Pollution Control POLLUTION Part 2 of 2

Transcription

POLLUTION
Part 2 of 2
Pollution Control
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Pollution control
Environmental management
Environmental management is not, as the phrase could suggest, the management of the environment as such, but
rather the management of interaction by the modern human societies with, and impact upon the environment. The
three main issues that affect managers are those involving politics (networking), programs (projects), and resources
(money, facilities, etc.). The need for environmental management can be viewed from a variety of perspectives. A
more common philosophy and impetus behind environmental management is the concept of carrying capacity.
Simply put, carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of organisms a particular resource can sustain. The
concept of carrying capacity, whilst understood by many cultures over history, has its roots in Malthusian theory.
Environmental management is therefore not the conservation of the environment solely for the environment's sake,
but rather the conservation of the environment for humankind's sake. This element of sustainable exploitation,
getting the most out of natural assets, is visible in the EU Water Framework Directive.
Environmental management involves the management of all components of the bio-physical environment, both
living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic). This is due to the interconnected and network of relationships amongst all
living species and their habitats. The environment also involves the relationships of the human environment, such as
the social, cultural and economic environment with the bio-physical environment.
As with all management functions, effective management tools, standards and systems are required. An
'environmental management standard or system or protocol attempts to reduce environmental impact as measured by
some objective criteria. The ISO 14001 standard is the most widely used standard for environmental risk
management and is closely aligned to the European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). As a common
auditing standard, the ISO 19011 standard explains how to combine this with quality management.
Other environmental management systems (EMS) tend to be based on the ISO 14001 standard and many extend it in
various ways:
• The Green Dragon Environmental Management Standard [1] is a five level EMS designed for smaller
organisations for whom ISO 14001 may be too onerous and for larger organisations who wish to implement ISO
14001 in a more manageable step-by-step approach
• BS 8555 is a phased standard that can help smaller companies move to ISO 14001 in six manageable steps
• The Natural Step focuses on basic sustainability criteria and helps focus engineering on reducing use of materials
or energy use that is unsustainable in the long term
• Natural Capitalism advises using accounting reform and a general biomimicry and industrial ecology approach to
do the same thing
• US Environmental Protection Agency has many further terms and standards that it defines as appropriate to
large-scale EMS.
• The UN and World Bank has encouraged adopting a "natural capital" measurement and management framework.
• The European Union Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)
Other strategies exist that rely on making simple distinctions rather than building top-down management "systems"
using performance audits and full cost accounting. For instance, Ecological Intelligent Design divides products into
consumables, service products or durables and unsaleables - toxic products that no one should buy, or in many cases,
do not realize they are buying. By eliminating the unsaleables from the comprehensive outcome of any purchase,
better environmental management is achieved without "systems".
Recent successful cases have put forward the notion of "Integrated Management". It shares a wider approach and
stresses out the importance of interdisciplinary assessment. It is an interesting notion that might not be adaptable to
all cases[2] .
"Today's businesses must comply with many Federal, State and local environmental laws, rules, and regulations. It's
vital to safeguard your company against compliance short-cuts. This approach leaves you vulnerable to violations of
the law, in addition to missing important environmental liabilities."[3]
Sustainability and environmental management
At the global scale and in the broadest sense sustainability and environmental management involves managing the
oceans, freshwater systems, land and atmosphere, according to sustainability principles.[4] [5]
Environmental management journals
• Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, ISSN 1618-954X
• Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, ISSN: 1535-3966 (electronic) 1535-3958
(paper), John Wiley & Sons
• Environmental Practice, ISSN: 1466-0474 (electronic) 1466-0466 (paper), Cambridge University Press
• Environmental Quality Management, ISSN: 1520-6483 (electronic) 1088-1913 (paper), John Wiley & Sons
• Journal of Environmental Economics and Management
• Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, ISSN: 1360-0559 (electronic) 0964-0568 (paper),
Routledge
• Journal of Environmental Management, ISSN: 0301-4797, Elsevier
• Environmental Values
See also
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•
•
•
•
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•
•
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•
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Eco-Management and Audit Scheme
Actor analysis
Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management
Cleaner production
Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
Department of Environmental Management
Environmental impact assessment
Environmental management system
Environmental management scheme
Environmental Quality Management
Environmental Risk Management Authority
Environmental science
Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management (IEEM)
ISO 14000
ISO 19011
List of environmental studies topics
Multipurpose reservoir
Planetary boundaries
Deepwater Horizon oil spill
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References
[1] http:/ / www. greendragonems. com
[2] Billé, R. (2008) “Integrated Coastal Zone Management: four entrenched illusions”. S.A.P.I.EN.S. 1 (2) (http:/ / sapiens. revues. org/ index198.
html)
[3] Environmental Management Services (http:/ / www. calicheltd. com/ environmental-services-texas. aspx)
[4] "The Economics and Social Benefits of NOAA Ecosystems Data and Products Table of Contents Data Users" (http:/ / www. economics.
noaa. gov/ ?goal=ecosystems& file=users/ ). NOAA. . Retrieved 2009-10-13.
[5] Buchenrieder, G., und A.R. Göltenboth: Sustainable freshwater resource management in the Tropics: The myth of effective indicators, 25th
International Conference of Agricultural Economists (IAAE) on “Reshaping Agriculture’s Contributions to Society” in Durban, South Africa,
2003.
• Schaltegger, Stefan; Burritt, Roger; Petersen, Holger: An Introduction to Corporate Environmental Management.
Striving for Sustainability. Sheffield: Greenleaf, 2003 ISBN 1874719659
External links
• Economic Costs & Benefits of Environmental Management (http://www.economics.noaa.gov/
?goal=ecosystems&file=users/) NOAA Economics
• business.gov (http://business.gov/guides/environment/) - provides businesses with environmental management
tips, as well as tips for green business owners] (United States)
• Environmental Management Tutorial (http://www.umweltmanagement.me/) in German
• Low Hock Heng (2003). Globalisation, Business and Environmental Management: to Correct the Broken
Compass? (http://www.fppsm.utm.my/download/doc_download/
122-globalisation-business-and-environmental-management-to-correct-the-broken-compass.html). Jurnal
Kemanusiaan ISSN 1675-1930 (http://www.fppsm.utm.my/jurnal-kemanusiaan.html).
Regulation and monitoring of pollution
To protect the environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations worldwide have enacted legislation
to regulate various types of pollution as well as to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution.
Regulation and monitoring by region
International
Since pollution crosses political boundaries international treaties have been made through the United Nations and its
agencies to address international pollution issues.
Greenhouse gas emissions
The Kyoto Protocol[1] is an amendment to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), an international treaty on global warming. It also reaffirms sections of the UNFCCC. Countries which
ratify this protocol commit to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage in
emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.[1] A total of 141 countries have ratified the
agreement. Notable exceptions include the United States and Australia, who have signed but not ratified the
agreement. The stated reason for the United States not ratifying is the exemption of large emitters of greenhouse
gases who are also developing countries, like China and India.[2]
An UN environmental conference held in Bali 3–14 December 2007 with the participation from 180 countries aims
to replace the Kyoto Protocol, which will end in 2012. During the first day of the conference USA, Saudi Arabia and
Canada were presented with the "Fossil-of-the-day-award", a symbolic bag of coal for their negative impact on the
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global climate. The bags included the flags of the respective countries.[3]
Canada
In Canada the regulation of pollution and its effects are monitored by a number of organizations depending on the
nature of the pollution and its location. The three levels of government (Federal - Canada Wide; Provincial; and
Municipal) equally share in the responsibilities, and in the monitoring and correction of pollution.
China
China's rapid industrialization has substantially increased pollution. China has some relevant regulations: the 1979
Environmental Protection Law, which was largely modelled on U.S. legislation. But the environment continues to
deteriorate.[4] Twelve years after the law, only one Chinese city was making an effort to clean up its water
discharges.[5] This indicates that China is about 30 years behind the U.S. schedule of environmental regulation and
10 to 20 years behind Europe. In July 2007, it was reported that the World Bank reluctantly censored a report
revealing that 750,000 people in China die every year as a result of pollution-related diseases. China's State
Environment Protection Agency and the Health Ministry asked the World Bank to cut the calculations of premature
deaths from the report fearing the revelation would provoke "social unrest".[6]
Europe
The basic European rules are included in the Directive 96/61/EC of 24 September 1996 concerning integrated
pollution prevention and control (IPCC) [7] and the National Emission Ceilings Directive.
United Kingdom
In the 1840s, the United Kingdom brought onto the statute books legislation to control water pollution. It was
extended to all rivers and coastal water by 1961. However, currently the clean up of historic contamination is
controlled under a specific statutory scheme found in Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (Part IIA),
as inserted by the Environment Act 1995, and other ‘rules’ found in regulations and statutory guidance. The Act
came into force in England in April 2000.
Within the current regulatory framework, Pollution Prevention and Control (PPC) is a regime for controlling
pollution from certain industrial activities. The regime introduces the concept of Best Available Techniques ("BAT")
to environmental regulations. Operators must use the BAT to control pollution from their industrial activities to
prevent, and where that is not practicable, to reduce to acceptable levels, pollution to air, land and water from
industrial activities. The Best Available Techniques also aim to balance the cost to the operator against benefits to
the environment. The system of Pollution Prevention and Control is replacing that of Integrated Pollution Control
(IPC) (which was established by the Environmental Protection Act 1990) and is taking effect between 2000 and
2007. The Pollution Prevention and Control regime implements the European Directive (EC/96/61) on integrated
pollution prevention and control.
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United States
The United States Congress passed the Clean Air Act in 1963 to
legislate the reduction of smog and atmospheric pollution in general.
That legislation has subsequently been amended and extended in 1966,
1970, 1977 and 1990. Numerous state and local governments have
enacted similar legislation either implementing or filling in locally
important gaps in the national program. The national Clean Air Act
and similar state legislative acts have led to the widespread use of
atmospheric dispersion modeling[8] in order to analyze the air quality
impacts of proposed major actions. With the 1990 Clean Air Act, the
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began a
controversial carbon trading system in which tradable rights to emit a
specified level of carbon are granted to polluters.
A polluted ditch along Interstate 25 between
Colorado Springs and Pueblo, Colorado.
Enactment of the 1972 Clean Water Act required facilities to obtain permits for discharges to navigable waters and
establishment of national discharge standards for municipal sewage treatment plants and many industrial
categories.[9] It required use of best management practices for a wide range of other water discharges including
nonpoint source pollution. Amendments in 1977 required stricter regulation of toxic pollutants.[10] In 1987 Congress
added permit coverage for municipal and industrial stormwater discharges.[11]
Congress passed the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) in 1976, which created a regulatory
framework for both municipal solid waste and hazardous waste disposed on land.[12] RCRA requires that all
hazardous wastes be managed and tracked from generation of the waste, through transport and processing, to final
disposal, by means of a nationwide permit system. The Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 mandated
regulation of underground storage tanks containing petroleum and hazardous chemicals, and the phasing out of land
disposal of hazardous waste.[13] The Federal Facilities Compliance Act, passed in 1992, clarified RCRA coverage of
federally-owned properties such as military bases. Illegal disposal of waste is punishable by fines of up to $25,000
per occurrence.[14]
Passage of the Noise Control Act in 1972 established mechanisms of setting emission standards for virtually every
source of noise including motor vehicles, aircraft, certain types of HVAC equipment and major appliances. It also
put local government on notice as to their responsibilities in land use planning to address noise mitigation. This noise
regulation framework comprised a broad data base detailing the extent of noise health effects. Congress ended
funding of the federal noise control program in 1981, which curtailed development of further national regulations.[15]
The state of California's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) has maintained an
independent list of substances with product labeling requirements as part of Proposition 65 since 1986.
See also
• Timeline of major US environmental and occupational health regulation
• Superfund - Cleanup program for abandoned hazardous waste sites
• AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
See also
• List of environmental issues
• Dutch standards, environmental pollutant reference values
References
[1] Kyoto Protocol To The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (http:/ / unfccc. int/ resource/ docs/ convkp/ kpeng. pdf)
[2] "President Bush Discusses Global Climate Change" (http:/ / georgewbush-whitehouse. archives. gov/ news/ releases/ 2001/ 06/ print/
20010611-2. html) (Transcription of speech). 2001-06-11. . Retrieved 2006-04-09.
[3] Fossil-of-the-Day Awards at UN Climate Change Negotiations (http:/ / www. fossil-of-the-day. org/ )
[4] Ma, Xiaoying and Ortalano, Leonard (2000). Environmental Regulation in China: institutions, enforcement and compliance. Rowman &
Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-9398-8.
[5] Sinkule, Barbara J. and Ortolana, Leonard (1995). Implementing Environmental Policy in China. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-94980-X.
[6] China covers up pollution deaths (http:/ / www. theage. com. au/ news/ world/ china-covers-up-pollution-deaths/ 2007/ 07/ 04/
1183351291152. html)
[7] http:/ / eur-lex. europa. eu/ LexUriServ/ LexUriServ. do?uri=CELEX:32008L0001:EN:NOT
[8] Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals of Stack Gas Dispersion (4th Edition ed.). author-published. ISBN 0-9644588-0-2.
www.air-dispersion.com (http:/ / www. air-dispersion. com)
[9] United States. Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments of 1972, (http:/ / www. glin. gov/ download. action?fulltextId=68260&
documentId=67980& glinID=67980) P.L. 92-500, 33 U.S.C. § 1251 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 33/ 1251. html) et seq. October
18, 1972.
[10] U.S. Clean Water Act of 1977, P.L. 95-217, December 27, 1977.
[11] U.S. Water Quality Act of 1987, P.L. 100-4, February 4, 1987.
[12] U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. P.L. 94-580, 42 U.S.C. § 6901 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 42/ 6901. html) et
seq. October 21, 1976.
[13] U.S. Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984, P.L. 98-616, November 8, 1984.
[14] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC (2008). "Introduction to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act."
(http:/ / www. epa. gov/ wastes/ inforesources/ pubs/ orientat/ rom1. pdf) Chapter I of RCRA Orientation Manual.
[15] EPA. "Noise Pollution." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ air/ noise. html) 2010-05-18.
External links
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Environment Agency (England and Wales) (http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk)
Environmental Assessment Agency - Canada (http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/index_e.htm)
Environmental Protection Agency - USA (http://www.epa.gov)
Extoxnet newsletters (http://ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet/newsletters/ghindex.html) - environmental pollution
news. Last update 1998.
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Pollution prevention
Pollution prevention
Pollution prevention (P2) describes activities that reduce the amount of pollution generated by a process, whether it
is consumer consumption, driving, or industrial production. In contrast to most pollution control strategies, which
seek to manage a pollutant after it is formed and reduce its impact upon the environment, the pollution prevention
approach seeks to increase the efficiency of a process, thereby reducing the amount of pollution generated at its
source. Although there is wide agreement that source reduction is the preferred strategy, some professionals also use
the term pollution prevention to include recycling or reuse.
As an environmental management strategy, pollution prevention shares many attributes with cleaner production, a
term used more commonly outside the United States. Pollution prevention encompasses more specialized
sub-disciplines including green chemistry and green design (also known as environmentally conscious design).
The US Environmental Protection Agency has a number of P2 programs that can assist individuals and organizations
to implement P2[1] .
See also
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Source reduction
Cleaner production
Environmentalism
Energy conservation
Green chemistry
Industrial Ecology
Pollution control
Recycling
Waste management
• Extended producer responsibility
• Pay As You Throw
• Clean Water Act of 1972
References
[1] http:/ / www. epa. gov/ p2/ Environmental Protection Agency site
External links
• United States National Pollution Prevention Information Center (http://p2rx.org)
• United States Pollution Prevention Regional Information Center (http://p2ric.org/TopicHubs/toc.
cfm?hub=26&subsec=7&nav=7)
• NPPR Finds P2 Programs Effective (http://enviro.blr.com/display.cfm/id/71485/source/WKP/effort/6)
• P2Gems Pollution prevention directory (http://www.p2gems.org/)
• Southwest Network for Zero Waste (http://www.zerowastenetwork.org)
• Pollution Prevention Regional Information Center (P2RIC) (http://www.p2ric.org)
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Waste management
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Waste management
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling
or disposal, and monitoring of waste materials.[1] The term usually
relates to materials produced by human activity, and is generally
undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or
aesthetics. Waste management is also carried out to recover resources
from it. Waste management can involve solid, liquid, gaseous or
radioactive substances, with different methods and fields of expertise
for each.
Waste management practices differ for developed and developing
nations, for urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrial
producers. Management for non-hazardous residential and institutional
waste in metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility of local
government authorities, while management for non-hazardous
commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the
generator.
A blue wheelie bin in Berkshire, England
Methods of disposal
Integrated waste management
Integrated waste management using LCA (life cycle analysis) attempts
to offer the most benign options for waste management. For mixed
MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) a number of broad studies have
indicated that waste administration, then source separation and
collection followed by reuse and recycling of the non-organic fraction
Waste management in Kathmandu (Nepal)
and energy and compost/fertilizer production of the organic waste
fraction via anaerobic digestion to be the favoured path. Non-metallic
waste resources are not destroyed as with incineration, and can be reused/ recycled in a future resource depleted
society.
Plasma gasification
Plasma is a highly ionized or electrically charged gas. An example in nature is lightning, capable of producing
temperatures exceeding 12600 °F (6980 °C). A gasifier vessel utilizes proprietary plasma torches operating at
+10000 °F (5540 °C) (the surface temperature of the Sun) in order to create a gasification zone of up to 3000 °F
(1650 °C) to convert solid or liquid wastes into a syngas. When municipal solid waste is subjected to this intense
heat within the vessel, the waste’s molecular bonds break down into elemental components. The process results in
elemental destruction of waste and hazardous materials.[2]
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. generated 250 million tons of waste in 2008 alone,
and this number continues to rise. About 54% of this trash (135000000 short tons ( t)) ends up in landfills and is
consuming land at a rate of nearly 3500 acres (1400 ha) per year. In fact, landfilling is currently the number one
method of waste disposal in the US. Some states no longer have capacity at permitted landfills and export their waste
to other states. Plasma gasification offers states new opportunities for waste disposal, and more importantly for
renewable power generation in an environmentally sustainable manner.[3]
Waste management
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Landfill
Disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, and this
remains a common practice in most countries. Landfills were often
established in abandoned or unused quarries, mining voids or borrow
pits. A properly designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienic
and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials.
Older, poorly designed or poorly managed landfills can create a
number of adverse environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter,
Landfill operation in Hawaii.
attraction of vermin, and generation of liquid leachate. Another
common byproduct of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methane
and carbon dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks down anaerobically. This gas can create odour
problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas.
Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain
leachate such as clay or plastic lining material. Deposited waste is
normally compacted to increase its density and stability, and covered to
prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills also
have landfill gas extraction systems installed to extract the landfill gas.
Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off
or burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity.
A landfill compaction vehicle in action.
Incineration
Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are
subjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous
products.This method is useful for disposal of residue of both solid
waste management and solid residue from waste water
management.This process reduces the volumes of solid waste to 20 to
30 percent of the original volume . Incineration and other high
temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as
"thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat,
gas, steam and ash.
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a
large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous
waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain
hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste).
Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues
such as emission of gaseous pollutants.
Spittelau incineration plant in Vienna.
Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is more
scarce, as these facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or
energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam
and/or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about
micro-pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very
persistent organics such as dioxins, furans, PAHs,... which may be created within the incinerator and afterwards in
Waste management
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the incinerator plume which may have serious environmental consequences in the area immediately around the
incinerator. On the other hand this method or the more benign anaerobic digestion produces heat that can be used as
energy.
Recycling
The popular meaning of ‘recycling’ in most developed countries refers
to the widespread collection and reuse of everyday waste materials
such as empty beverage containers. These are collected and sorted into
common types so that the raw materials from which the items are made
can be reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may be
collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and
collection vehicles, or sorted directly from mixed waste streams.
The most common consumer products recycled include aluminum
beverage cans, steel food and aerosol cans, HDPE and PET bottles,
glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines, and
corrugated fiberboard boxes.
Steel scrap, sorted and baled for recycling.
PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable, although these are not commonly
collected. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into
new products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult,
due to the additional dismantling and separation required.
Sustainability
The management of waste is a key component in a business' ability to maintaining ISO14001 accreditations.
Companies are encouraged to improve their environmental efficiencies each year. One way to do this is by
improving a company’s waste management with a new recycling service. (such as recycling: glass, food waste, paper
and cardboard, plastic bottles etc.)
Biological reprocessing
Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food
scraps, and paper products, can be recycled using biological
composting and digestion processes to decompose the organic matter.
The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for
agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the
process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating
electricity and heat (CHP/cogeneration) maximising efficiencies. The
intention of biological processing in waste management is to control
and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter.
There are a large variety of composting and digestion methods and
technologies varying in complexity from simple home compost heaps,
to small town scale batch digesters, industrial-scale enclosed-vessel
digestion of mixed domestic waste (see Mechanical biological
treatment). Methods of biological decomposition are differentiated as
being aerobic or anaerobic methods, though hybrids of the two
methods also exist.
An active compost heap.
Waste management
Anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of MSW Municipal Solid Waste has been found to be in a number of
LCA analysis studies[4] [5] to be more environmentally effective, than landfill, incineration or pyrolisis. The resulting
biogas (methane) though must be used for cogeneration (electricity and heat preferably on or close to the site of
production) and can be used with a little upgrading in gas combustion engines or turbines. With further upgrading to
synthetic natural gas it can be injected into the natural gas network or further refined to hydrogen for use in
stationary cogeneration fuel cells. Its use in fuel cells eliminates the pollution from products of combustion (SOx,
NOx, pariculates, dioxin, furans, PAHs...).
An example of waste management through composting is the Green Bin Program in Toronto, Canada, where
household organic waste (such as kitchen scraps and plant cuttings) are collected in a dedicated container and then
composted.
Energy recovery
The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by
using them as a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing
them into another type of fuel. Recycling through thermal treatment
ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating, to
anaerobic digestion and the use of the gas fuel (see above), to fuel for
boilers to generate steam and electricity in a turbine. Pyrolysis and
Anaerobic digestion component of Lübeck
gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste
mechanical biological treatment plant in
materials are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen
Germany, 2007
availability. The process usually occurs in a sealed vessel under high
pressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid,
liquid and gas products. The liquid and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other chenmical products
(chemical refinery). The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon.
Gasification and advanced Plasma arc gasification are used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas
(syngas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam. An
alternative to pyrolisis is high temperature and pressure supercritical water decomposition (hydrothermal
monophasic oxidation).
Avoidance and reduction methods
An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being created, also known as waste
reduction. Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of buying
new, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags), encouraging
consumers to avoid using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery), removing any food/liquid remains from
cans, packaging, ...[6] and designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose (for example,
lightweighting of beverage cans [7]).
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Waste management
Waste handling and transport
Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and
regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local
government authorities, or by private companies in the industry. Some
areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have a
formal waste-collection system. Examples of waste handling systems
include:
• In Australia, curbside collection is the method of disposal of waste.
Every urban domestic household is provided with three bins: one for
A front-loading garbage truck in North America.
recyclables, another for general waste and another for garden
materials - this bin is provided by the municipality if requested.
Also, many households have compost bins; but this is not provided by the municipality. To encourage recycling,
municipalities provide large recycle bins, which are larger than general waste bins. Municipal, commercial and
industrial, construction and demolition waste is dumped at landfills and some is recycled. Household waste is
segregated: recyclables sorted and made into new products, and general waste is dumped in landfill areas.
According to the ABS, the recycling rate is high and is 'increasing, with 99% of households reporting that they
had recycled or reused some of their waste within the past year (2003 survey), up from 85% in 1992'. This
suggests that Australians are in favour of reduced or no landfilling and the recycling of waste. Of the total waste
produced in 2002–03, '30% of municipal waste, 45% of commercial and industrial waste and 57% of construction
and demolition waste' was recycled. Energy is produced from waste as well: some landfill gas is captured for fuel
or electricity generation. Households and industries are not charged for the volume of waste they produce.
• In Europe and a few other places around the world, a few communities use a proprietary collection system known
as Envac, which conveys refuse via underground conduits using a vacuum system. Other vacuum-based solutions
include the MetroTaifun single-line and ring-line systems.
• In Canadian urban centres curbside collection is the most common method of disposal, whereby the city collects
waste and/or recyclables and/or organics on a scheduled basis. In rural areas people often dispose of their waste
by hauling it to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to a regional landfill.
• In Taipei, the city government charges its households and industries for the volume of rubbish they produce.
Waste will only be collected by the city council if waste is disposed in government issued rubbish bags. This
policy has successfully reduced the amount of waste the city produces and increased the recycling rate.
• In Israel, the Arrow Ecology company has developed the ArrowBio system, which takes trash directly from
collection trucks and separates organic and inorganic materials through gravitational settling, screening, and
hydro-mechanical shredding. The system is capable of sorting huge volumes of solid waste, salvaging
recyclables, and turning the rest into biogas and rich agricultural compost. The system is used in California,
Australia, Greece, Mexico, the United Kingdom and in Israel. For example, an ArrowBio plant that has been
operational at the Hiriya landfill site since December 2003 serves the Tel Aviv area, and processes up to 150 tons
of garbage a day.[8]
99
Waste management
100
Technologies
Traditionally the waste management industry has been slow to adopt new technologies such as RFID (Radio
Frequency Identification) tags, GPS and integrated software packages which enable better quality data to be
collected without the use of estimation or manual data entry.
• Technologies like RFID tags are now being used to collect data on presentation rates for curb-side pick-ups which
is useful when examining the usage of recycling bins or similar.
• Benefits of GPS tracking is particularly evident when considering the efficiency of ad hoc pick-ups (like skip bins
or dumpsters) where the collection is done on a consumer request basis.
• Integrated software packages are useful in aggregating this data for use in optimisation of operations for waste
collection operations.
• Rear vision cameras are commonly used for OH&S reasons and video recording devices are becoming more
widely used, particularly concerning residential services and contaminations of the waste stream.
Waste management concepts
There are a number of concepts about waste management which vary in their usage between countries or regions.
Some of the most general, widely used concepts include:
• Waste hierarchy - The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" reduce,
reuse and recycle, which classify waste management strategies
according to their desirability in terms of waste minimization. The
waste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most waste
minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract
the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the
minimum amount of waste.
Diagram of the waste hierarchy.
• Extended producer responsibility - Extended Producer
Responsibility (EPR) is a strategy designed to promote the integration of all costs associated with products
throughout their life cycle (including end-of-life disposal costs) into the market price of the product. Extended
producer responsibility is meant to impose accountability over the entire lifecycle of products and packaging
introduced to the market. This means that firms which manufacture, import and/or sell products are required to be
responsible for the products after their useful life as well as during manufacture.
• Polluter pays principle - the Polluter Pays Principle is a principle where the polluting party pays for the impact
caused to the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste
generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the waste.
Education and awareness
Education and awareness in the area of waste and waste management is increasingly important from a global
perspective of resource management. The Talloires Declaration is a declaration for sustainability concerned about
the unprecedented scale and speed of environmental pollution and degradation, and the depletion of natural
resources. Local, regional, and global air pollution; accumulation and distribution of toxic wastes; destruction and
depletion of forests, soil, and water; depletion of the ozone layer and emission of "green house" gases threaten the
survival of humans and thousands of other living species, the integrity of the earth and its biodiversity, the security
of nations, and the heritage of future generations. Several universities have implemented the Talloires Declaration by
establishing environmental management and waste management programs, e.g. the waste management university
project. University and vocational education are promoted by various organizations, e.g. WAMITAB and Chartered
Institution of Wastes Management. Many supermarkets encourage customers to use their reverse vending machines
to deposit used purchased containers and receive a refund from the recycling fees. Brands that manufacture such
Waste management
machines include Tomra and Envipco.
In 2010, CNBC aired the documentary Trash Inc: The Secret Life of Garbage about waste, what happens to it when
it's "thrown away", and its impact on the world.[9]
See also
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
List of waste disposal incidents
List of waste management acronyms
History of waste management
Biomedical waste
Food waste
Recycling
Rubberecycle
Recycling and Waste Management Exhibition (in the UK)
Environmental waste controls
Industrial symbiosis
ISSOWAMA
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
"What is Waste Management?" (http:/ / www. wanless. com. au/ what_is_waste_management. html). 2009. .
Alliance Federated Energy | What Is Plasma Gasification (http:/ / www. afeservices. com/ tech_what. php)
Alliance Federated Energy | Why Plasma Gasification (http:/ / www. afeservices. com/ tech_why. php)
Life Cycle Environmental Assessment of Municipal Solid Waste to Energy Technologies (http:/ / www. idosi. org/ gjer/ gjer3(3)09/ 4. pdf)
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Municipal Solid Waste Management in the State of Kuwait (http:/ / www. eurojournals. com/ ejsr_34_3_11.
pdf)
Removing food remains to reduce waste (http:/ / www. recycling-guide. org. uk/ etiquette. html)
http:/ / www. psc. edu/ science/ ALCOA/ ALCOA-light. html
Sorting through garbage for gold (http:/ / www. israel21c. org/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article&
id=7402:sorting-through-garbage-for-gold& catid=58:environment& Itemid=101), retrieved 2009-11-24
Television review: 'Trash Inc.' (http:/ / www. latimes. com/ entertainment/ news/ la-et-secret-garbage-20100929,0,2134032. story), Susan
Carpenter, Los Angeles Times, 29 September 2010
External links
• Waste = Food Documentary (http://video.google.nl/videoplay?docid=-3058533428492266222) - A
documentary on the Cradle to Cradle design concept of Michael Braungart and William McDonough.
• Envirowise UK Portal (http://www.envirowise.gov.uk)
• "American dumpster: Builders deep-six too much material" (http://www.readthehook.com/stories/2008/01/
31/ONARCH-0705.rtf.aspx)
• Analysis of existing methods for refuse processing (http://www.new-garbage.com/?id=10235#help2)
• Clean Pyrolysis an alternative approach from Intervate (http://www.intervate.co.uk/)
• What is Waste Management? (http://www.wanless.com.au/what_is_waste_management.html)
• Gasoline from Vinegar | MIT Technology Review (http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/23406/?a=f)
101
Waste minimisation
102
Waste minimisation
Waste minimisation is the process and the
policy of reducing the amount of waste
produced by a person or a society.
Waste minimisation involves efforts to
minimise resource and energy use during
manufacture. For the same commercial
output, usually the fewer materials are used,
the less waste is produced. Waste
minimisation usually requires knowledge of
the production process, cradle-to-grave
analysis (the tracking of materials from their
extraction to their return to earth) and
detailed knowledge of the composition of the waste.
Waste hierarchy
The main sources of waste vary from country to country. In the UK, most waste comes from the construction and
demolition of buildings, followed by mining and quarrying, industry and commerce [1] . Household waste constitutes
a relatively small proportion of all waste. Reasons for the creation of waste sometimes include requirements in the
supply chain. For example, a company handling a product may insist that it should be packaged using particular
packing because it fits its packaging equipment.
In the waste hierarchy, the most effective approaches to managing waste are at the top. In contrast to waste
minimisation, waste management focuses on processing waste after it is created, concentrating on re-use, recycling,
and waste-to-energy conversion.
In industries
In industries, using more efficient manufacturing processes and better materials will generally reduce the production
of waste. The application of waste minimisation techniques has led to the development of innovative and
commercially successful replacement products. Waste minimisation has proven benefits to industry and the wider
environment.
Waste minimisation often requires investment, which is usually compensated by the savings. However, waste
reduction in one part of the production process may create waste production in another part.
There are government incentives for waste minimisation, which focus on the environmental benefits of adopting
waste minimisation strategies. In the UK, several pilot schemes such as The Catalyst Project and the Dee Waste
Minimisation Project, have shown the efficacy of such policies. Fourteen companies in Merseyside took part in the
Catalyst Project; the project generated overall savings of £9 million and landfill waste was reduced by 12,000 tonnes
per year.
The following is a list of waste minimisation processes:
Resource optimisation
Minimising the amount of waste produced by organisations or individuals goes hand-in-hand with optimising
their use of raw materials. For example, a dressmaker may arrange pattern pieces on a length of fabric in a
particular way to enable the garment to be cut out from the smallest area of fabric.
Reuse of scrap material
Scraps can be immediately re-incorporated at the beginning of the manufacturing line so that they do not
become a waste product. Many industries routinely do this; for example, paper mills return any damaged rolls
Waste minimisation
to the beginning of the production line, and in the manufacture of plastic items, off-cuts and scrap are
re-incorporated into new products.
Improved quality control and process monitoring
Steps can be taken to ensure that the number of reject batches is kept to a minimum. This is achieved by
increasing the frequency of inspection and the number of points of inspection. For example, installing
automated continuous monitoring equipment can help to identify production problems at an early stage.
Waste exchanges
This is where the waste product of one process becomes the raw material for a second process. Waste
exchanges represent another way of reducing waste disposal volumes for waste that cannot be eliminated.
Ship to point of use
This involves making deliveries of incoming raw materials or components direct to the point where they are
assembled or used in the manufacturing process to minimise handling and the use of protective wrappings or
enclosures.
Product design
Waste minimisation and resource maximisation for manufactured products can most easily be done at the design
stage. Reducing the number of components used in a product or making the product easier to take apart can make it
easier to be repaired or recycled at the end of its useful life.
In some cases, it may be best not to minimise the volume of raw materials used to make a product, but instead reduce
the volume or toxicity of the waste created at the end of a product's life, or the environmental impact of the product's
use. (See section Durability).
Fitting the intended use
In this strategy, products and packages are optimally designed to meet their intended use. This applies especially to
packaging materials, which should only be as durable as necessary to serve their intended purpose. On the other
hand, it could be more wasteful if food, which has consumed resources and energy in its production, is damaged and
spoiled because of extreme measures to reduce the use of paper, metals, glass and plastics in its packaging.
Durability
Improving product durability, such as extending a vacuum cleaner's useful life to 15 years instead of 12, can reduce
waste and usually much improves resource optimisation.
But in some cases it has a negative environmental impact. If a product is too durable, its replacement with more
efficient technology is likely to be delayed. For example, a washing machine produced 10 years ago may use twice
as much water, detergent and energy as one produced today. Therefore, extending an older machine's useful life may
place a heavier burden on the environment than scrapping it, recycling its metal and buying a new model. Similarly,
older vehicles consume more fuel and produce more emissions than their modern counterparts.
Most proponents of waste minimisation consider that the way forward may be to view any manufactured product at
the end of its useful life as a resource for recycling and reuse rather than waste. Recycling a product is easier if it is
constructed of fewer materials. Car manufacturers have recently reduced the number of plastics used in their cars
from twenty or more to three or four, hence simplifying the recovery of plastics from scrapped cars. However,
exceptions (like having a combination of paper and plastic or plastic coating on glass) do exist, and might enable a
product to fulfill its role with the minimum of resources.
Making refillable glass bottles strong enough to withstand several journeys between the consumer and the bottling
plant requires making them thicker and so heavier, which increases the resources required to transport them. Since
transport has a large environmental impact, careful evaluation is required of the number of return journeys bottles
103
Waste minimisation
make. If a refillable bottle is thrown away after being refilled only several times, the resources wasted may be greater
than if the bottle had been designed for a single journey.
Many choices involve trade-offs of environmental impact, and often there is insufficient information to make
informed decisions.
In households
This section details some waste minimisation techniques for householders.
Appropriate amounts and sizes can be chosen when purchasing goods; buying large containers of paint for a small
decorating job or buying larger amounts of food than can be consumed create unnecessary waste. Also, if a pack or
can is to be thrown away, any remaining contents must be removed before the container can be recycled [2] .
Home composting, the practice of turning kitchen and garden waste into compost can be considered waste
minimisation.
The resources that households use can be reduced considerably by using electricity thoughtfully (e.g. turning off
lights and equipment when it is not needed) and by reducing the number of car journeys made. Individuals can
reduce the amount of waste they create by buying fewer products and by buying products which last longer.
Mending broken or worn items of clothing or equipment also contributes to minimising household waste. Individuals
can minimise their water usage, and walk or cycle to their destination rather than using their car to save fuel and cut
down emissions.
In a domestic situation, the potential for minimisation is often dictated by lifestyle. Some people may view it as
wasteful to purchase new products solely to follow fashion trends when the older products are still usable. Adults
working full-time have little free time, and so may have to purchase more convenient foods that require little
preparation, or prefer disposable nappies if there is a baby in the family.
The amount of waste an individual produces is a small portion of all waste produced by society, and personal waste
reduction can only make a small impact on overall waste volumes. Yet, influence on policy can be exerted in other
areas. Increased consumer awareness of the impact and power of certain purchasing decisions allows industry and
individuals to change the total resource consumption. Consumers can influence manufacturers and distributors by
avoiding buying products that do not have eco-labelling, which is currently not mandatory, or choosing products that
minimise the use of packaging. In the UK, PullApart combines both environmental and consumer packaging
surveys, in a kerbside packaging recycling classification system to waste minimise. Where reuse schemes are
available, consumers can be proactive and use them.
References
[1] ROYAL COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION: Urban Environment (http:/ / www. official-documents. gov. uk/
document/ cm70/ 7009/ 7009. pdf) 2007
[2] Removing food remains to reduce waste (http:/ / www. recycling-guide. org. uk/ etiquette. html)
External links
• The Green Organisation's website, homepage. (http://www.thegreenorganisation.info/)
See also
•
•
•
•
•
Cleaner production
Eco-action
source reduction
Reuse
Recycle
104
Waste minimisation
•
•
•
•
•
•
Food waste
Waste hierarchy
Waste management
Life Cycle Assessment
European Week for Waste Reduction
Miniwaste
105
106
International treaties
Montreal Protocol
The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone
Layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of
the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect the
ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances
believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was
opened for signature on September 16, 1987, and entered into
force on January 1, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki,
May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990
(London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok),
1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). It is believed
that if the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is
expected to recover by 2050.[1] Due to its widespread adoption and
implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional
international co-operation with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that
"perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date
has been the Montreal Protocol".[2] It has been ratified by 196 states.[3]
The largest Antarctic ozone hole recorded as of
September 2006
Terms and purposes
The treaty[4] is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that have been shown to play a role in
ozone depletion. All of these ozone depleting substances contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containing
only fluorine do not harm the ozone layer). For a table of ozone-depleting substances see: [5]
For each group,including group ST, the treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those substances must
be phased out and eventually eliminated.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management Plan
The stated purpose of the treaty is that the signatory states:dddc
: ...Recognizing that worldwide emissions of certain substances, including ST, can significantly deplete and
otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely to result in adverse effects on human health and the
environment, ... Determined to protect the ozone layer by taking precautionary measures to control equitably total
global emissions of substances that deplete it, with the ultimate objective of their elimination on the basis of
developments in scientific knowledge ... Acknowledging that special provision, including ST is required to meet the
needs of developing countries...
shall accept a series of stepped limits on CFC use and production, including:
from 1991 to 1992 its levels of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex
A do not exceed 150 percent of its calculated levels of production and consumption of those substances in
1986;
from 1994 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex
A does not exceed, annually, twenty-five percent of its calculated level of consumption and production in
Montreal Protocol
1986.
from 1996 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex
A does not exceed zero.
There is a slower phase-out (to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111, 112, etc)
and some chemicals get individual attention (Carbon tetrachloride; 1,1,1-trichloroethane). The phasing-out of the
less active HCFCs started only in 1996 and will go on until a complete phasing-out is achieved in 2030.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP)
Under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, especially Executive Committee (ExCom)
53/37 and ExCom 54/39, Parties to this Protocol agreed to set year 2013 as the time to freeze the consumption and
production of HCFCs. They also agreed to start reducing its consumption and production in 2015. The time of
freezing and reducing HCFCs is then known as 2013/2015.
The HCFCs are transitional CFCs replacements, used as refrigerants, solvents, blowing agents for plastic foam
manufacture, and fire extinguishers. In term of Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP), in comparison to CFCs that have
ODP 0.6 – 1.0, these HCFCs ODP have less ODP, i.e. 0.01 – 0.5. Whereas in term of Global Warming Potential
(GWP), in comparison to CFCs that have GWP 4,680 – 10,720, HCFCs have less GWP, i.e. 76 – 2,270.
There are a few exceptions for "essential uses", where no acceptable substitutes have been found (for example, in the
metered dose inhalers commonly used to treat asthma and other respiratory problems[6] ) or Halon fire suppression
systems used in submarines and aircraft (but not in general industry).
The substances in Group I of Annex A are:
•
•
•
•
•
CFCl3 (CFC-11)
CF2Cl2 (CFC-12)
C2F3Cl3 (CFC-113)
C2F4Cl2(CFC-114)
C2F5Cl (CFC-115)
The provisions of the Protocol include the requirement that the Parties to the Protocol base their future decisions on
the current scientific, environmental, technical, and economic information that is assessed through panels drawn
from the worldwide expert communities. To provide that input to the decision-making process, advances in
understanding on these topics were assessed in 1989, 1991, 1994, 1998 and 2002 in a series of reports entitled
Scientific assessment of ozone depletion.
Several reports have been published by various governmental and non-governmental organizations to present
alternatives to the ozone depleting substances, since the substances have been used in various technical sectors, like
in refrigerating, agriculture, energy production, and laboratory measurements[7] [8] [9]
History
In 1973 Chemists Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, then at the University of California, Irvine, began
studying the impacts of CFCs in the Earth's atmosphere. They discovered that CFC molecules were stable enough to
remain in the atmosphere until they got up into the middle of the stratosphere where they would finally (after an
average of 50–100 years for two common CFCs) be broken down by ultraviolet radiation releasing a chlorine atom.
Rowland and Molina then proposed that these chlorine atoms might be expected to cause the breakdown of large
amounts of ozone (O3) in the stratosphere. Their argument was based upon an analogy to contemporary work by
Paul J. Crutzen and Harold Johnston, which had shown that nitric oxide (NO) could catalyze the destruction of
ozone. (Several other scientists, including Ralph Cicerone, Richard Stolarski, Michael McElroy, and Steven Wofsy
had independently proposed that chlorine could catalyze ozone loss, but none had realized that CFCs were a
potentially large source of chlorine.) Crutzen, Molina and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize for
107
Montreal Protocol
Chemistry for their work on this problem.
The environmental consequence of this discovery was that, since stratospheric ozone absorbs most of the
ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation reaching the surface of the planet, depletion of the ozone layer by CFCs would lead to
an in increase in UV-B radiation at the surface, resulting in an increase in skin cancer and other impacts such as
damage to crops and to marine phytoplankton.
But the Rowland-Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon
industries. The chair of the board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fiction
tale...a load of rubbish...utter nonsense". Robert Abplanalp, the president of Precision Valve Corporation (and
inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain about
Rowland's public statements (Roan, p. 56.)
After publishing their pivotal paper in June 1974, Rowland and Molina testified at a hearing before the U.S. House
of Representatives in December 1974. As a result significant funding was made available to study various aspects of
the problem and to confirm the initial findings. In 1976, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) released a
report that confirmed the scientific credibility of the ozone depletion hypothesis.[10] NAS continued to publish
assessments of related science for the next decade.
Then, in 1985, British Antarctic Survey scientists Farman, Gardiner and Shanklin shocked the scientific community
when they published results of a study showing an ozone "hole" in the journal Nature — showing a decline in polar
ozone far larger than anyone had anticipated.
That same year, 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention, which
established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone-depleting substances.
But the CFC industry did not give up that easily. As late as 1986, the Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy (an
association representing the CFC industry founded by DuPont) was still arguing that the science was too uncertain to
justify any action. In 1987, DuPont testified before the US Congress that "we believe that there is no immediate
crisis that demands unilateral regulation."
Multilateral Fund
The Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol provides funds to help developing countries
to phase out the use of ozone-depleting substances.
The Multilateral Fund was the first financial mechanism to be created under an international treaty.[11] It embodies
the principle agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 that countries have
a common but differentiated responsibility to protect and manage the global commons.
The Fund is managed by an executive committee with an equal representation of seven industrialized and seven
Article 5 countries, which are elected annually by a Meeting of the Parties. The Committee reports annually to the
Meeting of the Parties on its operations.
Up to 20 percent of the contributions of contributing parties can also be delivered through their bilateral agencies in
the form of eligible projects and activities.
The fund is replenished on a three-year basis by the donors. Pledges amount to US$ 2.1 billion over the period 1991
to 2005. Funds are used, for example, to finance the conversion of existing manufacturing processes, train personnel,
pay royalties and patent rights on new technologies, and establish national ozone offices.
108
Montreal Protocol
Ratification
As of September 16, 2009, all countries in the United Nations, the Cook Islands, Holy See, Niue and the
supranational European Union have ratified the original Montreal Protocol[12] (see external link below), Timor-Leste
being the last country to ratify the agreement. Fewer countries have ratified each consecutive amendment. Only 154
countries have signed the Beijing Amendment.[13]
In the United States, the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (P.L. 101-549) contain provisions for implementing the
Montreal Protocol, as well as explicit, separate authority for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency‎ to regulate
ozone depleting chemicals.
Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher signed the protocol in 1987.
Letter from Ronald Reagan to the U.S. Senate:
"THE WHITE HOUSE Office of the Press Secretary For Immediate Release December 21, 1987
To the Senate of the United States:
I transmit herewith, for the advice and consent of the Senate to ratification, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer, done at Montreal on September 16, 1987. The report of the Department of State is also
enclosed for the information of the Senate.
The Montreal Protocol provides for internationally coordinated control of ozone-depleting substances in order to
protect public health and the environment from potential adverse effects of depletion of stratospheric ozone. The
Protocol was negotiated under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Program, pursuant to the Vienna
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, which was ratified by the United States in August 1986.
In this historic agreement, the international community undertakes cooperative measures to protect a vital global
resource. The United States played a leading role in the negotiation of the Protocol. United States ratification is
necessary for entry into force and effective implementation of the Protocol. Early ratification by the United States
will encourage similar action by other nations whose participation is also essential.
I recommend that the Senate give early and favorable consideration to the Protocol and give its advice and consent to
ratification.
Ronald Reagan The White House December 21, 1987"
Source - http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/montreal/01.htm
109
Montreal Protocol
Impact
Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, the
atmospheric concentrations of the most important
chlorofluorocarbons
and
related
chlorinated
hydrocarbons have either leveled off or decreased.[14]
Halon concentrations have continued to increase, as the
halons presently stored in fire extinguishers are
released, but their rate of increase has slowed and their
abundances are expected to begin to decline by about
2020. Also, the concentration of the HCFCs increased
drastically at least partly because for many uses CFCs
(e.g. used as solvents or refrigerating agents) were
substituted with HCFCs. While there have been reports
of attempts by individuals to circumvent the ban, e.g.
by smuggling CFCs from undeveloped to developed
nations, the overall level of compliance has been high.
In consequence, the Montreal Protocol has often been
called the most successful international environmental
agreement to date. In a 2001 report, NASA found the
Ozone-depleting gas trends
ozone thinning over Antarctica had remained the same
[15]
thickness for the previous three years,
however in
2003 the ozone hole grew to its second largest size.[16] The most recent (2006) scientific evaluation of the effects of
the Montreal Protocol states, "The Montreal Protocol is working: There is clear evidence of a decrease in the
atmospheric burden of ozone-depleting substances and some early signs of stratospheric ozone recovery."[17]
Unfortunately, the hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs, and hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs, are now thought to
contribute to anthropogenic global warming. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, these compounds are up to 10,000
times more potent greenhouse gases than carbon dioxide. The Montreal Protocol currently calls for a complete
phase-out of HCFCs by 2030, but does not place any restriction on HFCs. Since the CFCs themselves are equally
powerful as greenhouse gases, the mere substitution of HFCs for CFCs does not significantly increase the rate of
anthropogenic global warming, but over time a steady increase in their use could increase the danger that human
activity will change the climate.[18]
Policy experts have advocated for increased efforts to link ozone protection efforts to climate protection efforts.[19]
[20] [21]
Policy decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of environmental improvements in the other.
See also
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ozone depletion
Kyoto Protocol
Refrigerant
R-134a
Greenhouse Gases
Vienna Conference (1985)
110
Montreal Protocol
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Speth, J. G. 2004. Red Sky at Morning: America and the Crisis of the Global Environment New Haven: Yale University Press, pp 95.
The Ozone Hole-The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (http:/ / www. theozonehole. com/ montreal. htm)
http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ Ratification_status/
The full terms are available from http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ Publications/ MP_Handbook/ Section_1. 1_The_Montreal_Protocol/ .
http:/ / www. epa. gov/ ozone/ ods. html
Exemption Information - The Ozone Secretariat Web Site (http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ Exemption_Information/ )
Use of ozone depleting substances in laboratories. TemaNord 2003:516. http:/ / www. norden. org/ pub/ ebook/ 2003-516. pdf
The Technical and Economic Feasibility of Replacing Methyl Bromide in Developing Countries. Friends of the Earth, Washington, 173 pp,
1996
[9] Guidance on the DOE Facility Phaseout of Ozone-Depleting Substances. 1995. http:/ / homer. ornl. gov/ nuclearsafety/ nsea/ oepa/ guidance/
ozone/ phaseout. pdf
[10] National Academy of Sciences (1976). Halocarbons, effects on stratospheric ozone (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=a2YrAAAAYAAJ& dq=Halocarbons:+ Effects+ on+ Stratospheric+ Ozone). Washington, DC. .
[11] http:/ / www. multilateralfund. org/ about_the_multilateral_fund. htm
[12] http:/ / europa. eu/ rapid/ pressReleasesAction. do?reference=IP/ 09/ 1328& format=HTML& aged=0& language=EN& guiLanguage=en
[13] http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ Ratification_status/
[14] (http:/ / www. al. noaa. gov/ assessments/ 2002/ Q& As16. pdf)
[15] "Top Story - 2001 Antarctic Ozone Hole Similar in Size to Holes of Past Three Years, NOAA and NASA Report - October 16, 2001" (http:/
/ www. gsfc. nasa. gov/ topstory/ 20011016ozonelayer. html). www.gsfc.nasa.gov. . Retrieved 2010-09-16.
[16] "NOAA News Online (Story 2099)" (http:/ / www. noaanews. noaa. gov/ stories/ s2099. htm). www.noaanews.noaa.gov. . Retrieved
2010-09-16.
[17] Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2006, http:/ / www. esrl. noaa. gov/ csd/ assessments/ 2006/ report. html
[18] "EIA - Emissions of the Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2005" (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ oiaf/ 1605/ ggrpt/ other_gases. html).
www.eia.doe.gov. . Retrieved 2010-09-16.
[19] Mario Molina, Durwood Zaelke, K. Madhava Sarma, Stephen O. Andersen, Veerabhadran Ramanathan, and Donald Kaniaru. "Reducing
abrupt climate change risk using the Montreal Protocol and other regulatory actions to complement cuts in CO2 emissions" PNAS 2009 106
(49) 20616-20621; doi:10.1073/pnas.0902568106
[20] CS Norman, SJ DeCanio and L Fan. "The Montreal Protocol at 20: Ongoing opportunities for integration with climate protection." Global
Environmental Change Volume 18, Issue 2, May 2008, Pages 330-340; doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.03.003
[21] UNEP press release, 2008 http:/ / www. unep. org/ Documents. Multilingual/ Default. asp?DocumentID=593& ArticleID=6250& l=en&
t=long
This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook document "2003 edition" (http:/ /
www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2003/index.html). (referred to as Ozone Layer Protection)
• Benedick, Richard E. (1991). Ozone Diplomacy. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-65001-8 (Ambassador
Benedick was the Chief U.S. Negotiator at the meetings that resulted in the Protocol.)
• Litfin, Karen T. (1994). Ozone Discourses. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08137-5
• http://www.multilateralfund.org/
External links
• (http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&id=504&chapter=27&lang=en) The Parties
involved
• The Montreal Protocol (http://ozone.unep.org/Publications/MP_Handbook/Section_1.
1_The_Montreal_Protocol/)
• The Montreal Protocol Who's Who (http://www.unep.fr/ozonaction/montrealprotocolwhoswho/)
• THE CFC-OZONE PUZZLE:Environmental Science in the Global Arena (http://www.ncseonline.org/
NCSEconference/2000conference/Chafee/) by F.Sherwood Rowland and Mario J.Molina
• The evolution of policy responses to stratospheric ozone depletion (http://www.ciesin.org/docs/003-006/
003-006.html) by P. M. Morrisette, Natural Resources Journal 29: 793–820 (1989).
• Has the Montreal Protocol been successful in reducing ozone-depleting gases in the atmosphere? (http://www.
al.noaa.gov/assessments/2002/Q&As16.pdf)(NOAA Aeronomy Lab)
111
Montreal Protocol
112
• Doomsday Déjà vu: Ozone Depletion's Lessons for Global Warming (http://www.cei.org/gencon/025,01184.
cfm) by Ben Lieberman (http://www.cei.org/dyn/view_expert.cfm?expert=6)
• Halon and the Ozone Layer (http://www.h3rcleanagents.com/support_faq_3.htm)
• http://www.scribd.com/doc/6292142/Brief-on-Hydro-Chlorofluorocarbons
Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to
the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at
fighting
global
warming.
The
UNFCCC
is
an
international
environmental treaty with the goal of
achieving "stabilization of greenhouse
gas concentrations in the atmosphere at
a level that would prevent dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the
climate system."[1]
Participation in the Kyoto Protocol, as of June 2009, where dark green indicates the
countries that have signed and ratified the treaty, grey is not yet decided and red is no
intention to ratify.
The Protocol was initially adopted on
11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and entered into force on 16 February 2005. As of July 2010, 191 states have
signed and ratified the protocol.[2]
Under the Protocol, 39 industrialized countries and the European Union(called "Annex I countries") commit
themselves to a reduction of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur
hexafluoride) and two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons) produced by them, and all
member countries give general commitments. Annex I countries agreed to reduce their collective greenhouse gas
emissions by 5.2% from the 1991 level. Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and
shipping, but are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the
1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
The benchmark 1990 emission levels were accepted by the Conference of the Parties of UNFCCC (decision 2/CP.3)
were the values of "global warming potential" calculated for the IPCC Second Assessment Report.[3] These figures
are used for converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into comparable CO2 equivalents (CO2-eq) when
computing overall sources and sinks.
The Protocol allows for several "flexible mechanisms", such as emissions trading, the clean development mechanism
(CDM) and joint implementation to allow Annex I countries to meet their GHG emission limitations by purchasing
GHG emission reductions credits from elsewhere, through financial exchanges, projects that reduce emissions in
non-Annex I countries, from other Annex I countries, or from annex I countries with excess allowances.
Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas
emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate
a person (called a "designated national authority") to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory. Virtually all of
the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage its Kyoto obligations,
specifically the "CDM process" that determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by the
CDM Executive Board.
Kyoto Protocol
Background
The view that human activities are likely responsible for most of the observed increase in global mean temperature
("global warming") since the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of current scientific thinking (NRC, 2001,
p. 3,[4] 2008, p. 2).[5] Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue through the 21st century.
IPCC (2007) produced a range of projections of what the future increase in global mean temperature might be.[6]
Projections spanned a range due to socio-economic uncertainties, e.g., over future greenhouse gas (GHG) emission
levels, and uncertainties with regard to physical science aspects, e.g., the climate sensitivity. For the time period
2090-2099, measured from global mean temperature in the period 1980-1999, the "likely" range (as assessed to have
a greater than 66% probability of being correct, based on expert judgement) across the six SRES "marker" emissions
scenarios was projected as an increase in global mean temperature of 1.1 to 6.4 °C.
The scientific question of what constitutes a "safe" level of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations has been
asked (NRC, 2001, p. 4). This question cannot be answered directly since it requires value judgements of, for
example, what would be an acceptable risk to human welfare. In general, however, risks increase with both the rate
and magnitude of future climate change.
Ratification process
The Protocol was adopted by COP 3 on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. It was opened on 16 March 1998 for
signature by parties to UNFCCC.
Article 25 of the Protocol specifies that the Protocol enters into force "on the ninetieth day after the date on which
not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for at
least 55% of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Annex I countries, have deposited their instruments
of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession."
The EU and its Member States ratified the Protocol in May 2002.[7] Of the two conditions, the "55 parties" clause
was reached on 23 May 2002 when Iceland ratified the Protocol. The ratification by Russia on 18 November 2004
satisfied the "55%" clause and brought the treaty into force, effective 16 February 2005, after the required lapse of
90 days.
As of November 2009, 187 countries and one regional economic organization (the EC) have ratified the agreement,
representing over 63.9% of the 1990 emissions from Annex I countries.[2] The most notable non-party to the
Protocol is the United States, which is a party to UNFCCC and was responsible for 36.1% of the 1990 emission
levels of Annex I countries. The Protocol can be signed and ratified only by parties to UNFCCC, (Article 24) and a
country can withdraw by giving 12 months notice. (Article 27)
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Kyoto Protocol
Objectives
The objective is the "stabilization and reconstruction of
greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a
level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system."[1]
The objective of the Kyoto climate change conference
was to establish a legally binding international
agreement, whereby all the participating nations
commit themselves to tackling the issue of global
warming and greenhouse gas emissions. The target
agreed upon was an average reduction of 5.2% from
1990 levels by the year 2012. According to the treaty,
in 2012, Annex I countries must have fulfilled their
Kyoto is intended to cut global emissions of greenhouse gases.
obligations of reduction of greenhouse gases emissions
established for the first commitment period
(2008–2012) (see Annex B of the Protocol). The Protocol expires at the end of 2012.
The five principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
• Commitments. The heart of the Protocol lies in establishing commitments for the reduction of greenhouse gases
that are legally binding for Annex I countries, as well as general commitments for all member countries.
• Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I countries are required to prepare policies
and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required to
increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the
clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more
greenhouse gas emissions at home.
• Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.
• Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
• Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the
Protocol.
2012 emission targets and "flexible mechanisms"
39 of the 40 Annex I countries have ratified the Protocol. Of these 34 have committed themselves to a reduction of
greenhouse gases (GHG) produced by them to targets that are set in relation to their 1990 emission levels, in
accordance with Annex B of the Protocol. The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride, and two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons. The six
GHG are translated into CO2 equivalents in determining reductions in emissions. These reduction targets are in
addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
Under the Protocol, Annex I countries have committed themselves to national or joint reduction targets, (formally
called "quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives" (QELRO) - Article 4.1) that range from a joint
reduction of 8% for the European Union and others, to 7% for the United States (non-binding as the US is not a
signatory), 6% for Japan and 0% for Russia. The treaty permits emission increases of 8% for Australia and 10% for
Iceland.[8] Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping.
Annex I countries can achieve their targets by allocating reduced annual allowances to major operators within their
borders, or by allowing these operators to exceed their allocations by offsetting any excess through a mechanism that
is agreed by all the parties to the UNFCCC, such as by buying emission allowances from other operators which have
114
Kyoto Protocol
excess emissions credits.
38 of the 39 Annex I countries have agreed to cap their emissions in this way, two others are required to do so under
their conditions of accession into the EU, and one more (Belarus) is seeking to become an Annex I country.
Flexible mechanisms
The Protocol defines three "flexibility mechanisms" that can be used by Annex I countries in meeting their emission
reduction commitments (Bashmakov et al.., 2001, p. 402).[9] The flexibility mechanisms are International Emissions
Trading (IET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI). IET allows Annex I
countries to "trade" their emissions (Assigned Amount Units, AAUs, or "allowances" for short). For IET, the
economic basis for providing this flexibility is that the marginal cost of emission abatement differs among countries.
Trade could potentially allow the Annex I countries to meet their emission reduction commitments at a reduced cost.
This is because trade allows emissions to be abated first in countries where the costs of abatement are lowest, thus
increasing the efficiency of the Kyoto agreement.
The CDM and JI are called "project-based mechanisms," in that they generate emission reductions from projects.
The difference between IET and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is based on the setting of a quantitative
restriction of emissions, while the CDM and JI are based on the idea of "production" of emission reductions (Toth et
al.., 2001, p. 660).[10] The CDM is designed to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex I
countries, while JI encourages production of emission reductions in Annex I countries.
The production of emission reductions generated by the CDM and JI can be used by Annex B countries in meeting
their emission reduction commitments. The emission reductions produced by the CDM and JI are both measured
against a hypothetical baseline of emissions that would have occurred in the absence of a particular emission
reduction project. The emission reductions produced by the CDM are called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs);
reductions produced by JI are called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs). The reductions are called "credits" because
they are emission reductions credited against a hypothetical baseline of emissions.
International Emissions Trading
The most advanced emissions trading system (ETS) is the one developed by the EU (Gupta et al.., 2007).[11]
Ellerman and Buchner (2008) (referenced in Grubb et al.., 2009, p. 11) suggested that during its first two years in
operation, the EU ETS turned an expected increase in emissions of 1-2 percent per year into a small absolute
decline.[12] Grubb et al.. (2009, p. 11) suggested that a reasonable estimate for the emissions cut achieved during its
first two years of operation was 50-100 MtCO2 per year, or 2.5-5 percent.
Clean Development Mechanism
Between 2001, which was the first year CDM projects could be registered, and 2012, the end of the Kyoto
commitment period, the CDM is expected to produce some 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) in
emission reductions.[13] Most of these reductions are through renewable energy, energy efficiency, and fuel
switching (World Bank, 2010, p. 262). By 2012, the largest potential for production of CERs are estimated in China
(52% of total CERs) and India (16%). CERs produced in Latin America and the Caribbean make up 15% of the
potential total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region (7%).
Joint Implementation
The formal crediting period for JI was aligned with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, and did not
start until January 2008 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 20).[14] In November 2008, only 22 JI projects had been officially
approved and registered. The total projected emission savings from JI by 2012 are about one tenth that of the CDM.
Russia accounts for about two-thirds of these savings, with the remainder divided up roughly equally between the
Ukraine and the EU's New Member States. Emission savings include cuts in methane, HFC, and N2O emissions.
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Kyoto Protocol
Details of the agreement
According to a press release from the United Nations Environment Program:
"After 10 days of tough negotiations, ministers and other high-level officials from 160 countries reached
agreement this morning on a legally binding Protocol under which industrialized countries will reduce their
collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2%.
The agreement aims to lower overall emissions from a group of six greenhouse gases by 2008–12, calculated
as an average over these five years. Cuts in the three most important gases – carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) – will be measured against a base year of 1990. Cuts in three long-lived
industrial gases – hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) – can
be measured against either a 1990 or 1995 baseline."
National limitations range from 8% reductions for the European Union and others, to 7% for the US, 6% for Japan,
0% for Russia, and permitted increases of 8% for Australia and 10% for Iceland.[8]
The agreement supplements the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted at
the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which did not set any limitations or enforcement mechanisms. All
parties to UNFCCC can sign or ratify the Kyoto Protocol, while non-parties to UNFCCC cannot. The Kyoto Protocol
was adopted at the third session of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC (COP 3) in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. Most
provisions of the Kyoto Protocol apply to developed countries, listed in Annex I to UNFCCC.
National emission targets exclude international aviation and shipping. Kyoto Parties can use land use, land use
change, and forestry (LULUCF) in meeting their targets (Dessai, 2001, p. 3).[15] LULUCF activities are also called
"sink" activities. Changes in sinks and land use can have an effect on the climate (IPCC, 2007).[16] Particular criteria
apply to the definition of forestry under the Kyoto Protocol.
Forest management, cropland management, grazing land management, and revegetation are all eligible LULUCF
activities under the Protocol (Dessai, 2001, p. 9). Annex I Parties use of forestry management in meeting their targets
is capped.
Common but differentiated responsibility
UNFCCC adopts a principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities." The parties agreed that:
1. the largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse gases originated in developed countries;
2. per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low;
3. the share of global emissions originating in developing countries will grow to meet social and development
needs.[17]
Emissions
Per-capita emissions are a country's total emissions divided by its population (Banuri et al.., 1996, p. 95).[18]
Per-capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing
countries (Grubb, 2003, p. 144).[19] This is one reason industrialized countries accepted responsibility for leading
climate change efforts in the Kyoto negotiations. In Kyoto, the countries that took on quantified commitments for the
first period (2008–12) corresponded roughly to those with per-capita emissions in 1990 of two tonnes of carbon or
higher. In 2005, the top-20 emitters comprised 80% of total GHG emissions (PBL, 2010. See also the notes in the
following section on the top-ten emitters in 2005).[20] Countries with a Kyoto target made up 20% of total GHG
emissions.
Another way of measuring GHG emissions is to measure the total emissions that have accumulated in the
atmosphere over time (IEA, 2007, p. 199).[21] Over a long time period, cumulative emissions provide an indication
of a country's total contribution to GHG concentrations in the atmosphere. Over the 1900-2005 period, the US was
the world's largest cumulative emitter of energy-related CO2 emissions, and accounted for 30% of total cumulative
116
Kyoto Protocol
emissions (IEA, 2007, p. 201). The second largest emitter was the EU, at 23%; the third largest was China, at 8%;
fourth was Japan, at 4%; fifth was India, at 2%. The rest of the world accounted for 33% of global, cumulative,
energy-related CO2 emissions.
Top-ten emitters
What follows is a ranking of the world's top ten emitters of GHGs for 2005 (MNP, 2007).[22] The first figure is the
country's or region's emissions as a percentage of the global total. The second figure is the country's/region's
per-capita emissions, in units of tons of GHG per-capita:
1. China1 – 17%, 5.8
2. United States3 – 16%, 24.1
3. European Union-273 – 11%, 10.6
4. Indonesia2 - 6%, 12.9
5. India – 5%, 2.1
6. Russia3 – 5%, 14.9
7. Brazil – 4%, 10.0
8. Japan3 – 3%, 10.6
9. Canada3 – 2%, 23.2
10. Mexico – 2%, 6.4
Notes
• These values are for the GHG emissions from fossil fuel use and cement production. Calculations are for carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and gases containing fluorine (the F-gases HFCs, PFCs and
SF6).
• These estimates are subject to large uncertainties regarding CO2 emissions from deforestation; and the per country
emissions of other GHGs (e.g., methane). There are also other large uncertainties which mean that small
differences between countries are not significant. CO2 emissions from the decay of remaining biomass after
biomass burning/deforestation are not included.
• 1 excluding underground fires.
• 2 including an estimate of 2000 million tonnes CO2 from peat fires and decomposition of peat soils after draining.
However, the uncertainty range is very large.
• 3 Industrialised countries: official country data reported to UNFCCC
Financial commitments
The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay billions of dollars, and supply
technology to other countries for climate-related studies and projects. The principle was originally agreed in
UNFCCC.
Revisions
The protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties (COP). COP6 attempted
to resolve these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but was unable to reach an agreement due to disputes
between the European Union on the one hand (which favoured a tougher agreement) and the United States, Canada,
Japan and Australia on the other (which wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).
In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6bis) was held in Bonn where the required decisions were
adopted. After some concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the European Union) managed to get Japan
and Russia in as well by allowing more use of carbon dioxide sinks.
COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001 in Marrakech to establish the final details of the
protocol.
117
Kyoto Protocol
The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was held in Montreal from 28 November to 9
December 2005, along with the 11th conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11). See United Nations
Climate Change Conference.
The 3 December 2007, Australia ratified the protocol during the first day of the COP13 in Bali.
Of the signatories, 36 developed C.G. countries (plus the EU as a party in the European Union)agreed to a 10%
emissions increase for Iceland; but, since the EU's member states each have individual obligations,[23] much larger
increases (up to 27%) are allowed for some of the less developed EU countries (see below Kyoto Protocol#Increase
in greenhouse gas emission since 1990).[24] Reduction limitations expire in 2013.
Enforcement
If the enforcement branch determines that an annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, then
that country is required to make up the difference plus an additional 30%. In addition, that country will be suspended
from making transfers under an emissions trading program.[25]
Negotiations
Article 4.2 of the UNFCCC commits industrialized countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing emissions (Grubb,
2003, p. 144).[19] The initial aim was for industrialized countries to stabilize their emissions at 1990 levels by the
year 2000. The failure of key industrialized countries to move in this direction was a principal reason why Kyoto
moved to binding commitments.
At the first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties in Berlin, the G77 (a coalition of 77 developing nations within the
UN) was able to push for a mandate where it was recognized that (Liverman, 2008, p. 12):[26]
• developed nations had contributed most to the then-current concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere
• developing country emissions per-capita were still relatively low
• and that the share of global emissions from developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.
This mandate was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol in that developing countries were not subject to emission
reduction commitments in the first Kyoto commitment period. However, the large potential for growth in developing
country emissions made negotiations on this issue tense (Grubb, 2003, p. 145-146). In the final agreement, the Clean
Development Mechanism was designed to limit emissions in developing countries, but in such a way that developing
countries do not bear the costs for limiting emissions. The general assumption was that developing countries would
face quantitative commitments in later commitment periods, and at the same time, developed countries would meet
their first round commitments.
Base year
The choice of the 1990 base year remains in Kyoto, as it does in the original Framework Convention. The desire to
move to historical emissions was rejected on the basis that good data was not available prior to 1990. The 1990 base
year also favoured several powerful interests including the UK, Germany and Russia (Liverman, 2008, p. 12).[26]
This is because the UK and Germany had high CO2 emissions in 1990.
In the UK following 1990, emissions had declined because of a switch from coal to gas ("dash for gas"), which has
lower emissions than coal. This was due to the UK's privatization of coal mining and its switch to natural gas
supported by North sea reserves. Germany benefitted from the 1990 base year because of its reunification between
West and East Germany. East Germany's emissions fell dramatically following the collapse of East German industry
after the fall of the Berlin Wall. Germany could therefore take credit for the resultant decline in emissions.
Japan promoted the idea of flexible baselines, and favoured a base year of 1995 for HFCs. Their HFC emissions had
grown in the early 1990s as a substitute for CFCs banned in the Montreal Protocol (Liverman, 2008, p. 13). Some of
the former Soviet satellites wanted a base year to reflect their highest emissions prior to their industrial collapse.
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Kyoto Protocol
Emissions cuts
The G77 wanted strong uniform emission cuts across the developed world of 15% (Liverman, 2008, p. 13).[26]
Countries, such as the US, made suggestions to reduce their responsibility to reduce emissions. These suggestions
included:
• the inclusion of carbon sinks (e.g., by including forests, that absorb CO2 from the atmosphere).
• and having net current emissions as the basis for responsibility, i.e., ignoring historical emissions.
The US originally proposed for the second round of negotiations on Kyoto commitments to follow the negotiations
of the first (Grubb, 2003, p. 148).[19] In the end, negotiations on the second period were set to open no later than
2005. Countries over-achieving in their first period commitments can "bank" their unused allowances for use in the
subsequent period.
The EU initially argued for only three GHGs to be included – CO2, CH4, and N2O – with other gases such as HFCs
regulated separately (Liverman, 2008, p. 13). The EU also wanted to have a "bubble" commitment, whereby it could
make a collective commitment that allowed some EU members to increase their emissions, while others cut theirs.
The most vulnerable nations – the Association of Small Island States (AOSIS) – pushed for deep uniform cuts by
developed nations, with the goal of having emissions reduced to the greatest possible extent.
The final days of negotiation of the Protocol saw a clash between the EU and the US and Japan (Grubb, 2003,
p. 149). The EU aimed for flat-rate reductions in the range of 10-15% below 1990 levels, while the US and Japan
supported reductions of 0-5%. Countries that had supported differentiation had different ideas as to how it should be
calculated, and many different indicators were proposed: relating to GDP, energy intensity (energy use per unit of
economic output), etc. According to Grubb (2003, p. 149), the only common theme of these indicators was that each
proposal suited the interests of the country making the proposal.
The final commitments negotiated in the Protocol are the result of last minute political compromises (Liverman,
2008, p. 13-14). These include an 8% cut from the 1990 base year for the EU, 7% for the US, 6% for Canada and
Japan, no cut for Russia, and an 8% increase for Australia. This sums to an overall cut of 5.2% below 1990 levels.
Since Australia and the US did not ratify the treaty (although Australia has since done), the cut is reduced from 5.2%
to about 2%.
Considering the growth of some economies and the collapse of others since 1990, the range of implicit targets is
much greater (Aldy et al.., 2003, p. 7).[27] The US faced a cut of about 30% below "business-as-usual" (BAU)
emissions (i.e., predicted emissions should there be no attempt to limit emissions), while Russia and other economies
in transition faced targets that allowed substantial increases in their emissions above BAU. On the other hand, Grubb
(2003, p. 151) pointed out that the US, having per-capita emissions twice that of most other OECD countries, was
vulnerable to the suggestion that it had huge potential for making reductions. From this viewpoint, the US was
obliged to cut emissions back more than other countries.
Flexibility mechanisms
Negotiations over the flexibility mechanisms included in the Protocol proved controversial (Grubb, 2003, p. 153).[19]
Japan and some EU member states wanted to ensure that any emissions trading would be competitive and
transparent. Their intention was to prevent the US from using its political leverage to gain preferential access to the
likely surplus in Russian emission allowances. The EU was also anxious to prevent the US from avoiding domestic
action to reduce its emissions. Developing countries were concerned that the US would use flexibility to its own
advantage, over the interests of weaker countries.
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Kyoto Protocol
120
Compliance
The protocol defines a mechanism of "compliance" as a "monitoring compliance with the commitments and penalties
for non-compliance."[28] According to Grubb (2003, p. 157), the explicit consequences of non-compliance of the
treaty are weak compared to domestic law.[19] Yet, the compliance section of the treaty was highly contested in the
Marrakesh Accords. According to Grubb (2003), Japan made some unsuccessful efforts to "water-down" the
compliance package.
Government action and emissions
Annex I
In total, Annex I Parties to the UNFCCC (including the
US) managed a cut of 3.3% in GHG emissions between
1990 and 2004 (UNFCCC, 2007, p. 11).[29] In 2007,
projections indicated rising emissions of 4.2% between
1990 and 2010. This projection assumed that no further
mitigation action would be taken. The reduction in the
1990s was driven significantly by economic
restructuring in the economies-in-transition (EITs. See
the following section for the list of EITs). Emission
reductions in the EITs had little to do with climate
change policy (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 24).[14] Some
reductions in Annex I emissions have occurred due to
policy measures, such as promoting energy efficiency
(UNFCCC, 2007, p. 11).
Carbon emissions from various global regions during the period
1800–2000 AD
Progress towards targets
Progress toward the emission reduction commitments set in the Kyoto Protocol has been mixed. World Bank (2008,
p. 6) reported that there were significant differences in performance across individual countries:[30]
• For the Annex I non-Economies-in-Transition (non-EIT) Kyoto Protocol (KP) Parties, emissions in 2005 were
5% higher than 1990 levels (World Bank, 2008, p. 59). Their Kyoto target for 2008-2012 is for a 6% reduction in
emissions. The Annex I non-EITs KP Parties are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand,
Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
• The Annex I Economies in Transition (EIT) KP Parties emissions in 2005 were 35% below 1990 levels. Their
Kyoto target is for a 2% reduction. The Annex I EIT KP Parties are Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic,
Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine.
• In 2005, the Annex I non-KP Parties emissions were 18% above their 1990 levels. The Annex I non-KP Parties
are Turkey and the United States.
• In total, the Annex I KP Parties emissions for 2005 were 14% below their 1990 levels. Their Kyoto target is for a
4% reduction.
KP Parties
According to the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL, 2009), the industrialized countries with a
Kyoto target will, as a group, probably meet their emission limitation requirements.[31] Collectively, this was for a
4% reduction relative to 1990 levels. A linear extrapolation of the 2000-2005 emissions trend led to a projected
emission reduction in 2010 of almost 11%. Including the potential contribution of CDM projects, which may account
for emissions reductions of approximately 500 megatonnes CO2-eq per year, the reduction might be as large as 15%.
Kyoto Protocol
The expected reduction of 11% was attributed to the limited increase in emissions in OECD countries, but was
particularly due to the large reduction of about 40% until 1999 in the EITs. The reduction in emissions for the
smaller EITs aids the EU-27 in meeting their collective target. The EU expects that it will meet its collective target
of an 8% reduction for the EU-15. This reduction includes:
• CDM and JI projects, which are planned to contribute 2.5% towards the target;
• carbon storage in forests and soils (carbon sinks), which contribute another 0.9%.
Japan expects to meet its Kyoto target, which includes a 1.6% reduction from CDM projects and a 3.9% reduction
from carbon storage, contributing to a total reduction of 5.5%. In other OECD countries, emissions have increased.
In Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Switzerland, emissions have increased by 25% compared to the base year,
while in Norway, the increase was 9%. In the view of PBL (2009), these countries will only be able to meet their
targets by purchasing sufficient CDM credits or by buying emissions ("hot air") from EIT countries.
Non-KP Parties
Emissions in the US have increased 16% since 1990. According to PBL (2009), the US will not meet its original
Kyoto target of a 6% reduction in emissions.[31]
Non-Annex I
UNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized information reported to it by non-Annex I Parties.[32] Most reporting
non-Annex I Parties belonged in the low-income group, with very few classified as middle-income (p. 4). Most
Parties included information on policies relating to sustainable development. Sustainable development priorities
mentioned by non-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and access to basic education and health care (p. 6).
Many non-Annex I Parties are making efforts to amend and update their environmental legislation to include global
concerns such as climate change (p. 7).
A few Parties, e.g., South Africa and Iran, stated their concern over how efforts to reduce emissions could affect their
economies. The economies of these countries are highly dependent on income generated from the production,
processing, and export of fossil fuels.
Emissions
GHG emissions, excluding land use change and forestry (LUCF), reported by 122 non-Annex I Parties for the year
1994 or the closest year reported, totalled 11.7 billion tonnes (billion = 1,000,000,000) of CO2-eq. CO2 was the
largest proportion of emissions (63%), followed by methane (26%) and nitrous oxide (N2O) (11%).
The energy sector was the largest source of emissions for 70 Parties, whereas for 45 Parties the agriculture sector
was the largest. Per capita emissions (in tonnes of CO2-eq, excluding LUCF) averaged 2.8 tonnes for the 122
non-Annex I Parties.
• The Africa region's aggregate emissions were 1.6 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.4 tonnes.
• The Asia and Pacific region's aggregate emissions were 7.9 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of
2.6 tonnes.
• The Latin America and Caribbean region's aggregate emissions were 2 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of
4.6 tonnes.
• The "other" region includes Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Malta, Republic of Moldova, and the former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Their aggregate emissions were 0.1 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of
5.1 tonnes.
Parties reported a high level of uncertainty in LUCF emissions, but in aggregate, there appeared to only be a small
difference of 1.7% with and without LUCF. With LUCF, emissions were 11.9 billion tonnes, without LUCF, total
aggregate emissions were 11.7 billion tonnes.
Trends
121
Kyoto Protocol
In several large developing countries and fast growing economies (China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, and
Iran) GHG emissions have increased rapidly (PBL, 2009).[31] For example, emissions in China have risen strongly
over the 1990-2005 period, often by more than 10% year. Emissions per-capita in non-Annex I countries are still, for
the most part, much lower than in industrialized countries. Non-Annex I countries do not have quantitative emission
reduction commitments, but they are committed to mitigation actions. China, for example, has had a national policy
programme to reduce emissions growth, which included the closure of old, less efficient coal-fired power plants.
Views on the Protocol
Gupta et al. (2007) assessed the literature on climate change policy. They found that no authoritative assessments of
the UNFCCC or its Protocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, succeed in solving the climate problem.[33]
In these assessments, it was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed. The Framework
Convention and its Protocol include provisions for future policy actions to be taken.
World Bank (2010, p. 233) commented on how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect on curbing global
emissions growth.[13] The treaty was negotiated in 1997, but by 2005, energy-related emissions had grown 24%.
World Bank (2010) also stated that the treaty had provided only limited financial support to developing countries to
assist them in reducing their emissions and adapting to climate change.
Some of the criticism of the Protocol has been based on the idea of climate justice (Liverman, 2008, p. 14).[26] This
has particularly centred on the balance between the low emissions and high vulnerability of the developing world to
climate change, compared to high emissions in the developed world.
Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is "the only game in town," and possibly
because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions
(Aldy et al.., 2003, p. 9).[27] In 2001, sixteen national science academies[34] stated that ratification of the Protocol
represented a "small but essential first step towards stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases."[35]
Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak (Grubb, 2000,
p. 5).[36]
Many economists think that the commitments are stronger than is justified (Grubb, 2000, p. 31). The lack of
quantitative emission commitments for developing countries led the US and Australia (under Prime Minister John
Howard) to decide not to ratify the treaty (Stern 2007, p. 478).[37] Australia, under former Prime Minister Kevin
Rudd, has since ratified the treaty. Despite ratification, Australia has thus far not implemented legislation to bring
itself into compliance.
In May 2010 the Hartwell Paper was published by the London School of Economics with funding from the Japan
Iron and Steel Federation, Tokyo, Japan and Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc., Tokyo, Japan .[38]
The authors argued that after what they regard as the failure of the 2009 Copenhagen Climate Summit, the Kyoto
Protocol crashed and they claimed that it "has failed to produce any discernable real world reductions in emissions
of greenhouse gases in fifteen years."[38] [39] They argued that this failure opened an opportunity to set climate policy
free from Kyoto and the paper advocates a controversial and piecemeal approach to decarbonization of the global
economy.[40] [41] [42]
Successor
In the non-binding 'Washington Declaration' agreed on 16 February 2007, Heads of governments from Canada,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South
Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol. They envisage a global cap-and-trade
system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries, and hoped that this would be in
place by 2009.[43] [44]
122
Kyoto Protocol
On 7 June 2007, leaders at the 33rd G8 summit agreed that the G8 nations would "aim to at least halve global CO2
emissions by 2050". The details enabling this to be achieved would be negotiated by environment ministers within
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in a process that would also include the major
emerging economies.[45]
A round of climate change talks under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) (Vienna Climate Change Talks 2007) concluded in 31 August 2007 with agreement on key
elements for an effective international response to climate change.[46]
A key feature of the talks was a United Nations report that showed how efficient energy use could yield significant
cuts in emissions at low cost.
The talks were meant to set the stage for a major international meeting to be held in Nusa Dua, Bali, which started on
3 December 2007.[47]
The Conference was held in December 2008 in Poznań, Poland. One of the main topics on this meeting was the
discussion of a possible implementation of avoided deforestation also known as Reducing emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) into the future Kyoto Protocol.[48]
After the lack of progress leading to a binding commitment or an extension of the Kyoto commitment period in
climate talks at COP 15 in Copenhagen, Denmark in 2009, there are several further rounds of negotiation COP 16 in
Cancun, Mexico in 2010, South Africa in 2011 (COP 17), and in either Qatar or South Korea in 2012 (COP 18).
Because any treaty change will require the ratification of the text by various countries' legislatures before the end of
the commitment period Dec 31, 2012, it is likely that agreements in South Africa or South Korea/Qatar will be too
late to prevent a gap between the commitment periods.[49]
See also
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate
Business action on climate change
Carbon emission trading
Carbon finance
Environmental agreements
Environmental tariff
List of climate change initiatives
Low-carbon economy
Montreal Protocol
Politics of global warming
World People's Conference on Climate Change
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Further reading
• Depledge, J. (August 1999/August 2000). "Tracing the Origins of the Kyoto Protocol: An Article-by-Article
Textual History" (http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/tp/tp0200.pdf). UNFCCC Technical paper. Retrieved
2009-05-20.
• Ekardt, F./von Hövel, A.: Distributive Justice, Competitiveness, and Transnational Climate Protection. In:
Carbon & Climate Law Review, Vol. 3., 2009, p. 102–114.
• Kogan, Lawrence A. (June 2002). "The U.S. Response to the Kyoto Protocol – A Realistic Alternative?" (http://
blogs.shu.edu/projects/diplomacy/archives/5_kogan.pdf). The Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and
International Relations, Volume III, Number 2. Retrieved 2001-10-20.
Economics
• Weyant, J.P. (ed) (May 1999). "The Costs of the Kyoto Protocol: A Multi-Model Evaluation" (http://emf.
stanford.edu/publications/the_costs_of_the_kyoto_protocol_a_multimodel_evaluation/). Energy Journal
(Special issue). Retrieved 2009-08-08. From this issue:
• Manne, A.S. and R. Richels. The Kyoto Protocol: A Cost-Effective Strategy for Meeting Environmental
Objectives? (http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/38/53/1923159.pdf). Retrieved 2009-08-08.
• Nordhaus, W.D. and J.G. Boyer. Requiem for Kyoto: An Economic Analysis of the Kyoto Protocol (http://
www.econ.yale.edu/~nordhaus/homepage/Kyoto.pdf). Retrieved 2009-08-08.
External links
• Full text of the Kyoto Protocol (HTML version) (http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.html), (PDF
version) (http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf) (Alternate HTML version) (http://kyoto.
internationalnetwork.com/)
• Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at Law-Ref.org (http://law-ref.
org/KYOTO/index.html) – fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents
• List of countries who have ratified, accepted, approved, or accessed the Kyoto Protocol (http://unfccc.int/files/
essential_background/kyoto_protocol/application/pdf/kpstats.pdf)
• The layman's guide to the Kyoto Protocol (http://mindprod.com/environment/kyoto.html)
• 2008 [[Cap and trade (http://lieberman.senate.gov/documents/amendment.pdf)] Bill in the U.S. Senate]
• The case against carbon trading by The Rising Tide Environmentalist Group (http://risingtide.org.uk/book/
print/101)
• Text of the Protocol (http://www.worldinbalance.net/intagreements/1997-kyotoprotocol.php) at the Center for
a World in Balance
• Kyoto: On Target? - Google Docs (https://spreadsheets.google.com/
ccc?key=0AmCeWwNKr6FmdGZLWGotWGNfcUtYWmkyalJIb21vbnc&hl=en<br ></a>#gid=0)
126
CLRTAP
CLRTAP
The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, often abbreviated as Air Pollution or CLRTAP,
is intended to protect the human environment against air pollution and to gradually reduce and prevent air pollution,
including long-range transboundary air pollution.
The convention opened for signature on 1979-11-13 and entered into force on 1983-03-16.
The current parties to the Convention are shown on the map.
The Convention, which now has 51
Parties, identifies the Executive
Secretary of the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe
(UNECE) as its secretariat.
Since 1979 the Convention on
Map showing Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution signatories
Long-range
Transboundary
Air
(green) and ratifications (dark green) as of July 2007
Pollution has addressed some of the
major environmental problems of the
UNECE region through scientific collaboration and policy negotiation. The Convention has been extended by eight
protocols that identify specific measures to be taken by Parties to cut their emissions of air pollutants.
The aim of the Convention is that Parties shall endeavour to limit and, as far as possible, gradually reduce and
prevent air pollution including long-range transboundary air pollution. Parties develop policies and strategies to
combat the discharge of air pollutants through exchanges of information, consultation, research and monitoring.
The Parties meet annually at sessions of the Executive Body to review ongoing work and plan future activities
including a workplan for the coming year. The three main subsidiary bodies - the Working Group on Effects, the
Steering Body to EMEP and the Working Group on Strategies and Review - as well as the Convention's
Implementation Committee, report to the Executive Body each year.
Currently, the Convention's priority activities include review and possible revision of its most recent protocols,
implementation of the Convention and its protocols across the entire UNECE region (with special focus on Eastern
Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia and South-East Europe) and sharing its knowledge and information with
other regions of the world.
Source: CIA World Factbook, as of 2003 edition
See also
• Critical load
• Environmental agreements
• Gothenburg (Multi-effect) Protocol
External links
• CLRTAP Homepage [1] at the UNECE website
References
[1] http:/ / www. unece. org/ env/ lrtap/
127
OSPAR Convention
128
OSPAR Convention
The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the
North-East Atlantic [1] or OSPAR Convention is the current legislative
instrument regulating international cooperation on environmental protection in the
North-East Atlantic. It combines and up-dates the 1972 Oslo Convention on
dumping waste at sea and the 1974 Paris Convention on land-based sources of
marine pollution. Work carried out under the convention is managed by the
OSPAR Commission, which is made up of representatives of the Governments of
the 15 signatory nations, and representatives of the European Commission,
representing the European Community.
The official logo of the OSPAR
Convention
History
The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic was opened for signature at
the Ministerial Meeting of the Oslo and Paris Commissions in Paris on September 22, 1992. The Convention has
been signed and ratified by all of the Contracting Parties to the original Oslo or Paris Conventions (Belgium,
Denmark, the European Community, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway,
Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) and by Luxembourg and
Switzerland. The OSPAR Convention entered into force on March 25, 1998, and replaced the Oslo and Paris
Conventions, but decisions and other agreements adopted under those conventions remained applicable unless they
are terminated by new measures adopted under the OSPAR Convention.
The first Ministerial Meeting of the OSPAR
Commission at Sintra, Portugal, in 1998 adopted
Annex V to the Convention, extending the cooperation
of the signatory parties to cover "all human activities
that might adversely affect the marine environment of
the North East Atlantic". Nevertheless, programmes
and measures cannot be adopted under the Convention
on questions relating to fisheries management, which
are currently coordinated by European nations in the
north east Atlantic and North Sea by the International
Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). The
OSPAR convention now regulates European standards
on marine biodiversity, eutrophication, the release of
hazardous and radioactive substances into the seas, the
offshore oil and gas industry and baseline monitoring
of environmental conditions.
In 2000, the OSPAR Commission published a
comprehensive report on the quality of the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic. This was supported by
five smaller reports on the different parts of the OSPAR maritime area –the Arctic, the Greater North Sea, the Celtic
Seas, the Bay of Biscay/Golfe de Gascogne and Iberian waters, and the Wider Atlantic.
OSPAR Convention
See also
• Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft
External links
• http://www.ospar.org/
References
[1] http:/ / www. ospar. org/ html_documents/ ospar/ html/ OSPAR_Convention_e_updated_text_2007. pdf
129
Stockholm Convention
130
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
The logo of the Stockholm Convention Secretariat
Type of United Nations treaty
treaty
Signed 23 May 2001
Location Stockholm, Sweden
Effective 17 May 2004
Condition Ninety days after the ratification by at least 50
signatory states
Signatories 152
Parties
169
Depositary Secretary-General of the United Nations
Languages Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish
State parties to the Stockholm
Convention as of May 2009.
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty that aims to
eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
History
In 1995, the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) called for global action to
be taken on POPs, which it defined as "chemical substances that persist in the environment, bio-accumulate through
the food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health and the environment".
Following this, the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) and the International Programme on
Chemical Safety (IPCS) prepared an assessment of the 12 worst offenders, known as the dirty dozen.
The negotiations for the Convention were completed on 23 May 2001 in Stockholm. The convention entered into
force on 17 May 2004 with ratification by an initial 128 parties and 151 signatories. Co-signatories agree to outlaw
nine of the dirty dozen chemicals, limit the use of DDT to malaria control, and curtail inadvertent production of
131
dioxins and furans.
Parties to the convention have agreed to a process by which persistent toxic compounds can be reviewed and added
to the convention, if they meet certain criteria for persistence and transboundary threat. The first set of new
chemicals to be added to the Convention were agreed at a conference in Geneva on 8 May 2009.
As of December 2008, there are 168 parties to the Convention.[1]
Listed substances
There were initially twelve distinct chemicals listed in three categories. Two chemicals, hexachlorobenzene and
polychlorinated biphenyls, were listed in both categories A and C.[2]
Annex
Name
CAS
Number
Exemptions
A. Elimination
Aldrin
309-00-2
Production none
Use as a local ectoparasiticide and insecticide
A. Elimination
Chlordane
57-74-9
Production by registered parties
Use as a local ectoparasiticide, insecticide, termiticide (including
in buildings, dams and roads) and as an additive in plywood
adhesives
A. Elimination
Dieldrin
60-57-1
Production none
Use in agricultural operations
A. Elimination
Endrin
72-20-8
None
A. Elimination
Heptachlor
76-44-8
Production none
Use as a termiticide (including in the structure of houses and
underground), for organic treatment and in underground cable
boxes
A. Elimination
Hexachlorobenzene
118-74-1
Use as a chemical intermediate and a solvent for pesticides
A. Elimination
Mirex
2385-85-5
Use as a termiticide
A. Elimination
Toxaphene
8001-35-2
None
A. Elimination
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
various
Production none
Use in accordance with part II of Annex A
B. Restriction
DDT
50-29-3
Disease vector control in accordance with Part II of Annex B
Production and use as an intermediate in the production of
dicofol and other compounds
C. Unintentional
Production
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins
("dioxins") and polychlorinated
dibenzofurans
various
C. Unintentional
Production
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
various
C. Unintentional
Production
Hexachlorobenzene
118-74-1
Added by the Fourth Conference of Parties, May 2009
These modifications will come into force on 26 August 2010, except for countries that submit a notification
pursuant to the provisions of paragraph 3(b) of Article 22.[3]
132
Annex
Name
CAS
Number
Exemptions
A. Elimination
α-Hexachlorocyclohexane
319-84-6
None
A. Elimination
β-Hexachlorocyclohexane
319-85-7
None
A. Elimination
Chlordecone
143-50-0
None
A. Elimination
Hexabromobiphenyl
36355-01-8
None
A. Elimination
Hexabromodiphenyl ether
and heptabromodiphenyl ether
various
Production none
Use recycling and reuse of articles containing
these compounds
A. Elimination
Lindane
58-89-9
Production none
Use Human health pharmaceutical for control of
head lice and scabies as second line treatment
A. Elimination & C.
Unintentional Production
Pentachlorobenzene
608-93-5
None
A. Elimination
Tetrabromodiphenyl ether
and pentabromodiphenyl ether
various
Production none
Use recycling and reuse of articles containing
these compounds
B. Restriction
Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), its salts and
perfluorooctanesulfonyl fluoride (PFOSF)
various
Production for permitted uses
Use various uses specified in part III of
Annex B
Controversies
Although some critics have alleged that the treaty is responsible for the continuing death toll from malaria, in reality
the treaty specifically permits the public health use of DDT for the control of mosquitoes (the malaria vector).[4] [5]
[6]
From a developing country perspective, a lack of data and information about the sources, releases, and
environmental levels of POPs hampers negotiations on specific compounds, and indicates a strong need for
research.[7]
References
[1] http:/ / chm. pops. int/ Countries/ StatusofRatification/ tabid/ 252/ language/ en-US/ Default. aspx
[2] Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention. "Measures to reduce or eliminate POPs" (http:/ / chm. pops. int/ Portals/ 0/ docs/ publications/
sc_factsheet_001. pdf) (PDF). Geneva. . Retrieved 12 June 2009.
[3] Depostary notification (http:/ / chm. pops. int/ Portals/ 0/ download. aspx?d=UNEP-POPS-COP-NOTIF-DN-CN524-2009. English. pdf),
Secretary-General of the United Nations, 26 August 2009, , retrieved 2009-12-17.
[4] Curtis, C. F. (2002), "Should the use of DDT be revived for malaria vector control?", Biomedica 22 (4): 455–61, PMID 12596442.
[5] 10 Things You Need to Know about DDT Use under The Stockholm Convention (http:/ / www. who. int/ malaria/ docs/ 10thingsonDDT. pdf),
World Health Organization, 2005, .
[6] Bouwman, H. (2003), "POPs in southern Africa" (http:/ / 192. 129. 24. 144/ licensed_materials/ 0698/ bibs/ 3003o/ 3003o0297. htm),
Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Vol. 3O: Persistent Organic Pollutants, pp. 297–320, .
[7] Bouwman, H. (2004), "South Africa and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants", Sth. Afr. J. Sci. 100 (7/8): 323–28.
External links
• Official site (http://www.pops.int/)
• Text of the Convention (http://chm.pops.int/Portals/0/Repository/convention_text/
UNEP-POPS-COP-CONVTEXT-FULL.English.PDF)
133
Article Sources and Contributors
Pollution Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=395402959 Contributors: .snoopy., 168..., 16@r, 5 albert square, @pple, A little insignificant, ABF, AJR, APsci, Aarchiba,
Abeg92, Absroks, Acalamari, Acather96, AdamCarden, Addihockey10, AdjustShift, Adriaan, Adrian, Aeidein, AgentCDE, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajor, Aksi great, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Ale
jrb, Aliensvortex, Alksub, Alloquep, AnakngAraw, Anand Karia, Anaraug, Anarchangel, Andrei Stroe, Andrewhiteisgay, Andrewrp, Andy M. Wang, Andy120290, AndySpeed, Andyjsmith,
Anenglishperson, Angela, Anitaisme, Anlace, Anna Lincoln, Anon169, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous editor, Antandrus, Antidemon, Anurag.yadav090, Aqwis, Arjun01, Arnack, Arpit123,
Arthena, Arturo zuniga, Asterion, AutoGeek, Avicennasis, Avoided, Awesomeness, Awotter, Aymatth2, AzureFury, Badgernet, Banes, Bargains001, Barthandelus, Basar, Battoe19, Bejnar,
Beland, Ben Ben, Bhadani, Bidgee, Big Brother 1984, Bigger digger, Bill37212, Black-Velvet, Blackangel25, BlankVerse, Blossom ananya, Bluezy, Bobby H. Heffley, Bobet, Bobo192,
Bogdangiusca, Bookofjude, BostonMA, Bowlhover, Brent bray, Brockle, Brugess36, Burgercat, Burzmali, C.Fred, C6541, CALR, CUSENZA Mario, Cactus.man, Cadmium, Caelarch, Caffeine,
Calmer Waters, Calor, Caltas, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianCaesar, Canderson7, Caper13, Capricorn42, Casmith 789, Casper2k3, Cenarium, Cgingold, Chani072398,
CharlotteWebb, Chcknwnm, Cherry blossom tree, Cherrylips 15, Christian75, Christopher Parham, Chriswaterguy, Chuunen Baka, Cinnamon42, Citizen Premier, CleanUp2, Cleverclogs1234,
Closedmouth, Cmcnicoll, Codetiger, Coemgenus, ColetteHoch, Confession0791, Connormah, Controlfreak0, Conversion script, Corpx, Cosmos416, Courcelles, Cptmurdok, Curps,
Cwilliamsdog, D0li0, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DHeyward, DSRH, DVD R W, DVdm, DabMachine, Dadude3320, Daniel Collins, Daniel5127, Daron48813, Davewho2, Davewild, David
Kernow, David Shankbone, DavidRader, Davidzukovny, Dbiel, Dean1970, Deenoe, Deli nk, Deniz Feneri, Dephuna, DerHexer, Destructo111, Dfa881, Dhs, Diannaa, Dice4321, Dino,
Discospinster, Dj Capricorn, Dlary, DogNewTricks, Donarreiskoffer, Donkeynilasish, Doulos Christos, Download, Drmies, Drs4ever, Drstuey, Dungodung, Durova, ERcheck, Earth, EarthPerson,
Econrad, Ecw.technoid.dweeb, Ed Poor, Edgar181, EdoDodo, Edward, Edward321, Egmontaz, El C, ElectricEye, Elfino, Emiljosthomas, Emmettco, Enauspeaker, Epbr123, Epipelagic,
Eras-mus, EricWesBrown, EronMain, Esfandieasil, Estonofunciona, Euchiasmus, Everyking, Ex nihil, Excirial, Ezzex, FF2010, Fabricationary, Fagopyrum, Fang Aili, Fanghong, Fanra,
Fastilysock, Favonian, Fieldday-sunday, Finlay McWalter, Fizzred, Flewis, Flo98, Flyguy649, FlyingPenguins, Fratrep, Frecklefoot, Frosted14, Furrykef, Fæ, Gabriel Kielland, Gaius Cornelius,
Geoffspear, George The Dragon, George100, GeorgeStepanek, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gimmetrow, Ginsengbomb, Glandrid, Glane23, Glen, Glenn, Gobbleswoggler, Gobonobo, Gogo Dodo, Goldom,
Gopy333, GorillaWarfare, Grafen, Graham87, Granitethighs, Gtg179u, Guanaco, Gueneverey, Gunnville, Gurch, Gwernol, H Padleckas, Haakon, Hagedis, Haha2014, Haham hanuka, HalJor,
Happysailor, Harishreddya6991, Haukurth, Headbomb, Healthvalue, Heimstern, Helix84, Henrik, Heron, Hitrish, Hmrox, Hockey294, Holon67, Hoo man, Housecat Monkey, Hu12, Humus
sapiens, HybridBoy, Hydrogen Iodide, Hyperandy, IGlowInTheDark, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IJA, IRP, Ialsoagree, Ibbn, Iced Kola, Immunize, Imnotminkus, ImperfectlyInformed, Incantation,
Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Infrogmation, Intelligentsium, Iridescent, IronGargoyle, It Is Me Here, Ivang, Ixfd64, J Di, J.delanoy, JForget, JLMadrigal, JLaTondre, JNW, JRR Trollkien,
JTSchreiber, Ja 62, Jackmonk, Jagged 85, Jake1237, JamesAM, JamesBWatson, Jandrewc, Janedeer, Jeandré du Toit, Jeff3000, Jeffh822, Jesse0307, Jhon montes24, Jj137, Jklin, JodyB,
JoeSmack, Joel Russ, John, JohnJohn, Johnbrownsbody, JonatasM, Jons63, Jordansege, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jrockley, Jrtayloriv, Jusdafax, JustforI, Jwalte04, Katherine, Kctony, Ke5crz,
Keegan, Kennyer39, Kevin B12, Kf4bdy, Khukri, Kils, Kingpin13, Knucmo2, Kribbeh, Kster45, Kurieeto, L Kensington, LLDMart, LOL, LUCKY GAURAV, La goutte de pluie, Lakersdude09,
Lankiveil, Lbr123, LeaveSleaves, LeinaD natipaC, Leszek Jańczuk, Leuko, Levineps, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Lijnema, Linuxbeak, LizardJr8, Lmblackjack21, LokiV, Lost tourist, Lotje,
Luk, Luna Santin, MC MasterChef, MC10, MER-C, MJ94, MONGO, Mac, Mack782, Madhero88, Majorly, Makeemlighter, Malcolm Farmer, Manu bcn, MapleTree, Mardenpb1, Marek69,
MarkSutton, Markco1, MastCell, Master of Puppets, Matticus78, Mauro100, Maxí, Mbertsch, Mbeychok, McSly, Mechanical digger, MeekSaffron, Melissa1995, Mentality, Mentifisto, Mercury,
MichaelBillington, Midgrid, Miguool, Mikael Häggström, MikeCapone, Mikegrant, Mikemill, Mikeo, Minna Sora no Shita, Mintleaf, Minwu, Miranda, Mkbnett, Mkfwd, Modulatum, Modupe
adetifa, Molerat, MonoAV, Montelatici, Mookie25, Mordgier, Morven, Motownnw17, Mr. Quickling, Mr. XYZ, MrOllie, Mrs Trellis, Mwanner, Mwilso24, N5iln, NJA, Nagy, Nakon, Natalya,
NawlinWiki, Ndkl, Nehrams2020, NeilN, Neko-chan, Neonblak, Nerd 2, NewEnglandYankee, Newsroom hierarchies, Nibuod, Nick, Nicknw909, NigelR, Nikis7 denisse, Nilfanion, Nixeagle,
Nomoretalking1976, Nopetro, Ocolon, Od Mishehu, Ohnoitsjamie, Old Moonraker, Omicronpersei8, Onceler, Onkelschark, Opelio, Ori.livneh, Oschoonover, PKn, PM800, PRRfan, Pakaraki,
Paleorthid, Pan Dan, Pascal.Tesson, Paul August, Peaface25, Pekaje, Peruvianllama, PeterSymonds, Peterlewis, Pgk, Ph.D.Nikki, Phantomsteve, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phil153, Philip
Trueman, Philippe, Pill, Pinderpower, Pinethicket, Poccil, Poetic Decay, Pollinator, Pollutionfighter, Porqin, Prof.glue, Prolog, PuzzletChung, Pwelleman, Pyroflames0, Qaz2, Queen Rhana,
Quietust, Quintote, Qxz, RB972, RJaguar3, RaCha'ar, Rafael Archuleta, Rahul31singh31, RandomStringOfCharacters, Ratinator, Raul654, Raylena, Rdash, Reach Out to the Truth, Redthoreau,
Reguiieee, Remi0o, Rettetast, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, RichAromas, Richard001, Richard416282, Riotrocket8676, Rjwilmsi, Rljohnson37, Rob011, Robert Merkel, Roberta F., Rockstone35,
Rokbas, Ronhjones, Rory096, RoyBoy, Royalguard11, Rrburke, Ryt, S.s23shipra, SCEhardt, SMG Bailey, SQGibbon, Sabarna, Sam Korn, Sam907, Samgarne, Samohyl Jan, Samsameerindia,
Samtheboy, SamuelTheGhost, Sangeethasuri, Sango123, SchfiftyThree, Schlüggell, Schrandit, Schzmo, Scientus, Sciurinæ, Seagull76, Seb az86556, Senthryl, Seraphimblade, Sf18echo, Sfoskett,
Shadowin, Shadowjams, Shanes, Shashank321, SheikYerBooty, Sheogorath, Sherif98, Shiftchange, Shoujun, Sidasta, Siddhant, Siliconov, SineWave, Sinn, Sjakkalle, Sjö, Skarebo, SkerHawx,
Skoolgeek101, Skysmith, SleepyHappyDoc, Slippery Mudhills, Smartse, SmilesALot, Snisfrealaaa, Snowolf, Socrates2008, Some jerk on the Internet, Sophie, SpLoT, SpNeo, Spliffy, SpuriousQ,
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SweetNeo85, Symane, Synchronism, TBadger, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tangotango, Tanthalas39, Tbhotch, Teedude10, Tekana, Template namespace initialisation script, Templationist,
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Thingg, Thue, Tide rolls, TigerShark, Tiptoety, Titoxd, Tnxman307, Tobby72, Tom harrison, Tombomp, Tommy2010, Toyotaboy95, Tpbradbury, TransUtopian, Traxs7, Trigger hippie77,
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Åkebråke, ‫ينام‬, 1833 anonymous edits
Pollutant Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393300280 Contributors: 16@r, Adashiel, Alan Liefting, Alanadexter, AlphaEta, Arthur Rubin, Awotter, BRG, Bluerasberry,
Boxandwhiskar, CALR, Cacycle, Capt. James T. Kirk, Cdang, ChVA, Conversion script, Daniel Collins, Deglr6328, Derek Ross, Deville, Dhp1080, Edward, Fanghong, Fornaeffe, Giftlite, Hard
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Ranveig, Reinyday, Rickjamez, Roastytoast, SCEhardt, SDC, Shaddack, Shadowjams, Sodium, Stefan da, Tad Lincoln, The Vindictive, TheArmadillo, Thepcnerd, Velella, Wayne Olajuwon,
Zoicon5, 81 anonymous edits
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Ship pollution Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380851583 Contributors: Alan Liefting, Alchimista, ArchonMagnus, Aroundaround, Biker Biker, Branlon, BryanFrazar,
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Phree, PrincessofLlyr, Rami radwan, Rearete, RedBLACKandBURN, Reportpol, Rjwilmsi, Robinstocks, Ryanrs, Saint Midge, SkyWalker, SpuriousQ, Stephen, Taejo, Templationist,
Tpbradbury, Tristanb, Uncle Dick, Velella, Vipinhari, Vsmith, W guice, Wavelength, Wipe, Woohookitty, 70 anonymous edits
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Alchimista, Anlace, Arubadude, Ayanoa, BazookaJoe, Blainster, Bobo192, Burn, CTZMSC3, Cgingold, Clarince63, Clicketyclack, Codman, Coin945, Cometstyles, Cupivistine Noscere?,
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Versus22, Vivio Testarossa, Waggers, Wikipelli, Yamaguchi先生, Yamamoto Ichiro, Zappa711, 337 anonymous edits
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Montreal Protocol Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=395156984 Contributors: 2over0, Aboalbiss, Addshore, Agradman, Alansohn, Alexwcovington, Ali'i, [email protected],
Alinor, Anomalocaris, Anton Sri Probiyantono, Arthur Rubin, Astrofreak92, Az1568, Bbold, Bearcat, Beland, Bentaboo, Bento00, Bletch, Bobo192, Borgx, Bovineone, Bracodbk, Brian0918,
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Hoekman, Heavyweight Gamer, Hede2000, Houshuang, Immunize, Information Ecologist, Iridescent, Jiang, Jonathunder, Jonel, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josh the Nerd, Julesd, JustAGal,
Ketiltrout, Khitomer, Kinema, Kruusamägi, Light618, Littlenuccio, Mandarax, MangoChicken, Matthewmayer, Matty16894, Mb1000, Melicans, Mister.bryan.kelley, Montrealais, Montrealers,
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Time3000, TomTheHand, Travelbird, Tronno, UninvitedCompany, Uusitunnus, Wackywace, Warfreak, Wavelength, Wcfios, Wik, Will Beback, William M. Connolley, WookieInHeat,
Xaosflux, Xrchz, Yanksox, 295 anonymous edits
Kyoto Protocol Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397696911 Contributors: 0zymandias, 101090ABC, 159753, 1dragon, 2over0, A-giau, A. Parrot, A3r0, A8UDI, ABF, ADM,
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Pollution Control POLLUTION Part 2 of 2

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