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Trust No One?
Trust No One? Conspiracy Theories in American History Dr. Markus Hünemörder, LMU München What are Conspiracy Theories? no generally accepted definition conspiracy theories are unofficial, alternative narratives that blame secret manipulators for bringing about terrible events or oppressive power structures problem: how to differentiate between CTs, actual conspiracies, covert ops? Watergate: a “conspiracy theory” that became accepted truth the term “conspiracy theory” is negative and implies a certain bizarreness CTs implicitly assume that it is deliberate human intentions and actions that shape history 2 Bob Woodward und Carl Bernstein, the investigative journalists who uncovered the Watergate affair were considered conspiracy theorists at one time Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Some American Conspiracy Theories 3 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 The Illuminati Scare the French Revolution degenerated into the reign of terror and mass guillotine executions French clergyman Abbé Barruel and Scottish author John Robison independently claimed that radical Freemasons, esp. the Bavarian Illuminati, had deliberately planned and engineered this 1798-99: conservative American clergymen warned that Jefferson’s Democratic-Republican party was planning a similar reign of terror in the United States original modern conspiracy theory, pattern persists to present day: insidious secret societies secretly manipulating history and controlling world events 4 the reverse side of the Great Seal of the United States was not associated with the Illuminati or the Freemasons until the early 20th century Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Anti-Masonry in Sept. 1826, the renegade freemason William Morgan vanished without a trace after threatening to expose the secret society’s rituals beginning of massive criticism against freemasonry as elitist, secret, unlawful, godless, antidemocratic, cruel, murderous and nearly all-powerful 1828 Anti-Masonic Party founded. Anti-elitist ideology, opposed to freemasons in public office anti-freemason CTs still persist 5 a symbol of the Freemasons Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 The Kennedy Assassination Nov. 22, 1963 in Dallas, Texas Lee Harvey Oswald was killed two days later by Jack Ruby a large majority (60-80 percent) of Americans believes that Oswald did not act alone, that JFK was the victim of a conspiracy common suspects: Mafia, CIA, military-industrial complex, Fidel Castro, KGB, Lyndon B. Johnson, and even JFK himself birthplace of modern conspiracy theories 6 Kennedy shortly before his death Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 The Zapruder Film The Zapruder film is a motion picture sequence shot by private citizen Abraham Zapruder with a home-movie camera, unexpectedly capturing the President's assassination. While some conspiracy theorists doubt the film’s authenticity, others see it as evidence that there was more than one shooter. 7 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Watchmen (2009) In this dark super hero movie, JFK’s assassin is finally revealed. The film copies the Zapruder film but keeps on going to show that the Comedian, a super hero working for the CIA, shot the president. 8 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 The Moon Landing various conspiracy theories claim that the manned moon landings of 1969-1972 were faked they point to seeming inaccuracies in the photographic evidence according to the CTs, NASA faked the moon landings to “win” the space race against the Soviet Union 9 a photo of the first moon landing; note the non-parallel shadows and the flag seemingly moved by wind Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 The Roswell Mythology 1947: reports about the crash of a flying object in Roswell, NM military cover-up: implausible claims of a weather balloon most likely, nothing happened, but the military covered it up anyway! close to Los Alamos, Alamogordo and the Trinity nuclear site in the 1970s, after Watergate, the moon landing, and “2001: A Space Odyssey”, more UFO reports rich mythology about Roswell, Area 51, Men in Black, etc. streetlight in Roswell, New Mexico around Christmas time 10 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 The New World Order anti-internationalist, anti-elitist CT mostly on the political right fear of a conspiracy to erect a world government and dismantle the United States many organizations are claimed to be part of the conspiracy: United Nations, black helicopters, European Union, Federal Reserve Bank, World Bank IMF, (Jewish) international bankers, Bilderberger Group, Illuminati and Freemasons in many cases, strong biblical endtimes prophecy elements, associating the New World Order with the Antichrist the New World Order CT may have inspired Timothy McVeigh to bomb the federal building in Oklahoma City in 1995 11 Pat Robertson, a leader of the Christian Right, published a comprehensive version of the New World Order CT in 1990 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 The 9/11 Truth Movement diverse, widespread movement of doubting the official explanation for Sept. 11, 2001 events. “truthers” L.I.H.O.P. and M.I.H.O.P. versions some claim that WTC collapsed due to a planned demolition, not plane crashes controversy about WTC 7 some claim that Pentagon was not hit by a plane but a missile e.g. David Ray Griffin, philosopher; Steven E. Jones, physicist “Loose Change” movie rejection of 9/11 commission report and NIST report some polls indicate that 36 percent of Americans doubt official explanations 12 skepticism about the official explanations for 9/11 can be found across the sociological and professional spectrum Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 The Collapse of WTC7 WTC7, a smaller skyscraper next to the twin towers, collapsed without being struck by an airplane. Officials reports claim that burning debris started a fire that eventually brought the building down. Critics point to videos such as this to claim that WTC7 fell to a deliberate demolition instead. 13 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 “Birthers” conspiracy theories about Barack Obama’s citizenship US president has to be “natural born citizen” of the United States claims that Obama was either not born in Hawaii, or that he was not a natural born citizen due to Kenyan dual citizenship or becoming an Indonesian citizen “birthers” don’t accept the birth certificate presented by Obama’s campaign as evidence racist element to the accusations irony: McCain was born in Panama “birthers” erroneously claim that this certification of live birth is only a “short form” or a forgery and demand that Obama release his “original” certificate, which is held by the state of Hawaii 14 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Important Aspects of Conspiracy Theories 15 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Repeating Patterns CTs are hardly new, reaching back at least to the 18th century narrative patterns often repeat within several decades Illuminati, Freemason and New World Order CTs are very similar parallels between 9/11 truth movement and Peal Harbor CT CTs about the assassinations of JFK, his brother Robert, and Martin Luther King mirror each other basically, CTs copy ideas from older “relatives” interestingly, “parallel” CTs can come from opposed political camps 16 attack on Pearl Harbor, 1941 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Higher “Paranoid” Scholarship conspiracy theorists meticulously document their theses and evidence, similar to conventional scientific publications arguments are typically sound, until a conspiratorial “leap” digresses from more commonly accepted interpretations parallel discourse in books, films, even conferences sometimes even parallel tourism / museums: Dallas, Texas and Roswell, New Mexico 17 there is an entire industry of books and films offering alternative explanations of 9/11 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Conspiracy Theories and Proof it is nearly impossible to “disprove” CTs with evidence or lack thereof logical structure and meticulously compiled evidence back up CTs evidence to the contrary may be fake; lack of evidence may be work of the conspirators CTs may only be refuted by external arguments, if at all: 18 inhuman efficiency of the conspirators problem of maintaining necessary secrecy in an age of talk shows staging a fake moon landing would have involved many witnesses, probably including Soviet spies Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Explaining Conspiracy Theories 19 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Social Conflicts CTs may be “mobilized into action chiefly by social conflicts that involve ultimate schemes of values and that bring fundamental fears and hatreds, rather than negotiable interests, into political action” in this interpretation, CTs are primarily the refuge of those who feel shut out of, or do not believe in, the regular political process of compromise and majority rule CTs as a phenomenon of the political fringes – but can this explain everything? 20 Richard Hofstadter’s notion of a “paranoid style in American politics” was the earliest comprehensive explanation of the CT phenomenon Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Lies, Secrets, and Intelligence CTs draw on the culture of government secrecy and power during the Cold War establishment and mythology of powerful intelligence services real covert ops and conspiracies like Watergate or the Iran-Contra affair the plausible and the “paranoid” are increasingly difficult to tell apart the mystique of intelligence services makes it easy to overestimate the inefficiency of government, military, and intelligence organizations for all its power, the CIA is basically one huge, often inefficient bureaucracy 21 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Too Much Information CTs do arise from a lack of evidence, but an over-abundance of information especially evident with JFK and 9/11 CTs excess of facts, documents, and expert opinions with no consensus on how to evaluate them objective, commonly accepted truth is ever more elusive, there is no method to achieve consensus official commission reports are an ineffective ritual to provide closure utopian impulse of CTs: “new beginning where secrecy vanishes and power is transparent” 22 the Warren Commission Report was supposed to solve the JFK assassination; instead, it Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Satisfying Opposition Ideology CTs can also arise as the “common man’s” opposition ideology quick, to the point, radical – an answer to opaque, undemocratic power structures and unresponsive political system “profoundly satisfying politics” CTs often deal with real problems, but they do so through ideological distortion biggest problem: CTs are generally ineffective in building a credible opposition movement 23 conspiracy theories can create a protest culture, but not an effective political opposition Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Conspiracy Theories: A Political Pathology? some CTs are undoubtedly dangerous and repugnant, esp. when they turn racist or antiSemitic but CTs are not necessarily a political pathology, much less a psychological one CTs are not, like Hofstadter thought, limited to the fringes of political culture they permeate all walks of life and all political camps in a few cases like JFK, even a majority of Americans at least consider conspiracy theory as a plausible explanation 24 the tinfoil-hat wearing weirdo is an unfair cliché; (most) conspiracy theorists are not crazy Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Conspiracy Culture 25 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Conspiracy Culture? CTs have entered the mainstream of popular culture: 1970s paranoia movies, The XFiles, many more logic and narrative structure of CTs are particularly powerful – CTs make for good stories “conspiracy” and “plot” are more or less synonymous! in many cases, a lone hero or small determined group unveil the secret conspirators, preventing disaster or restoring justice, making for a good story 26 “Illuminati: The Game of Conspiracy” lets players create their own conspiracies and compete with others for world domination Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Conspiracy Movies and Television “The X-Files”, particularly socalled mythology episodes about Mulder’s quest to uncover the government’s cover-up of extraterrestrials “The Manchurian Candidate” (1962) “Three Days of the Condor” (1975) “Capricorn One” (1978) “JFK” (1991) “Conspiracy Theory” (1997) “V for Vendetta” (2005) many others 28 Mulder and Scully, the protagonists of the XFiles television series Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Homer the Great The Simpsons, 1995 In this episode, Homer discovers that several of his friends belong to a secret society, the “Stonecutters”, and enjoy outrageous privileges. He sets out to discover the truth… The entire episode is a parody of Freemason or Illuminati-centered conspiracy theories. 29 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Homer the Great The Simpsons, 1995 Finally, Homer is allowed to join the Stonecutters and finds out how the insidious secret society spends its time… 30 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 “Mystery of the Urinal Deuce” South Park, 2006 In this episode, the kids investigate who s!§tted in the school urinal. Accidentally, they discover who created the conspiracy theories about 9/11: the government itself, because it wants people to believe they caused 9/11. 31 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Conclusion 32 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Conspiracy Theories and Ideological Contradictions CTs serve to (seemingly) dissolve ideological contradictions e.g.: 9/11 Truth Movement: US sees itself as benevolent and liberal nation, yet becomes the victim of a catastrophic terrorist attack and limits civil rights as a result e.g.: JFK: liberal spirit of 1960s was replaced by the sharp social and political conflict of the late 1960s and the economic malaise of 1970s in both cases, the negative outcome was not compatible with America’s self-perception and core ideology of American exceptionalism 33 finding secret conspirators may well be less disconcerting than accepting the flaws and limits of American ideology this may explain why CTs are certainly not limited to the US, but are especially vibrant and colorful there: American self-perception and ideology is highly idealistic, and thus more prone to contradictions which can give rise to CTs Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012 Thank You for Your Attention! you can download this presentation at www.amerikahaus.de/conspiracy 34 Conspiracy Theories in American History 01.10.2012
