought in this way
but there is, even today, a tendency
not to fully understand technology and
to follow a purely artistic design route.
Fig. 58 An M1motorway bridge, monotonous
and uninspired.
Of recent times there has been a divide between architect and engineer.
design, are monotonous and unin-
Hence the reason they remain sepa-
spired. They are the result of practi-
rate entities. Recent examples show
cality, efficiency and standardisation.
the reality of what happens when ar-
A good example of a balance being
chitectural design doesn’t pay enough
achieved between engineering and
52
architecture is in The Inflatable Space
been constructed it still demonstrates
Habitat (Fig. 59a,b & c) designed by
the thought processes that are re-
Kriss Kennedy and engineered by
quired in building such an advanced
NASA. Although only prototypes have
piece of architecture.45
Fig. 59 Cut away drawing of the mission control module.
Fig. 59b The primary habitation module.
53
The habitat is the first stage of es-
modules in an appropriate order ac-
tablishing permanent bases on the
cording to function. Crew quarters
moon. Its main task is to provide safe
consist of individual rooms that incor-
and instantaneous shelter from the
porate modular furniture and have
lunar habitat. This lunar building
movable partitions varying in colour
utilises inflatable technology to cope
and design. This area also includes
with its criteria and employs a modu-
recreational, storage and kitchen fa-
lar system for constructional flexibil-
cilities. The other level deals with base
ity. The first module to be installed is
control, missions and other technicali-
a small self-sufficient tube that will
ties. Due to the inflatable nature of the
sustain the base personnel while the
modules, strong, light weight materi-
other modules are assembled. Mod-
als such as Kevlar have been used to
ules containing life support or to act
construct the envelope. An external
as connection nodes would follow a
support structure that consists of a
similar principle. The main part of the
modular space frame is laterally
habitat takes account of adaptabil-
braced by the internal floors. This is
ity, construction methods and the lu-
made from an aluminium lithium alloy.
nar environment in its design. A cir-
The construction of a project like this
cular tube of 8 m diameter and 45 m
demonstrates the need for knowledge
in length is internally designed to ac-
of materials, lateral thinking and con-
commodate 120 cubic m of space
struction processes as well as detailed
per inhabitant, based on research
environmental design to suit the inhab-
into living for extended time periods
itants. Robert Kronenburg states that
in small spaces. A lot of time has
the “spin-offs that have resulted from
been spent on designing with the
technology developed for space ex-
needs of the occupants in mind. The
ploration have been significant” 45a
open plan approach allows the in-
and he points to Aluminium lithium and
habitants to alter the internal space
Kevlar as examples of materials that
depending on their tasks and also
are now in use in the aerospace in-
makes alteration easier. It is also
dustries and Kevlar has also proved
good from a psychological perspec-
valuable in tension structures on earth.
tive, in terms of long term inhabita-
Also the construction techniques could
tion, allowing the inhabitants to have
have many uses in the field of mobile
control over their environment. The
architecture on earth.
design of the habitat places different
54
Fig. 59c The Inflatable Space Habitat deployment sequence.
55
Although space architecture represents an extreme, sculptural form that
has been developed to be efficient
from an engineering perspective
might also contain some lessons for
mobile architecture. The work of
Santiago Calatrava would generally
be classed as static architecture but
much of his work contains moving
structures that have been designed
in a balanced way. Sound technological principles are taken in to account
with a high quality of design to fashion natural, sensible and elegant
structures. His Municipal Hall and redesign of Plaza Espana, Alcoy,
Spain46 (Fig. 60) demonstrate his innovative use of mobile components
within a static structure. Below street
level the hall follows the narrow triangle created by the plaza above, the
overall length being around 80 metres
while the width of 15.6 m, at one end,
slims to 9 m at the other. The main
structure that moves resembles the
Fig. 60 The main structure
resembles a wave as it folds
back.
action of a wave as it folds back. It
Ernstings textile building in Coesfeld,
consists of a number of steel slats
Germany (Fig. 61). Calatrava, Bruno
which create a natural form that can
Reichlin and Fabio Reinhart won a
lie flush with the pavement and open
competition to redesign the facade of
to induce a sculptural form whilst re-
the existing industrial structure. They
vealing a mirror like pool beneath. The
were faced with a relatively conven-
whole assembly is powered by sev-
tional building with three large open-
eral motors that can operate the fold-
ings on one side. The materials and
ing structure. Utilising a similar struc-
texture of the doors are exactly the
ture are the doors on the Fabbrica
same as the rest of the facade so as
56
Fig. 61 The doors turn into a sequence of sinuous awnings on the Fabbrica Ernstings
building.
not to break the continuity of the cladding. Each door is opened with a motor by a system of slats and joints. This
enables the rectangular doors to
change into a sequence of sinuous
awnings that mark out the entrances.
Transforming a seemingly mundane
object, such as an industrial door, into
something sculptural yet practical is
a mobile form to change in response
to its context. The Kuwait Pavilion,
Seville,48 (Fig. 62a & b) although static
as a whole, enables options for many
alternative configurations. This building was commissioned for Kuwait
when it participated in Seville’s Expo
’92. Its rib-like roof elements can move
a process of lateral thinking that
should be applied in mobile architecture. The idea of folding parts of a
building up, not only allows space to
be saved in transport but can also be
used to create sculptural forms based
on technical knowledge: “Motion gives
an unexpected dimension to form,
making it seem a living thing”. 47
Movement also offers the potential for
Fig. 62a The ribbed roof elements
can move inderpendently.
57
Fig. 62b Calatrava’s Kuwait Pavilion built for Seville’s Expo’ 92.
58
by means of hydraulics and counter-
about five years ago and now it is the
weights independently of each other.
fastest selling piece of technology
During the day time the roof structures
ever with 1 in 25 of the population
provide shading and in the evening
owning one. This shows that the
they can move outward to form a to-
people of today are ready to embrace
tally open space (Fig. 62c).
new technologies making the time
right for sophisticated mobile architecture to flourish.
People are beginning to expect
greater things from the environment
and architecture that surrounds them.
For years the ideas of futuristic travelling methods, like the ‘beaming-up’
devices on the Starship Enterprise
(Fig. 63) or Babylon Five, have been
Fig. 62c The roof elements begin to
open out in Calatrava’s Kuwait Pavilion.
Fig. 63 The Starship
Enterprise.
Something that widely effects a new
developed in the apparent reality of
technology is the willingness of people
film. Whilst computer effects create
to use it. In the early days advance
technology that is way ahead of its
was slow because people were wary
time or simply ridiculous, it is this world
of new inventions. The telephone is a
that people are expecting. Architects
good example. From the first demon-
will ignore these expectations at their
stration of the telephone, by
own cost. Already the way in which
Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, it took
architects present their buildings is
25 years until only one in every fifty
becoming more and more technology
Americans owned one. The first dem-
related with all manner of computer
onstration of the DVD player was
programs for building structures and
59
the same thing will become a neces-
are already becoming scientists, hav-
sity if they are to realise the potential
ing to take more responsibility for en-
for the increasing array of technology
vironmental science and material sci-
available to them. Should an architect
ence. They are no longer just the de-
really claim to have designed a build-
signers of a ‘style’44 or whim. It is be-
ing when he doesn’t understand the
coming increasingly likely that merg-
nature of its materials, mechanics and
ing scientist and architect into one and
computer electronics?
60
presenting virtual buildings. Architects
Conclusion
We can see that mobile architecture
adaptability make it a logical step for-
is an evolving entity that has been a
ward to help mankind progress
vital part of human evolution. Its ef-
whether that is to the stars or simply
fects have been far reaching and
to enjoy a better life style. The ideas
have played a role in human life
of a mobile world have already been
throughout the ages whether for shel-
explored by the likes of Archigram and
ter, art, war or fun. Mobile architecture
in many films. These visions seem to
is a subject of balance where tech-
reflect some of the desires for mobil-
nology, science, politics and environ-
ity present in humanity. Of course,
ment are vital for it to flourish. At the
technologies such as the Internet
moment divisions slow down the
might well produce a static society
progress of architecture and archi-
where everything is delivered to the
tects are only beginning to take on the
individual by automatons and where
scientific interest that they need in or-
going on holiday means to wire your
der to create a new wave of mobile
brain up to a program that creates a
living. We want and need mobile ar-
total virtual world where you can smell,
chitecture and the conversion to a
touch, taste, and see. Although
mobile society could well alleviate
today’s buildings are static our soci-
some of the problems associated with
ety is always seen as fast moving. It
our present existence, such as envi-
is in people’s nature that they must
ronmental issues. An ideal mobile ar-
move. A common punishment is to
chitecture does not exist yet although
the potential for many self sufficient,
self powered, free moving buildings
does. It will take a long time before
cultural divides can be sufficiently broken for a truly mobile world. Most
mobile architecture today must undergo a change before it becomes
mobile but the versatility of mobile architecture, its efficiency, its potential
for beauty and functionality and its
Fig. 64 Confinement! A typical
modern prison cell.
61
deprive people of this need by confin-
ronment that is suited to humanity’s
ing them to a space or putting them in
changing needs.
prison (Fig. 64).
So the architect of the future should
All these changes needed before we
take account of this instinctive desire
can escape the English winter over-
and be inspired, by a sound under-
night in our own beds and reach that
standing of science, technology, poli-
blue lagoon may take centuries - a
tics and psychology applied with the
short time in evolution.
passion of an artist to create an envi-
62
Notes
1
Claire Ainsworth, New Scientist magazine, vol. 171 issue 2299, 14/07/2001, page 7 Article : Ancient Ethiopian shakes the evolutionary tree.
2
Chris Stringer, head of human origins group at the Natural History Museum, London.
Quoted by Peter Hadfield, New Scientist magazine, vol. 165 issues 2228, 04/03/2000,
page 4 - Article : Gimme shelter.
3
From the British Museum Webpage http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/time/homemain.html
4
From The Encyclopedia Britannica, published 1970 - Volume 16, pg. 558 - Nomads.
5
Robert Kronenburg, Houses in motion, pg. 7.
6
From The Macmillan Encyclopedia, published 1994 - pg. 861 - Neolithic.
7
A description of Maurice Agis’ work can be found in Portable Architecture by Robert
Kronenburg (see bibliography) pg. 136 - 143.
8
The history for the industrial revolution has been based on information from the
following books which are also listed in the bibliography: Man the Builder by
JPM Pannell, The Pelican History of Art by Henry-Russell Hitchcock; A Concise
History of Western Architecture by R. Furneaux Jordan.
9
Information about the steam engine: The Macmillan Encyclopedia, published 1994 pg. 1156 - Steam engine
10
The history of Coalbrookdale, Menai bridge and Clifton suspension bridge is based on
info. from Man the Builder by JPM Pannell, Coalbrookdale - pg. 226-7; Menai bridge pg. 33, 228, 230-2, 246; Clifton suspension bridge - pg. 238.
11
The history of Paxton and the Crystal Palace is based on info. from A Concise History
of Western Architecture by R. Furneaux Jordan - pg. 295; The Pelican History of Art by
Henry-Russell Hitchcock - pg. 184-6.
12
Robert Kronenburg talking about the ideas of Martin Heidegger; Ephemeral/Portable
Architecture - pg. 7.
13
A description of the Hong Kong Tourist Association Pavilion can be found in Portable
Architecture by Robert Kronenburg - pg. 51. It is very similar to the Mobile TSB Bank
buildingwhich is discussed in detail later in the dissertation.
14
Archigram, edited by Peter Cook - pg. 86.
15
Archigram, edited by Peter Cook - pg. 94.
16
Archigram, edited by Peter Cook - pg. 89.
17
Information from The Airship - A History, Basil Collier - pg. 190.
63
18
Archigram, edited by Peter Cook - pg. 80.
19
Story of the airship based on information from the following books:
The Airship - A History, Basil Collier - pg. 188-207; The Zeppelin Story, W. Robert
Nitske; Jane’s Pocket Book 7 - Airship Development, Lord Ventry & Eugene M. Kolesnik
- R100 pg.134, 136-137; R101 pg. 138-140.
Website:http://www.aht.ndirect.co.uk/airships/r101/index.html
20
Jurgen Joedicke, Architecture since 1945 - pg. 167
21
President Bush pulled out of the Kyoto accord which was designed to limit gas emis
sions blamed by some scientists for global warming. March 2001.
22
Statistics from the WWF website:
http://www.panda.org/resources/publications/forest/f2/
23
Rudolf Arnheim, The Dynamics of Architectural Form - pg. 145.
23a
Rudolf Arnheim, The Dynamics of Architectural Form - pg. 146.
24
Based on information from the book Transportable Environments edited by R.
Kronenburg - From article by Sigrun Prahl, Gimme Shelter, pg.73.
25
Based on information from the book Transportable Environments edited by R.
Kronenburg - From article by Huy Ngo, Glenn Hill, David Driskill and Joe Aranha, Sus
tainable Portable Housing, Cave Cay, Bahamas, pg. 126.
26
Archigram, edited by Peter Cook - pg. 111.
27
Robert Kronenburg, Transportable Environments - pg. 4.
28
Gordon Browne of the Southampton Institute, Transportable Environments edited by R.
Kronenburg - pg. 84.
29
History based on information from the book The Story of England by Christopher Hibbert
- pg. 28-39
30
Bill Clinton speaking at the Dimbleby lecture 2001. The full transcript can be found at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/news_comment/dimbleby/clinton.shtml
The exact quote can be found at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/news_comment/dimbleby/clinton11.shtml
31
Information on the TSB Mobile Bank and Hospitality Facility is based on Robert
Kronenburg’s description in Portable Architecture by Robert Kronenburg - pg. 47-49.
32
Robert Kronenburg, Portable Architecture - pg. 48.
33
Nicholas Goldsmith, article in the book Ephemeral/Portable Architecture, Architectural
Design entitled Explorations in Ephemeral Architecture - pg. 31.
34
Nicholas Goldsmith, article in the book Ephemeral/Portable Architecture, Ar
chitectural Design entitled Explorations in Ephemeral Architecture - pg. 32.
64
35
Information from Eureka - An Illustrated History of Inventions... edited by Edward de
Bono - Tent, pg. 133.
36
Information from Eureka - An Illustrated History of Inventions... edited by Edward de
Bono - Siege engine, pg. 164.
37
R.C. Connor & I.J. Dunn, Mobile and Rapidly Assembled Structures III, pg. 1.
38
Account based on information from Mobile and Rapidly Assembled Structures III edited
by F. Escrig & C. A. Brebbia - pg. 6.
39
Robert Kronenburg, Portable Architecture - pg. 101.
40
John Kenneth Galbraith, The New Industrial State, pg. 11-12, (1967) as quoted by
Charles Jencks and Nathan Silver in the book Adhocism - pg. 19.
41
Ada Kwiatkowska, Transportable Environments edited by R. Kronenburg - pg. 19.
42
Charles Jencks and Nathan Silver, Adhocism - pg. 106.
43
Jurgen Joedicke, Architecture since 1945 - pg. 171.
44
Robert Kronenburg, Spirit of the Machine by Robert Kronenburg - pg. 28.
45
Description of Inflatable Lunar Habitat based on info. from the website:
http://www.abo.fi/~mlindroo/Station/Slides/sld049b.htm
& the book Portable Architecture, Robert Kronenburg, - pg. 144-154.
45a
Robert Kronenburg, Portable Architecture - pg. 153.
46
Descriptions of Calatrava’s Municipal Hall and redesign of Plaza Espana based on info.
from the book Santiago Calatrava by Luca Molinari - pg. 56.
47
Santiago Calatrava, Santiago Calatrava by Luca Molinari - pg. 46.
48
Descriptions of Calatrava’s Kuwait Pavilion, Seville, Spain based on info. from the book
Santiago Calatrava by Luca Molinari - pg. 70.
65
Bibliography
Books
Arnheim, Rudolf
The Dynamics of Architectural Form.
University of California Press, 1977.
Buchanan, Peter
Renzo Piano Building Workshop.
Phaidon, London, 1993.
Collier, Basil
The Airship - A History.
Hart-Davis, MacGibbon, London, 1974.
Cook, Peter
Archigram.
Princeton Architectural Press, New York, 1999.
de Bono, Edward
Eureka - An illustrated history of inventions...
(Editor)
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, new York, 1979.
Escrig, F.,
Mobile and Rapidly Assembled Structures III.
Brebbia C.A.
WIT press, Southampton, Boston, 2000.
(Editors)
Furneaux-Jordan, R.
A Concise History of Western Architecture.
Thames & Hudson, London, 1976.
Hibbert, Christopher
The Story of England.
Phaidon Press, London, 1992.
Hitchcock, Henry-Russell The Pelican History of Art - Architecture 19th & 20th
Centuries.
Penguin Books, London, 1971.
66
Jencks, Charles,
Adhocism - The Case for Improvisation.
Silver, Nathan
Anchor Press, New York, 1973.
Joedicke, Jurgen
Architecture Since 1945.
Pall Mall Press, London, 1969.
Kronenburg, Robert
Ephemeral / Portable Architecture.
(Guest Editor)
Academy Editions, London, 1998.
Kronenburg, Robert
Houses in Motion.
Academy Editions, London, 1995.
Kronenburg, Robert
Portable Architecture - Second Edition.
Architectural Press, Oxford, 2000.
Kronenburg, Robert
Transportable Environments.
(Editor)
E & FN SPON, London, 1998.
Kronenburg, Robert
Spirit of the Machine.
Wiley-Academy, London, 2001.
Molinari, Luca
Santiago Calatrava.
Skira, Milan, 1999.
Nitske, Robert W.
The Zeppelin Story.
Barnes and Co, New York, 1977.
Pannell, J.P.M.
Man the Builder.
Book Club Associates, London, 1977.
Tzonis, Alexander,
Movement, Structure and the work of Santiago
Lefaivre, Liane
Calatrava.
Boston, 1995.
Unstead, R.J.
Years of the Sword.
Macdonald & Co. , London, 1984.
67
Ventry, Lord &
Jane’s Pocket Book 7 - Airship Development.
Kolesnik, Eugene M.
Macdonald & Jane’s, London, 1976.
Williams, Captain T.B.
Airship Pilot No.28.
William Kimber & Co, London, 1974.
Encyclopedias
The Macmillan Encyclopedia, 1995 Edition.
Pan Macmillan, London, 1994.
The Encyclopedia Britannica - Volumes 1-23.
Encyclopedia Britannica, 1970.
Magazines
New Scientist, vol 165 issue 2228, 04/03/2000
New Scientist, vol 171 issue 2299, 14/07/2001
Website resources
http://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/news_comment/dimbleby/clinton.shtml
http://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/news_comment/dimbleby/clinton11.shtml
http://www.aht.ndirect.co.uk/airships/r101/index.html
http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/sci/tech/newsid_662000/662794.stm
http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/time/homemain.html
http://archive.newscientist.com/archive.jsp?id=22280300
http://www.panda.org/resources/publications/forest/f2/
http://www.ilcdover.com/products/spaceInf/Habitats.htm
http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/gotomoon.html
http://www.abo.fi/~mlindroo/Station/Slides/sld049b.htm.
68
69
70