Effects of gender role and task content on performance in same

European .humai o/'Psychology of Education
2009. yol. XXIK n-'2. 155^168
© 2009, l.S.P.A.
Effects of gender role and task content
on performance in same-gender dyads:
Transactive memory as a potential mediator
Estelle Michinov
Nicolas Michinov
University of Rennes 2, France
Pascal Huguet
University of Provence and CNRS, France
This experiment was designed to examine the effects of gender role
and task content on performance in ¡earning dyads and to test the
potential mediator effect of an intragroup process related to transactive
memory. A total of 44 same-gender dyads participated in the study and
were asked to collaborate on a .stereotypically masculine or feminine task
in a laboratory setting. Collective performance and transactive memory
were measured. As predicted, the /•e.sults .showed an interaetion between
group gender and task content on group performance, with male dyads
showing poorer performance on a masculine ta.s'k than female dyads.
However, contrary to expectations, this moderation effect was not
mediated by transactive memory, which appeared as a simple mediator of
the relationship between group gender and performance. The results are
discussed in the framework ofthe social role theory, and implications for
future research in small learning groups are proposed.
In educational settings, dyads and small groups are often used to facilitate learning
among students (e.g.. Doise & Mugny, 1984, 1997; Gillies, 2004; Johnson & Johnson, 1995;
Slavin, 1995). The growing popularity of team approaches to leaming (and working) has led
edueational (and organizational) researchers to investigate the factors and processes
underlying group effectiveness. More than 50 years of psychological research into small
groups has identified key processes and emergent states that enable group members to
combine their knowledge, effort, and skills to improve group performance and effectiveness
The authors express their sintere gratitude to the E.A. 31 14 "Psychologie des âges ttc la vie". University ofTours
iFrance) for supporting ihis project. They would also like to aeknowledge Ihf students for their participaiion in Ihc data
collection for this study.
156
E, MICHINOV. N, MICHINOV. & P, HUGUET
(Koziowski & llgen. 2006). There is solid research-based evidence for the importanee of
group composition, task content and interpersonal behaviours in group effectiveness.
In the present study, our spécifie aims were to examine: (I) ihe combined effects of
gender role and task content on performance in same-gender dyads, and (2) the potential
mediator effect of an intragroup process related lo the development of transactive memory
systems in same-gender dyads. The reasons for this specific focus were indicated below.
With regard to group performance. S,ocial Role Theory- (e.g.. Eagly, 1987; Eagly, Wood,
& Diekman. 2000; Wood. 1987) has offered clear evidence for the effects of gender role and
task content, Aeeording to this theory, men and women will generally behave in ways that are
consistent with their expected soeial roles, and so socialized traits are posited to influence
behaviour in groups (Strodtbcek & Mann. 1956; Strodtbeck. James, & Hawkins. 1957). The
key assertion of Social Role Theory is that the majority of beliefs about gender differences
pertain to communal or agentic attributes (Eagly. 19X7). Communal characteristics involve
primarily concern for the welfare of other people, for example, being friendly, unselfish,
considerate, and emotionally expressive. In contrast, agentic characteristics describe primarily
assertive, ambitious, dominant, independent, self-confident, and competitive individuals.
Women arc expected to possess high levels of communal attributes and men high levels of
agentic qualities. In addition, it has been demonstrated that perception of competence and
expectation of success are higher when the gender orientation of the task is congruent rather
than incongruent with participants' gender (e.g.. Dovidio. Brown, Heltman, Ellyson, &
Keating. 1988; Karakowsky & McBey. 2001). The task content frequently generates cues
about the relative expertise of group members (Miller & Karakowsky. 2005). and consequently
women arc more likely to emerge as leaders and be more task-oriented with stcrcotypically
feminine than masculine tasks (e.g., Deaux & Emswillcr, 1974; Eagly. Karau. & Makhijani.
1995), Some studies have recently demonstrated that this congruency effect is stronger in
same-gender than in mixed-gender groups (e.g.. Karakowsky & Siegel. 1999; Miller &.
Karakowsky. 2005; Myaskovsky. Unikel, & Dew. 2005). Miller and Karakowsky (2005). for
example, suggested that agentic characteristics are especially likely to occur among men in
same-gender groups (i.e., made with only mates), and even more likely when the gender
orientation of the task is congruent with the gender of the performer (i.e., masculine task).
Similarly. Karakowsky and Siegel (1999) found that men were most likely to ask for feedback
when perfonning a malc-oricnted task in a same-gender group than in a mixed-gender group
and when they viewed themselves as competent members of the group (ego-dcfensiveness and
impression management).
Hypothesis I - In the light of studies based on Social Role Theory (e.g.. Karakowsky &
Siege!. 1999; Miller & Karakowsky. 2005; Myaskovsky ct al,. 2005), we expected that female
dyads would be more likely to activate communal artrihuWs of gender stereotypes than male
dyads, and would consequently achieve better collective performance, especially in a
congruent feminine task. Conversely, we expected that male dyads would be more likely to
activate agentic attributes than female dyads and achieve poorer collective performance,
especially in a congruent masculine task.
To explain this moderation effect of task content on collective performance in samegender dyads, researchers have proposed that women and men collaborating in same-gender
dyads may have different interaction styles and cooperative attitudes (c,g. Eagly. Wood, &
Diekman, 2000; Wood & Karten. 1986). In the present study, we suggest that this moderation
effect eould be explained by male and female differences in communication, coordination and
collaboration behaviours within groups. As members collaborate, they encode and recall
information together, and they may build knowledge that becomes embedded in a group's
structures and processes (King. 1998; Lewis, Lange. & Gillis. 2005; Moreland. 1999).
Knowledge embedding has been studied in a system called the Transactive Memory System or
TMS' (Wegner, 1986). which has been shown to influence group leaming and performance.
A TMS occurs when two or more people cooperatively encode, store, retrieve, and
communicate information and knowledge (Hollingshead. 2001; Wegner, 1986), As observed
GENDER ROLE AND TRANSACTIVE MEMORY
157
by Wegner (1986): "One person has access to information in another's memory by virtue of
knowing that the other person is a location for an item with a certain labe!. This allows both
people to depend on communication with each other for the enhancement of iheir personal
memory stores" (p. 189, Wegner. 1986). TMS are more likely to develop within groups when
grotip members have trained together and have the opporttinity to communicate with each
other directly (e.g.. Lewis, 2003; Liang, Moreland. & Argote, 1995; Moreland, 1999;
Moreland & Myaskovsky, 2000). Thus, people may rely on others to process and encode
knowledge related to their area of expertise within a TMS (Hollingshcad, 2000). The benefits
of transactive memory for group performance have been demonstrated in a wide variety of
tasks in groups of different sizes (e.g.. Hollingshead. 1998; Wegner, Erbcr. & Raymond,
1991), in the laboratory (Hollingshead, 2001; Liang ct al.. !995). work organizations (e.g.,
Austin, 2003; Lewis, 2003; Michinov, Olivier-Chiron, Rusch, & Chiron, 2008; Zhang,
Hempel, Han. & Tjosvold, 2007) and leaming contexts (e.g., Michinov, 2007; Michinov &
Michinov. 2009).
Relating social role theory and transative memorv
Despite this variety of studies on TMS. most e.\periments in laboratory sctting.s have
involved same-gender groups with masculine tasks (e.g., radio assembly task). Surprisingly,
the influence of gender role and task content has been widely neglected in the area of TMS,
except in a few recent studies (e.g.. HoMingshead & Fraidin, 2003; Myaskovsky ct a l , 2005).
For example, Hollingshcad and Fraidin (2003) found that participants who expected to work
with other-gender partners learned more information in categories consistent with gender
stereotypes. Thus, it seems that gender stereotypes may influence the development and/or the
use of transactive memory systems within groups without any effective communieation
between group members. In another study in which participants were involved in effective
interactions, Myaskovsky ct al. (2005) examined group perlbnnance and intragroup process
such as transactive memory system as a function of whether participants worked in mixed- or
same-gender groups. They did not tlnd any effect on performance or transactive memory
measures, but only differences in interpersonal behaviour. Thus, women collaborating in
same-gender groups were highly task-oriented, whereas men tended to be self-focused in a
similar situation. The authors suggested that their results may have been specific to the "stercotypically masculine" task (i.e., radio assembly). The present sttidy was designed to further
earlier research (e.g.. Wood, 1987) which found that task contents or settings account for
perfonnance differences between women and men, by comparing masculine and feminine tasks.
Hypothesis 2 - Based on previous studies (e.g.. Hollingshcad & Fraidin, 2003;
Myaskovsky et al., 2005). we expected that transactive memory would be a mediator of ihe
interaction between task content and gender role in group performance. Thus, female dyads
collaborating on a congruent feminine task would become more task-oriented, and this
attention shift eould positively affect encoding, storage and retrieval of group members'
knowledge (i.e., TMS. Wegner, 1986), and consequently group performance. Conversely,
male dyads collaborating on a congruent masculine task would become more self-focused, and
this attention shift could negatively affect TMS and group performance.
Method
Participants and design
A total of 88 university students (44 men, 44 women) in a Freneh University partieipated
in this study. Students were enrolled in different academic programs: 23 [Female(f)^15,
Male(m)=9j were psychology students, 28 (1=13, m-18) were students in arts, humanities and
158
E. MICHINOV, N. MICHINOV, & P. HUGUET
social sciences, and 31 (f=16. m^l7) were students in language and literature. There was no
difference in age between the male and female participants (Ms=20.0^ and 19.81 years,
respectively). The students, who all participated voluntarily, did not know each other, and
were randomly assigned to 44 same-gender dyads (22 female, 22 male dyads), which were
then assigned either stereotypically masculine or feminine tasks.
Materials and procedure
The experiment was presented to participants as a study on collaboration within groups.
A detailed procedural scenario was given to the experimenter to ensure that the same
instructions were delivered to all groups in the same way. The experiment was divided into
two sessions, sequentially organized for encoding and reeall of a complex figure, ln the first
session, participants were trained to encode a complexified version of the Rey-Osterrieth
Complex Figure (ROCF. Osterrieth. 1944; Rey, 1941) {see Appendix 1). The experimenter
asked them to work together to copy the ROCF as accurately as possible on a single sheet of
paper {encoding phase). To introduce different perceptions regarding the expertise and
abilities of men and women, the task was presented to half the dyads as a "test of spatial
orientation ability", and to the other half as a "test of interior decoration ability"-. The
participants in each dyad were seated side by side at a table and were allowed to talk to each
other during the test. Each one had a different selection of colored pencils to prevent social
loafing (Karau & Williams. 1993) and also to identify their respective contribution within the
dyad. There was a time limit of 3 minutes to complete this test, and during the test the
experimenter left the room. Participants were then given two 2-mÍnute interfering tasks to
avoid a recency effect: a vowel crossing-out test {Zazzo, 1972) and a letter comparison test^
(Salthouse. Fristoe. & Rhee. 1996).
In the second session which followed immediately, the experimenter gave dyads one
blank sheet of paper (with just the heading: "Test of spatial orientation ability"or "Test of
interior decoration ability") and inslRicted them to draw the ROCF without the model {recall
phase). Dyads were told that they would be evaluated for both speed and aeeuracy. To add a
sense of urgency, an egg timer was put on the table. There was a time limit of two minutes,
during which time the experirnenler left the room. As in previous studies (e.g., Myakovsky et
al.. 2005), incentives for good performance were introduced by informing participants that the
three best dyads would receive a cinema ticket. Dyads had no feedback of their performance
during the experiment.
After the reeall phase, tnembers of the dyads were separated and asked to complete a
questionnaire. Finally, the partieipants were debriefed and the experimenter explained the
objeetives of the study. Participants were invited to give the experimenter their email address
or phone number so that they could be contacted if they had won a cinema ticket; each
member of the best three dyads was indeed given a ticket a few weeks later.
Dependent variable measures
The dependent variables of interest in this experiment were dyad perfonnance on tbe
ROCF task and the development of transactive memory system within dyads.
Recall performance on the ROCF task. Task performance was scored by two research
assistants, who were unaware of the hypotheses and had been trained to seore the ROCF task.
The reliability of these scores was extremely high (lntraclass Correlation Coefficiem=.97),
and therefore very satisfactory. Thus scores given by the two assistants were averaged to
produce single scores for each dyad. The recall perfonnance was measured as suggested by
Osterrieth (1944), and involved both the number and quality of units reproduced (26 units in
this modified version of Rey's complex figure; see Appendix I). Two points were given if the
unit was correct and properly positioned, 1 point if it was either altered but correctly placed, or
GENDER ROLE AND TRANSACTIVE MEMORY
159
not altered but iticorrectly placed. 0.5 if it was altered and in the wrong place, and 0 if it was
missing or unrecognizable. A perfonnance score was computed for each dyad as a sum ofthe
scores on the ROCF task. The performance score ranged from 0 to 52 (maximum score: 26
units X 2 points). Higher scores indicate higher group performance.
Member ratings ofthe Transactive Memory' System, in the final questionnaire, participants
were asked to evaluate the group processes involved during the task, using a modified version
ofthe Transactive Memory Scale (Lewis, 2003). The reliability and validity of ihis scale have
been shown in both laboratory and field contexts, and it has been adapted into French for
group leaming in a higher education context (Michinov, 2007; Miehinov & Michinov, 2009).
This adapted French TMS scale contains 13 items instead ofthe 15 in the original scale (for
examples of items, see Appendix 2). Each item was scored on a 5-poÍnt scale (\=strongly
disagree, 5=strongly agree). In accordance with Lewis (2003). a TMS composite score was
computed for each participant by summing scores on the 13 ilems (alpha=.7O), Higher scores
indicated a stronger TMS development within dyads. To confirm that participants' seores
eould be aggregated at the dyad level, we calculated the r^^ index (Cohen, Doveh, & Eick,
2001: James, Demaree, & Wolf, 1993), which measures the cfegrcc to which individual ratings
within a dyad arc interchangeable. Mean r^^,g values of 0.70 or above provide evidence of
acceptable agreement atnong members" responses (James et al,, 1993). For the present study,
the average r^g was 0,65, with 69% ofthe r^g values above 0.70. Although this r^^.^ index was
slightly below 0.70, the participants' responses to the TMS items were aggregated at the group
level for statistical analyses.
Results
Experimental manipulation check
The effectiveness ofthe task content manipulation was measured by a single item in the
final questionnaire, whereby participants were asked to indicate what type of ability was tested
(visuo-spatial orientation or interior decoration). A large majority of participants (98%) gave
the correct answer. The manipulation of the gender of the group was not checked, the
perception ofthe partner's gender being evident.
Moderation effect of task content on performance of female and male dyads
Our first hypothesis predicted an interaction effect between group gender and task
content on performance. To test this hypothesis, we entered the variables into the regression
analysis in two steps: (1) ihe effects of main variables (i.e.. Group gender and Task content),
and (2) the interaction term (Group gender x Task content)'*. The results are summarized in
Table I (see Model 1). The first step of analysis yielded no effect of task content (/^.13, ns),
and only a marginal main effect of Group gender \jd=.25, /(43)=1.69, p=.O9], indicating ihat
performance tended to be higher in female dyads (A/=^32.42, 5'D=7.3O) than in male dyads
(W=29.20, 5'D=9.00). The second step ofthe analysis provided support for Hypothesis I: a
significant Group gender by Task content interaction clearly occured (ß=-.l>2, /(43)=-2.16,
/j=.O37). Figure 1 shows the pattern of this interaction. As expected, separate tests for simple
effects in each task condition showed that mate dyads performed lower when the task was
characterized as masculine (A^24.8I, 5£>=8.90) than when it was characterized as feminine
(M=32.I2, 50=8.16),/?=.4I, /(19)-1.89, p<.05. Conversely, contrary to our expectations,
female dyads performed at the same level on a feminine task (A/=31,0, 5D=8.11) and a
masculine task (A^34.09, SD=b.2Q),ß=-.22. /(23)=-1.03, ns. The first hypothesis conceming
the combined effect of group gender and task content on group performance was therefore
only partially supported.
E. MICHINÜV, N. MICHINOV, & P. HUGUET
16Ü
Gender group
Female
Feminine
Task
Figure I. Mean recall performance as a function of group gender and task eontent
Moderation effect of task content mediated by Transactive Memory System
Our second hypothesis predicted that the interaction effect between group gender and
task content on performance would be mediated by the transactive memory system. To test
this hypothesis, we carried out a mediated moderation analysis (cf. Muller, Judd, & Yzerbyt,
2005; Preacher, Rucker, & Hayes, 2007). According to Baron and Kenny (1986) and Müller et
al. (2005), three conditions must be met to test a mediated moderation: (a) the coefficient
associated with the interaction term (i.e.. Group gender x Task content) should significantly
affect the dependent variable (i.e., Performanee; see Model I above); (b) after controlling for
the other predictor variables, the coefficient associated with the interaction tcmi should affect
the mediator (i.e.. Transactive memory; Model 2), and after controlling for the Mediator x
Moderator tenn and the other predictor variables, the coefficient associated with the mediator
should significantly affect the dependent variable (see Model 3); finally (c) after controlling
forthe mediator, the coefficient associated with the interaction term on performance should be
lower in magnitude (partial mediation) or become non-significant (complete mediation). The
regression models used to test the effect of mediated moderation are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1
Summary of regression analysis results
Predictors
IV: group gender
Moderator: task cotitent
! V .\ Moderator; group gender x task content
Mediator: transaclive memory
Moderalor x Mediator: Task content X TMS^
RT tortolal eqtiation
FfdO for total equation
Model 1 :
Perfomiance
.25+
.13
-.32*
.15
2.29* (3.43)
Model 2:
Transactive Memor>'
.28+
-.005
.09
.09
1.34(3,43)
Model 3:
Performance
.12
.14
-.44» •
.37* •
.30*
.35
4.06** (5,43)
.V(j/t'. Standardized coelTicicnts are reported for the final step in each model. ^This lertn was included to test the
mediaied moderation. A mediated modcratioti occurs cither when the ctTects of ihc independent variable on the
mediator depends on the moderalor and the parti»! effect of the mediator on the depcndctit variable is significant
(ease 11 or when the partial elTec! of the mediator on the dependent variable depends on the moderator and the
effect of ihe independent variable on the mediator is significant (ease 2). The introduction of the mediator by
moderiiiioii interaction term is necessary' to make ä distitietion between these two case.s (see Müller et ai., 2005).
+p<.lQ:'f><-.05.*'p<.0\.
161
GENDER ROLE AND TRANSACTIVE MEMORY
The results only partially verify the mediated moderation hypothesis, and. as we can see
in Table 1. the three models are not all supported. Model 1 (testing our Hypothesis I) was
supported, as already described above showing the moderation effect of task content on
perfomiance of male and female dyads. Model 2 was not supported however. It showed that
the interaction between group gender and task content did not affect the mediator variable
(i.e., transactive memory system). Only a marginal effect of group gender on transactive
memory was found {/J=.2S.. t (43)= 1.8!. /»=.O78). indicating that the transactive memory
system tended to be more developed in female dyads (W=56,85. SD=4.97) than in male dyads
(M=55.37, 5D^4,08). In model 3, we predicted that the coefficient associated with the
moderation effect (Gender group x Task content) would be reduced or eliminated after
controlling for the effect of the mediator variable (i.e.. tuuisaetive memory). The results did
not support this prediction. Indeed, we observed a significant regression coefficient associated
with the moderation effeet (/^-.44, t (43)=-3.I4,/J=.OO3) on performance after controlling for
the mediator effect of transactive memory {ß=.31, t (43)=2.67, p=.0\ I) and the interaction
between transactive memory and task content (/?=.3O, / {43)=2.1S, p=.O35). Thus, transactive
memory did not mediate the moderation between group gender and task content.
Simple mediation effect of transactive memory. To explore in depth the marginal effects
of group gender on performance (sec Table 1. Model I) and on TMS scores (see Table I,
Model 2), we carried out a simple mediation analysis in which group gender was the predictor
variable, group performance was the outcome, and transactive memory was the mediator (see
Eigure 2). Eirst. the analysis revealed a marginally significant relationship between the predictor
(group gender) and the outcome (group performance). (/?=.23, /(43)^I.5O, /j^.IO). The
relationship between the predictor and the mediator (transactive memory) was significant
{/h.3O. /(43)=1,96,/J=.O5), as was the link between the mediator (transactive memory) and the
outcome (group performance) after controlling for the effect of group gender [ß'-.31,
í(43)=2.18./7-.O35). The effect of group gender on performance became non-signitlcanl when
the mediator (transactive memory) was entered into the equation (/í^.lO, ns). Even though
SobePs test was not significant-^, the diminution of the beta provided some support for a
partial mediation effect of TMS on the relationship between group gender and performance.
/!= .37*
Oroup Gender
tiroup perfomianco
/î=,10. n.v
F/gwre 2. Mediation model of the role of transactive memory in explaining the impact of
group gender on performance
Note- +p<M)\-p<.05\"p<.Q\.
Discussion
The goal of this experiment was to examine the combined influence of gender role and task
content on group perfonnancc. looking at transactive memory as a potential mediator of this
moderation effect. Based on recent flndings in the framework of Social Role Theory (e.g.,
Karakowsky & Siegel, 1999; Miller & Karakowsky, 2005). our first hypothesis predicted that
female dyads in a collaboralive setting would activate communal allribuies and would achieve
162
E. MICHINOV, N. MICHINOV, & P. HUGUET
better performance, especially in a feminine task. Conversely, maies collaborating in dyads
would activate agentic attributes and achieve poorer collective performance, especially in a
masculine task.
As predicted, an interaction effeet was found between group gender and task content on
group performance, with male dyads obtaining poorer recall performance scores than female
dyads when the task was supposedly a masculine task. This result supports recent studies
carried out in the framework of social role theory (e.g., Karakowsky & Siegel, 1999; Miller &
Karakowsky, 2005; Myaskovsky et al., 2005) which found that agentic characteristics occur
more frequently among men in same-gender groups, and particularly when the gender
orientation of the task is congruent with the gender of the performer (i.e., masculine task).
However, contrary to our expectations, female dyads did not perform better when collaborating
on a congruent feminine task. It seems that whatever the nature of the task, female dyads
activate communal characteristics and consequently achieve better collective performance in
same-gender leaming groups. Another explanation of these findings could arise from studies
in another domain which suggest that the gender composition of the context in which
performanee is measured could constitute a stereotype threat among women (Huguct &
Regner, 2007; Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev, 2000; Sekaquaptewa & Thompson, 2003). For example,
in Inzlicht and Ben-Zeev's (2000) study, women's performance on a math test was found to be
lower when they were asked to take the test with a majority of men than when they worked in
a same-gender setting (see also Sekaquaptewa & Thompson, 2003). Likewise, in a more
normal classroom context, Huguet and Regner (2007) found that school girls working alone or
in mixed-gender groups (i.e.. with mixed-gender classmates) performed poorly when they
were led to believe that the task measured mathematical skill. However, this deficit was not
observed in same-gender groups (i.e.. with only same-gender classmates).
Contrary to our second hypothesis, the results of the mediated moderation analysis
indicated that the moderation effect was not mediated by the development of a transactive
memory system. Instead, results provide evidence for a simple mediation cfíect of transactive
memory on the relationship between group composition and performance. It seems that
women arc more likely to cooperate and develop transactive memory than men. and this
transactive memory system eould lead to better joint performance.
Several explanations ean be put forward to explain our findings. The first explanation is
related to general differences in social orientation between males and females (e.g., Eagly,
1987; Miller & Karakowsky, 2005; Wood, 1987). Women often have a more collectivist
orientation (i.e., cooperative, interdependent or communal self-concept), while men exhibit a
more individualist orientation (i.e., eompetitive, independent or agentic self-eoneept). Women
are less likely to reduce their efforts for the group and exhibit a lower degree of social loafing
(Karau & Williams, 1993), whereas men, by striving to be better than others using social
comparison strategies (Karakowsky & Siegel. 1999). demonstrate the reverse pattern,
regardless of the consequences for the group outcome, lt is possible that men are more
eompetitive than women and show a tendency towards ego-defensiveness when they compare
themselves with each other (Karakowsky & Siegel. 1999). Although this interpretation is
speculative, because we did not specifically measure ego-defensiveness and social comparisons
within groups, future research should assess these aspects and the relationship with transactive
memory processes more directly (see Miller & Karakowsky, 2005). Such differences in
communal and agentic attributes between women and men may explain why certain gender
differences were observed in the development of transactive communication and transactive
memory. Moreover, men are more likely to exhibit competitive behavior when the task is
relevant for their self-definition than when it is irrelevant (cf. Huguet & Monteil, 1995), and the
competitive social behavior among men during the test of spatial orientation ability (i.e.,
stereotypically masculine task) may in fact have interfered with the development of transactive
memory, and consequently with group performance. Furthermore, this eompetitive attitude
among men may have occurred because they did not have time to get to know each other when
carrying out a time-limited task. Some recent findings with groups of students performing a
series of real academic tasks spread over time have demonstrated that transactive memory
develops differently over time (Michinov & Michinov., 2009). The performance of women and
GENDER ROLE AND TRANSACTIVE MEMORY
163
men on a masculine task may be similar if they have to carry out similar tasks spread over time
or a longer collaborative task. Consequently, fijture studies should examine the development of
transactive memory in male and female dyads over time in greater depth.
Although the present experiment provides some evidence for the combined effects of task
content and group gender on group performance, and the potential mediation effeet of
transaetive memory on the relationship between gender and performanee, a number of
limitations and unanswered questions need to be highlighted.
The first limitation concerns the issue of generalizability arising from the nature of the
sample chosen; the male participants were mostly students in psychology, the arts or
humanities. This raises the question of whether the same gender differences would have been
observed with seienee students. Some studies (Chatard, 2004; Guimond & Roussel, 2002)
have in faet demonstrated that the choice of academic orientation reflects gender stereotypes.
Thus, gender stereotypes about the abilities of men and women in the arts (i.e., a stereotypically
feminine domain) and mathematics (i.e., a stereotypically masculine domain) occur among
university students and influence their performanee expectations. Such fmdings suggest the
need to examine the combined effects of gender stereotype, task content and group
composition with students following scientific programs,
A second limitation concerns the method used to measure transactive memory. Although
the validity of the transactive memory scale (Lewis, 2003; Michinov, 2007) has been attested,
this indirect measure was carried out as a post-experimental questionnaire after the
interactions between partners. In faet, transactive memory should be assessed while the tasks
are being carried out, through observation and coding of behaviours and verbal interactions.
Although more costly for researchers than questionnaires, video recording assessments
already exist (Hollingshead, 2001; Liang, Moreland, & Argote, 1995; Moreiand, 1999) and
should be used in future studies.
To conclude, the present study provides an initial experimental examination of the
eombined effect of group gender and task orientation on the distribution of expertise among
students. We hope that the present fmdings will eneourage educational researchers to carry out
further investigations into group composition using different criteria (e.g., gender, ethnicity,
social class) and its impact on interpersonal behaviour, group processes and performance to
optimize group learning activities in educational settings.
Appendix I
The modified Rey's complex figure and the 26 units (adapted from the
Complex Figure (ROCF) recatt memory task)
Rey~Osterrieth
164
E. MICHINOV, N. MICHINOV. & P. HUGUET
Appendix 2
Adapted French version of Lewis 's (2003) Transactive Memory Scale
Items
!.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
My partner had a specific knowledge regarding otie aspect ofthe task to be done.
I had knowledge about ati aspect of the task that tiiy partner did not have.
Each member of Ihc dyad had a specific expertise in dilTcrent area.s.
I was comtbrtable accepting my partner's suggestions abotit what to do.
I had very little confidence in tny partner's expenise (reversed).
I was confident about my partner's knowledge on this lopic.
When infonnation was given by the other partner, I double checked it for myself (reversed).
I could rely fully on the information given by my partner in our diseussions.
We did our work stnoothly and efficiently.
There was little misunderstanding on what was to be done by our dyad.
Our dyad olten had to go back and do the task again (reversed).
Our dyad worked together in a perfectly coordinated way.
There was much confusion in the way the work was carried out (reversed).
Notes
1
While (ransactive memory refers to memory held at the individual level, the transactive tnemory systetn (TMS)
describes how group members actively use their transactive memory to encode, store, and retrieve information at a
group level (Lewis, lOt).!),
2
To assess the gender-oriented task, a pre-test was conducted with 100 students (4X male and 52 female). The
students were asked to estimate their perceptions regarding the gender orientation of !he two tasks on a 5-point scale
(l=primarily men to .''=primarily women). The resuits ofthe pre-test confirmed that the two tasks are differently
perceived regarding iheir gender orientation. Specifically, one sample t-test analysis (different from Ihe value 3)
revealed that men were marginally perceived as more expert and knowledgeable ihan women regarding the spatial
task {M=2.3<^. SD=0.^2. /(99)=-7.8û./X.Ü7), By contrast, women were perceived as more expen and knowledgeable
than men regarding the decoration task(A^4,l4, SD=O.7I./(99)=lh.06.;)<.05),
i
The paper-anti-penLJl version ofthe Letter Comparison Test (Salthouse et al.. 1996) consisted of a page containing
pairs of letter strings with 3, 6, or 9 letters (e.g., OXL
OXL) presented in random onjer. Participants had to
indicate wheiher the two strings of letters were the same or different.
4
To reduce any potential problems of multicollinearity, we centered the variables before calculating the interaction
terms (Aiken& West. 1991).
5
One ofthe assumptions necessary for the Sobel-lest is that the sample size is large (cf. Preacher & Hayes, 2004).
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GENDER ROLE AND TRANSACTIVE MEMORY
167
L 'objectif de cette expérience était d'examiner les effets des râles
de genre et de la connotation stéréotypique de ¡a tâche sur la
performance de groupes d'apprenants, ainsi que l'effet potentiel d'un
processus médiateur relié à la mémoire transactive. 44 dyades (dyades
masculine vs. féminine) étaient invitées à participer à une tâche
d'apprentissage connotée sexuellement (féminine vs. masculine) en
situation de laboratoire. Des mesures de performance collective et de
mémoire transactive étaient recueillies. Conformément à nos
hypothèses, les résultats ont montré une interaction entre ¡a
composition des dyades et la connotation de la lâche sur la
performance collective, montrant que ¡es performances des dyades
masculines sont plus faibles que celles des dyades féminines lorsque la
tâche d'apprentissage est connotée masculine. Toutefois, contrairement
aia attentes, cet effet d'interaction entre la composition des dyades et
la connotation de la tâche n 'est pas médiatisé par le processus de
mémoire transactive. En effet, celui-ci apparaît comme un simple
médiateur de lu relation entre la composition des dvades et la
performance collective. Les résultats sont discutés dans le cadre de ¡a
théorie des râles sociaux. Les implications pour ¡es recherches futures
sur les groupes d'apprentissage sont également proposées.
Key words: Gender stereotypes. Group leaming. Group perfonnance. Transactive memory.
Reeeived: March 2008
Revision received: Sepiembcr 2008
Estelle Michinov. Département de Psychologie, Université de Rennes 2, E.A. 1285 CRPCC-Laureps, Place
du Recteur Henri Le Moral, 35043 Rennes Cedex, France. E-mail: [email protected]
Current theme of research:
Interpersonal relationships. Group and team processes. Group perfonnance. Transactive memory.
Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:
Michinov, E.. & Michinov, N. (2007). Identifying a transilion period ai ihe midpoini of an online collaborative activity:
A study among adult learners. Computers in Human Behavior, 23. 1355-1371.
Michinov, N., & Michinov. E. (2008). Face-to-face contad at the midpoint of an online collaboration: lt.s impact on the
pattems of participation, interaction, affect, and behavior over time. Computers/& Education, 50. 1540-1557.
Michinov. N., & Michinov, E. (2009). Investigating the relationship between transactive memory and performance in
collaborative leaming. Learning and Instruction, 19. 43-54,
Nicoias Michinov. Département de Psychologie. Université de Rennes 2, E.A. 1285 CRPCC-Laureps, Place
du Recteur Henri Le Moral, 35043 Rennes Cedex. France. E-mail: [email protected]
Current theme of re.search:
Online leaming. Group performance. Social regulation of behaviour. Transaciive memory.
Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:
Michinov. E., & Michinov. N. (2007). Identilying a transition period al ihe midpoint of an online collaborative activity:
A study among adult leamers. Computers in Human Behavior. 23, 1355-1371.
168
E. MICHINOV, N. MICHINOV, & P. HUGUET
Michinov, N., & Michintn, E. (2008). Face-10-face conlaci at ihc midpoinl ufan online collaborniinn: lus impaci on Ihe
patterns i)t participation, interaction, atïcct. and behavior over time. Computers íí Education. 50. 1540-1557.
Michinov, N.. & Michinov. E. (2009). invesiigaling the relationship between transactive memory and performance in
collaborative learning. Learning and Instruction. / 9, 43-54.
Pascal Huguet. Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive (LPC. UMR 6146). CNRS et Université de
Provence, Case D, 3, place Victor Hugo, 13331 Marseille Cedex 3, France. E-mail:
[email protected]
Current theme of research:
Social Regulation of Cognition. Group performance. Social Comparison. Social Facilitation/lnhibilion. Social
Stereotypes.
Mo.Kt relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:
Monteil, J.M., & Huguet, P. (1999). Social context and cognitive performance:
cognition. Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press.
Towards a .social psychology of
Huguet, P.. & Régner, I. (2007). Stereotype threat among school girls in quasi-ordinary classroom circumstances.
Journal of Educational P.sycholofiv. 99. 545-560.
Huguet, P.. Dumas, F.. Marsh, M.W.. Seaton, M., Wheeler, L.. & Suis, J., Régner. I.. & Nezlek, J, (in press), flarilying
the role of social comparison in the Big-Fish-Litlle-Pond Effect: An integrative study. Journal of Personality ami
Social P.sycholog}\