Gender Vulnerability Assessment for Ca Mau

Transcription

Gender Vulnerability Assessment for
Ca Mau Province in the Context of
Climate Change
Published by
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH
Registered offices
Bonn and Eschborn, Germany
Integrated Coastal Management Programme (ICMP)
9th floor, the Landmark, 5B, Ton Duc Thang, Dist 1,
Ho Chi Minh City,Viet Nam
T + 84 838239811
F + 84 838239813
I www.giz.de/viet-nam
http://daln.gov.vn/icmp-cccep.html
As at
February 2014
Authors
Tran Thi Phung Ha and Nguyen Thanh Binh
Printing
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5th Floor, No. 06 Nguyen Cong Tru St., Hanoi., Vietnam
Photo credits
© GIZ
Editing
Brenda Asirvadappan-Haas, Nguyen Thi Viet Phuong and Nina Seib
Disclaimer
The views expressed do not necessarily reflect those of the Vietnamese Government, DFAT or Australian Aid,
neither those of BMZ or GIZ.
© GIZ 2014.
On behalf of
German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and Australian Government
Department of Foreign Affair and Trade (DFAT)
Publishing licence number:.........
Gender Vulnerability Assessment for
Ca Mau Province in the Context of
Climate Change
GIZ in Vietnam
The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH has been working in Viet
Nam for more than 20 years. We currently have around 250 specialised staff deployed across the country,
including national and international personnel, Development Advisors and CIM experts.
On behalf of the German Government, GIZ provides advisory services to the Government of Viet Nam
and is currently engaged in three priority areas: (i) Vocational training; (ii) Environmental policy and
sustainable natural resource use; and (iii) Energy.
GIZ Viet Nam’s main commissioning party is the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and
Development (BMZ). Other commissions come from the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature
Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety (BMUB), the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy
(BMWi) and the Federal Ministry of Finance (BMF). GIZ Viet Nam is also engaged in various projects
co-funded by the Australian Government (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade – DFAT) and the
European Union and cooperates closely with the German development bank KfW.
The Integrated Coastal Management Programme (ICMP) is being co-financed by the German and
Australian Governments. In order to strengthen resilience and to reduce vulnerabilities to climate
change impacts, the ICMP Programme supports Viet Nam in sustainably managing coastal ecosystems
of the Mekong Delta affected by climate change. The Programme is being implemented by GIZ in
close collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), as well as several
departments of the five programme provinces An Giang, Bac Lieu, Ca Mau, Kien Giang and Soc Trang of
the Mekong Delta.
For further information, please visit www.giz.de/viet-nam, and http://daln.gov.vn/icmp-cccep.html. Acknowledgements
This study was conducted by a team of two lecturers, Trần Thị Phụng Hà and Nguyễn Thanh Bình, who
are Rural Development Sociology specialists at Can Tho University, Viet Nam. We would like to express
special thanks to the following individuals, organisations and communities for their support and contributions towards the completion of this study.
First and foremost, we would like to thank the GIZ Ca Mau staff, especially Ms Nguyễn Thị Hồng Thụy
and Ms Nina Seib for their constant support at every stage of this study – from researching literature to
reviewing the report and providing constructive feedback. Both of you along with Ms Ngân and Mr Tĩnh
assured the facilitation and logistics arrangements during the field survey and the many meetings and
workshops in Ca Mau.
We are thankful to the People’s Committee at Commune level and the Women’s Union (WU) leaders,
the Department of Rural Development (DARD), the Department of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs
(DoLISA) for contributing ideas during our fieldwork and the Ca Mau meetings.
Ms Bùi Anh Đào Ms Huỳnh Kim Duyên Ms Nguyễn Thị Thùy Trang Ms Lâm Mỹ Dung Ms Lê Thanh Bình Ms Trần Diễm Trang DARD Ca Mau
WU Ca Mau
WU Ca Mau
WU Nguyen Huan commune
WU Sông Đốc town
WU Đất Mũi
We extend a special thanks to the local Women’s Union and farmers in communes and villages for their
hospitality, kindness and enthusiastic support.
We are grateful to Dr Le Thanh Phong, Director of the Centre for Service and Technology Transfer, and
the Can Tho University Board in the School of Social Sciences and Mekong Delta Development Research
Institute for their facilitation and meaningful support.
Lastly, we would like to thank the GIZ Integrated Coastal Management Programme (ICMP) that financially supported this study. Special thanks also to the Chief Technical Advisor of the GIZ programme who
provided expert feedbacks and constructive comments.
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Table of contents
Acknowledgements.............................................................................................................................. 4
List of tables............................................................................................................................................. 7
List of figures............................................................................................................................................ 7
Abbreviations.......................................................................................................................................... 8
Executive Summary............................................................................................................................... 9
1.Introduction....................................................................................................................................14
1.1 Background of the study.....................................................................................................................................15
1.2 Objectives of the Study........................................................................................................................................17
1.3 Theoretical approach............................................................................................................................................17
1.4Scope..........................................................................................................................................................................19
1.5Methodology...........................................................................................................................................................19
1.6 Research sites and samples................................................................................................................................22
1.7 Secondary data review.........................................................................................................................................27
1.8 Structure of the report.........................................................................................................................................30
Gender Vulnerability Assessment for Ca Mau Province
in the Context of Climate Change
2. Gender vulnerability aspects of Ca Mau...............................................................................32
2.1 Socio-economic vulnerability factors.............................................................................................................34
2.2 Environmental vulnerability factors................................................................................................................39
2.3 Vulnerabilities under climate change impacts............................................................................................41
2.4 Vulnerability assessment: area, indicators and gender aspects............................................................45
3. Adaptation and resilience..........................................................................................................52
3.1 Local authority’s responses to adaptation to climate change...............................................................53
3.2 Access to assets at household level.................................................................................................................57
3.3 Livelihood strategies and adaptation.............................................................................................................60
4. Recommendations for reducing gender vulnerability to climate change...............64
4.1 Creating livelihood opportunities for women through income diversification..............................65
4.2 Enhancing women’s knowledge and skills...................................................................................................67
4.3 Raising awareness on climate change............................................................................................................68
4.4 Enhancing women’s participation in decision-making processes.......................................................69
4.5 Mainstreaming climate change and gender equality into
Socio-Economic Development Plans..............................................................................................................71
4.6 Providing microcredit for vulnerable groups to promote household economic activities.........72
4.7 Reducing risks in fishery and aquaculture in the coastal region..........................................................73
4.8 Applying integrated coastal zone management........................................................................................74
4.9 Summary of recommendations........................................................................................................................75
References...............................................................................................................................................76
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List of tables
Table 1.1: Indicators of household vulnerability assessment..................................................................................18
Table 1.2: The list of vulnerability factors and how these factors affect three districts.................................21
Table 1.3: Information selected from the meeting at three communes using PRA tools.............................21
Table 1.4: General information of three districts..........................................................................................................24
Table 1.5: Location and sample sizes................................................................................................................................26
Table 1.6: Geographical aspects and risk factors in the three communes.........................................................26
Table 1.7: Hot spots identified in the vulnerability and risk analysis....................................................................27
Table 1.8: Exposure risk of three districts........................................................................................................................29
Table 2.1: Capabilities of the poor, middle and well-off HH.....................................................................................34
Table 2.2: Financial assets.....................................................................................................................................................35
Table 2.3: Distinctive characteristics of the poor, improving poor and declining poor.................................36
Table 2.4: Seasonal impacts from climate variability (lunar calendar).................................................................42
Table 2.5: Vulnerability factors affecting four livelihood sectors in three communes...................................46
Table 2.6: Vulnerability indicators......................................................................................................................................48
Table 3.1: The national and provincial action plan on adaptation to CC impacts............................................54
Table 3.2: Adaptation measures at commune level....................................................................................................55
Table 3.3: Adaptation measures to reduce vulnerability..........................................................................................62
Table 4.1: Net income and sharing of labour between men and women by different livelihood activities....... 66
Table 4.2: Years of schooling between adult males and females (15 and over)................................................68
Table 4.3: Males and females who have heard the term “climate change”.........................................................69
List of figures
Figure 1.1: Methodology framework for gender vulnerability assessment.......................................................20
Figure 1.2: Map of Viet Nam and the Mekong Delta...................................................................................................23
Figure 1.3: Map of Ca Mau showing the three communes......................................................................................25
Figure 1.4: Map of vulnerability of districts....................................................................................................................28
Figure 1.5: Inundated aquaculture area of three districts........................................................................................29
Figure 2.1: Socio-economic factors affecting four livelihood sectors..................................................................37
Figure 2.2: Anthropogenic factors affecting four livelihood sectors....................................................................38
Figure 2.3: Social help and infrastructure affecting four livelihood sectors......................................................38
Figure 2.4: Environmental factors affecting four livelihoods sectors...................................................................39
Figure 2.5: Climate variability and hazards affecting four livelihood sectors....................................................42
Figure 2.6: Eroded sites of the study area.......................................................................................................................47
Figure 3.1: Relation between climate change impacts and the number of diversification options.........63
Figure 4.1: Sharing of domestic work between men and women in families...................................................65
Figure 4.2: Education level of men and women in the study areas......................................................................67
Figure 4.3: Sharing of decision-making power between men and women in different fields....................70
Figure 4.4: Importance of environmental and anthropogenic factors affecting fishery and aquaculture......... 73
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Abbreviations
ARCC
Mekong Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change
CC
Climate Change
CFAW
Committee for Advancement of Women
CFSC
Committee for Flood and Storm Control
CVRA
Comparative vulnerability and risk assessment
DARD
Department of Agriculture and Rural Development
DFID
Department for International Development
DOET
Department of Education and Training
DOLISA
Department of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs
DONRE
Department of Natural Resources and Environment
DPI Department of Planning and Investment
FA
Farmers’ Association
HHHousehold
ICEM
International Centre for Environmental Management
ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management
IIRD
International Institute for Environment and Development
IMHEN
Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment
IPCC
International Panel on Climate Change
LVI
Livelihood Vulnerability Index
MRC
Mekong River Commission
NTP
National Target Program to Respond to Climate Change
PC
People Committee
PPC
Ca Mau People’s Committee
PRA
Participatory Rural Appraisal
PTD Participatory Technology Development
RCA
Red Cross Association
SD
Standard deviation
SEDP
Socio-Economic Development Planning
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
VACB
Vuon Ao Chuong Biogas (Integrated agri-aquaculture-biogas farming system)
VASEP Viet Nam Association of Seafood Exporters and Producers
WU Women’s Union
YU
Youth Union
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Executive Summary
This baseline study “Gender Vulnerability Assessment for Ca Mau Province in the context of climate
change” is conducted under the GIZ Integrated Coastal Management Programme (ICMP) that
emphasizes gender issues in the interaction between vulnerabilities, adaptation and resilience of local
people towards climate change (CC). The study was conducted using qualitative and quantitative
methods, applying a range of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and household (HH) surveys as well
as gathering secondary statistical data where available. Through group discussions with key informants
from provincial WUs, the three districts of Tran Van Thoi, Dam Doi and Ngoc Hien were selected for
having the highest exposure to the impacts of climate change (such as heavy rains, storms, erosion, sea
level rise and inundation) as well as for being highly sensitive to environmental and socio-economic
vulnerabilities like poverty, unemployment, financial shortages, natural resources exhaustion, etc. The
three communes were selected for further study Song Doc, Nguyen Huan and Dat Mui communes
were selected for further study as they are hot spots with high levels of exposure and sensitivity to
environmental vulnerabilities. This study is structured according to its key findings.
Gender vulnerability aspects
1. The main vulnerability factors are:
(1) internal socio-economic factors that have effects on households: low income, limited assets, weak infrastructure, uncertain markets, non-availability of credit, etc.,
(2) external environmental vulnerability related to degradation of ecosystems, pollution, exhausted
marine/forest resources; and
(3) climate change impacts: rising sea levels, inundation, erosion and the consequences of storms.
2.Not all people in the research sites are equally vulnerable to risks and hazards. The poor are the
most vulnerable groups because risks and hazards could lead to problems such as indebtedness,
lack of access to assets, lack of social networks, less security, and fewer services and minimal support
from relatives and neighbours. Poverty is associated with social vulnerabilities like discrimination,
deficient services, and lack of access to education, health services, fresh water, communication,
power and markets. The poor are characterised as living in bad conditions and exposed to pollution
and insecurity. Their thatched houses can be easily swept away by strong winds or erosion and
their defective boats and gear can be easily damaged by storms.
3.The distinction between the poor, declining poor and improving poor based on the community’s
criteria can be grouped under socio-economic profiles, ability to access natural assets, level of
exposure to climate hazards and of adaptation strategies (Table 2.3).
4.In research sites, the poor HH heads are characterised as having few years of schooling (4.4) and
75% of them have health problems. Particularly, most of the female-headed HHs were poor (72%).
The poor own smaller land (with area of 4,500 m2) and cheap productive tools (VND 12 million).
The poor have smaller loans compared to the rich (VND 24.7 million to VND 83 million) but most of
the loans are from private lenders who charge high interest rates. It means the poor has less access
to the capital.
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5.Fishery groups account for the highest value of loans (VND 65.6 million) with the highest standard
deviation (SD) showing that this group faces the most financial risk (Table 2.2). It was incredible
that the accumulation among all four groups (shrimp famers, fishermen, forest/marine collectors
and labourers) was in the minus (and SD was very high) and around 60% of HHs reported their
livelihoods became worse yearly (92% amongst the labourers).
6.Due to their heavy dependence on natural resources, people in rural communities are vulnerable
due to their exposure to inundation, erosion and storms. Shrimp farming HHs stated that prolonged
heat, inundation or heavy rain changed water parameters and affected shrimp health and yield.
Similarly, heavy rains, strong winds and storms directly affected fishery groups including people
with or without fishing equipment both in offshore and inshore fishery.
7.‘Gender’ was magnified by the people’s attitude towards boys and girls, and their perceptions
of workload distribution between men and women. In the shrimp farming sector, women are
considered unlucky. Thus, they are not allowed to come to hatchery stations or to step into
intensive shrimp ponds. In the fishery sector, women are forbidden to go fishing, to bid farewell
on the jetties or to welcome their returning husbands and sons. Instead their responsibility lies
‘indoors’ and comprises activities like housework, taking care of the children and the elderly, doing
non-farm diversification, and taking charge of the household expenditure and savings. They are
pressured by this non-paid workload to the point where they lack the motivation to improve their
knowledge or skills for their own benefit.
8.Women are more affected by climate change and disasters. They are less likely specialised in certain
areas of work, which limits their chances of finding good jobs elsewhere. Thus, there is a higher
number of unemployed women and those who do unskilled work, compared to men. Mainstream
perception considers women’s’ physical health weaker than men’s. Thus, their daily income for
labour is around 30% less. Poor female heads of households are more vulnerable since they have
limited access to rehabilitation, construction or houses’ preparation for recovering after disaster.
9.Climate change affects men and women differently depending on their livelihood activities. Men
are responsible for productive activities in adapting to CC like treating water in ponds, building
fences against erosion, and dikes along the plots during inundation months. Fishermen decide
whether to go fishing or to stay onshore during typhoons. Women are responsible for in-house
activities like moving the household utensils to higher places, bailing out water or cleaning out
the house during inundation days. Poor women have to get paid daily as day labourer or street
vendors, the latter of which attracts fewer customers during rainfall.
10.Climate change is projected in Ca Mau in the future as sea levels rise and temperature and rainfall
increase. The sea level rise will cause flooding and inundation, while a decrease in humidity in the
dry season will cause prolonged heat. The three districts of Tran Van Thoi, Dam Doi and Ngoc Hien
have different levels of exposure to risks from inundation, salinity and storm surges. They are also
completely exposed to salinity. Tran Van Thoi faces the highest risk of inundation; while Ngoc Hien,
with its low elevation and long coastline faces the highest risk of storm surges.
11.The level of vulnerability changes over geographic locations and depends on ‘exposure’ to natural
resource exhaustion and climate hazards and ‘sensitivity’ to socio-economic factors (Table 2.5).
Due to strict forest management (which affects those who make a livelihood collecting non-timber
products) and the exhaustion resource of the coast, many poor HHs in Dat Mui have become more
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vulnerable to storms, extreme whirlwinds, irregular rainfall, and strong erosion especially along the
Kinh Dao river. Song Doc is highly urbanised and has a high number of poor and immigrants who
are exposed to inundation and storm surges along the coast in combination with heavy rainfalls
and strong winds. Nguyen Huan has a high number of poor who have limited access to highly
priced markets for selling fish products. The small-scale fishing village Mai Hoa is exposed to storm
surges that may damage the already defective boats and fishing gear.
12.
The involvement of WUs in studying gender issues related to gender equity, equality and
empowerment in research sites is important and reliable. Vulnerability factors scaled by provincial
WUs during steering committee meetings can be feasibly applied at commune and HH levels.
Adaptation and resilience under climate change impacts
13.Adaptive capacity to CC can be characterised as a set of potential actions or responses from
national to HH level. Not all people have the same coping strategies or adaptive measures. They
create various and complete livelihood strategies depending on the place, time, context, gender,
wealth status, individual and family choices and capability.
14.By studying the ways people cope, adapt and manage - or learn to manage - environmental and
CC changes, livelihood strategies can be clustered into three groups: learning to live with change
and uncertainty, nurturing learning and adapting, and creating opportunities for self-organisation
(Folke et al., 2003; cited in Marschke & Berkes, 2006) showing the capacity of resilience building at
household level.
15.The first cluster consists of the short-term coping strategies to respond to CC, which may have
positive and negative effects on resilience. The second cluster responds to nurturing or learning
and adapting in the short-term or long-term such as protecting resources or building-up social and
political sustainability. The third cluster relates to self-organising and managing natural resources
for now and in the future (Table 3.3).
16.The poor only take part in Cluster 1 adaptation activities with instant counter-measures that are
not sustainable. Conversely, the rich tend to join more sustainable adaptation activities, which
reflect higher resilience and better environment protection. Similarly, while women can participate
in all clusters, they are mostly in Cluster 1 and 2, short and medium-term activities. Therefore,
women and the poor should be given priority under programmes that raise awareness of climate
change and support adaptive measures, as they are more vulnerable, and struggle to survive using
unsustainable adaptive strategies.
Major recommendations for gender vulnerability reduction
17. Creating livelihood opportunities for women through income diversification
We suggest that DARD in collaboration with DOLISA, WUs and GIZ conduct experiments or
demonstrations with local women’s participation in the livestock sector, vegetables and/or other
farming systems using the PTD (participatory technology development) approach, which has been
applied successfully in the Mekong delta. Income sources can also be diversified by non-agricultural
activities through rural job creation. To ensure people have a job after training, it is necessary to
consider the following suggestions: (i) develop training programmes for women based on local
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needs and advantages; (ii) link the programmes to the labour market; and (iii) provide more jobs
for women through local industrial and service development such as small scale businesses, home
handicrafts, tourism, etc.
18. Enhancing knowledge and skills for women
The survey revealed that local people in the study areas had low education levels, especially women.
Adult education can be improved through training and access to extension services. However,
there is gender inequality even in having access to training. Therefore, it is necessary to promote
women’s participation in training to improve their knowledge and skills for better production and
income levels.
19. Raising awareness of climate change
Climate change awareness can be enhanced by organising training at communes that provide
basic knowledge on the causes and effects of climate change as well as mitigation options for
local people. Other approaches like organising competitions on climate change knowledge or
campaigns to ‘say no to plastic bags’ involving men and women can raise awareness of climate
change. Mass media such as local television, newspapers, leaflets and posters are also effective
channels for raising awareness.
20. Enhancing the participation of women in decision-making processes
It is necessary to raise awareness of gender issues at all levels. This can be done by conducting
training, workshops and/or seminars on gender equality and gender integration into local socioeconomic plans for staff at commune, district and provincial levels. Moreover, it is important to
increase the percentage of women in socio-political organisations (i.e. People’s Committees,
People’s Councils, departments, associations and unions) and to ensure that they have power to
make decisions.
21. Mainstreaming climate change and gender equality into Socio-Economic Development Plans
Climate change adaptation measures and gender equality programmes should be integrated into
Socio-Economic Development Plans (SEDPs) at all levels. However, current SEDPs and the Action
Plan to Respond to Climate Change and Sea Level Rise in Ca Mau have not covered the gender
issue. Therefore, the following recommendations may help to integrate climate change and gender
equality into socio-economic development: (i) gender equality and climate change adaptation
measures should be considered as important indicators and mentioned in SEDPs for monitoring
and evaluation; (ii) good practices from WU activities such as wooden stoves with chimneys,
organic compost and biogas should be assessed and considered for scaling up in the province;
(iii) mainstream gender equality and climate change into the SEDP requires participation of many
stakeholders. A Gender Steering Committee should be established at provincial level consisting
of related partners or the role of existing Committees for the Advancement of Women should be
strengthened; and (iv) mainstream gender equality and climate change into SEDPs successfully. It
is necessary to improve human capacity of government staff at all levels by organising training on
climate change knowledge and integrating gender equality and climate change into SEDP skills.
22. Supporting microcredit for vulnerable groups to promote household economic activities
It is necessary to enable vulnerable groups to access microcredit and saving schemes to invest
in small businesses such as livestock husbandry and vegetable cultivation. These schemes can
be organised as self-help group approaches that are operated within WUs at the communities.
However, they often lack capital contribution and may require support from outsiders (i.e. WU,
DOLISA, and GIZ) at first. Besides financial support, it is necessary to train people on how to use
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money effectively and monitor investment cycles. On the other hand, the governmental bank
systems should have special policies for local people who cannot access credit under current
policies. Finally, it is necessary to ease loans for borrowers in case they face financial shocks in their
families.
23. Reducing risks in fishery and aquaculture in the coastal region
Key livelihood activities in the coastal region like fishery and aquaculture face higher risks from
climate change and environmental pollution. Pollution, too much rain, storms and whirlwinds
gravely affect fishing activities, whereas the aquaculture sector is affected by pollution, diseases,
too much rain and storms. All of these factors have been increasing both in frequency and intensity
in recent years. Therefore, managing risks in fishery and aquaculture plays a key role in reducing
damages and protecting the livelihoods of local people in the coastal region. Risks can be reduced
by (i) improving weather forecasts and early warning systems as well as informing local people in
advance when bad weather events occur; (ii) reducing environmental pollution; (iii) controlling
shrimp diseases; (iv) managing post-larvae markets; and (v) transferring appropriate technologies.
24. Applying integrated coastal zone management
In the Mekong Delta, an integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) approach has been applied
through the German-Vietnamese development cooperation project, ‘Management of Natural
Resources in the Coastal Zone of Soc Trang Province.’ Therefore, we would suggest applying ICZM to
build resilience and reduce vulnerability to changes including climate and non-climate factors in the
coastal zone of Ca Mau. The following recommendations can be considered when applying ICZM (i)
organising field visits for decision-makers from Ca Mau to accept and support ICZM; (ii) conducting
workshops, seminars, and field visits for related stakeholders at all levels including communities to
raise awareness and to get support for ICZM application; (iii) capacity building through training in
ICZM principles and skills for practitioners at all levels to carry out ICZM in the communities; (iv)
supporting ICZM pilot sites, which ensure both men and women in the communities participate
in the entire cycle from planning to implementation, monitoring and evaluation; and (v) having an
institutional arrangement to strengthen collaboration and coordination between the stakeholders.
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Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
Viet Nam was identified by the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as one of the countries,
to be most affected by climate change (CC). Climate changes occur associated with humidity decline,
salinity, wind speed increase, destructive storms and typhoons, land loss due to erosion and salinity
among others. The Mekong Delta is almost entirely less than 5 m above sea level, making it one of
the three deltas worldwide most vulnerable to sea level rise. A study by Mackay & Russell (2011) and
Carew-Reid (2008) indicated that about 38% of the delta will be submerged under water if the sea water
rises 1 m. A rise in sea level will bring about corresponding changes in flooding and drainage, affect
salinity, enhance coastal erosion and inundation, and disturb livelihoods. The effects of climate change
are increasingly visible and have lowered the resilience of the coastal ecosystems and reduced their
capacity for adaptation.
These directly and indirectly affect thousands of people (in the research area), whose livelihoods
depend on fisheries, aquaculture and agriculture in Ca Mau. Being the southernmost province of Viet
Nam, transportation in Ca Mau is extremely difficult due to its long distance away from big cities and a
dense network of streams and canals. As a result, people in most districts have limited access to markets,
education and medical care. In addition, bordered by the East Sea and Gulf of Thailand, the area faces
the risk of weather extremes such as tropical storms, typhoons, floods and erosion. These threaten
income-generating activities such as shrimp farming, crop farming and fisheries. In the very near future,
climate change is predicted to have tremendous impacts on the area, making local livelihoods even
more insecure.
Not all people in the region/research area are equally vulnerable to risks or have the same coping
strategies and adaptation methods towards climate change. Climate change impacts will vary from
place to place and sector to sector. A system having greater sensitivity will be affected more by climate
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change effects than one that is less sensitive. Similarly, a system with good resilience or adaptive capacity
will be able to accommodate the change better than others. A country’s vulnerability to climate change
depends upon socio-economic aspects. Thus, the poor are generally the most vulnerable and it is the
children and women among whom are the most affected.
Culturally, Viet Nam has been influenced by Confucius’ ideology for thousands of years. The role of
women in the family and society is not highly supported and recognised as essential for development.
Women have to take on triple roles (productive, reproductive and community). They have clearly
defined reproductive roles and non-paid duties such as child bearing or domestic tasks. They may carry
out supplementary income-earning activities (shop keeping, street vending, husbandry, vegetable
farming, etc.) but those belong to informal sectors and are usually not appreciated. Therefore, they
are often disadvantaged in society. Besides women, climate change impacts are also expected to
disproportionately affect the poor, young, elderly, sick, and otherwise marginalised populations
(Kasperson & Kasperso, 2001).
Acknowledging this, the GIZ Integrated Coastal Management Programme (ICMP) in Viet Nam emphasises
the gender issue as an independent topic that needs consideration and action in the context of climate
change.
Under this programme, the baseline study on Gender vulnerability assessment for Ca Mau Province
in the context of climate change was conducted to study the interaction between vulnerabilities,
adaptation and resilience of the system towards climate variability and change that affect the
livelihoods of groups of people, women and men, in Ca Mau province. The study focuses on differences
in vulnerabilities by gender within geographical regions. Aspects to consider in the analysis include
access to education, medical care, job opportunities, property rights, control over assets within the
family/community and decision-making power amongst others especially with regard to resource use
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and management. The analysis of vulnerability, disaster management and adaptation strategies should
result in the identification of relevant programmes, approaches, methods and policies supporting the
system’s resilience. In addition, social vulnerability to climate change is further analysed as a reference
for future disaster preparedness and management programmes.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the baseline study are to:
1.Identify key aspects of gender vulnerability in Ca Mau, groups (for example teenagers/married
women/retired people) and areas (districts/communes), which are highly vulnerable under
business as usual (BAU) conditions and future climate change (CC) scenarios.
2.Assess the resilience of the most vulnerable groups for the BAU scenario and project/estimate
their resilience under CC scenario.
3. Determine key elements that help the target groups reduce their vulnerability.
4. Develop indicators of vulnerability that can be used for future impact assessments.
5.Recommend measures/methods/programmes that should be created or applied to improve
their resilience.
6.Recommend measures/actions/approaches/ on how actions tackling gendered vulnerabilities to
CC can be integrated into the Socio-Economic Development Planning of Ca Mau Province (SEDP
– 5-year and annual planning).
1.3 Theoretical approach
The study used the concept of vulnerability defined by the International Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC). Vulnerability is the degree to which a system is susceptible to or unable to cope with the adverse
effects of climate change including climate variability and extremes. Thus, vulnerability is a function of
the character, magnitude, and rate of climate variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and
its adaptive capacity (Kasperson & Kasperso, 2001). Sterlacchini (2011) cited that exposure is defined as
“the nature and degree to which a system is exposed to significant climatic variations”. Sensitivity is “the
degree to which a system would be affected, either adversely or beneficially, by a particular change in
climate or climate related variable”. Different systems may differ in their sensitivity to climate change,
resulting in different levels of impact. Adaptive capacity is “the ability of a system to adjust to climate
change (including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential damage, to take advantage
of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences”.
While increase in sensitivity and exposure increases the vulnerability, an increase in adaptive capacity
will reduce the vulnerability of the system. When the adaptive capacity (wealth, technology, access to
information, social capital, etc.) of the system increases, its vulnerability to climate change will decrease.
In order to decrease the vulnerability we have to adopt adaptation or mitigation strategies or both (Nair
& Bharat, 2011).
A variety of frameworks, methods and tools to access impacts and vulnerabilities, adaptation and resilience
has been proposed to describe the general processes that lead to vulnerable people and places. This
study applies the conceptual framework of Nair & Bharat (2011) to identify the most vulnerable people,
communities, districts or systems “exposed” to climate hazards or impacts, those who are the most
“sensitive” to those effects, and who have the lowest capacity to respond to the changing conditions.
The vulnerability differs depending on the time of which vulnerability is accessed, the livelihood options
17
that are affected, scale of assessment (internal or external) and disciplinary domain (socio-economic and
environmental). If we measure the vulnerability within the system, it is internal vulnerability and if it
is due to external forces or pressures, it is external vulnerability (Nair & Bharat, 2011). Based on the list
of four major components comprising the vulnerability assessment from Fussel (2007), vulnerability is
spread out according to scale and disciplinary domain (Table 1.1). For more details, the study combined
previous studies with the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) developed by Hahn et al. (2009) to estimate
the differential impacts of climate change in three coastal communes in Ca Mau.
The study focuses on gender vulnerability assessments emphasising how gender differences within
geographical regions. Gender refers to the socially driven differences between men and women, and
identifies the social relations between them in society. Gender refers to the relationship between the
sexes that is constructed on the values, beliefs and customs of a society and that influences women’s
and men’s differential roles and responsibilities and their access to knowledge and resources (Deare,
2004). The difference in the roles of men and women emphasise the limitation of women’ access to
assets: natural, pysical, social, financial, and human capital and decision-making power on accessibility
(Chambers & Conway, 1999).
The research captured the livelihood dynamics from Kaag (2004), who considered the interaction
between people and their social and natural environment, and how these change over time. Studies
focus on disturbances and local vulnerabilities (Adger et al., 2001; Blaikie, 1995), or on stresses and
shocks that impinge upon livelihoods as the result of interactions between global forces and local
contexts (Armitage & Johnson, 2006; De Haan, 2000; De Haan & Zoomers, 2003). Investigations into
change processes and adaptation have included short-term (Davies, 1996) and long-term (cited in
Marschke & Berkes, 2006; Singh & Gilman, 1999) responses.
Table 1.1: Indicators of household vulnerability assessment
Domain scale
Socio-economic
Environmental
Internal
Socio-demographic: female ratio,
ratio of population under 15 and
older than 60, percentage of
female-headed households, ratio of
having more than two children
Livelihood: doing diversification,
sources of income, out migration
for jobs
Health: frequent illness, female
illness, access to clinics
Education and job opportunities
for men and women
Infrastructure condition
Social networks and social capitals
Environment: poor condition,
polluted
Natural resources: mangrove forest,
marine, water
Land use: agriculture, aquaculture,
forest
Biodiversity: decrease and
degradation
External
Government policies, inflation,
price fluctuation, Governmental
supportive programmes etc
Natural disasters and climate
variability: Flood, storm,
inundation, salinity
Source: Adopted from Fussel (2007) and Hahn et al. (2009)
18
Livelihood strategies, mitigation and adaptation are extremely varied and complex according to place,
time, context, household conditions and individual farmers. We adopt Folke et al.’s three clusters of
strategies: learning to live with change and uncertainty, nurturing learning and adapting, and creating
opportunities for self-organisation (Folke et al., 2003; cited in Marschke & Berkes, 2006) to show the
capacity of resilience building at household level by studying the ways people adapt to and manage –
or learn to manage – the changes.
Resilience, vulnerability, and adaptation are important for studying the human dimensions of global
environmental changes (Janssen & Ostrom, 2006; Young et al., 2006). Moreover, for successful and
sustainable development, policies and institutional arrangements are important considerations for
social and ecological resilience. These factors interact and directly affect the livelihood decision-making
capacity of, especially women, in the coastal region.
1.4Scope
It is impossible to access the entire range of livelihoods in Ca Mau. This study only focuses on shrimp
farmers and fishermen, who settled near the coast and are mostly affected by natural and non-natural
impacts. People also diversify their livelihood options by working as labourers and collecting mudflat
resources or non-timber forest products. Similarly, HH surveys and in-depth analyses across the 10
districts of Ca Mau is not possible. Rather this study focuses on three districts in which three communes
were selected typically identifying the mechanisms linked to climate change and gender responses.
All climate change events and weather attributes are not relevant in these research sites. The study
rather focuses on the most current trends linked to climate such as storms, inundation, landslides,
erosion, prolonged heat and heavy rains. This assessment thus identifies the casual pathways through
which the effects of climate change may be mitigated.
1.5Methodology
1.5.1
Conceptual Framework
The goal of this baseline study is to identify the sources, reasons or triggers for vulnerability affecting the
livelihoods of different groups of men and women under business as usual (BAU) conditions and future
climate change (CC) scenario. The basic concepts used in the following framework (Figure 1.1) have
been adopted by various studies that seek to characterise the vulnerability of specific populations and
places (Carew-Reid, 2008; Hung, 2012; IMHEN, 2013; Mackay & Russell, 2011). The study underlines the
key vulnerabilities that people and natural systems of Ca Mau have to cope with under climate variability
and non-climate hazards. This approach identifies the vulnerabilities, those who are vulnerable (men or
women), adaptation strategies, and adequate programmes and policies to reduce gender vulnerability
to CC (Figure 1.1).
19
Figure 1.1: Methodology framework for gender vulnerability assessment
Vulnerability Analysis
- Exposure
- Sensitivity
Vulnerability factors
Socio-economic
Environmental
Effects on
- Shrimp aquaculture
- Fishery
- Gatherers
- Day laborers
Adaptation
Gender vulnerability reduction
CC impacts
1.5.2Methods
The study was conducted by applying both qualitative and quantitative methods, involving observation,
group discussions, in-depth interviews and household (HH) surveys. The sampled data from the survey
are both quantitative and qualitative. The quantitative data provides the basic information on what the
livelihood represents, and the qualitative data helps to explain how and why, in order to contextualise
differences and changes. The qualitative and quantitative research activities were carried out in the
following linear process.
First, a scoping meeting was conducted on 1 September at provincial level with the participation of
40 heads of Women’s Unions from the provincial, district and communal levels. In this meeting, the
vulnerability ranking assessment was applied to measure the exposure, sensitivity and adaptive
capacity of the system. To do this, the vulnerability factors were listed and the probability of comparative
exposure was evaluated in each district. The list was grouped into three components: socio-economic,
environmental, and climate change impacts. People ranked every factor’s level of exposure, from
1 (lowest) to 10 (highest) and the consequences of its sensitivity or severity (5 ranks from lowest to
highest).
Tran Van Thoi, Dam Doi and Ngoc Hien districts were selected for further study having received the
highest score for exposure and sensitivity to the impacts of climate change (heavy rains, storms, erosion,
rising sea level and inundation; Table 1.2).
20
Table 1.2: The list of vulnerability factors and how these factors affect three districts
District
Tran Van Thoi
Dam Doi
Ngoc Hien
Poor, low income
30
45
40
Low education
36
15
12
Socio-economic factors
Unemployment
50
32
32
High immigration rate
12
12
35
Poor healthcare
20
30
12
Poor transportation condition
2
16
25
Exhaustion of natural resources
20
5
30
Epidemic diseases, environmental
degradation, pollution
35
35
10
Limited access to clean water
6
8
3
Highly affected by climate change
40
50
45
251
248
244
Environmental factors
Total
WU Group discussion at provincial level, 2013
Similarly, we selected Song Doc town, and Nguyen Huan and Dat Mui communes representatively as
the highest risk communes for further study.
Table 1.3: Information selected from the meeting at three communes using PRA tools
Content
Methods
Describe livelihood activities
Seasonal calendar
Determine hazard and vulnerability impacts
Direct-matrix ranking and scoring
The exposure and sensitive to vulnerabilities of each
livelihood
Direct-matrix ranking and scoring
Locate the livelihoods and major impacts
Mapping, diagram exhibition
Adaptation and resilience records
Indigenous practices and beliefs
Changes and livelihood dynamics
Local history and time line, in-depth interview
Gender context: labour division, livelihood
involvement
Daily activities profiles
21
Second, three meetings were organised at commune level. The attendees were village level People’s
Committee, WU and farmer’s union members and elderly people who are well-known and respected in
the communes. These meetings aimed to select the same information as in Phase 1 but with details at
HH level such as types of livelihoods, the aspects of vulnerabilities, vulnerable groups and indicators,
sensitivity and adaptation. These issues were used for subsequent in-depth interviews and HH surveys
using questionnaires during fieldwork (Table 1.3).
Fieldwork visits, observations, in-depth interviews and HH surveys using questionnaires were then
conducted. To identify the gender limitation in accessing assets and the adaptation options to climate
change over time at different households, the study should have ideally used a longitudinal survey. A
longitudinal survey uses samples that are obtained at two or more different moments in time to see
how conditions are changing (Ellis, 1994). As we cannot refer to previous baseline studies, we asked the
respondents to reflect on the changes in their livelihoods during the past few years up to the present
and their predictions for the future. The vulnerability assessment process started with team meetings
to develop the questions to be used at PRAs at provincial and communal level and questionnaires
for HH surveys in the three districts. All the questions and activities were designed to obtain data to
measure the exposure to risks and hazards, and the sensitivity and adaptation capacity to respond to
those risks. Data collection focused on the following issues: access to physical and social resources,
division of labour/activity by gender, gender differential impacts on health, education, climate change
and vulnerability indicators, coping strategies, adaptation to climate change, and learning experiences.
The final stage involved computing the data. The averages were calculated from a wide range of
variables across the three sites, which included ratio and ordinal measurements. Semi-structured and
open-ended questions focused on coping strategies and adaptation in the long run. For computation
and analysis, we used cross-tabs and analysis of variance (ANOVA) in SPSS-15® to identify the different
levels of capabilities demonstrated by farmers in different groups. Pearson and Spearman rank bivariatecorrelation tests were used to test whether the variables were significantly correlated between groups.
This detailed study proposes to contribute to a better understanding of household resilience to the
valuation of the social-ecological resilience of Ca Mau and may contribute to further provincial socioeconomic planning development.
1.6 Research sites and samples
1.6.1
Ca Mau province
Ca Mau is the southernmost province of Viet Nam (Figure 1.2) with a capital city (Ca Mau), eight districts,
and 101 communes and towns. Ca Mau’s population is over 1.2 million and the average density is 226
persons/km2, which is lower than the national density (260 persons/km2) and the Mekong Delta (425
persons/km2). Population growth is 1.3% per year and females account for 49.6% of the total provincial
population. Ca Mau’s immigration rate is 0.4% and emigration rate is 0.7% resulting in a net migration
rate of -0.3% (Mackay & Russell, 2011).
Since 2000, Ca Mau has been implementing a wide range of interventions for economic development
to convert significant areas of rice paddies to shrimp cultivation and fishery farms that offer more jobs
in all components of the value chain (labour, marketing, transporting and processing). Today, the entire
aquaculture sector is dominated by shrimp farming with an area of 296,300 ha focusing mainly on lowyielding shrimp, rice-shrimp and mangrove-shrimp combined with crab, molluscs and fish. The total
aquaculture production is over 234,000 tons per year, of which shrimp makes up 125,000 tons (CWPDP-
22
WB, 2004; GSO, 2012). The province’s shrimp farming area represents over 35% of total shrimp farming
of all coastal provinces in the Mekong Delta. Total shrimp exports from Ca Mau province amounted to
more than USD 4.3 million in 2010 (Mackay & Russell, 2011). The province has over 254 km of coastline,
about 70,000 km2 of fishing grounds. The wild fishery industry with 12,000 boats produces about
350,000 tons per year. Fishing is carried out in offshore areas in larger boats, in coastal areas in small
boats, and in local waterways or wetlands using boats or from the land. A Mekong River Commission
(MRC) survey found that 250,487 individuals in Ca Mau, of which 28 % were females, cited marine fishing
as their main job (MRC, 2010).
Figure 1.2: Map of Viet Nam and the Mekong Delta1
Source: http://www.travelfish.org/map_detail_region/vietnam/mekong_delta/17
1.6.2
District sites
Tran Van Thoi is a rural district of Ca Mau, located 50 km from Ca Mau to the western coast of the
province and borders the Gulf of Thailand. The Song Doc main river flows through the district to the sea
and the Song Doc fishing port at the river’s estuarine is named after it. Song Doc is the main fishing port,
providing about 100,000 tons of fish per year that equal all other Ca Mau districts together.
Dam Doi and Ngoc Hien are rural districts of Ca Mau, lying 45 km south-east and 70 km to the South
of Ca Mau town. In the east and south coast of the province, livelihoods are characterised by shrimp
farming inland and fishing at the coast. There are small fishing villages along the coast like Mai Hoa, Ho
Gui, Rach Goc and Tan An. The mangrove belt along the coast protects the inland area but the coastal
region is still likely to be subject to inundation and erosion due to strong waves, intensive monsoons
and storms.
Overall, the geographic characteristics and socio-economic information of the three districts are
presented in Tables 1.4 and 1.5 and Figure 1.3 is a map showing the location of the sites.
1
Source: http://www.travelfish.org/map_detail_region/Viet Nam/mekong_delta/17
23
Table 1.4: General information of three districts
Province
District
Information
Ca Mau
Tran Van Thoi
Dam Doi
Ngoc Hien
5,294.9
702.7
822.9
735.2
1,219,128
187,132
182,332
78,420
Population density (per/km2)
230
268
223
107
Female ratio (%)
49.8
49.2
49.9
48.2
290,179
45,171
41,629
19,801
4.2
4.2
4.4
4.0
18,757,400
13,000,000
18,156,000
13,500,000
1,918,806
1,750,976
435,111
363,971
8.2
8.5
12.7
13.5
6
4
19.1
4.4
Education (Teachers/1000p)
10.0
10.2
8.5
7.2
Health (doctors/1000p)
0.66
0.40
0.43
0.39
96.6/3.4
95/5
96.4/3.6
97.3/2.7
Land area (km2)
Population (people)
No of households (unit)
Average family size (person)
Average annual HH income (VND)
GDP contribution from industry per
HH (VND)
Poverty rate2 (%)
Unemployment rate (%)
Ethnicity Kinh/non-Kinh
Source: Adopted from Mackay & Russell (2011) and GSO (2012)
2
The official poverty line in Viet Nam defined. Poverty rate in this study based on GSO data:
In 2010: VND 400,000 per capita/month in rural areas; VND 500,000 per capita/month in urban areas
In 2012: VND 530,000 per capita/month in rural areas; VND 660,000 per capita/month in urban areas
24
Figure 1.3: Map of Ca Mau showing the three communes
1.6.3 Research samples
A total of 134 households in the three communes were interviewed using questionnaires, and of which
15 of the most vulnerable HHs were interviewed in-depth. Shrimp farming and fishery are the two main
livelihood options in these sites beside wage labour, small trading, cultivation, and marine and forest
collection. All these secondary activities are to supplement livelihoods rather than to generate income.
For the survey at commune level, a structured questionnaire was developed and the draft of the
questionnaires was sent to GIZ Ca Mau for comments. The survey was prepared together with
governmental authorities, mainly WUs and PCs from 11 October 2013. We selected three to four villages
per commune, which were defined as the most vulnerable to climate change. 134 respondents from
three communes participated in the HH surveys and in-depth interviews using open, multiple-choice,
semi-structured questions (Table 1.5). The livelihood sources in these selected villages were mainly
fishery and shrimp farming in combination with wage labour and marine/forest resource collection. This
was diversified through additional income generating activities like trading, service, farming, labourer
and so on. These activities bring seasonal incomes that may substitute the main earnings
The following tables (1.5 and 1.6) show the calendar of fieldwork, the location of research sites, sample
size and descriptions of geographical aspects and the main risk factors of these sites (communes)
25
Table 1.5: Location and sample sizes
Date
Sample size on
Location
PRA workshop
01.09.2013
Ca Mau
40
11.10.2013
Song Doc town, Tran Van Thoi district
13
12.10.2013
Zone 1st, 2nd,
14
Zone 11th and 12th
19
Nguyen Huan commune, Dam Doi
district
15.10.2013
16.10.2013
17.10.2013
18.10.2013
20.10.2013
18
Hong Phuoc village
18
Chanh Tai village
14
Mai Hoa village
16
Dat Mui commune, Ngoc Hien district
19.10.2013
HH survey
17
Kinh Dao Dong
13
Kinh Dao Tay
13
Ba Huong village
14
Rach Tho village
13
Total
88
134
Table 1.6: Geographical aspects and risk factors in the three communes
District
Tran Van Thoi
Dam Doi
Commune
Song Doc
town
Nguyen Huan
Village
Geographical aspects and risk factors
Zone 1, 2
-Located near the coast, strongly affected by weather
extremes and storms, exhausted marine resources
-Large-scale fishery but fish catch has sharply declined
-Many poor, immigrants, landless, low-paid labourers
Zone 11, 12
-Shrimp farming (monoculture, non-forest), affected
by pollution, shrimp diseases, crop failure and shrimp
price fluctuations
Mai Hoa
- Located in resettlement zones
-Small-scale fishing, labour, forest and marine resource
collection
-Affected by weather extremes, heavy rains and storms
Hong Phuoc, Chanh - Erosion along riverbank, inundation
Tai
- Shrimp farming, loss of harvest
Ngoc Hien
Dat Mui
Kinh Dao Dong,
Kinh Dao Tay
-Nearshore fishing and mudflat resource collection
-Near the coast, strongly affected by erosion, strong
winds, flooding
- Exhaustion of nearshore resources
-Shrimp farming, forest and marine resource
collection, located far from commune centres, few job
Ba Huong, Rach Tho
opportunities
-Affected by inundation, erosion along the riverbank
26
-People living further inland from the coast practice shrimp aquaculture. We selected HH samples
in Zone 11 and 12 at Song Doc, namely Hong Phuoc and Chanh Tai villages in the Nguyen Huan
commune, and Ba Huong and Rach Tho villages in the Dat Mui commune. The system is called
improved-extensive shrimp farming, which is a combination of crabs, shellfish, molluscs cultivation
and forest protection. This option is practised more in the Full Protection or Buffer Zones3 along the
coast in Nam Can and Ngoc Hien. It is characterised by natural recruiting of wild shrimp, stocking of
additional seeds from hatcheries and the use of less chemicals.
-Fishery is practised in the three communes Song Doc (Zone 1 & 2), Nguyen Huan (Mai Hoa) and Dat
Mui (Kinh Dao Dong & Kinh Dao Tay), located near the river mouth. In Song Doc, some people fish
offshore, while the rest practice small-scale nearshore fishing and use diverse fishing techniques, gear
and vessels. Fishing is seasonal. The low peak season is between June and August due to bad weather.
-Immigrants, the landless, and those who own no property (including boats and gear) often work as
fishing crew members, on-farm labourers or housekeepers. Work is seasonal and depends on the
workload and payment is decided by negotiation.
-The collection (exploitation or gathering) of natural resources for sale and consumption takes place
seasonally. By using very small mesh-size nets, the collection includes non-timber forest products,
fuel-wood and mudflat products (goby, fingerlings or small crabs). This activity is common in coastal
areas, and takes place throughout the year, but the fish and mudflat resources are so scarce that
people tend to be very poor.
1.7 Secondary data review
Mackay & Russell (2011) reported future climate change projections for Ca Mau as follows:
-Increased seasonal air temperature ranging from 0.7oC warmer in 2030 to 1.4oC warmer in 2050.
- An average sea level rise of 15 cm in 2030 and 28-32 cm by 2050.
- Rainfall is expected to increase by about 3-4% by the end of the century.
- Relative humidity decrease in the dry months, increase in rainy months.
-Average wind speed increase in winter, spring and autumn months, but decrease in the summer
months.
There were many climate change impacts and adaptation measures in the Mekong Delta, e.g. research by
Mackay & Russell (2011) adopted the standard of ‘comparative vulnerability and risk assessment (CVRA)
methodology and framework’ to estimate the aggregate vulnerability for five dimensions: population,
poverty, agriculture and livelihoods, industry and energy, and urban settlements and transportation.
The study highlighted the risk “hot spot” districts in Ca Mau that are highly exposed to the impacts of
CC (Table 1.7).
Table 1.7: Hot spots identified in the vulnerability and risk analysis
Population
Poverty
Agriculture &
Livelihoods
Industry & Energy
Urban Settlement
& Transport
Ca Mau
Ngoc Hien
U Minh
Dam Doi
Cai Nuoc
Tran Van Thoi
Dam Doi
Dam Doi
Tran Van Thoi
Tran Van Thoi
Tran Van Thoi
Ca Mau
Ca Mau
Source: Mackay & Russell (2011)
rotection zone (FPZ): Ranging from 100 m to 1000 m inland from the seashore. No settlement is allowed in this area. Collecting
p
dead trees and small marine species is permitted but the gathering of shrimp and fishing are not allowed.
Buffer zone (BZ): A 1 to 4 km-wide belt along the FPZ where settlement is allowed; mangroves cover up to 70% of this area, and the
remaining 30% contains ponds, dikes and houses. Farmers settled in the BZ can obtain a 20-year leased tenure (“green certificate”,
“green book”). The FPZ and BZ are under the management of state forest enterprises that allocate forest areas to families; farmers
must contribute to thinning and harvesting, and they share in the benefits of the timber with the state forest enterprises.
3
27
-Compared to other urbanised districts, Tran Van Thoi district has a large population and inward
migration with low income, poor HHs and limited access to health. The district contributes
significantly to the GDP based on its industry, and has two towns, one of which is on the coast.
This leads to a high vulnerability due to the limited infrastructure and protection of urban centres
from CC impacts, in this case mainly related to floods and storms.
-Dam Doi is the most vulnerable district with many poor HHs and limited access to health and
education. Dam Doi is projected to be vulnerable on livelihoods. A large number of electric and
transportation infrastructure will also be affected by CC impacts.
-Ngoc Hien is a low-income district with many poor HHs and limited access to health and
education, thus increasing vulnerability to CC impacts. The high population growth adds to this.
Most of Ca Mau’s districts register low to medium vulnerability to CC; this is however expected to
increase from medium to high in future. The vulnerability assessment has identified Ca Mau city, and
Tran Van Thoi and Dam Doi districts as being highly vulnerable to CC impacts by 2050 (Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4: Map of vulnerability of districts
28
Sea level rise will pose significant challenges for Ca Mau since its elevation is as low as between 0-2 m
above the sea. Sea level rise, combined with the effects of storms are likely to have dramatic consequences,
especially for coastal districts, with the exposure from flooding and inundation increasing from 2000,
2030 and 2050. When inundation occurs, the water rises and recedes so fast that it damages the coastal
habitats quickly. The aquaculture area is inundated during flood seasons (Figure 1.5). Especially, from
2030, the flooded area of aquaculture in Tran Van Thoi will seriously exacerbate, and would even surpass
the total area of current aquaculture in Tran Van Thoi.
Figure 1.5: Inundated aquaculture area of three districts
(in km2; total inundation in 2000, 2030 and 2050)
Inundation aquatuture area (km2)
Total Aquaculture
area
Tran Van Thoi
Inundated in
2000
Inundated in
2030
Inundated in
2050
80.71
34.12
101.42
188.74
Dam Doi
607.86
57.27
148.94
200.4
Ngoc Hien
421.71
59.82
90.4
136.96
The vulnerability caused by CC impacts from the study of Mackay & Russell (2011) shows that Tran Van
Thoi, Dam Doi and Ngoc Hien have different levels of exposure to risks from inundation, salinity and
storm surges.
Table 1.8: Exposure risk of three districts
Time period
Hazards
Risk rating
Inundation
Salinity
Storm surges
TVT
DD
NH
TVT
DD
NH
TVT
DD
NH
Current
42
13
22
100
100
100
1
0
60
2030
58
28
29
100
100
100
1
0
90
Current
6
3
3
10
10
10
4
4
8
2030
6
6
6
10
10
10
4
4
10
Hazards: % of total area. Risk rating: <5: low risk; 5-12: medium risk; >12: high risk
TVT: Tran Van Thoi; DD: Dam Doi; NH: Ngoc Hien
29
- The three districts have complete exposure to salinity and the risk from salinity is medium.
-Tran Van Thoi faces the risk of increased inundation by 2030 but storm surges will be low as it is
confined to the coast.
-In Dam Doi, the risk from flooding is currently low but it is projected to increase in 2030. Storm
surge risk is low as it is confined to the coast.
-Ngoc Hien district has high exposure to storm surges that is expected to increase to 90% of the
total area in 2030. The low elevation and extensive coastline means that the exposure to storm
surges along the coast may cause widespread damage.
1.8 Structure of the report
The first section of this report looks at the key aspects of gender vulnerability in Ca Mau, high-risk
groups, location, and changes of vulnerability. The second section looks at the adaptation and resilience
of vulnerable groups under business as usual conditions and future climate change scenarios. The final
section provides conclusions and recommendations on the measurements / methods / programmes
that can be applied to improve resilience and how to integrate them into Ca Mau’s Socio-Economic
Development Plan.
30
31
02
02
02
32
Gender vulnerability
aspects of Ca Mau
This study has adopted the framework of Fussel (2007) and Hahn et al. (2009) to identify social and
environmental vulnerability in the context of climate change. Three main factors are considered as
vulnerabilities of a system, namely
(1) internal socio-economic factors on household economy: low income, limited assets, weak
infrastructure, uncertain markets, non-availability of credit, etc.;
(2) external environmental factors that relate to the degradation of ecosystems, pollution, exhausted
marine resources; and
(3) climate change factors impacts such as sea level rise, inundation, erosion and the consequences of
storms (Figures 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4).
Socio-economic vulnerability factors such as poverty, education, healthcare, immigration and
infrastructure become worse when exposed to climate change, environmental degradation, and
exhaustion of natural resources.
33
2.1 Socio-economic vulnerability factors
2.1.1 Poverty and distinctive characteristics among the poor
The poor and poverty
The poor are vulnerable groups because they are facing integrated dimensions of problems:
indebtedness, inability to access assets, lack of social networks, less security, limited services and
support from relatives and neighbours. Poverty is related to issues of low education, knowledge,
employment possibilities, housing, nutrition and access to social networks. Poverty and low income
associated with social vulnerabilities are commonly linked to discrimination, deficient services, lack of
access to resources, education and health services, fresh water, communication, power and markets. The
poor are characterised as living in bad and polluted conditions, and in insecurity. Their thatched houses
can be easily swept away by strong winds or erosion, and their inferior boats and gear can be easily
damaged by storms. They have to do unstable low-paid work to cover daily food expenses, necessities,
loan payments and have no savings for off days.
In 2012, the poverty rate of Tran Van Thoi, Dam Doi and Ngoc Hien was 8.5%, 12.7% and 13.5%
respectively. That was much higher than that of the general provincial poverty rate (8.2%) (GSO, 2012)
and the ratio of poor HHs in rural areas is more than in urban areas (Pistor et al., 2012).
The results of the HH survey show that the heads of poor HH are typically characterised as having few
years of schooling (4.4) and 75% of them had health problems. Furthermore, most of the female-headed
HHs were poor (72%). The poor had less property, including owning small plots of land (with an area of
4,500 m2) and productive tools of little value (VND 12 million). The poor have smaller loans compared
to the rich (VND 24.7 million compared to VND 83 million) (Table 2.1). Due to the lack of collateral they
are more likely to approach private lenders who charge high interest (on average 10%-15% monthly).
They could also have access to subsidised loans through the Government Bank of Social Policies, Hunger
Elimination and Poverty Reduction programme etc. for amounts between VND 10 and 20 million with
low interest to diversify livelihoods or to pursue supplementary activities. Instead of mortgaging their
property, these loans are provided based on trust with the guarantee from mass associations (WUs and
farmer unions) or People’s Committees (PC).
Table 2.1: Capabilities of the poor, middle and well-off HH
Poor (n=68)
Middle (n=47)
Rich (n=19)
Schooling years of HH head (years)
4.4b
5.3ab
6.4a
HH head with weak health (%)
75
10
15
% female-headed HH
72
11
17
4,572.6 b
12,333 b
25,066.8 a
Productive equipment value (mil. VND)
12.2 b
56.6 b
340.8 a
Value of loans (mil. VND)
24.7
38.3
83
Attending training courses
14
22
5
Số % đi dự tập huấn trong 5 năm (%)
20
47
26
Land size (m2)
Different superscripts (a, b) denote significant differences between means within rows (p<0.05)
34
Some of the poor (14 out of 68 poor HHs) attended extension training courses to improve know-how.
These courses are organised to support farmers to enhance productivity and minimise investment costs
in the shrimp ponds, and in fisheries. They provide knowledge on farming techniques (shrimp, fish,
blood-cockle and shellfish culture), create awareness of the need for environmental protection against
deforestation and nearshore resources extermination, provide first aid training or practice climate
related scenarios. However, in the shrimp farming sector, many farmers believe that extensive shrimp
farming is very easy and they can stock and harvest without any training. However, shrimp farming is
not easy in reality and people continuously fail due to many reasons, the most common being shrimp
disease due to weather shock.
My pond-size is around one hectare. My son excavated the sediment himself. He didn’t attend any
extension training for many years because there is nothing to learn. Extensive farming is very easy. We
take the seeds and wait for the harvest. But unluckily, I haven’t gotten a single shrimp for a year.
(Quach Thu Phuong, Hong Phuoc, Nguyen Huan, 16/10/2013)
While they have different loan regimes, both shrimp farming and fishery have steep loans. In Viet Nam,
government banks provide loans for agriculture with mortgages relating to land size, type of land
certificate and the settlement of previous loans. The average value of loans of shrimp farming HHs is
VND 38.3 million. If the households experience continuous losses from shrimp farming and are unable
to repay the loan on time, they will face difficulties in getting future loans from the banks. Their debts
also gradually increase due to accumulating interest.
Fishery had the highest value of loans with high standard deviation (SD) making this the most risky
group (Table 2.2). For offshore fishing, the fixed and operational costs are very high pushing fishermen
more into risk. They had to catch intensively to recover investment costs. Moreover, fishermen couldn’t
offer their boats as collateral to the banks and so they could only access private loans with high interest
rates (10-15% per month) that carried double risk. It is incredible that the accumulation among all four
groups was negative (and SD was very high). Around 60% of HHs reported their livelihoods became
worse yearly (including 92% of the day-labourer group). The situation traps poor HHs in a vicious circle
of indebtedness, poverty, illness and low education. They find it very hard to escape poverty and to be
robust against climate-related hazards.
Table 2.2: Financial assets
(mean ± standard deviation (SD))
Shrimp farming
(49)
Fishery
(27)
Gather*
(20)
Labour
(38)
26,654
1,010
802
456
63
78
80
76
Value of loans (mil VND)
38.3 ± 56.6
65.6 ± 174.5
11.6 ± 10.7
31 ± 112.2
Annual income (mil VND)
51 ± 59
42.6 ± 181
24.6 ± 21.5
42.7 ± 39.8
Annual saving (mil VND)
-13.2 ± 46.4
-35.9 ± 203.2
-9.8 ± 30.8
-3.5 ± 13
65
92
Access of financial capital
Land size (m2)
% HH having loans
% HHs whose lives have
59
become worse
* Gather: non-timber forest and aquatic resources collection
HH survey, 2013
41
35
Distinctive characteristics of the poor, improving poor and declining poor
The poor groups were most affected by climate change, in which, poor women, the elderly and children are
considered the ‘declining poor’ and as being more vulnerable. They are characterised as having no source of
income, living dependently on others or alone with health problems, disabilities or physical difficulties.
In contrast, the ‘improving poor’ earn marginal incomes through unstable jobs such as fishing, on-farm and
off-farm labour, forest or marine collection, street vending, small vending, and unsuccessful shrimp farming.
The gender vulnerability assessment aimed to select information to distinguish between the poor, declining
poor, and improving poor. It was classified with the help of key informants (Women’s Union (WU), People’s
Committee (PC), officers, elderly) at commune level and HH interviewees. They classified the poor (improving
and declining) based on their own so-called community criteria. This criteria has been grouped into socioeconomic, natural and environmental profiles, and climate variability to show the different levels of poor
people who are exposed, sensitised to and who have adapted to climate change impacts.
Table 2.3: Distinctive characteristics of the poor, improving poor and declining poor
Criteria
Declining poor
Poor
Improving poor
Socio-economic profiles
Land holding area (ha)
Landless
homestead
homestead
Fishing equipment
None
None or small boat
Yes, some
Household facilities: TV, telephone,
motorbikes, cooker
none
none
A few
Dependent ratio*
Many dependent persons
Not many
A few
Education for children
Illiterate
Illiterate or
elementary
Secondary
Sources of income
Non-stable
Non-stable
Stable
Savings
None, constant
indebtedness
Indebtedness
Able to save, but still
indebtedness
Healthcare
Sickness, handicap
Yes-no
No
Food
Not enough for one day
Enough for one day
Enough for some days
Water
No consistent water supply
Yes, but not available Available
Receiving HERP** support
Yes
Yes
Always, no access
Sometimes, only one Sometimes, not only
source of access
one source
Yes / no
Natural assets and climate hazards
Frequency of failure due to
environmental degradation,
exhausted natural resources
Frequency of flood, storms, erosion
Many times
events
Not many
No more
Loss from disasters
Yes
Yes, little
Yes, no more
Level of diversification
None
Yes, if having
resources
Yes, diversifying
Receiving from migrants
None
Yes, little, no stable
Yes, stable
Livelihoods’ adaptation
Receiving help
None
From a few
From many
* Dependent ratio = number of young children (<15 years old), old (>60 years old), the sick, or disabled persons who are
neither able to work and earn an income nor perform domestic tasks.
* HEPR stands for “Hunger Elimination and Poverty Reduction”. This is a government programme, which aims to support
difficult areas for development of the socio-economic situation, education, health, culture, information, etc. so that living
standards are improved.
Source: Group discussion and in-depth interview, 2013
36
2.1.2
Coastal livelihoods and socio-economic vulnerability factors
Socio-economic vulnerability factors comprise multifaceted and various dimensions that reciprocally
influence one another. For instance, limited access to education may in turn limit access to healthcare,
employment opportunities, social networks, daily food, clean water, sanitation and so on. Similarly, socioeconomic vulnerability factors affect people in different livelihood sectors in different ways. For instance,
the lack of workmanship techniques is more important to shrimp farming groups than to the others.
During the HH survey, 134 interviewees were asked to rank the level of 14 vulnerability factors that
affect their own livelihood options. They used a three-score scale (1: lowest, 2: moderate and 3: highest
vulnerability) to rank every factor. Due to the use of the three-scored scale the possibility of each scale is
assumed equally 1/3 (33%) of respondents. The more people scored a factor with a high scale (score 3),
the more this vulnerability factor affects their livelihood. Therefore, 33% was the threshold of calculation
showing how many people have a high exposure and sensitivity to every single factor, including socioeconomic and environmental aspects as well as climate change impacts.
The horizontal axis of the following figures (2.1 - 2.4) shows the perception of HHs in four livelihood
sectors (in percentage) towards the relevance of factors for vulnerability (corresponding on Y-axis). The
vertical line on the figure shows the threshold of 33%, indicating the high level of vulnerability to its right.
All factors related to poverty and financial status such as low income, few available jobs, limited access
to markets and low prices negatively affected all HHs in four groups. Whereas, having small farms only
affected the labourer and collector groups (Figure 2.1). Unlike the fishery group, whose livelihoods
depend on boats and fishing gear, extension shrimp farming groups need large ponds to generate
income. However, the farmers in this system didn’t consider this as vulnerability because they are
satisfied with their farm sizes that are around 26,700 m2 (Table 2.2) on average. Among the four groups,
wage labourers and those who gather wild resources were the most vulnerable since almost all factors
negatively affect them.
Figure 2.1: Socio-economic factors affecting four livelihood sectors
Having small land
Labor
Market fluctuation, low price
Gather
Fishery
Lack of job opportunities
Aquaculture
Poor, having low income
0
20
40
60
80
100
Figure 2.2 shows how anthropogenic vulnerability factors affect the four livelihood sectors differently.
Around 63% of day-labouring HHs reported that illness was the strongest factor to vulnerability since
sick labourers could neither earn a daily subsistence nor afford healthcare. 37% also stated that having a
high dependent ratio of young children, elderly and disabled persons adding to their vulnerability. They
need to be taken care of rather than be expected to contribute to the workforce. When climate hazards
occur, the HHs with many dependents may be strongly hit if they lack adequate evacuation policies.
37
About 52% of labourers and shrimp farmers reported that low education was a vulnerability factor
that negatively affected their livelihoods. Low education has been linked to unemployment, inability
to understand climate information provided in leaflets and to make accurate decisions. Having spoilt
children was not a key vulnerable factor since all four groups underestimated this problem (Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: Anthropogenic factors affecting four livelihood sectors
Illness
Labor
Spoilt children
Gather
Many dependent people
Fishery
Aquaculture
Low education
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Around 37% of day-labour HHs reported that the lack of help and support from relatives brought
difficulties (Figure 2.3). A kin relationship plays an important role for the poor by providing security and
safety nets during or after climate-related disasters. Meanwhile, access to transport was highly limited for
all four groups. The two main means of local transportation are motorbikes and boats, but the paths are
slippery during the rainy season and the canals are shallow during low tide, thus making it inconvenient
and costly, especially to send children to school. There are two to three primary and secondary schools
in a village or commune, but often one high school in a district. This means older children have a
longer distance to travel. All four groups often neglected and underestimated vulnerabilities related to
infrastructure deterioration caused by climate change. They were satisfied with their living standards
and had no complaints. However, good transportation, accommodation, electricity, clean water and
sanitation are most important and necessary to them during or after climate-related disasters.
Figure 2.3: Social help and infrastructure affecting four livelihood sectors
No supports from Government
No helps from family
Labor
Limitation access to transportaion
Gather
Lack of electricity
Fishery
Aquaculture
Lack of prodution water
Limitation access clean water
0
38
10
20
30
40
50
60
2.2 Environmental vulnerability factors
86% of HHs involved in shrimp farming systems reported that their livelihoods are most vulnerable to
shrimp disease. Shrimp disease, due to environmental pollution and climate variability, often occurs in
winter, during the shift from dry to rainy seasons, during stormy seasons, during flooding and prolonged
heat and heavy rains. The households that highly depend on water resources (water-reliant shrimp
aquaculture) and those that gather marine and forest resources are more vulnerable to environmental
degradation and the exhaustion of marine resources, of which those involved in small-scale fishery and
marine/forest resource collection were most vulnerable (Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4: Environmental factors affecting four livelihoods sectors
Shrimp diseases
Labor
Gather
Exhaustation of natural resources
Fishery
Environmental pollution
Aquaculture
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
2.2.1 Nearshore resource exhaustion
Small-scale fishermen, gatherers and fishing labourers whose livelihoods heavily depend on mudflats,
nearshore and forestry resources are subject to vulnerability from environmental pollution (65%-70%)
and exhaustion of natural resources (98%).
Marine fishery is the main livelihood in Ca Mau. With its 254 km shoreline, Ca Mau employs an estimated
250,000 people. However, approximately 80% of the mechanised vessels are powered with engines of less
than 45 horse power (hp) and operate only in nearshore waters, where the volume of catch fluctuates.
Nguyen Huan commune (in Mai Hoa village) and Dat Mui commune are typical for small-scale fingerling
fishery or mudflat resource collection at estuaries. The poor fishermen have no fishing equipment, and
are typically migrants or landless and they get paid work from the boat owners. The payment is arranged
between the owners and crew depending on the type of gear, the length of the voyage and the caught
volume of fish. Thus, it depends on marine resources and weather conditions. However, mudflats resources
are scarce and fishing is also seasonal, occurring only from January to May. Similarly, offshore fishing crew
members may spend up to six months on a fishing trip and most of them have taken loans in advance. So
they need to repay their creditors after a trip regardless of how little they make.
My husband and my 15-year-old boy have to work as offshore fishing crew members. Sometimes they
even reach the border of Malaysia on long trips but bring me little cash since they have to repay the
loans. The cash is so little that it is not enough to feed our three children, nor support their schooling. Our
house was damaged by strong winds last year but we have no money for repairs. I can mend fishing nets
to generate income but no one takes care of my children. I want to breed animals or open a small shop
at home but without money I can’t do anything. I already took a loan of VND 20 million. So now I can’t
get more without repaying the previous loan.
(Nguyen Thi Hiep, 12/10/2013, Song Doc)
39
The decline of natural resources highly affects nearshore fishery. People blamed pollution, environmental
degradation, an increase in the number of fishing boats, and overfishing by double trawler vessels for
the exhaustion of nearshore resources.
In certain months of the year (except between June to August), people in Kinh Dao Dong and Kinh
Dao Tay (Dat Mui Commune, Ngoc Hien district) catch mudskipper fingerlings and collect crablets at
the estuaries using small mesh-size nets. They do this in the early mornings and only during high tide.
Others who have fishing boats and gear for dredging can go a bit further from the coast but this type of
fishing is not encouraged due to overexploitation of nearshore resources and the damage this causes
to the sea belt. Yet, people keep breaking the fishing regulations for survival.
I was moved to this resettlement zone in 2005 by the government programme. To earn a living, I went
fishing nearshore and collected shellfish at the Full Protection Zone. In the first years living here, fish was
aplenty. We caught enough in one year to last three years. Now we need to catch three years to last one
year. The fish stock has declined and with weather extremes, we’ve been forced to stay onshore rather
than go fishing. On our days off, we have to borrow money with high interest rates to buy food and HH
essentials. Our total loan and interest has risen up to VND 50 million now. My boat and fishing gear have
deteriorated, allowing fish to slip through the mesh rather than being caught. I need money to upgrade
the gear but no one will give me another loan without me repaying the previous one.
(LâmDũng, 17/10/2013, Mai Hoa, Nguyễn Huân)
Fishing brings me strength and health. I can fish for many more decades, but I am afraid that there will
be nothing to catch by then.
(Nguyen Van Thoa, 17/10/2013, Mai Hoa, Nguyen Huan)
Declining fish stock, poverty and weather disadvantages have trapped small-scale fishermen in a
vicious circle of poverty, indebtedness, limited assets, overexploited marine resources, exhaustion of
natural resources, and environmental degradation. The solution for small-scale fishermen is the lowcost exploitation of nearshore resources. However this again pressures the ecosystem and violates the
fishery regulations to protect coastal and marine resources.
2.2.2 Limited access to non-timber forest products
Women and children collecting fuel-wood and non-timber forest products are also vulnerable. There is
very little data to show the importance of forestry-related activities to sustain livelihoods. The mangroves
in Dat Mui commune (Ngoc Hien district) and Nguyen Huan commune (Dam Doi district) are located
in the Full Protection Zone and World Biodiversity Conservation area respectively. So management and
conservation regulations are more strictly implemented.
In the shrimp-mangrove farming system, shrimps are the main source of income and they are harvested
5-10 days a month during the tidal period. Forest timber needs to be protected and, when being
harvested, a small proportion of the profit is being shared with the Forest Management Board. Tran et al.
(2014) reported that the differences in benefit sharing from forestry among HHs and Forest Companies
in the Buffer Zone (production forest) have remarkably changed from 2008 to 2010 using triangulated
sources of data: calculations from Forest Companies, interview data and case studies.
They summarised that, in production forests, when providing farmers rights to sell mangroves at
auctions without the interference of Forest Companies, farmers could receive at least seven times more
40
than what the Forest Company shared with them (VND 3.5 million compared to VND 0.5 million per
hectare per year in 2008) when getting a share of 66% with the Forest Company. In 2010, when farmers
were granted permission to exploit mangroves they directly contracted traders who had full access to
markets and they earned approximately VND 6 million per hectare per year (at a share of 72%).
In the research areas, forests are mainly Full Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Zones. Harvesting
timber here is strictly forbidden and farmers do not have access to the forest nor can they practice
aquaculture under the trees’ shade. To balance sustainable livelihoods and forest conservation the
products from thinning and non-timber should belong to poor farmers instead of strictly forcing them
to follow the forest conservation policies. Co-management or Integrated Coastal Zone Management
(ICZM) should be soon promulgated in this area. Today, though the state has issued several decisions
on forest management and conservation, implementation is still not feasible. Due to the lack of rights,
responsibility, motivation and entitlement to forest management, the poor are more concerned with
direct earnings for survival rather than the importance of the mangrove forests in protecting coastal
areas from storms and erosion or acting as nurseries for marine fisheries. Consequently, they violate or
are reluctant to obey forest management regulations instead of being responsible for protecting the
ecosystem. Sometimes, poor people collect fuelwood or shellfish for cash despite restrictions from the
Forest Management Board.
We have lived here for 20 years next to the forest. My husband travels with others to the river mouth
to catch fingerlings. Unfortunately, the catch volume is declining so fast that it doesn’t sustain us. We
moved out to the Binh Duong industrial zone near Ho Chi Minh City to seek a better life. However, after
subtracting all expenses, the remaining money wasn’t enough to feed my two little children. We decided
to return home last year and began collecting marine species again. This year we got a loan of VND 15
million from the government to support poor households to sustain livelihoods. We bought a boat and
engine to send children to school and to catch fish. However, not many children need transportation
and there is no fish in the sea anymore. Last time I took a risk and stole some fuelwood. Unfortunately,
the Forest Management Board detected this and confiscated our boats and fined us VND 5.5 million to
redeem the boat. We decided to leave the boat since we don’t have that much money.
(Wife of Lê Quốc Hưng, 20/10/2013, Bà Hương, Đất Mũi)
2.3 Vulnerabilities under climate change impacts
2.3.1 Climate related vulnerabilities
The coastal area is known as the strip of land located nearest to the sea, which is directly influenced
by seawater rise all year. The main livelihood activities here include fishing, forest and marine resource
collection, non-farm labour and inland aquaculture. In the research sites, climate change has caused an
increase in the number of storms, whirlwinds, sea level rise (flooding and inundation), heavy rains, and
the erosion of riverbanks. People are considered vulnerable when they are exposed to these impacts
but are unable to cope without external help.
Results from the Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) at commune level show that weather extremes
happen more frequently from September onwards and storms become stronger with whirlwinds during
the rainy season from June to October. Inundation and flooding is related to rising sea levels, tides and
heavy rainfall that occur at the end of the year (Table 2.4).
41
Table 2.4: Seasonal impacts from climate variability (lunar calendar)
Month
CC factors
1
2
3
4
9
10
11
12
Sea level rise
=
=
=
=
Salinity
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Heavy rain
5
=
Irregular rains
=
7
=
8
=
=
=
Storm
Whirlwind
=
Heat
6
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Erosion
=
Group discussions at commune level, 2013
Due to heavy dependence on natural resources people in rural communities are vulnerable when
exposed to climate hazards such as inundation, erosion and storms.
Figure 2.5: Climate variability and hazards affecting four livelihood sectors
Erosion
Prolonged heat
Whirlwind
Labor
Storms
Gather
Irregular rainfall
Fishery
Aquaculture
Heavy rainfall
Salinity
Sea level rise, inundation
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
The Mekong Delta is characterised by dry (December to April) and rainy (May to November) seasons
(Table 2.4). At the end of the rainy season, large parts of the delta are inundated. Inundation along
the coast of Ca Mau results from the immense amounts of rainwater in combination with high tides.
However, if inundation gets too severe, it can hamper transportation in the delta and affect people’s
livelihoods close to the numerous waterways. Moreover, inundation is associated with heavy rains,
irregular rains, and prolonged heat would change the water temperature and parameters in shrimp
ponds that negatively affect shrimp health and harvest. Nearly 80% of shrimp farming HHs reported
that sea level rise and inundation together with heavy rain were the most relevant factors with regard to
vulnerability for them. Since these sites are located in the coastal area, the inundation happens quickly
and unexpectedly. During the seasons of inundation and heavy rains at the end of a year, shrimp farmers
must treat water carefully to increase its quality and prevent shrimp diseases.
42
Figure 2.5 shows that consequences of CC such as inundation, heavy rains, whirlwinds and storms
directly affect fishery groups including people with or without fishing equipment. In Song Doc town
(Tran Van Thoi district), many offshore fishermen were concerned about the harsh and irregular weather
particularly in the last two years. Poor small-scale fishermen in Mai Hoa village (Nguyen Huan Commune,
Dam Doi district) and Dat Mui commune (Ngoc Hien district) are more vulnerable. They reported that
the weather was the decisive factor of whether to go fish or stay ashore. Decision-making depends
on previous experience; therefore, experienced captains play a very important role. During favourable
weather, they try to fish more intensively to compensate for the smaller catch in the harsh seasons.
Therefore, they prefer powered vessels with several gears to exploit as many species and fishing zones
as possible. They fish around 10 to 25 days per month depending on weather conditions and the
volume of fish. The fishermen agreed that the weather has become harsher in recent years and this
causes difficulties, especially for the poor who have to spend their savings when staying ashore. When
poor fishermen take the risk to fish in bad weather, they often have to return early and do not even
recover their operational costs.
With a coastline of about 254 km and more than 8,000 km of rivers and canals, Ca Mau is affected by
erosion on coastal land, estuaries and riverbanks. Erosion happens in low-lying areas and is caused by
strong waves, intensive monsoonal conditions and storms. Many studies claim that several reservoirs
that will be completed upstream on the Mekong River to generate electricity have changed the flow
regime and reduced the sediment that causes ecosystem degradation and serious downstream erosion
(Blackshear et al., 2011; Van, 2008). In addition, the coastal mangrove forest remaining in the narrow belt
might not be able to protect the coastal land. Transportation using speedboats was also blamed for the
erosion along the riverbank.
Van (2008) assumed that when sea level rises by 30 cm, the coastline is likely to be eroded at about 45 m
from the coast. The erosion in some areas like Hong Phuoc hamlet (Nguyen Huan commune, Dam Doi
district) and Kinh Dao Dong and Kinh Dao Tay (Dat Mui commune, Ngoc Hien district) occurred suddenly
and seriously damaged several houses along the riverbanks or river mouths (see Photos on page 43).
People living along the Kinh Dao river (Dat Mui commune, Ngoc Hien district) were vulnerable to
inundation and erosion. They were moved from the protected forest to this resettlement zone in 2005.
Two years ago, they faced the heaviest erosion. Roads, houses and bridges were destroyed and now
people are afraid that erosion can strike again anytime.
During the spring tidal activity, I couldn’t sleep well. We are near the sea and so the tides rise very quickly.
I was afraid that water would sweep into my house. Sometimes I fell asleep and woke up with my back
getting wet. Especially during the rainy and whirlwind season I was afraid that my house would collapse
due to erosion. I dream of a piece of land to live on far away from the sea, regardless of how small it is.
(Nguyen Thi Hang, Kinh Dao Dong, Dat Mui, 19/10/2013)
2.3.2 Changes in climate change vulnerability
In the future, the assessment of vulnerability change will depend on the coping measures and levels
of adaptation and resilience that will be presented in the next part. We assume that even if there was
no further adaptation response to mitigate climate change impacts, vulnerability change still affects
people in various ways. Some groups are more prone to damage, loss or suffering than others. The
key aspects of variables contributing to differences in coping capacity are class, gender, wealth, health
status, occupation, social networks and so on. Changing the social status and economic and political
factors would bring about changes of power operating in society, thus influencing the capacity of
coping with CC vulnerability.
43
The contribution of social, economic, biological and political processes to vulnerability varies from
disaster to disaster, from one place to another. Vulnerability can increase through lack of entitlement to
natural resource management, low education, lack of capability to access resources, and powerlessness
in decision-making. Factually, when people in the same community face the same typhoon, they would
be affected differently based on different contexts. For instance, the well-off have sturdier houses that
can withstand the impacts better. Or they can raise their house or relocate. The mid-wealthy can rebuild
their houses quickly using their savings or through external help. The poorest live in the worst houses
and when these are destroyed by storms, they have no savings to rebuild them. So this group is likely
to be the most vulnerable.
Vulnerabilities vary across geographic locations and affects people differently according to their access
to and control over resources, power and economic development. Therefore, vulnerability analysis
should consider what and where hazards occur, and how and who the hazards affect.
More than 60% of HHs in the shrimp farming system and 35% of HHs with labourers and natural resource
collectors reported that they know about CC and its impacts through television programmes but are
still vague about it. Television is likely the single means of media for weather broadcasts. Almost all
villagers agreed that the impacts of climate change were stronger in recent years according to their
own perceptions and experiences during their daily activities or work. Many of them are not mindful
or readily keep track of climate change. This does not mean they are insensitive; they simply do not
have adequate access to information nor the capacity to understand government policies related to
climate change and prevention. Several policies, decisions and action plans at local level have been
approved relating to socio-economic development, climate change mitigation and gender equity
(Socio-economic Development Programme 2012-2020 (PC Ca Mau), Provincial Action Plan 2011-2020
(DOLISA) and the Joint Plan for Environmental protection for the period 2011-2015 (MARD, DONRE
and WU). These programmes focus on protecting the natural environment and preventing disasters.
However, these programmes have hardly addressed the farmers in the research sites, especially the
women. People do not keep track of the changes due to poverty. They focus more on working to sustain
themselves rather than keeping track of climate changes that cannot be stopped. The poor’s houses are
built with simple materials that are easily destroyed despite their efforts at keeping track of the changes.
The poor have no means, equipment nor capacity to access good information. Therefore, providing
a set of documents and materials, leaflets and media programmes is necessary to highlight disaster
prevention and climate change mitigation.
Climate change affects men and women differently and depending on their livelihood activities.
Over the last ten years, inundation has become more severe. This time last year, the level of water didn’t
rise up to the front yard but this year it come over the main door. Irregular rainfall in the dry season or
prolonged droughts and sudden downpours – too much water or too little –has affected shrimp health
and harvest.
44
(Le Thi Man, Hong Phuoc, Nguyen Huan, 16/10/2013)
2.4 Vulnerability assessment: area, indicators and gender aspects
2.4.1 Vulnerable areas
The most vulnerable regions are those with high levels of exposure and sensitivity to both natural
and human aspects such as poverty, low income, and the lack of access to resources, environmental
degradation and high level of exposure to climate hazards such as inundation, storms, whirlwinds and
erosion. Identifying factors that contribute to vulnerability can help effectively reduce their influence
and promote livelihood continuity and ecological sustainability. Vulnerabilities and risks may come
from different dimensions. At individual, household or community levels, vulnerability can be defined
as a high degree of people’s exposure to risk, shocks and stress, and the difficulty to cope with them.
Different authors have suggested different types of vulnerabilities. For example, according to Chambers
(1989) vulnerability has an internal side of risks, shocks and stress to which an individual, household and
communities are subjected, and an external side coming from outside is a person’s defencelessness or
lack of means to cope without causing damage or loss. For instance, climate change impacts, natural
resource degradation, environmental pollution, market price fluctuation etc. are external risks. Similarly,
Glewwe and Murtaugh (1998) distinguished vulnerability on the basis of the economic and political
context as market-induced and policy-induced. Vulnerabilities in this study are regarded as long-term
effects, like the uncertainties of climate change, inundation, storms and erosion, natural resource
degradation, the effects of a low level of education, and short-term effects like shrimp diseases, catch
decline, sickness in HHs or market price fluctuations.
In this study, the sample size was not large enough to make comparisons among three communes.
This assessment is supplemented by feedback from key stakeholders during the PRA meetings in the
three communes. Therefore, we just recognised that the levels of vulnerability change over geographic
locations according to the locations’ levels of exposure to natural degradation, hazards and climate
variability, and sensitivity to socio-economic factors. Livelihood strategies and adaptation should
consider measuring the resilience of these systems to reduce the vulnerabilities.
We used these vulnerability factors across the main four sectors of livelihoods. The vulnerability rankings
for each of the communes are based on a set of indicators so that we can compare vulnerability not only
across livelihoods but also across areas. First, vulnerability was ranked (from lowest to highest, 1 to 3) for
every factor corresponding to each livelihood option. The total numbers of every factor and livelihood
option were summed up and are displayed according to the three communes (table 2.5).
The study shows that people in Song Doc, Nguyen Huan or Dat Mui having different levels of exposure to
socio-economic factors, natural and non-natural vulnerabilities, and CC impacts. The overall vulnerability
for the three communes is between low and medium, with Dat Mui (ranked at 143) assessed as being
most vulnerable compared to Song Doc (134) and Nguyen Huan (124) (Table 2.5).
Song Doc town in Tran Van Thoi district has many poor HHs and high population and inward migration. It
was ranked as having moderate vulnerability for now but this can increase in the future due to exposure
to inundation and storm surges along the coast, while whirlwinds and rainfall affect large areas here.
However, the district is least affected by socio-economic and environmental factors.
Nguyen Huan commune in Dam Doi district has many poor HHs and limited access to higher prices
in the markets resulting in high vulnerability. The commune is completely exposed to storm surges,
whirlwinds and rainfall, and salinity and flooding. However, its overall resilience to climate change is
good, making it the least affected by climate change.
45
Dat Mui commune in Ngoc Hien district has many poor HHs. Limited access to land, marine and forest
resources reduces their income streams and increases their vulnerabilities. The commune, particularly
the fishery group, is highly affected by erosion, storm surges, extreme whirlwinds and irregular rainfall.
Table 2.5: Vulnerability factors affecting four livelihood sectors in three communes
Nguyen Huan
commune
(Dam Doi)
Song Doc town
(Tran Van Thoi)
Dat Mui
commune
(Ngoc Hien)
Total
Socio-economic vulnerabilities
Poor, low income
15
14
13
42
Unstable price
9
12
8
29
Low education, know-how
knowledge
7
3
11
21
Lack of employment
opportunities
6
6
8
20
Shrimp disease
4
7
8
19
Poor infrastructure
4
4
10
18
45
46
58
10
10
14
34
8
10
10
28
Storms
13
13
12
38
Whirlwinds
12
12
10
34
Heavy rainfall
14
12
8
34
Irregular rainfall
14
10
10
34
Sea water rise, inundation
10
3
9
22
Erosion
6
5
8
19
Prolonged heat
2
3
4
9
Sub total
71
58
61
Total
134
124
143
Sub total
Environmental vulnerabilities
Exhaustion of natural resources
Environmental degradation,
pollution
Sub total
Climate Change impacts
Group discussion at commune level, 2013
Vulnerability: Low: <8; Medium: 8 – 12; High > 12
Given the serious consequences of erosion for residents, we used diagram illustrations during the study
in order to identify critical erosion areas in the three researched communes (Figure 2.6). Yet, the PRA
results at communal level show low vulnerability (19 points) because the interviewees were not among
those affected by erosion, and erosion only occurs at specific locations at specific periods of time along
riverbanks or river mouths. At the time of fieldwork, erosion had not occurred and so, was not a concern
for the local officials.
46
Figure 2.6: Eroded sites of the study area
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a): Song Doc Map and hydrologic system
(b): Song Doc town: Erosion along Song Doc River
(c): Nguyen Huan commune: erosion along Trang Tram river, Hong Phuoc hamlet and Vam Dam turning
point, Vam Dam hamlet
(d): Dat Mui commune: Erosion along Lach Vam river, Vam Xoay river, Rach Tau river (Kinh Dao hamlet)
2.4.2 Vulnerability indicators that can be used for future impact assessments
According to Briguglio (2003), Birkmann (2007) and Hahn et. al. (2009), vulnerabilities deal with economic,
social and environmental phenomena, are multi-faceted, and have various dimensions. We used the
Sustainable Livelihood Framework which looks at HH assets: natural, financial, social, physical and human
capital (Chambers & Conway, 1992) to assess the ability of HHs to withstand shocks and disasters. Climate
change adds complexity to HH livelihood security since the communities are exposed to climate change.
We also used the primary data from HH surveys to address the sensitivity and adaptation capacity of
communities to climate change especially focusing on the livelihood components of the poor, declining
poor and improving poor. The multi-faceted vulnerability indicators designed should consider the
impacts of CC in the future and rely on the exposure of communities to natural hazards and climate
variability, natural resource exhaustion and environmental deterioration, on the sensitivity to economic
47
characteristics (poverty, unemployment, limited access to education, water, food, healthcare, etc.) and
on adaptation through livelihood strategies, human resource development and social network building
(Table 2.6). Based on the results in Table 2.5, Table 2.6 prioritises the indicators by using a top-down scale
of highest to lowest vulnerability in each component. Every vulnerability factor may comprise some subindicators in which the explanation and calculation information is shown in Table 2.6.
Table 2.6: Vulnerability indicators
Vulnerability indicators
Explanation of vulnerability subcomponents
Units
Socio-economic profiles
- Poverty ratio
%
- Result from HEPR
- Poverty ratio
mil. VND
mil. VND
- Main incomes
- Secondary incomes
%
min.
-% of HH unwilling to sell products at lower
prices without bargaining
- Distance to local markets
- Female-headed HH
%
%
%
- Single female head
- Non-single female head
- Male head is away >6 months a year
- Lack of savings
mil. VND
%
- Savings after deducting all HH expenditure
- Percentage of having no savings
-Education
years
count
years
mil. VND
- Schooling year of HH head
- Number of schooling children
- Grades of schooling children
-Average annual expenses for children’
studying
- Small size land and landless
ha
ha
ha
- Size of homestead
- Size of agricultural area
- Size of forest area
- Lack of productive equipment
Hp
mil. VND
mil. VND
-Boats
-Engines
- Gear net: type and value
- Lack of HH’s facilities
unit
-Number of TVs, telephones, motorbikes,
boats
- Shrimp diseases
%
mil. VND
- % of HHs facing failure in a year
- Value of loss
- Dependent ratio
%
-Inability to work for income or do domestic
tasks (disabled, old, sick, young children)
-Healthcare
%
min.
- Ratio of sick persons and types of illness
- Average time to healthcare centre
-Water
%
%
m3
min.
-
-
-
-
- Lack of electricity
- Lack of electricity
-% of HH that do not have electricity (directly)
- Limited access to transportation
%
- % of HH perceiving transport difficulties
- Limited access to markets
ratio
- Lack of social assets
48
ratio
%
% of HH without consistent water supply
% of HH having water conflicts
Average capacity of water storage
Average time to water source
-Number of times receiving help / giving
help ratio in last month (e.g. get food, medicine, tools, child care)
- Average borrowing / lending ratio
-% of HH not going to local government for
assistance
Natural assets and climate hazard
- Natural resources exhausted
ton
ton/hp
%
mil. VND
-
-
-
-
- Environment degradation
%
-% of HHs perceiving environmental degradation
- Climate variability
Celsius
mm
- Mean standard deviation of temperature
- Mean standard deviation of precipitation
count
count
count
count
count
%
- Number of inundation days in past year
- Number of heavy rainfall days in past year
- Number of prolonged heat days in past year
- Number of typhoon events in past year
- Number of erosion events in past year
-% of HHs that did not receive warnings of
impending disaster
- % of HHs with injuries or death
- Cost of loss
- Natural disasters
%
mil. VND
Catch volume per year (offshore fishing)
Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE)
% of HHs with failed fish catches in a year
Value of loss
Adaptive livelihoods
count
%
ratio
- Number of sources and incomes
-% of HH based on solely one source of
income
- Ratio of secondary and main incomes
- Level of migration
count
%
%
-% of HHs having family members working in
a different community
- % of HHs
- Receiving remittances
%
- % of HHS receiving remittances
- Level of diversification
2.4.3 Gender vulnerability under climate change impacts
In the research sites, there have been few linkages between gender issues and climate change and
limited awareness of their different impacts on men and women. However, in general, “gender”
was magnified by people’s attitudes towards boys and girls, and their perceptions of the workload
distribution between men and women in the fishing and shrimp farming sectors.
In fishery, women are forbidden to go fishing. They can only collect mudflats species. Women are
considered unlucky; so they are not allowed to stand on the jetties to say goodbye or to welcome their
returning husbands and sons. Especially for offshore fishing, the taboos are more strictly followed.
Women are indirectly involved in fisheries by sorting, marketing, drying or fermenting fish, repairing
nets, and preparing provisions for fishing trips. Young men in fishing communities have to drop out of
school early to go fishing. Fishing experiences are passed on from fathers to sons. Fathers also hand boats
and fishing gear over to sons rather than to daughters. If fathers have nothing to give, the sons have
to work as crew members. Therefore, poverty or wealth could transfer from generation to generation.
In shrimp farming, women are not allowed to come to hatchery stations or to wade through intensive
shrimp ponds. Both men and women could do extensive shrimp farming tasks because they are thought
to be simple and require less technology. However, men are responsible for farming techniques,
deciding on the timing of dredging and stocking, and helping women to harvest the shrimp. Men
attend extension training, share experiences with neighbours, and attend parties while the women take
care of the housework, the non-farming activities, household expenditure and savings.
49
Women are more likely to be affected by climate change and disasters as they have less access to
resources. They are mainly collectors, labourers and street vendors who are the hardest hit during
storms or heavy rainfall. They are less likely to be specialised in an area, thus limiting their chances
of finding good jobs elsewhere. Thus the number of unemployed or unskilled women is higher than
men. They are physically weaker than men and so their daily payment for labour is around 30% less.
Poor female-headed HHs are more vulnerable since they have even lesser access to rehabilitation,
construction, or houses fixing after disasters. They are less able to transfer HH things to safer places due
to their weakness, limited mobility and having more dependents. Female-headed HHs have fewer social
networks that can help or give them support in rehabilitation and relocation after disasters.
In all cases, poor women are more vulnerable than men. Typically the men do “big jobs” and are called
the “main income workers” whereas women do non-paid housework. They are restricted to the home
especially when their children are young. If the husbands’ earnings alone are not enough to sustain
livelihoods, women are under stress to work and cover daily subsistence needs. They are responsible for
the household’s daily income and expenses. So they are more likely to approach private moneylenders
for their daily needs, leading to indebtedness. They undertake many unpaid roles as wives, daughtersin-law, mothers, sisters, house workers, children’s tutors, elders’ nurses and so on. Women are more likely
to tend to the children, elderly and the disabled. This increases their workload, reduces mobility and
restricts them from developing knowledge and skills that would enable them to save lives and prevent
losses from disasters such as learning to swim, or participating in public meetings. Besides, poor women
in rural areas are more disadvantaged since some do not have access to clean water, electricity and
communications, and lack the chance to diversify their livelihoods. They are more likely to be financially
dependent and more influenced by Confucian thoughts and behaviour.
50
Erosion on estuarine
(Kinh Dao Tay/Dong, Dat Mui commune)
Road was damaged
(Kinh Dao Tay / Dong, Dat Mui commune)
Wooden fence against erosion
51
03
03
03
52
Adaptation and
resilience
Adaptive capacity can be defined as “the ability or capacity of a system to modify or change its
characteristics or behaviour so as to cope better with existing or anticipated external stresses.” Adaptive
capacity then can be characterised as a set of potential actions that contribute to reducing vulnerability,
and can influence either the existing or future exposure or sensitivity – or both (Mackay & Russell, 2011).
3.1
Local authority’s responses to adaptation to climate change
3.1.1 Responses to adaptation at national and provincial level
The region has been by supported by the state’s subsistence programmes for shrimp aquaculture
and fishing livelihoods focusing on livelihood improvement such as hunger elimination and poverty
reduction programmes, extension training, formal credit, social security and insurance, land allocation
policies, policies on mangrove conservation and mangrove-shrimp management, and relocation
to resettlement zones. To reduce CC impacts, government policies on reducing disaster risks include
establishing disaster forecast centres nationwide and awareness raising activities. However, these
strategies focus on emergency responses to short‐term climate extremes and reconstruction thereafter,
rather than long‐term adaptation to future climate change. They are also not integrated into wider
policies for sustainable rural development and poverty reduction (ICEM, 2009). McElwee, Nghiem & Vu
(2012) commented that the government has indicated interest mostly in “hard” adaptation measures
(sea dykes, reinforced infrastructure, more durable buildings) but has not emphasised on “soft” measures
like storm warning systems, mangrove planting or increasing institutional capacity.
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) and the Ministry of Planning and
Investment (MPI), Central Committee for Flood and Storm Control (CCFSC) and the Department of Dyke
Management, Flood and Storm Control (DDMFC) work under the Directorate of Water Resources of the
53
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), the Disaster Management Centre, the National
Hydro-Meteorological Service, and the Viet Nam Red Cross that are the focal institutions participating
in climate change related activities.
The national level Action Plan Framework (2008-2020) aims to enhance the government’s capabilities
to mitigate and adapt to climate change to minimise adverse impacts and to ensure sustainable
development of the agriculture and rural development sectors. The Action Plan contains five main tasks
shown in Table 3.1 and the local authorities in Ca Mau have integrated climate resilient policies into
wider programmes of coastal zone management (CECT, 2013; ICEM, 2009; PC Ca Mau, 2010). In Ca Mau
adaptation activities that are being proposed or carried out are listed in the following table.
Table 3.1: The national and provincial action plan on adaptation to CC impacts
National action plan
Developing and implementing
communication and information
programmes
Developing human resources in the
agriculture and rural development sectors in
relation to climate change issues
Investigating suitable adaptation and
mitigation measures and developing
standards and procedures for infrastructure
development that consider climate change
issues
Integrating climate change into sector
development programmes
Promoting international cooperation on
climate change
Provincial action plan
-Raising awareness of environmental protection and
adaptation to climate change among all communities
especially those directly affected (seminars, contest, group
meetings)
-Growing diversified livestock and plants according to the
seasonal calendar to adapt to climate change.
-Organising know-how training courses for about 25,000
people annually. Reducing the ratio of unemployment to
3-4% in 2020. Reducing the poverty ratio to 10% in 2020
(poverty criteria as USD 2/person/day)
-Building 125 km of dikes along the east coast and upgrading
93 km of dikes along the west coast. Constructing the sea
encroachment system to protect the coastal areas where
protection forests have been devastated and threatened by
ocean waves especially in the western sea of U Minh district
and Ca Mau cape.
- Developing irrigation systems to prevent inundation
-Developing water supply and irrigation systems hygienically
for domestic HH usage.
-Gaining commitment from local HHs on forest conservation
and protection (5000 HH annually), planting 2,500 ha forest
per year. In 2010, Ca Mau had 110,000 hectares of forest,
covering 19.7% and it plans to increase the coverage up to
28% in 2020.
-Allocating production forests to individual HH and enhancing
the reforestation of protected forests, special-used forests and
national parks
-Assessing the impacts and vulnerabilities in communities
mostly affected by coastal erosion and land loss for
emergency resettlement measures
-Mainstreaming climate change into sectoral development
plans, poverty alleviation programmes, environmental
protection
- Enhancing international cooperation
Source: (MRC, 2010), (PPC, 2009) và (PC Ca Mau, 2010)
54
3.1.2 Responses on adaptation at commune level
At commune level, several adaptation strategies have been designed and implemented to mitigate CC
impacts. These strategies focus on improving socio-economic stability, protecting natural resources,
adapting knowledge and on building relationships used as proxies of social resilience. Economic stability
represents the capability to access resources for increased productivity and income, and maintain
income stability and risk reduction. This data represents the household capacity, consensus in attitude
and activities regarding socio-economic stability, resource management, increase of education and
know-how, improvement in relationships and network building, and the capacity for self-organisation
(Table 3.2).
Coastal livelihoods in Ca Mau are already highly vulnerable due to climate variability and environmental
deterioration. The following paragraphs focus on the communal plans and on ensuring the stability and
safety of residents in commune level. The results show some tasks that are implemented in the three
communes at different levels.
Table 3.2: Adaptation measures at commune level
Resilience building at HH level
Socio-economic stability
- Looking for jobs
-Migrating
-Diversifying
Resource protection
-Marine
-Forest
Knowledge building
Self-organising
Network building
Adaptation measures at commune level
-Accelerating and implementing the “Eliminating hunger and reducing
poverty” programme
-Improving socio-economic standards. Implementing programmes on
family sanitation (“Clean water and environmental sanitation”), “pondbreeding facilities”, “biogas”, etc.
-Building resettlement zones, infrastructure, storm shelters, port systems,
ports, warehouses, etc. Programmes on redistribution, rehabilitation
and social welfare housing for vulnerable groups living in Full Protection
forests who are affected by erosion, who are disabled or part of an ethnic
group. For instance, Mai Hoa, Ho Gui, Kinh Dao Dong and Kinh Dao Tay are
resettlement villages for vulnerable groups settled in 2005.
-Establishing radio broadcast systems to boost communication on climate
change or storm forecasts to coastal residents or remote rural populations.
-Upgrading and raising the level of dikes and drainage systems (sharing
costs between state and villagers)
-Establishing teams of about 25 military or voluntary members in each
village for flood and storm rescue and prevention exercises. Each village
prepares several boats and permanent houses as storm shelters.
- Enforcing fishery regulations against overexploitation
-Enhancing reforestation, encouraging ecological reserves by discouraging
the exploitation of fingerlings and deforestation for charcoal
- Enhancing programmes on protecting and replanting mangrove forests
- Developing first aid teams for evacuation support
-Improving extension training services. Enhancing support for extension
trainers in areas such as choosing suitable aquaculture varieties or applying
appropriate technologies to climate changes
- Developing farming techniques appropriate to climate change
-Improving public knowledge on family sanitation, adaptation strategies
and resilience
- Improve formal and informal organisations, associations
-Promote public awareness on climate change so that every person can
take adaptation measures for himself
-Encourage participation of communities in adaptation activities, raising
public awareness and education on CC, and building adaptive capacities
Group discussion, 2013
55
Coastal Engineering Consultancy in Cà Mau Province
56
3.2 Access to assets at household level
Overall, adaptation is successful if it reduces the vulnerabilities of poor people to existing climate
variability and hazards while equipping them with the capability to anticipate further climate changes
in the future. Although the poor have limited incomes, they have assets and capabilities that can be
strengthened to reduce vulnerability to climate change. Based on the Department for International
Development’s (DFID) livelihood framework, the assets can be grouped into financial, human, social,
physical and natural capitals (Carney, 1998). Based on Fussel (2007) and Hahn et al. (2009) the assets
could be grouped into socio-economic and environmental assets. Adaptation policies focus on
providing conditions and support to the poor for capacity development with the ultimate objective
of making the livelihoods more resilient. The policies could reinforce the opportunities for the poor to
access resources, build assets, and diversify their economic activities to increase their adaptive capacity
to climate change.
3.2.1Access to financial capital: informal sources of loans
While the poor have limited financial assets they have the ways to mobilise their savings and reduce
financial risks:
-Access subsistence loans from grocery stores, borrowed food and exchange vegetables among
HHs.
-Access to micro-finance programmes like tontine (hụi), group savings, relatives or friends, and
vendors for HH necessities.
-Shrimp farmers have credit in advance from traders (shrimp seeds providers or shrimp collectors)
at very low interests.
-As fishermen cannot use their boats as collateral with the banks, they borrow money from fish
traders to maintain fishing nets and cover operation costs (like costs for ice, fuel, bait, minor
repairs and provisions) and sell their catch at lower prices (10-15%) to their creditors. They may
save money to upgrade some of the fishing equipment including nets, boats and engines yearly
instead of spending everything to repair everything every few years.
These informal financial services are not encouraged but support the poor in managing risks and
recovering from difficulties. Women are more likely to use this type of credit, which is based on nonmaterial security such as trustworthiness, prestige, social networks, reliability and diligence rather
than the material collateral that they lack. Women are mainly responsible for a HH’s savings and daily
expenditure. Thus, their financial management capacity may contribute to cost-living stability and build
trust among communities.
In general, the use of “patron-client” informal trust networks exists within well-established groups. In
most services, the money the patron provides depends on mutual trust, the relationship with and loyalty
of the client. The patrons withdraw their support when they feel the client is no longer creditworthy.
In contrast, clients refuse to be supported when they believe the patron has exploited them. In both
situations, the poor client is at the disadvantage. Therefore, the establishment of formal micro insurance
is necessary to build to trust networks among communities and to deal with the challenges from
exploitation due to high interest rates.
57
3.2.2Access to human capital: indigenous knowledge and experiences
Climate information is used to advise farmers and fishermen about their choice of seed stocking, water
management, going out to fish or improve warning for extreme weather events. The local people
already have much knowledge about how to cope with climate variability. Better information and an
early warning system will enable them to respond proactively to climate forecasts instead of reactively.
-Farmers use their experiences to predict the weather. They can tell what the weather might be
like in the upcoming days by the sky’s appearance. If the sunset is red, it will be sunny the next
day. If the stars appear bright it will not rain over the next few days. If dim stars appear, there
will be abundant rainfall. Observing animal behaviour also helps people prepare to deal with
disasters. Dogs tend to be abnormal, and feel sluggish or sleepy before an impending rainstorm.
Mayflies flying in droves into lights signal heavy rains in the next few days or dragonflies flying
low or high determine rainy or sunny days.
-In the fishery sector, television weather forecasts are the most popular means of getting
information about irregular weather. At sea, weather information is transmitted via walkie-talkies
or mobile phones. Poor small-scale fishermen decide when and where to fish mainly on the basis
of previous experience. Therefore, experienced captains play a very important role. Without
using fish detectors, directions, temperatures, water flow and tides.
-Experience in disease prevention is essential for reducing the impacts of climate change. During
inundation, people decide how long and when they should open or close the sluice gates.
Decisions are made according to their experiences with seeing the colour of the water in their
ponds and in canals. They diversify by rearing wild species or stocking mud-crabs, fish or blood
cockles to mitigate the risk of failure in shrimp production due to climate variability. Depending
on how heavy the rain or inundation is, people sluice water out and elevate water pH in their
ponds using lime.
People share experiences and know-how with each other. Unlike the men, women are rather uninterested
in farming and fishing techniques. They pay more attention to the types of seasonal vegetables for
farming, how to safely store seeds, when to dry and salt fish, and storing enough rainwater during
prolonged heat. In extensive shrimp farming, women may be involved in all farming activities. However,
they believe in the know-how and experiences of their husbands and prefer to entrust all decisionmaking to them. Adaptation strategies should consider indigenous knowledge, and if they prove to be
effective, they should be widely disseminated.
3.2.3Access to physical capital: infrastructure and houses
58
-People consider sea level rise while building their homes, for instance by elevating the basement
or building their houses on poles (see photos on page 67)
-To protect the banks from erosion people plant Avicennia alba and Nipa. Nipa leaves are sold for
cash or used for roofing but these plants cannot withstand strong waves. People would rather
build fences against erosion but only the wealthy can afford to do so. Most people have limited
access to mangrove timber to build embankments against waves, or to repair or strengthen their
houses to withstand typhoons. If needed, they need an agreement letter signed the by Forest
Management Board to get mangrove timber from their own forest.
-The poor seem to be neglected under infrastructure development programmes. Many poor HHs
living in resettlement zones along the Kinh Dao river in Dat Mui commune (in 2005) were strongly
affected by the erosion that caused many houses to collapse in 2011. This proved that the houses
and roads designed in 2005 were built based on past climatic records rather than on more intense
and extreme events in the future. Besides, many other resettlement projects failed due to the
fact that they only provided houses but not livelihoods to the poor. The ones who could not
survive resettlement, leased out their homesteads and moved away to find better livelihoods.
Therefore, besides building and implementing appropriate infrastructure and technologies for
the future, it is necessary to assist the poor by engaging them in alternative livelihood strategies
(crab flattering, animal husbandry and cultivation, handicraft production, etc.)
3.2.4Access to natural capital: marine and forest
According to many authors, small-scale fishermen are “the poorest of the poor,” and nearshore fishing is
their “occupation of last resort” (cited in Allison & Ellis, 2001; McGoodwin, 1990; Panayotou, 1982; Pauly,
1997; and Pollnac et al., 2001). The poor are often accused for overexploiting natural resources because
they have no other options. However, it has been argued that it is not so much the fishermen’s level of
poverty that is a problem (Pollnac et al., 2001), but the fact that they are vulnerable. Overexploiting by
the poor should not be defined as a crime but should be considered on the fact that they need to fulfil
family obligations, repay debts, and compensate for catch variability and decline (Tran, 2012).
Similarly, the poor have limited access to mangrove forests. In response to the destruction of mangroves,
the Vietnamese government passed several policies and regulations that focus on forestland tenure and
allocation, mangrove management, and protection and sharing benefits. However, the implementation
seems to be ineffective. Shrimp farming HHs in the research areas are located both in productive and
protected forests.
For productive forests, the policies acknowledge the farmers’ rights and authority over forest products:
Forestry contracts transfer the long-term right of use to the farmers, who can thus gain benefits from
both the mangroves and shrimp production. Settlements are allowed in productive forests only if they
maintain 50-70% mangrove cover, leaving 30-50% for shrimp ponds, dikes and houses. By contrast,
protected forests are located in Full Protection Zones or special-use forest areas, where neither
resettlement nor shrimp exploitation, shrimp culture and fishery is allowed. Nevertheless, collecting
non-timber, dead trees and small marine species is allowed.
However, the poor living in both productive and protected forests are unable to access non-timber
products, and have low awareness of forest protection. The chaos in forest allocation, the conflicts
among forest management actors, and land tenure seems to be problematic (Tran et al., 2014). Tran
et al. (2014) stated that the integrated mangrove friendly aquaculture system is a sustainable model
with regards to HH’s earnings and environmental conservation. Farmers can produce quality organic
products and are able to maximise their income from both forest conservation and shrimp aquaculture.
However, it can be done only when the responsibilities and rights to managing the mangrove forests
are devolved to local individual farmers, communities, districts or communes, People’s Committees, and
cooperatives rather than being strictly monopolised by the Forest Company or Forest Management
Board (Tran et al., 2014).
3.2.5Access to social capital: kinship networks
Social networks play important roles to the poor by providing safety nets immediately after shocks. There
is manoeuvring space for networks arising out of friendships, kinship, neighbourhoods, commercial
relations or service provision and they may contribute significantly to the sustainability of livelihoods.
However, climate risks often affect all HHs at the same time and everyone may face the same hardship.
Therefore, the informal networks may be more constituted and strengthened before and after climaterelated disasters occur.
59
The networks and relations among poor people contribute myriad ways for livelihood subsistence in the
form of loans, food, help, labour, advice and so on. It is hard to quantify these contributions and difficult
to compare since these networks work in indirect and contradictory ways. However, it is proven that
relations and networks in the Mekong Delta help to shield the livelihoods of the poor against climaterelated shocks in the short and long run.
3.3 Livelihood strategies and adaptation
In order to achieve a livelihood, people practice various kinds of activities, sometimes called a livelihood
portfolio. People undertake these activities based on strategies by which the activities are structured and
planned, hence the concept livelihood strategies (Niehof & Price, 2001). Zoomers (1999) distinguished
four categories of livelihood strategies: accumulation, consolidation, compensatory and security.
However, this categorisation should not be taken as something fixed, but flexible (Zoomers, 1999). This
means that, in different times and places, the same person may pursue different strategies. These are
influenced not only by the results of preceding activities, but also by personality characteristics (De
Haan & Zoomers, 2005).
Various definitions of adaptation are available in literature. Smithers and Smit (1997) defined adaptation
as “changes in a system in response to some force or perturbation, which in this case is related to
climate”. IPCC (2001) defines adaptation as “adjustments in ecological, social or economic systems in
response to actual or expected stimuli and their effects or impacts”. It involves adjustments to reduce the
vulnerability of communities, regions, or activities to climatic change and variability (IPCC, 2001). FAO
(2007) classifies adaptation into two main types: autonomous and planned adaptation. Autonomous
adaptation is also called short-term adaptation and planned adaptation measures are conscious policy
options or response strategies, often multi-sectoral and long-term in nature (FAO, 2007).
We adopted Folke et al.’s three clusters of strategies: learning to live with change and uncertainty,
nurturing learning and adapting, and creating opportunities for self-organisation (Folke et al., 2003;
cited in Marschke & Berkes, 2006) to show the capacity of resilience building at household level by
studying the ways people adapt, manage – or learn to manage – the changes.
We discuss which strategies are stable, sustainable, robust and resilient in the face of social and
ecological changes and uncertainties. These strategies mutually constitute each other in an interactive
process. Decisions people make at one stage do not only involve interactions between humans and the
environment, but they also nurture the memory of learning, adapting and self-organisation in social
systems that are necessary for transformation and innovation (Walker et al., 2004). We applied these
three clusters of resilience-building strategies (Folke et al., 2003; cited in Marschke and Berkes, 2006;
cited in Tran 2012) to the households in the different aquaculture and fishery systems to compare how
people manage changes. Table 3.3 shows the livelihood activities and pathways as observed in our
research. These are categorised according to the three clusters by frequency of observation, wealth
status of HH, and whether they provide short or long-term benefits.
The first cluster consists of the coping strategies, which may have positive and negative effects on
resilience depending on the production assets. It is considered part of a short-term coping strategy,
like access to informal credit or utilising mangroves for daily subsistence. The second cluster responds
to the nurturing or learning and adapting and shows adaptation strategies to protect the resources and
to build social and political sustainability. This involves activities such as reinforcing houses, moving HH
items to higher places, evacuating livestock to safe places, building dikes against flooding, reserving
60
water, buying boats for evacuation, paying attention to weather forecasts, planting mangroves to
protect against erosion, investing in infrastructure (like dikes, sluice gates and water-pumps), upgrading
boats and gear to withstand against strong winds or typhoons, sending children for higher education,
and diversifying income sources. The third cluster relates to being able to self-organise by participating
in social networks to get support, joining aid security teams to help and get help from each other,
building capacity to self-organise, and managing natural resources.
We are aware that several different livelihood strategies are being developed to build resilience at
household level to reduce CC impacts. They vary and depend completely on place, time, context,
gender, wealth status, individual and family choices. Local people are eager to change and adapt to the
threats of climate uncertainties today and in the future. The short-term adaptation strategies people
created as in the first cluster in Table 3.3 may help leverage and nurture their strengths and learning
experiences to deal with climate-related hazards in the future. Table 3.3 proves that the poor only take
part in adaptation activities of cluster 1 with instant counter-measures while the rich tend to join more
sustainable and resilient adaptation measures. Similarly, while women can participate in activities in all
clusters, most are in Cluster 1 and 2, the short and medium-term activities. Therefore, women and the
poor should be prioritised under programmes that raise awareness of climate change. They should also
get support with adaptive measures, as they are part of a more vulnerable group struggling to survive
with unsustainable adaptive strategies. Table 3.3: Adaptation measures to reduce vulnerability
61
Table 3.3: Adaptation measures to reduce vulnerability
Observation
frequency*
Livelihood activities and strategies
Act by
Women**
Poor
Middle
Rich
xx
xx
xx
xx
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
x
/
x
x
/
xx
x
xx
xx
x
/
/
/
x
/
xx
x
x
xx
x
/
/
/
x
/
xx
x
x
xx
x
x
x
xx
/
/
/
x
/
/
x
x
/
xx
xx
x
x
x
x
xx
x
x
x
x
xx
xx
xx
x
x
x
x
xx
x
x
x
x
xx






/



/
/
/
/
x
x
/
/
x
xx
xx
x
x
/
x
xx
xx
x
xx
x
x
xx
xx
x
xx
x
Response***
Shortterm
Longterm
Learning to live with changes and uncertainty
Borrowing from moneylenders
Borrowing food
Labour exchange
Catching fingerlings
Illegally cutting mangroves for wood, fire and
charcoal
Changing fishing gear to fish more in good seasons
Out-migrating to find wage labour
Deciding to stay onshore due to bad weather
Moving HH items to higher places
Reinforcing houses against collapse
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Nurturing, learning and adapting
Non-farm, off-farm diversification
Rebuilding, elevating the houses for long term
using
Evacuating livestock, HH items to safe places
Storage water
Investing on infrastructure: dikes, road, fences, etc.
Investing on evacuation means: boats, wagon etc.
Upgrading boats and gears to withstand against
strong wind/typhoons
Planting the mangroves to protect against erosion
Planting trees against prolonged heat
Migrating to generate incomes
Paying attention to weather forecasts
Attending extension training
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Creating opportunities for self-organisation
Joining first aid or disaster prevention teams
Sending children for higher education
Learning, improving know-how, knowledge and
experiences
Building good relationships with neighbours
Accessing external networks for help
Engaging in farming clusters (collaboration)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
* Who and how frequently people did these activities by observation and through HH surveys (/: no case observed;
x: observed; xx: many cases observed)
** Acts by women: How frequently women did these activities (/: never or very rarely; : sometimes or did with
someone; : very often and did individually)
*** Response: Those strategies are created for long-term or short-term benefits.
HHs that diversify livelihoods would be more resilient to climate change than those that specialise
in one livelihood option. The result shows that diversified HH not only generated income but also
prevented risks when the main livelihood was affected or failed due to shrimp disease, catch decline,
decreasing prices, etc. There was a wide range of livelihood options in the research sites for instant crop
cultivation, husbandry, small trade, migration or wage labour or collection. Women play active roles
in diversification by growing vegetables, raising pigs/ducks and trading small groceries to generate
income. The more people diversify, the less they perceive vulnerability impacts from CC. The impacts of
CC were ranked from 1 (least) to 3 (most) vulnerable according to different levels of diversification (1 to
62
3 sources of income). The HHs that specialised in one livelihood option (without diversification) were
found to be the most affected by climate change impacts. In contrast, HHs with two to three livelihood
options (sources of income) were least affected by climate-related hazards.
Figure 3.1: Relation between climate change impacts and the number of diversification options
Erosion
Prolonged heat
3 sources of income
Irregular rainfall
2 sources of income
Sea level rise, inundation
1 source of income
Whirlwind
Storms
Heavy rainfall
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Level of vulnerability to CC
Vulnerability: 1: low2: medium3: high
1: non-diversification; 2: HHs having two sources of incomes; 3: HHs having three sources of income
Migration was common in these study villages, whether skilled or unskilled labour migration, outmigration or in-migration, movements within or out of the province or international migration, and
permanent or temporary migration. There was less linkage between climate change and migration.
However, we recognise that it is a very important part of the livelihood strategies of coastal people
because it often represents an exit strategy from poverty. Although the data from the survey is limited,
other sources show that permanent migration out of the Mekong region has increased. Single young
ladies or married wives with whole families migrated to work mostly in the industrial zone of Binh Duong
near Ho Chi Minh city. They tend to leave the community to look for jobs but many returned. Some other
couples broke up since the partners decided to leave the families. There was not much international
migration in the research sites except for the many “boat people” in Song Doc who migrated out after the
war (1975). Today families receiving remittances from them play a role in shaping household incomes.
Apart from male outmigration, women married foreigners, mostly Korean and Taiwanese. That strategy
is not encouraged but accepted in the Mekong Delta.
In summary, resilience and adaptive capacity are directly linked to HH incomes, profitability, climate
change hazards, and the ability to invest in protective measures. All the indicators of poverty are
important. However, since the main livelihoods are shrimp farming and fishery, access to productive
land and investment in fishing equipment are important for poverty reduction. Poverty is often
compounded by limited access to material and non-material resources, education and health, and
low capital investment. Thus the poor only have short-term strategies to cope with climate change to
maintain livelihoods. All these strategies are less likely to be sustainable in poor groups in comparison
with the rich and middle-income groups.
63
04
04
04
64
Recommendations
for reducing gender
vulnerability to
climate change
4.1Creating livelihood opportunities for women through
income diversification
Social constructions shape ‘gender’ in the society by giving more domestic roles to women and productive
roles to men. This gives women fewer opportunities to earn their own incomes resulting in high economic
dependency on men and low capacities to cope with climate-related risks. In Viet Nam, gender inequality
has improved in recent years but women still spend a lot of time doing domestic work without payment.
The household survey showed that women shoulder 85% of housework. Similarly, women are mainly
tasked with supervising the children’s education and caring for sick family members (Figure 4.1).
Figure 4.1: Sharing of domestic work between men and women in families
HH Survey, 2013
Take care of
sick members
Take care of
children education
Housing work
0
20%
40%
Men
60%
80%
100%
Women
65
On the contrary, men are the main income earners for families. Results from the household survey
revealed that men contributed up to 64.7% of total income in aquaculture whereas women contributed
only 35.3%. For fishing, the figures were 90.9% and 9.1% respectively. Similarly, it was estimated that
74.5% of wage labour incomes came from men and 25.5% from women. Women in the study areas can
also earn incomes through small-scale vegetable cultivation, livestock husbandry or/and business but
such livelihood activities contribute just a small amount to total household incomes (Table 4.1).
Diversification of income sources is a potential measure against risks (Dixon et al., 2001). Therefore,
creating livelihood opportunities for women by diversifying income sources is important in the study
areas, particularly with climate change and the risky nature of shrimp farming. Income can be diversified
by doing either agricultural or/and non-agricultural activities.
Table 4.1: Net income and sharing of labour between men and women by
different livelihood activities
Sharing by gender (%)
Number of
samples
Net income
(million VND / HH
/ year)
Men
Women
Aquaculture
56
21,9
64,7
35,3
Fishing
55
13,7
90,9
9,1
Vegetable
6
3,3
36,7
63,3
Livestock
24
2,8
20,0
80,0
Business
28
27,8
44,6
55,4
Wage labour
62
26,6
74,5
25,5
Livelihood activities
HH survey, 2013
Agriculture: Table 4.1 shows that livestock husbandry and vegetable farming appear suitable for women
to improve their economic capacity. However, there were only 24 out of 134 households (17.9%) in the
survey that raised pigs or/and poultry, while just 4.5% of the households cultivated vegetables. (Table
4.1). Therefore, there should be a programme to promote small-scale farming systems for women like
livestock development and vegetable cultivation around their homesteads. This way, women have a
chance to generate income and also improve the nutrition of their families. The adaptive livelihood
activities above suit most households, even the poor with small land areas. However, there is a need to
support them through proper approaches such as PTD (participatory technology development), which
has been applied successfully in the Mekong delta thanks to a combination of local knowledge and
modern techniques as well as an increase in people’s participation during the PTD process (Binh, 2008;
VVOB, 2012).
We thus suggest:
-
At community level: that DARD in collaboration with WU and GIZ should carry out experiments or
demonstrations for women in the livestock sector, vegetable and/or other farming systems (i.e. VACB
integrated farming system) using the PTD approach to encourage local people to pursue suitable
agricultural activities to improve their income.
- A
t provincial and district levels: that GIZ should conduct PTD training for DARD and WU staff at
provincial, district and commune levels to ensure that the staff successfully conduct PTDs at the
66
pilot sites of these communities. Besides, DARD and WU need better collaboration to implement
the PTD process (i.e. DARD supports technical staff while WU organises training by inviting women
participants).
Non-agriculture: Income sources can be diversified through non-agricultural activities via rural job
creation. In the period of 2008-2012, about 40,183 people were trained in non-agricultural jobs via rural
vocational training programmes organised by DOLISA. However challenges remain, especially that
of job creation after the training (DOLISA, 2013). Therefore, it is necessary to consider the following
suggestions: (i) develop training programmes for women based on local needs and advantages, (ii) link
the programmes to the labour market, (iii) provide more jobs for women through local industrial and
service development such as small-scale business, home handicraft, tourism, etc.
4.2 Enhancing women’s knowledge and skills
The survey revealed that women were less educated than men. Among 458 adults (above 15 year old)
in 134 households, 10.6% of men and 13.6% of women had not gone to school. Similarly, 35.5% of men
and 50.2% of women had attended primary school. However, 35.9% of men had attended secondary
school and 18.0% of men had gone on to higher levels but for women these figures were worse at
30.0% and 6.1% respectively (Figure 4.2). It indicates that men had more opportunity to go to school
compared to women; in other words, the dropout rate among women was higher than men.
Figure 4.2: Education level of men and women in the study areas
60
(%)
40
20
0
None of school
Primary school
Men
Secondary shool
Higher level
Women
HH Survey, 2013
67
Another aspect of gender inequality in education is highlighted by the years of schooling. On average,
adult males received 6.10 years of schooling while adult females received only 4.75 years (Table 4.2).
Education is the source of knowledge which plays an important role in helping individuals to make
informed choices to respond to challenges and changes (Swai et al., 2012). In general, local people in
the study areas had low education levels, especially women. Adult education can be improved through
training and access to extension services. However, gender inequality exists even in accessing training.
Table 4.2: Years of schooling between adult males and females (15 and over)
Number of samples
Years of schooling
Male
245
6.10
Female
213
4.75
P-value (t-test)
458
0.000
HH survey, 2013
As mentioned, women contributed about 35% of labour in aquaculture, 63% in crop cultivation and 80%
in livestock sectors in the families (Table 4.1). However, they had less opportunity to access information
and extension services compared to men. 41 households out of 134 in the survey reported that they
received 144 training classes in the past five years. Of these, men participated in up to 129 classes
(89.6%) whereas women participated only in 15 classes (10.4%). Female farmers could not participate
in the training because they didn’t have time or were busy with housework, or the training took place
at inconvenient times, and they had less decision-making power. Therefore, it is necessary to promote
women’s participation in training sessions to improve their knowledge and skills for better production
and income levels.
In this regard, GIZ can support women by organising training sessions. Topics need not only focus on
technologies but also on household economic management because women play key roles in managing
financial capital in families. Yet respondents reported that there were no classes related to this issue so
far. To make training effective, it is also necessary to pay attention to suitable approaches and times.
4.3 Raising awareness on climate change
Climate change effects like abnormal weather and sea level rise, which may destroy livelihoods and
challenge human development, have occurred and have been observed by the respondents across
the three study sites. But knowledge on climate change is still vague, particularly among women. HH
survey results showed that 66% of male respondents have heard of the term ‘climate change’ compared
to only 36% of female respondents (Table 4.3). Furthermore, even if they have heard of this term, it is
not clear to them. The CCCEP Baseline Study in 2012 also reported “more than half of the interviewees
stated to have heard about the term ‘climate change’; however, many of them could not understand
and explain clearly what the terms of abnormal weather and climate change are” (Pistor et al., 2012).
To reduce climate-related risks and sustain livelihoods, there is an urgent need to raise awareness of
climate change in the region.
This can be done at different levels.
-
At community level: Awareness of climate change can be enhanced by organising training at
communes that provide basic knowledge on the causes and effects of climate change as well as
mitigation options for local people. Other approaches like organising competitions on climate
68
change knowledge or campaigns to “say no to plastic bags” that involve men and women in the
communities can raise awareness of climate change. Mass media like local television, newspapers,
leaflets, posters, etc. are also effective channels for achieving this objective.
-
At provincial and district levels: DONRE is the leading department for enhancing awareness (PC
Ca Mau, 2012). However, it is necessary to collaborate and coordinate with other organisations,
most importantly with WUs and mass media agencies to carry out awareness raising activities
within communes. DONRE provides technical staff and training material, WUs help organise
activities to encourage women’s participation, and the mass media agencies provide communities
with information on climate change. According to Decision 1350/QD-UBND in 2012, there is only
a budget of VND 5.0 billion to improve awareness among communities through publicity and
education, and to build capacity on climate change and sea level rise at all levels between 2012
and 2015. Due to these provincial budget limitations, GIZ could provide support by partially
financing awareness-raising programmes, particularly for women.
Table 4.3: Males and females who have heard the term “climate change”
Already heard
Respondents
Never heard
%
Respondents
%
Male
43
66
22
34
Female
25
36
44
64
HH survey, 2013
4.4Enhancing women’s participation in decision-making
processes
Recently women’s empowerment has improved but in general they still have less decision-making
power in the family and society. Figure 4.3 confirms that men have more power than women in making
important decisions in families such as resource control and livelihood activities. In most cases in the
study areas, women manage family budgets but husbands often decide how the income is spent. In the
community, respondents reported that attending public meetings is considered a man’s task. Except for
meetings organised by WUs, the wives attended such meetings only when their husbands were busy
or absent. Furthermore, women’s participation in the local People’s Council is still limited. According to
UNDP (2012) the percentage of women in Commune People’s Councils in Viet Nam in the period of 20112016 is about 27.7%; this figure in the survey communes ranges from 17.6% in Song Doc to 29.0% in
Nguyen Huan. Similarly, the percentage of women in People’s Committee at commune level is also low,
ranging from 22.2% in Nguyen Huan to 25.5% in Song Doc. As a result, women’s voices and needs have
not been heard fully. Hence, enhancing women’s participation in decision-making processes is necessary.
This can be done through gender equality training and publicity programmes at all levels.
-
At household and community levels: According to the Provincial Committee for the
Advancement of Women (under DOLISA), there have been some activities to publicise and
enhance awareness on gender equality so far. For example, they collaborate with the Ca Mau
Newspaper in publishing a “gender equality page” monthly, which is distributed to all communes
in the province. They have also organised a competition on “learning about policies and laws on
69
gender equality” with 1,009 participants. However, it was recognised that these activities were
irregular, used undiversified methods, and focused only on urban areas. Therefore, GIZ should
support DOLISA and WU in increasing activities to enhance awareness of gender equality that
target not only women but also men at household and community levels especially in rural and
remote areas.
-
At district and provincial levels: It is also necessary to raise awareness of gender issues amongst
governmental staff at all levels. This can be done by conducting training, workshops and/or
seminars on gender equality and gender integration into local socio-economic plans for staff
at commune, district and provincial levels. This should include even male and female leaders of
departments, associations, unions and people’s committees. Moreover, it is important to increase
the percentage of women in socio-political organisations (i.e. People’s Committees, People’s
Councils, departments, associations, and unions) and to ensure that they have power to make
decisions. GIZ can be a donor supporting such activities in collaboration with DOLISA and WUs.
Figure 4.3: Sharing of decision-making power between men and women in different fields
HH Survey, 2013
Valuable properties
House right
Land right
Aquaculture
Fishing
Animal husbandry
0%
20%
Men
70
40%
60%
80%
Women
100%
4.5Mainstreaming climate change and gender equality into
Socio-Economic Development Plans
There are four arguments for gender mainstreaming in climate change adaptation and disaster risk
reduction including efficient and effective contributions of both, women and men, avoidance of gender
inequality, mutual benefit, and more policy coherence (Box 1; UN Viet Nam & Oxfam, 2012). Hence,
climate change adaptation measures and gender equality programmes should be integrated into
Socio-Economic Development Plans at all levels. However, current SEDPs have not covered the gender
issue; for example, there was no mention of gender equality in the 2013 report on the results of socioeconomic development in Ca Mau. The SEDP for 2014 with 14 indicators did not include gender and
climate change in Report 202/BC-UBND, dated 20 November 2013 (PC Ca Mau, 2013). Whereas in the
Action Plan to Respond to Climate Change and Sea Level Rise in Ca Mau, there were no priority projects
and programmes regarding gender in Decision 1350/QD-UBND, Provincial People’s Committee in Ca
Mau, dated 25 September 2012 (PC Ca Mau, 2012).
Therefore, the following recommendations may help to promote the integration of climate change and
gender equality into socio-economic development.
-Gender equality and climate change adaptation measures should be considered as important
indicators and mentioned in SEDPs for monitoring and evaluation. Specific budgets should also
be allocated for them.
-There were some positive results from WU activities that can contribute to socio-economic
development and climate change adaptation (i.e. wooden stoves with chimney, organic
compost, biogas, etc). These achievements should be assessed and considered for scaling up in
the province.
-Mainstreaming gender equality and climate change into SEDPs requires the participation of
many stakeholders. So “Gender Focal Points” at provincial level should be established. The 2012
CCCEP Gender Baseline Study already suggested “Gender Focal Points” under the lead of the
Provincial Vice-Chair in charge of Social and Cultural aspects, consisting of members from PPC,
WU, DOLISA, DARD, DONRE, DPI, DOH, DOET, CFSC, RCA, CFAW, FA, YU, VU, and GIZ CCCEP (Pistor
et al., 2012).
-Gender equality and climate change are new topics for most staff in the province. Therefore,
to mainstream gender equality and climate change into SEDPs successfully, it is necessary to
improve human capacity for government staff at all levels by organising training on climate
change knowledge, and integrate gender equality and climate change into SEDP skills and
participatory project planning and management tools.
71
Box 1: Arguments for gender mainstreaming in climate change adaptation and
disaster risk reduction
Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction policies and actions can gain a lot from gender
mainstreaming, as it will:
(i) Capitalise on the talents, capacities and contributions of both women and men, so that policies will
be more inclusive, successful, efficient and effective.
(ii) Avoid potential, unintended effects off climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction
policies and actions that may increase gender inequalities and poverty.
(iii) Be mutually benefiting: Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction programmes and
actions can empower women and improve living conditions and livelihoods of women, their families
and whole communities; gender equality programmes and actions can contribute to disaster risk
reduction, climate change adaptation and climate change mitigation.
(iv) Ensure more policy coherence with existing social/gender policies and gender and human rights
commitments, thereby contributing to gender equality and the achievement of the Millennium
Development Goals and related sustainable human development objectives.
Source: UN Viet Nam & Oxfam,2012
4.6Providing microcredit for vulnerable groups to promote
household economic activities
Lack of financial capital for production investments and daily expenditure was recorded across the
three communes in this gender vulnerability assessment that challenged local people, especially the
vulnerable groups, to improve livelihood opportunities. It becomes more problematic when shocks
occur including production loss due to diseases (shrimp, livestock) and environmental pollution and
unusual weather (affecting fisheries and wage labour), economic shocks (increasing input prices
while decreasing product prices), and/or human health problems. The survey indicated that 72% of
households have borrowed money whether from governmental bank systems or/and local lenders. On
average, the loan was VND 52 million per household. It is important to note that the interest rate is very
high in informal systems compared to governmental banks. However, local people have to borrow from
local lenders with high interest rates because they have already borrowed from the banks or they have
no collateral (land/house certificates) particularly the poor in villages. Hence, it is necessary to enable
the vulnerable groups to have access to microcredit and saving schemes to invest in small business such
as livestock husbandry, vegetable cultivation and small businesses. These schemes can be organised
as self-help group approaches that operate within WUs in the communities. However, they often lack
start-up capital that outsiders such as WU, DOLISA, and GIZ could contribute in the beginning. Besides
financial support, it is necessary to train them on how to use money effectively and monitor investment
cycles. On the other hand, the governmental bank systems should have special policies for local people
who cannot access credit under current policies. Finally, it is necessary to ease loans for borrowers who
face financial shocks in their families.
72
4.7Reducing risks in fishery and aquaculture in the coastal
region
Key livelihood activities in the coastal region like fishery and aquaculture are facing higher risks due to
climate change and environmental pollution. Figure 4.4 shows that environmental pollution, increased
rainfall, storms and whirlwinds affect fishing activities the most, whereas important factors in the
aquaculture sector include environmental pollution, diseases, heavy rainfall and storms. All of these
factors have been increasing both in frequency and intensity in recent years. The survey also revealed
that, 68% of shrimp farmers had problems with shrimp diseases at least once in the last year. 25% of
farmers on average last year reported that they received negative returns in aquaculture due to reduced
shrimp and crab production.
Figure 4.4: Importance of environmental and anthropogenic factors affecting fishery and
aquaculture
(HH Survey, 2013)
For Fishery
Whirlwind
Storm
Too much raining
Diseases
0%
20%
less impotant
40%
60%
important
80%
100%
very important
For Aquaculture
Whirlwind
Storm
Too much raining
Diseases
0%
less impotant
20%
40%
important
60%
80%
100%
very important
73
Therefore, managing risks in fishery and aquaculture plays a key role in reducing damages and protecting
the livelihoods of local people in the coastal region.
Risks can be reduced by:
-Improving weather forecasts and early warning systems as well as communication to inform
local people in advance of imminent bad weather.
-Reducing environmental pollution. In the study areas, the environment was polluted mainly by
household litter, chemical use in aquaculture and other sectors, and waste from fish processing
factories. Hence, it is necessary to consider them in environmental protection programmes. More
importantly, wastewater from processing factories must be treated before being discharged into
rivers and canal systems because this may cause shrimp diseases when farmers channel this
water into their ponds.
-Controlling shrimp diseases. Shrimp production failure is mainly due to diseases after two to
three months of stocking. So DARD should pay more attention to controlling shrimp disease. This
requires not only on-station but also on-farm studies.
-Managing the post-larvae market. Farmers are concerned about the post-larvae market, as they
believe that shrimp diseases are connected to post larvae. So, providing good post-larvae to the
market is a key to improving shrimp productivity.
-Transferring appropriate technologies. Agricultural extension services have been developed
and have gained some success in recent years. However, according to the household survey,
70% of trainees rated the technologies they received through extension as ineffective, 27%
rated them as effective, and only 3% rated them as very effective. The respondents indicated
that such technologies are more suitable for the intensive shrimp farming system whereas they
practice only the extensive system. Besides that, the training sessions were too short, lacked
hands-on practice, and neglected women’s participation. Therefore, extension agencies should
select appropriate technologies and proper approaches to apply to local conditions, considering
gender and practical aspects to improve the capability and productivity of both men and
women. In this regard, the collaboration between DARD and WU (which has been weak so far in
conducting training for women) is important.
4.8 Applying integrated coastal zone management
Rapid socio-economic development in Ca Mau has resulted in many achievements that have helped
reduce poverty. However it has also brought negative effects to the natural resources and ecosystems
in the coast. In the context of social, economic and environmental changes there is a need to find a
sustainable approach to manage the coastal regions.
An integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) approach has been applied and has shown many
advantages around the world. This includes Viet Nam where ICZM has helped coastal communities,
including women, build their resilience and capacity to adapt to change (An N.T. et al., 2008; Duong &
Schlegel, 2012; Post J. C. & Lundin C. J., 1996; Sekhar N.U., 2005). ICZM aims to balance socio-economic
development with environmental protection, effectively solving problems concerning the utilisation
of resources, disaster prevention, protection and maintenance of coastal ecological functions based
on a multi-sectoral planning approach with the active participation of related stakeholders including
communities (An N.T. et al., 2008). ICZM is based on four key principles namely, the integration of
sectors and agencies, participation and co-management, ecosystem-based management, and adaptive
management (Smith et al., 2013). In the Mekong delta, ICZM has been applied through the GermanViet Nam development cooperation project, “Management of Natural Resources in the Coastal Zone of
Soc Trang Province”. Under this project, mangrove co-management, a form of management based on
74
negotiation, joint decision-making, a degree of power-sharing and fair distribution of benefits among
all stakeholders, has proven to be successful by improving people’s livelihoods in terms of increased
income from the collection of more abundant aquatic resources and shorter distance to collect them
(Schmitt, 2012). Therefore, we would suggest applying ICZM to build resilience and reduce vulnerability
to climate and non-climate changes in the coastal zone of Ca Mau.
The following recommendations can be considered when applying ICZM:
-Get high-level decision-makers to accept and support ICZM. This can be achieved by organising
field visits for decision-makers from Ca Mau4 to Soc Trang province and / or other sites where
ICZM has been practiced successfully.
-Gain acceptance from related stakeholders at all levels including communities. Workshops,
seminars and field visits can effectively raise awareness and garner support for ICZM application.
-Build capacity by training practitioners at all levels in ICZM principles and skills to be carried out
in the communities.
-Support ICZM pilot sites, which ensure that both men and women in the communities participate
in the entire cycle from planning to implementation, monitoring and evaluation.
-Like other interdisciplinary approaches, ICZM needs strong collaboration and coordination
among the relevant stakeholders. Therefore, it is important to have an institutional arrangement
to strengthen collaboration and coordination among governmental organisations, technical
experts, the economic sector, and NGOs or government organizations, including GIZ.
4.9 Summary of recommendations
In short, measures to enhance resilience and reduce vulnerability to climate change and that take
gender into account in Ca Mau province should focus on:
(i) raising awareness of gender equality and climate change through mass media, education and
training programmes;
(ii) improving the adaptive capacity of local vulnerable groups, including women, through
technological transfer, microcredit support, diversification of income sources and household
economic management knowledge;
(iii) assessing and drawing lessons learned from current adaptation measures with WU support, then
scaling up successful models;
(iv) conducting on-farm experiments/demonstrations on climate change adaptation in farming
systems, and pilot sites on ICMZ especially mangrove co-management practices;
(v) establishing “Gender Focal Points” at provincial level to mainstream gender equality and climate
change into SEDPs;
(vi) considering gender equality as an important indicator in SEDPs at all levels for monitoring and
evaluation; and
(vii) building capacity for governmental staff and associations/unions from province to commune
through short training programmes on diverse topics such as gender equality, climate change,
participatory extension, ICZM methodology, integration of gender and climate change into SEDPs,
ToT, and leadership skills.
(PPC; DARD including Chi cuc Kiem lam, Ban Quan ly rung, Cong ty Lam nghiep; DONRE; WU; DOLISA)
4 75
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Department of Agriculture and
Rural Development of
Ca Mau Province

Gender Vulnerability Assessment for Ca Mau

Transcription

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