Lecture 4

Lecture 4
What Is Word?
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Definitions of word
Identification of words
Related concepts
Simple word, complex
compound word
word
and
Word as a physically definable unit
The film is wonderful.
[ðə film iz wʌndəful]
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waiting-room
，
baby-stroller
(compounds)
[ə' tɔ:l] vs. at all (liaison)
it is vs. it’s (contracted forms)
Word as a general and specific term
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boy, boys
check, checks, checked, checking
fat, fatter, fattest
Lexeme – the abstract unit underlying
the smallest unit in the lexical system of
a language.
Word as a grammatical unit
Identification of words
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Stability
Relative uninterruptibility
A minimum free form
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According to Bloomfield, ―a
minimum free form is a word.‖
By this he meant that the word
is the smallest meaningful
linguist unit that can be used
on its own. It is a form that
cannot be divided into any
smaller units that can be used
independently
to
convey
meaning.
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child, childish
Hey, are you –ish?
I could describe your proposal in just two words: im
possible.
Morpheme
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Fromkin & Rodman (1983): A morpheme is ―the minimal
linguistic sign, a grammatical unit in which an arbitrary union of
a sound and a meaning and that cannot be further analyzed.‖
Free vs. bound morpheme
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Morphemes like ―child‖ that can come alone
and constitute words by themselves are free
morphemes while those like –ish that must be
combined with at least another morpheme
are bound morphemes.
Words that consist only of free morphemes
are compounds, for example, babysitter,
godfather, and sunflower.
Root, affix and stem
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The distinction between root, affix and stem is based
on their importance of forming a word.
We use stem to refer to a morpheme or combination
of morphemes to which other morphemes can be
added. The added morpheme is called an affix.
A stem must be a free morpheme or a combination
of morphemes, and the affix added to it is an
inflectional affix. A root can be free or bound and the
affix(es) added are derivational affixes.
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teachers
modernizations
receive, conceive, deceive, perceive
biology, psychology, geology
Inflectional and derivational
morpheme
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This distinction is made based on the function of the
affix – what an affix is used for.
Inflectional affixes are added to add a delicate
grammatical meaning to the stem. It doesn’t change
the meaning or word class, but produces different
forms of a single word.
Derivational affixes are added to change the lexical
meaning and in many cases, they also change the
word class of the stem.
In English, inflectional affixes are always suffixes, but
derivational affixes can be either prefixes or suffixes.
Lexeme
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boy, boys
check, checks, checked, checking
fat, fatter, fattest
Word forms vs. vocabulary items
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The lexeme is an abstract entity that is found
in the dictionary and that has a certain
meaning. Word-forms are the concrete
objects we put down on paper (orthographic
words) or utter (phonological words) when
we use language. The relationship between a
lexeme and word-form belonging to it is one
of
realization
or
representation
or
manifestation.
From an early age speakers are intuitively aware of this distinction and it is
the distinction that wordplay in puns and intentional ambiguity in everyday
life depends on.
Base details (Siegfried Sassoon)
If I were fierce, and bald, and short of breath,
I’d live with scarlet Majors at the Base,
And speed glum heroes up the line to death.
You’d see me with my puffy petulant face,
Guzzling and gulping in the best hotel,
Reading the Roll of Honour. ‘Poor young chap,’
I’d say—‘I used to know his father well;
Yes, we’ve lost heavily in this last scrap.’
And when the war is done and youth stone dead,
I’d toddle safely home and die—in bed.
Morph
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Jackson and Amvela (2000): any
concrete realization of a morpheme in a
given utterance is called a morph.
-ing, -s, -er, chair, cat, farm
Some morphemes have a single form in
all contexts, but in other instances, a
morpheme may have different shapes
or phonetic forms.
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map
dog
watch
mouse
ox
tooth
sheep
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
maps
dogs
watches
mice
oxen
teeth
sheep
/mæ ps/
/dɒgz/
/wɒtʃɪz/
/maɪs/
/ˡɒksn/
/ti:θ/
/ʃi:p/
Allomorphs (词素变体)
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Morphs that are different representations of
the same morpheme are called allomorphs
of that morpheme (from Greek allo ―other‖
and morph ―form‖). To put in another way,
according to the particular environment in
which a morpheme occurs, a morpheme may
be realized by different forms – its
morphemic alternants or allomorphs.
The English indefinite article
The English past tense morpheme
Phonologically conditioned
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injustice
inefficient
infirm
imperfect
impenetrable
impossible
Morphologically conditioned
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First, all the allomorphs should have the same
meaning, for instance, the plural morpheme
{-s～-z～-ɪz～-aɪ～-i:～-n～-θ}.
Second, all the allomorphs should be in
complementary distribution.
Third, allomorphs that have the same
meaning should occur in parallel formation.
Simple words, complex
words and compound words
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Simple words are free morphemes that are
morphologically unanalyzable, such as cat, knob,
door, etc.
Complex words (or derived words) are formed from
simpler words by the addition of affixes or some
other kind of morphological modification, such as
spoonful, wildish, reanimate, mentally, farmer, etc.
Compound words, or simply compounds, are
formed by combining two or more words (free
morphemes) with or without morphological
modification, e.g. door-knob, cheeseburger, pound
saver, wild-animal-tamer.
Different forms of compounds
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Solid: blackboard, schoolboy, teapot
Hyphenated: wild-animal-tamer, doorknob, well-established
Phrasal compound: coffee pot, coffee
bean, coffee break
Hyphenation
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Whether to use hyphens or not to indicate that something is a
compound word containing more than one word-like unit
depends on how transparent the compound nature of a word is.
To-morrow, Caesar,
I Shall be furnished to inform you rightly, …
(Anthony and Cleopatra, I, iv)
O! that we now had here
But ten thousand of those men in England
That do not work to-day.
(Henry V, IV, iii)
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The hyphen tends to be mostly used in
compounds that are regarded as fairly new
words. Many well-established words that are
transparently compounded, e.g. schoolboy,
are normally written without a hyphen.
Of course, judgments as to what is an
established word vary greatly. There are few
firm rules here.
Hyphenation in creative
writing
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Interestingly, hyphenation is also used
creatively to indicate that an idea that would
normally be expressed as a phrase is being
treated as a single word for communicative
purpose, because the writer conceives it as a
firm, single concept.
simple-to-serve recipe dishes
fresh-from-the-farm eggs
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Why should we say lunchtime, dinnertime, but breakfast time and teapot but
coffee pot?
Word-formation
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Derivation
Compounding
Conversion
Coinage
Blending
Clipping
Acronym
Back-formation
Katamba (2004: 51)
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Just as anyone putting together a
jigsaw must realize the different
pieces go in positions where their
shape fits, anyone assembling
words must also realize that the
various morphemes available in a
language can only be used in
certain places where they fit.
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Derivation refers to the creation of a new
word by means of the addition of an affix to a
root. It is a lexical process which actually
forms a new word out of an existing one by
the addition of a derivational affix, which can
be either a prefix or a suffix, and more than
one affix can be added to the same root in
this case.
denationalization
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Roots：the core
Affixation
Root
Meaning
Examples
acer, acid, acri
bitter, sour, sharp
acerbic, acidity, acrid, acrimony
acu
sharp
acute, acupuncture, accurate
ag, agi, ig, act
do, move, go
agent, agenda, agitate, navigate, ambiguous,
action
ali, allo, alter
other
alias, alibi, alien, alloy, alter, alter ego, altruism
alt(us)
high, deep
altimeter, altitude
am, amor
love, liking
amiable, amorous, enamoured
Anni, annu, enni
year
anniversary, annually, centennial
anthrop
man
anthropology, misanthrope, philanthropy
anti(co)
old
antique, antiquated, antiquity
arch
chief, first, rule
archangel, architect, archaic, monarchy,
matriarchy, patriarchy, Archeozoic era
aster, astr
star
aster, asterisk, asteroid, astronomy, astronaut
aud, aus
hear, listen
audiology, auditorium, audio, audition,
ausculate
aug, auc
increase
augur, augment, auction
auto, aut
self
automobile, autograph, automatic
Root
Meaning
Examples
belli
war
rebellion, belligerent, casus belli, bellicose
bibl
book
Bible, bibliography, bibliomania
bio
life
biology, biometrics, biome, biosphere
brev
short
abbreviate, brief
Root
Meaning
Examples
cad, cas
to fall
cadaver, cadence, cascade
calor
heat
calorie, caloric, calorimeter
cap, cip, cept
take
capable, intercept, forceps, capture, except, reciprocate
capit, capt
head
decapitate, capital, captain, caption
carn
flesh
carnivorous, incarnate, reincarnation, carnal
caus, caut
burn, heat
caustic, cauldron, cauterize
cause, cuse, cus
cause, motive
because, excuse, accusation
ced, ceed, cede, cess
move, yield, go,
procedure, proceed, cede, concede, recede, precede,
surrender
accede, success
cenetri
center
concentric, centrifugal, centripetal, eccentric
chrom
color
chrome, chromosome, polychrome, chromatic
chron
time
chronology, chronometer, synchronize
cide, cise
cut down, kill
homicide, exorcise, germicide, incision, scissors
cit
call, start
incite, citation, cite
civ
citizen
civic, civil, civilian, civilization
Root
Meaning
Examples
clam, claim
cry out
exclamation, clamor, proclamation, reclamation, acclaim
clud, clus, claus
shut
include, conclude, recluse, claustrophobia, occlusion,
occult
cognoac, gnosi
know
recognize, prognosis, cognoscenti, incognito, agnostic
cord, cor, cardi
heart
cordial, concord, discord, courage, encourage
corp
body
corporation, corporal punishment, corpse, corpulent,
corpus luteum
cosm
universe, world
cosmos, microcosm, cosmopolitan, cosmonaut
crat, cracy
rule
autocrat, aristocrat, theocracy, technocracy
crea
create
creature, recreation, creation
cred
believe
creed, credo, credence, credit, credulous, incredulous,
incredible
cresc, cret, crease, cru
rise, grow
crescendo, concrete, increase, decrease, accrue
crit
separate, choose
critical, criterion, hypocrite
cur, curs
run
current, concurrent, concur, incur, recur, occur, courier,
precursor, cursive
cura
care
curator, curative, manicure
cycl, cyclo
wheel, circular
Cyclops, unicycle, bicycle, cyclone, cyclic
Root
Meaning
Examples
deca
ten
decade, decalogue, decathlon, decahedron
dem
people
democracy, demography, epidemic
dent, dont
tooth
dental, denture, orthodontist, periodontal
derm
skin
hypodermic, dermatology, epidermis, taxidermy
dict
say, speak
dictation, dictionary, dictate, dictator, Dictaphone, edict,
predict, verdict, contradict, benediction
doc, dokein
teach
doctrine, indoctrinate, document, dogma, dogmatic
domin
master
dominate, dominion, predominant, domain
don
give
donate, condone
dorm
sleep
dormant, dormitory
dox
opinion, praise
orthodox, heterodox, paradox, doxology
drome
run, step
syndrome (run together), hippodrome (place where
horses run)
duc, duct
lead
induce, seduce (lead aside), produce, reduce
dura
hard, lasting
durable, duration, endure
dynam
power
dynamo, dynamic, dynamite, hydrodynamics
Root
endo
Meaning
within
Examples
endorse, endocardial, endoskeletal, endoskeleton,
endosperm
equi
equal
equinox, equilibrium, equipoise
erg
work
energy, erg, allergy, ergometer, ergograph, ergophobia
Root
Meaning
Examples
fac, fact, fic, fect
do, make
factory, fact, manufacture, amplification, confection
fall, fals
deceive
fallacy, falsify, fallacious
fer
bear, carry
ferry, coniferous, fertile, defer, infer, refer, transfer
fid, fide, feder(is)
faith, trust
confidante, fidelity, confident, infidelity, infidel, federal,
confederacy, semper fi
fila, fili
thread
filigree, filament, filter, filet, filibuster
fin
end, ended,
final, finite, finish, confine, fine, refine, define, finale
finished
fix
fix
fix, fixation, fixture, affix, prefix, suffix
flex, flect
bend
flex, reflex, flexible, flexor, inflexibility, reflect, deflect
flu, fluc, fluv
flowing
influence, fluid, flue, flush, fluently, fluctuate
form
form, shape
form, uniform, conform, formulary, perform, formal,
formula
fort, forc
strong
fort, fortress, fortify, forte, fortitude
fract, frag
break
fracture, infraction, fragile, fraction, refract
Root
Meaning
Examples
gam
marriage
bigamy, monogamy, polygamy
gastr (o)
stomach
gastric, gastronomic, gastritis, gastropod
gen
birth, race, produce
genesis, genetics, eugenics, genealogy, generate,
genetic, antigen, pathogen
geo
earth
geometry, geography, geocentric, geology
germ
vital part
germination, germ, germane
gest
carry, bear
congest, gestation
gloss, glot
tongue
glossary, polyglot, epiglottis
glu, glo
lump, bond, glue
glue, agglutinate, conglomerate
grad, gress
step, go
grade, gradual, graduate, progress, graduated, egress
graph, gram
write, written
graph, graphic, autograph, photography, graphite,
telegram
grat
pleasing
congratulate, gratuity, grateful, ingrate
grav
heavy, weighty
grave, gravity, aggravate, gravitate
greg
herd
gregarious, congregation, segregate, gregarian
Root
Meaning
Examples
hypn
sleep
hypnosis, hypnotherapy
helio
sun
heliograph, heliotrope, heliocentric
hema, hemo
blood
hemorrhage, hemoglobin, hemophilia, hemostat
here, hes
stick
adhere, cohere, cohesion, inherent, hereditary
hetero
different
heterogeneous, heterosexual, heterodox
homo
same
homogeneous, homonym, homogenize
hum, human
earth, ground, man
humus, exhume, humane
hydr, hydra, hydro
water
dehydrate, hydrant, hydraulic, hydraulics, hydrogen,
hydrophobia
Root
Meaning
Examples
ignis
fire
ignite, igneous, ignition
ject
throw
deject, inject, project, eject, interject
join, junct
join
adjoining, enjoin, juncture, conjunction, injunction,
conjunction
juven
young
juvenile, rejuvenate
Root
Meaning
Examples
lau, lav, lot, lut
wash
launder, lavatory, lotion, ablution, dilute
leg
law
legal, legislate, legislature, legitimize
levi
light
alleviate, levitate, levity
liber, liver
free
liberty, liberal, liberalize, deliverance
liter
letters
literary, literature, literal, alliteration, obliterate
loc, loco
place
locality, allocate, locomotion
log, logo, ology
word, study,
catalog, prologue, dialogue, logogram (symbol
speech
representing a word), zoology
loqu, locut
talk, speak
eloquent, loquacious, colloquial, circumlocution
luc, lum, lus, lun
light
translucent, luminary, luster, luna (moon goddess)
Root
Meaning
Examples
macr-, macer
lean
emaciated, meager
magn
great
magnify, magnificent, magnanimous, magnate,
magnitude, magnum
man
hand
manual, manage, manufacture, manacle, manicure,
manifest, maneuver, emancipate
mand
command
mandatory, remand, mandate
mania
madness
mania, maniac, kleptomania, pyromania
mar, mari, mer
sea, pool
marine, marsh, maritime, mermaid
matri
mother
matrimony, maternal, matriarchate, matron
medi
half, middle,
mediate, medieval, Mediterranean, mediocre, medium
between, halfway
mega
great
megaphone, megalopolis, megacycle (a million cycles),
megaton
mem
remember
memo, commemoration, memento, memoir, memorable
meter
measure
meter, voltammeter, barometer, thermometer
Root
micro
Meaning
small
Examples
microscope, microfilm, microcard, microwave,
micrometer
migra
wander
migrate, emigrant, immigrate
mit, miss
send
emit, remit, submit, admit, commit, permit, transmit, omit,
intermittent, mission, missile
mob, mot, mov
move
mobile, motionless, motor
mon
warn, remind
monument, admonition, monitor, premonition
mor, mort
mortal, death
mortal, immortal, mortality, mortician, mortuary
morph
form
amorphous, dimorphic, metamorphosis, morphology
multi
many, much
multifold, multilingual, multiped, multiply
Root
nat, nasc
Meaning
to be from, to
Examples
innate, natal, native, renaissance
spring forth
neo
new
Neolithic, nuveau riche, neologism, neophyte, neonate
neur
nerve
neuritis, neuropathic, neurologist, neural, neurotic
nom
law, order
autonomy, astronomy, gastronomy, economy
nomen, nomin
name
nomenclature, nominate, ignominious
nov
new
novel, renovate, novice, nova, innovate
nox, noc
night
nocturnal, equinox, noctilucent
numer
number
numeral, numeration, enumerate, innumerable
numisma
coin
numismatics
Root
Meaning
Examples
oligo
few, little
Oligocene, oligosaccharide, oligotrophic, oligarchy
omni
all, every
omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent, omnivorous
onym
name
anonymous, pseudonym, antonym, synonym
oper
work
operate, cooperate, opus
ortho
straight, correct
orthodox, orthodontist, orthopedic, unorthodox
Root
Meaning
Examples
pac
peace
pacifist, pacify, pacific ocean
paleo
old
Paleozoic, Paleolithic, paleomagnetism,
paleopsychology
pan
all
Pan-American, pan-African, panacea, pandemonium
(place of all the demons),
pater, patr
father
paternity, patriarch, patriot, patron, patronize
path, pathy
feeling, suffering
pathos, sympathy, antipathy, apathy, telepathy
ped, pod
foot
pedal, impede (get feet in a trap), pedestrian, centipede,
tripod, podiatry, antipode
pedo
child
orthopedic, pedagogue, pediatrics
pel, puls
drive, urge
compel, dispel, expel, repel, propel, pulse, impulse,
pulsate, compulsory, expulsion, repulsive
pend, pens, pond
hang, weigh
pendant, pendulum, suspend, appendage, pensive
phage
eat
macrophage, bacteriophage
phil
love
philosophy, philanthropy, philharmonic, bibliophile
phlegma
inflammation
phlegm, phlegmatic
phobia, phobos
fear
phobia, claustrophobia, acrophobia, aquaphobia,
ergophobia, homophobia
phon
sound
phonograph, phonetic, symphony, homophone,
euphonious
photo
light
photograph, photoelectric, photogenic, photosynthesis
Root
Meaning
Examples
plac, plais
please
placid, placebo, placate, complacent
plu, plur, plus
more
plural, pluralist, plus
pneuma, pneumon
breath
pneumatic, pneumonia,
city
metropolis, police, politics, Indianapolis, megalopolis,
pod (see ped)
poli
acropolis
poly
many
polysaccharide, polyandrous, polytheistic
pon, pos, pound
place, put
postpone, component, opponent, proponent, expose,
impose, deposit, posture, position, expound, impound
pop
people
population, populous, popular
port
carry
porter, portable, transport, report, export, import,
support, transportation
portion
part, share
portion, proportion
pot
power
potential, potentate, impotent
prehendere
seize, grasp
apprehend, comprehend, comprehensive, prehensile
prim, prime
first
primacy, prima donna, primitive, primary, primal,
primeval
proto
first
prototype, protocol, protagonist, protozoan, Proterozoic,
protoindustrial
psych
mind, soul
psyche, psychiatry, psychology, psychosis
punct
point, dot
punctual, punctuation, puncture, acupuncture,
punctuation
Root
Meaning
Examples
reg, recti
straighten
regiment, regular, rectify, correct, direct, rectangle
ri, ridi, risi
laughter
deride, ridicule, ridiculous, derision, risible
rog, roga
ask
prerogative, interrogation, derogatory
rupt
break
rupture, interrupt, abrupt, disrupt, ruptible
Root
Meaning
Examples
sacr, sanc, secr
sacred
sacred, sacrosanct, sanction, consecrate, desecrate
salv, salu
safe, healthy
salvation, salvage, salutation
sat, satis
enough
satient (giving pleasure, satisfying), saturate, satisfy
sci, scientia
know
science, conscious, omniscient, cognocienti
scope
see, watch
telescope, microscope, kaleidoscope, periscope,
stethoscope
scrib, script
write
scribe, scribble, inscribe, describe, subscribe, prescribe,
manuscript
sed, sess, sid
sit
sediment, session, obsession, possess, preside,
president, reside, subside
sen
old
senior, senator, senile
senescere
to grow old
senescence, evanescent
sent, sens
feel
sentiment, consent, resent, dissent, sentimental, sense,
sensation, sensitive, sensory, dissension
sequ, secu, sue
follow
sequence, consequence, sequel, subsequent,
prosecute, consecutive, second, ensue, pursue
serv
save, serve
servant, service, subservient, servitude, preserve,
conserve, reservation, deserve, conservation, observe
sign, signi
sign, mark, seal
signal, signature, design, insignia, significant
simil, simul
like, resembling
similar, assimilate, simulate, simulacrum, simultaneous
sist, sta, stit
stand
assist, persist, circumstance, stamina, status, state,
static, stable, stationary, substitute
Root
Meaning
Examples
solus
alone
solo, soliloquy, solitaire, solitude
solv, solu
loosen
solvent, solve, absolve, resolve, soluble, solution,
resolution, resolute, dissolute
somnus
sleep
insomnia, somnambulist
soph
wise
sophomore (wise fool), philosophy, sophisticated
spec, spect, spic
look
specimen, specific, spectator, spectacle, aspect,
speculate, inspect, respect, prospect, retrospective,
introspective, expect, conspicuous
sphere
ball, sphere
sphere, stratosphere, hemisphere, spheroid
spir
breath
spirit, conspire, inspire, aspire, expire, perspire,
respiration
string, strict
draw tight
stringent, strict, restrict, constrict, boa constrictor
stru, struct
build
construe (build in the mind, interpret), structure,
construct, instruct, obstruct, destruction, destroy
sume, sump
take, use, waste
consume, assume (to take, to use), sump pump
presumption (to take or use before knowing all the facts
Root
tact, tang, tag, tig, ting
Meaning
touch
Examples
tactile, contact, intact, intangible, tangible, contagious,
contiguous
tele
far
telephone, telegraph, telegram, telescope, television,
telephoto, telecast, telepathy
tempo
time
tempo, temporary, extemporaneously, contemporary,
pro tem, temporal
ten, tin, tain
hold
tenacious, tenant, tenure, untenable, detention,
retentive, content, pertinent, continent, obstinate,
contain, abstain, pertain, detain
tend, tent, tens
stretch, strain
tendency, extend, intend, contend, pretend, superintend,
tender, extent, tension, pretense
terra
earth
terrain, terrarium, territory, terrestrial
test
to bear witness
testament, detest, testimony, attest
the, theo
God, a god
monotheism, polytheism, atheism, theology
therm
heat
thermometer, theorem, thermal, thermos bottle,
thermostat, hypothermia
thesis, thet
place, put
antithesis, hypothesis, synthesis, epithet
Root
tom
Meaning
cut
Examples
atom (not cuttable), appendectomy, tonsillectomy,
dichotomy, anatomy
tort, tors
twist
torture (twisting to inflict pain) retort, extort, distort,
contort, torsion, tortuous, torturous
tox
poison
toxic, intoxicate, antitoxin
tract, tra
draw, pull
tractor, attract, subtract, tractable, abstract, subtrahend
tom
cut
atom (not cutable, smallest particle of matter),
appendectomy, tonsillectomy, dichotomy, anatomy
tort, tors
twist
torture (twisting to inflict pain), retort, extort (twist out),
distort, contort, torsion
tox
poison
toxic, intoxicate, antitoxin
tract, tra
draw, pull
tractor, attract, traction, subtract, tractable, abstract (to
draw away), subtrahend (the number to be drawn away
from another).
trib
pay, bestow
tribute, contribute, attribute, retribution, tributary
turbo
disturb
turbulent, disturb, turbid, turmoil
typ
print
type, prototype, typical, typography, typewriter, typology,
typify
Root
Meaning
Examples
ultima
last
ultimate, ultimatum
umber, umbraticum
shadow
umbra, penumbra, (take) umbrage, adumbrate
uni
one
unicorn, unify, university, unanimous, universal
Root
Meaning
Examples
vac
empty
vacate, vacuum, evacuate, vacation, vacant, vacuous
vale, vali, valu
strength, worth
equivalent, valiant, validity, evaluate, value, valor
ven, vent
come
convene, intervene, venue, convenient, avenue,
circumvent, invent, convent, venture, event, advent,
prevent
ver, veri
true
very, aver, verdict, verity, verify, verisimilitude
vert, vers
turn
avert, divert, invert, introvert, convertible, reverse,
controversy, versatile
vic, vicis
change, substitute
vicarious, vicar, vicissitude
vict, vinc
conquer
victor, evict, convict, convince, invincible
vid, vis
see
video, evident, provide, providence, visible, revise,
supervise, vista, visit, vision
viv, vita, vivi
alive, life
revive, survive, vivid, vivacious, vitality, vivisection
Root
voc
Meaning
call
Examples
vocation, avocation, convocation, invocation, evoke,
provoke, revoke, advocate, provocative, vocal
vol
will
malevolent, benevolent, volunteer, volition
volcan
fire
volcano, vulcanize, Vulcan
volvo
turn about, roll
revolve, voluble (easily turned about or around or
talkative), voluminous, convolution
vor
eat greedily
voracious, carnivorous, herbivorous, omnivorous, devour
zo
animal
zoo (short for zoological garden), zoology, zoomorphism
(attributing animal form to god), zodiac (circle of animal
constellations), protozoan
Some commonly used prefixes
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be- (forming verbs) ―around‖: beset, besmear, becloud, a
bespectacled boy
―treated in a certain way‖: befriend, belittle
co-/con-/com- ―together‖: cooperate, combine, conspire
ex- ―former‖: ex-wife, ex-leader, ex-pilot, ex-president
mis- ―wrongly, badly ‖ : misunderstand, mistake, mis-inform,
mis-marriage
mal(e)- ―bad(ly)‖: malcontent, malpractice, maladjusted,
malefactor
re- ―again‖: re-think, re-examine, re-play
un- ―negative‖: unhappy, unwise, unexciting, uncomfortable
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dis- ―negative‖ (with adjectives or nouns):
dishonest, dishonorable, discomfort
dis- ―negative, reversive‖ (with verbs):
disallow, disagree, disarm, disbelieve
in- ―negative‖ (with adjectives): inarticulate,
inactive, inevitable, inconvenient
un- ―negative‖ (with adjectives): unusual,
unpleasant, unreliable, unfortunate
un- ―reversive‖ (with verbs): undo, unblock,
unpack, unroll, uncover
Verb – Noun
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-ation ―deriving noun of action‖: donation, regulation, realization
-ant ―person who does‖: inhabitant, protestant, occupant
-ant ―instrument used to do‖: stimulant, intoxicant
-er ―person who does‖: teacher, painter, builder
-er ―instrument used to do‖: container, cooker, strainer, drainer
-ing ―act of doing‖: learning, saving, waiting
-ist ―agent – one who does‖: typist, cyclist, copyist
-ion ―deriving nouns of condition or action‖: erosion, corrosion
-ment ―result, product, instrument‖: pavement, appointment,
payment
-ery ―a place where animals are kept or plants grown‖: cattery,
piggery, shrubbery
Verb – Adj.
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-ing ―in the process or state of doing‖:
waiting car, standing passenger,
boiling
-ive ―having the tendency, quality,
etc.‖: active, evasive, representative
-able ―able to be done‖: readable,
manageable, imaginable
Noun – Verb
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-ate: capacitate
-ise / ize ―bring … about, put in the
place
or
state‖:
computerize,
hospitalize, jeopardize
Noun – Adj.
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-al ―pertaining to‖: national, traditional, dental,
causal
-ate: intimate, accurate (normally a corresponding
noun ending in –acy), passionate
-ish ―having the nature, qualities of‖: childish,
foolish, snobbish
-less ―without‖: homeless, careless, fearless
-ful ―filled with‖: joyful, careful, fearful, cheerful
-(i)an ―associated with‖: suburban, Chomsky-an,
Gricean
-some
―having
quality
of‖:
quarrelsome,
troublesome, tiresome
Adj. – Verb
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-ate ―cause to become‖: activate,
equate
-ise / -ize ―cause to become‖:
modernize, realize
Adj. – Noun
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-ness ―state or condition‖: goodness,
fairness, bitterness, darkness
-ity ―state or condition‖: timidity,
banality, purity
-ship ―state or condition‖: hardship
-ery ―the property of‖: bravery,
trickery
Adj. – Adv.
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-ly: usually, busily, proudly
Noun – Noun
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-aire ―possessed of‖: millionaire, doctrinaire, solitaire
-er ―person practicing a trade‖: hatter, footballer, geographer
-ery ―indicating general collective sense‖: machinery, jewellery,
pottery
-let ―a diminutive noun‖: booklet, leaflet, piglet
-ling ―a diminutive noun‖: duckling, foundling
-hood ―quality, state, rank‖: boyhood, childhood, priesthood
-ship ―state or condition‖: directorship, sportsmanship,
professorship
-ism ―name of a theory, doctrine, etc.‖: capitalism, Marxism,
behaviorism
-ist ―a protagonist for‖: capitalist, behaviorist, Marxist
Adj. – Adj.
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-ish ―having the property
narrowish, bluish, pinkish
of‖:
Verb – Verb
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-er ―add frequent or iterative meaning‖:
chatter, patter, flutter
Compounding
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N+N, V+V sleepwalk, makebelieve
adj + adj icycold, red-hot
adv + adv moreover, indeed
prep + prep into, through
conj + conj whereas, whenever
pron + pron myself, you-all
num + num two-thirds
N + V sunrise, daybreak
V + N playboy, pickpocket, killjoy
adj + N greenhouse, hotdog, headstrong
V + prep handout, sit-in
adv + N downfall
prep + N update, afterlife
Neo-classical compounds
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In English there is a rather special type of
two-part compound which is not formed by
the combination of two free root morphemes,
but by the combination of two bound root
morphemes. These are called ―neo-classical‖
compounds.
astronaut: astro + naut
biography: bio + graphy
barometer: baro + meter
Endocentric compounds
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Endocentric compounds (内向合成词) refers to those
compounds in which one constituent is the centre
and the other is the modifier. The center, also called
the head, is usually derived from a verb and the
modifier is a participant in the verbal process.
Nouns
Adjectives
self-control
eye-entertaining
pain-killer
bullet-resistant
core meaning
virus-sensitive
foot-warmer
sun-tanned
Exocentric compounds
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In exocentric compounds (外向合成词), there is no
focal element and the whole refers to something else
rather than what either of the constituent denotes.
Nouns
Adjectives
scarecrow 稻草人
takehome 实得的
playboy 花花公子
lackluster 平凡的
cutthroat 凶手
breakneck 非常危险的
get-together 聚会
come-hither 诱惑的
breakthrough 突破
walk-in 未经预约的
Conversion
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A word is used as a member of another
class without any alternation being
made to its shape, with nothing added
to the base. It is also referred to as
zero derivation.
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The Green Party first had political clout
in the 1980s.
The Greens first had political clout in
the 1980s.
She is a fast runner.
She runs very fast.
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He is a slow bowler.
Go slow.
Slow the car.
Mr. Slow is a popular children’s book.
It’s easy to be wise after the event.
I will tell them the news after you leave..
A moment after there was a knock at his door.
In after years I became familiar with it.
Coinage / Invention
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This refers to the creation of entirely
new words, usually from brand name of
products.
Kodak, nylon, diesel, Xerox
Blending
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Blendings are similar to compounds in
that two words are combined to form a
new one, but in blending not the entire
form of the two words remain. We do it
by joining together the initial part of the
first word and the final part of the
second word, or by only joining the
initial parts of the two words.
initial + final
transfer + resister
smoke + fog
motor + hotel
breakfast + lunch
television + broadcast
dance + exercise
advertisement + editorial
education + entertainment
information + commercial
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→
transistor
smog
motel
brunch
telecast
dancercise
advertorial
edutainment
infomercial
initial + initial
teleprinter + exchange
modulator + demodulator
digital + computer
sports + broadcast
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→
telex
modem
digicom
sportscast
Abbreviation / clipping
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Back-clippings:
Ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee),
hippo(potamus), lab(oratory),
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exam(inaiton),
Fore-clippings
(ham)burger, (omni)bus, (tele)phone, (heli)copter,
(alli)gator, (earth)quake
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Fore-and-aft clippings
Influenza → flu, refrigerator → fridge
Acronym
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Acronyms are made up of the first letters of
the words in a phrase. It is usually used with
the name of organizations.
CIA
Central Intelligence Agency
EEC
European Economic Community
UNESCO United Nations Education Science
and Culture Organization
WB
World Bank
WTO
World Trade Organization
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This process is also widely used in shortening
extremely long words of word groups in science,
technology and other special fields. In this case, the
letters will be read together as one word.
Rador ← radio detecting and ranging
BASIC ← Beginners’ All-purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code
AIDS ← Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
dink ← double income no kid
CD-ROM ← compact disc read-only memory
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When the letters are read separately, we call
it ―initialism‖. Examples include:
AI: artificial intelligence
a.s.a.p.: as soon as possible
HIV: human immunodeficiency virus
PC: personal computer
PS: postscript
RSVP: repondez s’il vous plait (please reply)
Back-formation
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1) burgle, commentate, edit, peddle,
scavenge, sculpt, swindle
2) air-condition, babysit, brainstorm,
brainwash, browbeat, dry-clean, househunt, housekeep, sightsee, tape-record
3) articulate, assassinate, coeducate,
demarcate, emote, intuit, legislate,
marinate, orate, vaccinate, valuate
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These words are all formed by a
process called back-formation. BACKFORMATION refers to an unusual type
of word-formation where a shorter word
is derived by deleting an imagined affix
from a longer form already in the
language.
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diagnose < diagnosis,
enthuse < enthusiasm,
laze < lazy,
liaise < liaison,
reminisce < reminiscence,
statistic < statistics,
televise < television
Exercises
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Define the following terms:
Morpheme, compound, inflection, affix,
derivation, root, allomorph, stem,
bound morpheme, free morpheme,
lexeme, blending, acronym, backformation
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Discuss the following questions:
1) Discuss the different types of morphemes.
2) Discuss whether morpheme is a
grammatical concept or a semantic concept.
What is its relationship to phoneme? Can a
morpheme and a phoneme form an organic
whole?