The Seventeenth Century in Europe

The Seventeenth Century in Europe
Overview of the 17th Century
At the end of the 16th century, the Mannerist period, a new wave of confidence began to
sweep southern Europe and the Roman Catholic Church. The Counter-Reformation
believed it had succeeded in stemming the flow of its flock into Protestantism by making
genuine reforms through the Council of Trent, but the Council also had put new restraints
on artists. Christian subject matter was now to deliver, visually to the faithful, as much as
possible the spiritual and physical experiences of the Saints and martyrs, as well as to
display the glory of the Church triumphant.
In those countries where Protestantism had triumphed, however, religious patronage
practically dried up. In various parts of Germany, the Netherlands, and England artists
faced new tasks and a new kind of patron in addition to the aristocracy. This was the
well-to-do middle class who bought a wide variety of paintings including portraits,
landscapes, seascapes, and cityscapes, pictures of prized animals, still-life, flowers, and
mythological-allegorical subjects. Pictures were still commissioned, but a new retail art
market developed, with painters producing paintings on their own, hoping for sales to
follow.
For private patrons of any country there were few restrictions, and patronage bloomed
throughout Europe. In both northern Europe and southern Europe, new prosperity was
bolstered by overseas commerce and outright colonial looting. Money was pouring in and
patrons were willing to spend it to emphasize their social standing and to demonstrate
their relationship to God. A new materialism developed that had its counterpart in art in
the development of a new style, and this style is called the Baroque.
The Popes of Baroque Rome
This is a quick list of the Popes from 1585 to 1689, from the Catholic Encyclopedia. This is
mostly FYI and so will not be much elaborated.
The Popes are listed chronologically, beginning with the name under which they ruled, their birth
names and birth places, and the dates of their rule.

Sixtus V (Felice Peretti of Ancona) 1585-1590.

Urban VII (Giambattista Castagna of Rome) 15 to 27 September, 1590.
Not a major Pope.

Gregory XIV (Niccolo Spondrati) 5 December 1590 to 15 October 1591.
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
Innocent IX (Giovanni Antonio Facchinetti) 29 October 1591 to 30 December 1591.

Clement VIII (Ippolito Aldobrandini of Fano) 1592-1605.

Leo XI (Alessandro Ottaviano de'Medici of Florence) 1-27 April, 1605.
Not important for us as a Pope, but his life story is rather interesting.

Paul V (Camillo Borghese of Rome/Siena) 1605-1621.

Gregory XV (Alessandro Ludovisi of Bologna) 1621-1623

Urban VIII (Maffeo Barberini of Florence) 1623-1644.
Perhaps the most important of our Popes, both in his religious activities and as a patron of
the arts.

Innocent X (Giambattista Pamphili of Rome) 1644-1655.

Alexander VII (Fabio Chigi of Siena) 1655-1667.

Clement IX (Giulio Rospigliosi of Pistoia) 1667-1669.

Clement X (Emilio Altieri of Rome) 1670-1676.

Innocent XI (Benedetto Odescalchi of Como) 1676-1689.
The word “Baroque” seems to have originated in the Portuguese word Barocco, used to
designate a particular kind of pearl. Most pearls were prized for their spherical perfection,
but sometimes one of such a bizarre shape turned up, that it was also highly prized and
set in spectacular jewelry. The term may have carried over into 17th century art, but it is
important to realize that there is not just one 17th century style. At that time there seem to
be several contradictory styles operating, so the situation is complex. The Baroque period
can be divided in a number of ways: Sacred versus secular; Protestant versus Catholic;
Northern versus Southern; Exuberant versus restrained; Dynamic versus classical. Art
historians have tried to pull it all together by analyzing the art work to see what
apparently divergent paintings and architecture have in common, and to unify it by
comparing it to art of other periods.
One such historian was the German, Heinrich Wölfflin, who in 1915 wrote a book called
Principles of Art History. In this work he set forth five principles that he believed
demonstrated the differences between the art of the 17th century and that of the
Renaissance, and they were universal enough to include both Northern European art and
Southern European art.
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The following quote is from a web site on Wolfflin from Columbia University:
“The German art historian, Heinrich Wölfflin in his Principles of Art History (1915)
isolated five opposed factors which, to him, defined the difference between classic, HighRenaissance style and Baroque style. Wölfflin's distinctions--linear vs. painterly; plane
vs. recession; etc.--can be applied to paintings from other eras as well.”
 Linear vs. painterly. Elements in the linear canvas are primarily described by
line. Figures are distinct from one another; the painting is more or less a colored
drawing. The painterly painting relies on color to express form. Paint is usually
loosely handled, form is not defined with discrete lines and the edges of forms are
not readily apparent.




Plane vs. recession. Objects in a planar painting are usually laid out parallel to the
picture plane; we tend to see the flat sides of things. Depth is signified by a
succession of parallel planes into space. In the non-planar painting objects turn
corners to the viewer. There is more a sense of motion up to and away from your
eye within the painting.
Closed vs. open form. Does the space in the painting seem closed off by
something at the edge of the canvas? Are the limits of the scene defined by objects
within it? Or does the painted space appear to stretch on infinitely beyond the
limits of the canvas?
Multiplicity vs. unity. The multiple painting feels like a collection of individual
elements grouped together in the picture space. You feel you could pluck one
object right out of the painting. In the unified painting one senses the objects not
as individual elements, but as coherent parts of a general scene.
Absolute vs. relative clarity. Do you feel the objects are described as objects or
as paint? In the painting with absolute clarity objects tend to be placed in strong,
clear light so their edges are crisp and the viewer has an immediate understanding
of the form of the object. Objects are, as it were, re-created in paint. Relative
clarity, on the other hand, has to do with the optical sensation of objects. Objects
are suggested in paint, not re-created. They generally tend to be darker and more
loosely focused. Painted objects are not easily visually separable from the general
painted field.
Architecture in Italy at the beginning of the 17th Century
Maderno and the church of Santa Susanna
Carlo Maderno (156-1629) designed the façade of the Roman church Santa Susanna. Its
unique design is one of the earliest representations of the Baroque style in Italian
Architecture. Its design is very vertical and through the use of projecting columns the
verticality is very evident. This is similar to the earlier Jesuit structure Il Gesu. Santa
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Susanna is one of the major influential monuments for the development of Baroque
church architecture. Such features as its sculpture filled niches, scroll buttresses and
centered height are a taste of things to come. (Pictured below)
http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/maderno/madernosusanna.html (Maderno, Santa Susanna)
St. Peter’s Basilica
The work of the great architect Maderno appealed to Pope Paul V, and in 1606 he was
given the commission to design the façade of St. Peter’s, the central building housing the
Papacy of the Roman Catholic Church. St. Peter’s Basilica has a long history and the
structure we see today is much different from the original structure. St. Peter’s is said to
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be built on the burial site of St. Peter, who Roman Catholics consider to be the first Pope.
Maderno was forced to work with a preexisting, incomplete building rather than starting
fresh on St. Peter’s. While most of the existing façade was Maderno’s design, there were
some differences such as the addition of two bell towers which were added and are not
visible from ground level. The completion of this important symbolic center of the
Roman Catholic Church was of utmost importance to the clergy as they mounted an
effort to get members to return to the Church during the counter-reformation.
Some of the original plans for St. Peter’s were more centralized (symmetrical with all
elements radiating out from a central core). However: as you will notice the structure
was completed in the form of a Latin cross. This was done in an effort to break away
from the central style architecture used in ancient Roman, pagan structures.
Saint Peters from the piazza with Maderno's façade.
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Interior of the nave, St. Peter's. The width is 90’ and the overall length is 730’. Pictures just
don’t do justice to the structure.
Gianlorenzo Bernini
Gianlorenzo Bernini was one of the most gifted sculptors of the Baroque Period. He was
not only a master with marble, but very charismatic, handsome and cultured. Bernini
networked with influential people including the Pope, who rewarded him with many
highly sought after commissions. Some of which Bernini was less qualified for than his
competition. Throughout his career, he had an ongoing rivalry with architect, Francesco
Borromini, who we will discuss a bit later.
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While Bernini was outwardly very suave and sophisticated, he had a fiery temper and
passionate nature, which occasionally resulted in trouble. During one phase of his career,
he had an affair with the wife of an assistant. Her name was Costanza Bonorelli. When
Bernini found that she was also having an affair with his brother, he chased him through
the streets of Rome and when he caught him, nearly beat him to death. For Costanza’s
part of the affair, he punished her by sending a servant to slash her face with a straight
razor. The court system of Rome sentenced Costanza to prison for adultery and the
servant went to prison for the knife job. Bernini, however was rescued by Pope Urban
VIII and was ordered to marry to keep him out of trouble. The woman chosen by the
Pope was a very beautiful woman from a wealthy family.
Bernini’s work is characterized as being very life-like and highly theatrical, which
became the trade mark of Baroque sculpture. Art during this time was influenced by the
popular art form of opera, in lighting, gestures and exaggerated emotion.
In addition to sculpture, Bernini was well known for architecture. Commissions included
the piazza or plaza in front of St. Peter’s Basilica. The piazza was constructed between
1656 and 1667. It was part of the Church’s attempt to regain its followers who had left
during the reformation. The commission was the largest, most complex of his career.
There were pre-existing elements such as a large granite obelisk the ancient Romans
brought from Egypt. The obelisk was erected in its present location during the reign of
Pope Sixtus V in 1585 as a symbol of Christianity’s triumph over paganism. Other
obstacles in the construction were a set of fountains designed by Maderno. The design
features an oval layout enclosed by large colonnades which terminate in classical temple
front format. Bernini described the design as the open arms of the Church welcoming its
members.
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Above: Temple front of the colonnade.
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Piazza of St. Peter’s Basilica from atop the dome of St. Peter’s. Notice the placement
of the Egyptian obelisk and fountains. In the background are the Tiber River and the
Pantheon in the top right. The circular brick building next to the river, top left is Castel
Sant’Angelo. This building was featured in the book and movie Angels and Demons. It
has served as a prison during various times. It has a secure corridor leading from the
Vatican to protect the Pope during times of unrest. The structure takes its name from a
vision of the Archangel Michel seen by Pope Gregory the Great.
Notice the scale of the statuary along the roofs edge when compared to the people!
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A Glorious Bronze Canopy
Another commission landed by Bernini was for the Great Baldacchino (Baldacco is
Italian referring to a silk canopy) over the main altar beneath the great dome in St. Peter’s
Basilica (pictured below). Canopies were often used to mark the graves of martyrs.
Bernini chose to emulate the columns in the old church of St. Peter built by the Emperor
Constantine. These were believed to have come from the temple of Solomon. This was
one of the first large scale architectural commissions given to Bernini. While he was far
less qualified for the project than his chief competition Boromini, he received the
commission. The tomb of St. Peter is said to be marked by this altar and baldacchino.
This bronze structure is nearly 100’ tall. By comparison, the clock tower in EAC’s center
campus is 76’ tall. The tons of bronze were taken from the Pantheon, a building built by
ancient Romans as a tribute to their many pagan gods. The baldacchino is capped with
an orb representing the world, which is topped with a cross, thereby, symbolizing the
triumph of Christianity over the world. The Pope in power during this time was Pope
Urban VIII. His name before being selected Pope was Maffeo Barberini. A symbol of
the Barberini family is the honey bee, which appears throughout the structure as a tribute
to the family.
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Directly behind the main altar and baldacchino in St. Peter’s Basilica is Cathedra
Petri, or St. Peter’s Chair. This structure showcases what is thought by some to be, at
least in part, the actual chair of St. Peter. Carbon dating tests show that portions of the
chair, made of acacia wood date to the appropriate time. The area surrounding the
chair are rays of gold leafed forms intended to represent light. Above the chair is a
dove rendered in amber stained glass. This is intended to symbolize the Holy Spirit.
(see picture below)
For images of Cathedra Petri use this link:
http://www.christusrex.org/www1/citta/B3-Cathedra.html
Obstacles in his career
Bernini’s career was not without problems. He often undertook architectural projects for
which he didn’t have the expertise. An example of such a project was the redesign of the
bell towers of St. Peter’s Basilica. In an attempt to outdo existing elements of the
structure, Bernini failed to allow for the marshy ground under the building and upon
completion of one of the enormous bell towers, the existing façade began to crack. The
tower was torn down in order to preserve the building. This caused Bernini to lose
credibility. Eventually, his chief patron, Pope Urban VIII died and Pope Innocent X
assumed the role. During this period Bernini fell from favor.
To regain his reputation, Bernini reverted back to what he did best, sculpt. One of the
crown jewels of his career was the piece for the Cornaro Chapel of Santa Maria della
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Vittoria in Rome. This piece was to glorify Saint Theresa, a nun of the Carmelite order.
She had been recently canonized as a saint during the Spanish Counter-Reformation. St.
Theresa was said to fall into trances, during which time she would levitate above the
ground and receive revelations from an angel. Her description of the revelations was that
of painful pleasure. The Cornaro family was from Venice and is shown in opera boxes
witnessing the event in the sculpture. Santa Teresa's own words best express what is
being depicted: “Beside me on the left appeared an angel in bodily form . . . He was not
tall but short, and very beautiful; and his face was so aflame that he appeared to be one of
the highest ranks of angels, who seem to be all on fire . . . In his hands I saw a great
golden spear, and at the iron tip there appeared to be a point of fire. This he plunged into
my heart several times so that it penetrated my entrails. When he pulled it out I felt that
he took them with it, and left me utterly consumed by the great love of God. The pain
was so severe that it made me utter several moans. The sweetness caused by this intense
pain is so extreme that one can not possibly wish it to cease, nor is one's soul content with
anything but God. This is not a physical but a spiritual pain, though the body has some
share in it -- even a considerable share.”
This self-described experience set the stage for the highly theatrical sculpture which
revitalized Bernini’s career.
Above: Bernini’s Ecstasy of Saint Theresa, Rome Italy, 1645-1652.
http://images.google.com/search?q=cornaro+chapel+rome&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF8&hl=en&btnG=Google+Search&biw=1680&bih=845&sei=f1HrTvaTAcXyrQfjrIzhCA&tbm=isch (images of
Cornaro Chapel)
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Throughout his career, Bernini built fountains in Rome. He is said to be the artist who
made Rome the city of fountains. One of the most complex of these is Fontana dei
Quattro Fiumi or The Fountain of the Four Rivers. This commission was given during
the reign of Pope Innocent X to Bernini for the area called Piazza Navona. It was
unveiled in 1651. The center feature is an obelisk which is supported by a pyramid rock
formation decorated with the Pope’s coat of arms, the dove and the olive branch. The
fountain was paid for by a tax on bread and other staples. The four human images
symbolize the four great rivers: the Nile, the Ganges, the Danube and the Plate. Each
figure has symbols representing the rivers. The figure representing the Nile has the head
covered symbolizing the river’s unknown headwaters during the time.
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http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/bio/b/bernini/gianlore/biograph.html (Bernini on the
web, Be sure to click on the works tab)
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Francesco Borromini (1599-1667)
The following are notes from ROMASPQR.
Francesco Castelli, named Borromini, was born in 1599 in Bissone on Lake Lugano in what is
today Switzerland.
In the Milan cathedral workshop Borromini was trained as a stone mason and got familiar with
a vivid Gothic tradition.
After his apprenticeship in Milan, Borromini went to Rome, where, from 1619, he worked in the
workshop of St. Peter's (fabbrica di S.Pietro), which was headed by his uncle, the great
architect, Carlo Maderno. At that time, Borromini was preoccupied with studying Antiquity and
the architectural work of Michelangelo, who had a big influence on him.
Together with Maderno, his most influential teacher and mentor, Borromini worked in the
Palazzo Barberini. After Maderno's death, Gian Lorenzo Bernini took over as the person in
charge of the building and in addition was appointed Architect of St. Peter's. A few years later,
Borromini and Bernini separated for good. A life-long rivalry began.
Under the pontificate of Innocent X (1644-55) Borromini finally succeeded in replacing Bernini
as the leading architect in Rome. But already the succeeding Pope was again more favorably
disposed towards Borromini's most important competitor: under the pontificate of Alexander VII
(1655-1667) he was not entrusted with any new commissions. Thus, Borromini devoted the last
years of his life to the completion of unfinished building projects, i.e. he completed the interiors
of S. Ivo and S. Giovanni in Laterano and built the still missing facade of his first work, San
Carlo alle Quattro Fontane.
An important concern of his was the preparation of a compilation of engravings called Opus
Architectonicum which was meant to hand down his works, sketches, designs, and plans to future
generations.
In the summer of 1667, Borromini suffered from nervous disorders and depression, which
ultimately led to his suicide.
Borromini took Italian Baroque to a whole new level. His emphasis on undulating
convex and concave façades went beyond previous Baroque architecture. Because of his
appreciation for sculpture his architecture became very sculptural. A good example of
his convex and concave style can be seen in the façades of St. Ivo and San Carlo alle
Quattro Fontane (St. Charles of the four fountains) surrounding Piazza Navona and the
fountains of Bernini in Rome.
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Below Left: Francesco Borromini, façade of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome,
Italy, 1665-1676 (completed after his death) and Below Right: San Carlo alle Quattro
Fontane, Rome: interior, dome with illusionistic coffering, ca. 1665-1668.
Below: Chapel of Sant’Ivo, College of the Sapienza, Rome, Italy, 1642-1650.
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Borromini’s sculptural architectural style was continued by Guarino Guarini (16241683). Guarini was an architect who was also a mathematician and priest. He spent
nearly all of the last two decades of his life working in Turin. Turin is known as the
home of the Shroud of Turin, which is thought by many to be the burial shroud of Jesus
Christ.
Left: Shroud of Turin.
The mathematical influences on Guarini’s work are very apparent in his design for the
interior of the dome of the Cathedral of Turin, known as the Chapel of Santisma Sindone
(Holiest Shroud). The dome appears to dematerialize into a series of forms that revolve
and add to the perspective of the form.
http://www.math.union.edu/research/student/1998/tolin/intro.htm
Venice and Baroque Architecture
Venice was also influenced by trends in the Baroque style of architecture. In 1630
Venice was suffering the ravages of yet another plague which killed about one-third of
the population of the city. During this time the senate proclaimed that if the city were
spared the devastating effects of the ongoing plague they would build a church dedicated
to the Virgin Mary. When the plague miraculously subsided they began work on the
Basilica di Santa Maria Della Salute (Basilica of St. Mary of Health/Salvation)
commonly known simply as the Salute. The commission for the design of the church was
given to an architect named Baldassare Longhena (1598-1682). The structure is a multidomed form which sits on a peninsula of the Grand Canal. The Salute is a vast, octagonal
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building placed on a platform made of approximately 100,000 wooden pylons driven into
the floor of the lagoon, and filled with concrete. The structure was completed in 1681, the
year before his death.
Above: Santa Maria Della Salute
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Above: interior of Santa Maria Della Salute.
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Above: main Altar of Santa Maria Della Salute (Virgin Mary is the central figure)
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An Academic Approach to Art
The Bolognese Academy of Art was operated by members of the Carracci family, in the
city of Bologna. It was the first painting academy of its type in the history of art in the
Western World. Its philosophy was based on the idea that art, like any other discipline
can be taught following a specific curriculum. The academy followed a formal, classical
style. The central study of the program included Renaissance tradition, anatomy and life
drawing. A beautiful example of the work produced by members of the Carracci family
was done by Annibale Carracci in the Farnese Palace ceiling vault fresco entitled “Loves
of the Gods pictured below. This painting was done in Rome c. 1597-1601. It was
commissioned by Cardinal Odoardo Farnese to celebrate the wedding of the brother.
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Painting the “Common People” in Religious Scenes
Unlike the traditional, idealized style painted by the Carracci, Michelangelo Merisi (AKA
Caravaggio after the Italian town he came from), (1573-1610) was inspired by the
common people and used them throughout his career as models for his religious
paintings. Caravaggio’s style was very high impact and theatrical and created a buzz
throughout the art world. Not only did he choose everyday people as models to be placed
in religious scenes (he felt they were more believable), he chose dramatic poses and a
type of lighting which was very much like that of opera, an art form which was very
popular during the time. This lighting style became called Tenebrism, from the Italian
word Tenebroso meaning shady. Caravaggio’s approach to painting was very nontraditional. Tradition dictated that an artist copied the work of the old masters and also
spends great amounts of time sketching from classical sculpture. Prior to beginning a
painting, an artist typically sketched first on the canvas, then began painting. Caravaggio
didn’t follow this prescription. He set his models, studied them visually then began to
paint.
Caravaggio led a colorful life, during which he was often on the run because of his fiery
temper. While he was a very successful artist he chose to hang out in the slums of Rome
and associate with the ruffians of that society, rather than the refined, religious upper
class. He was always ready for a fight should a disagreement occur and in 1606 fled
Rome with a price on his head for killing a man during a sword fight. In 1608, after
reestablishing himself in Malta he fled again after another brawl, and again from Naples
in 1609. After a career of little more than a decade, he died from exhaustion and
exposure from being on the run. For such a short career, he had a huge impact on the
world of painting, and a lasting influence on future artists. For a more in-depth look at
the work of Caravaggio use this link: http://www.wga.hu/bio/c/caravagg/biograph.html
To see the work of Caravaggio in H.D. follow these links:
http://www.googleartproject.com/museums/uffizi/sacrifice-of-isaac
http://www.googleartproject.com/museums/uffizi/the-adolescent-bacchus
http://www.googleartproject.com/museums/uffizi/medusa-caravaggio
http://www.googleartproject.com/museums/thyssen/saint-catherine-of-alexandria-41
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Above: Caravaggio, The Crucifixion of Saint Peter, Cerasi Chapel, Santa Maria del
Popolo, Rome, Italy. 1601.
Above: Caravaggio, The Taking of Christ, National Gallery of Dublin, Ireland c. 1598
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Caravaggista
A close follower of Caravaggio or “Caravaggista” was a female artist named Artemisia
Gentileschi (ca. 1593-1653). She was taught by her father since women were seldom
admitted into apprenticeships or courses of study to learn to paint. Her father was a fan
of the style of Caravaggio so her work was influenced by the dramatic tenebrism of
Caravaggio. It is thought that she actually knew Caravaggio and is often considered an
imitator of his style.
Gentileschi had a successful career in many locations in Italy. Her narrative subject
matter often depicted a heroic female who had overcome diversity. Many art historians
feel her choice of subject was due to the documented case in which her teacher, Agostino
Tassi attempted to rape her. When brought to trial, he was acquitted but expelled from
Rome.
Above Left: Artemisia Gentileschi, Judith Slaying Holofernes, ca. 1614-1620. Uffizi,
Florence, Italy, Right: Judith and Her Maidservant, 1613-1614, Florence, Italy.
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The Evolution of Ceiling Paintings
During this period of fantastic ceiling frescoes, the use of perspective was used as a tool to
create the appearance of the ceiling dissolving into the heavens. The use of color and
lighting added to the effect. A master in the use of perspective in ceiling paintings was Fra
Andrea Pozzo. He was a brother in the Jesuit order and became known in art history as the
painter of the scene Glorification of Saint Ignatius in the nave of Sant’Ignazio, in Rome,
Italy, 1691-1694 (a remarkably short period for such a complex scene). Saint Ignatius was
the founder of the Jesuit order.
Pozzo used di sotto in su, a view looking up from below which was begun by Mantegna. He
utilized painted architecture to continue the illusion that the actual building receded into the
heavens. This technique is termed quadratura. This scene effectively creates the
appearance of the intermixing of the Heavenly and the Earthly.
Follow the link below to view images of the painting:
http://www.google.com/search?um=1&hl=en&rls=com.microsoft%3Aen-us%3AIESearchBox&biw=1680&bih=845&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=the+glorification+of+st.+ignatius+po
zzo&oq=the+glorification+of+st.+ignatius+pozzo&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&gs_sm=e&gs_upl=10
932l13974l0l15199l6l6l0l5l0l0l221l221l2-1l1l0
The Baroque in Spain
Spain, was an international powerhouse by the 16th century. The Hapsburg Dynasty
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Habsburg ) had established itself as the center of
Spain’s power and ruled over parts of the New World, the Netherlands, Portugal and
regions of Italy. The control of such a vast empire created challenges for the Hapsburg
rulers to maintain control. During the 17th century, the empire began to struggle and started
to crumble. Another issue facing the Hapsburg was their genetic deterioration due to
inbreeding through the generations in order to keep the bloodline “pure”.
Spain, being predominantly Catholic, faced the same problems with the Reformation and
Counter-Reformation as Italy. As with Italy, Spanish rulers and artists used visual imagery
to help draw people back to the church. Spain utilized emotional scenes with martyrs and
saints and their sacrifice to help create a sense of pride in their rich religious history.
A painter whose work echoed the realism and tenebrism of Caravaggio in Spain was Jose
De Ribera (ca.1588-1652). Ribera settled in Naples early in his life where he was given the
nickname Lo Spagnoletto or the little Spaniard. The effect of Caravaggio’s brutal, dark
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themes can be seen in Ribera’s work, such as Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew, ca. 1639,
pictured below. In this scene St. Bartholomew is being hoisted into the air to be skinned
alive. Like Caravaggio, Ribera avoided idealizing his characters in an effort to make them
believable and someone with whom the viewer can identify.
The painter regarded by many to be the greatest Spanish painter of this period is Diego
Velasquez (1599-1660). Velasquez became a master of a style known as optical realism.
This approach is characterized by its extreme attention to detail and clarity. The artist
utilized the contrast of darks and lights much like that of Caravaggio, whose style he had
studied. Velasquez is renowned for his ability to capture not just the likeness, but, the
personality of his subject.
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Above: Diego Velasquez, Self Portrait, Oil on Canvas 17.7” X 15”. Right: King Phillip IV,
1631-32, (notice the large chin, known as the Hapsburg jaw, due to generations of dynastic
inbreeding).
Velasquez spent the majority of his career in Madrid, Spain working as the official court
painter for King Phillip IV. Phillip was one of the Hapsburg Kings, striving to maintain
control of the vast Spanish empire. Through the use of art, for which he was an avid patron
he was able to further his cause. Phillip was highly impressed with the talent of Velasquez
and gave him the opportunity to develop his career.
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Above: Diego Velasquez, Pope Innocent X. Notice his ability to capture the persona of the
subject.
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Above: Diego Velasquez, Juan de Pareja, 1650. The subject was Velasquez’s friend,
assistant and his former slave, whom he freed. Notice the dignity with which Velasquez
presented his subject.
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17th Century Art in Flanders
Like Spain, Portugal, parts of Italy and Mexico (Maximilian), the Netherlands came to be
ruled by the Hapsburg dynasty. Eventually the Northern, Protestant, regions expelled the
Hapsburg rule and formed the Dutch Republic. The region known as Flanders was the
Spanish ruled Netherlands. Because of philosophical and religious differences, politics and
art evolved separately and distinctively in Flanders and the Dutch Republic. The Dutch
Republic developed a very strong middle-class, while Flanders continued socioeconomically and artistically to reflect the values of Spain.
A Flemish (from Flanders) master who drew together the contributions of the Italian
Renaissance and Baroque masters was Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640). Rubens’ style would
have a lasting effect on the world of painting.
Rubens was very educated and he associated with the scholarly as well as royalty. He had
good business sense and amassed great wealth by becoming an art broker for many
prominent artists, as well as selling his own work. Rubens’ style of rendering the human
form led to the term “Rebenesque”, a term still used today, referring to the plump fleshy
figure types so prevalent in his work. While this figure type isn’t popular today, it
represented the tastes of the ideal Baroque figure. In style, Rubens was a colorist. This led
later to a following called the Rubenistes, who believed that color was more important than
form and appealed to the masses not just to the select few who had been educated in art.
Therefore, they believed, color was supreme.
Above: Peter Paul Rubens, Self-Portrait, 1623. Oil on canvas, approx. 36”X28”.
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Above: Peter Paul Rubens, The Fall of Man, Madrid, 1628-29.
http://www.wga.hu/bio/r/rubens/biograph.html be sure to click on the “works” button to
view more of his paintings.
England’s Court Painter
Many of Rubens’ assistants and students went on to achieve grandeur as a painter. The most
successful of his many students/assistants was Anthony Van Dyck (1599-1641). Van Dyck
was born to a rich silk merchant in Antwerp. While working in the studio of Rubens, Van
Dyck developed a lush painting style much like that of Rubens. His style was so similar that
some of his work was incorrectly attributed to Rubens. In order to avoid being
overshadowed by Rubens, Van Dyck left Antwerp and eventually ended up in London,
where he became the official court painter for King Charles I. Van Dyck’s compositions
added a power and elegance to royal figures that were often, physically not imposing people.
He often used angles and settings to add to their royal presence in the scene. His style of
painting and composition became the benchmark for English court painters for centuries to
come.
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Above: Sir Anthony Van Dyck, Self-Portrait, after 1633. Oil on canvas, 23” X 28 ¼”
Above: Anthony Van Dyck, Charles I Dismounted, ca. 1635. Oil on canvas, approx. 9’ X7’.
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Portrait Painting in Haarlem
The term Holland was used informally to refer to the Dutch Republic, Amsterdam, Haarlam,
and Delft were located in Holland the largest of the seven United Provinces. Holland had a
very strong middle class with Amsterdam having the highest per capita income in all of
Europe. This period is often referred to as the Dutch Golden Age.
Haarlem was, at one time the capital city of the province of North Holland. North Holland
was at one point in history the most powerful of the seven provinces of the Dutch Republic.
Dutch Baroque artists were skilled in their ability as portrait painters. Dutch painters had a
complex job in painting portraits because many of their commissions came from the ever
growing middle-class, rather than the usual aristocrats and religious officials. The painter
Franz Hals (ca. 1581-1666) was the leading artist of the Haarlem school and one of the great
realistic painters of the Western tradition. He not only excelled at individual portraits, but
also large group portraits. Some of his groups would include more than a dozen sitters.
Imagine the difficulty of sketching and painting that many people without the use of a
camera to first capture the scene!
Above: Frans Hals, Archers of Saint Hadrian, ca. 1633. Oil on canvas, approx. 6’9”X11’.
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Above: Frans Hals, Laughing Cavalier, 1624. Oil on canvas, 32.7” × 26.5”
Another successful Dutch portrait painter who was known for painting merry genre scenes
was Gerard van Honthorst (1590-1656). Van Honthorst’s unique portrayal of the light
hearted utilized the strong lighting of Caravaggio to add to the impact of his unique scenes.
These scenes often included people eating and drinking, playing music and carousing. One
such scene is a painting called Supper Party. See attached link:
http://www.wga.hu/html/h/honthors/1/05supper.html
Dutch artists’ subject matter was heavily influenced by Calvinist religious philosophy.
Scenes often included landscapes, flowers and still-life, portraits and seascapes but tended to
shy away from religious scenes which made their work distinct from that of the Catholic
artists of the time.
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Above: Gerard Van Honthrost, The Matchmaker, 1625. Oil on canvas.
The leading 17th Century Dutch painter was Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-69). Rembrandt
came from a modest upbringing, his father was a miller. He was part of a large family which
had nine children. At age 14 he left the University of Leiden to study painting. In his
studies, he learned the use of light developed by Caravaggio. In his early work it was very
apparent that he was influenced by Rubens (who would have been at the peak of his career at
this time) in his use of color and lighting. Rembrandt’s skills developed so rapidly, that by
the age of 22 he began taking his first pupils. Rubens also became a master at etching. This
allowed him to sell even more work because multiple copies could be created. His work
became extremely popular and sold quickly for good prices. Rembrandt experimented with
texture in his painting style and often used very heavy, coarse brush strokes.
Rembrandt painted several religious scenes, but they were not grand scale and theatrical,
typical of Baroque Italy. His religious scenes depict Biblical stories in human terms.
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Rembrandt van Rijn, Captain Frans Baning Cocqu Mustering his Company (The Night
Watch) 1642. Oil on canvas, 11’11”X14’4”.
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Rembrandt van Rijn Three Crosses 1653. Drypoint and etching approx. 15” X 17 ¾.
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Above: Rembrandt van Rijn Self-Portrait, 1658. Oil on canvas, 52 5/8” X 40 7/8”.
Interior Scene Painting
Jan (Johannes) Vermeer (1632-75) was a very unique Dutch painter. He had a very detailed
meticulously observed style. During his career he produced a small number of pieces as
compared to his contemporaries. Approximately 40 paintings have been positively identified
as his work. Vermeer was very calculated in his use of a focal point and its surroundings.
His primary figures in the scenes were typically women who came from the successful
Bourgeois (middle-class). Controversy and speculation continue to surround the artist.
During his career a new technology came into existence. This was a projector-like object
called the camera obscura (dark chamber). Many speculate that his work was created
utilizing this new technology to aid in his compositions. Part of this speculation is due to the
fact that he made use of depth of field with objects in and out of focus much like that created
by a lens. Vermeer was known for his powerful use of color and his understanding of color
theory which was ahead of most other artists of the time.
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One of his most well-known pieces is called The Girl with a Pearl Earring. This piece is
often nick named The Mona Lisa of the North. It was the inspiration for the award winning
fictional movie made in 2003 called The Girl With a Pearl Earring, Staring Colin Firth,
Scarlet Johansson and Tom Wilkinson.
Jan Vermeer, The Girl With a Pearl Earring. 1665. Oil on canvas, 18.3”X15.7”ca.
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Jan Vermeer, The Milkmaid, c. 1660. Oil on canvas, 16”X18.”
A New Era in Still-Life Painting
As the wealth of the Dutch grew, pride in their accomplishments and possessions began to be
displayed in still-life paintings. Their expensive possessions became common place as
subject-matter. Often these objects were painted with inferences to man’s mortality. Such
Items and crystal glasses partially empty, citrus fruit partially pealed, broken glasses were all
commonplace and implied the passage of life and even death in still-life genre. Artists such
as Willem Kalf (1619-1693) and Willem Claesz Heda (ca. 1599-1680) incorporated this type
of symbolism into their exquisitely rendered still-life paintings.
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Willem Claesz Heda, Still-life with pie silver ewer and crab, 1658. Oil on canvas.
17th Century France
Nicholas Poussin (1594-1665) was a French painter born in Normandy who painted in the
classical tradition during the Baroque period. His style served to inspire such artists as
David and Ingres in its classical emphasis. He modeled his work after the Venetian master
Titian and Renaissance master Raphael in his reference to the classical themes. A prime
example of his attention to classical themes was in the painting Burial of Phocion. This
subject came from classical literature. An epoch tale of an Athenian General falsely accused
of treason and put to death.
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Nicolas Poussin, Burial of Phocion, 16489. Oil on canvas, approx. 3’11” X 5’ 10”.
French painter Claude Lorrain (1600-1682) was a landscape painter who created soft
sophisticated scenes which focused on the complexity and beauty of the landscape and
pointed out no moral or story. His use of atmospheric perspective and soft lighting were
done in the tradition of the great Venetian masters.
Claude Lorrain, Seaport (Villa Medici) 1637.
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Art in the Eighteenth Century: Late Baroque, Rococo,
and Neoclassicism
The Enlightenment
Because of advancements in many disciplines, the eighteenth century in Europe is known as the
Age of Enlightenment. See the link below for more information.
http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/hum_303/enlightenment.html (The Enlightenment)
Art in France: Le style Louis Quinze, or the Rococo
http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/r/rigaud/index.html (Lois XIV in his later life,
paintings by Hyacinthe Rigaud)
http://www.a-castle-for-rent.com/versailles/ (Versailles Palace)
At the turn of the eighteenth century, Louis XIV was still in power in France. He had suffered
heavy defeats militarily and dynastically, but his court at Versailles was still the center of a
powerful culture. It was, however, a court waiting for Louis to die.
Already new ideas in art had begun to spring up in the bombastic and power-ridden art of the
previous century and all it needed was the fertile soil of a sympathetic regime to flower.
Above: Louis XIV (1638–1715), by Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701), Oil on Canvas.
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When Louis died in 1715, his great grandson Louis XV became King of France at the age of five
(having outlived his father and grandfather). Until he came of age to rule in his own right in
1723, his cousin, Philip of Orleans, ruled for him as Regent.
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Philip was intelligent, cultured and a great lover of the arts. He was more interested in his
own amusement than continuing the dynasty of the Bourbons. He also lived in Paris at
the Palais Royale.
Willingly following his lead, French society immediately abandoned the formal stately
behavior of the previous reign and its Baroque setting. A less formal society demanded
less formal surroundings, so the nobility, many of whom had been living at Versailles,
left the estate and moved into new town houses in Paris called hotels.
The new buildings replaced the strict Baroque classical style with buildings which,
although still classical in their architectural vocabulary and symmetry, were smaller,
intimate, more decorative, lighter and less somber and serious in feeling.
Interior design flourished in these smaller and more comfortable rooms and apartments
full of light, let in by large windows and reflected by mirrors, pale walls gracefully
embellished with motifs taken from shell and vine forms and collections of art objects.
In Europe, this period, roughly located in the first half of the 18th century, is known as "Louis
XV". It is also called "Rococo." This word comes from the French word, rocaille, meaning
pebble, originating with a type of decoration found in the grottoes of aristocratic homes, where
shells and pebbles made a natural setting for fountains and plants. While it had its origins in the
Baroque style, the elegant Rococo style was also a reaction to it. Like the term Baroque, Rococo
has come to embrace an entire period of art, including painting and architecture, although it can
also be applied to the smaller arts: porcelain, metal work and interior decoration.
There is, however, a common spirit that pervades all the arts of the Louis XV period. In some
respects that art continues the Baroque love of movement and energy, but tones it down and
reduces its scale, with lighthearted playfulness. Gone are the pomp and circumstance, the
heaviness and overladen symbolism of power and ritual that Baroque art patrons so often used to
underscore their authority. http://www.bergerfoundation.ch/Vertige/english/ (Details on
Rococo, Differences between Rococo and Baroque)
The new style was best reflected in interiors, furniture, tapestry, porcelain and metalwork. The
“C” curve, the reverse “C” curve and the “S” curve dominated asymmetrical embellishments on
paneling, mirror frames, candlestick holders, clocks, and furniture. An excellent example of the
typical French Rococo interior is the Salon de la Princesse in Hotel de Soubise by Germain
Boffrand, built between 1737-1740 in Paris.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/media/23168/Salon-de-la-Princesse-in-the-Hotel-deSoubise-Paris
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Angular lines and classical motifs were abandoned in favor of curving lines and plant motifs.
The overall effect was one of lighthearted elegance.
An important aspect of the Rococo was the interest in things from the Orient, especially China
and Turkey. The impact of Chinese imported porcelain gave rise to a type of decoration called
“Chinoiserie.” A style of furnitire in England made by Thomas Chippendale ("Chinese
Chippendale") was also influenced by Chinese art.
Rococo art reflected the increasing importance of wealthy noblewomen on taste. This was the
age of the salon, which means “room” but also designated gatherings of sophisticated people
who were invited for their ability to turn a phrase and say witty things. This was the epoch of the
“bon mot” (clever wit). These salons were typically found in town houses in Paris called hȏtels.
The most important trend-setter in the period of Louis XV was his mistress, Madame de
Pompadour, truly "mistress of the arts." She was considered the leader of taste and style.
Madame de Pompadour by Francois Boucher, 1756
Madame de Pompadour was not royalty. She came from the lower middle class, but she quickly
learned the court etiquette. She was talented: she sang, danced, painted, engraved paintings of
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her favorite artist and teacher, Boucher, and came to dictate the taste of the first half of the 18th
century. She was interested in the design and manufacture of Sevres porcelain. She patronized
sculptors, furniture makers and clothes designers and amassed a huge collection of art. When she
died in 1764, it took eight months to auction off her collections.
French Rococo painting was characterized by light hearted scenes with the wealthy set it an
Arcadian style landscape. It was not characterized by strict classicism. These scenes often
showed lovers singing love songs or writing poetry. A painter from the northern reaches of
France, influenced by Rubens, and most commonly associated with the development was
Antoine Watteau (1684-1721). While he lived only 37 years, his subtlety and taste in themes
were not matched by later Rococo artists. For his application into the French Academy he
selected the subject from Greek mythology about the Island of Cythera. In the scene a group of
lovers prepares to depart from Cythera, the island of youth and love sacred to Aphrodite. The
piece is appropriately titled Return from Cythera and was painted between 1717-1719.
Antoine Watteau, Return from Cythera, 1717-1719. Oil on canvas, 4’3” X 6’4”. Louvre, Paris.
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Antoine Watteau, Mezzetin, 1717-1719. Oil on
canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.
The Royal Academy of painting and sculpture was created in France in 1648 with the
encouragement of King Louis XIV as a way to extend his control to matters including artistic
tastes. It provided art instruction as well as providing exhibitions called salons. The Academy
exerted great control over what was acceptable in the art scene, and in order for a painter to be
successful, he needed to be a member of the Academy. Membership as was very competitive.
During the 18th century, the school of style within the Academy was strongly divided into two
groups. One group was the Rubenists. Rubenists believed that color was the most important
element in painting because it appealed to everyone including those who had no formal art
training. The other school of thought was the group called the Poussinistes, who felt that above
all else, form was paramount. Therefore, students tended to follow one school of thought or the
other.
In France, Bernini’s Baroque sculptural style seen in Apollo and Daphne was echoed in French
small-scale sculpture such as Nymph and Satyr, by Clodion, (1737-1814).
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/14.40.687
Baroque Architecture in England
We start with a look at English architecture in the 17th century. The Baroque style never quite
took hold in England, except for several notable examples by Sir John Vanbrugh, Nicolas
Hawksmoor and James Gibbs. The continental style was associated with the Catholic Stuarts,
and when the Georges began their reign in 1714, the Palladian style was deemed more
appropriate, and continental European influences showed up in forms that were closer to
Renaissance architecture.
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While France was ruled by absolute monarchy, England was kept somewhat in check through
Parliament. While religion pervaded society in England it wasn’t as tense as in France. The
English practiced a variety of religions including Protestantism, Puritanism, Anglicanism, and
Catholicism. Architecture in England made great strides in incorporating classical elements into
their public buildings.
In 1705 the British government commissioned a grand palace for John Churchill, Duke of
Marlborough as a reward for his victory over the French in the Battle of Blenheim. The
commission for the design was given to John Vanbrugh. The structure reflects the designer’s
love of Italian Baroque elements. (See image below)
English architects were strongly influenced by architecture of both Classical and Renaissance
times. The ancient architect to whom the English looked to for inspiration was Vitruvius, the
Roman architect and engineer from the 1st century B.C. From more recent times, The English
were inspired by the work of Renaissance architect Palladio. This is very evident in the work of
Richard Boyle and William Kent in their creation of Chiswick House near London England,
pictured below. This structure was built between 1725-1729, and makes use of classical features
and proportions. The characteristic temple front and domed rotunda are key elements of
Palladian style architecture, which about 1760, in England, evolved into Neoclassicism.
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Above: Chiswick House, Front view, began 1725.
Chiswick House, Temple Front Entry.
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The English garden, unlike those of the French often was characterized by a more natural look,
as shown below with the Palladian style bridge at Stowe, built between 1730-38.
Christopher Wren
http://www.britainexpress.com/History/christopher_wren.htm (Biography of Christopher Wren)
A lucky man at an unlucky time, Christopher Wren had been tinkering with the architecture of
the old Gothic church of St. Paul (pictured below) in downtown London, including putting a
renaissance dome over it, when most of the central part of the city was destroyed by fire. Wren
then had the opportunity to build an entirely new structure in the Renaissance style. In addition
to the cathedral; Wren also built 51 other churches.
Above: St. Paul’s Cathedral, Christopher Wren, London England 1675-1710.
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Above: The Royal Crescent, Bath, England, 1769-1775. John Wood the Younger, architect
Later, in the 18th century, such marvels as the Royal Crescent, by John Wood the Younger, were
built drawing its inspiration from classical architectural elements. This style was built during the
period labeled Georgian which lasted from roughly 1720-1840. This period was so named after
the four British monarchs named George. This structure was built as part of a complex of
buildings (the Queen’s Square, The Circus, and Royal Crescent) in the resort town of Bath
England. The structures were made to accommodate the well to do when they came to enjoy the
hot waters of the natural springs of the area. The Royal Crescent is a series of 30 residences all
adjoining along a semicircular axis.
Modern Technology Depicted in Painting
Interest in technology and the workings of the universe made their way into painting in England
in the work of Joseph Wright of Derby. His work incorporated mechanical and scientific objects
with emotionally dramatic scenes. In the painting below called Experiment on a bird with an air
pump 1768, Wright packs as much emotion into the scene as possible while showcasing the
relatively new technology of air pumps. In the scene the scientist demonstrates how the pump
can be used to create a vacuum, effectively pulling the air from the sealed chamber containing
the bird.
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Late Baroque Architecture in Germany, Italy, and Arizona
In Germany the influence of Baroque sculpture and architecture was very apparent. The work of
Bernini and Borromini was displayed in such architectural structures as the pilgrimage church of
Vierzehnheiligen (14 saints). This structure was designed by Architect Balthasar Neumann and
built near Staffelstein Germany. Neumann traveled throughout Austria, northern Italy and Paris
before beginning one of the most active careers in Germany. His design features a light cheerful
interior in which he uses large windows to create a well light interior.
http://www.vierzehnheiligen.eu/en/geschichte/index.php
Amalienburg
A brilliant example of French Rococo architectural style in Germany was Amalienburg (below).
The structure was built on the outskirts of present day Munich between 1734-39. It houses a
circular room called the hall of mirrors. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amalienburg_019.JPG
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Asam Church
Influenced by the Late Baroque sculpture of Bernini, and the painting of Tiepolo they saw on a
trip to Rome, the German architects, the Asam brothers returned to Germany and began work on
various churches. One of their most well-known was their own private church known as the
Asam Church in Munich, Germany (pictured below). Due to public pressure it was made into a
public church and is also called Asamkirche Church.
Inside the Monastery church in Rohr Germany is a sculpture depicting the assumption of the
Virgin Mary into heaven. The sculpture is very operatic in style, drama and form.
http://www.wga.hu/bio/a/asam/egid/biograph.html
Asam Church, Munich, Germany.
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During the same time period in the desert of what would eventually become Arizona the “White
Dove of the Desert” San Xavier Mission was being built by Father Eusebio Kino. The church is
located about 9 miles south of Tucson, AZ. http://www.sanxaviermission.org/History.html
San Xavier del Bac, Tucson, 1783-1797
Italian Art of the 18th Century
Instead of embracing the French Rococo style in a big way, Italy resisted the style much as they
had with French Gothic and instead, continued developments in the Late Baroque style.
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During the 18th century, an Italian painter named Giambattista Tiepolo continued to paint largescale ceiling paintings. Tiepolo was a Venetian and is considered the last grand scale fresco
painter. He was also one of the last Italian masters to have an international impact on art until
the 20th century.
Above: Tiepolo, Apotheosis of Spain, Royal palace of madrid, 1762-66.
Another notable Venetian painter made his mark selling paintings to tourists. During this period
of time, Europeans, specifically the English were commonly taking the “Grand Tour” of Italy
and Greece. The painter Canaletto “little canal” became quite popular by painting “veduta”
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(scene paintings) which showed scenes of Venice which could be taken back to England as a
souvenir of the trip.
Above: Canaletto, The Grand Canal and the Church of the Salute, 1730
Above: Canaletto, The Stonemason’s Yard, 1726
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A Venetian woman who made her mark in the art world creating casual portraits in pastels was
Rosalba Carriera. Carriera began her career painting designs on snuff containers. This product
was very popular at the time. Eventually her work transitioned into small scale portrait painting.
Carriera’s work was popular among those collecting Rococo work because of its soft appearance.
http://www.wga.hu/bio/c/carriera/biograph.html
Left: Self-portrait, Rosalba Carriera, 1715
A Revival of Interest in Classicism
During the mid-1700’s the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were being excavated for the first
time. These cities were preserved by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.D. This eruption
captured the way of life of the people of these cities and created interest throughout Europe for
everything considered Classical. This brought about a revival in classical art called
Neoclassicism. Painters began to create art work depicting scenes from classical tales, sculptors
began to create statuary based on classical themes from ancient Rome and Greece, and architects
began to reinvestigate classical proportions and elements from ancient building.
In England a school of portraiture began under English painters in the 18th century. This was
called the Royal Academy of Arts. It was founded in 1768. It, like the French Academy,
provided instruction for art students and sponsored exhibitions. The first president of the English
Academy of Arts was Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792). Reynolds specialized in portraiture,
specifically his contemporaries. His work focused on those figure who were involved in historic
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events. In style and time his work is classified as Rococo. He gained his title when he was
knighted by King George III. http://www.wga.hu/bio/r/reynolds/biograph.html
Above Left: Self Portrait, Joshua Reynolds, 1776. Above Right: Lord Heathfield. Oil on Canvas,
1787. 4’8” X 3’9”
Another notable English portrait painter from the 18th century was Thomas Gainsborough.
Gainsborough (1727-1788) preferred landscape, but was extremely popular as a portraitist. He
combined the mood of French Rococo painter Watteau (who influenced his work) with a native
English naturalism and love of the outdoors. Gainsborough enjoyed the feathery brush work and
soft hues of the Rococo painters. His subjects were shown in a graceful, sophisticated manner.
http://www.wga.hu/bio/g/gainsbor/biograph.html
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Above: Thomas Gainsborough, The Blue Boy, 1770, Oil on Canvas.
In America during this period many artists were applying European styles to American subject
matter. John Singleton Copley (1738-1815) applied a down-to-earth naturalism with sharp
focus and attention to visual fact to his American subject matter. He was one of the first
American artists to live and work abroad. While his work was powerful, it was not fully
appreciated in many in the painting circles of Europe because it was considered plain compared
to the fluffy Rococo style, which was so popular at that time. The piece shown below, Watson
and the Shark, depicts the rescue of Brook Watson from a shark attack in Havana Cuba.
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Above: John Singleton Copley, Watson and the Shark, 1778. Oil on Canvas, 72” X 90”.
John Singleton Copley, Portrait of Paul Revere, ca. 1768-1770. Oil on Canvas, 2’11”X 2’4”.
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A sculptor who made waves in the American art scene when he tried to depict the nation’s first
president in neoclassical fashion was Horatio Greenough (1805-1852). Congress commissioned
the sculptural portrait for the centennial of Washington’s birth, to be placed in the rotunda of the
nation’s capital. Neoclassical architecture was very popular and the style chosen for the new
nation’s buildings. However, it wasn’t so successful when used to depict national heroes. The
artist’s intent was to show Washington in Greek style, with the body of Zeus, based on a famous
sculpture of Zeus by Greek sculptor Phidias. The sword held by Washington, with the hilt
toward the viewer was intended to show him as a peacemaker. When the piece was unveiled, it
met with immediate criticism. One Congressman even suggested it be thrown into the Potomac
River to “hide it from the world.” Today the piece is on display in the National Portrait Gallery
in Washington, D.C.
Horatio Greenough, George Washington, 1832-1841. Marble, 11’4”. National Portrait Gallery.
Washington, D.C.
The transition from Rococo to Neoclassicism in France
For several decades the French aristocratic tastes dominated the art world in France in the form
of Rococo painting. Eventually, during a tumultuous period of French history leading to, and
during, the French Revolution that style came to an abrupt end as the people rose up against the
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French monarchy system. One artist led in the transition away from Rococo and toward
Neoclassicism, and was heavily involved in propaganda for a radical arm of the French
Revolution. He was painter Jacques Lois David (1748-1825). David rebelled against the
“artificial” taste” of the Rococo. He exhibited Classicism as revolutionary ideology in his
painting Oath of the Horatii (below). These classical tales went right along with the ideology of
the French Revolution. This painting depicts an epic tale about the warring cities of Rome and
Alba, in which the leaders of the two cities decided to resolve their differences by having three
warriors from each side face each other in a battle to the death. The three champions from the
Roman side were brothers from the Horatius family, while the three from Alba were the Curatius
brothers. The twist in the tale comes in that a sister of the Horatii was the wife of one of the
Curatii brothers, while the youngest Horatii brother had married a sister to the Curatii brothers.
David often painted these complex tales.
Another of David’s complex scenes is The Death of Marat, 1793, in which David depicts the
assassination of his friend Jean-Paul Marat, a writer of one of the revolutionary factions in
France. In the scene Marat has been stabbed while soaking in his medicinal bath (he had a skin
disorder) by Charlotte Coroday, a member of a rival group. The scene shows Marat clutching
the fraudulent paper used by Coroday to gain access to him. (pictured below)
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Above: Jacques-Louis David, The Death of Marat, 1793. Oil on canvas, 5’3” X 4’1”
Eventually, David began to do large scale pieces for the Emperor Napoleon. David was given
the position as the First Painter of the Napoleonic Empire. His purpose was to use imagery as
propaganda for Napoleon and his cause. One such piece was, The Coronation of Napoleon,
1805-1808, Oil on canvas, 20’ 4” X 32’2”. This massive painting depicts the coronation
ceremony in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. The piece has some historical variations to the
actual facts, such as the mother of Napoleon, visible in the background, who refused to attend.
(Pictured below) http://www.wga.hu/bio/d/david_j/biograph.html
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Napoleon’s Sculptor
The successful Italian Neoclassical sculptor named Antonio Canova (1757-1822) became
Napoleons favorite sculptor. He did many sculptures depicting Napoleon and members of his
family in Neoclassical Style. One of the most well-known of his works for Napoleon was the
piece depicting Napoleon’s Sister Pauline Borghese as Venus, the goddess of love.
http://www.wga.hu/bio/c/canova/biograph.html
Antonio Canova, Pauline Borghese as Venus, 1808, Marble. Life size.
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Antonio Canova, Cupid and Psyche. 1787-1793. Marble, 6’1” X 6’8”.
A Temple of Glory
La Madeline (1807-1842) is a structure which in 1807 was originally begun as a church. This
was at the peak of Napoleon’s power. During Napoleon’s reign it was to be used as a Temple of
Glory. It was built in the style of Roman temples of the early Empire, with its use of an elevated
foundation, Corinthian columns and portico sculpture. Eventually it was reconverted into a
Roman Catholic Church. (Pictured Below)
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Students of Jacques Louis David
Many of Jacques Louis David’s students went on to have very prominent careers. The master
demanded that his students choose painting subjects from the ancient Roman writer Petrarch.
However, some of them, while keeping close to the style of their master, chose subjects from
other periods and places. Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson was and artist who chose to work from a
subject made popular by a novel of the time. The novel was called The Genius of
Christianity/Atala, by writer Chateaubriand. The novel was extremely popular during this period
of time. In subject it moved from Neoclassical more toward Romanticism. The tale is about the
romantic encounter between two Native American youth in Louisiana. The tale has many twists
and ends with Atala (the Native American girl) taking her life rather than breaking her oath to
remain a virgin. Girodet-Trioson’s work is called The Burial of Atala.
http://www.wga.hu/bio/g/girodet/biograph.html
Above: Girodet-Trioson, The Burial of Atala, 1808. Oil on canvas 7’X 8’9”.
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Another of David’s students was the painter who did many scenes depicting Napoleon. The
work of Antoine-Jean Gros is often considered propaganda used to for Napoleon. One such
painting by Gros is the piece, Napoleon at the Pesthouse at Jaffa, 1804, oil on canvas, shows
Napoleon visiting his plague stricken soldiers without showing any fear for his own well-being.
In the scene he is depicted with nearly God like healing powers touching one of the ill soldiers,
while those surrounding him cover their face and shy away from fear of contracting the illness.
http://www.wga.hu/bio/g/gros/biograph.html
Another of Jacques Louis David’s students had an American connection. A painter known for
his careful study and rendering of birds in America was John James Audubon (1785-1832).
Audubon, with the help of his father, and a false passport managed to flee France for America to
avoid the Napoleonic wars. He was educated as a young man in Paris, where he received
training in painting from David. Today his work is known for his skilled painting style and his
attention to detail. In modern times there is a conservation society named after him.
Left: Portrait of John James Audubon by John Syme, 1826.
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John James Audubon Mourning Doves, Oil on Canvas.
A Disagreement over Style
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780-1867) came to study under David during the last few
years of the 18th century. After a short time, Ingres left and took a different path with his work.
His departure was due to a difference in style with David. David pursued a more “Greek” style
in his compositions. He based his compositions more on the flat linear forms which the ancient
Greeks had employed in vase painting and bas relief sculpture.
For the Salon of 1827, Ingres submitted the Apotheosis of Homer. The piece was painted for the
ceiling of the Louvre. This was a piece obviously influenced by the School of Athens by
Raphael, an artist whose work had much impact on the work of Ingres. In the Apotheosis of
Homer, Ingres shows Homer in the center of the composition on the steps of a Greek temple.
Ingres became a very successful portrait artist and did works for the likes of Napoleon. (see
images below)
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Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Napoleon on his Imperial Throne, 1806. Oil on Canvas,
102.36” X 64.17”.
Jean-Auguste-dominique Ingres, Portrait of Princesse Albert de Broglie, 1853. Oil on Canvas,
46.76”X35.75”.
http://www.wga.hu/bio/i/ingres/biograph.html
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Painting in Spain
Political turmoil in Spain brought about the involvement of the French to help quell revolt
against King Charles IV. Napoleon was more than willing to join with King Charles IV because
he hoped to eventually rule Spain as well as France. Eventually Charles IV was overthrown, and
the Spanish people finally viewed the French as invaders. Because of a clash with French troops,
the French rounded up and executed many Spanish citizens who were outspoken against the
French occupiers. This event happened May 3, 1808 and was the subject of the Spanish painter
Francisco Jose De Goya Y Lucientes (1746-1828). Goya achieved success in his career and
became court painter to the Spanish crown (Charles IV). Goya is often considered the last of the
old masters and the first of the modern masters. In the early 1790’s, Goya became ill and it
appears the illness caused him to become deaf.
Francisco Goya, The Third of May 1808, 1814. Oil on canvas, approx.. 8’8”X11’3”.
During a period when the French had declared war on Spain, Goya painted a series of small
pieces called the “Black” paintings. These pieces showed his dark outlook on the life and the
future of the Spanish people. Below, Saturn devouring one of his Children, Goya depicts a
gruesome scene in which many parallels are drawn between the Spanish Government and their
devouring of the Spanish Citizenship.
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Francisco Goya, Saturn Devouring One of His Children, 1819-1823.
http://www.artcyclopedia.com/history/rococo.html (Rococo with list of artists)
French Painters of the reigns of Louis XV and Louis XIV
http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/w/watteau/antoine/index.html (Watteau)
http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/b/boucher/index.html (Boucher)
http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/f/fragonar/index.html (Fragonare)
http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/c/chardin/index.html (Chardin)
http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/g/greuze/index.html (Greuze)
http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/v/vigee/index.html (Vigee-Lebrun)
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