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Department of General Education
1-2009
Effects of Personalized Narration on Learner
Motivaton in a Web-Base Environment
Mark P. Fazioli
Goodwin College, [email protected]
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EFFECTS OF PERSONALIZED NARRATION ON LEARNER MOTIVATION IN A
WEB-BASED ENVIRONMENT
by
Mark P. Fazioli
ROD SIMS, Ph.D., Faculty Mentor and Chair
WILLIAM TETU, Ph.D., Committee Member
MICHAEL MCGIVERN, Ph.D., Committee Member
Harry McLenighan, Ed.D., Dean, School of Education
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
January 2009
3341512
Copyright 2009 by
Fazioli, Mark P.
All rights reserved
2009
3341512
© Mark P. Fazioli, 2009
Abstract
As technology advances, online instruction has the capabilities to create and
present the environment of modalities and interactivity found within the traditional
classroom. The learner’s experiences within Web-based courses can serve to either
increase or decrease motivation. Conversational narration is one strategy that can be used
in Web-based learning to increase immediacy and affect motivation. This study examined
the effect of personalized narration on learner motivation in a Web-based environment.
Using a mixed methods design, participants completed a portion of Richmond’s
motivation scale to determine initial motivation levels. Following this, participants
accessed a Web-based module that contained either personalized narration or formal
narration. Upon completion of the module, participants once again completed the same
portion of Richmond’s motivation scale, as well as selected items from Gorham’s Verbal
Immediacy Behaviors Scale and a set of open-ended questions. Data analysis included
results from t tests as well as triangulation from qualitative data. Research findings
indicated that there was no statistically significant difference (p<.05) in motivation scale
rating for either the control group or the treatment group from the presurvey to the post
survey. Findings for the immediacy scales were mixed. There was no statistically
significant difference (p=.11) between the treatment group and the control group for the
immediacy factors of use of humor, asking questions, personal examples and
personalized language (the use of “we” or “our”). Participants in the study had diverse
opinions and perceptions about personalized narration, and were also able to explain
aspects and factors of their motivation. Additionally, they accurately described and
advocated for social presence, an indicator of immediacy, in the Web-based environment.
The study determined that personalized narration did not increase motivation; however,
immediacy can be increased through the use of multimedia and personalized narration in
the Web-based environment.
Dedication
I was very fortunate to have such a loving and caring family who constantly
supported my efforts and never let me give up on my dream. I am proud to dedicate this
dissertation to my parents Janet and Felix Fazioli. They taught me to work hard and never
take the easy way out. Their lessons instilled a sense of commitment and honor in
everything that I do.
Most of all, this dissertation would have not be possible without my best friend
and loving wife Patricia Fazioli. For ten years, you have encouraged me to follow a
dream no matter what the cost was. Patty, for all the countless sleepless nights, weekends
and holidays that you sacrificed on my account thank you, from the bottom of my heart;
I’m eternally grateful and I love you.
One last dedication that I must make is to all those people who are dyslexic, who
think they cannot accomplish an education, fulfill a dream and live a better life, I say to
you: “Yes, you can”.
iii
Acknowledgments
Growing up, my late grandmother Julia Laigle always told me that the road we
sometimes choose is not always a smooth one. Most of the time it’s a bumpy road, with
lots of roadblocks. But, if you have a strong will and a support system you will eventually
get to your destination, making you stronger and wiser. The doctoral journey has been
just that, an adventure filled with many road blocks; therefore, without my caring,
dedicated support system keeping me moving forward, this journey would have had a
different outcome.
First of all, I was very lucky to have had the opportunity to work under Dr.
Rodrick Sims, my mentor and committee chair whose expertise and guidance inspired
and motivated me to continue with this study. You have taught me a great deal, which I
intend to use throughout my life.
A special thank you to my committee, Drs. William Tetu and Michael McGivern,
your assistance and input has helped shape the study and give it purpose.
I would also like to personally thank the administration of Charter Oak State
College, President Edward Klonoski, Provost Dr. Shirley Adams, and Dr. Barry
Vroeginday, as well as the leadership of the Connecticut Distance Consortium, Dr. Diane
Goldsmith and Kevin Corcoran and President Meg Dunn of American Academy
McAllister Institute. This study would have never happened without the assistance and
support from all of you.
A very special thanks to Dr. Merle Harris, President Emeritus of Charter Oak
State College whose vision, encouragement and faith in me and my study enabled me to
realize that the dream of a world-class education for an adult learner is possible.
iv
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………iv
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………viii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the Problem……………………………………………………….1
Background of the Study………………………………………………………….2
Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………….4
Purpose of the Study………………………………………………………………5
Research Questions………………………………………………………………..5
Significance of the Study………………………………………………………….6
Definition of Terms………………………………………………………………..7
Assumptions and Limitations……………………………………………………..9
Nature of the Study ……………………………………………………………….9
Organization of the Remainder of the Study…………………………………….11
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Growth of Online Learning………………………………………………………12
Communication Theory………………………………………………………….13
Communication and Multimedia………………………………………………...15
Multimedia and Personalization Principles……………………………………...17
Cognitive Load Theory…………………………………………………………..18
Personalization and Narration……………………………………………………20
Social Presence…………………………………………………………………..23
Intimacy and Immediacy…………………………………………………………25
v
Adult Learners…………………………………………………………………...26
Motivation………………………………………………………………………..27
Malone’s Motivation Theory…………………………………………………….30
ARCS Model of Motivation……………………………………………………..31
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….34
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
Introduction………………………………………………………………………36
Research Design………………………………………………………………….37
Convenience Sample……………………………………………………………..40
Data Collection…………………………………………………………………..40
Data Analysis Procedures………………………………………………………..46
Limitations of Methodology……………………………………………………..46
Ethical Issues…………………………………………………………………….47
CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Introduction………………………………………………………………………48
Sample……………………………………………………………………………49
Research Questions………………………………………………………………49
Data Sources……………………………………………………………………..50
Findings from Quantitative Analysis…………………………………………….50
Qualitative Data Findings………………………………………………………..59
CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction………………………………………………………………………67
Discussion of Research Questions and Findings………………………………...68
vi
Recommendations for Future Research………………………………………….77
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….78
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………..80
APPENDIX A. Motivation Scale………………………………………………………..90
APPENDIX B. Immediacy Scale………………………………………………………..91
APPENDIX C. Invitation E-mail……………………..…………………………………92
APPENDIX D. Survey Questions………………………………………………………..93
APPENDIX E. Online Consent Form……………………………………………………94
APPENDIX F. Demographic Survey……………………………………………………96
APPENDIX G. Qualitative Treatment Group Responses………………………………..97
APPENDIX H. Qualitative Control Group Responses…………………………………..98
APPENDIX I. Control Group Demographic Data……………………………………...99
APPENDIX J. Treatment Group Demographic Data……………………………...…...100
APPENDIX K. Module Interface………………………………………………………101
APPENDIX L. Testing Treatment……………………………………………………...102
APPENDIX M. Control Treatment……………………………………………………..119
vii
List of Tables
Table 1. Treatment Group Motivation Scale Ratings
52
Table 2. Control Group Motivation Scale Ratings
52
Table 3. Immediacy measure—Personal Examples
55
Table 4. Immediacy measure—Asking Questions
55
Table 5. Immediacy measure—Use of Humor
56
Table 6. Immediacy measure—Use of Personalized Language
57
viii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the Problem
The growth and prevalence of Web-based learning in both academic and
corporate settings continues to impact education in countless ways (Trierweiler & Rivera,
2005; Allen & Seaman, 2005). Linking learners to instructors and material through
technology to promote lifelong learning in the Information Age has never been so
critically important (Moore, 1998). However, “instruction does not lead to learning
automatically” (Vermunt, 1996, p. 25); more is required.
Several researchers have determined that to support learning in a Web-based
environment requires an increase in learner motivation to achieve improved learning
(Motschnig-Pitrik, 2004; Tuckman, 2004; Lim, Morris, & Yoon, 2006; Richardson &
Newby, 2006). Learner motivation increases as a result of a personalized connection
between the learner and the material, and is directly affected by the manner in which the
material is presented to the learners (Wlodkowski, 1999). Developing a personalized
connection in a Web based environment is not impossible. Narrative is one method of
personalizing instruction, centering learning on the student and directly engaging them in
the learning process (Newmaster, Lacroix & Roosenboom, 2006). Therefore, the
relationship between narrative and motivation is an essential component when fostering
interactive online learning experiences.
1
Background of the Study
The popularity of Web-based courses has significantly altered the manner in
which learning is facilitated and delivered in educational and non-educational settings
(Aragon, 2003). As a result of this exponential growth, researchers have attempted to
discover optimal ways of supporting learning in Web-based environments, examining
aspects such as learner attitudes, immediacy, cognitive load and multimedia (Gorham,
1988; Jawahar & Elango, 2001; Torrisi-Steele, 2001; Mayer, 2001; Sweller, 1999). More
recent research has focused on the concept of social presence and personalized narration
within these environments (Gunawardena, 1995; Moreno & Mayer, 2004; Na Ubon &
Kimble, 2004; Tu, 2002).
Personalizing a learner’s experience within a Web-based course occurs as a result
of tailoring the material and content. Personalization can be accomplished by varying the
communication style of the media by increasing or decreasing the amount of selfreferencing within the modules (Turco, 1996). Moreno and Mayer (2004) argue that
personalization of instructional media will connect learners to content more readily and
allow them to learn material better than when presented with material that is
nonpersonalized. Increasing learner motivation in Web-based learning can be
accomplished by applying the personalization principle, which upholds the use of
conversational rather than formal narration in Web-based learning (Mayer, Fennell,
Farmer & Campbell, 2004).
Conversational narration is one strategy used in Web-based learning that can
increase psychological closeness between real and artificial intelligences, a concept
identified by Wiener and Mehrabian in 1968 as immediacy (Short, Williams & Christie,
2
1976). Immediacy is associated with social presence, the degree to which a person or
intelligence is perceived as genuine in mediated communication (Gunawardena, 1995).
By adopting an informal, conversational approach to communication, immediacy is
fostered. In a Web-based learning environment, immediacy can be achieved either
through changes in on-screen text or audio narration (Walther, 1992).
Social presence is one of the most significant factors in a Web-based learning
environment (McIsaac & Gunawardena, 1996; Tu & McIsaac, 2002). The amount of
social presence in an instructional situation is determined by factors including social
context, online communication, and interactivity. Gunawardena (1995), who believes that
social presence is necessary to improve instruction in technology-based courses, supports
the personalization principle through her research. Tu and McIsaac (2002) have found
that a high level of social presence increases the potential that online learners will engage
more interactively in Web-based activities. In a similar vein, Gunawardena and Zittle
(1997) and Richardson and Swan (2003) determined that social presence was positively
correlated with students’ perceived learning in Web-based learning environments.
Several studies have been conducted that examine how personalized narration can
influence comprehension of new material in Web-based environments (Mayer, Fennell,
Farmer & Campbell, 2004; Mayer & Moreno, 2000; McLaren, Lim, Gagnon, Yaron &
Koedinger, 2006; Moreno & Mayer, 2004; Mayer, Sobko, & Mautone, 2003). Moreover,
personalization of course content “seems to promote the mental interaction needed to
actively involve the learner in the process of understanding” (Mayer & Moreno, 2000, p.
731). Directly addressing learners using personalized narration allows them to believe
3
that they are active participants in the lesson, thereby improving learning and possibly
motivation.
Statement of the Problem
Several researchers have determined that to improve learning in a Web-based
environment requires an increase in learner motivation to (Motschnig-Pitrik, 2004;
Tuckman, 2004; Lim, Morris, & Yoon, 2006; Richardson & Newby, 2006). Motivation is
integral for learning in any environment, whether face-to-face or online (McCombs &
Whisler, 1989; Pintrich & Schunk, 1996; Bai, 2003).
Learner motivation increases as a result of personalized connection between
learners and content, including the manner in which the material is presented to the
learners (Conrad, 2002; Wlodkowski, 1999). According to Tinto (1987), Gunawardena
and Zittle (1997), and Richardson and Swan (2003), social presence makes interactions
appealing, thereby increasing learner motivation. Social presence is defined as the degree
of awareness of another person or intelligence in an interaction (Walther, 1992). It has
been shown that enhancing social presence in Web-based environments can induce and
sustain learners’ motivation (Newberry, 2001; Tu, 2001).
Developing a personalized connection in a Web based environment is not
impossible. Narrative is one method of personalizing instruction, centering learning on
the student and directly engaging them in the learning process (Newmaster, Lacroix &
Roosenboom, 2006). Narrative also cultivates social presence in a Web-based
environment, which has been shown to positively affect student perceptions of learning
(Christophel, 1990; Richardson and Swan, 2003) as well as motivation for participation
4
(Weaver & Albion, 2005). Narrative learning, according to Gerrig (1993) allows learners
to actively draw inferences and experience realistic emotions. Further, narrative has been
shown to play a central role in memory by providing an organizing structure for new
experiences and knowledge (Mott, Callaway, Zettlemoyer, Lee & Lester, 1999).
Despite the range of research that identifes the critical relationship between
motivation, narration, and learning, little focus has been placed on the impact of
personalized learner-centered narration on learner motivation in Web based courses. A
better understanding of the relationship between the narrative presentation of material
and learner motivation in a Web-based course will inform the creation of instructional
strategies designed to improve the motivation of learners in these environments.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of personalized narration on
learner motivation in a Web-based environment. Specifically, this study investigated
personalized narration used in a Web-based course for students who take online courses
at technical schools and colleges in the northeastern United States.
Research Questions
This study aimed to examine the relationship between personalized narration and
learner motivation in a Web-based environment. The study investigated three questions:
1. Is there a significant difference in motivation between learners in a Web-based
course using personalized narration and learners in a Web-based course using
formal narration?
5
2. Is there a significant difference in immediacy between a Web-based course using
personalized narration and a Web-based course using formal narration?
3. What perceptions and opinions do learners have of personalized narration in a
Web-based course?
Significance of the Study
An examination of the relationship between personalized narration and learner
motivation in a Web-based environment enhances the body of knowledge about best
practices in Web-based learning. Significant differences exist between this study and
others that have been recently done regarding personalized narration in Web-based
learning. This study examines the relationship between personalized narration and learner
motivation; others have looked at how personalized narration affects learner achievement
and performance (Mayer & Moreno, 2000; McLaren, Lim, Gagnon, Yaron & Koedinger,
2006; Moreno & Mayer, 2004). Web-based instruction is not solely for the academic
environment; increasingly corporations are using Web-based instruction for adult learners
with diverse backgrounds. Understanding the role personalized narration has on learner
motivation will enable instructional designers to create instruction that appeals to learners
as well as delivers pertinent instruction to them. This study also allows learners to have a
voice about personalized narration, a component missing from other studies. By
interviewing participants, insight into motivating aspects of personalized narration will be
gained.
A study involving narrative is timely. Research on narration in learning is prolific
(Gjedde, 2005; Mandler, 1984; Plowman & Luckin, 1999; Walker, 2006; Dettori &
6
Giannetti, 2006; Wanner, 1994). Research on personalized narration has typically
focused on storytelling, memoirs and elementary school learning, but not on motivation
in the online context. The personalization aspect takes narrative into a new realm, that of
social presence and immediacy. Myriad studies on immediacy in the classroom, and its
affect on motivation, have been conducted (Christophel, 1990; Kelly and Gorham, 1988;
Richmond, 1990), but none have been conducted that look at immediacy and motivation
in the Web-based environment. Using personalized narration is one method of creating
immediacy for the online learner.
Definition of Terms
Cognitive Load Theory. “Universal set of learning principles that are proven to result in
effective instructional environments as a consequence of leveraging human
cognitive learning processes” (Clark, Nguyen, & Sweller, 2006, p. 7)
Extrinsic Motivation. Motivation to engage in an activity with desirable outcomes such
as rewards, grades, or some other factor external to the learner (Schunk, Pintrich,
& Meece, 2002).
Formal Narration. Instructional content presented in monologue-style language using
third person pronouns (Moreno & Mayer, 2004).
Immediacy. Measurement of the “psychological distance which a communicator puts
between himself or herself and the object of his/her communication”
(Gunawardena, 1995, p.151).
Intimacy. Function of factors such as physical distance, eye contact, smiling, and personal
topics of conversation (Gunawardena, 1995, p.151).
7
Intrinsic Motivation. Motivation to engage in an activity for its own purpose (Schunk,
Pintrich, & Meece, 2002).
Motivation. “A hypothetical construct to explain the initiation, direction, intensity and
persistence of goal-directed behavior” (Good & Brophy, 1990, p.360).
Multimedia Principle. Students learn better from words and pictures than words alone
(Mayer 2006).
Multimedia. Combination of characteristics that consist of text, graphic art, sound,
animation, and video developed through technology (Vaughan, 1998).
Personalization Principle. Using words in a conversational style rather than formal style
(Mayer, Fennell, Farmer, & Campbell, 2004).
Personalized Narration. Instructional content presented in conversational language using
“you”, “your”, “I”, “our”, and “we” (Clark & Mayer, 2003, p.146).
Social Presence. “The degree to which a person is perceived as a ‘real person’ in
mediated communication (Gunawardena, 1995, p.151).
State Motivation. Student engagement guided by an intention of mastering the skill or
acquiring the knowledge being taught (Brophy, 1987).
Trait Motivation. An enduring disposition of a learner to master skills and learn
knowledge (Brophy, 1987).
Web-based learning. A delivery platform used to present learning through the Internet or
Intranet.
8
Assumptions and Limitations
The Web-based course used in this study was directed at adult learners, and it was
assumed that the adults participating in the course have the prerequisite knowledge and
skills to use the technology in the course. It was also assumed that participants will
answer questions in the surveys honestly. All participant information was kept
confidential and was not released.
Limitations to the study are many and varied. Participation was fully voluntary
and the degree of participation was not expected to be 100%. Participants in both test and
control groups were convenience populations who were eligible to participate in the
Web-based module or who volunteered for the study. This self-selection was a limitation
of the study. The learners in both groups were working towards Associates or Bachelors
degrees, and there was random variation by age, gender, culture, and employment
demographics as typically found in adult learner populations.
Nature of the Study
This study used a mixed methods approach to examine the effects of personalized
narration on learner motivation and corresponding learner perceptions and opinions. A
student motivation scale, an immediacy scale and a qualitative survey were used as data
collection methods.
In the first phase of the study, a portion of Richmond’s (1990) student motivation
scale was used as a repeated measure to assess the state motivation of participants prior to
and after participating in the Web-based module. The motivation scale consists of a
bipolar set of adjectives and is based on Beatty, Forst, and Stewart’s (1986) scale.
9
Richmond (1990), Frymier and Thompson (1992) and Frymier (1993) all used the
motivation scale and reported an alpha reliability of 0.94.
The second phase of the study consisted of an experiment that followed a
between-subjects design. Participants were matched based on age, gender and on the
degree being sought and assigned to one of the two groups. The experimental group
participated in a Web-based learning module that included personalized narration. The
Web-based learning module for the control group included formal narration. The
narration ran throughout the Flash-based module as the main method of imparting
information to learners. The narration was presented as an Mp3 audio narration within the
module. The participant was able to control the audio using the module remote control
component, with the ability to pause, play and rewind the audio narration. The audio was
synchronized with the instruction and animation to imitate the auditory modality that
would be found in face-to-face instruction.
Upon completion of the Web-based learning module, participants once again
completed the portion of Richmond’s (1990) motivation scale. This was followed with
selected items from Gorham’s (1988) Verbal Immediacy Behaviors (VIB) scale. The VIB
has alpha reliabilities that range from .83 to .94 (Christophel, 1990; Gorham, 1988;
Gorham & Zakahi, 1990; Powell & Harville, 1990).
Finally, surveys of participants were employed as a means of triangulation
(Creswell & Clark, 2007). Surveys, asking open-ended questions, were completed by
participants. These questions asked participants how they regarded the narration used in
the module and whether it helped motivate them to complete the module.
Survey/questionnaires proved useful in gathering additional, qualitative information from
10
participants since they were not directly observed interacting with the Web-based module
(Creswell, 2003). The surveys helped reveal participants’ motivational response to the
personalized narration used in the WBT.
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
The dissertation is organized into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an
introduction to the study. Chapter 2 provides a review of the literature and related
research that supports the study design and concept. It includes background information
about communication, narrative, personalization and the personalization principle.
Current literature regarding social presence, multimedia communication and motivation
in Web-based courses is summarized. The chapter culminates with a discussion of the
motivational factors of narrative, and application of narrative in Web-based
environments. These practices provide the foundation for the study.
Chapter 3 outlines the study design and methodology. It contains information
about the population and sample in the study, outlines the instrumentation used, and
describes the data collection process. Chapter 4 describes the research findings of the
study. Chapter 5 provides a discussion of the data, lessons learned, and recommendations
for future study.
11
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Growth of Online Learning
Adjustments are essential in schools and educational institutions in the 21st
century. Schools established to address the needs of society in the 19th and 20th centuries
are changing because the needs of society have evolved to include technology, making
learning a continuous process. Culture, including the educational processes citizens
experience, creates enriching experiences that are both necessary and enriching for
learners of all ages (Dickinson, 2000).
As an example of this evolution, the online courses across the country continue
to grow in number. The National Center for Education Statistics projected an 18%
growth in online enrollment across the United States in all degree programs with higher
enrollments projected in college undergraduate courses affiliated with graduate degree
programs (Allen & Seaman, 2005).
Online learning presents a unique situation where instructors are no longer the
purveyors of knowledge, but learning facilitators, mentors, and coaches for topics that
can be learned online, at your own pace. Instead of being a subject of its own, the
technology of online learning has become a “means to an end, driven by a rigorous
curriculum and justified by its capability of enhancing instruction” (Microsoft, 2006).
Online learning, allows students of all ages to become mobile learners, not reliant on one
source for information.
12
Dixon (as cited in Seehusen, 2000) noted three reasons colleges offer distance
learning: to deliver to a large area, to accommodate population growth and increasing
enrollment without spending on infrastructure, and to reach a wider student population by
catering to nontraditional students. Online courses are attractive to many learners since
they break down the barriers of time and distance to help students achieve their personal
and professional goals. As the futurist Saffo declared: "We'll see more distance learning
because, as a society, we're becoming more mobile" (Rector, 2005). The students have
to be different types of learners because the information is not given to them on a fixed
schedule; rather, they must apply themselves to locate the information and spend time
learning it. Communication between and among learners continues, but in an altered
manner.
Communication Theory
Communication is best described as “the exchange of information and the
transmission of meaning” (Dessler, 2001, p.362). These exchanges and transmissions
take place using the five modalities of the sensory system: tactile, gustatory, visual,
auditory, and olfactory. Exchanging information using these five modalities to
communicate creates a communication channel, which is simply a means to carry
messages through a connection between individuals that consists of encoding and
decoding information to produce meaning (Elsom-Cook, 2001). People are continuously
communicating with each other; with the advent of modern technology, as multimedia
continues to progress and evolve, it broadens the communication process and allows
individuals to receive information in increasingly sophisticated methods.
13
Multimedia involves the integrated coordination and presentation of information
represented as continuous media data, in addition to information encoded as discrete
media data, such as text and graphics (Wolf, Griwodz and Steinmetz, 1997). This multitiered system requires that multiple channels of communication be addressed. Shannon
and Weaver (1949) developed a communication theory that included a source sending
information to a receiver along a channel. This initial theory focused primarily on
auditory information, which Shannon and Weaver (1949) called noise, but has been
expanded by subsequent theorists to also include graphics, text and video (Berlo, 1960;
Sweller, 1990).
The information theory is an important component of communication theory, and
was also developed by Shannon and Weaver (1949). It contains three concepts:
uncertainty, entropy, and redundancy. Uncertainty is the information the receiver is
lacking about incoming signals. The less information the receiver has, the more
communication is achieved. Entropy, a concept that also exists in other systems of the
universe, measures the amount of ambiguity in a system. “The higher the entropy, the
lower the communication potential, and the lower the entropy, the higher the
communication potential” (Shelton, 2004, p. 21). Low entropy, therefore, enables
authentic communication to occur and certifies that messages are received from the
sender by the receiver.
The final component, redundancy, describes the predictable format of messages.
Messages that are redundant utilize structures and formats of message delivery that are
familiar to receivers, such as directly addressing the receiver prior to delivering the
message in a conversational manner. According to Shannon and Weaver (1949),
14
redundancy is the goal of communicating messages because it ensures that the message
will be delivered to the receiver. This contrasts with Mayer’s (1990) redundancy
principle which holds that repeated instances of the same message interferes with
learning and increases cognitive load.
Critical to the success of any communication is the ability of communicators to
lower entropy, reduce the uncertainty of the audience “by sending, in the appropriate
channel, properly encoded messages that are meaningful, understandable, and, on the
whole, new” (Shelton, 2004, p. 22). This goal can be competently achieved by any
person, or any multimedia-enhanced Web-based system.
Communication and Multimedia
Multimedia takes communication to a new level, associating communication with
information relay mechanisms.
“The multimedia component is characterized by the presence of text, pictures,
sounds, animation and video; some or all of which are organized into some
coherent programs. The interactive component refers to the process of
empowering the user to control the environment, usually by a computer” (Phillips,
1997, p.8).
Text often is the source of the information found in multimedia. Words and
symbols in all forms are the most common system of communication (Vaughan, 1998).
Meaning can be extracted from what is written (content), as well as how it is written
(context). All text is structured, and the structure, divisions and hierarchy between
15
sections enable readers to understand the messages inherent in the text (Elsom-Cook,
2001).
Illustrations, visuals and graphics help to communicate an object, often in a more
accurate manner than describing it in words (Burmark, 2002). Visuals can illustrate more
than just tangible objects; they can be used to represent abstract ideas, show relationships
between objects and concepts, and teach psychomotor and attitudinal skills (Fenrich,
2005). Visuals are not only static photographs or drawings, however. Both animation and
video are types of visuals that are more dynamic since they include a series of images
shown together to simulate motion (Clark & Lyons, 2004).
The feasibility of animation and video is the result of a phenomenon known as
persistence of vision, in which objects remain on the retina of the human eye for a
moment after they are viewed (Vaughan, 1998). Animation enables movement to be
created where there is no true movement, adding emphasis to areas of importance. Video
can enhance and bring abstract concepts and situations to life. However, overdoing either
animation or video can distract from the message being communicated.
Sound, as the only auditory element of multimedia, can be the most powerful
component of all. It comprises not only spoken words, but also music and noise that can
support messages being conveyed to learners, or conversely, distract and annoy them.
Fenrich (2005) suggests using sound to gain attention, give feedback and provide
narration to support text and animation.
Any of these elements can be combined with others in creating interactive
multimedia. Combining these elements properly is essential in order to be effective and to
enhance long-term memory. Each of the multimedia elements is recognized in the brain
16
as possessing either a visual or an auditory sensory modality. When used correctly,
multimedia engages learners to integrate information from various sensory modalities
into long-term memory and build schema. Schema, also known as mental models, are
stored in long-term memory, forming the basis for all thinking (Clark & Lyons, 2004).
All multimedia elements result in the formation of either verbal or pictorial mental
models.
Interactivity is inherent to multimedia, according to Welch (1999), who also states
that electronic communication and multimedia “encourage us to reply quickly, often in a
more oral style” (p. 35). Shedletsky and Aitken (2004) concur, adding that
communication on the Web often employs features of conversation “in which we
construct reality with words and language (and conversational) structures” (p. 21). The
addition of the technology and media does not remove the simple fact that humans are
comfortable with communication in a manner they are accustomed to. In fact, scholars
have recognized that technology-enhanced communication can in fact improve
communication (Shah & Romine, 1995; Baron, 2000).
Multimedia and Personalization Principles
The purpose of the multimedia principle, which is based on Mayer’s cognitive
theory of multimedia learning, is to reduce the cognitive load of learners and to build
long-term retention. The multimedia principle states that “students learn better from
words and pictures than from words alone” (Mayer, 2006, p.63). When applying this
principle in the creation of multimedia, words and illustrations are placed together so that
17
learners can more readily construct verbal and pictorial mental models and subsequently
build connections between them.
In order to test the multimedia principle, Mayer (2001) conducted nine studies in
which students were given instructional material that consisted of words with annotated
static illustrations, narrated animated illustrations, or words alone. When given words
alone, students showed minor retention; however, there was a greater impact on transfer
of learning when students were given words and illustrations together. These studies
show that pictorial and verbal content, when presented together, facilitate learning by
allowing students to build both types of mental models. Clark and Lyons (2004) concur,
stating that visuals presented with concrete language improve learning when they
strengthen the content of the lesson.
It was these studies that lead Moreno and Mayer (2004) to question and
subsequently investigate the conditions under which multimedia, especially narration,
works to improve learning. A personalization hypothesis was developed, and through
testing became the personalization principle. This principle states that personalization of
narration enables learners to exert less mental effort when learning new concepts in a
computer-based learning environment, thereby increasing learning (Moreno & Mayer,
2004). As a result of its focus on mental effort exerted by learners, the theory invokes the
precepts of cognitive load theory.
Cognitive Load Theory
According to Chi, Glaser, and Rees (1982), and Larkin, McDermott, Simon and
Simon (1980), cognitive load theory is based on two main theories of cognitive structure:
18
the notion of an unlimited capacity of long-term memory, as well as the schema theory of
knowledge. Cognitive load theory concerns the load imposed on a learner’s cognitive
system due to the completion of a task (Paas & van Merrienboer, 1994).
Cognitive load can take one of three distinct forms: intrinsic, extraneous and
germane (Sweller, 2004). Intrinsic cognitive load is created by the mental work needed to
overcome the difficulty of the instructional material. In designing instruction, not much
can be done to reduce the intrinsic cognitive load because the instructional material itself
is difficult to learn. The level of difficulty of the material is inherent to the material and
cannot be changed; it therefore increases the intrinsic cognitive load. More difficult
material tends to have more elements interacting with each other. For instance, learning
how to use a new type of software would be very difficult for a learner for the first time
because there are many pieces of information (elements) that need to be coordinated in
memory simultaneously to complete the task or instruction. Clark, Nguyen and Sweller
(2006) have found that tasks with low element interactivity, such as learning a foreign
language, can be processed simultaneously, subsequently lowering the intrinsic cognitive
load.
Extraneous load, often referred to as irrelevant load, is a form of cognitive load
that occurs when information is processed into working memory that consumes mental
capacity but does not promote learning (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003). When instruction
is designed, the instructional methods and multimedia characteristics to present material
can greatly reduce extraneous load. Narrating text that simultaneously appears on-screen
in interactive multimedia will increase extraneous cognitive load for learners. Choosing
19
to add sidebars of information to multimedia presentations will bring about the split
attention effect and increase extraneous cognitive load.
The third and final category of cognitive load is germane load, also known as
relevant load. Once the extraneous load has been reduced, the efforts that the learners
expend on learning the lesson at hand is referred to as germane load, which is completely
relevant to the learning process. Clark, Nguyen, and Sweller (2006) state that instruction
imposed on working memory uses the mental capacity in the ways that builds schema and
long-term memory. In developing instruction, the goal is to balance the cognitive load for
the learner, rather than expecting the learner to filter through excessive mental
distractions in order to learn. In many instructional tasks, as a result of the complexity of
the material, intrinsic load cannot be altered.
When developing Web-based instructional materials, the goals of instructional
designers are to reduce extraneous load and increase germane load. These goals can be
accomplished by adhering to the multimedia principles and adjusting the instructional
strategies. When cognitive load is reduced, more mental capacity is available to process
learning (Paas, Renkl & Sweller, 2003). Moreno and Mayer (2004) believe that this
reduction in cognitive load can successfully occur through the use of personalized
narration.
Personalization and Narration
Personalization of material within a Web-based course can be achieved by
varying the communication style of the media by increasing or decreasing the amount of
self-referencing within the modules (Turco, 1996). Using narrative scripts that directly
20
address students, conversationally, encourage them to believe they are actively involved
in the lesson. Conversational scripts are beneficial to learning because less cognitive
effort is used to process information that is presented in a familiar style rather than an
unfamiliar, monologue style (Mayer, 1984; Spiro, 1977). Mayer and Moreno (2004)
argue that personalization of instructional media will connect learners to content more
readily and allow them to learn material better than when presented with material that is
non-personalized. Schank (1990) also discusses the important of scripts, and reinforces
the idea that scripts make mental processing less taxing, and allow energy to be devoted
to real learning.
Reeves and Nass (1996) have shown that people tend to treat computers as social
beings and interact with them as they would with other people, a paradigm also referred
to as “computers are social actors (CASA)” (Tung & Deng, 2006, p. 252). It is
reasonable, then, to believe that narration directed toward learners using the computer for
a Web-based course will be treated as if it is coming from a person as well. Presenting
information in a narrative, conversational style will further enhance the feeling of
conversation between the course and the learner (Clark & Mayer, 2003).
Narrative is an important facet of successful communication (Whitby, 1993) and
is recognized as a natural way of organizing life experiences, creating meaning and
understanding (Bruner, 1996). It incorporates two facets: expression through storytelling,
and cognitive construction of knowledge. The second component of narration includes
the discovery of culturally embedded knowledge as well as a method for knowledge
sharing between and among people (Bruner, 1990; Schank, 1995).
21
The application of most narrative is the conventional literary story, written in
third-person (DeVries, 2006). However, there are many different forms of narrative. Each
type has a different purpose and should be recognized for the goal it seeks to achieve
(Champion, 1998).
The narrative format has been a time-honored way of teaching in many cultures;
teachers become proficient storytellers, employing narrative for motivation, and for
experiential and contextual learning by using stories or having learners create stories as
well (Gjedde, 2005). Personalized, conversational narration that adheres to the
personalization principle does not take the form of the literary story. Instead, it follows
conventions of conversation, using first- and second-person to convey its message to the
learner.
Any narrative used in instruction should conform to familiar narrative structures
since previous research has suggested that unfamiliar structures increase cognitive load
and decrease motivation (Bower & Morrow, 1990; Olson, 1990). Conversations are very
familiar given that they are, in fact, the first form of communication used by humans
worldwide (Myers, 2001). It is the effortless conversation that is used early on in life that
allows people to construct meaning, in both verbal and written forms (Lapadat, 1994).
First- and second-person narrative emulates conversational communication and elicits
related responses in readers.
As a type of narrative, conversation and conversational elements provide structure
within a Web-based environment. Researchers have investigated the role of narrative in
multimedia settings, and found that learners working within multimedia Web-based
environments that did not use narrative were unfocused (Laurillard, Stratfold, Luckin,
22
Plowman, & Taylor, 1998). The presence of narrative in these types of environments
provides the necessary structure that focuses learners and enables them to build mental
models for long-term retention.
Conversations also serve important purposes as ways to learn, remind and
understand concepts more deeply. Schank (1990) defines conversation as “responsive
storytelling” (p. 24), in which participants are reminded of events from the past and use
these frameworks as schemata on which to build new ideas. Conversations do not always
need to occur between two people; having two intelligences interacting will produce the
same results (Schank, 1990).
Personalized, conversational narration within Web-based environments, as a
result of fostering familiarity among learners, is more enjoyable to use (Reeves & Nass,
1996). The predictable format of conversational narration conforms to human
expectations and allows learners to feel competent and empowered. Human-like media,
including Web-based learning programs, promote social presence because of their
conversational styles and encourage people to treat media like people (Reeves & Nass,
1996). Social presence has been shown to be a critical component in motivating learners.
Social Presence
Social presence is defined as the “degree of salience of the other person in the
interaction and the consequent salience of the interpersonal relationships” (Short,
Williams & Christie, 1976, p. 65). Originally conceived of as a construct of strictly faceto-face interactions, social presence has been observed and evaluated in a variety of
environments including Web-based instruction (Gunawardena & Zittle, 1997; Tu, 2000;
23
Tu, 2002; Walther, 1992). Gunawardena (1995) believes that social presence is necessary
to improve instruction in technology-based courses.
According to Tinto (1987), social presence makes interactions appealing, thereby
increasing learner motivation. It has been shown that enhancing social presence in Webbased environments can induce and sustain learners’ motivation (Newberry, 2001; Tu,
2001). The social character of computer technology enables people to view the computer,
and any software programs running on it, as a social actor (Marakas, Johnson, & Palmer,
2000). By employing the CASA paradigm in Web-based learning, social presence is
enhanced. Learners will react to the computer as they would to other people, which can
subsequently result in increased user involvement and motivation (Tung & Deng, 2006).
Some literature suggests that social presence may not be adequately supported in
a Web-based learning environment because the messages are filtered and do not have the
benefit of human facial expressions or gestures (Sproull & Keisler, 1986; Daft & Lengel,
1986). However, literature also exists that posits that the Web-based environment
adequately supports highly affective interpersonal interactions. Angeli, Bonk, and Hara
(1998) found that over one-fourth of the interactions in a Web-based learning
environment consisted of personal messages including compliments, greetings and
expressions of feeling. Similar results were also found by McDonald (1998), Weiss and
Morrison (1998) and Kanuka and Anderson (1998).
An additional outcome of fostering social presence in a learning environment,
traditional or Web-based, is the level of comfort that results, allowing learners to feel at
ease (Aragon, 2003). Environments that lack social presence are viewed as impersonal,
reducing the comfort level as well as the information exchange among learners (Leh,
24
2001). As a result, the corresponding concepts of intimacy and immediacy play a critical
role in creating social presence.
Intimacy and Immediacy
Intimacy is a measure of physical distance and includes nonverbal factors such as
eye contact and smiling (Gunawardena, 1995). Asynchronous Web-based environments
do not have means of supporting intimacy, although some intimacy may be fostered in
synchronous learning environments depending on the instructional methods employed
(Tu, 2000).
Immediacy, in contrast, measures “the psychological distance which a
communicator puts between himself or herself and the object of his/her communication”
(Gunawardena, 1995, p. 151). Research has shown that immediacy is a predictor of
instructional effectiveness and can be a major factor in how students view the course they
are taking (Andersen, Norton & Nussbaum, 1981; Walther, 1992). Kelley and Gorham
(1988) and Richmond, Gorham and McCroskey (1987) discovered that immediacy
affects cognitive learning in the traditional, face-to-face classroom setting.
Immediacy can take two forms, verbal and nonverbal. Frymier (1993) explains
that verbal immediacy is characterized by the use of personal examples, words such as
“we”, “you”, “our” and “your”, and humor. Web-based training courses, because of their
format and environment, can capably support verbal immediacy. Personalizing dialogue
in such a manner enhances social presence and “seems to promote the mental interaction
needed to actively involve the learner in the process of understanding” (Mayer &
Moreno, 2000, p. 731).
25
Several studies have been conducted that examine how personalization can impact
comprehension of new material (Mayer & Moreno, 2000; Mayer & Moreno, 2004;
McLaren, Lim, Gagnon, Yaron & Koedinger, 2006). There also exists research that
shows how immediacy in a conventional, face-to-face learning environment influences
recall of information and student learning (Gorham, 1988; Christophel, 1990). Frymier
(1993) conducted a study that attempted to explain the relationship between teacher
immediacy behaviors and student learning. She found that teacher immediacy behaviors
motivate students to study, and subsequently learn the material presented to them.
Additional research followed that also showed that teacher immediacy behaviors
positively influenced student motivation, regardless of the age of the student or cultural
background (Frymier, 1993; Christophel & Gorham, 1995; Pribyl, Sakamoto, & Keaten,
2004; Weaver & Albion, 2005). There have been no studies that have investigated
immediacy in a Web-based environment, however. Gaps in the literature remain as to
how personalized narration impacts upon learner motivation in Web-based environments.
Adult Learners
Web-based learning environments are often directed toward adult learners,
reflecting the demographic changes in the world (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). Adult
learning follows a philosophy that differs from conventional education; andragogy helps
to create a learning climate that is unique and reflective of the myriad backgrounds of the
adult learners.
Knowles (1968) based his theory of andragogy on several factors, incorporating
key beliefs about adult learners that continue to inform instruction. Five key beliefs form
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the basis of andragogy: (a) adult learners are motivated to learn what they deem to be
relevant and useful; (b) adult learning is life-centered; (c) experience has been shown to
be the richest source of adult learning; (d) adults have a deep need to be self-directing; (e)
individual differences among people increase with age (Knowles, Holton & Swanson,
1998).
Knowles (1990) explained the need for adult learners to be actively involved in
the learning process. This active involvement should be paired with control over learning
so that learners can learn how they learn best. Additionally, Brookfield (1990) points out
that adult learners are continuous learners, and therefore prefer meaningful, realistic
learning situations. These characteristics and preferences can be adequately addressed
through Web-based learning environments.
Learner control can be programmed into Web-based learning modules; menu
systems and exit controls give adult learners choices within their learning experience.
Meaningful feedback during practice sections can expand and deepen the learner’s
knowledge. Web-based learning modules can also take advantage of multiple media
including graphics and audio to deliver content and create an environment in which
learners feel comfortable and motivated (Driscoll, 2002).
Motivation
Allen (2003) states that “instructors cannot learn their learners, and neither can elearning technology with all its graphics, animation, audio, and interactivity” (p.150). In
order for learning to occur, the students must be motivated and become involved in the
learning process for successful transfer. A key component of consideration in the design
27
of all instruction, learner motivation tends to increase a learner’s participation and
activity level in learning tasks (Goslin, 2003).
Bandura (1988) cites goal setting as an important component affecting
motivation. Learners that have set a goal are likely to feel a sense of self worth and
engage in tasks that will help in the achievement of the goal. A learner forecasting
success on a current task that will directly relate to and enable fulfillment of personal
goals at present and in the future will be more invested in the task, and garner more from
it than a learner who cannot connect the task to goals (deCharms & Muir, 1978).
Motivation has been conceived of in several ways. Brophy (1987) described trait
and state motivation. Trait motivation is a predisposition toward learning, while state
motivation is directed toward specific topics, activities or classes. Both characterizations
of motivation as conceived of by Brophy (1987) can be stimulated by the learning
environment.
An additional and more well-known description of motivation describes it as
falling within one of two classifications, extrinsic or intrinsic. Myriad internal and
external factors can intensify the learner’s desire to engage in activities to learn (Dessler,
2001). Internal factors create intrinsic motivation, which encourages learners to engage in
activities for their own sake, often as a result of the pleasure experienced when
participating. Intrinsic motivation can be likened to trait motivation. Rewards and other
external factors have no bearing on how learners feel about the activity (Pintrich &
Schunk, 1996). Wlodkowski (1999) emphasizes that it is natural for people to be curious,
active, thoughtful and effective at what is determined to be important. Emotions
influencing intrinsic motivation occur as a result of the cultures and backgrounds learners
28
bring to each unique learning situation, enabling them to respond to activities and tasks
differently.
Extrinsic motivation, influenced by external factors, encourages learning in order
to achieve or gain something, such as rewards. This form of motivation occurs outside of
the learning process, and can be compared to Brophy’s (1987) construct of state
motivation which can change relative to the situation in which learners find themselves.
The educational system in the United States is dominated by extrinsically motivating
factors, including grades and eligibility (Wlodkowski, 1999). Both intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation are contextual, and can change depending on circumstances (Pintrich &
Schunk, 1996).
Learners have different needs and reasons to learn. Some learners are simply
curious about the subject matter, possessing trait motivation, while other learners are
motivated by grades or rewards, possessing state motivation. Context also plays a
significant role in shaping motivation within the extrinsic or intrinsic classifications of
the learners needs. When learners realize that what they are learning fits within their
needs and values, their motivation emerges (Wlodkowski, 1999).
Multimedia-based instructional practices can increase motivation since they are
realistic representations of the environment and enable learners to be active participants
in their own learning (Herrington & Oliver, 2000). The motivational capabilities of
narrative-centered learning environments have been documented (Mott, Callaway,
Zettlemoyer, Lee & Lester, 1999; Timcenko, 2006; Mott & Lester, 2006). Personalized
narration is one method that can be used in order to increase learner motivation within an
online course (Clark & Mayer, 2003). Personalized narration draws the learner into the
29
learning situation and immerses them in the experience, causing them to react to the
media as they would in a traditional classroom with conversations occurring between and
among teachers and learners. In the design of multimedia, two models for motivation are
frequently used: Malone and Lepper’s theory and Keller’s ARCS model.
Malone’s Motivation Theory
According to this theory, intrinsic motivators are beneficial than extrinsic
motivators. Malone and Lepper (1987) describe four elements than enhance intrinsic
motivation: challenge, curiosity, control and fantasy. Challenge can be achieved by
varying the difficulty of the material as learner performance improves.
There are two types of curiosity that can increase motivation. Sensory curiosity is
stirred by presenting visual or auditory effects that surprise the learner or attract attention.
Cognitive curiosity increases when unfamiliar information is presented that motivates the
learner to seek new information.
Learner control can take one of three forms. Learners can determine which
sequence of lessons that they wish to follow. A second form involves feedback from the
software based on responses and choices learners have made. The third and final form of
control occurs when learners create new things using computer tools such as graphical
software programs. This situation gives power to the learner which Malone and Lepper
(1987) considered to be extremely motivating.
Fantasy can be fostered in Web-based learning environments that create authentic
situations through the use of audio or visual effects. Fantasy is valuable in increasing
30
motivation since it can “encourage learners to envision themselves in a situation where
they can really use the information that they are learning” (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).
ARCS Model of Motivation
The ARCS model of motivation, developed by John Keller, is an influential
method of improving the motivational design of instructional materials (Keller & Kopp,
1987). This model describes a process of motivational design utilized within various
instructional design models. The motivational design process has been described as a
problem solving approach that structures instruction so that it motivates learners based on
satisfaction and expectancy of success (Keller, 1987).
The ARCS model contains four components of motivation that must be met in
order to have a motivated learner: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction.
Attention is the first and likely the most critical aspect of the ARCS model. The main
function of attention is to draw on natural human curiosity and motivate learners by
means of getting and maintaining their attention. By introducing startling or unexpected
events, a sense of curiosity is created that engages the learner in inquiry-oriented
behavior to create interest in the instruction (Berlyne, 1965).
There are three distinct techniques of gaining attention, according to Keller
(1987). Perceptual arousal is created when learners encounter a surprising event early in
the instruction. Inquiry arousal occurs as a result of questions students raise and attempt
to answer using information they are uncovering. Varying the methods used when
presenting information can also assist learners in maintaining interest by utilizing various
elements of instruction (Keller & Kopp, 1987). Immediacy behaviors are also useful in
31
gaining attention, whether demonstrated by a teacher in a classroom or by a computer
acting as a social agent, engendering similar reactions from learners (Frymier, 1993;
Reeves & Nass, 1996).
Once the attention strategies have been accomplished and the learner’s interest
has been captured, questions arise in the minds of learners about the relevance of the
instruction, and how it will impact their lives in achieving their goals. Dick, Carey and
Carey (2001) caution that while gaining attention is important, unless learners perceive
the learning as relevant to them, motivation will decrease.
Relevance can be established in part by engendering familiarity with the concepts;
using examples and language that are already a part of the experience and values learners
possess (Keller & Suzuki, 1988). Defining goals and objectives of the instruction help
learners become further oriented to the relevance of the instruction. Providing learners
with opportunities to fulfill personal goals and motives also helps to enhance relevance
for learners (Driscoll, 2005). There is little evidence that immediacy behaviors and the
CASA paradigm can help increase relevance (Frymier, 1993).
Once attention and relevance are clearly in place, learner confidence must be
supported. Unless confidence is fostered, motivation for learning decreases and the
instruction can become unsuccessful. Covington (1984) states that self-perceived
competency plays a large role in motivation. Similarly, White (1959) describes learners
who are more likely to persevere as those that believe they have the necessary skills to be
successful.
Building confidence occurs in numerous ways. In order to banish fear of failure,
learners should be told exactly what is expected of them. Learners also will become more
32
confident if the instruction provides adequate assistance to complete a task that the
learners otherwise are not quite able to successfully complete individually (Driscoll,
2005). By allowing learners to experience success throughout multiple levels of learning,
they will develop a positive self-perception of their ability. A final method of instilling
confidence throughout the learning experience is to provide the learners with feedback
reflecting their individual progress (Keller & Kopp, 1987).
The final aspect of the ARCS model is satisfaction. The consequences of learning
often lead to, or hinder, further learning experiences (Maehr, 1976). Generally, learners
expect satisfaction or rewards as a consequence for their efforts. The rewards can be
intrinsically motivating, or, more often, extrinsically motivating.
The best way for learners to achieve natural satisfaction is for them to find their
new skills immediately useful and beneficial (Keller, 1987). Not every learning situation
lends itself to immediate implementation, however. In these cases, providing learners
with positive consequences, including verbal praise or incentives, generates satisfaction.
Finally, Keller & Suzuki (1988) suggest that maintaining consistent standards and
consequences is essential for learners to feel they have been equitably treated, which is
also a key component in generating satisfaction.
Both confidence and satisfaction can be instilled in learners through the use of
personalized, conversational narration. It has been shown that users of media respond to
good and bad experiences on a visceral level (Reeves & Nass, 1996; Tung & Deng,
2006). In a similar manner, media can deeply affect how users and learners view a
situation. Reeves and Nass (1996) found that computer users were able to determine the
personality of the computer based on interactions that they had with it. These interactions
33
helped the computer users form strong opinions of how satisfied they were with the
process. Their feelings about the computer media also affected their confidence levels
and caused them to give “a visceral and quick response on the order of ‘I like it’ or ‘not
for me’ ” (Reeves & Nass, 1996, p.117).
Conclusion
The online learning environment perpetually evolves and annexes new territory.
Adult learners, similarly, continue to take advantage of the conveniences offered by
online learning and prompt the growth currently occurring in this forum (Allen &
Seaman, 2005). Communication within this environment should be crafted in such a way as
to decrease cognitive load and increase learning and understanding in all learners, including
adult learners who value new knowledge that can be put into use in their respective
situations.
Sound, one component of multimedia used in online learning environments, can
be employed to clarify communication. It can take many forms, including narration,
which can be scripted in a personalized manner, using words in a conversational style
rather than formal style (Mayer, Fennell, Farmer, & Campbell, 2004). Moreno and Mayer
(2004) believe that a reduction in cognitive load can also occur through the use of
personalized narration. In fact, previous research has shown that the narrative style used
in instruction should conform to familiar narrative structures, since unfamiliar structures
increase cognitive load and decrease motivation (Bower & Morrow, 1990; Olson, 1990).
Personalized, conversational narration within Web-based environments fosters
familiarity among learners and is more enjoyable to use (Reeves & Nass, 1996). The
34
predictable format of conversational narration conforms to human expectations and
allows learners to feel competent and empowered. Human-like media, including Webbased learning programs, can promote social presence through the use of conversational
narration that promotes immediacy, encouraging learners to become more involved with
the subject matter and work toward deeper understanding (Moreno & Mayer, 2004). As
stated by Thissen (2003), “Emotions and motivation are central driving forces behind
human actions. For this reason, a good multimedia product addresses users not only on a
cognitive level, but also on an emotional one and applies specific motivational
strategies.” (p. 227).
35
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
Introduction
Research has determined that to support learning in a Web-based environment
requires an increase in learner motivation to achieve improved learning (MotschnigPitrik, 2004; Tuckman, 2004; Lim, Morris, & Yoon, 2006; Richardson & Newby, 2006).
Learner motivation increases as a result of a personalized connection between the learner
and the material, and is directly affected by the manner in which the material is presented
to the learners (Wlodkowski, 1999; Frymier, 1993). Developing a personalized
connection in a Web-based environment is not impossible. Narrative is one method of
personalizing instruction, centering learning on the student and directly engaging them in
the learning process (Newmaster, Lacroix & Roosenboom, 2006).
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of personalized narration on
learner motivation in a Web-based environment, as well as to investigate learner
perceptions and opinions of personalized narration. Specifically, this study proposed to
explore personalized narration used in a Web-based course for students who take online
courses at various technical schools and colleges in the northeastern United States.
This study aimed to examine the relationship between personalized narration and
learner motivation in a Web-based environment. The study answered three questions:
1. Is there a significant difference in motivation between learners in a Web-based
course using personalized narration and learners in a Web-based course using
formal narration?
36
2. Is there a significant difference in immediacy between a Web-based course using
personalized narration and a Web-based course using formal narration?
3. What perceptions and opinions do learners have of personalized narration in a
Web-based course?
Hypotheses
H0: There is no significant difference in motivation between learners in a Webbased course using personalized narration and learners in a Web-based course using
formal narration.
H0: There is no significant difference in immediacy between a Web-based course
using personalized narration and a Web-based course using formal narration.
Research Design
Two types of research methods were used to respond to the three research
questions of this study. As stated by Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004), one of the
guidelines in conducting mixed methods research is for researchers to employ approaches
that will effectively answer the research questions. Rather than attempting to conduct
research following one preferred method because it is faster or easier to use, matching the
methods to the research questions results in a more complete and accurate understanding
of phenomena.
This study employed concurrent triangulation procedures using a Quantitative –
Quantitative – Qualitative design as a means to collect multiple forms of data (Creswell,
2003). Greene, Caracelli and Graham (1989) have stated that the benefits of triangulation
37
lead researchers to conduct mixed-methods studies. Triangulation, which corroborates
findings from different methods, is one of the most common and well-known approaches
used when mixing methods.
A quasi-experimental design was used to address the first two research questions.
Since convenience rather than random sampling was used to determine the sample used
in the study, a quasi-experimental design was appropriate (Shadish, Cook & Campbell,
2002).
The first step of the study was to administer a portion of Richmond’s (1990)
motivation scale to determine initial motivation levels of participants. This motivation
scale was used as a repeated measure of state motivation of participants prior to and after
participating in the Web-based training. The motivation scale consisted of a set of bipolar
adjectives and was based on Beatty, Forst, and Stewart’s (1986) scale. Richmond (1990),
Frymier and Thompson (1992) and Frymier (1993) used the state motivation scale and
reported an alpha reliability of .94. The motivation scale was administered to the
participants in an online format.
Once the participants completed the motivation scale, they accessed the Webbased module (Figures 1 & 2). This experimental portion followed a between-subjects
design in which participants were randomly assigned to one of the two treatments:
personalized narration or formal narration. Upon completion of the module, participants
once again completed the portion of Richmond’s (1990) motivation scale. This was
followed with selected items from Gorham’s (1988) Verbal Immediacy Behaviors (VIB)
scale. The VIB has alpha reliabilities that range from .83 to .94 (Christophel, 1990;
Gorham, 1988; Gorham & Zakahi, 1990; Powell & Harville, 1990).
38
The final research question was best addressed through the use of surveying
participants, a qualitative research method. Surveys were conducted with participants in
the Web-based training using interview questions that were standardized and open-ended,
with a predetermined sequence and wording of the same questions to minimize
possibility of bias (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003). As Czaja and Blair (2005) state, the
questions are written so that they gather information that pertains to the research
questions. Questions that did not directly gather information for one or more of the
research questions provided information in conjunction with one of the study’s variables.
Additionally, questions were designed so that they asked all participants the same
questions in as simple a format as possible, reducing the likelihood of error on the part of
the interviewer (Fowler, 1995; Fowler & Mangione, 1990). The survey questions
(Appendix D) for this study were designed following these guidelines.
Surveys proved useful in gathering additional, qualitative information from
participants since they were not directly observed interacting with the Web-based training
(Creswell, 2003). The surveys helped reveal participants’ motivational response to the
personalized narration used in the WBT.
Quantitative methods, such as quasi-experimentation used in this study, fall
within a positivist worldview; namely, that there is one reality that exists in the world that
is knowable within certain limitations (Mertens, 2005). Researchers are cautioned to
remain neutral and objective, so that the results generated are independent of the
researcher. In order to do this, hypotheses are empirically justified and phenomena are
statistically analyzed by means of numerical data (Gall, Gall & Borg, 2003), which may
result in higher credibility. However, the categorization of quantitative research may
39
produce data that is not representative of all groups or possibilities, and cannot be applied
to specific situations (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). By including the qualitative
component of data collection and analysis via interviewing, a more comprehensive
explanation was generated that would “enrich and explain the quantitative results in the
words of the participants” (Creswell & Clark, 2007, p. 34).
Convenience Sample
This study was conducted using volunteers who were enrolled in online classes at
two different colleges in New York and Connecticut. Participants in the study were
drawn from interested and available students. These students participated in a Web-based
module as adult learners. Participating students varied, pursuing two-year degrees, fouryear degrees as well as certificates. Forty participants were recruited, and were evenly
distributed between the two groups. Twenty participants were in the personalized
narration group and twenty in the formal narration group.
Data Collection
This study employed concurrent triangulation procedures as a means to collect
multiple forms of data. Quantitative data was collected in the first step. A portion of
Richmond’s (1990) motivation scale was administered in an online format to participants
in order to determine initial motivation levels (Appendix A). The data from the
motivation scale was collected by the survey software and stored for use in analysis.
After the motivation scale is completed, each participant accessed one version of
the Web-based module, depending upon the experimental group to which they had been
40
assigned. Participants in the control group had a Web-based module that used formal
narration, while those in the experimental group had a Web-based module that used
personalized, conversational narration.
Upon completion of the module, the motivation scale and a verbal immediacy
scale (Appendix B) were administered to participants. As in the first step, data from both
scales was collected by the survey software and stored for use in analysis.
The final step of the study occurred after participants completed the final
motivation and immediacy scales. Participants completed surveys that asked open-ended
questions. Questions were open-ended in order to allow participants space for reflection
and detailed answers.
Instrumentation Several types of instruments were used in the study. Each
instrument was chosen or designed based on its ability to answer the research questions
embedded in the study. Details about the instruments follow.
Motivation scale The motivation scale that was a part of the study was also used
by several researchers in previous studies (Beatty & Payne, 1985; Beatty, Forst &
Steward, 1986; Richmond, 1990; Christophel, 1990). Alpha reliability coefficients were
reported ranging from .94 to .96; substantial evidence for construct validity of the scale
has been published (Beatty & Payne, 1985; Beatty, Forst & Steward, 1986; Richmond,
1990; Christophel, 1990). Participants accessed the scale through a link located within the
online module and completed it on the Internet.
41
Verbal immediacy scale The verbal immediacy scale has been utilized in previous
studies (Christophel, 1990; Gorham, 1988; Gorham & Zakahi, 1990). Alpha reliability
coefficients were reported ranging from .83 to .94; construct validity for the verbal
immediacy scale has also been reported (Christophel, 1990; Gorham, 1988; Powell &
Harville, 1990). Participants accessed the scale through a link located within the online
module and completed it on the Internet.
Web-based multimedia modules Multimedia design is derived from several
disciplines and includes the use of many techniques (Boyle, 1997). The design of the
Web-based multimedia modules takes into consideration these areas and follows common
principles of design, including the Gestalt laws related to visual unity (Thissen, 2003).
Visual balance is a desirable feature of any composition involving multimedia
(Arntson, 1998). All elements included within the modules were visually united and
promoted an experience that was organized and whole (Schwier & Misanchuk, 1993).
Color, an integral part of any design, was used to unite elements of similar function,
including navigational elements and other areas of the screen, following the Gestalt law
of similarity.
Harmony is another component of visual balance that was demonstrated in the
modules. The basic layout of the main components was repeated from screen to screen
(Boyle, 1997). Harmony is not only visually appealing, but also helps to reduce
cognitive load since users are not actively hunting for navigational elements as well as
other controls and content information.
42
Elements on the screen were grouped together by function, following the Gestalt
law of proximity. As recommended in the research, navigational elements in the form of
buttons were placed along the bottom of the screen, and were clearly labeled with their
purposes (Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Lohr, 2003). Buttons that did not apply to certain
screens were disabled, and appeared grayed-out. When users pointed at the buttons, the
cursor changed shape, providing the user with confirmation about which button has been
selected. Users were also able to control the volume of the audio to suit their preferences.
The modules were created using a combination of both graphical and authoring
tools, specifically using the Adobe CS3 design suite (Photoshop, Illustrator,
Dreamweaver, and Flash). The audio narration was recorded and edited using Sony
Sound Forge. The content of both modules was the same, tips on incorporating visual
literacy within instructional presentations. The only change to the modules was the
narration.
The narration formed the backbone of the online modules, and was the main
method used for presenting the information to participants. One module, for the control
group, employed a script using formal narration. The other module, for the experimental
group, employed the same script with minor changes made to present informal,
conversational narration using words such as “you” and “your” in place of words such as
“it” and “the.” This strategy replicated the one used by Moreno and Mayer (2004). The
modules were validated by an expert in the field.
When the module opened, there was a title page that denoted what the module
was about. The user navigated away from this title page when they were ready to
continue. A page of simple directions was provided for the operation of the overall
43
module; directions for activities were included just prior to the activity screen. A page
counter was also included in the modules so that users could track their progress through
the program.
Alessi and Trollip (2001) state that in almost every interactive multimedia
learning program available, text is the most commonly used method of information
delivery. The text in these modules used a sans serif font for optimal legibility on screen
and will be in high contrast to the background color (Thissen, 2003). The font size ranged
from 12 to 15 point, depending on the level of importance of the content.
Any information that was presented in text format on the screen was limited; it
was placed into bulleted lists taken from the narration to reinforce important aspects. It
was not merely be a transcript of the narration since this was in direct conflict with the
redundancy principle (Mayer, 2001).
Each module included an identical image of an instructor, (Appendices L and M).
The purpose of this image was to replicate the presence of another person, simultaneously
promoting social presence. Users heard narration associated with this instructor
throughout the module, creating verbal immediacy within the modules. Clark and Lyons
(2004) endorse images of this type, stating that they manage cognitive load, focus and
direct learner attention, and motivate “learners to initiate and complete learning goals” (p.
23).
When learners completed the module, there was an exit button available for them
to terminate the program. This button was always available to users if they decided to end
their involvement with the program (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).
44
Survey The survey consisted of open-ended, standardized questions. The
questions were focused on topics related to the research questions but not addressed by
the motivation and verbal immediacy scales. The questions aimed to uncover deeper
meaning from responses to the scales as well as elicit participant opinions and
perceptions of the narration used in the modules. Questions are listed in Appendix D.
Procedure Once approval for the study was received, students were sent an e-mail
inviting them to participate in the study. The e-mail message is located in Appendix C.
The e-mails included the information on the Research on Human Subjects Consent form
approved by the Capella Internal Review Board. The participants were also informed that
the purpose of the study was to examine the effect of personalized narration on learner
motivation in a Web-based environment, as well as to investigate learner perceptions and
opinions of personalized narration. The e-mail also informed participants that the study
was part of the requirements for completion of a doctoral program. Information was
included in the e-mail that explained how to contact the researcher about participation.
Links to both an online consent form (Appendix E) and a demographic survey (Appendix
F) were also be included in the e-mail for individuals to complete. No further e-mails
regarding particpation were sent to interested participants until demographic surveys
were completed.
A second e-mail was sent to interested participants that reiterated the information
from the initial e-mail as well as information about how to access the online module. The
Web-based module contained links to the two motivation scales, and the immediacy
scale, links to the Flash-based modules and links to the survey, as well as detailed
45
directions on how to complete each part. Reminders for participation were sent via e-mail
on a daily basis for one week.
Data Analysis Procedures
Data collected from the motivation scales prior to and after module participation
were tested for statistical significance using t tests for dependent means. Immediacy scale
data was tested for statistical significance using t tests for independent means.
Surveys were reviewed closely and examined for similar phrases, patterns and
themes (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Generalizations were made among these patterns,
which were then triangulated with the quantitative data.
Limitations of Methodology
Mixed-methods studies comprise both quantitative and qualitative methods, and
researchers must cautiously control for threats to internal validity. Historically, the two
approaches have been in competition with each other, while simultaneously contributing
a great deal of knowledge to countless disciplines (Datta, 1994).
Combining quantitative and qualitative methods brings together not only their
strengths, but also their weaknesses. In this research study, the complementary strengths
and no overlapping weaknesses of the quantitative and qualitative measures afford the
researcher the option to approach the study in a pragmatic manner (Creswell, 2003).
However, both methods have, inherent to them, limitations that must be addressed.
46
Ethical Issues
Integral pitfalls of any research methodology must be avoided. As stated by
Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004), one of the guidelines in conducting mixed methods
research is for researchers to employ approaches that will effectively answer the research
questions. Rather than attempting to conduct research following one preferred method
because it is faster or easier to use, matching the methods to the research questions results
in a more complete and accurate understanding of phenomena. Gall, Gall, and Borg
(2003), emphasize the need for careful and deliberate data collection processes,
especially with respect to identifying issues or patterns that may be evident in the early
stages of the process.
Privacy of individuals participating in the study was protected; data provided was
handled and recorded in a manner that ensured confidentiality. Anonymity was also
provided, as data was collected through the use of online survey instruments. Fully
informed consent was also obtained so as not to do harm or deceive participants (Guba &
Lincoln, 1989). Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that
can be identified with participants remained confidential, kept in a locked file within the
researcher’s residence. This information will be destroyed, as required, seven years after
publication of results. All possible safeguards were used to protect participant anonymity.
47
CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Introduction
The purpose of this mixed method study was to examine the effect of
personalized narration on learner motivation in a Web-based environment. The results
from the survey instruments and their relationship to personalized narration in a Webbased course are presented.
This study employed concurrent triangulation procedures using a Quantitative –
Quantitative – Qualitative design. Two surveys comprised the quantitative portions of the
data collections. A portion of Richmond’s (1990) motivation scale was administered in
an online format to participants in order to determine initial motivation levels (Appendix
A). This was used as a repeated measure, also given after participants completed the
Web-based learning module. This was followed with selected items from Gorham’s
(1988) Verbal Immediacy Behaviors (VIB) scale (Appendix B).
Qualitative data was collected through the use of a survey consisting of openended, standardized questions. The questions focused on topics related to the research
questions but not addressed by the motivation and verbal immediacy scales. The purpose
of the questions was to extract deeper meaning from responses to the scales as well as
elicit participant opinions and perceptions of the narration used in the modules (Appendix
D).
48
This chapter is divided into eight sections: (a) sample, (b) research questions, (c),
data sources, (d) findings from quantitative analysis, (e) qualitative data findings, and (f)
summary of research question findings.
Sample
The study was conducted using volunteers enrolled in online classes at two
different colleges, one in New York and one in Connecticut. A convenience sample was
used, drawing forty participants from interested and available students pursuing two-year
or four-year degrees.
The control group consisted of 20 participants, 14 females and 6 males. Fifteen
participants identified themselves as White, 2 as Hispanic/Latino, 1 as Black/African
American, and 2 as Other. Twelve were pursuing bachelor’s degrees and 8 were pursuing
associates degrees. The ages ranged from 25 to over 50 years (Appendix J).
The treatment group also consisted of twenty participants, fourteen female and six
male. Fourteen participants identified themselves as white, three as Hispanic/Latino, one
as Black/African American, one American Indian/Alaska Native and one Asian/Pacific
Islander. Thirteen were pursuing bachelor’s degrees and seven were pursuing associates
degrees. The ages ranged from under twenty-five to over fifty years (Appendix J).
Research Questions
This study set out to examine the relationship between personalized narration and
learner motivation in a Web-based environment. The study investigated three questions:
49
1. Is there a significant difference in motivation between learners in a Web-based
course using personalized narration and learners in a Web-based course using
formal narration?
2. Is there a significant difference in immediacy between a Web-based course using
personalized narration and a Web-based course using formal narration?
3. What perceptions and opinions do learners have of personalized narration in a
Web-based course?
Data Sources
Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected for this study. Two sources
were used to collect quantitative data: a portion of Richmond’s (1990) motivation scale,
and selected items from Gorham’s (1988) Verbal Immediacy Behaviors (VIB) scale.
Richmond’s motivation scale was used as a repeated measure, given before and after the
participants completed the Web-based module. The VIB scale was administered only
after the Web-based module was completed.
Quantitative data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences® (SPSS). Responses for each question were given a unique variable name and
were assigned a unique numerical code prior to being entered into SPSS for analysis.
Findings from Quantitative Analysis
Quantitative analysis conducted on data collected from the motivation scales prior
to and after module participation was tested for statistical significance using t tests for
dependent means. Immediacy scale data, gathered through the use of Gorham’s (1988)
50
VIB scale, was tested for statistical significance using t tests for independent means for
each of the characteristics of immediacy measured in the survey.
Motivation Scale Analysis—Research Question 1
Research Question 1: Is there a significant difference in motivation between learners in a
Web-based course using personalized narration and learners in a Web-based course using
formal narration?
A paired-samples t test was conducted to evaluate the impact of the Web-based
module on participants’ ratings on the Richmond’s motivation scale. For the treatment
group, there was no statistically significant difference in motivation scale rating from the
pre-survey (M=1.88, SD=1.130) to the post survey (M=1.88, SD=.881), t(19)=.000, p<.05
(two-tailed) (Table 1). This indicates that the treatment condition did not impact
motivation. The same test was also conducted for the control group. Similarly, there was
no statistically significant difference in motivation scale rating from the pre-survey
(M=1.96, SD=1.098) to the post survey (M=1.88, SD=.881), t(19)=.303, p<.05 (twotailed) (Table 2). This also indicates that the Web-based module did not impact
motivation. The findings uphold the null hypothesis: There is no significant difference in
motivation between learners in a Web-based course using personalized narration and
learners in a Web-based course using formal narration.
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Table 1
Treatment Group Motivation Scale Ratings
Motivation Scale Test
Mean
N
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
PreMotivation
1.88
20
1.130
.226
Post Motivation
1.88
20
.881
.176
Table 2
Control Group Motivation Scale Ratings
Motivation Scale Test
Mean
N
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
PreMotivation
1.96
20
1.098
.220
Post Motivation
1.88
20
.881
.176
There was no significant difference in motivation between learners in a Webbased course using personalized narration and learners in a Web-based course using
formal narration. These findings can be further explained through the statements
participants gave to the qualitative portion of the final survey. Participant responses to
the third survey question, which asked “what elements of the Web-based course on visual
literacy motivated you”, give further explanation on what participants considered as
motivating factors.
Participants stated that regardless of other factors, their motivation for the topic
was determined at the outset of their participation in the experiment. One treatment group
participant said that “the concept of visual literacy itself is motivating”. Another
52
participant from the treatment agreed, adding that “it was the material that was of interest
to me, nothing else”. Similar responses came from control group participants: “The
subject of visual literacy-understanding images as communication is valuable and
motivated me a lot”. One control group participant was very direct about what motivated
her/him in stating:
Even though the talking reminded me of Ben Stein from TV, and I could have
been bored out of my mind, I knew that the topic was something I wanted to
know more about and that kept me focused.
For another control group participant, the motivation also came from the subject
matter being presented to them. This participant indicated that the topic was the driving
force for them to continue, even in cases where they did not like to listen to the instructor
speak.
I was not happy with the tone of the instructor, but I kept on listening and going
on because I know that what she was saying about everyone needing to learn how
to design and interpret was true. Communication is a powerful tool and visually is
one way that is powerful for all of us to use to communicate with others.
Analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data show that the motivation levels
did not change for participants as a result of the treatment condition because many
participants view the topic as interesting or important before they even completed the
pre-survey. The subject matter of the Web-based module was a factor in motivating them
to participate.
53
Immediacy— Research Question 2 (RQ2)
Research Question 2: Is there a significant difference in immediacy between a Webbased course using personalized narration and a Web-based course using formal
narration?
An independent-samples t test was conducted to compare scores on Gorham’s
Verbal Immediacy Behaviors (VIB) scale for the treatment group and the control group.
Scores for each question were analyzed separately to determine which immediacy
behaviors impacted the participants.
Use of Personal Examples
One of the indicators on the VIB scale asks participants how often the instructor
“uses personal examples or talks about examples she/he has had outside of class”.
Findings on the independent-samples t test for the category of personal examples showed
that there was no statistically significant difference in scores for the treatment group
(M=2.64, SD=1.221) and for the control group (M=2.88, SD=1.269) t(39)= -.682, p=.11
(two-tailed) (Table 3). The magnitude of the differences in the means was very small (eta
squared=0.01), which means that only one percent of the variance in immediacy is
explained by the types of narration.
54
Table 3
Immediacy Measure—Personal Examples
Group
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
Treatment
20
2.64
1.221
.244
Control
20
2.88
1.269
.254
Asking Questions
Another indicator on the VIB scale asks participants how often the instructor
“asks questions”. Findings for this category showed that there was no statistically
significant difference in scores for the treatment group (M=3.40, SD=1.000) and for the
control group (M=2.44, SD=1.083) t(39)= 3.256, p=.11 (two-tailed) (Table 4). The
magnitude of the differences in the means was large (eta squared=0.22), which means
that the variance in immediacy can be explained by the types of narration.
Table 4
Immediacy Measure—Asking Questions
Group
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
Treatment
20
3.40
1.000
.200
Control
20
2.44
1.083
.217
55
Use of Humor
The next indicator on the VIB pertained to use of humor by the instructor in the
Web-based module. There was no statistically significant difference in scores for the
treatment group (M=2.56, SD=1.044) and for the control group (M=1.84, SD=.943)
t(39)= 2.558, p=.11 (two-tailed) (Table 5). The magnitude of the differences in the means
was moderate (eta squared=0.15), indicating that the variance in immediacy could be
explained by types of narration used in the Web-based module.
Table 5
Immediacy Measure—Use of Humor
Group
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
Treatment
20
2.56
1.044
.209
Control
20
1.84
.943
.189
Personalized Language
The final indicator on the VIB scale asked how often the instructor in the Webbased module “refers to class as ‘our’ class or what ‘we’ are doing”. There was no
statistically significant difference in scores for the treatment group (M=3.20, SD=1.414)
and for the control group (M=2.96, SD=1.098) t(39)= .670, p=.11 (two-tailed) (Table 6).
The magnitude of the differences in the means was small (eta squared=0.01) indicating
that only one percent of the variance in immediacy could be explained by types of
narration used in the Web-based module.
56
Table 6
Immediacy Measure—Use of Personalized Language
Group
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
Treatment
20
3.20
1.414
.283
Control
20
2.96
1.098
.220
There was no significant difference in any of the four aspects of immediacy
between a Web-based course using personalized narration and a Web-based course using
formal narration. The measures of personal examples, asking questions, use of humor,
and personalized language were not found to be significantly different. Participants in the
control group, who experienced a formal tone, and treatment group, who experienced a
less formal, more conversational tone, did not report a higher incidence of these
comments from the instructor.
The final survey with the open-ended questions allowed participants in both
groups to comment about factors that made the Web-based module feel like a real
classroom. These comments coincided with the concept of immediacy and the items on
the VIB scale. One treatment group participant explained that “some of her dry humor
reminded me of another professor I had a while back” while another participant in the
treatment group commented that “I didn’t get all her jokes, but it made the time go by
better”.
Questioning practices in the Web-based module were also noticed by the
treatment group participants, one of whom commented that “with her standing in front of
57
the board, asking questions, I felt a bit glad I was not in a real classroom just in case I had
to write the answer on the board!”
The eta squared for the immediacy scale indicators of using humor and asking
questions were also large, indicating a high probability that the differences could be
attributed to the treatment. The scripts for the treatment group included dry humor,
moments of levity and rhetorical questions to engage the learner and connect on a
personal level. Conversely, scripts for the control group had no humor, moments of levity
or rhetorical questions for participants. These scripts merely presented information.
The data analysis for the measures of personal examples, in which the instructor
in the Web-based course shared personal stories of herself, and use of personalized
language, in which the instructor used words such as “we” or “our” showed no significant
difference between groups.
The personal examples measure can be explained through triangulation, looking
at the comments of participants in the control group. Participants in this group repeatedly
brought up the story told by the instructor in the module. They stated that the “story about
how other students used the topic in their lives was very interesting and made me want to
pay attention more”. This was not a personal example shared by the instructor of her own
life, but may have been misinterpreted by participants as a personal story.
Additionally, control group participants repeatedly described the personality of
the instructor as serious, business-like, and “like a typical college professor”. Four of the
control group participants commented that the professor in the Web-based module had a
clear voice that was “easy to listen to and understand”. Control group participants
58
focused more on the mechanical aspects of the narration and personality, but did not pay
attention to the lack of the use of “we” or “our” or personal examples in the module.
The narration for the treatment Web-based module included numerous instances
of “we” or “our’ in the language and three personal examples/stories from the instructor.
Similarly, treatment group participants missed these specific aspects. However, treatment
group participants commented that the instructor “seemed very friendly”, was “a nice
person”, and “made the information very interesting to me”. One participant explained:
It was her personality that made the information to get across to me [sic]. She was
enthusiastic about the topic of visual literacy and she did some great techniques to
keep me interested in it.
It is difficult to establish what the techniques were that this participant mentioned as these
comments are broad and indistinct in dealing with aspects of immediacy in the final
survey.
Eta squared was also calculated for both of these indicators. It was small which
indicates a low probability that a difference between groups could be attributed to the
treatment and differences in narration style. Analysis of all data collected on immediacy
upholds the null hypothesis: There is no significant difference in immediacy between a
Web-based course using personalized narration and a Web-based course using formal
narration.
Qualitative Data Findings
Participants answered open-ended questions as a part of the post survey.
Responses were used to inform research question three (RQ3). The open-ended questions
allowed participants to write down thoughts and opinions they had of the Web-based
59
module that they had just completed. Five separate questions, covering five distinct
topics, were asked (Appendix D). Participants were free to write as much or as little as
they chose to write.
Word-based techniques were used to extract the themes in the participants’
responses. Ryan and Bernard (2003) state that in order to identify themes, participant
responses must be sorted into categories of similar meaning. In the data that was
collected, each short answer response was read several times prior to being categorized
and coded. As Creswell and Clark (2007) recommend, text from responses was divided
into smaller phrases, and a label was assigned to each unit. All of the repeated labels were
tallied and several themes emerged regarding learner motivation as related to narration
and tone.
Differences in Personality/Tone
The first question asked participants to describe the personality of the instructor.
There was a marked difference in the perceptions of participants in the treatment group
(Appendix G), which used informal narration, from the participants in the control group
(Appendix H), which used formal narration. Treatment group participants described the
instructor’s personality as positive and upbeat. These participants also frequently
explained that the positive tone “kept my attention” and “held my interest”. One
participant in particular stated “the instructor had a positive and lively tone. She seemed
interested and alert, and changed her tone to emphasize parts of the course”. Another
participant echoed these feelings, describing the instructor’s tone as conversational:
60
The instructor’s tone was conversational and attempted to keep the topic
interesting by varying the tone of her voice. Nothing is more boring than a
monotone instructor’s tone.
Upon examining all responses, coding and tallying word repetitions and key
words in context for the control group, it became evident that participants had a very
different opinion of the instructor’s personality. Thirteen of the twenty participants
indicated that the personality of the instructor was serious and boring. One participant
described the instructor’s personality as “Businesslike, but competent”. Similarly, others
said that the tone was boring and they wanted the instructor “to get to the point quicker”.
Still others said that the instructor was monotone: “she could’ve been a bit more upbeat
while talking”, and “her tone didn’t vary a lot”.
Effect of Personality on Motivation
Participants’ motivation was affected based on their perceptions of the instructor’s
personality/tone. Treatment group participants, who had identified the instructor’s
personality in the previous question as positive, indicated that they were motivated to
continue working in the module, as stated by one participant: “Her tone kept me
interested and motivated. I was more inclined to continue through the course because of
it”. One participant in particular explained that the tone conveyed more energy than she
was accustomed to in Web-based modules: “she was energetic and motivated, and this
kept my interest. She was very knowledgeable about what she was covering and it
showed-not like some of the voices I have to listen to for my work training”.
Similarly, the control group participants suggested that the instructor’s
personality/tone played a part in their motivation to continue working in the Web-based
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module: “the module was easy to follow, but I don’t think it had anything to do with the
instructor.” Other participants were not as kind, and stated that the tone “made me want
to stop listening”, “made me want to drop out”, and “didn’t keep me from getting
sidetracked”. One participant in particular had a very difficult time staying motivated:
I couldn’t wait for it to be over. It was just too much for me to handle. The whole
thing started to mean nothing to me, so I started to shut down and was not
absorbing any of the information. I wanted to move forward before she was done,
but waited for her to finish droning.
Motivating Elements
Participants in both treatment group and the control group had similar opinions on
what elements in the Web-based module motivated them. A majority of participants in
both groups stated that the multimedia elements (audio, text and graphics/images)
embedded in the Web-based module were motivating factors. Several of them
specifically pinpointed elements in the module, including “charts, graphs and tables” as
well as “the stories of people using the communication method”. Still others found that a
combination of elements motivated them to continue:
I liked seeing the lecturer as opposed to reading an instructor’s lecture as I have
done in several of my online courses. It was also preferable to just listening to an audio
tape and watching the psychedelic colors stream across my computer screen. I felt more
focused. I have also often wondered what some of my online instructors looked like.
Another participant had some requests and suggestions for her college and how it
could keep her motivated while learning online:
The introduction to visual literacy was really different than what I’m used to. I
think if all the online classes at my school had the various visual elements as
tools, I think I would learn a little quicker. I find that some of the online classes I
have taken or am taking lack more visual aids and show and tell techniques that I
saw in this course.
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Immediacy in the Web-based Module
Participants in the treatment and control groups indicated that there were several
aspects of the Web-based module that imitated a traditional face-to-face classroom.
Treatment group participants indicated that the combination of audio and visual elements
most closely replicated a traditional face-to-face classroom. One participant explained:
“learning by listening. Feeling connected with the instructor. Sometimes information is
hard to retain by just reading it but hearing and seeing other items helps.” The
connection of audio and visual elements was also helpful in “building a sense of being
between the learner and the instructor.” Other treatment group participants went a step
further, and let their imaginations fill in the gaps to create a realistic situation: “she was
standing in front of a white wall or something that made me feel like she was about to
write something on the board with a marker and she was wearing something I would
imagine my professors to be wearing.”
Just as in the previous question, control group participants had similar opinions,
but also needed to move beyond the lack of motivation that they received from the
instructor’s personality/tone, as indicated by this participant’s response: “It was the
teacher, droning on, blah, blah, blah, maintaining a particular commanding, uninteresting
stance…which is sort of like in some of the worse classes I’ve had.”
Another control participant was similarly frustrated with the instructor’s
personality, but also found a commonality: “I found the pictures did help make the
connection with the audio a little better than no person at all. I think the audio can be
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helpful, if it’s the right kind, and it did give a little bit of a more personal connection, but
I personally wish it was more interesting.”
Seven of the control group participants indicated that the combination of audio
and visual elements enabled the module to be “classroom-like”, even though certain
aspects of a traditional classroom, such as other students in the room, were absent
(Appendix H).
The final question in the survey also covered the area of immediacy, asking
whether or not the participant would want to take another course with that instructor.
Treatment group participants overwhelmingly stated that they would want to take another
course with the instructor, and had various reasons to do so. Eleven participants stated
that the instructor was motivating and that reason alone would lead them to another
course with this instructor, finding the instructor “upbeat and easy to pay attention to”
(Appendix G). Five participants found the instructor’s voice to be clear and precise,
making them eager to sign up for another course with this instructor.
One participant believed that she was not only motivating but also “she sounds
nice and pretty knowledgeable. She also explains things well and I could ask her to repeat
something or re-explain something and it seems she wouldn’t get mad”.
Another participant was also able to interpret the instructor’s personality through
the module. “I would want to take another course with this instructor because I would
feel comfortable asking her for help if I had to. It also seems that she’s the type of person
who would do anything and everything possible to make sure that her students learned,
using any method out there to help me understand what it is she’s trying to teach me. This
is more important to me than anything else when I am trying to learn.”
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Some of the control group participants would have also taken another course with
the instructor, although for different reasons. Nine of these participants cited the
instructor’s “clear voice” as an important reason, since, according to one participant,
“you need to be able to understand who’s teaching you. As long as the language is
comprehensible and the subject matter is interesting to me, I’d take another class with
her” (Appendix H).
Others in the control group stated that because they were unmotivated and bored
by the instructor, they could not see themselves taking another class with her. One
participant felt that it would just be too difficult to do: “I would not be able to maintain
any concentration for any length of time to acquire any information. That would frustrate
me so much; it would make me drop out”.
A few participants noted that the monotone quality of the instructor needed to be
changed in order for them to return:
The instructor seemed robotic, like she was reading from a script rather than
conducting a dialogue or really talking to, and sharing information with learners.
It just seemed that the instructor was really bored, or didn’t care that others were
going to listen to her.
The tone of the instructor was too rehearsed or practiced. It wasn’t realistic at all.
I would prefer more of a conversational tone, personally. It would be more
interesting.
Qualitative data show that participants’ motivation was affected by numerous
factors, personality of the instructor being only one of them. It is important to note that
eleven participants in the control group and eight participants in the treatment group
found the subject matter to be the most motivating element of the experience
(Appendices G and H). This finding could explain the results found for the motivation
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scale in which neither group had a significant difference before or after participating in
the Web-based module. Many participants had similar feelings to this participant:
I really was interested in the topic because I think it is important for students,
really everyone, to know about. It would not matter to me who was teaching it,
really…I would take it anyway because I think I need it.
Perceptions and opinions learners have of personalized narration in a Web-based
course are diverse. Many treatment group participants were acutely aware of a
personalized connection between themselves and the instructor through the use of
language. Participants in the control group also noted that the tone of the instructor could
have been more conversational and friendly. Participants in both groups were able to
identify characteristics of immediacy, including presence, which enabled them to equate
the Web-based instructor to a classroom professor.
Chapter 5 presents a summary of the study to include purpose, research questions,
linking of findings to literature as identified in Chapter 2; limitations and findings;
conclusions; recommendations for practice; and recommendations for future research.
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CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
This study used a mixed methods approach to examine the effect of personalized
narration on learner motivation in a Web-based environment as well as to discern the
opinions and perceptions learners have of personalized narration within Web-based
modules in an effort to understand how and if narrative styles close the existing cybergap between instructor and learner. Prior to this study, little empirical evidence existed
that would explain the impact of personalized narration on learner motivation or to give
insight into learner attitudes related to differences in narration within Web-based learning
environments.
Three research questions guided the study, and each question is discussed in detail
below. The primary intent of this study was to investigate the effect of personalized
narration on learner motivation in a Web-based environment, furthering the research of
Moreno and Mayer (2004). Two variations of the same eLearning module were used as
the two treatments: one that utilized a formal, prescribed style of language and tone and
one that utilized an informal, friendly style of language and tone. A total of forty learners
participated, with twenty assigned to the informal narration treatment situation and
twenty assigned to the formal narration control situation. Participants completed a
presurvey about motivation, taken from portion of Richmond’s (1990) motivation scale in
order to determine initial motivation levels (Appendix A). This was used as a repeated
measure, also given after participants completed the Web-based learning module. This
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was followed with selected items from Gorham’s (1988) Verbal Immediacy Behaviors
(VIB) scale (Appendix B). Participants also completed a series of open-ended,
standardized questions (Appendix D) which focused on topics related to the research
questions but not addressed by the motivation and verbal immediacy scales in order to
extract deeper meaning from responses to the scales as well as elicit participant opinions
and perceptions of the narration used in the modules.
Quantitative data was analyzed through the use of t tests and survey responses
were coded using word-based techniques as described by Ryan and Bernard (2003) to
determine emergent themes. The triangulation of data through the diverse sources,
accomplished through comparisons of qualitative responses to quantitative data gleaned
from participant survey responses served to support and validate findings.
Discussion of Research Questions and Findings
Research Question 1: Is there a significant difference in motivation between learners in a
Web-based course using personalized narration and learners in a Web-based course
using formal narration?
The findings of this study revealed that there were no significant differences in
participants in either the treatment or control group from the presurvey to the post survey.
This finding diverges from the literature which states that personalized narration has been
able to increase motivation since it is a realistic representation of the environment and
enables learners to be active participants in their own learning (Herrington & Oliver,
2000; Mott, Callaway, Zettlemoyer, Lee & Lester, 1999; Timcenko, 2006; Mott & Lester,
2006). While initially this finding may be perplexing, it also adds a new dimension and
68
perspective to the literature in regards to personalized narration and motivation. The
population of online learners surveyed in this study may be representative of a new
generation of online learners who are not motivated solely because of the manner in
which information is presented, as this is something with which they are becoming more
and more comfortable (Gee, 2003; Wuensch, Aziz, Ozan, Kishore, & Tabrizi, 2008).
Rather, the participants likely had other reasons for their motivation that could not be
determined through the quantitative surveys used in the study.
The open-ended questions in the final survey found that students who participated
in the study did so because the subject matter (Visual literacy-communications skills for
students) interested them. Learners who volunteered to participate in the study were
initially interested in the subject matter and, as they stated, they were happy to continue
learning about it because they thought it was important for them to learn. It is important
to note that five learners in the control group specifically indicated in their comments that
they “did not mind” the instructor’s personality because they found the subject matter
appealing and could “work around her”. These statements echo reasons for motivation
found in the literature (Wlodkowski, 1999; Cole, Field & Harris, 2004; Lundberg, 2003).
The quantitative survey shows that, as a result of the participating learner
population, motivation levels of participants prior to and after participating in the Webbased learning module remained statistically stagnant. Recruiting participants to a study
such as this may require that a prescribed group, such as an intact college class, be used,
rather than going out and recruiting interested and available participants in order to get a
better understanding of the actual effect of narration on motivation.
69
The research question regarding motivation can be further answered by the
comments of participants about their own motivation in the open-ended questions. It was
clear from their comments that the personality, tone and language of the instructor did
affect their desire to learn and to continue in the module. Control group participants
stated that they wanted to quit, or drop out of the class while treatment group participants
felt comfortable moving on and learning more. This finding is in alignment with the
literature which states that personalized, conversational narration within Web-based
environments is more enjoyable to use (Reeves & Nass, 1996). It is also obvious from the
comments that participants in both groups made, that a distinct personality was observed
in the instructor and that this personality or tone played a significant role in their
motivation.
Additionally, as described in the literature, participant responses indicate that the
personalized narration in the treatment situation was able to imitate social presence in a
Web-based environment to induce and sustain learners’ motivation (Newberry, 2001; Tu,
2001). Treatment group participants equated the narration and tone of the instructor in the
Web-based module with her personality and were able to infer something about her as a
person, and how she might interact with them in a realistic setting. Personal qualities
came across to participants through the narration in the verbal manner that Aragon (2003)
identifies as necessary in promoting a level of comfort with the learning situation.
Research Question 2: Is there a significant difference in immediacy between a Web-based
course using personalized narration and a Web-based course using formal narration?
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As indicated in the research (Walther, 1992; Tu, 2000), this study revealed that
certain factors of immediacy do predict how students view the course they are taking.
Participants in the treatment group viewed the immediacy factors of use of humor, in
which the instructor in the Web-based course made jokes while explaining the topic, and
asking questions, in which the instructor asked rhetorical questions of learners, positively.
In the open-ended, qualitative data portion of the study, participants indicated that these
actions by the instructor made her seem more realistic and gave them a sense of her
human-ness. Similarly, the control group participants did not notice these factors, since
they were not included in the script. Some of the participants in the control group,
however, noticed the lack of immediacy but did not call it that; three of them commented
that they wanted the instructor to be more conversational in her speech.
In addition, the two other immediacy factors that were included in the Web-based
module, personal examples and personalized language (the use of “we” or “our”) were
not significantly different between the two groups. Neither group reported a high use of
these factors, which was unexpected since the treatment group script included as many
instances of these factors as of the other factors. It may be, as participants indicated in the
qualitative survey, that they became bored with the instructor and tuned out, not paying
attention to nuances in language. Additionally, the survey was an individual exercise, and
the author was unable to ask clarifying or probing questions in order to elicit more
complete responses.
A surprising finding in this study was the ability of participants in both groups to
accurately describe and advocate for social presence, an indicator of immediacy (Aragon,
2003; Leh, 2001). Many participants indicated that the pictures of the instructor allowed
71
them to feel like they were in a classroom, and others wanted more pictures or even a
video of the instructor to make the situation seem even more realistic. Technological
advances have made people acutely aware of the levels of reality; the ability to utilize
modalities of seeing, hearing and feeling in the online classroom is becoming more
important to instructional designers (Elsom-Cook, 2001).
A relationship between factors of immediacy and motivation is also supported as
a result of the findings in this study. Treatment group participants frequently responded
that the instructor’s personality seemed helpful and that they believed that she “would
encourage them to continue working” and help them understand things they were
confused about. As described in the literature, teacher immediacy behaviors positively
influence student motivation, regardless of the age of the student or cultural background
(Frymier, 1993; Christophel & Gorham, 1995; Pribyl, Sakamoto, & Keaten, 2004;
Weaver & Albion, 2005). Although participants may not have been as aware of the
nuances in language use, or may not have accurately reported the use of personalized
language, there is qualitative data to support the development of a connection, based on
immediacy behaviors, between the instructor in the Web-based module and the
participants.
Research Question 3: What perceptions and opinions do learners have of personalized
narration in a Web-based course?
The participants in this study had diverse opinions and perceptions about
personalized narration, many of which were already discussed. Differences in opinion
about the type of narration used in the Web-based module were stark; treatment group
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participants noticed a positive, motivating tone while control group participants noticed a
serious, unmotivating tone. These differences impacted whether or not participants would
want to take another course with the instructor from the online module, as discussed
earlier.
Online learning continues to evolve and adapt to new learners and improved
technology. Although this study focused on personalized narration, participants in this
study identified several additional components of the Web-based course that they found
as interesting and helpful in maintaining their attention and increasing their learning.
Seventeen of the total participants, nine from the treatment group and eight from the
control group, cited the multimedia elements of the Web-based learning module as
motivating. In their comments, participants discussed audio, visual and narration
elements separately as well as collectively, repeating the usefulness of these multimedia
elements in making the Web-based module as realistic as possible. One participant
described the visuals as “helping me to see exactly what she was talking about—I liked
the pictures because they focused me”. Others commented that the “combination of audio
and visual was realistic” and “the whole thing, pictures, sounds etc. helped it all make
sense to me and kept me paying attention”. These findings reinforce the findings of
Gagne (1985), Reiber (1994), Boyle (1997), and Alessi and Trollip (2001) and support
the work of Moreno and Mayer (2004) on which this study was based.
How the Current Study Extends Existing Research
Studies on immediacy in the classroom, and its affect on motivation, have been
conducted (Christophel, 1990; Kelly and Gorham, 1988; Richmond, 1990), but none have
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been conducted that look at immediacy and motivation in the Web-based environment
using personalized narration. This study explored the relationships between formal and
informal narration and its effects on motivation and immediacy, providing an
informative, evidence-based evaluation of students’ motivation and perceptions of formal
and informal narration and immediacy within the interactive, multimedia-based Web
environment. Findings of this study support previous studies found in the literature that
explored personalization and social presence in the Web-based environment (Moreno &
Mayer, 2004; Gunawardena & Zittle, 1997; Tu, 2000; Tu, 2002; Walther, 1992).
However, limited research has examined the combination of personalization, immediacy
and motivation and their impact on learners in the Web-based environment. Based on the
data in this study, it can be stated that the combination of pictures of the instructor and
narration formed a bond and increased the comfort level between the learner and the
material being presented. This study provides detailed information about how learners in
the online environment react to personalized narration, and the impact it has on their
levels of satisfaction with the online learning experience. Additionally, it is evident
through the data collected in this study that online learners are looking to form a
relationship and build trust in the online environment, and anticipate that the technology
can help this happen. As instructional designers create online learning modules and
courses, the ability to utilize technology in order to create a venue for these relationships
is significant.
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Significance of the Results
As a result of their participation in this study, students are more aware of how
instructor language, and presence play a role in fostering an environment for learning.
Additionally, participants gained an understanding of the modality principle that states
that the use of audio with visual supporting elements results in more learning as a result
of reduced extraneous cognitive load and increased germane cognitive load. Participants
in the study have clear feelings about how they would like to see online instruction
designed and delivered, and were not hesitant about sharing these feelings.
The findings of this study have significant implications for instructional
designers. The data gathered in this study supports the notion that instructional designers
should design and develop learning environments that utilize all of the modalities that are
present in face-to-face learning environments. Participants in this study were very clear
about the helpfulness and effect of audio and visual elements in emulating a realistic
situation and improving their focus and motivation.
The use of personalized narration in the treatment situation was instrumental in
replicating social presence in a Web-based environment to induce and sustain learners’
motivation. The implementation of these various modalities is a crucial element in the
traditional classroom in fostering relationships and should carry over into an online
environment in as natural a manner as possible. Elements including conversational
narration, which is personalized and incorporates humor, questioning and personal
examples should be included in scripts for online learning modules as frequently as
possible, as these elements have been shown, in this study and others, to be critical in
creating a connection between material and learner.
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In order for all of the elements included in online learning modules to be as
realistic as possible, it is important for instructional designers to use a cadre of tools in
the development of online instruction. As technology continues to advance, software
programs become more capable and complex, able to more realistically present
information and situations to viewers. Relying on only one software program is no longer
enough. By intertwining various types of interactive multimedia through the use of robust
software programs, designers will be able to create learning environments in which the
learner can be immersed, rather than having the experience of being merely an onlooker.
Adult learners, the focus of this study, have specific needs and requirements for
learning that appeared repeatedly throughout data collection. If learners are to be
motivated, the instruction, as stated by Wlodkowski (1999), needs to be relevant to the
learner or they will not see a need to pay attention, clearly a trend in this study.
Additionally, giving them personal control over how the material is presented, whether it
is the order of topics, menu systems or simply in advancing the module is key to
increasing learning and motivation.
The design elements of online learning are critical components to effective
instruction. Participants in this study indicated that the multimedia elements of the lesson
were motivating elements. Choosing the right style of fonts, color harmony, displayed
items and resolution can make a big difference to learners. Although many have been
taught not to judge a book by its cover, today’s online learners are looking for a robust
experience that will appeal to all of their senses and deeply embed them in the
experience.
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Limitations to the Study
There are several limitations to the study. The sample size for each group was
small (n=20). Participants were chosen based on interested and available respondents to
e-mails. This impacted the findings for motivation, as participants indicated in their
responses, since they would not have participated had they not been intrigued by the topic
in the Web-based module. The final survey, which produced the qualitative data for this
study, was not done in a face-to-face environment, or even on a telephone, which limited
the responses from the participants. The researcher was unable to pose follow-up
questions or ask for clarification of answers given; instead, the participants determined
when they had finished answering the question.
Recommendations for Future Research
Additional studies should be conducted in order to develop a more complete
understanding of the effects of personalized narration on learner motivation in the Webbased environment. First, this study should be repeated using a sample that is preset, with
groups that are already in separate college courses and required to participate in the
study. A sample of this nature will enable the researcher to get a more accurate
understanding of the changes that occur in motivation prior to and after the treatment.
Second, a larger sample size may produce different results. Repeating this study
with a larger group of participants is recommended so that data can be analyzed and
compared to see if sample size had any effect on outcome.
77
Third, interesting results may be found if groups were to participate in both
treatments, formal and informal narration. The participants could then discuss the
differences they saw as well as the effect those differences had on their motivation.
A fourth recommendation would be to conduct interviews with participants faceto-face or on the telephone in order to gather more information from them. Using this
format, a researcher could probe more deeply and use follow up questions in order to
gather participant perceptions and opinions.
Finally, this study could be repeated using learners younger than college age.
High school or middle school students, who are often termed digital natives, may be able
to provide additional information that can inform instructional design practice for the
twenty-first century.
Conclusion
This study produced a number of important findings that were consistent with the
literature. Factors of immediacy can predict how students view courses they take, even
when those courses are delivered solely in an online format. Additionally, the findings of
this study support the literature indicating that multimedia elements are essential in order
to make Web-based modules as realistic as possible.
There were also findings from this study that helped to extend the knowledge of
the field of instructional design. As a result of the findings in this study, it can be stated
that there exists a relationship between factors of immediacy and motivation in courses
that are delivered in a Web-based format. These immediacy factors can be enhanced and
improved through the use of personalized narration since personalized narration imitates
social presence in a Web-based environment to induce and sustain learners’ motivation.
78
Although there was no significant difference in motivation found, the study still
provides important findings for instructional designers concerned about motivation
within interactive online environments. Learners in the twenty-first century are very
astute and tech-savvy, expecting as much from their online learning experiences. As
multimedia technologies continue to progress, future online courses should utilize the
aspects of various methods that personalize and draw upon realistic modalities that mirror
authentic environments.
As enrollments in colleges increase, and corporate training travel is reduced,
eLearning will continue to grow and adapt to meet new needs. In order to get the most
out of online learning, it behooves instructional designers to develop instruction that
draws the learner into the environment, reducing the learners’ off-task behaviors and
increasing behaviors that will lead to meaning-making and lasting learning. A continued
focus on the connections between technological advances, social presence and improved
learning is necessary in order to make online learning the best it can be.
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89
APPENDIX A.
Motivation Scale
Choose the phrase below that best represents your feelings about learning about visual
literacy.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Very motivated
Mostly motivated
Motivated
Neutral
Unmotivated
Mostly unmotivated
Very unmotivated
90
APPENDIX B.
Immediacy Scale
Instructions: Please respond to each of the statements below in terms of the way you
perceive the instructor in the Web-based course on visual literacy. For each item, indicate
how often the instructor responded this way.
Use the scale: 0=never, 1=rarely, 2=occasionally, 3=often, and 4=very often
1. Uses personal examples or talks about examples she/he has had outside of class.
2. Asks questions.
3. Uses humor in class.
4. Refers to class as "our" class or what "we" are doing.
91
APPENDIX C
Invitation E-mail
FROM: Mark Fazioli a doctoral learner at Capella University.
REQUEST: I need your help with a study I am doing titled “Effects of personalized
narration on learner motivation in a Web-based environment”
TIME REQUIRED: About 10-15 minutes to complete the entire study: learning module
and surveys.
As a professional in the educational arena, I am asking you to please participate in this study. The goal of
the study is to examine the effect of personalized narration on learner motivation in a Web-based
environment for use in development of future online courses. Your participation in this study will help to
accomplish this goal.
Please indicate your interest by completing the two short surveys below by either clicking on the links or
copying and pasting the Web addresses into a browser. The online forms will ask you a few brief questions
and won’t take more than 5 minutes. Once participants are selected for this research project, detailed
instructions will be sent to them. If you have any questions about the study, please feel free to contact me at
[email protected].
Consent Form: http://www.stellarsurvey.com/s.aspx
Demographic Survey: http://www.stellarsurvey.com/s.aspx
All of the information collected in the study will be reported as a whole and no individual responses will be
reported
All of the information collected in the study will be reported as a whole and no individual responses will be
reported. I will be happy to share the results of the study with you when it is finished.
By completing the survey, you are indicating your agreement to participate in the study and participation is
voluntary, and you understand that you are free to discontinue your participation in the study at any time.
Thank you in advance for your time and your participation in this very important study.
Mark P. Fazioli
[email protected]
Confidentiality Notice: This e-mail message is for the sole use of the intended recipient(s) and may contain
confidential and privileged information. Any unauthorized review, use, disclosure, distribution, or copying
is prohibited. If you are not the intended recipient, please contact the sender by replying to this e-mail and
destroy/delete all copies of this e-mail message.
92
APPENDIX D
Survey Questions
Answer the following questions in as few or as many sentences as necessary.
1. How would you describe the personality (tone) of the instructor in the Web-based
course on visual literacy?
2. How did the instructor’s personality (tone) affect your desire to continue working
in the Web-based course on visual literacy?
3. What elements of the Web-based course on visual literacy motivated you?
4. In what ways, if any, did the narration in the Web-based course on visual literacy
imitate a traditional face-to-face classroom?
5. Thinking of the personality (tone) of the instructor in the Web-based course on
visual literacy, explain why you would or would not want to take another course
with this instructor.
93
APPENDIX E
Online Consent Form
Dear Online Student,
I am a doctoral learner at Capella University in the School of Education specializing in Instructional Design
for Online Learning. My research study is entitled “Effects of personalized narration on learner motivation
in a Web-based environment”. The purpose of the research is to examine the relationship between
personalized narration and learner motivation in a Web-based environment, in order to help professionals
design Web-based courses to better meet the needs of their students.
You have been chosen to participate in this study because you are currently taking an online course(s).
Students enrolled in an online course(s) have been granted permission by your institution and invited to
participate in the study.
Why were you chosen to participate in this study? Let's review...
• Because I am taking an online course
• Because my school/college has given permission to invite me
Should you decide to participate in the study, here is what would happen:
1.
2.
3.
4.
You will fill out a demographic survey indicating basic demographic information about yourself,
including age, gender and degree you are seeking.
You will complete and submit a short introductory survey. This should take one minute.
Once the survey is completed, you will view and listen to the narration within a Web-based
module that will take about 5 minutes to complete.
After you have completed the Web-based module, you will complete a questionnaire/survey about
your experiences. This should take approximately 6-8 minutes to complete.
If you choose to participate in the study, about how long will it take from start to finish? Let's review...
• About 14-15 minutes
Participation in this study is voluntary. Your decision whether or not to participate will not affect your
grade in any of the courses you are currently taking. There are no risks to you for participating in this study.
You will incur no costs, and you will receive no gifts or special treatment as a result of your participation in
the study.
If you choose not to participate, will your grade be affected? Let's review...
• No, my grade will not be affected
All data collected for this study will become my property. Any information that is obtained in connection
with this study and that can be identified with you will remain confidential and will be kept in a locked file
within my residence. This information will be destroyed, as required, seven years after publication of
results. To ensure the protection of research participants, Capella's Institutional Review Board reserves the
right to observe the consent process and research undertaken by the researcher. All possible safeguards will
be used to protect your anonymity. If you agree to participate in this study, but change your mind at any
time, you may drop out of the study. There will be no negative consequences should you decide to end your
involvement with the study.
Can you drop out of the study at any time if you change your mind? Let's review...
• Yes, I can drop out of the study at any time if I change my mind
• Nothing negative will happen if I drop out of the study
94
If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me at any time by e-mail ([email protected]). You
may also contact my research advisor by e-mail ([email protected]). If you have questions regarding
your rights as a research participant, contact the IRB Office, Capella University, 225 South 6th Street, 9th
Floor, Minneapolis, MN 55402.
Selecting the “I Agree” button below and submitting this form indicates that you have read and understand
the information provided above, that you willingly agree to participate, that you may withdraw your
consent at any time and discontinue participation without penalty.
Sincerely,
Mark P. Fazioli- Doctoral learner at Capella University*
I agree
I do not agree
95
APPENDIX F. Demographic Survey
1. Full Name*
2. Phone Number*
3. E-mail Address*
4. Gender*
Female
Male
5. Age Range*
Under 25
40 - 44
25 - 29
45 - 49
30 - 34
50 or above
35 - 39
6. What is your race?*
Asian or Pacific Islander
White
American Indian or Alaska Native
Black or African-American
Other
Hispanic or Latino
7. What type of degree are you taking classes towards?*
Associates Degree
Bachelors Degree
8. What educational institution are you taking an online class with?*
Charter Oak State College
AAMI
9. Do you have these resources to view a multimedia-based online course? *
Highspeed Internet Access (Cable, DSL, or T1)
Speakers or Headset to listen to audio (narration)
Flash Plug-in or the ability to download and install the free plug-in
96
APPENDIX G
Qualitative Treatment Group Responses
Question 1: How would describe the personality (tone) of the instructor in the Web-based course on visual
literacy?
Themes
(P) = Positive
(S) = Serious/Boring
(C) = Conversational
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
S
S
P
P
S
P
P
S
P
P
P
P
P
P
S
P
S
P
C
P
Question 2: How did the instructor’s tone affect your desire to continue working in the Web-based course
on visual literacy?
Themes
P
1
M
P
2
U
(M) = Motivating
(U) = Unmotivating
(N) = Neutral (N)
P
P
P
P
P
3
4
5
6
7
M U M M M
P
8
M
P
9
M
P
10
M
P
11
M
P
12
U
P
13
M
P
14
M
P
15
M
P
16
N
P
17
M
P
18
M
P
19
U
P
20
U
P
17
M
P
18
S
P
19
M
P
20
M
Question 3: What elements of the Web-based course on visual literacy motivated you?
Themes
P
1
N
P
2
N
(N) = None
(S) = Subject Matter
(M) = Multimedia
P
P
P
P
P
3
4
5
6
7
S
N S
M S
P
8
S
P
9
S
P
10
M
P
11
M
P
12
M
P
13
S
P
14
M
P
15
M
P
16
S
Question 4: In what ways, if any, did the narration in the Web-based course on visual literacy imitate a
traditional face-to-face classroom?
Themes
P
1
P
P
2
P
(P) = Presence
(N) = None
(A) = Audio
P
P
P
P
3
4
5
6
N P
P
P
P
7
P
P
8
A
P
9
N
P
10
A
P
11
P
P
12
N
P
13
P
P
14
P
P
15
N
P
16
N
P
17
A
P
18
P
P
19
P
P
20
P
Question 5: Thinking of the personality (tone) of the instructor in the Web-based course on visual literacy,
explain why you would not want to take another course with this instructor.
Themes
P
1
U
P
2
V
(B) = No boring/unmotivating
(U) = Yes upbeat/motivating
(V) = Yes voice clear
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
U B
V U V B
V
P
10
B
P
11
U
97
P
12
U
P
13
V
P
14
U
P
15
B
P
16
U
P
17
U
P
18
U
P
19
U
P
20
U
APPENDIX H
Qualitative Control Group Responses
Question 1: How would describe the personality (tone) of the instructor in the Web-based course on visual
literacy?
Themes
(P) = Positive
(S) = Serious/Boring
(C) = Conversational
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
P
S
P
S
P
P
S
S
P
C
P
S
S
Question 2: How did the instructor’s tone affect your desire to continue working in the Web-based course
on visual literacy?
Themes
P
1
U
P
2
U
(M) = Motivating
(U) = Unmotivating
(N) = Neutral
P
P
P
P
P
3
4
5
6
7
N U U U N
P
8
M
P
9
N
P
10
U
P
11
N
P
12
M
P
13
U
P
14
N
P
15
N
P
16
N
P
17
N
P
18
U
P
19
U
P
20
U
Question 3: What elements of the Web-based course on visual literacy motivated you?
Themes
(N) = None
(S) = Subject Matter
(M) = Multimedia
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
M S
S
N S
S
S
M S
S
M M M S
M S
M
P
18
S
P
19
M
P
20
S
Question 4: In what ways, if any, did the narration in the Web-based course on visual literacy imitate a
traditional face-to-face classroom?
Themes
P
1
P
P
2
A
(P) = Presence
(N) = None
(A) = Audio/Visual Combination
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
P
N P
A A A A
P
10
P
P
11
P
P
12
N
P
13
N
P
14
N
P
15
P
P
16
P
P
17
A
P
18
A
P
19
P
P
20
P
Question 5: Thinking of the personality (tone) of the instructor in the Web-based course on visual literacy,
explain why you would not want to take another course with this instructor.
Themes
P
1
B
P
2
B
(B) = No, boring/unmotivating
(U) = Yes, upbeat/motivating
(V) = Yes, voice is clear
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
V U B
V B
V V
P
10
U
P
11
U
98
P
12
B
P
13
U
P
14
V
P
15
B
P
16
V
P
17
B
P
18
V
P
19
V
P
20
V
Appendix I
Control Group Demographic Data
Gender
Female
Male
Total Percentage
14
70.0%
6
30.0%
Degree
Total Percentage
Bachelors
12
60.0%
Associates
8
40.0%
Race
White
Hispanic/Latino
Black/AfAm
American Indian/Alaska
Native
Asian/Pacific Islander
Other
Total Percentage
15
75.0%
2
10.0%
1
5.0%
0
0
2
0.0%
0.0%
10.0%
Age Range
Below 25
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50+
99
Total Percentage
0
0.0%
1
5.0%
2
10.0%
4
20.0%
6
30.0%
3
15.0%
4
20.0%
Appendix J
Treatment Group Demographic Data
Gender
Female
Male
Total Percentage
14
70.0%
6
30.0%
Degree Sought
Total Percentage
Bachelors
13
65.0%
Associates
7
35.0%
Race
White
Hispanic/Latino
Black/AfAm
American Indian/Alaska
Native
Asian/Pacific Islander
Other
Below 25
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50+
100
Total Percentage
14
70.0%
3
15.0%
1
5.0%
1
1
0
5.0%
5.0%
0.0%
Age Range
Total Percentage
1
5.0%
2
10.0%
2
10.0%
2
10.0%
6
30.0%
6
30.0%
1
5.0%
Appendix K
Module Interface
1: TV Set – This area is used to present all visual components of the module.
2: Guide Button – Opens a menu page of all the units; select and that unit starts playing.
3: Glossary – Opens a glossary of terms and definitions of key items from the module.
4: Help – Opens the help navigation page.
5: Exit – Closes the module window.
6: Stop – When clicked it stops playing.
7: Previous – When this button is clicked the module moves back one screen and starts playing.
8: Rewind –When pressed it starts playing at the beginning of the current unit.
9: Play – When clicked the unit resumes playing where it was stopped.
10: Next – When this button is clicked it moves ahead one screen and starts playing.
101
Appendix L
Testing Treatment
Unit 1: Welcome
102
Narration
103
Hello and welcome to the module. My name is Annie Nelson and together we are going
to learn what visual literacy is and how important it is when we are learning and retaining
new material.
Many of us have probably heard people say things like “I have to see it to understand it”
or “I need to draw it out”. These comments stress the importance of visuals in learning,
but the idea of visual literacy catches us off guard, making us think about what it really
means.
Let’s start at the beginning. Many of you are probably wondering exactly what visual
literacy is. In simple terms, visual literacy is the ability to interpret and create visual
messages that get a point across. We are all familiar with the saying “A picture is worth a
thousand words”. In a society where information is available 24-7, using visuals is a
convenient way for us to convey information to others. Now that you have, an idea of
what visual literacy is, click on the right-pointing arrow on the remote control to continue
to our next topic.
104
Unit 2: Visual Communication Basics
105
Narration
As students we sometimes need to communicate using images or graphics. In order to do
that so that others will understand the visual message we are trying to send, we must
create an environment to communicate visually. So how do you think we do that? Well
to start you need to play two roles. The first role you need to play is the user, and the
second role is the designer. As you can imagine within each role consists of various
tasks. Let’s look at the tasks you need to perform. In the user role, some of the tasks are;
understanding images, appreciating images, thinking with images, and constructing
meaning with images. Now in the role of the designer you need to take on these tasks
such as creating educational images, transformative visuals, just-in-time images, creating
performance support images, decorative images, representative visuals, organizational
visuals, and interfaces. Wow, that was a mouthful!
Wow, that seems like a lot, but honestly its not and the best thing is, it’s lots of fun. The
main thing you will learn is that by combining art and science you can create
instructional visuals that work so, let us move on to our next area. Click on the rightpointing arrow on the remote control to continue.
106
Unit 3: Art & Science
107
108
109
110
Narration
So how do art and science fit into visual literacy? Well, believe it or not, visual design
has a long and interesting history. Think of historic paintings we are familiar with, such
as the Mona Lisa or any of Rockwell’s works, and don’t forget all the powerful literature,
poetry, and other written works that we have read and that have been part of our daily life
since childhood. Red riding hood and the wolf of her dreams, er, nightmares, is also
included here!
These are all great examples of the artistic part of visual literacy. Now correspondingly,
science also contributes to visual literacy in the context of how our minds process
information stored as visual data for long-term memory.
As students, you will need to be able to combine both the art and science as you work
through your lessons. By training ourselves to do that, we become visually literate.
Now, I am sure you are asking yourself what in the world does it mean to be visually
literate? Well, there are many different opinions, but overall, experts agree that a visually
literate person should be able to:
•
•
•
•
Interpret, understand, and value the meaning of visual messages.
Communicate effectively by applying the basic principles and concepts of visual
design.
Develop visual messages using different types of multimedia and technology.
Incorporate visual thinking to conceptualize solutions to problems.
As technology increases, these skills are vitally important for every student, no matter
what major. Students and learners need to recognize the channel of communication that
111
uses effective visual images and incorporates the most effective style of typography. So,
now that we understand the tasks that we need to learn to become visually literate, click
on the right-pointing double arrow on the remote control to continue.
112
Unit 4: Literacy
Narration
We defined visual literacy as the ability to interpret and create visual messages. So now,
let us define the term literacy. Webster’s dictionary defines literacy as “the state or
quality of being literate with the ability to read and write”. However, the term literacy
can also take on new meaning when we use it in conjunction with a specific context, such
as workplace literacy. Someone who has this ability would be able to complete all tasks
and responsibilities needed to be successful in their job. Another example might be
having the ability to find, understand, and use all communication methods--text, visual,
and audio. This type of literacy would be called information literacy. I think you get the
point of what literacy is, and when it is used with the word visual you can understand
how we get the definition of someone’s ability to interpret and create visual messages.
Another definition that we should discuss is the term “Universal Design.” No, not the
way the universe is designed—imagine the bill from the interior decorator for that!
Universal design utilizes principles to design products and environments that can be
accessible to many people. Visual literacy relies on many of the concepts of universal
design. For instance, if you were designing a PowerPoint presentation, you would have
many components in the slide such as colors, visual images like clip art and photos, and
some type. When you have put it all together, it becomes a cohesive environment that
anyone can use to understand the information you have included. As we go along
through the introduction, I am sure you will “see” what I mean. Next, we will discuss
how visual literacy fits into your education and how you learn. Click on the rightpointing double arrow on the remote control to continue.
113
Unit 5: Applying Visual Literacy
114
115
Narration
Let’s look at three different students and how being visually literate helps them
communicate and interpret information. Each of these students interprets and reads a
variety of materials that are developed using the visual and universal design principles.
Our first character is Meg who is working on a degree in education. Meg uses a variety
of visual materials to present instructional messages to other students. She completes her
assignments using topic-based bulletin boards, posters, overhead transparencies and
PowerPoint presentations. Her main goal is making sure the items she creates have
meaning and the students she is working with can relate to it so they can learn it. Like
Meg, you must be sure others can understand visual materials you create so they are
useful instead of just “eye candy”.
Our second student is Peter who is working on a degree in economics. Peter needs to be
able to present information in reports in a visual style, and he also needs to be able to
read graphical information given to him in his classes and that he finds in journals,
company reports and magazines. Peter uses many types of software programs to create
information-filled materials that his professor and classmates can see in print and
electronically, including graphs, reports, and presentations. Like Peter, you too must
know how to put the information together so that others can read it and understand; it is
critical to your success in any program.
116
Last but not least is Kathy. Kathy is majoring in graphic and interface design, and as you
can imagine visual literacy is an essential skill for Kathy. When she designs posters,
signs, t-shirts or other assignments for her classes, she needs to employ a balance of
visual and universal literacy to ensure that the items can be easily understood and not
confuse the person or people reading it. Unless Kathy has a good grasp on visual literacy
herself, her advertisements and posters could end up selling the wrong things and sending
the wrong message.
As you can see from our three students, it is important for you to be visually literate since
it will lead to your success in and out of the classroom. Visual literacy is essential to
communication. Click on the right-pointing double arrow on the remote control to
continue.
117
Unit 6: Conclusion
Narration
Well, we covered a lot in this introduction and I hope you are beginning to better
understand what visual literacy is and why it is so important for you to become visually
literate. Now, when you prepare for classes you can not only read the information
traditionally, but also visually and gather much more information to use. Keep your eyes
open, you never know what is out there waiting to be discovered.
Information for scripts taken from Lohr (2008).
118
Appendix M
Control Treatment
Unit 1: Welcome
119
Narration
Hello and welcome to the course. I am Professor Nelson and this course will cover the
topic of visual literacy and explain its importance in learning and retaining new material.
Many individuals often comment about needing to see things done in order to understand
them or before trying them out. These comments stress the importance of visuals in
learning, but the idea of visual literacy is unexpected, requiring some thought about what
it really means.
It is important to start with a working definition of visual literacy. In simple terms, visual
literacy is the ability to interpret and create visual messages that get a point across. This
is expressed by the saying “A picture is worth a thousand words”. In a society where
information is available 24-7, using visuals is a convenient way to convey information.
Click on the right-pointing double arrow, the next button, on the remote control to
continue to the next topic.
120
Unit 2: Visual Communication Basics
121
Narration
Students must sometimes communicate using images or graphics. There are two separate
roles students must play in order to do this. The first role is the user, and the second role
is the designer. Each role contains many tasks. In the user role, some of the tasks are;
understanding images, appreciating images, thinking with images, and constructing
meaning with images. The designer role includes creating educational images, just-intime images, performance support images, decorative images, representative visuals,
organizational visuals, transformative visuals and interfaces.
It seems like a lot to do, but it is not and it is enjoyable. Combining art and science
allows the instructional visuals to work. Click on the right-pointing double arrow, the
next button, on the remote control to continue to the next topic.
122
Unit 3: Art & Science
123
124
125
126
Narration
How do art and science fit into visual literacy? Visual design has a long and interesting
history, including historic paintings such as the Mona Lisa, Rockwell’s work as well as
the powerful literature, poetry, and other written works that have been studied and have
been part of daily life since early childhood years. These are all great examples of art in
relationship to visual representations. Now correspondingly, science also contributes to
visual literacy in the context of how the mind processes information stored as visual data
for long-term memory.
Students need to be able to combine both the art and science together when reading and
going over instructional materials. Learning to do so leads to becoming visually literate.
What does it mean to be visually literate? There are many different opinions, but overall,
experts agree that a visually literate person should be able to:
• Interpret, understand, and value the meaning of visual messages.
• Communicate effectively by applying the basic principles and concepts of visual
design.
• Develop visual messages using different types of multimedia and technology.
• Incorporate visual thinking to conceptualize solutions to problems.
As technology increases, these skills are vitally important for every student, regardless of
major. Students and learners need to recognize the channel of communication that uses
effective visual images and incorporates the correct style of typography. These are the
127
tasks needed in order to become visually literate. Click on the right-pointing double
arrow, the next button, on the remote control to continue to the next topic.
128
Unit 4: Literacy
Narration
Visual literacy was defined earlier as the ability to interpret and create visual messages.
The definition of literacy from Webster’s dictionary is the state or quality of being literate
with the ability to read and write. However, the term literacy can also take on new
meaning when it is used in conjunction in specific contexts as workplace literacy. An
individual with this ability would be able to complete all tasks and responsibilities needed
to be successful in their job. Another example might be having the ability to find,
understand, and use all communication methods- text, visual, and audio. This type of
literacy would be called information literacy. These examples illustrate what literacy is
and when it is used with the word visual it is easy to understand how to get the definition
of someone’s ability to interpret and create visual messages.
Another definition to discuss is the term “Universal Design.” Universal design utilizes
principles to design products and environments that can be accessible to many people.
Visual literacy relies on many of the concepts of universal design. In the design of a
PowerPoint presentation, for instance, there would be colors, visual images including clip
art and photos, and some type. When it is put all together, it becomes a cohesive
environment that anyone can use to understand the information included in it. As this
introduction continues, it will make sense. The next topic will discuss how visual literacy
fits into education and how learning happens. Click on the right-pointing double arrow,
the next button, on the remote control to continue to the next topic.
129
Unit 5: Applying Visual Literacy
130
131
Narration
Students encounter all sorts of situations as they take classes. Each must interpret and
read a variety of materials using the visual and universal design principles.
The first student is Meg, who is working on a degree in education. Meg uses a variety of
visual materials to present instructional messages to other students. She completes her
assignments using topic-based bulletin boards, posters, overhead transparencies and
PowerPoint presentations. Her main goal is making sure the items she creates have
meaning and the students she is working with can relate to it so they can learn it. It is
critical to create visual materials that are easy to understand, otherwise they are just
unnecessary frills.
The second student is Peter who is working on a degree in economics. Peter needs to be
able to present information in reports in a visual style, and he also needs to be able to
read graphical information given to him in his classes and that he finds in journals,
company reports and magazines. Peter uses many types of software programs to create
information-filled materials that his professor and classmates can see in print and
electronically, including graphs, reports, and presentations. Knowing how to put the
information together so that others can read it and understand it is critical to Peter’s
success in his program.
Last but not least is Kathy. Kathy is majoring in graphic and interface design, making
visual literacy an essential skill for Kathy. When she designs posters, signs, t-shirts or
other assignments for her classes, she needs to employ a balance of visual and universal
literacy to ensure that the items can be easily understood and not confuse the person or
people reading it. Unless Kathy has a good grasp on visual literacy herself, her
132
advertisements and posters could end up selling the wrong things or sending the wrong
message.
As can be seen with these three students, they all need to be visually literate in order to be
successful since having these skills to learn and communicate is essential Click on the
right-pointing double arrow, the next button, on the remote control to continue to the next
topic.
Unit 6: Conclusion
Narration
Well, a lot has been covered so far to increase understanding of what visual literacy is
and why it is so important to become visually literate. When preparing for classes and
tests, it is important to read traditionally as well as visually in order to gather the
maximum amount of information possible.
Information for scripts taken from Lohr (2008).
133