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Journal of Media Critiques Vol.1 No.1 June 2015
Social, Cultural and
Political Effects of
Mass Media Industry’s
Mode of Production
and Operation
P-ISSN: 2056 9785
E-ISSN: 2056 9793
doi: 10.17349/jmc115200
Editors
Can Bilgili
Arif Yıldırım
Richard Vickers
Guest Editors
Işık Özkan
Semra Atılgan
Journal of Media Critiques
Vol.1 No.1 June 2015
EDITORS
CAN BİLGİLİ
ARİF YILDIRIM
RICHARD VICKERS
GUEST EDITORS
IŞIK ÖZKAN
SEMRA ATILGAN
P-ISSN: 2056-9785
E-ISSN: 2056 9793
© Journal of Media Critiques, June 2015
doi: 10.17349/jmc115200
www.mediacritiques.net
email: [email protected]
Editors
Can Bilgili
Arif Yıldırım
Richard Vickers
EDITORS
PROF. DR. CAN BİLGİLİ is an academician, researcher and founder WEC (World
Experience Campus). He was born in 1968 in Izmir. Bilgili completed his B.A. at
Istanbul University, Deparment of Journalism and PR, his M.A. and Ph.D.
degrees at Institute of Social Sciences, Deparment of Journalism at the same
university. He worked as faculty member of the Faculty of Communication at
Istanbul University, (1991-1994), at Galatasaray University (1994-2008), at
Yeditepe University (2008-2012) and Istanbul Commerce University (20122015) he also undertook administrative duties. Bilgili, who prepared many
sectorial reports in the field of advertising, radio and television in Turkey, still
gives communication consultancy services to various public and private
institutions. He is the author of the book “Görsel İletişim ve Grafik Tasarım”
(Visual Communication and Graphic Design) and editor of the book series
“Medya Eleştirileri” (Media Critiques). He has several works and gives lectures
on media management and organization, media industry, media economy,
media ethics, marketing communication, competition strategies, health
communication.
ASST.PROF. ARİF YILDIRIM, is an Assistant Professor, working as Head of the
Departments of Cinema-TV, Namik Kemal University, Tekirdağ, Turkey holding
a PhD in Informatics with the thesis subject as "Data Security Approach in
Information Technology and Cryptography: DNA Algorithm". Yildirim
established a faculty, two undergraduate departments, and one graduate
department. Additionally worked as Vice Director of Institute of Social Sciences
and the editor-in-chief of Journal of Social Sciences in Gaziantep University. He
is founder Editor-in-Chief of Journal of Cyber Security, Privacy and eCrime
(www.jcspe.org). Dr.Yildirim teaches lectures as "Neurohacking with Social
Media", "Social Media Journalism and Hacktivism", "Activism, Digital Activism
and Hacktivism" and "Community Media and ICTs for Development and Social
Transformation". His research focuses on social media, cryptography with
genetics, neurohacking with social media, marketing, activism, digital activism,
hacktivism, civil disobedience, privacy, P2P, online behavior and identity.
RICHARD VICKERS, is the Deputy Head of the Lincoln School of Film and Media
at the University of Lincoln in the United Kingdom. He is an experienced digital
media producer having undertaken leadership of complex projects, working
with diverse multi-disciplinary teams, and has industry experience as a
producer and consultant developing interactive projects for businesses and
arts organizations, from concept through to launch and beyond. Richards’s
research has two main focuses; the first is at the intersection of media and
technology, focusing on the area of networked convergent/emerging media,
exploring the creative opportunities and societal/cultural impact. The second
focus of his research is that of exploring and utilizing digital technologies for
innovations in learning. He is currently working on a number of projects that
aim to develop more open, interdisciplinary and collaborative pedagogical
frameworks. Much of this is work is undertaken collaboratively between
Richard and the co_LAB team at LSFM, as well as a network of national and
international partners.
ADVISORY BOARD of JMC
Prof.Dr. Angeles Moreno, University Rey Juan Carlos, Spain
Prof.Dr. Bernard D. Frischer, Department of Informatics, Indiana University, USA
Prof.Dr. David J. Gunkel, Northern Illinois University, USA
Prof.Dr. Erik Malcolm Champion, Curtin University, Australia
Prof.Dr. Frank E Parcells, Austin Peay State University, USA
Prof.Dr. John Chetro-Szivos, Fitchburg State University, USA
Prof.Dr. Lars Rademacher, h_da Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences, Germany
Prof.Dr. Lutz M. Hagen, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany
Prof.Dr. Mike Friedrichsen, Stuttgart Media University, Germany
Prof.Dr. Noha Mellor, University of Bedfordshire, UK, United Kingdom
Prof.Dr. Paaige Kelle Turner, Webster University, USA
Prof.Dr. Toby Miller, Cardiff Univeristy, United Kingdom
Prof.Dr. Urs Dahinden, University of Applied Sciences Chur, Switzerland
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Anthony Moretti, Robert Morris University, USA
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Charlton McIlwain, New York University., USA
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Geri Alumit Zeldes, Michigan State University, USA
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Gordon Calleja, University of Malta ITU Copenhagen, Malta
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Judith Simon, IT University Copenhagen & University of Vienna, Austria
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Stephanie Ricker Schulte, University of Arkansas, USA
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Victoria Panova, MGIMO-University, Russian Federation
Asst.Prof.Dr. David Harris Smith, McMaster University, Canada
Asst.Prof.Dr. Erin Schauster, Bradley University, USA
Asst.Prof.Dr. Lauren Jaclyn DeCarvalho, University of Arkansas, USA
Asst.Prof.Dr. Rick Sheridan, Wilberforce University, USA
Asst.Prof.Dr. Robert Mckeever, University of South Carolina, USA
Asst.Prof.Dr. Ryan Rogers, Marist College, USA
Dr. Margarita Kefalaki, Open University of Greece, Greece
Dr. Panayiota Tsatsou, University of Leicester, United Kingdom
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE (REFEREES) of JMC
Prof.Dr. Angeles Moreno, University Rey Juan Carlos, Spain
Prof.Dr. Bernard D. Frischer, Department of Informatics, Indiana University, USA
Prof.Dr. Bonnie Rohde, Albright College, USA
Prof.Dr. Emet Gürel, Ege University, Faculty of Communication, Turkey
Prof.Dr. Erik Malcolm Champion, Curtin University, Australia
Prof.Dr. Frank E Parcells, Austin Peay State University, USA
Prof.Dr. Gilson Schwartz, University of São Paulo, Brazil
Prof.Dr. Işık Özkan, T.C. Yaşar University Faculty of Communications, Turkey
Prof.Dr. John Chetro-Szivos, Fitchburg State University, USA
Prof.Dr. Lutz M. Hagen, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany
Prof.Dr. Mike Friedrichsen, Stuttgart Media University, Germany
Prof.Dr. Paaige Kelle Turner, Webster University, USA
Prof.Dr. Semra Atılgan, Marmara University Faculty of Communications, Turkey
Prof.Dr. Stevenson Kohir, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India
Prof.Dr. Toby Miller, Cardiff Univeristy, United Kingdom
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Anthony Moretti, Robert Morris University, USA
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Ayla Kanbur, Yeditepe University, Turkey
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Berrin YANIKKAYA, Yeditepe University, Turkey
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Charlton McIlwain, New York University., USA
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Debra Harkins, Suffolk University, USA
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Erhan Akyazı, Marmara University, Turkey
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Geri Alumit Zeldes, Michigan State University, USA
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Gordon Calleja, University of Malta ITU Copenhagen, Malta
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Gregory G. De Blasio, Northern Kentucky University, USA
Assoc.Prof. Kirk Hazlett, Curry College, USA
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Natalia Piskunova, National Research University, Russian Federation
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Stephanie Ricker Schulte, University of Arkansas, USA
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Victoria Panova, MGIMO-University, Russian Federation
Asst.Prof.Dr. Asta Zelenkauskaite, Drexel University, USA
Asst.Prof.Dr. David Harris Smith, McMaster University, Canada
Asst.Prof.Dr. Erin Schauster, Bradley University, USA
Asst.Prof.Dr. Gülüm Şener, Hasan Kalyoncu Universitesi, Turkey
Asst.Prof.Dr. Lauren Jaclyn DeCarvalho, University of Arkansas, USA
Asst.Prof.Dr. Perrin Öğün Emre, Kadir Has University, Turkey
Asst.Prof.Dr. Rick Sheridan, Wilberforce University, USA
Asst.Prof.Dr. Robert Mckeever, University of South Carolina, USA
Asst.Prof.Dr. Ryan Rogers, Marist College, USA
Asst.Prof.Dr. Timothy James Pasch, University of North Dakota, USA
Dr. Carolina Oliveira Matos, City University London, United Kingdom
Dr. Margarita Kefalaki, Open University of Greece, Greece
Dr. Panayiota Tsatsou, University of Leicester, United Kingdom
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Bollywoodization of Foreign Policy: How Film Discourse Portrays Tension
between States
11
AZMAT RASUL - MUDASSIR MUKHTAR
An Essay on Actor, Actress in Turkish Cinema, Human Ans Sector Ethics in the
21st Century
29
NEVİN ALGÜL
Digital Media Platforms and Education: The Uses of Social Networking in the
UAE and China
47
BADREYA ALJENAIBI
Are you cup of joking? : The “latte salute”, American President Barack
Obama’s Visual Rhetoric
91
JENNIFER ANNE GEHRISCH
Advertising in Virtual Worlds: The Example of Second Life
DİNÇER ATLI - TUNCER CAN
Semiotic Analysis of E-Newspapers Interface Views within the Scope of
Advertisements
103
117
BAHAR DİNÇAKMAN
Interactivity and Political Communication: New Media Tools and their Impact
on Public Political Communication
131
BURTON SPEAKMAN
Uses and Effects of Myspace among Christian Teens and Young Adult
MICHAEL S. JEFFRESS
A Narrative Criticism of Lifestyle Reality Programs
TRAVIS LOOF
145
167
Journal of Media Critiques [JMC]
doi: 10.17349/jmc115201
P-ISSN: 2056-9785
E-ISSN: 2056 9793
http://www.mediacritiques.net
[email protected]
BOLLYWOODIZATION OF FOREIGN POLICY: HOW
FILM DISCOURSE PORTRAYS TENSION BETWEEN
STATES
AZMAT RASUL ∗
MUDASSIR MUKHTAR ∗∗
ABSTRACT
As the nexus between film industry and state apparatus has grown critical and complex in
the wake of war on terror, academic circle have paid attention to identify the patterns of
relationship between entertainment industry of a country and its foreign policy. To understand
the role of the soft power in assisting governments to secure their interests at international
level, this article examines the relationship between Bollywood and the Indian foreign policy
through the lens of critical political economy of communication approach. Popular films
portraying tension and cooperation between the South Asian neighbors were critically analyzed,
and the results indicated that Bollywood closely followed the foreign policy initiative of the
Indian government.
Keywords: Bollywood; media and foreign policy; political economy of communication;
entertainment industry; South Asia
INTRODUCTION
Since 1998, official circles in India have been expressing their intentions to employ
the potential of Bollywood as a soft power to project the mounting economic,
geostrategic, and cultural significance of the largest country in the South Asian region.
After being declared an industry in 1998 by the Indian government, Bollywood has
produced numerous movies that portrayed the image of India as a progressive global
power capable of playing a pivotal role at regional and international levels. The culture
industries invariably offer unconditional support to the core foreign policy initiatives of
a nation-state, and work together with the policy-makers in image building endeavors
in order to promote key cultural, economic, and military interests of their countries
∗
School of Communication, Florida State University, Tallahassee FL 32306, USA
Email: [email protected] Ph: 001-850 524 5570
∗∗
Department of Communication, National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad,
Pakistan E-mail: [email protected] Ph: 0092-333-517 0176
12
Bollywoodization of Foreign Policy: How Film Discourse Portrays Tension Between States
(Hesmondhalgh, 2007; Pindle, 1993; Sinha, 2006). The nexus between film industry
and state apparatus has grown critical and complex in the wake of war on terror, as
the war doctrine orchestrated by the Western policy-making circles categorize
countries and groups as necessarily good or evil (Trotman, 2009). Consequently,
academic circle have paid attention to identify the patterns of relationship between
entertainment industry of a country and its foreign policy to comprehend the role of
the soft power in assisting governments to secure their interests at international level.
To examine this relationship, I investigated the connection between Bollywood and the
Indian foreign policy through the lens of critical political economy of communication
approach in this article by focusing on the popular films portraying tension and
cooperation between the South Asian neighbors during the first decade of the 21st
century.
There is no denying the fact that entertainment media have emerged as an
important sociopolitical institution in all societies and enjoy the power to influence
thinking patterns at governmental and individual levels through their discourses.
Popular media are directly linked to the culture where they operate, and portray social
realities according to norms, mores, values and laws of that society (Zelizer & Allan,
2011). The corporate media cultivate realities for the audiences and help them assign
meanings to the world around them (Gerbner et al., 2002). As news and
entertainment media are our windows through which we see the world beyond our
direct contact, we retrieve complicated information on foreign policy issues through
the portrayal of a nation’s relations with other nation-states in entertainment products,
and such representations transmit something more than innocuous information,
especially during crisis situations (Baum, 2007; Cohen, 1963; Entman, 2004; Chomsky,
1989; McChesney, 2008; McQuail, 2005). Thus, the role of the media is central not
only as a discourse-producing mediator but also as a vehicle that defines the complex
but symbiotic relationship between the government and media.
Questions related to the role of an autonomous entertainment media, capable of
working independently or in some way associated with the state machinery to secure
their commercial interests, are heuristically significant. The answers to these questions
are not very simple because, throughout the world, the relationship between media
and governments is very delicate and complex – ranging from astringent conflict to
open cooperation. The modern technology-intensive and commercially motivated
media promote dominant ideologies because their political and economic interests are
intertwined with those in the corridors of power (Bagdikian, 2004; Bettig & Hall, 2003;
Norris, 1990; Vivian, 2006). Accordingly, media and government become allies and
synergistic patterns of relationship between the elites holding power and the media of
communication, which are owned by a potent business community that perpetuates an
ideology to maximize their profits, are established.
Unquestionably, large media organizations are commercial ventures established to
meet vital societal needs related to cultural, social, and political activities (Mosco,
2008). Media content, therefore, is produced by commercial forces interested in
enhancing profits, and they have deep connections with the elites controlling political
and economic structures of a country (Mosco, 2009). Since media’s economic and
operational interests are tangled with the elite, they purport an ideology that
Journal of Media Critiques [JMC] – Vol.1 No.1 June 2015
13
advocates interests of those who control the media (Altschull, 1995). The mediasponsored ideology is particularly important when it reflects on the relationship among
nation-states (Doyle, 2002). An examination of ideology-laden media products is also
important because a plethora of academic literature suggests that consumers of the
ubiquitous mass media form their opinions and shape their attitudes about other
nations and cultures after receiving messages from these media.
By first articulating the rapport between media and foreign policy issues in the
South Asian context, this article sheds light on the academic relevance of the models
of media-foreign policy relationship and the significance of critical political economy of
communication approach as a methodology, which is followed by the description of the
global Bollywood’s influence, and the political economic analysis of the four selected
movies. Through employing critical political economy of communication approach to
analyze models of media-foreign policy relationship, I have ventured to investigate
questions dealing with media-foreign policy relationship that have previously been
addressed through quantitative research. Film industry has the potential to produce a
discourse that shapes public opinion in favor of foreign policy initiatives of various
governments, but unlike other means of mass communication such as newspapers and
television, it remains an under-researched medium in this domain (Guback, 1969;
Pindle, 1993; Hesmondhalgh, 2007). I have focused on the film industry in this article
by selecting four movies produced and released at a time when relationship between
Pakistan and India was passing through diametrically opposite stages of escalation and
de-escalation in the past decade to find patterns of convergence in Indian foreign
policy and the discourses of selected movies.
Reciprocal Influences: Media and Foreign Policy in South Asia
Since the first Gulf War in 1991, academic circles have been debating the
interconnection between television, public opinion, and foreign policy. CNN effect as a
phrase was popularized to connote the idea of a synergistic relationship between the
news media and framers of the foreign policy (Gilboa, 2005; Robinson, 1999). In fact,
academic research on media-foreign policy relationship dates back to the stormy years
of the Cold War when Cohen (1963), in his germinal work, argued that mass media are
the chief source of information about other cultures and societies, and help the
audience to cultivate a worldview in agreement with the information packaged in the
media content. According to him, media plays a pivotal role in shaping public opinion
on issues linked to the external relations of a nation-state with other countries.
Consequently, media are substantial actors in shaping public opinion on key foreign
policy issues, and also affect the foreign policy-making processes in numerous ways.
Nevertheless, the impact of media on the formulation of foreign policy has numerous
facets.
A foreign policy formulation in order to be dynamic must embrace five essential
elements: prioritizing national interests; evolving a strategy or a number of strategies
to achieve those interests; eliminating any obstacle that might arise in pursuit of
those interests; creating
friendly regimes in the neighboring countries; and
understanding and utilizing international climate in pursuit of those national interests
(Jan, 1993). Keeping in view all these factors, one may wonder whether media are
14
powerful enough to have an influence on foreign policy of a state. The answer is yes
as well as no. Yes, in the sense that it can create euphoria for an anticipated event; it
can also evoke anger, disgust or fear on a certain foreign policy postulate or issue
(Bagdikian, 2004). But to say that it is the chief determinant of the foreign policy of a
nation-state would be a naivety (Malik, 2003). In fact, the media is unlikely to assume
the role of the chief architect of the foreign policy of a country due to its dependence
on assorted state organs for regulatory benefits and commercial operations, and the
official establishments invariably uses media to project a preconceived foreign policy
(Jan, 1993; Napoli, 2003; Zelizer & Allan, 2011). Other researchers (Chomsky, 1989;
Merrill & Dennis, 1996; Gilboa, 2003, 2005; McQuail, 2005) also argue that
approximately everywhere, mass media are expected to advance national interest and
promote certain key values and behavior patterns in times of active conflicts or other
national crises.
Correspondingly, various media including press, television, Internet and film have
played a proactive role in promoting foreign policy objectives of the South Asian
countries in the region. The unprecedented growth of television and global appeal of
the Bollywood films have made them potent weapons to be used by the
establishments in India and Pakistan (Rasul, 2004). Consequently, media and interstate relations have witnessed revolutionary changes in the South Asian context.
Especially, the first decade of the 21st century marked a watershed in the history of
relationship between two South Asian nuclear neighbors. The relationship between
India and Pakistan has passed through many turbulent phases; however, it has been
particularly unpredictable in the aftermath of Kargil conflict between the two countries
in 1999. On the one hand, Indian government accused Pakistan of sending its regular
troops to occupy a strategically important mountain post in the disputed area of
Jammu and Kashmir and, on the other hand, the two governments led by Prime
Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee of India and President Pervez Musharraf of Pakistan
kicked off a process of détente. During this period, terrorists attacked the Indian
parliament on December 13, 2001. The terrorists were overpowered and killed in a
gun battle by the security forces and they were identified as Pakistani nationals. This
turn of events brought mutually hostile South Asian neighbors to the brink of a war as
both countries amassed their armed forces on the borders.
Due to active intervention of the international community, both countries pulled
back their forces to the barracks and a deadly conflict in the region was averted. In
the meantime, the Indian prime minister launched a significant diplomatic initiative in
April 2003 when he invited Pakistani government to begin a comprehensive dialogue
process with India. Pakistan responded positively and relations between two nuclear
powers in South Asia began to improve. Many positive steps were taken by both
governments including lessening of visas restrictions and reduction in propaganda
against each other. Another terrorist attack in Mumbai in November 2008 brought the
peace dialogue to a halt. Although, Pakistani government expressed its solidarity with
the Indian people, but Pakistani nationals were involved in this act of terrorism termed
as India’s 9/11 and a new phase of tension visited South Asia. It is, therefore,
academically significant to critically analyze the role of media, especially the film
industry, in these perplexing situations. Investigating how did the Indian film industry
respond to the ebb and flow of events in South Asia in the past decade could also help
15
in developing an understanding of the increasing socio-political role of global film
industries such as Bollywood. Having millions of fans in Pakistan, it would be
interesting to examine whether Bollywood was a neutral commentator or a partisan
discourse producer while dealing with the conduct of relations between India and
Pakistan. These questions are heuristically significant as cinematic portrayals of distant
cultures are an important source of information and opinion formation (Wasko,
2004).To answer these queries, models dealing with the influence of mass media on
the formation of foreign policy of a country have been discussed in the following
section.
Models of Relationship between Media and Foreign Policy
The available scholarship on the media-foreign policy relationship plainly manifests
that no fixed model of association exists between media and foreign policy. Media
behaves in different ways in diverse cultural and political systems (McQuail, 2005).
However, various research studies on media-foreign policy relationship specify that
media functions in different ways as an advocate, adversary, and indifferent actor in
assorted political systems. There has been an agreement among researchers in the
literature developed in 80s and 90s that in a free society, the media is not supposed to
be an active player in policy formulation processes, but it should work only as an
objective observer of these developments. Similarly the media in authoritarian systems
such as former Soviet Union, China, North Korea, Saudi Arabia, and Iran cannot
adversarially comment on the policy of the government on external relations. The
research on media-foreign-policy nexus can be classified as studies based on
advocative, adversarial, and indifferent models that suggest advocative, oppositional,
and neutral role for the media respectively while commenting on vital foreign policy
issues (Robinson et al., 2009).
The upholders of advocative model view mass media as an instrument in the hands
of a dominant class, elite, or power-holding group (Bagdikian, 2004; Cohen, 1963;
Guback, 1969; Herman & Chomsky 1988; Kern et al., 2003; McChesney, 2008;
McQuail, 2005; Zelizer & Allan, 2011). According to this paradigm, the content of
media actively distorts the marketplace of ideas in favor of an ideology of the
powerful. Cohen’s (1963) study suggests that in countries, where political power is
highly centralized, the media of communication tend to become instruments of
centralization and reflect the needs of the ruling groups in maintaining their power and
advancing their policies. The media, in other words, are important devices in
sustaining the constitutional and political powers of the central governments.
In case of conflict with another country, the media is likely to articulate views of the
state and the economic elite (McQuail, 2005). Herman and Chomsky (1988) argue that
“the media’s purpose in a free society is to manufacture consent among the governed,
rallying the population to endorse elite decision” (p. 12). McChesney (2008) contends
that the U.S. media firms have acknowledged that Washington has a moral right and
authority to send troops into other countries or to place an economic quarantine
around those countries whose governments are seen as hostile toward democracy or
capitalism. It is evident from the fact that during the two Gulf wars in 1990 and 2003,
9/11 terrorist attack and subsequent invasion of Afghanistan, the media depended on
16
briefings conducted by military officers, and opportunities for journalists to collect
information independently were severely curtailed. It is interesting, however, that
media never questioned veracity of this information and unquestioningly propagated
the official point of view (Bagdikian, 2004; McChesney, 2008; Zelizer & Allan, 2011).
A few studies provide evidence that the media does not always follow government
directives without a careful scrutiny of information. In democratic societies, media are
supposed to play a socially responsible role by monitoring activities of those at the
helm of affairs (Cohen, 1963; McQuail, 2005). There are also several cases where
administrative requests for secrecy have been denied. For instance, President Carter
and many of his advisers were infuriated when, in 1980, NBC negotiated a deal with
the Iranian militants whereby an interview with hostage, William Gallegos, was aired
on the condition that the Iranian students could also present their point of view (Rasul,
2004). A few other studies (Becker, 1977; McQuail, 2005; Robinson et al., 2009;
Thussu, 2007) have posited that it would be wrong to assume that the U.S. media
always supports the government policy as in democratic societies, media work
independently and play the role of an objective observer in the conduct of international
relations. Media organizations, therefore, neither advocates nor opposes the foreign
policy of a country. The indifferent model, on the other hand, elucidates that at the
initial policy-making stages, the media objectively observe and report foreign policy
isuues because media professionals are not experts in analyzing the intricacies of
international politics (Berry, 1990). After a foreign policy is framed and implemented, it
is easy for the media to analyze it by seeking professional opinion from foreign policy
experts.
In a bid to categorize literature and facilitate analysis in the media-foreign policy
relationship research tradition, it could be established that several studies in the past
decades (Bagdikian, 2004; Cohen, 1963; Herman & Chomsky, 1988; McChesney,
2008; Robinson et al.; Zelizer & Allan, 2011) reflect that media of a country advocates
governmental policies on external relations. At the same time, a few researchers
(Becker, 1977; Malik, 2003; Pindle, 1993; Robinson et al., 2009) are of the view that
media do not necessarily promote governmental point of view because in egalitarian
cultures, media work independently and report events objectively. Another school of
thought (Berry, 1990; Flew, 2007, Thussu, 2006) assigns an indifferent role to media
according to which media makes situational decisions and supports or opposes the
official policy according its political and economic interests. Consequently, the decision
to follow a particular model is situational and it may vary in different regions of the
world depending upon political, economic, and ideological fabric of the society. The
South Asian situation is particularly interesting where countries remain politically
divided but the entertainment media is a cultural bond among mutually hostile
societies. In such a scenario, critical political economy is an appropriate approach that
sheds light on patterns of relationship between production, distribution, and
consumption of media products and the market forces which are governed by the
powerful central governments.
Critical Political Economy of Communication
Critical political economy of communication approach explores questions related to
production, distribution and consumption, of cultural products. Modern mass media
17
perpetuate hegemonic ideologies that help the elite maintain their control over the
society through conformist messages produced by cultural industries (Hesmondhalgh,
2007). The media of communication heavily depend on the market forces for their
operations and it is no surprise if they are advancing the interests of those who supply
them money in the form of advertising dollar and subsidies (Altschull, 1995). The
reliance of mass media on the business elite for production and distribution of cultural
products results in the commodification of culture that leads towards consolidation,
conglomeration, and concentration of ownership (Rasul & McDowell, 2012). The
commercial forces and marketers have used modern mass media innovatively to
further their economic interests by striking deals with media firms for product
placement, advertising, and promotional activities. McChesney (2008) argues that the
commercial cart is pulling the cultural horse and transnational business firms are using
“media firms’ entire arsenal of media assets” to promote their corporate interests in
the profit-driven capitalist economy (p. 275). It, therefore, is totally unsurprising when
MasterCard struck an over $ 100 million deal with Universal Studios that would ensure
MasterCard’s visibility in the theme parks, movies, and other entertainment programs
of the Universal Studios. Thus, the synergistic relationship between media firms and
transnational commercial ventures endorses consumerism and promotes a commercial
culture that runs contrary to democratic values, freedom of choice, and sovereignty of
the audience. Critical political economy approach questions the unholy alliance
between commercial interests and media firms by critically examining the political,
economic, and ideological structures of media conglomerates.
It is significant for critical political economists to question how various political,
ideological, economic, and power structures are interrelated in the cultural sphere in
assorted societies. The dominant ideology and hegemonic ideas emerging as a result
of the interplay between forces of exploitation controlling economic structure of media
industry necessitates a critique of mass media (Flew, 2007; Mosco, 2008). Similar to
the Marxian critique of capitalism, a critical appraisal of mass media would lead to a
broader comprehension of the existing social, political and economic order in classridden societies (Flew, 2007). Accordingly, the structure of economic relations is
exceedingly important for political economists who analyze how class relations develop
in capitalist economy. In order to comprehensively analyze structures of dominance
and control operative in media industry, critical political economists stress on the need
to develop interdisciplinary research, understand historical processes, examine
processes of media globalization, and establish a link between media practitioners and
researchers (Flew, 2007; Golding & Murdock, 2000; Mosco, 2009; Schiller, 1969).
Critical political economists have also criticized traditional effects theories and positivist
research in the field of communication for its inability to address questions related to
the economic, political, and ideological structures of mass media. This approach has
focused on the globalization of media industry ensuing from the domination of a few
giants who control the audiovisual media production across the globe (Benz, 2007).
Critical political economy approach is sparingly used to analyze the influence of
motion pictures on different political organs of the society. However, its use as a
methodology is critical as the entertainment industry is affecting billions of consumers
all over the world and it is imperative to discuss the ideologies purported by these
18
global actors in the name of entertainment. The transnational entertainment industries
are involved in coproductions and a multitude of joint ventures at global level to
geometrically enhance their profits and capture new markets. Hollywood has emerged
as a major investor in Bollywood in recent years, mainly because of the gigantic Indian
market where Hollywood’s traditional English language products made up only five per
cent of the market (Benz, 2007; Govil, 2005; Jaikumar, 2006; Rasul & Proffitt, 2011).
Critical political economy approach helps us understand these trends by addressing
questions linked to the globalization of entertainment industries and their impact on
local cultures. By applying this paradigm, various scholars (Flew, 2007; Kavoori &
Punthambekar, 2008; Miller et al., 2001) have evaluated issues related to dominance,
ideology, and power and advanced critical political ideology approach by deviating
from the traditional media imperialism literature. Kavoori and Punthambekar (2008)
have endeavored to examine the role of Bollywood in a globalized media environment
and, the emergence of Bollywood as a global entertainment giant; however, a lot
needs to be done to critically investigate the interplay between political and economic
forces controlling Bollywood. Bollywood also had its economic interests intertwined
with the Indian government in terms of entertainment tax, foreign investment, and
bank loans after being declared an industry in 1998 (Thussu, 2007). As Pindle (1993)
has reported that Hollywood seeks Washington’s nod of approval while filming
international issues irrespective of its liberal biases, Bollywood also strives to win the
pleasure of policy-making circles to safeguard its economic interests.
Bollywood and Foreign Policy
The nature of film industry is intrinsically different from other media. It is relatively
free from governmental regulation and heavily relies on attracting viewers for
generating revenues. However, producers and managers of production houses have
their political and economic interests and, as Wasko (2004) argues that film industry
should be considered as “commodities produced and distributed within a capitalist
industrial structure” (p. 132). Guback (1969) describes the synergistic relationship
between American government and Hollywood and explains the film industry’s role in
advancing capitalist ideology in Europe with the active financial and political support of
the U.S. government. Pindle (1993) also focuses on the political role of the Hollywood
and its association with the government as an industrial complex. Chakravarty (1993)
posits that the entertainment media tend to advocate actions and policies of large
governments and this is what leads to status quo. By and large, the audio-visual media
have been controlled by the government due to its unprecedented power in influencing
behavior of the audience (Danmole, 1999).
Despite growing political importance of film industry, a little attention has been paid
by communication scholars to look into the role of entertainment media in shaping
public debate and policy (Zoonen, 2005). Although Bollywood’s unprecedented growth
and global importance has provided worthwhile opportunities to communication
scholars, yet there has been a little critical discussion on the economic structure,
political leaning, and ideological orientation of Bollywood, which has emerged as a
gigantic movie producer in the sub-continent in recent years and it dominates the
cultural industry not only in South Asia but it also poses a challenge to the supremacy
of Hollywood in different parts of the world (Power & Mazumdar, 2000). Mishra (2002)
argues that approximately 11 million people watch Bollywood films every day and the
19
Indian films not only cater to the aesthetic taste of Indian communities but also reflect
popular culture of India that draws attention of the cine goers across the globe.
Thussu (2006) rightly points out that Indian films have found an eager audience keen
to spend money on watching Indian cultural products at the expense of local industries
all over the world. The global operations of the Indian cinema could not materialize
without an active support from the Indian government. Kavoori and Punathambekar
(2008) state that the Indian cinema has permeated diverse societies like United
kingdom, America, Fiji, Guyana and a number of countries in the Middle East and
Africa where Indian immigrants settled and helped governments of these countries to
establish long-term ties with the India government and people.
Bollywood has also cultivated strong ties with the Indian Foreign Ministry.
According to Chatterji (2008), the Public Diplomacy Division of the Indian Ministry of
External Affairs cooperated and financed Saregama India Ltd to produce a special
volume of Indian popular songs that would be gifted to diplomats and foreign
dignitaries as a part of diplomatic courtesy. Interestingly, this album was presented for
the first time to the officials of Pakistani Foreign Ministry when an Indian delegation
visited Pakistan in 2006. The Indian government is actively exploiting Bollywood’s
potential as a tool to achieve foreign policy goals. In the recent decade, Bollywood has
produced movies revolving around political themes and advancing Indian government’s
political agenda in the region. Especially after the Kargil War between India and
Pakistan in 1999 and ensuing tension in the region due to terrorist activities in India,
Bollywood had produced movies that reflected the nature of relationships between the
South Asian neighbors. These movies had strong patriotic and jingoistic undertones
that were in consonance with the government’s foreign policy. However, when a
process of détente had caught momentum in the region after 2003, a few movies were
released that aimed at promoting harmony and friendship between India and Pakistan.
The Motion Picture Diplomacy
Four popular box-office hits from Bollywood (LOC Kargil, 2003; Lakshya, 2004; Veer
Zara, 2004; and Main Hon Na, 2004) have been selected to scrutinize the portrayal of
Indo-Pakistan relationship during the first decade of the 21st century. The objective of
analysis has been to identify the connection, if any, between the Indian government
and Bollywood. There is growing concern in the South Asian region that media’s
jingoistic role is a key obstacle in the process of normalization of relations between
India and Pakistan (Rasul, 2004). Two of the selected movies (LOC Kargil, 2003 and
Lakshya, 2004) had strong nationalistic sentiments reflecting tension between the two
countries while the other two films (Veer Zara, 2004 and Main Hon Na, 2004)
advanced an atmosphere of camaraderie in South Asia. These movies have been
selected because their stories directly comment on relationship between India and
Pakistan. During the past decade, Bollywood has been producing a number of movies
focusing on the soar relations between South Asian neighbors and portraying the
nature conflict in the region. However, these portrayals have invariably been in
agreement with the government policy.
Almost everywhere in the world, media work closely with policymakers and,
advance foreign policy objectives of the country, especially in times of war or crisis
20
(Herman & Chomsky, 1988; McQuail, 2005; Zelizer & Allan, 2011). Scholars in the
tradition of critical political economy (Bagdikian, 2004; Bettig & Hall, 2003;
McChesney, 2008; Mosco, 2009; Wasko, 2004) also agree that all media including film
industry have their political and economic interests intertwined with the policies of the
government. To have a media system totally free from the government control is a
utopian idea divorced from reality (Altschull, 1995). Discussion in the following
paragraphs revolves around discourses on Indo-Pak relations as portrayed in four
popular Bollywood productions. Two of the selected movies (Lakshya, 2004; LOC
Kargil, 2003) contained jingoistic subject matter as these were filmed on the Kargil
episode while the other two (Main Hon Na, 2004; Veer Zara, 2004) focused on
normalization of relations and appreciated the peace process between two countries.
Veer Zara
Veer Zara was released in 2004 and enthralled Hindi cinema lovers across the
globe. Set against the backdrop of tense relations in the South Asian region, this starstudded romantic movie revolves around a love story of a Pakistani girl, Zara, and an
Indian Air Force Officer, Veer Pratap. The two lovers had remained separated for more
than twenty years as they had different religions and they lived in mutually hostile
countries. Veer Pratap quits his job and comes to Pakistan to meet his beloved but he
is imprisoned by the Pakistani authorities on the charges of spying for India. Finally, a
Pakistani human rights activists and lawyer gets him released from the prison and tries
to arrange a reunion of the lovers. This love story finally turned out to be the topgrossing Bollywood production of the year not only in India but also internationally as
was predicted before the movie was released. It was successful in earning
approximately Rs. 750 million worldwide and was presented at numerous prominent
film festivals across the globe. The success of this movie reflected the changing nature
of relationship between India and Pakistan. The peace process between the two
countries had gained momentum by 2004 and the two governments had softened their
stand on controversial issues. Thus, Veer Zara reflects Bollywood’s contribution
towards supporting Indian diplomatic efforts to normalize relations with Pakistan.
Main Hoon Na
Another important movie starring the King of Bollywood, Shahrukh Khan, was
released in 2004. Main Hoon Na is about the heroic tale of Major Ram Sharma
(Shahrukh Khan) who thwarts sabotage activities of a dangerous terrorist Raghavan.
Raghavan was a military officer having extremist tendencies and killed 11 Pakistani
citizens who mistakenly crossed the border. He was court-martialed and dismissed
from the service. He established his private army and began to sabotage peace
process between India and Pakistan. He was trying to sabotage a project called Milaap
(Unity) initiated by the Indian military to foster friendship between India and Pakistan.
He planned to abduct college students including the daughter of an army general who
was the incharge of project Milap. Major Ram intervened and foiled his plans and the
project Milap continued uninterrupted. Numerous dialogues and scenes in the movie
promote language of peace contrary to the jingoistic undertones in previous
entertainment products. Main Hon Na was an endeavor to accelerate peace dialogue
with Pakistan and it portrayed a soft image of the Indian army which was represented
as having a solid commitment to peace in the region.
21
Lakshya
Lakshya was released in 2004 and this movie portrayed heroic deeds of an Indian
army officer during Kargil War of 1999. The Indian army was ordered not to cross the
border between India and Pakistan in Kashmir. However, they had to covertly attack at
night in order to occupy the Tiger Hill, a strategically important mountain peak which
was taken by the Pakistani troops three weeks before. Karan, an Indian army officer,
climbs the precipitous mountain and emerges triumphant in dislodging Pakistani
soldiers from the mountain post. Lt. Karan had not had a goal in his life, but this
operation makes him feel that he had been cut to safeguard his country. This movie
was a tribute to the Indian armed forces for their successful defense of the Indian
territory. The movie portrays Pakistani army as treacherous, cowardly and supportive
of terrorists. This is a traditional propaganda theme to dehumanize the enemy and it is
universally propagated through silver screen to boost morale of the armed forces.
Raney (2004) points out that audience enjoy media content when their favorite
characters emerge victorious in the end. This movie was supportive of the Indian
policy towards Pakistan after the Kargil war. However, the movie was not a big boxoffice success because peace process between India and Pakistan had gained
momentum in 2004 and jingoistic themes were not much popular.
LOC Kargil
LOC Kargil was premiered in the movie theatres in 2003. This was another starcrossed movie having anti-Pakistan undertones. As the name indicates, this film was
also produced after the 1999 Kargil conflict to highlight bravery of the Indian armed
forces and openly advocated Indian foreign policy goals. The film begins with scenes
of chaos as an important peak has been occupied by unidentified enemy and the
Indian forces were utterly surprised by this sudden attack. Many attempts by various
battalions of the Indian armed forces ended up in smoke as the unknown enemy was
sitting on top of the steep and treacherous peaks surrounding Kargil. The female
actresses are marginalized in the film as they are only shown missing their departed
mates and singing songs. This reflects the bias of the mainstream media towards
women as they are not considered being capable of playing a role on foreign policy
front (Zoonen, 2005). The film reflects resourcefulness of the Indian army personnel
who are successful in regaining control of the peak in the end after a fierce fight. The
discourse in this movie reflects hostility between India and Pakistan in the early years
of the new millennium after conflict in Kashmir and a terrorist attack on the Indian
parliament.
The discussion in the preceding paragraphs indicates that Bollywood has been
supporting Indian foreign policy by producing motion pictures with discourses in line
with the thinking of the policy makers. The hegemonic model of media-foreign policy
indicates that media of a country plays the role of an advocate while producing
discourse on issues related to external relations (Cohen, 1963; McQuail, 2005).
Herman and Chomsky’s Propaganda Model (1988) also describes five filters through
which media content passes and government structure is an important filter that helps
determine the content of the media. There have been very few dissident voices in US
media and elsewhere on foreign policy issues because of the political and economic
interests of the elite who own and control media (Bagdikian, 2004; Bettig & Hall, 2003;
22
McChesney, 2008; Zelizer & Allan, 2011). The Indian government has been actively
facilitating Bollywood because it considers culture industry as a “soft power” and the
industry paid back as did big media in the U.S. where mainstream media out rightly
supported Bush administration which had promoted media corporation’s economic
interests in the country (McChesney, 2008). Thus, analysis of the discourse of selected
movies indicates that there is a symbiotic relationship between Indian cinema and the
Indian Foreign Ministry. The movies discourse played an advocative role as suggested
by Cohen (1963) and Robinson et al. (2009). By applying critical political economy and
models of media foreign policy relationship, a careful analysis indicates that the Indian
foreign ministry uses cultural products to further foreign policy agenda and Bollywood
produces movies supplementing Indian government’s agenda through supportive
discourses at international level.
CONCLUSION
To sum up, analysis of the four popular motion pictures manifests that Bollywood
advocated Indian foreign policy and it enjoyed a symbiotic relationship with the policymaking circles. These films portrayed Pakistan positively when Indian government was
engaged in a dialogue with Pakistan. Bollywood offered hostile treatment to Pakistan
when the relations between the two neighbors were tense despite the fact that there
is a sizeable viewership of Bollywood motion pictures in Pakistan. In fact, media firms
are direct beneficiaries of government policies and managers of the corporate media
strive hard to maintain a close liaison with government officials in order to protect their
economic interests (Altschull, 1995; Anderson, 1991; Bagdikian, 2004, Bettig & Hall,
2001; Herman & Chomsky, 1989; McChesney, 2008; Wasko, 2004; Zelizer & Allan,
2011). Mosco (2008) argues that “political economy of communication has always
contained an important international dimension” (p. 40). This article concludes that
media, especially film discourse, influences public opinion as has been manifested by
the commercial success of four movies selected to examine Bollywood’s connections
with the Indian Foreign Ministry. However, governments do not allow media to
become sufficiently influential actor in political arena. Pindle (1993) says that the
American government has made all possible efforts to ensure that the Hollywood’s
economic muscle should not be allowed to purchase political influence. At the same
time, it admits of no doubt that reciprocity of interests and economic necessity breeds
a symbiosis between governments and mass media (Herman & Chomsky, 1988).
Bollywood has been declared “soft power” of India by Indian cabinet members and
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh has urged on Indian cinema to work as a tool of
diplomacy. The Indian government has realized growing social, economic, and political
importance of Bollywood as Indian culture industry is no more constrained within
Indian boundaries (Gokulsing & Dassnayake, 2009). Bollywood has emerged as a
transnational entertainment producer having strong connections with Western media
conglomerates (Mosco, 2008). Its products are popular across the globe and these are
officially presented to foreign dignitaries as an ingredient of diplomatic courtesy. The
government has also purveyed economic relief to Bollywood by relaxing foreign
investment rules, bank financing and reducing entertainment tax. Bettig and Hall
(2003) contend that movies sponsored and distributed by commercial and political
interests are rarely independent. Thus, it is all but natural if the Indian cinema
discourse advocates foreign policy of the government by enthusiastically producing
23
films in consonance with the government’s external policies to exhibit its patriotism as
does commercial media in other parts of the world (Bagdikian, 2004; Herman &
Chomsky, 1988; McChesney, 2008; Zelizer & Allan, 2011).
Bollywood generates tangible profits and creates intangible service which generally
reinforces dominant ideology; nonetheless, its products have the potential to be seen
outside dominant ideology (McChesney, 1999; Meehan, 2007). It criticizes Indian
politicians and government on domestic issues, but never questions India’s role as a
regional power. The military invariably receives positive treatment in motion pictures
(Zoonen, 2005) and Bollywood, in its discourse, has always treated Indian military
operations in the region as sacrosanct. This is in agreement with the dominant
ideology of Indian politico-cultural grandeur envisioned by the founding fathers of
modern India and perpetuated by the political and economic elite. Therefore, discourse
of Bollywood’s cultural products follows the advocative model of media-foreign policy
relationship. As India has traditionally had tense relationship with Pakistan, motion
pictures closely follow the policy of the government while commenting on the
relationship between the two countries. However, it remains to be seen whether
Bollywood supports Indian foreign policy towards other countries of the region in
general and its engagement with the United States in particular. This situation
generates a heuristic demand to further study and analyze Bollywood’s content,
structure, economic interests and production and distribution strategies.
24
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doi: 10.17349/jmc115202
P-ISSN: 2056-9785
E-ISSN: 2056 9793
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AN ESSAY ON ACTOR, ACTRESS IN TURKISH CINEMA,
HUMAN ANS SECTOR ETHICS IN THE 21st CENTURY
NEVIN ALGÜL ∗
ABSTRACT
Introduction of cinema to Turkey has gone through a rapider progress than that of printing
and cinema has become very popular in Turkey. Cinema has contributed positively to this rapid
progress thanks to its nature. It stimulates more than one sense conveying several things at one
glance and alternating in between dreams, imagination and life’s realities and therefore it is
desired greatly…
When we look at the history of the world cinema, moving images have become very popular
and have been adopted deeply even in the West which has an established culture of printing.
While the West cinema which was born into an environment that dominates and always
develops the world technology propagandizes itself naturally, analyzing with which ‘mind-set’ the
people who are interested in this sector approach cinema will help to identify the past
accurately, evaluate today correctly and to define the identity and future of Turkish cinema.
Story culture still exists in our country the commonsense of which has not been completely and
surely defeated by capitalism and imperialism, which acts as a bridge between two continents,
where several civilizations were founded and which has a well-established culture and it seems
that people of these lands are suited the best to modernize this eternal storytelling and narration
in the light of zeitgeist in each and every sense and area and to cherish it with the technology
that we have not developed.
The purpose of this article is to analyze the definition of actor, actress mostly addressing
female performers, give some examples in history and in today’s world, promote the re-thinking
on the reason why cinema is important over the 21st century ‘human’ and to bring the
responsibilities of sector and artists up for discussion and to analyze the ethics/responsibilities of
the sector in countries such as Turkey where the level of education is low and problematic and
where social differences are very evident. The difference between theater and cinema and the
acting in cinema and theater were also addressed.
Key words: Actor, Actress, Acting, Artist, 21st century human, Turkish Cinema, Cinema,
Theater, the Concept of Cinema, Sector, Work Ethics, Professional Ethics.
∗
Asst. Prof. Dr., Marmara University, Faculty of Communication, Istanbul, TURKEY
30
An Essay on Actor, Actress in Turkish Cinema, Human Ans Sector Ethics in the 21st Century
INTRODUCTION
Auguste and Louis Lumiére brothers introduced their invention, that they named as
cinematograph, to the public with the demonstration that they held on December, 28
1895 in Granda Café, Capucines Boulevard, Paris. A similar demonstration was made
one year after that date with the same movie (Grand Rue de Pera) in Sponeck Pub,
on number 246 of Istiklal Street and cinematograph was introduced to Ottoman
society (Özuyar, 2013: 15).
Cinema, as a field of art and technology, exists for only one century. Primitive tools
of cinema were developed in France, the United States, Germany and Great Britain
around the same years in 1890s (Smith, 2003:13). Although ‘invention’ of cinema is
attributed to French, German, American and English pioneers, the English and the
German have played a relatively small role in rapid popularity of cinema on the world.
The most vigorous exporters of this invention were first and foremost the French and
the Americans followed them and helped establishment of cinema in China, Japan,
Latin America and Russia. Despite the contributions of Italy, Denmark and Russia
before the First World War, it was again the French and the American who pioneered
this development in art (Smith, 2003:19). Cinema was also used as a tool in education,
propaganda and scientific research. Cinema which, at the beginning, comprised the
elements including vaudeville, popular melodrama and picture conference gained an
artistic distinction rapidly; however, as the other mass media and entertainment tools
emerged, its domination was threatened and started to lose its distinctiveness (Smith,
2003:13).
Silent movie technology which was invented in 1860 could not be commonly used
until 1880-1890s when film spools were easily manufactured. Cinema has gone
through fast development within the first twenty years of its invention. Although it was
considered only as an innovation in 1895, it became a continuous industry in 1915
(Smith, 2003:30). Silent movies naturally have a universal language which can be
instantly understood once the message appears on screen as it is a part of semiotics.
First years of Turkish cinema could not be definitely established despite all the
researches of Nejat Özön (Scognamillo, 1998: 7). One of the reasons of this can be the
lack of established printing culture. This culture would also bring along many elements
such as archiving and the works such as innovation, foundation of a sector and
domination which would include the technological requirements in this area. Türker
İnanoğlu, in his book that is entitled as “Turkish Cinema with 5555 Posters” and
published by Türvak, states that “This missing part may be the reason why it was so
difficult to find the posters of the movies that were shot between 1910 and 1950.
Posters were destroyed in time or used for manufacturing paper bag, as a cover for
meat safes or as a window or curtain by adhesion after they served their purpose
(İnanoğlu, 2004: 9) because this is the pattern of behavior and approach in traditional
doctrine.
It is widely known that Enver Pasha saw the Army Film Unit in Germany, got a
similar organization established in Ottoman Army when he came back to Turkey and
war-related documentaries were shot at that time. The same unit also shot a comedy
31
that was entitled Hikmet Ağa’nı İzdivacı (1916) (Marriage of the Landlord Hikmet) for
the public later on (Onaran, 2012:223).
Therefore, the shooting, by the young Turkish military officer, Fuat Uzkınay (18881948) of the destruction of San Stefano Monument on November 14, 1914 Saturday is
one of the first film shootings and this has been accepted as the beginning of Turkish
cinema (İnanoğlu, 2004:15). Although it is said so, it is debatable. It was first Nurullâh
Tilgen who claimed that this was the first Turkish movie and then it was repeated in
many other works about Trkish cinema history without investigating the first
resources, interrogating and justifying it with concrete evidence.
Although we assume that the destruction of the Russian Monument in San Stefano
was shot and then it disappeared for many reasons, this movie is not the first Turkish
movie because it is said that there are at least four or five movies that were shot
before this one. Nevertheless, only one of these movies survived and still exists today.
One of them is only claimed to exist. And there is still not much information about the
rest. However; despite all this, it has become definite that movies were shot by Turks
in Turkey before 1914 (Evren, 2003:49).
ACTING: ACTRESS, ACTOR, CINEMA, THEATER…
“Acting is like eating carob. It is one of the most demanding jobs on the world. It is
not what it seems like. But these days when I eat the carob is worth everything.”
(Özdoğan ve Oğuz, 2006:89)
“The important thing is to teach the audience to judge.” B. Brecht (Utku, 1960 :9)
Movie seems to be very similar to stage drama on the surface. Commercial movies
that were shot in early years of this century are definitely rooted in stage drama;
however, cinema is different from stage drama in several aspects. Cinema has the
vivid and distinctive visual potentials of visual arts and has great capacity of narration.
The most striking distinction between stage drama and filmed drama is the perspective
just like the difference between prose narration and film narration. We watch a play
from our own perspective while we watch a movie from the director’s perspective. As a
matter of fact, there is greater potential to see more in movies.
It is known that while a movie actor/actress uses his/her face, theater actor/actress
acts with his/her voice. It is difficult for a theater audience (by listening, not by
watching) to notice everything even when they are very extremely attentive (Monaco,
2001:50). The audience conceives the gestures clearly. On the other hand, movie
actor/actress does not need speaking let alone voice (warm regards to dubbing!).
Dialogues can be added afterwards; however, the face of the actor should be
extraordinarily expressive. It should be expressive especially in close-ups when it is
zoomed in thousands of times. When an actor/actress gives a self-confident look, the
audience will think that he/she has had a good day (Clark Gable; Ayhan Işık , Humprey
Bogart Look). If we consider that movies can be produced with unprofessional
actors/actresses who have not received any training in acting and that it can be even
shot with people who are not aware that they are being shot, the differences between
acting on stage and acting in a movie become more evident.
32
Another point which is as important as the difference in the style of acting is the
contrast between the dramatic expression on stage and in a move. In Shakespearean
period, the characteristic element was the scene rather than the play itself. One play
used to be composed of twenty or thirty scenes rather than a couple of actions. This
has also changed in the 19th century. Theater started to be played within a framework
in this period and while the reality has become an important power, the actions which
lasted longer and which were more real-like gained importance. During a play which
lasted almost one and a half hour, audience was able to enter into the world of
characters as it was more real-time while the scenes which lasted shorter made it
more difficult to feel so (Monaco, 2001:51).
The actress of the Western cinema Audrey Hepburn used to say that she could not
learn how to act as she wished and that she did not even have a technique when she
was asked questions about her acting. On the other hand, her acting was based on
hard work, deep concentration and instinct. She did not go to acting school. She did
not even rehearse in front of a mirror. She was born with this talent and she used to
act in an easy, plain and natural way like breathing ( Selçuk, 2002 :326).
We may get similar answers when we ask the same questions to an actor/actress in
Turkey. The actors tears come from his mind while a sensitive man's burst from his
heart. It is the chest of a man that shakes his mind in an uncontrollable way while it is
the actor's mind that puts a temporary flame in an actor's chest. An actor cries like a
priest who does not have strong faith but who preaches the tortures that Jesus Christ
suffered from and cries like a beggar on street or in front of a church, who starts to
swear at you when he abandons the hope that you will pity on him (Siyavuşgil, 1943:
17, 18). This is an applicable discourse for stage in theater.
In the first ages; spectacular broadness of Amphitheatre, distance between actors
and the audience and the dazzling radiance of the daylight prevented the audience to
witness well what was happening on stage. Actors were able to express a passion or
feeling, a character or nature strongly but they could not get out of their role until
their performance ended. One had to have read the play beforehand (Siyavuşgil,
1946:86). They used to wear high-heeled shoes and invent clothing which made them
look bigger than they really were. They used to talk in daily life rhetorically which was
all forced and unnatural as if they were speaking through brazen megaphones. But
distance softens these exaggerations. It is obvious that the art of gesture was not
used at all in these stage performances. The gesture was used only in comedies two
thousand years after those times. And even in Moliere, it was used as nothing but a
series of loops (Siyavuşgil, 1946: 86, 87); so the disinterest in mimics and gestures
remained as a rule until the beginning of the 20th century. The electricity made every
detail visible and, on the other hand, cinema proved the infinite power of gesture in
expression of thoughts. The public also was enchanted more by action through more
evident and meaningful gestures and therefore, in turn, started have greater pleasure
in drama (Siyavuşgil, 1946: 86, 87).
It is a fact that outdoor theater buildings which lean on a mountain were first
established in Greek cities. Aiskhylos is the first author of the art of drama. Outdoor
theaters of those times were established in sizes which allowed the entire community
33
to watch a play at once. In other words, all the residents of the city used to go to
theater when a play was to be put on stage. Theater building was so developed that
when a stone was thrown on the stage, six thousand people could hear that
simultaneously, which was called skene, even in outdoors. We can experience this
acoustic achievement in today’s outdoor theaters that have been inherited from the
Greek or the Roman (Neyzi, 2004; 98).
While Grotowski researched the details and elegance of the art of performance, he
had chosen acting as the personal interest area. According to him, an actor/actress
needs to reach the depth of his/her subconscious in order to get the best performance
out of himself/herself. In addition to that, it is a must to direct the impulsions to
activate the reactions. For individuality to emerge, one needs to get purified of all the
habits (Neyzi, 2004: 98).
There is a huge difference between reading and listening to a play. The pleasure
that is taken in reading a play is different from the pleasure taken in seeing and
listening to it. A play which may be boring when it is read can be listened to attentively
on stage. Music, that is the melody of words, affects the audience when they are
watching the performance. Theater sculpturing is an art which cherishes painting,
dance and music (İzzet, 1935: 12).
What differentiates theater from other forms of art is that in the art of theater,
performance and reception take place together and that all the elements serve to
perception of audience. This is surely important for other forms of art; a movie director
or an author of a novel also takes the audience into consideration when he/she
produces his/her work. However, in theater, it is beyond consideration. A play is
nothing before it is put on stage. Even if a novel is kept in a drawer or a movie is not
watched by an audience, it exists when it is shot (Tönel, 2013:9-10).
All the elements of a theater play that are the language of conversation pattern,
decoration, gestures, costume, make-up and intonations of actors/actresses and also
many other indicators contribute to bringing the meaning of performance into light.
Each element of a performance should be considered as an indicator which explains a
scene of an action, an event, a moment, a part of the general interpretation. In
theater, many indicators of expression reach the audience simultaneously. Decoration,
gestures and mimics of actors/actresses, music, light and the authentic methods of
expression communicate with the audience. Therefore; objects which are subject to
change in continuous flow of a play need to be addressed all together in order to bring
the main meaning of a performance into light (Tönel, 2013:54-55).
As motion-based indicator is easier to be read by the audience, it is also a more
direct tool for communication of side text to the audience. Motion-based indicators are
included on stage definitely to convey a meaning to audience. These meanings may
sometimes serve to support the verbal expression just like the function of
paralinguistic elements. In addition to that, they are sometimes used to convey an
emotion or a thought independently from the indicator and sometimes even in contrast
to the indicator. However, motion-based indicators never occur randomly. Action-
34
based indicators basically include the bodily behaviors of the actor/actress. These
indicators can be collected under the titles of mimic, gesture and spatial movements
(Tönel, 2013:46).
In Turkish cinema, melodrama has a prominent place just like comedy. Melodrama
movies focus on the female character, are still popular and the narrative patterns of
today’s TV series increase in melodrama form… Not only the decoration and mise-enscene but also acting is exaggerated. The root of exaggerated acting is associated with
the French Revolution and bodily movements. Melodrama is basically classified as a
genre that is directed to women and that is also based on women. The main interest
area of melodramas (except for male melodramas) is women (Akbulut, 2008:1176,77). In Turkish cinema, melodrama is deeply rooted in verbal cultural products,
fairy tales, love stories and it takes its form today in cinema (Akbulut, 2008: 93). It is
described how a family is destroyed only because of ambitions of a woman. This
narrative structure was reflected on cinema with the movies where Neriman Köksal
plays the female villain. However, melodrama became a popular genre in movies when
cinema was introduced to Turkey. Even in the early years of cinema in Turkey,
melodrama was an indispensable genre (Akbulut, 2008: 95). The New Turkish cinema
has been considered as the Turkish cinema after 1990s. As Mitsuhiro Yoshimoto has
expressed, “Has melodrama been really lost or has it gone into subconscious?”
(Pehlivan, 2011: 176).
Even in its early steps, Turkish cinema preferred pornography not erotic films
except for a couple of works. Sexuality is spoken in cinema only with e expressions.
Otherwise, in our cinema, the movies that are intended to be erotic just remain at
being pornographic (Özgüç: 2006: 13). Turkish cinema which has gone several
changes within years approached eroticism with interrogative attitude and stood out
with the image of a femme fatale woman. On one side Yeşilçam’s doll woman sexuality
and eroticism of passion on the other hand (Özgüç, 2006:15). Türkan Şoray who had
established an artificial world being labeled as the woman with half-open wet lips and
amorous looks in her eyes and the woman of Turkish cinema who had been fallen in
love the most have played the suffering woman in light novel adaptations. Big eyes
and wet lips stood out in all close-ups. Türkan Şoray is one of the most copied women
of Turkish cinema. For example; Zeynep Aksu, Figen Say, Mualla Omay, Deniz
Akbulut… She returned to real woman personalities after singer adventures and
melodramas (Özgüç, 2006: 52).
Female characters in Turkish cinema: Although Turkish women who have never
been given the value she deserved in Ottoman times were allowed to work any field,
even as whore if she had the license, was not entitled to be engaged in fields of art
like theater and cinema in no way whatsoever. Afife who got on stage on September
9, 1920 under the pseudonym of Jale was arrested by police one week after that. It is
said that there are two others who got on stage before Afife Jale; one of whom was
Mevdude Refik, the aunt of Gülriz Sururi. According to statements of Vasfı Rıza Zobu,
Ms. Kadriye performed on stage in Nazilli in 1889. Upon revolution; Bedia Muvahhit,
Neyyire Neyir and Cahide Sonku who appeared on Turkish cinema in 1933 with the
movie One Word One God. She is important in the sense that she paved the way for
the female stars that followed her. For example, Türkay Şoray may be the last
35
example of the worshipped woman myth in Turkish cinema, who is difficult to reach,
because of the changing conditions in time. From 1935 to 1953, there has not been a
real start in Turkish cinema other than Cahide Sonku and Sezer Sezin.
During the period of village and bourgeoisie melodramas, actresses were almost
insignificant and did not have much function. Adventures and historical movies which
attracted the attention to actors made this situation even more evident. The following
characters: Turkish woman of the rural areas and ghettos were mostly lonely and
weak. They knew how to love and forgive their men. And they were equally taken
advantage of and excluded from society. That was the role of Muhterem Nur in Turkish
cinema (Özgüç, 2006: 37-39-41-43).
Mysterious woman of an erotic introversion; Leyla Sayar: she is the actress who
brought a new dimension to her foxy woman personality through erotic endowments.
Fatma Girik is a girl from a neighborhood with low development level. As a result of
marketing by publications, three actresses who are Fatma Girik, Hülya Koçyiğit and
Türkan Şoray became the female objects of desire of the audience. Belgin Doruk was
the doll empty inside, Filiz Akın was the romantic girl and Hülya Koçyiğit was the
bourgeoisie woman who played the female protagonist, desperate lover of novels
which made people cry. The period after 1960s was the period when childish women
stood out. Sevil Candan, Bahar Öztan, Esen Püsküllü, Nazan Saatçi, Semiramis Pekkan,
Seyyal Taner, Beyza Başar, Gülsün Kamu, Pembe Mutlu were young and petty women
who combined their naïve parts with their femininity and this was a cinema-specific
experience. These actresses generally could not be nothing more than co-stars except
for Müjde Ar. When she first started to act in movies, she was one of those childish
women but then she got mature, got rid of her childish characteristics, became a star
and moved up in the social ladder. Those who got naked: Arzu Okay, Zerrin Egeliler
and Müjde Ar, the new name of nakedness: brought a whole new perspective to
cinema. Müjde Ar was a hidden symbol of sexuality which subtly abuses art and
nakedness in movies with a social message. And Hülya Avşar was the new sexual
object of 1990s (Özgüç, 2006: 44-48-51,52).
PRACTICES FOR THINKING AND PROMOTING THINKING ON 21ST
CENTURY HUMAN AND CINEMA/TELEVISION DRAMA…
Starting from the invention of cinema, the effects of its physical and expressive
characteristics on communities showed that this can be a strong tool of propaganda
that can be used to ensure that an idea, discipline, ideology and belief are spread,
adopted and popularized by and in public (Özuyar: 37).
In the years that followed the First World War, movie demonstrations were
frequently organized in African colonies. The apparent purpose was surely to make
people spend delightful time watching the most contemporary entertainment form of
that time but the real purpose was to show the African community that the white
people were superior to them. The leaders and the religious functionaries of that time
were invited to such organizations and they could not even reject to attend as it would
be considered as a rebellious act (Carriere 2012:9).
36
Why is cinema so effective? The perspective and the light. Opening, spreading and
reflection of the depth of field. This depth of field is the homogenous medium that
enables the reality effect of all cinematographic works. Cinema is not the only system
which has such effect but the power of this effect is perceived in a more established,
perfect and deep way than that in other representative systems (painting,
photography, theater etc.). Vivid, alive, moving depth affects a person significantly
(Bonitzer, 1995:9).
The reality that the screen presents is never satisfactory; it may cause one to get
dazzled or frightened but it is never satisfactory alone. As soon as the first amazement
fades away, people start to look for reasons. However, it is known that something with
reasons fails. What fails? The reality of the impression of reality? No, but as the phrase
goes, the reality of this reality: something is missing somewhere somehow. Nothing
can make it more evident than the movies which claim to show everything, historical
and pornographic movies; especially the new ones. They are all seen but it is also the
place where the greatest thing is missing, there are a lot of missing things. What is
shown is never sufficient. It has never been and it never is. The cinematographic
imagery is never left alone by that it does not contain (Bonitzer 1995: 10-11).
For an idea to be marketed, it needs to appeal to not only intelligence and mind but
also to emotions (Hughes, 1959:7). The core element of cinema is the link and
relationship between images, emotions and characters. And also as the special
technique and language of cinema enables it to make great explorations, cinema has
affected everything around us and also entered into our lives. While it surrounds us in
a way that we cannot even conceive, it has even shaped our personal behaviors
(Carriere, 2012: 37).
“The seamless clothing of reality” Andre Bazin (Bonitzer, 1995: 11). In every movie,
there is a secret shadow area that is not seen and it might have been intentionally
placed in the movie by producers (the 25th frame) (Carriere, 2012: 9). There are many
educated people who think that movie cannot be an art as it is a mechanical
reproduction of reality. However; when we compare the reality with what is seen on
screen, we will see how different these two images are from each other basically.
Actually these discrepancies are the elements that provide the movie with its artistic
resources and these discrepancies make the cinema an art.
20th. century
Memoirs of an acquaintance who spend his childhood in early 20th century: “At that
time, reading novels at home was a tradition in families who were deemed modern or
knowledgeable…”. “Time was Turkish style. The sun would set at twelve o’clock. The
dinner was eaten before it got dark and people would leave the dinner table. After the
meal, my mother or elder sister and rarely my father would sit by the oil lamp and
read one of these novels. My grandfather, grandmother, my 4 brothers and sisters and
I used to sit in the corner and listen to them” (Selçuk, 2002: 5).
The first understanding and perception stage of humanism spirit emerges with the
adoption of the work of art. Among the branches of art, literature is the one which
includes the highest number of mental elements (Siyavuşgil, 1943:5). This was said by
37
Hasan Ali Yücel in 1941 in the preamble of the translated book of Diderot, named as
Divergent Thoughts About Acting.
The more a person acquires information in his childhood, the less effort he/she
makes in adult life. Information should be acquired in any way. All the great artists
embraced knowledge with great love. They tried to acquire knowledge in the light of
an oil lamp. The sleepless nights and long working hours are indispensable for them.
The accumulation of knowledge is inevitable and such knowledge is necessary for
everyone who wants to educate himself/herself to convey his/her personal ideas.
Without such a cultural basis, one will definitely fall into the trap of small-talk in
community although they do fine under primitive conditions (Eisenstein, 1993:71).
21st. century
“’Critical self-guiding human thought that is accepted as the basis of humanity
develops only in literacy. Human is a product of literacy. Destruction of written culture
brings along the rise of violence” (Sanders, 2010:10). The definition of literacy has
changed for the 21st century people. 21st century human neither reads nor is engaged
with paper and pen. People who do not think were needed in order to create the
consumer prototype. And today, as a result of such developments which may not be
intentional, though, a community who do not produce, think and who spends the
money that they do not own was created and this community is more dependent on
seeing than many other centuries. In this sense, 21st century people became
manageable through senses more than any other society of the previous centuries.
Today’s people are subject to ‘sense attacks’ just like cyber attacks. This discourse
belongs to Ruth Benedict: “An eye that sees is not only a physical organ but also a tool
of perception that is conditioned by the tradition in which the person has developed.”
In this age of ours, it is so much more important than the other ages because of the
human profile. As the 21st century human has become accustomed to perceiving by
seeing, they started to display childish behaviors. They cannot put up with long
sentences, they cannot read classical novels, lost their ability of reasoning, they use
bigger fonts, they use short sentences and music, which is very important for kids as
child psychiatrists say, gained prominence for the 21st century people. People who cut
their relationship with literacy become an open target for being directed by their
senses.
In the early 21st century, neuroscientists came together and set forth the definition
of new unconscious. With this new definition, it has been understood that a section
over the cortex is responsible for our attitudes and behaviors that we think we display
consciously. It is neither subconscious nor unconscious as we know it. It is the new
unconscious. Briefly, the attitudes and behaviors that we think we display consciously
are actually the result of the social environment that we were born into and our
experiences in life and we perceive the world through that perspective (Mlodnow,
2013: 21-29, 47-49). That is the reason why everything that is based on cinema and
visual transfer, visual communication design, visual communication and human
psychology is so important today. Just like the first product placements, music is also
included in that. Everything is shaped in this medium and seems to be shaped in the
future either.
38
R. S. Albert says, in an article that he wrote in 1958, in respect of film critics and
film criticism, that film critics constitute actually a cultural identity which thinks and
reacts on behalf of others as their deputy and that the duty of a critic is to make a
general judgment on behalf of others about the general content of works of art and to
shape the attitude of community towards such work of art. While a critic does that,
he/she can determine the fact whether such works will be affective, cared or
eliminated in others’ lives. As a result of such performance, a critic acts as a cultural
tool or a gateman (Biryıldız, 2003:7). Film critics and criticisms became even more
important in the 21st century.
WORK AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
Work ethics is practiced in real life and includes all the moral problems that are
encountered in work ethics. These problems may occur between employees,
employees and managers, organization and those who interact with the organization
or organization and environmental dynamics. Work ethics does not mean being kind
and polite in the work place or being against money and wealth. The common
perception that there is a common definition of work ethics for the business world
should be rejected. Work ethics or the moral problems that are encountered in
business life cannot be addressed differently than general moral problems. Work and
professional ethics are also integrated with the philosophy of ethics. If breaking one’s
word is not an ethically correct behavior in life, work ethics cannot present it as an
acceptable behavior either. For work ethics, what needs to be done is to analyze what
type of promises can be made or not (Arslan, 2001:8).
The purpose of the work ethics is not only to make philosophical analyses. As
economical operations are very important for the community, moral problems are also
very prominent. Work ethics are divided into two groups as definite and normative.
Normative work ethics analyzes the behaviors that are in compliance with work ethics
and works on defining codes of conduct. Normative work ethics seeks an answer for
the question what should be done and what should not be done. Normative work
ethics is based on assumptions made from moral common sense. Moral common sense
is dependent on current moral values. Definitive work ethics is related to the moral
problems in business world and uses the methods of attitude and behavioral sciences
in this area. The most significant distinction between work ethics and theoretical moral
philosophy is that work ethics is related to the standards of judgment in society (Arslan
2001:9).
An example: “Poland Media Ethics Term: Being aware of the importance of media’s
role in human life and community, taking into consideration the principle of being
useful to public; the reporters, editors, producers and publishers who duly respect the
irrevocable rights of humans accept this term and stipulate that they will fulfill their
duties per following principles (Avşar; Kaya. 2013:323).”
All the rules that define the standards that have to be abided by all the members of
a profession are called professional ethical principles. These principles encompass the
main values of an organization or profession and the rules that have to be abided by
the members of that profession. Professional ethical principles vary depending on
professions and organizations and are not directly related to philosophy of ethics.
39
Many western companies have list of ethical principles (Arslan, 2011: 77). An
organization should have its own ethical principles.
These principles, first and foremost, set forth the implementation standards. It does
that either by describing a present implementation or sets forth a new implementation.
A professional ethical principle does not have to be in written format. It is generally in
written format where writing culture is established (Arslan, 2011: 77).
Communities which do not preserve their moral values do not have chance of
survival in future. Elevation and preservation of communities’ moral systems is not an
easy process. The main purpose is to create the conditions for development of moral
system without causing any social problem. Support and contribution of all the
individuals and institutions constituting the community is needed for creating this.
Insincerity and disinterest in individuals and institutions is the most significant obstacle
which prevents achievement of this objective. Such obstacle can be overcome with
conscious training and a principles administration which serves to the entire
community. On the other hand; it requires expertise to address the subject of moral
values as it is related to strategic objectives such as consistent social and economic
structure, understanding of responsible management and increasing the life quality
(Özgener, 2004: preamble).
Just like the time before the 19th century, the enlightenment tradition should be
improved to ensure that promises of liberty and development are kept for the
development and liberty of the entire community (Oskay, 1993:417).
Great people and great leaders share common ethical values. They believe in
honesty, being responsible for yourself and others. They show mercy to their friends.
They are capable of forgiving themselves and others (Lennick; Kiel, 2005:30).
“It is not the duty of art or artist to educate the society.” The actor Ahmet
Söylemez who indicated that it is not the duty of art or artist to educate the society
stated that: “We do not have such duty. If you keep us in society for too long, we
disrupt that community. You need to exclude us as much as possible. We need to be
outside you. We need to save our breath to run ahead of you so that we put mirrors
on those routers where you shall pass. You look at those mirrors, our dear teachers
and bureaucrats do what needs to be done at points of diagnosis and treatment and a
healthy community emerges.” (http://www.memurlar.net/haber/370058/).
CONCLUSION
In the 21st century, cinema has become even more important than it was in
previous years. 21st century people gained a new visual and auditory identity as the
consumer profile of the 21st century requires and it is managed and driven again
through such tools and stipulated to be so in the future.
What needs to be done in our community to which the culture of printing was
introduced late, the academic level of which is low and problematic, the reading habit
40
of which is not well-established because of the age we are in and therefore in a
community which does not think much?
The individual discipline of ethics; adopting a secular education policy which
ensures that people in a community feel responsible for other people, can empathize
and that an honest generation is raised. I think this is also the way how a group of
people becomes a community and how a land becomes a homeland.
In developed countries, different institutions, organizations and sectors state their
rules of work and professional ethics through their written statements in communities
where there is a well-established culture of writing. In the love of Sumerians, this
sector can be institutionalized, Statement of Work and Professional Ethics can be
arranged and this can be also applicable for television series producers. Otherwise “the
Turkish cinema which used and then showed no interest in our actresses whom we
used to cherish in the past in 1970s” (Erdoğan, 2015: 39) may cause new victims to
arise. Marketing games which use women sexuality in order to increase the popularity
of a movie by leaking a desired/undesired picture about the movie to the press or
narrative patterns which are filled with dramas and melodramas… I guess melodrama
has been used the most on this land. People whom the marketers want to make
popular support him/her with melodrama. See: “Atiye will organize concerts to pay the
debts of her father” (Vatan Magazin October 7, 2010). The solution to such event is to
be equipped with a perspective which does not need such things, to create that culture
and to be nourished by that. Such an environment would enable the progressive
cinema to arise or progressive cinema arises in such an environment. We need a
different mind-set. Can this be called progressive cinema? There is a progressive
cinema discourse of Ataol Behramoğlu. This might not be what he means but it is a
nice discourse: in a platform where the progressive cinema finds the opportunity to
develop freely, pornography and all types of harmful production will lose its market
share significantly (Ataol, 1996:24). It is for sure that our national culture needs
support overall (Ataol, 1996:90).
“Poland Media Ethics Term: Being aware of the importance of media’s role in
human life and community, taking into consideration the principle of being useful to
public; the reporters, editors, producers and publishers who duly respect the
irrevocable rights of humans accept this term and stipulate that they will fulfill their
duties per following principles (Avşar; Kaya. 2013:323).”
Just like the above-mentioned Poland Media Ethics Term, Turkish cinema which is a
candidate for becoming a huge industry can be institutionalized and the sector can
audit itself strictly through the rules of work and professional ethics it determined. It
can create solutions and receive solution suggestions to eliminate the conditions which
may make it difficult for it to abide by the rules it sets. The local cinema industry which
is on rise has to take serious steps in this sense. In communities like us which have
not seen the renaissance reform, have not experienced the enlightenment age and
could not realize the industrial revolution, members of the society can build the society
further by taking on responsibility for each other. The responsibility of the artist can be
positioned within this context. It would be greatly useful for people to think over the
41
characteristics of the community they were born and raised in over the 21st century
human and take on responsibility on behalf of the community.
It is put forth that a world full of fictional characters and situations that the screen
presents shape the expectations of the audience from the real life in time. Gerbner
sets forth that although television dramas do not directly give moral lessons like in
Greek theater, imagery world that is created in such dramas attract the attention of
individuals and cause them to turn their attention away from the irregularities and
inconsistencies of the real world and therefore people’s ability to face the real world is
negatively affected. Gerbner states that the more the television is watched, the more
the concept of reality on television is accepted (Çaplı, 2002:126)
Bogart who analyzes the content of cinema movies and television dramas claims
that such productions normalize crime and even make those who commit crime look
sympathetic.
The crime that is committed in such productions does not yield as heavy and severe
results as in the real life; instead, they get away with what they do and continue to
lead their life in a better and happy way (Çaplı, 2002:125).
Bogart indicates that social layers which exist in real life are not included in
television dramas where the sexuality and violence are seen as the prescription to
attract greater audience (Çaplı, 2002:126).
Narration is one of the ways to understand and explain life, relationships, people
and love. Therefore; starting from myths and tales, narrations constitute the cores of
the cultural life. Narration is the way of saying that “reality is as it is represented
here”, “this is what is natural”. Therefore narration is ideological at heart. It is
impressive in the sense that finding the similarities between the tensions that are
experienced in daily life and the ones that are included in popular narration leads one
to get relieved thinking that such problems are natural, ordinary and inevitable instead
of questioning why it is so or what the alternatives are (Abisel, 1994: 125-126).
The documentary producer Paul Rotha wrote in 1930s “Cinema is a big equation
between art and industry and that cannot be solved”. Cinema is the first and maybe
the greatest industrialized art form that is dominant on the cultural life of the twenty
first century. It has become a million-dollar industry and the most spectacular and
authentic contemporary art form within the process that passed from its modest start
in festival areas (Smith, 2003:13).
In movie theaters, we keep our eyes open; at least we think so. But in deep down,
we cannot prevent some prohibitions, beliefs or habits inside of us from closing our
eyes to some of or the entire play of light moving in front of us (Carriere, 2012: 9). It
can be stipulated that once human profile is changed fundamentally, we will not close
our eyes (!) to anything.
42
However; what needs to be done in today’s world is to get stronger by help of our
roots, produce leaves and flowers. Then we will start to create and become world
class, getting rid of being restricted with Turkey. What is this root? The comedies that
are played in the palace that is mentioned by the Byzantine Princess Anna Commena,
the demonstrations that are made in circumcision feasts and entertainments in the
Ottoman Empire time, Karagöz (a famous puppet character in Turkish history), public
story teller, theater-in-the-round are all the roots of Turkish entertainment culture.
When we examine the pre-history texts, traditions and communities and when we see
Anatolia’s prayers for rain, abundance ceremonies and village games that have been
derived from a range of pagan demonstrations, we can say how rich the Turkish
theater tradition is. Ethics: It is the overall standards that are set to differentiate the
good and the bad ( Adanır, 2003:18).
Turkish cinema sector should take on responsibility; the sector which is restricted to
individual morality should scrutinize itself and define its principles and ethical approach
and get away from purely commercial considerations and the mind set which abuses
the sexual senses over female body. It should define and implement professional and
moral values. An actress surely with high level of consciousness, talent and economic
power can create great works of art in a free environment in respect of thought and
behavior ( Adanır, 2003:31). It would make it easier to take on responsibility for the
society.
Movie discussion which starts the cinema history of a country and that it is still not
definite can be considered as a great defect for researchers but although it has been
forty years since the first movie was shot, similar movies are shot and the productions
based on the repetition of those that are shot in 60s still continue and this constitutes
the basis of the subject that needs to be emphasized. A discussion which is based on
language and content which is applicable also for today’s world will be more useful
than the claims about the movies which start our history of cinema and which are not
present at this moment (Tunalı, 2006: 174).
Rise of melodrama took place on the basis where the discipline of taking pleasure
in suffering got combined with social and moral discipline. Although fear, anxiety, loss,
love and sadness emerge in cultures based on some causal discrepancies,
global/instinctive and therefore intellectual transfers of humanity are applicable for
each period (Tunalı, 2006: 65). “Audience of that period is defined as family audience.
So everyone in the family can watch and understand the movie all together. It does
not appeal to only housewives or only classy women. It appeals to average taste. But
woman is still in the foreground. Then comes the child. The child forces his/her mother
to go to a movie. These are the things that we consider when we are choosing a
subject and processing a movie. For example there is a kid and then we film kids, then
we film a witty old man and then the elderly. It is like anchoring. Not one fishing line
but many others so that maybe one of them catches. I took all into consideration
surely…” Bülent Oran. (Tunalı 2006: 207) Could have this approached completely
today?
The 7th art, the cinema is 100 years old. What adventure has our Turkish cinema
gone through within this period which is a pretty short period of time for a branch of
43
art? What we need to do when we look at our cinema is to define an identity. What
are we as Turkish cinema? What did we do? (Tuncer, 1996:369)
The sector should stop and think over the citations made above.
Identity of Turkish cinema is based on representation and image rather than reality.
Individualization and independence of tools of communication is a great hope for
liberalization of local narrative potentials in countries like Turkey (Şasa, 2002: 22-23).
The necessity of determining principles and fundamentals are equally felt.
In the 21st century, people are managed over their senses and that is what is
aimed at. Our eye is a tool of perception in this age. The relationship between visual
communication design and human psychology will be the rising value and research
area of the 21st century.
Shaw says “whenever theater is in crisis, it has overcome that crisis by the help of
realism” (Özün, 1995: 83). The sector which sees and knows the effect of reality and
that it reaches many people and therefore it turns into money explores ‘you’, that is,
‘the audience’ through information technology and can detect ‘one-direction
interaction-forced subject’ and ‘passive’ (money) resource of ‘sentences, ideas’ in this
age when interactive cinema is popular. And it is done by intruding into private life and
not paying the copyright but this has also become traditional in life discipline in our
country, hasn’t it? Or is it a problem?
The last words are uttered by Enis Batur: “Could saying that cinema has not died as
a branch of art in Turkey and that it has not even found the opportunity to live
properly anyway be considered the same as provoking the devil (Batur.2007, :28). Is it
too merciless? Generally? The main purpose of the article is to provoke thinking
anyway.
This article, hereby, is attributed to our actresses who have set their hearts on
acting in cinema, who have been forced to do things that they did not want to do and
whose weaknesses and frailties been taken advantage of and used as commodity.
44
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http:www.gazetevatan.com 7 Ekim 2010
http://www.memurlar.net/haber/370058/
doi: 10.17349/jmc115203
P-ISSN: 2056-9785
E-ISSN: 2056 9793
[email protected]
DIGITAL MEDIA PLATFORMS AND EDUCATION: THE
USES OF SOCIAL NETWORKING IN THE UAE AND
CHINA
BADREYA ALJENAIBI ∗
ABSTRACT
Young people today are growing up in a digitalized environment. What challenges do they
face in navigating this content-rich, symbolic environment? In this article, the researcher reviews
university students' perceptions of media literacy by examining the use of social networking
platforms (SN) in academic settings. The researcher distributed 1200 surveys evenly split
between Chinese and UAE students and 998 were returned and analyzed. The findings reveal
that while many students believe that media literacy should become a priority in modern
curricula, this urgency is not felt by the majority of students. The researcher reviews current
views and methodologies in the literature related to media literacy and its status in current
pedagogy. The study draws from gravitation theory to place the use of SN tools within a
broader background of communication. The Uses and Gratification Theory is also invoked to
explain how SN was made attractive to campus activists and protesters in the two countries.
Keywords: Social media and pedagogy, social networking, media literacy and education,
digital media and education, etc.
INTRODUCTION
Digital media has become part of the everyday lives of most people across the
globe. Young people have grown up in an environment permeated with digital images,
messages, symbols and music. As reported by Lundby (2009), “Media and the
messages they broadcast can consequently be said to penetrate more deeply into
everyday consciousness. And newer interactive or participatory media (e.g. mobile
phones, texting, blogging, etc.) increasingly interpenetrate everyday practical activity”
(Lundby 2009, p. 64). Consumers use their SNart phones to get on the Internet at
any time in any place. They use social media to stay connected with friends. They
use online websites to shop. It should not be so surprising, then, that digital media
has become part of education also.
∗
Associate Professor Dr, Mass Communication, United Arab Emirates University
[email protected]
48
Digital Media Platforms and Education: The Uses of Social Networking in the UAE and China
In fact digital technologies are transforming the learning environment not only to
provide exciting new learning tools but to meet the changed literacy needs of
students. Kellner (2005), argues, “Computer and multimedia technologies demand
novel skills and competencies and if education is to be relevant to the problems and
challenges of contemporary life, engaged teachers must expand the concept of literacy
and develop new curricula and pedagogies” (Kellner, 2005, p. 370). Although digital
literacy and the use of technology in the classroom are highly valuable for today’s
students, too many teachers are not addressing new literacy needs, and students are
missing out on a valuable part of their modern education.
With the advent of social networking platforms (hereafter referred to as SN) in
educational institutions, student skills have been enhanced in various ways. This
research focuses on SN usage of university students in the UAE and China. The
research explores the importance of new technologies in the classroom and new online
learning environments. This study explores the following issues: What impact has SN
played in enhancing classroom interaction and discourse in UAE and Chinese
universities? What is its future potential? The researcher also aims to understand how
students use social networking outside of the traditional meeting and learning space
and how they perceive the use of social networking for educational purposes. The
following research questions are addressed in this study:
RQ1: How do students use SN outside of the traditional university meeting and
learning space?
RQ2: What effect does SN have on the bond between professors and students?
RQ3: What are UAE and Chinese students' attitudes and perceptions toward using
SN for educational purposes?
Quantitative and qualitative text analysis of two primary sources are used in this
study. First, online articles, texts, and print monographs on the subject are analyzed.
Further, a quantitative descriptive survey was conducted with 998 university students
in China and the UAE.
Literature Review
In today’s world of digital technologies, educators increasingly believe that digital
media literacy is a growing priority for their students. In the past decade, technology
has been introduced very rapidly and it is causing the world to change profoundly in
terms of communication and media availability and type. McLoughlin and Lee (2010)
report that:
The socially based tools and technologies of the Web 2.0 movement are capable of
supporting informal conversation, reflexive dialogue and collaborative content
generation, enabling access to a wide raft of ideas and representations. Used
appropriately, these tools can shift control to the learner, through promoting learner
agency, autonomy and engagement in social networks that straddle multiple real and
virtual learning spaces independent of physical, geographic, institutional and
organisational boundaries (McLoughlin & Lee, 2010, p. 48).
49
The term 'media literacy' has generated a variety of definitions. For example,
Adams and Hamm (2001) emphasize the importance of critical thinking in media
literacy by stating that:
media literacy may be thought of as the ability to create personal meaning from the
visual and verbal symbols we take in everyday from television, advertising, film, and
digital media. It is more than inviting students to simply decode information. They
must be critical thinkers who can understand and produce in the media culture swirling
around them (in Potter, 2010, p. 675).
Hobbs (2001) echoes this definition in finding that ‘literacy is the ability to access,
analyze, evaluate and communicate messages in a variety of forms’’ (in Potter, 2010,
p. 675). Similarly, Siverblatt and Eliceiri (1997) in their Dictionary of Media Literacy
define media literacy as ‘‘a critical-thinking skill that enables audiences to decipher the
information that they receive through the channels of mass communications and
empowers them to develop independent judgments about media content’’ (in Potter,
2010, p. 675). Hall (2006) highlights that media literacy as essentially interactive,
since it is:
primarily something people do; it is an activity, located in the space between thought
and text. Literacy does not just reside in people’s heads as a set of skills to be learned,
and it does not just reside on paper, captured as texts to be analyzed. Like all human
activity, literacy is essentially social, and it is located in the interaction between people
(p.10).
The National Communication Association offers an overarching definition, finding
that a media literate person “understands how words, images, and sounds influence
the way meanings are created and shared in contemporary society in ways that are
both subtle and profound. A media literate person is equipped to assign value, worth
and meaning to media use” (in Potter, 2010, p. 676).
Many educators are trying to develop new tools in ways to help students deal with
what Bahlina de Abreu calls digital platforms. De Abreu (2010) explains that a digital
platform for media is where there is real-time delivery of video, audio or information to
multiple networks such as cable, satellite, and broadband. Delivery of the media is
made through many devices including mobile phones, set-top boxes, PDAs and
computers. De Abreu (2010) argues that media literacy education is the key way
students can learn to interpret and understand the media images and information that
surround them in their environment. She also argues that media literacy can help
students to become critical thinkers and that educators can help students become
“digital citizens” (p.24) who are sophisticated and SNart when it comes to discourse
and how to participate in it. As she writes, “these forces are reshaping traditional
values while transforming them into contemporary new ways of understanding life,
society, and culture” (De Abreu, p. 26).
Traditionally, of course, literacy refers to the acquisition of reading abilities. In
today’s content-rich media environment, traditional literacy may not be sufficient to
enable students to navigate their digitalized world. Media literacy expands on the
tradition of reading and oral literacy to include electronic and digital media tools and
records. Media literacy is also referred to as information literacy, digital literacy, visual
50
literacy, and 21st-century literacy (Tyner, 2007). What constitutes literacy changes
when social change occurs? Kellner (2005) argues that what is considered literacy
shifts when there are social and cultural changes in a society and it is based on the
elites who control the most powerful social institutions. Kellner (2005) also argues
that in light of current technological changes, “educators must develop robust forms of
media literacy, computer literacy, and multimedia literacies, thus cultivating ‘‘multiple
literacies’’ in the restructuring of education” (p. 370). Although media literacy might
generate several definitions, they are all meant to broaden what is meant by literacy in
general.
Media and education are traditionally not considered integrally linked. As Lundby
(2009) reports:
In educational discourse, media are also thus subsumed firstly as a cultural element
outside of the institution and secondly, as a technical element instrumentalized within
educational contexts. Today, educators refer to multimedia learning, which is described
as …focusing … on how people learn from words and pictures in computer-based
environments.
[These] environments include online instructional presentations,
interactive lessons, e-courses, simulation games, virtual reality and computer-supported
class presentations (p. 71).
Because of the pervasiveness of media, there seems to be some urgency in how it
is being addressed by educators. According to Lundby (2009), pedagogical issues
related to media as a new field with a range of implications for both research and
teaching include: the need for further research on the ways that knowledge is
produced, distributed and tranSNitted with current digital platforms; the presentation
of media and media-related issues in education curricula; and a best-practices
approach in the educational environment related to practical media pedagogical
activity in "various areas of youth and adult education" (Lundby, 2009, p. 72).
Perhaps if the study of media was framed as a type of new literacy required by
modern students, then the pedagogical issues would be clearer. For example, media
literacy may occur through teachers teaching about media and how to interpret it, but
it also refers to the new uses of media forms and technology and content in the
classroom. It is considered a new way to acquire knowledge. Furthermore, the use of
the new technologies may enhance skills in ways that are superior to traditional
literacy methods. For example, McLoughlin and Lee (2010) argue that digital tools
enhance self-regulated learning. Self-regulated learning refers to the ability of a
learner to prepare for his/her own learning, take the necessary steps to learn, manage
and evaluate the learning and provide "self-feedback and judgment, while
simultaneously maintaining a high level of motivation” which enables them to “execute
learning activities that lead to knowledge creation, comprehension and higher order
learning" (p. 49). McLoughlin and Lee (2010) believe that digital platforms have
enhanced the ability of students to self-regulate and personalize their knowledge
acquisition. From a pedagogical perspective digital platforms help to:
• ensure that learners are capable of making informed educational decisions;
• diversify and recognize different forms of skills and knowledge;
• create diverse learning environments; and
51
• Include learner focused forms of feedback and assessment (McLoughlin and
Lee, 2010, p. 49).
Linked to the pedagogy above is the valuing of personalization or personal learning
environments (PLEs) which can be created through a "collection of tools, brought
together under the conceptual notion of openness, interoperability and learner control.
As such, PLEs are comprised of two elements - the tools and the conceptual notions
that drive how and why we select individual parts" (McLoughlin & Lee, 2010, p. 49).
There are two domains of media literacy—the use of media in the classroom and a
content analysis and critical evaluation that is meant to help students be able to use a
critical understanding of the nature of mass media, the techniques used, and their
impact. Media literacy usually includes hands-on projects where students use a range
of texts and tools, including artifacts found in popular culture, primary and secondary
source materials, mass media, educational media, advertising, as well as blogs,
podcasts, vodcasts, wikis, and the way people use media tools and discourses, such as
text messaging (Tyner, 2007). Kathleen Tyner (2007) writes of media literacy, “More
specifically, it is education that aims to increase students' understanding and
enjoyment of how media work, how they produce meaning, how they are organized,
and how they construct reality. Media literacy also aims to provide students with the
ability to create media products” (p.524). As more teachers emphasize media literacy,
it is being used to give people the skills they need to make sense of the overwhelming
amount of daily media that they are surrounded by. Digital platforms can be used by
educators as a learning tool in the same way that students use them for
entertainment.
New technologies can help improve the purpose and outcome of modern education.
The research of Kaveh (2012) has revealed that many vital educational advantages
stem from applying new technologies. For example, knowledge atmospheres that
have a multiplicity of media used “promote social cooperation models, better teaching
methodologies, and better initiatives and collaborations” and they “enable students to
expand their information base, world view, and collaboration” (Kaveh, 2012, p. 35).
Kemker et al (2007) argue that new technologies can help students have a more
authentic learning experience. This authentic learning means that: (1) students
construct meaning and produce knowledge, (2) students use structured inquiry toward
meaning, and (3) student's work will have value or meaning beyond success in school
(Kemker et, 2007, p. 305). Kemker (2007) and her colleagues conducted a research
study with students using digital technologies and teaching materials to create an
authentic learning experience. The study used 300 sixth graders and followed them
through their next three years of schooling. With the addition of laptop computers and
other technologies, the students with technology access scored significantly higher on
achievement tests than student in the same school in previous years who were not
using digital technologies (Kemker, 2007).
Aside from using digital media to connect to different forms of information sharing,
teachers are also using new technologies to helps students with basic problem-solving
skills and for things like reading and math. For example, video games have been
52
developed that have educational purposes. Their use is based on research that shows
students gain many benefits such as quicker response time, ability to problem solve,
and increased cognitive skills. Professor David Miller (2011) conducted research with
elementary school children where computer games were used in elementary
classrooms in 32 schools in Scotland. In some classrooms, students used game
consoles for 20 minutes each day where they had a brain training game to play. The
study continued for 9 weeks. At the end of the experiment tests were given to the
students who used the video games and the students who did not. The research
found that there were significant gains in the speed and accuracy in solving math and
other problems from the students who used the video games. In fact, the video
games students had a 50% higher rate of performance than the students who did not
use the games. These kinds of measures were found both for speed and accuracy.
There was also a significant gain in self-confidence in the students who had used video
games for “brain teaser” game exercises (Miller & Robertson, 2011, p.856).
Not only do new technologies create better tools for teachers and more positive
learning environments, they also help students participate in the outside world through
news and information sharing. In other words, new technologies also provide social
benefits to students. One social benefit of using media in the classroom is that some
educators believe it will help students participate more in their surroundings. For
example, Preston (2008) believes the use of technology in the classroom will help the
students become better citizens and have more democratic ways of thinking. Preston
(2008) likes to use political issues in the classroom such as social justice and political
activiSN. She uses media like Myspace to help with this (Preston, 2008). Students
have their own Myspace page, and they post discussions to each other and to anyone
who wants to respond to critically evaluate responses. Lee (2003) explains how she is
using technology to increase the experience of teaching politics in her college
classrooms. She uses the media to allow students to participate actively in the
learning experience. Lee’s approach is based on the theories of Vygotsky, Piaget and
others who believe that students learn better by doing than by just being passive (Lee,
2003). She uses media to encourage students to actively participate in discovering
and responding to social issues.
Catherine Burwell (2010) also believes that interactive technologies can create
community, empower users, and revolutionize communications. She describes that
one of the biggest promises is that web social networks will bring democracy to media
production. It is true there have been major changes in the way people communicate
and share news. For example, SN creates a connection between those who make the
news and those who receive the news. Now, ordinary citizens have become “citizen
journalists.” As Burwell (2010) states, “Perhaps one the most insistent promises of a
new, participatory culture is the democratization of media production” (p.382). Such
descriptions of these users are used by marketers who say they are positioned to be
competitive, powerful, unpaid digital “citizens.” Much is starting to be written about
this revolution (Burwell 2010). Young people are often the focus, and they are
described by the media as being synonymous with digital technology, actively using
texting, tagging, blogging, social networking and remixing. This is reflected in many
new books such as Growing Up Digital: The Rise of the Net Generation (Tapscott,
2008) and Born Digital: Understanding the First Generation of Digital Natives (Palfrey
53
& Gasser, 2008). Stories of young people becoming famous because of their
participation in the new media as both creators and producers are becoming common.
It has also been argued that the use of technology in the classroom will help
students become better citizens and have more democratic ways of thinking (Crawford
2010; Chan 2007). For example, Crawford writes that the government of Australia is
promoting the use of technology in the classroom. Crawford argues that the
government believes that globalization is placing new needs on students, and
technology in the classroom will help prepare them for this international environment
they will be facing, while bringing Australian students in line with the technological
skills they will need to participate competitively in global markets (Crawford, 2010).
Chan writes about the use of internet technologies and other media technologies in
China. The first goal is to improve their literacy, but the second goal is "to help them
develop into global citizens" (Chan, 2007, p. 45). Without the Internet, the two worlds
of the classroom and the outside world are largely separated. But with internet
technologies, the classroom becomes a place where students can connect to the world
and learn about world issues first hand.
Using technologies in the classroom does not automatically mean that students will
have a better learning experience or perform better in learning outcomes. But using
media can help develop more active learning strategies. Mateer (2013) argues that
media should be used carefully in the learning process. Mills & Levido (2011), state,
“What literacy teachers need to know is how to translate print-based practices that
have dominated Western schooling into digital practices that most closely reflect the
authentic uses of literacy beyond the classroom” (Mills & Levido, 2011, p. 79).
Additionally, media can be used to motivate discussions or lock in concepts. If the
new technologies are not used correctly, they could do nothing to improve learning or
even cause more problems than they create. For example, using the Internet is a very
passive experience. In fact, Carr (2008) argues that too much use of the Internet is
actually making people less intelligent. The way information is received by surfing
over large amounts of data has changed the way our brains operate. People are not
able to concentrate or read deeply due to excessive internet usage (Carr, 2008, p. 3).
However, while new technologies certainly may affect the way people read or
gather information, if they are used correctly in the classroom they can enhance
students' abilities, engage them more profoundly as self-regulated learners, and help
students become active learners. Teachers need to be trained on how to use new
technologies effectively if they do not know how to use them already in order to
increase student abilities.
Potter (2012) argues there are three key issues related to media literacy. First,
‘media’ must be clearly defined. For example, when discussing media literacy scholars
are not necessarily referring to a broad range of mediums. Second, an operative
definition of 'literacy' must be provided. As reported by Potter (2010) “some regard
media literacy primarily in terms of increasing skills. Still other scholars regard media
literacy as an activity or as a political, social and cultural practice” (Potter, 2012, p.
677). Lastly, the purpose of media literacy must be considered. Most writers hold that
54
the purpose of media literacy is to improve the lives of individuals in some way, usually
by giving them more control over how media affects them. Most views of media
literacy seem to complement each other, with differences in emphasis (Potter, 2012).
Potter (2012) also identifies some common themes related to media literacy. First,
mass media potentially creates both negative and positive effects on young people.
Media literacy enables young people to protect themselves from media’a potential
negative effects by facilitating more control over the influence media can have. This
literacy is particularly urgent in a culture where media messages are pervasive.
Further, media literacy is something that must be learned with the guidance of
experts, especially “considering that media messages are constantly evolving” (Potter,
2010, p. 678).
Although using new technologies offer a lot of promise in the classroom, teachers
need to learn how to use the technologies first, and then use them in ways that
improve learning. Using media requires that the instructor step outside of the
traditional lecture method and facilitate learning by encouraging students to learn
through the media. This approach works best when students are primed. If students
are not adequately informed about what they are expected to learn, they will struggle
to make the connection between the learning objectives and the media to which they
are exposed.
SN in China
According the World Watch Institute (2015), the economy of China is increasing
day by day because of huge international demand for its products (Alon, 2003; Mente,
2000). China has been ranked the top country for internet users, with 641,601,070
million users and an average yearly growth of 24,021,070. The total population of the
country is 1,393,783,836 billion. The media culture of China is different from other
countries (Guo, 2011; Crampton, 2011; GoldSNith, 2006). Crampton (2011) indicated
that China is using very different media from the rest of the world. As China's borders
were opened to other countries and cultures in 1979, it has become the country with
the largest number of users of advanced technology (MacKinnon, 2008). According to
Yu (2012), Charles (2012), and Keith (2012) China has a unique SN landscape from
the rest of the world. The objective behind China's unique usage of SN may be to
create cultural particularities (Yu, 2012). In order to operate a business in China,
people must understand this media and business culture.
China does not have Facebook, YouTube, or Twitter. William (2007) suggests that
the reason that China uses different SN platforms and under different regulations is in
order to attract customers of SN. In this way, multinational telecommunication
companies cannot easily access China's markets (Swartz, 2009).
Chinese students’ instant message but China has a unique platform called QQ,
which has nearly 808,000,000 users per year (Chen, 2014). Different search engines
are popular in China, including some that are not present in the rest of the world
(commonly used search engines include Baidu, 360, Google, Sogou, and SOSO). The
largest social network in China is called QZone (Annual revenue of Baidu, 2013).
Renovah (2014) found that Qzone has more users than Facebook. Further, China is
55
using We Chat, Tencent Weibo, Sina Weibo, Renren and Kaixin. In fact, the number
of people using WhatsApp in the whole world is less than the users of We Chat in
China alone.
The market for SN in China is massive, with over 500 million users (Pring 2012).
Most people utilize smartphones for web access (Lee, 2000). Rather than using SNS, it
is common for youth to use We Chat. In addition, the market of China is different
(Trappey & Trappey, 2001). Pring (2012) wrote the international market is using
Facebook, YouTube and similar but China is using different styles of media for their
people. China has its own media and restrictions, representing a substantial departure
from that of the rest of the world (Wright, 1996). Keith (2012) notes that the Chinese
government censors international media while making its own media user friendly for
Chinese people.
China's distinct culture has resulted in the creation of a unique media landscape
(Rapoza, 2011). For example, Youku is used instead of YouTube and offers a distinct
platform for videos. In the videos, Chinese has not only short films present, but also
videos contain pure content present in which the government are showing its culture
and attract Chinese (Charles, 2012). The government shows pure content that
attracts individuals to see videos repeatedly, the content must follow Chinese
regulations and laws (Williams, 2013). The government restrict their people and are
not able to use YouTube, in china they have a similar tool to YouTube created by
government, because they don't want Chinese to publicly make common use of their
norms and values like other nations. The Chinese government know and aware about
the international markets like SN which getting interest to know the culture of Chinese
that is a plus point for China. That is why Chinese government do not allow Chinese to
access to YouTube, twitter, Facebook and they created their own social media tools.
Similarly, Dorban, Qzone and RenRen are Chinese alternatives to Facebook
(MacKinnon, 2008). The Chinese government has banned Facebook usage. Qzone is
China's largest social network and attracts many youths (GoldSNith, 2006). University
students tend to use RenRen, which functions similarly to Facebook (Lenhart, Purcell,
SNith & Zickuhr, 2010). Sina Weibo is the Chinese equivalent of Twitter, launched in
2009 and becoming popular for microblogging since. Users are able to write almost
140 characters (436 Chinese words) as their status, a relative increase over Twitter
(Fu, 2013; Xiaoxiao, 2013). They can post, comment, and follow their friends easily
on computers or smartphones.
SN in China is heavily restricted and regulated by the government, but this does not
go undisputed. For example, on October 1, 2014, China blocked Instagram, Twitter,
and WhatsApp applications completely because of happenings in Hong Kong (Parker,
2014). Many students walked in Hong Kong streets to show support for SN freedom,
and this posed a threat to the Chinese government's policy of regulation and was also
tied to pushes for democratic elections in the territory. In light of this, the government
blocked the SN platforms (Liu, 2014; Fritchard, 2014).
56
SN in the UAE
Extensive literature exists detailing the myriad ups and downs associated with SN
across the globe (Feenberg, 2002). As far as the Arab world is concerned, to the
surprise of many in the West, SN usage has been extensive. The United Arab Emirates
(UAE) serves as an important case study because of its relatively large internet usage
in comparison to other Arab countries. Despite this fact, there is no current,
comprehensive and accurate accounting of SN usage in the UAE, although some
estimates and data are available. One source ranked UAE users third among Middle
Eastern countries in usage with 8.8 million users, after Iran and Saudi Arabia (Internet
Usage Statistics, 2014). Unlike in China, all SN tools are open for the public in the
UAE. According to a 2014 survey, 93% of respondents held SN accounts and 57% of
respondents strongly supported government use of SN for design and delivery of
public services (Mourtada % Alkhatib, 2014, p.11).
According to Al Dhaheri (2015), UAE industrialists are increasingly using SN to raise
their commerce by advertising products and events through social media locally and
internationally. SN has also shaped the relationship between citizens and their
government by:
providing people from all walks of life with a platform to voice their opinions and
discuss their concerns. In doing so, it has provided decision-makers with a detailed
insight into society, offering information that cannot be found elsewhere. SN will
increasingly be used by governments to engage with citizens and involve them in the
decision-making process (Al Dhaheri, 2015, p.1).
But the sheer size of data on SN presents a challenge. According to Stats.ae
(2015) , a website that screens SN usage, UAE youths post 2.5 million tweets a day.
There is a similarly large and potentially rich set of data from circulation on Facebook,
LinkedIn, Tumblr and other SN tools (The National, 2014).
Students in the UAE also use SN in different grade levels. For example, over
26,000 in the 12th-grade use SN, which constitutes nearly 70%. Students followed
their final grades thought SN (Schools in UAE, 2014, p.1) after the final exams, they act, chat and discuss together on the SN websites in the UAE Ministry of Education, in
the first three days of tests, the students respondents aggressively responded an
official Ministry survey meant at accomplishing general satisfaction in the behavior of
exams and the presentation of students. That's mean UAE students are using the SN
for academic purposes. The survey, aimed to get many comments and attitudes from
students, was sent on the Ministry’s Twitter and Facebook sites (Schools in UAE,
2014).
Al-Jenaibi (2014) argued that the most well-known SN tools in the UAE are usually
similar to those used in other counties in the Middle East, including Facebook,
YouTube, Twitter, and others. UAE students are both generally skilled in the use of a
variety of SN, and well aware of its possible moral and practical limitations. It has
served as a vital foundation and vehicle for news, data, commercial growth, opinion
sharing, cultural production, and entertainment. But citizens are also well-aware of its
potential as a platform for making business and government practices more
transparent, and its usefulness as a mobilizing platform for political change.
57
Al-Jenaibi (2013a) found in her study that students still require more media
freedom and fast internet without censorship. According to a study done by Mourtada
and Alkhatib (2014), "59% of respondents stated that they visited official government
SN pages regularly, with 20% of them visiting these pages at least once a week, 8%
of them at least once a day, and 31% of them several times a day. Of the remaining
41%, 29% claimed that they rarely visited official government SN pages, while 12%
said they never did" (p.12). The number of SN users is growing in the UAE due in part
to new services and promotions provide by telecommunication companies (Al-Jenaibi,
2013b). Therefore, most of the users believed that using SN for community service
might be helpful. For short-term profits, "85% said that by creation " (p.14)
communication among citizens and government more proficient, SN could decrease
the prices of making and carrying these facilities, while "80% agreed" (p.14) that SN’s
ability to improve data exchange could increase service quality.
Theoretical Perspectives
This study draws from Uses and Gratification Theory (UGT) that was developed to
understand mass media in 1974 by the theorists Blumler, Katz, and Gurevitch (Katz,
Blumler, & Gurevitch,1973–1974) Applied then to understanding mass media, it
suggests that receivers are responsible in selecting media that satisfies their needs,
such as for knowledge and for social communication (Katz, 1987). It maintains that
mass media is actively incorporated into their lives by audiences. The theory states
how the receivers use the media in order to satisfy their specific gratification (Katz &
Gurevitch, 1974). In this study, interview data will determine: a) whether SN satisfies
the professional needs of professors and students to contribute to their teaching and
learning abilities, and b) the understanding of university professors of the effectiveness
of SN in satisfying the expectations of their targeted receivers.
Gratification theory is a receivers-centered approach that transfers the focus of
research from the purpose of the communicator to the needs of the receivers (Katz &
Gurevitch, 1973). When receivers such as students use media, they are looking to
satisfy a specific need, whether for entertainment, business, or acquiring information
(McQuail, 2010). The high use of Twitter, Facebook and other social networking sites
reflects the satisfaction of audience needs through chatting, updating statuses,
tweeting and re-tweeting, etc.
A key facet of the theory is the requirement of expectations (Severin & Tankard,
1997). Individuals such as university students search for media that satisfies or fulfills
their expectations. If expectations are not met, continued usage is discouraged (Rubin
& Windahl, 1982). A gratification-based need for media is motivated not only by
psychological reasons (Grant, et al., 1998), but also by social circumstances. For
instance, new students in a university would likely use SN to connect with classmates,
to acquire information about campus resources, and for academic purposes.
The application of the Uses and Gratification theory supports the primary aim of
this study, which is to gain an initial understanding of a set of basic questions about
SN in classrooms as a basis for future research. This aim includes: a) to obtain a
general gauge of the kinds of SN sites preferred by university students in China and
58
UAE, b) to explore the reasons users decided to use these sites, c) to learn more about
various challenges they came across while using different social networking sites, and
d) to solicit opinions about how difficulties could be overcome. The study focuses on
the use of media and interests in relation to people's livelihoods and satisfactions
which determines selection of media type and usage. The study included some
queries that helped provide an accurate picture of how SN is actually being used,
under what conditions, and essential information about future plans to develop SN, get
students' feedback, and track students.
Methodology and Method
Sample:
This study uses quantitative and qualitative analysis methods. First, a literature
review is conducted of articles and books published on the subject and located through
databases such as EBSCO, Lexis Nexis, ProQuest and JSTOR. The second method is a
quantitative descriptive survey. The researcher distributed 1200 surveys evenly split
between Chinese and UAE students and 998 were returned and analyzed.
Reasons for combining a Quantitative and Quantitative Research Format
This study uses a multi-method approach by combining a qualitative and
quantitative analysis. This multi-method approach helps to verify interpretations of
what is taking place in a given environment (Hammond, 2005; Tashakkori & Teddlie,
1998), works toward obtaining more complete answers, and raises overall robustness
(Mingers, 2015). Owing to its analytic power, this research approach enriches a
researcher’s understanding of particular situations and enables researchers to broaden
their scope of study and factor in other characteristics of a phenomenon (Tashakkori &
Teddlie, 1998; Plewis & Mason, 2005; Sammons et al., 2004). Multi-method research
places the researcher in a position to discover new factors which might encourage
future research (Hoyles et al., 2005; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998).
Interview and
focus group methods are not applicable in this study because of the large sample size
in two countries, the distance between the countries, and language differences.
According to Mae Sincero (2012), surveys carry the advantage of allowing people to
answer questions freely, especially considering the sensitive topic about SN in China.
Additionally, surveys circumvent geographical dependence (Wyse, 2012). Surveys also
allow researchers to combine analysis of subjective, qualitative opinions with more
valid statistical information.
The researcher selected students in the United Arab Emirates University and Zayed
universities in Dubai and Abd-Dhabi because they are the largest government
universities and have many local students who are the targeted sample. In China,
Peking University and Beijing International Studies University were selected for the
same reasons. More than 600 survey were distributed in each country from
September 2014 to March 2015. Out of 1200 surveys, 998 were returned. Two sets
of data were collected among 403 Chinese and 595 UAE students with the proportion
of nearly 58% female and 42% male for the Chinese sample and 59% Female and
41% male for UAE sample. The majority of students were aged 18-25 (Chinese nearly
94% and UAE nearly 97%) and single (95.3% Chinese and 85% UAE).
59
Data collection
The Likert scale instrument is best suited to a matrix survey-questionnaire format
that allows the researcher to effectively gauge attitudes and gather relevant data. The
questions focus on capturing respondent’s perceptions and/or attitudes regarding the
following factors:
• desirability of SN among students in China and UAE
• perceived advantages of SN in the classrooms
• need for SN in the teaching environment
• concerns about adequate usage of SN at universities
• benefits of SN to university students in China and UAE
The 5-point Likert scale asks respondents to select either (1) Strongly Disagree, (2)
Disagree, (3) Neutral, (4) Agree, or (5) Strong Agree with statements about perceived
favorability of work-place environments.
Research Questions included in the Survey.
The research problem examined in this study is summarized: What needs are
fulfilled by young people through using social networking (SN) and how is usage linked
to academic performance?
From this key research question, the following
operationalized questions and variables emerge:
1. Habits and patterns of use of students' social networks
Q 1: What habits and patterns of SN suage exist in terms of: the extent of use, the
most widely used networks, the number of hours and days of usage times and places
of employment?
Q 2: Are there any statistically significant differences at the 0.05 level in the habits
and patterns of use of communication networks and gender?
Q3: Are there differences in the needs / saturation achieved by young people from
using SN according to the variables of gender and the university to which that student
belongs?
Q 4: Is there a statistically significant relationship at the 0.05 level for the use of SN
in the university and increasing students' research skills?
2. Students use SN more than older populations.
Q 5: What needs are satisfied by young people through using SN?
Q6: Are there differences in the needs / saturation achieved by young people from
using SN depending on the variables of gender and income?
Q 7: Is there a statistically significant relationship at the level of 0.05 between
increasing the number of SN hours and possession of more than one phone and
computer?
Independent variables: income, university
60
Intermediate variables: gender (male, female)
Dependent variables: gratification derived from the use of SN
Identify the differences and differences in the study sample of university students
about usage patterns and new media, according to the views of the general traits are
as follows:
A. Differences in the rate of youth employment and SN usage, according to the
extent of owning a SNart phone or the number of phones and computers available in
the universities.
B. Differences in the rate of youth employment and SN, according to the average
monthly income categories in the classroom
T. Differences in the rate of youth employment and SN usage, according to the
extent of Internet use at the university.
W. Differences in the rate of use of SN according to their distribution to students.
C. Differences in the cumulative average for users of SN by type (student).
H. The degree of satisfaction among a sample study of young people using SN by
age variables monthly income and the field of study and type (student) gratification.
X. The study sample about the extent of dissatisfaction with SN views
D. The impact of the use of SN to gain expertise in the university, such as
research.
Y. The most important places to use SN and gender networks.
T. Needs of young people achieved by the use of SN.
Statistical Analysis
As previously indicated, t-test, regression, descriptive statistics (frequency) and
inferential statistics (correlation coefficients) are used in data distribution on the mean
and to find the relationship between independent and dependent variables. It was
measured at the ordinal level because this option measure both numbers and
categories. The researcher used inferential statistics such as Pearson’s correlation
coefficients to test hypotheses. This statistical procedure is used to determine the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSES
Respondents’ profile
In this study respondents included 403 Chinese and 595 UAE students. The
majority of Chinese respondents were female (n:232:, 57.6%) and 42.4% were male
(n:171). UAE respondents included 243 Male (40.8%), and 352 Female (59.2%). The
61
majority of student’s age was between 18-25 (Chinese nearly 94%) and UAE (96.7%)
and the majority were single (95.3% Chinese and 85% UAE).
Chinese Profile
Table 1 Chinese profile
Frequency
Percent
male
female
Total
171
232
403
42.4
57.6
20-18
21-25
26-30
Above 30
189
189
19
6
46.9
46.9
4.7
1.5
Married
Single
divorce
Widow
8
384
10
1
2.0
95.3
2.5
.2
Chinese
403
100.0
6
340
49
7
1
1.5
84.4
12.2
1.7
.2
159
122
44
30
45
3
39.5
30.3
10.9
7.4
11.2
.7
234
169
58.1
41.9
10
15
51
150
125
52
2.5
3.7
12.7
37.2
31.0
12.9
Gender
Age
Social status
Nationality
Family size
live alone
2-4People
5-7 People
8-10 People
above 10 People
Economic status (In Dirham)
less than 1000
1001-3000
3001-6000
6001-10000
above 10000
didn't answer
Permanent Residence / emirate
Beijing
Another city
GPA
less than 2
2-2.5
2.5-3
3-3.5
3.5-4
without a GPA
62
Profile (UAE)
Table 2 UAE profile
Frequency
Percent
Gender
Male
Female
Total
243
352
595
40.8
59.2
100
Age
18-24
25-30
31-36
Above 37
198
377
17
3
33.3
63.4
2.9
.5
Married
Single
Divorced
Other
71
506
16
2
11.9
85.0
2.7
.3
Emirati
Gulf countries
Arabian
Other nationalities
485
50
54
6
81.5
8.4
9.1
1.0
35
144
168
166
82
5.9
24.2
28.2
27.9
13.8
112
232
70
65
116
18.8
39.0
11.8
10.9
19.5
273
131
46
13
6
96
30
45.9
22.0
7.7
2.2
1.0
16.1
5.0
Frequency
80
192
189
84
50
Percent
13.4
32.3
31.8
14.1
8.4
Social status
Nationality
family size
Valid
live alone
2-5 People
6-7 People
8-10 People
More than 10 People
Economic status (In Dirham)
Valid
less than 1000
1000-3000
3000-6000
6000-10000
Above 10000
Permanent Residence / emirate
Valid
Abu Dhabi
DUBAI
Sharjah
Ajman
Umm Al-Qaiwain
Ras Al Khaimah
Fujairah
GPA
Valid
less than 2
2-2.5
2.6-2.9
3-3.5
3.6-4
63
Device usage and time spend
Majority of Chinese student have 1-2 computers (53.3%) and SN smartphones
(71.7%), while majority of UAE student have 3-4 computers (41.7%) and 1-2 SN
smartphones (46.1%). Time students spend online is 1 -3 hours (Chinese 51.6%, UAE
31.4%) and 4-5 hours (Chinese 25.3% and UAE 28.7%).
Chinese
Table 3 Device use and time spend-Chinese
Select the number of computers (PC) you have in your home
1-2
215
3-4
155
5-6
28
7-8
5
Select the number of smart phones you have
1-2
289
2-3
69
3-4
33
more than 4
12
how many hours a day do you spend in the use of SN
Less than an hour
44
1 -3 hours
208
4-5 hours
102
6-7 hours
30
more than 7 hours
18
6
1
53.3
38.5
6.9
1.2
71.7
17.1
8.2
3.0
10.9
51.6
25.3
7.4
4.5
.2
UAE
Table 4 Device use and time spend-UAE
Select the number of computers (PC) you have in your home
1-2
3-4
5-6
7-8
more than 8
Select the number of smart phones you have
1-2
2-3
3-4
more than 4
How many hours a day do you spend in the use of SN
Less than an hour
1 -3 hours
4-5 hours
6-7 hours
more than 7 hours
Frequency
204
248
91
40
12
Percent
34.3
41.7
15.3
6.7
2.0
274
140
57
124
46.1
23.5
9.6
20.8
66
187
171
106
65
11.1
31.4
28.7
17.8
10.9
64
Habits and patterns of use of students' social networks
What habits and patterns of use exist in China and the UAE for social networks in
terms of: the extent of use, the most widely used networks, the number of hours, days
of usage times and places of employment?
In terms of the number of computer, 53.3% Chinese and 34.3% of UAE student
have 1-2 computers in their homes; 38.5% of Chinese and nearly 42% of UAE
students have 3-4 computers; nearly 7% of Chinese and 15.3% of UAE student have
5-6 computers. The proportion of 71.7% of Chinese and 46% of UAE have 1-2 SN
smartphones in home; 17% of Chines and 23.5% of UAE have 2-3 SN smartphones in
home. Among the respondents, 51.6% of Chinese and 31.4% UAE students spend 1-3
hours a day online; 25.3% Chinese and 28.7% of UAE student spend 4-5 hours a day
online.
Are there any statistically significant differences at the 0.05 level in the habits and
patterns of use of communication networks and Gender in China and the UAE?
Independent sample t-test shows that there is not a statistically significant different
between males and females towards patterns of use of communication networks in
China. However, it was found that male and female students in the UAE have different
ideas about purpose of using communication networks. The result shows there is a
statistically significant different idea about the purpose of using communication
networks between males and females towards using Google, Facebook, and Twitter in
UAE. Males in UAE are less likely to use these modern SN techniques compared to
females.
Table 5 T-test of gender differences towards use of comm network (Chinese)
Levene's Test for Equality of Variances
Mean
F
Sig.
How far you use of modern
SN techniques: Google?
SN techniques: Facebook?
SN techniques: Twitter?
SN techniques: YouTube?
SN techniques: Instagram?
SN techniques: BBM?
SN techniques: WhatsApp?
SN techniques: Skype?
SN techniques: Snap chat?
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
3.281
2.903
4.023
4.095
4.509
4.420
4.108
4.047
4.152
3.966
4.702
4.703
4.655
4.608
4.322
4.276
4.532
4.595
.704
.40
.004
.949
1.851
.174
.022
.881
1.595
.207
.026
.873
.755
.385
.028
.868
2.214
.138
t
Sig
2.07
2.782
-.547
-.544
.903
.920
.498
.497
1.403
1.415
-.010
-.010
.503
.507
.396
.396
-.597
-.586
.006
.585
.587
.367
.358
.619
.619
.161
.158
.992
.992
.615
.613
.692
.693
.551
.558
Mean
Difference
.3777
.3777
-.0714
-.0714
.0885
.0885
.0608
.0608
.1865
.1865
-.0008
-.0008
.0472
.0472
.0458
.0458
-.0627
-.0627
65
Table 6 test of gender differences towards use of comm network (UAE)
techniques: Google?
techniques: Facebook?
techniques: Twitter?
techniques: YouTube?
techniques: Instagram?
techniques: BBM?
techniques: WhatsApp?
techniques: Skype?
techniques: Snap chat?
SN
SN
SN
SN
SN
SN
SN
SN
SN
Gender
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Mean
1.486
1.313
2.481
3.693
2.008
2.105
1.765
1.813
1.951
1.912
1.790
1.852
2.107
1.943
2.576
3.210
2.687
2.741
F
21.25
Sig.
.000
11.407
.001
22.916
.000
.108
.742
7.708
.006
1.851
.174
9.713
.002
1.009
.316
3.356
.067
t
2.565
2.469
-9.762
-9.934
-.938
-.978
-.577
-.582
.374
.389
-.565
-.576
1.537
1.518
-4.984
-4.962
-.398
-.402
Sig.
(2tailed)
.014
.000
.000
.349
.329
.564
.561
.709
.697
.572
.565
.125
.130
.000
.000
.691
.688
Mean
Difference
.1731
.1731
-1.2117
-1.2117
-.0969
-.0969
-.0471
-.0471
.0387
.0387
-.0621
-.0621
.1638
.1638
-.6341
-.6341
-.0542
-.0542
Are there differences in the needs / saturation achieved by young people from
using social networking according to the variables of gender and the university that
the student belongs in China and the UAE?
Independent sample t-test shows that there is not a statistically significant
difference between males and females towards use of communication networks as
documented sources of information in China except Google and BBM. As the results
show, males are less likely to use Google as an information source compared to
females. Meanwhile, it was found that male and female students in the UAE have
different ideas about purpose of using all types of communication networks. The
results show a statistically significant difference between males and females towards
using Google, Facebook, and Twitter and other social networking as an information
sources. Male are less likely to use these modern SN techniques compared to females.
66
Table 7 Using social networking as an information sources (Chinese)
Gender
How far you agree that Google
is documented sources of
information?
How far you agree that
Facebook is documented
sources of information?
How far you agree that Twitter
information?
YouTube is documented
Instagram is documented
How far you agree that BBM is
documented sources of
information?
WhatsApp is documented
How far you agree that Skype
information?
How far you agree that snap
chat is documented sources of
information?
How far you agree that other
SN are documented sources of
information
Mean
F
Sig.
t
3.243
Sig. (2tailed)
.001
Mean
Difference
.3070
4.816
.029
3.183
.002
.3070
male
female
2.424
male
female
2.721
2.560
.082
.774
1.680
1.662
.094
.097
.1615
.1615
male
female
2.939
2.799
.004
.948
1.557
1.541
.120
.124
.1407
.1407
male
female
2.682
2.686
1.897
.169
-.041
-.041
.967
.968
-.0040
-.0040
male
female
2.809
2.633
.600
.439
1.798
1.796
.073
.073
.1763
.1763
male
female
3.152
3.124
4.586
.033
.354
.345
.723
.730
.0276
.0276
male
female
3.030
3.053
.365
.546
-.267
-.265
.789
.791
-.0228
-.0228
male
female
2.903
2.894
2.969
.086
.101
.099
.920
.921
.0092
.0092
male
female
3.015
3.075
.616
.433
-.733
-.717
.464
.474
-.0601
-.0601
male
female
2.596
2.493
.687
.408
1.099
1.086
.272
.278
.1024
.1024
2.117
Table 8 Using social networking as an information sources UAE
Gender
How far you agree that Google is
documented sources of information?
How far you agree that Facebook is
How far you agree that Twitter is
How far you agree that YouTube is
How far you agree that Instagram is
How far you agree that BBM is
How far you agree that WhatsApp is
How far you agree that Skype is
How far you agree that snap chat is
How far you agree that other SN are
documented sources of information
Mean
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
1.35
1.151
1.868
1.378
2.407
2.179
1.877
1.398
2.609
2.202
1.996
1.599
2.029
1.378
1.576
1.392
1.683
1.378
1.000
1.145
F
Sig.
t
27.3
.000
31.732
.000
7.754
.006
13.476
.000
20.015
.000
10.981
.001
43.955
.000
5.516
.019
22.132
.000
40.874
.000
3.24
3.098
5.964
5.534
1.965
1.929
5.603
5.353
3.430
3.313
4.658
4.432
7.882
7.423
2.245
2.186
3.503
3.324
-3.088
-3.718
Sig. (2tailed)
.002
.000
.000
.050
.054
.000
.000
.001
.001
.000
.000
.000
.000
.025
.029
.000
.001
.002
.000
Mean
Difference
.2033
.2033
.4905
.4905
.2284
.2284
.4788
.4788
.4073
.4073
.3965
.3965
.6510
.6510
.1841
.1841
.3053
.3053
-.1449
-.1449
67
Is there a relationship statistically significant at the 0.05 level in the
place of the use of social networking in the university and the increase of
research students' skills in China and the UAE?
Pearson correlation results shows that there is a significant relationship between
use of social networking in classroom and ‘strength communication’ as well as ‘spread
news’ among both Chinese and UAE student. The relationship between use of social
networking in classroom and ‘strength education’ as well as ‘broadcasting
advertisements’ was found to be significant for UAE students. The relationship
between the use of social networking in classroom and entertaining was significant for
Chinese students. The more the Chinese and UAE students use networking in
classroom, the higher positive effects they gain in terms of ‘strength communication’
as well as ‘spread news.’ UAE students believed that using networking in classroom
has positive effects on ‘strength education’ and ‘broadcasting advertisements.’ Using
social networking in classroom for Chinese students has positive effects on
entertaining.
Table 9 Relationship between using S.N in classroom and positive effect (chines
and UAE)
Impacts in strength communication
Strength education
Spread news between people?
Exchange cultures
Broadcasting advertisements
Entertaining
Positive impacts in community?
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Chinese
.149**
.003
.061
.224
.135**
.007
.044
.374
.030
.552
.145**
.004
.006
.909
UAE
.171**
.000
.146**
.000
.242**
.000
.096*
.020
.170**
.000
.042
.307
.011
.794
Student Usage of SN
Are there significant statistical relationships at the level of 0.05 among increasing
the number of hours, the use of social networks, and possession of more than one
phone and computer in China and the UAE?
There is a statistically significant difference between time Chinese and UAE
students spend using S.N and the number of computers they have. The relationship
between numbers of SN smartphones and time Chinese students spend using S.N was
not significant, but was significant for UAE students. Those who have 1-4 devices
spend more time using S.N.
68
Table 10 Numbers of device and amount student spend using S.N (UAE)
Time spend
how many
hours a day do
you spend in
the use of SN
Total
Less than an hour
1 -3 hours
4-5 hours
6-7 hours
more than 7
hours
Missing
Chinese
Select the number of computers (PC)
you have in your home
1-2
3-4
5-6
7-8
28
14
2
0
120
75
13
0
45
43
11
3
10
18
1
1
12
0
215
Chi-Square Tests
Value
Total
Less than an hour
1 -3 hours
4-5 hours
6-7 hours
more than 7
hours
Missing
44
208
102
30
4
1
1
18
1
155
0
28
0
5
1
403
Asymp. Sig. (2sided)
df
Pearson Chi26.271a
15
Square
Likelihood Ratio
27.386
15
Linear-by-Linear
6.954
1
Association
N of Valid Cases
403
a. 12 cells (50.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is .01.
Time spend
how many hours
a day do you
spend in the use
of SN
Total
.035
.026
.008
Select the number of smart phones you
have
1-2
2-3
3-4
more than 4
29
9
4
2
157
31
16
4
71
18
10
3
20
6
1
3
Total
44
208
102
30
11
5
2
0
18
1
289
Chi-Square Tests
0
69
0
33
0
12
1
403
Value
df
Pearson Chi11.831a
15
Square
Likelihood Ratio
10.828
15
Linear-by-Linear
.493
1
Association
N of Valid Cases
403
a. 12 cells (50.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is .03.
.692
.765
.482
69
Table 11 Numbers of device and amount student spend using S.N (UAE)
UAE
Select the number of computers (PC) you have
in your home
more
1-2
3-4
5-6
7-8
than 8
How many hours Less than an hour
a day do you
spend in the use 1 -3 hours
of SN
4-5 hours
31
22
2
10
1
66
72
77
29
6
3
187
55
75
23
15
3
171
6-7 hours
27
44
27
5
3
106
more than 7
hours
19
30
10
4
2
65
204
248
91
40
12
595
Total
Chi-Square Tests
Value
36.008a
36.908
.003
.002
df
Pearson Chi-Square
16
Likelihood Ratio
16
Linear-by-Linear
5.269
1
.022
Association
N of Valid Cases
595
a. 7 cells (28.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected
count is 1.31.
Select the number of smart phones
you have
more
1-2
2-3
3-4
than 4
How many hours
a day do you
spend in the use
of SN
Total
Total
Less than an
hour
1 -3 hours
Total
33
11
9
13
66
113
24
15
35
187
4-5 hours
73
57
14
27
171
6-7 hours
35
28
11
32
106
more than 7
hours
20
20
8
17
65
274
140
57
124
595
Chi-Square Tests
Asymp. Sig. (2Value
df
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square
45.857a
12
.000
Likelihood Ratio
46.454
12
.000
Linear-by-Linear Association
11.273
1
.001
N of Valid Cases
595
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected
count is 6.23.
70
China and the UAE usage patterns and new media
Language used
Using language is measured by fine-Likert scale ranged as: (1)Always, (2) Often,
(3) Sometimes, (4) Rarely, (5) Never. The responses were sorted from highest to
lowest
Majority of Chinese students think Chinese language is the most used language in
communication with SN (mean1.22)
Majority of UAE student think Arabic language is the most used language in
communication with SN (mean1.17)
Table 12 Language usage-Chinese
Do you agree that Chinese language is the most used language
in communication with SN
Do you agree that English language is the most used language
Do you agree that other languages are important to use when
you communicate through the SN?
Do you agree that French language What is the most used
language in communication with SN
Do you agree that Spanish language What is the most used
Do you agree that Arabic language What is the most used
Valid N (list wise)
N
Mean
Std.
Deviation
403
1.22
.570
403
2.95
.873
291
4.13
1.407
398
4.81
.615
398
4.82
.637
395
4.84
.633
Mean
Std.
Deviation
286
Table 13 Language usage-UAE
N
Do you agree that Arabic language is the most used language
Do you agree that English language is the most used language
Do you agree that other languages are important to use when
you communicate through the SN?
Do you agree that French language What is the most used
Do you agree that Spanish language What is the most used
Do you agree that Chinese language What is the most used
Valid N (list wise)
595
1.17
.492
595
2.18
1.024
526
4.21
.477
595
4.55
.764
595
4.65
.623
595
4.68
.610
526
Primary source of information
Types of SN as a primary source of information is measured by fine-Likert scale
ranged as: (1)Always, (2) Often, (3) Sometimes, (4) Rarely, (5) Never. The responses
were sorted from highest to lowest. Chinese students used Radio is Friends is the
primary source when I hear about the SN services before you use them (mean: 1.45)
The first five media choice for Chinese are:
1. Friend
2. Mobile
3.
4.
5.
T.V
Magazine
Radio
The
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
first five media choice for UAE are:
Other sources
Friend
Magazine
Mobile
T.V
71
Table 14 media choice for Chinese
N
Friends is the primary source when I hear about the SN
services before you use them?
Mobile is the primary source when I hear about the SN
TV is the primary source when I hear about the SN services
before you use them?
Magazines is the primary source when I hear about the SN
Radio is the primary source when I hear about the SN services
Newspaper is the primary source when I hear about the SN
Other sources?
Radio is the primary source when I hear about the SN services
Valid N (list wise)
Mean
Std.
Deviation
403
2.00
.991
398
2.05
1.147
403
2.97
1.240
402
3.27
1.235
402
3.32
1.130
402
3.41
1.142
133
3.58
1.333
402
3.81
1.120
129
Table 15 media choice for UAE
N
Other sources?
Friends is the primary source when I hear about the SN
Magazines s the primary source when I hear about the SN
Mobile is the primary source when I hear about the SN
TV is the primary source when I hear about the SN
Newspaper is the primary source when I hear about the SN
Radio is the primary source when I hear about the SN
Radio is the primary source when I hear about the SN
Valid N (list wise)
595
595
595
595
595
594
595
577
577
Std.
Mean Deviation
1.34
1.083
1.45
.784
1.56
.869
1.58
.956
2.09
1.130
2.73
1.347
2.79
1.320
2.93
1.482
Devices use to connect with SN
Types of devices
is measured by fine-Likert scale ranged as: (1) Always, (2)
Often, (3) Sometimes, (4) Rarely, (5) Never. The most highly used devices for the
Chinese sample were Laptop and IPhone respectively. For the UAE sample, they were
Blackberry and Galaxy respectively
72
Table 16 Device choice for SN-Chinese
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Kind of Devices you use to connect with SN (Chines)
The most device you use to connect with SN is laptop
N
401
2.60
1.532
The most device you use to connect with SN is IPhone
400
3.16
1.732
The most device you use to connect with SN is computer
399
3.20
1.379
The most device you use to connect with SN is I pad
399
3.38
1.492
other social media
161
3.47
1.628
The most device you use to connect with SN is Galaxy
401
3.63
1.635
The most device you use to connect with SN is blackberry
398
4.73
.850
Valid N (list wise)
159
Table 17 Device choice for SN-UAE
Kind of Devices you use to connect with SN (UAE)
other SN
The most device you use to connect with SN is blackberry
The most device you use to connect with SN is Galaxy
The most device you use to connect with SN is IPhone
The most device you use to connect with SN is I pad
The most device you use to connect with SN is laptop
The most device you use to connect with SN is computer
Valid N (list wise)
N
595
595
595
595
595
595
595
595
Std.
Mean
Deviation
1.51
1.319
1.96
1.485
2.18
1.355
2.27
1.599
2.32
1.663
2.43
1.406
3.41
1.705
Place of using SN
Place of using SN is measured by fine-Likert scale ranged as: (1) Always, (2) Often,
(3) Sometimes, (4) Rarely, (5) Never. As the results show, the majority of Chinese
and UAE students mostly use SN in their house.
Table 18 Place of using SN (Chinese)
Place of using SN (Chinese)
I prefer to use social networks constantly in my house
I prefer to use social networks constantly at classroom.
other places
I prefer to use social networks constantly at classroom in public
places
Valid N (list wise)
N
400
402
21
Mean
1.86
2.43
2.48
Std. Deviation
.902
1.038
1.289
403
2.49
1.064
N
592
Mean
1.38
Std. Deviation
.830
other places
595
1.47
1.238
I prefer to use social networks constantly at public places
595
2.12
1.292
I prefer to use social networks constantly at classroom.
595
2.51
1.260
Valid N (list wise)
592
21
Table 19 Place of using SN (UAE)
Place of using SN (UAE)
I prefer to use social networks constantly in my house
73
Kind of SN that students use
Kind of SN that students use is measured by fine-Likert scale ranged as: (1)
Strongly Agree, (2) Agree, (3) Neutral (4) Disagree, (5) Strongly Disagree. Chinese
students mostly use Google and Instagram, while UAE students use Google and
YouTube.
Table 20 Kind of SN that students use it (Chinese)
Kind of SN that students use it (Chinese)
other SN
How
How
How
How
How
How
How
far
far
far
far
far
far
far
you
you
you
you
you
you
you
use
use
use
use
use
use
use
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
modern
modern
modern
modern
modern
modern
modern
SN
SN
SN
SN
SN
SN
SN
techniques?
techniques?
techniques?
techniques?
techniques?
techniques?
techniques?
N
Google
Instagram
Facebook
YouTube
Skype
Twitter
Snap chat
How far you use of modern SN techniques? WhatsApp
How far you use of modern SN techniques? BBM
Valid N (list wise)
188
396
398
400
399
398
398
395
398
396
183
Mean
2.34
3.07
4.04
4.06
4.07
4.29
4.45
4.56
4.62
4.70
Std.
Deviation
1.681
1.365
1.325
1.297
1.215
1.151
.977
1.049
.936
.816
Table 21 Kind of SN that students use it (UAE)
Kind of SN that students use it (UAE)
How far you use of modern SN techniques:
other SN
Valid N (list wise)
N
Google?
YouTube?
BBM?
Instagram?
WhatsApp?
Twitter?
Snap chat?
Skype?
Facebook?
595
595
595
595
595
595
595
595
595
595
595
Mean
1.38
1.47
1.79
1.83
1.93
2.01
2.07
2.72
2.95
3.20
Std.
Deviatio
n
.813
1.259
.978
1.319
1.240
1.279
1.238
1.634
1.556
1.602
Ease of use of SN
Ease of use of SN is measured by fine-Likert scale ranged as: (1) Strongly Agree,
(2) Agree, (3) Neutral (4) Disagree, (5) Strongly Disagree. Google and Facebook are
easy for Chines student to use. Google and Instagram are easy for Chines student to
use
74
Table 22 Ease of use of SN (Chinese)
Chinese
use? Google
other social media?
use? Facebook
use? instagram
use? BBM
use? Twitter
use? Skype
use? WhatsApp
use? Snap chat
use? BBM
Valid N (list wise)
N
the following modern SN are easy to
Mean
Std. Deviation
345
2.24
.975
168
2.54
1.152
332
2.63
1.001
327
2.69
1.016
326
2.71
1.027
313
2.85
.964
315
2.92
.968
303
3.04
.923
299
3.05
.892
300
3.16
.845
142
Table 23 Ease of uses of SN –UAE
Easiness of uses of SN
use? Google
Other SN?
use? Instagram
use? BBM
use? BBM
use? Twitter
use? WhatsApp
use? Snap chat
use? Skype
use? Facebook
Valid N (list wise)
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
595
1.33
.744
595
1.38
1.100
595
1.61
.847
595
1.64
.963
595
1.65
.878
595
1.68
.835
595
1.69
.965
595
2.07
1.229
595
2.21
1.204
595
2.51
1.345
595
Trust of SN as a documented source
Trust of SN as a documented source is measured by fine-Likert scale ranged as: (1)
Strongly Agree, (2) Agree, (3) Neutral (4) Disagree, (5) Strongly Disagree. The
majority of both Chinese and UAE believed that Google is a trusted source of
information.
The most trusted sources to get the information for Chinese are:
1. Google
2. Facebook
3.
4.
YouTube
Twitter
The
1.
2.
3.
4.
most trusted sources to get the information for UAE are:
Google
Skype
Snap chat
Facebook
75
Table 24 Trust –Chinese
Trust of SN as a documented source
(Chinese)
How far you agree that Google is documented sources of
information?
How far you agree that Facebook is documented sources of
information?
How far you agree that YouTube is documented sources of
information?
How far you agree that Twitter is documented sources of
information?
How far you agree that Instagram is documented sources of
information?
How far you agree that Skype is documented sources of
information?
How far you agree that WhatsApp is documented sources of
information?
How far you agree that BBM is documented sources of information?
How far you agree that Snap chat is documented sources of
information?
Valid N (list wise)
N
Mean
Std.
Deviatio
n
348
2.11
.986
325
2.59
1.032
322
2.64
1.036
316
2.68
1.050
322
2.74
1.004
306
3.01
.914
303
3.03
.866
298
3.06
.888
298
3.06
.876
295
Table 25 Trust –UAE
UAE
How far you agree
information
How far you agree
How far you agree
How far you agree
information?
How far you agree
information?
How far you agree
information?
How far you agree
information?
How far you agree
How far you agree
How far you agree
information?
Valid N (list wise)
N
that other SN are documented sources of
that Google is documented sources of information?
that Skype is documented sources of information?
that snap chat is documented sources of
that Facebook is documented sources of
that YouTube is documented sources of
that WhatsApp is documented sources of
that BBM is documented sources of information?
that Twitter is documented sources of information?
that Instagram is documented sources of
Mean
Std. Deviation
595
1.09
.567
595
595
1.23
1.47
.757
.987
595
1.50
1.055
595
1.58
1.014
595
1.59
1.051
595
1.64
1.040
595
595
1.76
2.27
1.038
1.397
595
2.37
1.437
595
76
Social networking in the classroom
Using SN in university classrooms is measured by fine-Likert scale ranged as: (1)
majority of Chinese and UAE student use social networks to communicate with
colleagues in the classroom.
Table 26 Social networking in the classroom-Chinese
Chinese
Do you use social networks to communicate with colleagues in the
classroom?
Do you use social networking to connect with the university
administration?
Do you use social networking to connect with Professor / Dr at
university?
Valid N (list wise)
N
Mean
Std.
Deviation
402
1.85
.912
402
2.91
1.198
402
3.01
.989
402
Table 27 Social networking in the classroom-UAE
UAE
Do you use social networks to communicate with colleagues in the
classroom?
Do you use social networking to connect with Professor / Dr at
university?
Do you use social networking to connect with the university
administration?
Valid N (list wise)
N
Mean
Std.
Deviation
595
2.24
1.207
595
2.71
1.355
595
2.76
1.421
595
Uses of SN in the classroom
Uses of SN in the classroom is measured by fine-Likert scale ranged as: (1)
majority of Chinese students agree they are using SN for information in the classroom
(mean:2.9). The majority of UAE student agree they are using SN for information in
the class room (mean:1.53)
Table 28 Uses of SN at the classroom (Chinese)
Uses of SN at the classroom (Chinese)
How you use the SN in the class room? (for information)
How far you agree that the student cant dispensing for using the SN
services at the university?
How you use the SN in the class room?(For fun and spend time in lectures)?
How you use the SN in the class room? (To communicate with colleagues
inside the classrooms)
How you use the SN in the class room? (Use for projects and assignments)
How far you agree to the use of modern social networking technologies in
classrooms instead of traditional teaching methods?
How you use the SN in the class room? (To connect with Prof / Dr inside
classrooms)
Valid N (list wise)
N
402
Mean
2.09
Std.
Deviation
.978
388
2.10
.898
401
2.30
1.053
402
2.37
1.105
402
2.42
1.057
389
2.57
.885
402
3.43
1.122
388
77
Table 29 Uses of SN at the classroom (UAE)
Uses of SN at the classroom
How you use the SN in the class room? (for information)
N
How you use the SN in the class room? (Use for projects and
assignments)
How far you agree that the student cant dispensing for using the SN
services at the university?
How you use the SN in the class room? (To communicate with
colleagues inside the classrooms)
How you use the SN in the class room?(For fun and spend time in
lectures)
How far you agree to the use of modern social networking
technologies in classrooms instead of traditional teaching methods?
How you use the SN in the class room? (To connect with Prof / Dr
inside classrooms)
Valid N (list wise)
Mean
Std. Deviation
595
1.53
.880
595
1.63
.916
595
2.06
1.227
595
2.20
1.287
595
2.31
1.418
595
2.34
1.195
595
2.52
1.477
595
Academic problems and SN uses
Academic problems and SN uses is measured by fine-Likert scale ranged as: (1)
majority of Chinese students (Mean: 2.58) and UAE students (mean: 1.16) agree that
Facebook wastes time (Mean: 2.58).
Table 28 Wasting time –Chinese
N
How far you agree that Facebook is waste the student time?
How far you agree that Twitter is waste the student time??
How far you agree that the other social networking sources
are waste the student time?
How far you agree that Instagram is waste the student time?
How far you agree that YouTube is waste the student time?
How far you agree that snap chat is waste the student time?
How far you agree that WhatsApp is waste the student time?
How far you agree that BBM is waste the student time?
How far you agree that Skype is waste the student time?
How far you agree that Google is waste the student time?
Valid N (leastwise)
335
327
Mean
2.58
2.71
Std. Deviation
.892
.920
161
2.73
.922
323
325
300
302
297
311
343
140
2.80
2.87
2.88
2.93
2.94
3.01
3.22
.927
.964
.921
.872
.834
.912
1.028
Table 29 Wasting time –UAE
Academic problems and SN uses (UAE)
How far you agree that the other social networking sources are
waste the student time?
How far you agree that Facebook is waste the student time?
How far you agree that snapchat is waste the student time?
How far you agree that WhatsApp is waste the student time?
How far you agree that Instagram is waste the student time?
How far you agree that BBM is waste the student time?
How far you agree that Twitter is waste the student time?
How far you agree that Skype is waste the student time?
How far you agree that YouTube is waste the student time?
How far you agree that Google is waste the student time?
Valid N (leastwise)
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
595
1.16
.604
595
595
595
595
595
595
595
595
595
595
2.02
2.06
2.09
2.10
2.11
2.13
2.20
2.36
2.79
1.039
1.129
1.117
1.098
1.170
1.091
1.202
1.230
1.419
78
Kind of harmful sources
Kind of harmful sources is measured by fine-Likert scale ranged as: (1) Strongly
Agree, (2) Agree, (3) Neutral (4) Disagree, (5) Strongly Disagree. The majority of
Chinese students agree that YouTube is a harmful source (Mean: 3.15). The majority
of UAE student agree that Facebook is a harmful source of information for students
(Mean: 2.31)
Table 30 Harmful sources Chinese
Kind of harmful sources (chines)
How far you agree that the other social networking are harmful sources of
information to students?
How far you agree that YouTube is harmful sources of information to
students?
How far you agree that Facebook is harmful sources of information to
students?
How far you agree that Twitter is harmful sources of information to
students?
How far you agree that snap chat is harmful sources of information to
students?
How far you agree that WhatsApp is harmful sources of information to
students?
How far you agree that BBM is harmful sources of information to students?
How far you agree that Instagram is harmful sources of information to
students?
How far you agree that Skype is harmful sources of information to students?
How far you agree that Google is harmful sources of information to
students?
Valid N (leastwise)
N
Std.
Deviation
Mean
164
3.06
.925
324
3.15
.935
328
3.15
.885
322
3.18
.871
303
3.20
.888
306
3.24
.820
302
3.26
.807
321
3.26
.852
316
3.31
.860
342
3.35
1.038
146
Table 31 Harmful sources UAE
UAE
How far you agree that the other social networking are harmful
sources of information to students?
How far you agree that Facebook is harmful sources of
How far you agree that Twitter is harmful sources of information
to students?
How far you agree that snap chat is harmful sources of
How far you agree that Instagram is harmful sources of
How far you agree that BBM is harmful sources of information to
students?
How far you agree that Skype is harmful sources of information
to students?
How far you agree that YouTube is harmful sources of
How far you agree that WhatsApp is harmful sources of
How far you agree that Google is harmful sources of information
to students?
Valid N (leastwise)
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
595
1.25
.751
595
2.31
1.059
595
2.39
1.072
595
2.43
1.125
595
2.46
1.081
595
2.53
1.152
595
2.53
1.179
595
2.58
1.147
595
2.62
1.151
595
2.90
1.367
595
79
Negative behavioral effects
Negative behavioral effects of SN is measured by fine-Likert scale ranged as: (1)
Always, (2) Often, (3) Sometimes, (4) Rarely, (5) Never. The majority of Chinese
(mean; 1.98) and UAE (mean: 1.79) students believe that using SN has negative
impacts such as wasting time
Table 32 Negative effects-Chinese
Negative behavioral effects of SN (chines)
Do you agree that using SN have negative
waste of students’ time?
Internet addiction?
increasing the low academic level?
increasing social isolation?
Intervention in politics and incitement?
Buried talents and activities and hobbies?
Valid N (leastwise)
N
impacts such as
impacts such as
impacts such as
impacts in general?
impacts such as
impacts such as
impacts such as
Mean
Std. Deviation
401
1.98
.879
399
2.48
.995
399
2.77
.977
96
2.79
.994
399
2.82
.980
397
2.93
.897
398
2.94
1.062
94
Table 33 Negative effects-UAE
Negative behavioral effects of SN (UAE)
general?
waste of students’ time?
Internet addiction?
increasing social isolation?
Buried talents and activities and hobbies?
increasing the low academic level?
Intervention in politics and incitement?
Valid N (leastwise)
N
impacts in
impacts such as
impacts such as
impacts such as
impacts such as
impacts such as
impacts such as
Mean
Std. Deviation
595
1.26
.899
595
1.79
.933
595
1.82
.988
595
1.95
1.023
595
2.33
1.213
595
2.37
1.113
595
2.60
1.344
595
Positive impacts
Positive behavioral effects of SN (is measured by fine-Likert scale ranged as: (1)
Always, (2) Often, (3) Sometimes, (4) Rarely, (5) Never. The majority of Chinese
students agree that SN has positive impacts in entertaining people (Mean: 1.78). The
majority of UAE students agree that other SN have positive impacts in community
(mean: 1.19)
80
Table 34 positive impacts (Chinese)
positive impacts (Chinese)
Do you agree that SN have positive impacts in entertaining
people?
Do you agree that SN have positive impacts in strength
communication between people?
Do you agree that SN have positive impacts in spread news
between people?
Do you agree that SN have positive impacts in exchange
cultures between people
Do you agree that SN have positive impacts in broadcasting
advertisements between people?
How far you agree that social networks have a positive impact
on the behavior of a college student?
How far you agree that social networks have a positive impact
on the study of a college student?
education between people?
Do you agree that other SN have positive impacts in
community?
Valid N (leastwise)
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
401
1.78
.856
398
1.84
.811
401
2.00
.812
401
2.29
.854
400
2.35
1.030
399
2.38
.684
399
2.40
.708
400
2.44
.841
83
2.77
.888
81
Table 35 positive impacts (UAE)
UAE
Do you agree that other SN have positive impacts in
community?
communication between people?
Do you agree that SN have positive impacts in spread news
between people?
Do you agree that SN have positive impacts in entertaining
people?
education between people?
Do you agree that SN have positive impacts in exchange
cultures between people?
Do you agree that SN have positive impacts in broadcasting
advertisements between people?
How far you agree that social networks have a positive
impact on the behavior of a college student?
How far you agree that social networks have a positive
impact on the study of a college student?
Valid N (leastwise)
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
595
1.19
.801
595
1.57
.806
595
1.70
.838
595
1.72
.988
595
1.80
.882
595
1.88
.981
595
1.97
1.159
595
2.22
.926
595
2.25
.956
595
Social networking addicted
In response to a question asking whether you consider yourself addicted to the use
of social networking, 48% of Chinese and 56.5% of UAE answered yes and 51% of
Chinese and 43.5% of UAE answered no.
Table 36 Addiction
Chines
Do you consider yourself addicted to the use of social networking
Frequency
yes
194
no
205
Missing
4
Total
403
Percent
48.1
50.9
1
100.0
UAE
yes
no
Total
336
259
595
How far you trust people who I've met through social networks?
Chines
Frequency
trust them so much
19
trust them sometimes
290
i don't trust them at all
92
6
2
Total
403
UAE
Frequency
I trust them so much
47
I trust them sometimes
332
I never trust them
216
Total
595
Problem faced caused by social networking
56.5
43.5
100.0
Percent
4.7
72.0
22.8
.5
100.0
Percent
7.9
55.8
36.3
100.0
Have you had a family problems / or social problems as a result of the use of
social networking ?
Chines
Frequency
Percent
yes
181
30.4
no
414
69.6
Total
595
100.0
UAE
yes
226
38.0
no
369
62.0
Total
595
100.0
Have you had problems with lecturers as a result of the use of social
networking within the classroom?
Chinese
Frequency
Percent
yes
80
19.9
no
313
77.7
Missing
10
2.5
Total
403
100.0
UAE
yes
226
38.0
no
369
62.0
Total
595
100.0
81
82
Summary
In terms of digital devices, the majority of Chinese students have 1-2 computers
(53.3%) and SN smartphones (71.7%), while the majority of UAE students have 3-4
computers (41.7%) and 1-2 smartphones (46.1%). Time students spend online is 1-3
hours (Chinese 51.6%, UAE 31.4%) and 4-5 hours (Chinese 25.3% and UAE 28.7%).
Chinese students primarily use laptops and smartphones to connect to SN UAE
students primarily use Blackberry and Galaxy respectively. The majority of Chinese
students think Chinese language is the most used language in AM communication,
similar to the Arabic finding in the UAE sample. Nearly half (48%) of Chinese students
and over half (56.5%) of UAE students consider themselves addicted to the use of
social networking. The top five media choice for Chinese are: (1) Friend, (2) Mobile,
(3) T.V, (4) Magazine, and (5) Radio, while the UAE sample responded with: (1) Other
sources, (2) Friend, (3) Magazine, (4) Mobile, (5) T.V. Results show that the majority
of students in both samples mostly use SN in their house. Chinese students use
Google and Instagram most frequently, while UAE students use Google and YouTube.
Google and Facebook are easy for Chinese students to use, while Google and
Instagram are easy for UAE student to use. The majority of both Chinese and UAE
students believed that Google is a trusted source of information. The most trusted
sources of information for Chinese students are Google, Facebook, YouTube, and
Twitter. The most trusted sources for UAE students are: Google, Skype, Snap chat,
and Facebook.
The majority of Chinese and UAE student use social networks to communicate with
colleagues in the classroom. The majority of Chinese students and UAE students use
SN for information in the classroom. Results show that there is not a statistically
significant difference between males and females in patterns of use of communication
networks in China. However, it was found that male and female students in the UAE
have different ideas about purpose of using communication networks. The results
show there is a statistically different idea about purpose of using communication
networks such as Google, Facebook, and Twitter between males and females in the
UAE. Males in the UAE are less likely to use these modern SN platforms compared
females. As this study revealed there is not statistically different between male and
female towards use of communication networks as documented sources of information
in China except for Google and BBM. However, Chinese males are less likely to use
Google as an information source compared to females.
DISCUSSION
Based on this survey of literature, media literacy in education is not being promoted
enough in curricula, which neglects the literacy needs of today’s students. As the
results demonstrate, the more students in both samples use networking in the
classroom, the greater positive effects they gain in terms of ‘strength communication’
and ‘spread news.’ So, students use SN to satisfy their needs such as communicating
with each other's and selecting their favorite SN tools. Gratification theory suggests
that receivers are responsible in selecting media that satisfies their needs, which is
relevant in the UAE but less so in China where the government created and selected
the media for students. UAE students believed that using networking in classroom has
positive effects on ‘strength education’ and ‘broadcasting advertisements.’ Using social
networking in the classroom for Chinese students has positive effects on entertaining,
83
which supports the gratification theory in reference to the receiver's need of SN for
communication, psychological reasons, (Grant, et al., 1998) and social circumstances.
In answering the research questions: Does SN strengthen the bond between
professors and students? What are UAE and Chinese's students' attitudes and
perceptions toward using SN for educational purposes? There is a significant difference
between time Chinese and UAE students spend using S.N and the number of
computers they have. The relationship between numbers of Smartphone and time
Chinese students spend using S.N was not significant, but was significant for UAE
students. Those who have 1-4 devices, spend more time using S.N. The majority of
Chinese students and UAE students agree that Facebook wastes time. Meanwhile, the
majority of Chinese and UAE students agree that YouTube and Facebook are harmful
sources. Wasting students’ time is one of the most negative effects of using SN
according to both student samples. Meanwhile, Chinese students agree that SN has
positive impacts in entertaining people and UAE students see positive impacts in
community.
Further, the study finds that there is a relationship between the use of social
networking in the classroom and ‘strength communication’ as well as ‘spread news’
among both Chinese and UAE students. The relationship between use of social
networking in classroom and ‘strength education’ as well as ‘broadcasting
advertisements’ was found to be significant for UAE students. The relationship
between use of social networking in classroom and entertaining was significant for
Chinese students. The more Chinese students use social networking in the classroom,
the greater the benefits they received in terms of ‘strength education’ as well as
‘broadcasting advertisements.’
Most researchers such as Lundby (2009) and Abreu (2010) recognize the profound
changes that digital platforms have presented in terms of the distribution and
transmission of powerful messages that pervade the social environments of our
modern world, yet many scholars like Swartz (2009) and Charles (2012) have also
argued that students have resisted or been reluctant to address literacy needs so they
can navigate their digitalized world. Perhaps this is a generational issue, since current
university students did not grow up with the global SN because of the country
restrictions and regulations such as not allowing other SN to enter the Chinese
community. However, other nations and young people have the freedom to use the
SN. Many Chinese students do not participate in the same way as other people out of
China did, because of the government media restrictions, so they are not comfortable
in this new and unfamiliar territory from a pedagogical perspective. It is exactly what
the research finds that Chinese students are not satisfied about blocking and creating
special social networks for Chinese.
As suggested by a few scholars, like McLoughlin & Lee (2010) in order to guide
others in media literacy requires expertise in the constantly evolving and shifting mass
media content. Perhaps students need more guidance and training in this area in
order for true changes to be realized in today’s classrooms. In spite of its imposing
number of online students' users in the classrooms, the Chinese government makes it
84
too difficult for foreign corporations to enter its social networks, making it an excessive
obstacle for many non-Chinese speaking marketers. The Chinese government uses
hard control over social networks, blocking international giants like Facebook and
Twitter, and censoring heavily. While students are not satisfied about SN censorship,
some of them are satisfied with some chat tools like We Chat. UAE students have the
same concerns about censorship but they are satisfied with the global SN networks
they use and their roles for academic purposes but some concerns are slow internet
and limited freedom. Students seem aware the importance of SN and its potential
benefits for doing research, communicating, and accessing information.
Limitations of Study
This research will have implications for professors in UAE schools who will be able
to make informed decisions about their educational tools. It will also be of interest to
scholars researching similar topics and to students who actively use these technologies
in classrooms.
Furthermore, this study will provide essential quantitative and
qualitative data to aid in public policy decisions concerning teaching and educational
initiatives. Of course, there could be studies overlooked or omitted from this article.
The survey covered a broad area of disciplines, however, including mass media and
communication studies, educational studies, along with social sciences studies. Future
research should address the practical and best-practice methods of teaching media
literacy. Also, the researcher suggests that future research should be conducted on
how future educators are being prepared to address media literacy in their future
classrooms.
85
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P-ISSN: 2056-9785
E-ISSN: 2056 9793
[email protected]
ARE YOU CUP OF JOKING? : THE “LATTE SALUTE”,
AMERICAN PRESIDENT BARACK OBAMA’S VISUAL
RHETORIC
JENNIFER ANNE GEHRISCH ∗
ABSTRACT
The “latte salute” as it has been coined is a highly publicized image taken in 2014 made
popular by media outlets ranging from big news stations to online social media blogs. Depicting
United States President Barack Obama exiting Air Force One, the presidential plane, the “latte
salute” entered media channels and quickly became a social media phenomenon. It has been
mentioned on television by Sarah Palin, Hannity and Colmes, Bill O'Reilly and Rosie O’Donnell.
The incident has been popularized again and again by political cartoonists, activists, and artists.
Backlash has ranged from social media outrage to creation of websites petitioning for public
support to rise against the President’s actions in the photo. This research seeks to address the
visual rhetoric of the latte salute photograph. The rhetorical implications of the presidency's
visual spectacle deserve elucidation.
Keywords: Presidential, Rhetoric, Visual Rhetoric, television media, pictorial turn, nonverbal,
mass media.
INTRODUCTION
Photographic images of the President of the United States I argue are not a reliable
source for developing an organic, honest, and true understanding of the president.
Their success is too rooted in the visual spectacle to be merely fortuitous recollections
of past events. As rhetorical devices presidential photographs are employed and beget
to influence public opinion. Although images can be used to inform audiences, political
images have an agenda rooted in argumentation and persuasion. By visually
displaying their interests and activities leaders reveal the screen upon which they
communicate (Finnegan & Mixon, 2014, p.244)
In this article I will describe and outline the role of the visible in politics. I will also
describe the denotative aspects of the image, as well as the connotative meaning that
∗
Graduate Student in the School of Communication at San Diego State University.
[email protected]
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Are you cup of joking? : The “latte salute”, American President Barack Obama’s Visual Rhetoric
has stirred controversy created by the image will be explained, then I will delimit some
major arguments that circulated in mainstream media. In this paper my artifact will be
engaged in several ways. The theory of the pictorial turn will seek to inform a better
understanding of the image in a broader political context. Further, the performance of
past president Ronald Reagan will be evaluated as a basis for comparison. Iconic
imagery, captioning, fragmentation, politics, and motivated viewership will all be
addressed as they apply to the visual rhetoric of the presidency.
In this paper I argue that it is imperative to evaluate the rhetorical implications of
the theory of the presidential pictorial turn. Connecting our actions to the role the
visual plays in popular culture means acknowledging the image as a center of
influential power. When analyzing presidential behaviors through images, behavioral
norms and their impact for the performative role of presidency are valuable to
consider.
Presidential performance fragments are embodied in photo opportunities and have
been working for generations to inform a collective understanding of the leader of the
free world (Erickson, 2000). This process has become increasingly utilized to manage
presidential image. Erickson (2000) shares that “Images of Nixon toasting Chairman
Mao, Ford celebrating the nation's 200th birthday in New York Harbor, and Carter
shuttling peace offerings between Israel and Egypt likewise captured the attention of
witnesses worldwide” (p.139). This process of image campaigning is increasingly
steeped in presidential tradition.
In a democracy in which our judgements guide decision making, the visual is a
powerful rhetorical device capable of evoking emotion. “There is little doubt that
mediated images can enhance state craft” (Erickson, 2000, p.138). The use of a
rhetorical principle of emotional mirroring is evidence of an intrinsic connection
between rhetoric and the visual. Messaris and Hawhee (2009) posit that images in
journalism evoke emotion. These emotions are a part of what guides our decision
making in regards to whom we wish to lead our country and how we feel about those
who do so.
The finest example of a president who evoked good emotions in many he met, a
man who was a master showman, is that of President Reagan who is rumored to be
the first president to set a standard norm for the salute. Reagan understood the need
for this ritualistic military practice of a formal salute. As a one-time service member,
he upheld protocol which is time honored to service members nationwide. Reagan
understood that the salute is an important part of nonverbal behaviors for those who
protect our nation. This understanding along with his experience with acting made
Reagan the perfect courtesan of media. He raised the bar and set a standard for
presidents who followed. He executed his performative role as first an actor and then
a politician.
Reagan’s initial dealings with the public were part of a larger public relations
campaign put on by Hollywood (Ritter, 1999). Ronald Reagan was not only an actor
but a master of ceremonies, extensive public speaker, and a man who succeeded
under the camera’s watchful eye. His winning personality made him affable and
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unintimidating to voters. His platform relied upon his reputation as a well-known actor
and grew to one in which he became “a defender of ordinary citizens pitted against an
unsympathetic elite class” (Ritter, 1999, p.137). The anti-community rhetoric which
Reagan espoused clashed at times with his sunny disposition, this was something
Reagan himself monitored, aware that image is everything.
Staged photo opportunities are part of strategic message development tactics,
which seek to woo captive audiences and assume dominance over their sensibilities.
Reagan was famous as an actor prior to becoming president he was a man of the
stage. A performer first and then a leader, his role in the spectacle of the political
process was award winning.
Iconic Images
Photographs with a superior ability to speak to audiences are deemed iconic as they
are ideals which gain widespread popularity and are easily recognized. According to
Hariman and Lucaites (2007) an iconic image functions in ritual response and is copied
and reproduced much in part because it invokes the collective experience. They speak
to the hearts and minds of generations. They are a product of an increasingly pictorial
turn in public life.
Iconic photographs unlike other images fail to disappear into obscurity. They live
on creating social awareness and defining the times. According to Hariman and
Lucaites (2007) images are art, the voice of democracy, pieces of systems of social
relationships, and representations of dominant narratives.
The “latte salute” possesses a few markers of the iconic image. One of these
markers is its frequent use in political satire. Many political cartoons have repeatedly
used the “latte salute” controversy to put into perspective political situations in which
the president is involved. One cartoon depicts a character wearing a t-shirt with “right
wing nut jobs” on the front while holding holding a newspaper headlined “latte
salute”. The character has flames coming from his head and Obama stands next to
him using his fire hot flames to ignite his coffee pot. The cartoon is meant to depict
President Obama as calm and cool, deflecting the heat or fire, ie. the anger felt by his
critics, with an heir of solemn confidence. The cartoon retorts popular criticism by
poking fun at those who took the image with less than a grain of salt.
Yet another political cartoon that employs the latte salute as is one in which the
President Obama is criticized for his military strategy. In the cartoon the president
accompanied by a military official in uniform and what appears to be a cabinet
member, looks over a battle plan map that is covered with coffee. The president is
holding an upside down emptied mug in his hand and the military official’s bubble
thoughts read “Well it was a great battle plan”, thereby insinuating that the president
had “ruined” battle plans. This adds further skepticism to an already under fire leader.
It I believe means to say that the president is inconsiderate of not only his soldiers but
of also his military strategy. The cartoon highlights or brings to mind Obama’s lack of
military service in a way that others and marginalizes him from leadership of that
helm.
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Politics
An image of the president by its very nature is a political text. The image could be
both aestheticized or politicized, addressed or ignored. The objective stance requires
that instead of denigrating this image it be viewed as content which is political in
nature. This is true not just because of the actors it contains but also because of the
actions the photograph seeks to highlight. Those who view the image as purely
political understand that it is filled with affect.
Given the audience for the latte salute image and history of argumentation among
divided political parties, the image is in line to become a catalyst for further division
among political party supporters or opponents of President Obama. The image was
used as adverse propaganda. Images are credited with playing a valuable role in
argument and at times playing an even bigger role in rhetoric than text does as they
can be “accurate, concise, and relevant” (Birdsell & Groark, 1996, p.103).
Azoulay (2012) evaluates the word political in relation to discourse in the arts.
Political art is that which contains subjects whom are identified as political. Political art
is sought out, judged, and differs from the aesthetic. The image can be credited with
usefulness for orienting individuals to shared group identity as well as being largely
representative of history. Typically in the name of competition “presidents enhance
their political attributes by posing as bigger than life, simultaneously casting
themselves as strong, active, decisive, and compassionate (Erickson, 2000, p.143).
Motivated Viewership
The president is a necessary resource for information for citizens of the United
States (Demir, 2011). Hariman and Lucaites (2007) posit that “we (society) are
dedicated to the critical study of public discourse and public arts on the assumption
that they are crucial to the success of the democracy” (p.4). Through voyeur ship we
seek guidance and influence. According to Keisner (2009) looks at movies, one type of
mass medium direct thought processes and emotions, and play a powerful role in
shaping reality.
We watch and listen to the television to see the president and to gain information
from him, understand him, and gain trust in him. According to Demir (2011) it is
important that when evaluating a political leaders we do more than listen to their
verbal rhetoric alone. Some research posits that nonverbal qualities are superior as
they are more easily remembered, clearer, and more convincing (Demir, 2011).
The relationship between image events and the televisual public sphere is one in
which events are a central mode of public discourse powerfully inspiring thoughts in
their onlookers (Deluca, 1999). The events of the image are stuck in time but the
future recourse they inspire does not have to be. In essence image events work as
vehicles for social change. Stirring people to question long held beliefs, in a
contemporary era, image events are weapons for social change. Due to a higher
frequency of use of images in such a way onlookers become accustomed to images
functioning as rhetorical devices.
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Captions
The meaning audiences take from an image is subjective. The process by which an
individual derives meaning of a photograph is based in part upon individual
interpretation. The perceptual lens, beliefs, and life experiences viewers bring to the
visual experience are all determinants of their development of understanding the
image as it applies to their personal and social reality. The latte salute is still relatively
new and has not been a part of discourse on the visual rhetoric of the American
presidency. Its meaning may change over time as subjective reality shifts and its new
meaning becomes shaped by standpoints that look into the past at the event that is
part of a collective America at that given time.
To label an image or create a caption for it, the picture must be viewed objectively.
The caption is a piece of what Barthes calls a “complexity of concurrent messages with
the photograph at the center” (Barthes, 1997, p.15). The image and caption exist
separately from one another. The weight the caption and photograph bear alone is
different than their combined effect.
An image which is captioned for us is a terministic screen. This screen acts to
cover the individuals own interpretation with an opinion. The discursive transition
from view to thought forced by televisual frames of spoken and written language.
Commentators bold declarations based upon pre-conceptualized understanding of
definitions of terms for objects. We become tethered to boisterous declarations of
meaning. The terminology stands to influence how we conceive of what we see,
words a prison holding our feelings captive. To feel the image alone requires deep
contemplation, attention, and concentration.
When evaluating the weight of the social totality of an images meaning we may
look to other factors such as how the image is framed by the sources which disperse it
to the public. Big news media possess narrative authority. Distance stands between
the public and access to knowledge of events, media closes this gap.
According to Mitchell (1994) pictures much like language are rising as a discussion
topic, an unsolved mystery or problem, as well as a potential science of its own. Made
public, images assist audiences in narratively constructing reality and are a growing
topic for research. The study of pictures is lesser understood in the field of
communication and as a discipline among scholars than is research into the written
and spoken word. Communication has been predominantly interested in words but the
study of visual rhetoric is increasingly of interest to communication scholars.
Viewers may travel innocently to television for information and news, but are often
greeted by biased commentators framing the events of the day using their own twist.
Media’s power enables strategic use of information to sway public opinion (Mitchell,
1994).
Mulvey (2012) further explains that changes in the content of film takes place when
the sources of the film change. Hidden political agendas are very present in media
outlets.
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Fragmentation
The oversimplification of complex political issues is one ramification of reliance
upon shattered visuals.
Photo opportunities of presidents are fragmented
performances (Erickson, 2009). Erickson (1998) argues that fragmentation under
privileges the gestalt or whole collective understanding. The influx of momentary
glimpses of the presidency lead the public away from speech and facts towards the
false sense of understanding that exists in political illusionism (Erickson, 1998).
Imprudent photo opportunities call into question a president’s “image, agenda,
credibility, and authority” (Erickson, 2000, p.138). This small window of opportunity to
impress leads to manipulation. To get the desired message across politicians mask
intentionality and opt for crowd pleasing performances. Tagg proposes that “existence
of a photograph is no guarantee of a corresponding pre photographic existence”
(1993). The photograph is not telling of behavioral norms or predispositions. A
photograph could quite in fact, be a once in a lifetime moment which should not be
used to generalize to a situation.
Latte Talk
What has been deemed the “latte salute” by media conglomerates is just that a
recording of the President of the United States ducking as he exits then standing erect
as he steps off of his official plane. The event was recorded by and then presented by
the media in both video and pictorial form. The image is of President Barack Obama
stepping off Air Force Once with a latte cup in his right hand. Still wearing his
sunglasses the president's head remains upright as he seems to be assessing his visual
surroundings while multitasking his way down the decline. The video of the entire
series of events is less than thirty seconds. Following the presidential exit shortly
thereafter is the First Lady Michelle Obama in a red dress and black sweater who is
also captured in the photograph. Her face unseen and curtained by her dark mane
which hangs as she seems to be concentrating on walking in a black kitten heel so
intently that she fails to look out past the stairs. In uniform at the bottom of the stairs
standing on either side of the stairs next to the plane are two uniformed marines
standing at attention, their white cloves perched close to the bill of the black bill of
their white caps. They stand still, firm and unwavering, one with his back facing the
lens the other poised with a stern facial expression. Just as the president’s right foot
(first) hits dry land his salute is at its apex. All the while he retains the firm grip on his
cup as he almost hunches to make his hand reach his brown in lieu of the repository
clutched. The images sky rocket to infamy really rests in the artifact occupying
President Obama’s right hand, the white paper coffee cup. The president is a busy
many as the picture reveals, he is unfastening his sport coat jacket with his right hand.
Within hours of the event, much in part because of the globalization of social media
giving rise to the dissemination of images rapidly, an event of monumental proportions
evoking argumentation from many factors became the talk of the town. Captured at a
time when the pressures of the presidency were insurmountably immense, a time of
war, and a time of global unrest and sickness, the image is one frame of a leader
carrying the burden of running the country in the midst of a busy day.
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The “latte salute” was born in an era of social media. An era in which every person
has the power to author their own media and disperse it. Also an era in which public
discourse plays a vital role in the consumption of media. No longer passive
participants in the once spectator sport of mass media, social media is making
discussion at the help of the process of participation in civic life. The image sparked
waves of discussion through various social media channels like twitter, inciting those
who saw the image on the news or through online sources to share their feelings and
beliefs about the nature of the behavior espoused by President Obama, the meaning
behind this behavior, and opinions about how his actions should or are received.
Method
The theory of the pictorial turn will frame some of the understanding this research
hopes to bring to the “latte salute” image. Using what has been learned about political
imagery this paper will attempt to frame the image in the space in which analysis can
be made possible through
Pictorial Turn
The history of rhetoric has been predominantly concerned with things, idea, and
words. Words hold a familiarity to us that pictures sometimes do not. Images possess
an inherent ability to be completely foreign to the eye. According to Mitchell, 1994,
p.12) a paradigm shift has taken place called the pictorial turn, “this complexly related
transformation occurring in other social sciences” is a turn in public culture. The visual
is a newer and lesser understood medium for research which communication
researchers and a growing number of disciplines are interested in. The pictorial turn
“is a post linguistic, post semiotic, rediscovery of the picture as a complex interplay
between visuality, apparatus, institutions, discourse, bodies, and frugality” (Mitchell,
1994, p.16).
In American public culture, daily life is in part constituted by mediated
representations of the state of life. Media works to sustain the process of engagement
that constitutes citizenship. Erickson (1999) explains that mediated images of
American presidents work to legitimate their claims. Hundreds of photo opportunities,
staged sessions, in which presidents attempt to outdo or live up to past standards of
other presidents have been conducted in order to enhance public opinion. The picture
has given leaders an outlet for influencing political interest, creating awareness, and
molding an image for themselves.
Analysis
Whether this image is considered prudent or imprudent, the latte salute is not a
“Kodak” moment for the president. Captured at a time in which the pressures of the
presidency were immense, a time of enduring war, a time of emergency in public
health on a global level as Ebola began its rise, and a time when the first African
American president has taken the helm, the latte salute is the product of tumultuous
and rapidly changing times. The president’s responsibilities are insurmountable, what
we see in his images is quite possibly a reflection of the tremendous mental and
emotional burden the president is under. He is a burdened man both literally and
metaphorically in this image. He is weighted by his impending responsibilities, as
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represented by the full cup that he lifts to his brow in honor of a presidential tradition
of salutation.
“Those who understand the rhetorical messages at play become empowered
citizens” (McCabe, 2012, p.35). What makes this so difficult is the myriad of meanings
that can be taken from different messages. Reading emotions and underlying
thoughts and beliefs of a person via their nonverbal communication can be difficult
because as Demir (2011) points out “nonverbal communication is vague” (p.2). To
rely solely on a fragmented image of nonverbal behavior may be a foolish way to
attempt gaining understanding.
Doubts exist about the role which pictures play in philosophical and other
discourses (Mitchell, 1994). This era stirs questions about the photos ability to remain
under control (Mitchell, 1994). Mitchell (1994) explains iconophobia or the fear that
exists as a result of pictures and their powers to move rhetorical as powerful forces.
Presidential rhetoric’s visual turn privileges dominant ideology (Erickson, 2000).
One of the many devices, presidential travel, is used to gain favorable attention and
popularity by many constituents (Darcy, 1998). Scholars rely however on cues such as
the “economy, tides of war, and political socialization as presidential support”, instead
of visual rhetorical means (Darcy, 1998, p.7). Presidential travel for the sake of
improving public opinion however would not be effective. Decades of research has
revealed contrary to what is assumed that popularity is not directly related to
presidential travel spectacles. Further, the public's presidential approval ratings are
numb to facts whose staying power has not been seen (Darcy, 1998).
Considerations must be made for the pictorial turn and for mass media. Keller
(2001) states as he discusses the implications for the transition rhetoric has taken from
literary to visual form “Abraham Lincoln could still afford to wear crumple suits and
sweat soaked shirts without detriment to his career” (p.2). This really puts into
perspective how we judge the president. According to Mullen (1997) campaign impact
and political news comprehension are influenced by the visual. An effective leader
today requires leaders to be active participants in the complex relationships remaining
mindful of all aspects of communication (Oliverio, 2008).
CONCLUSION
The “latte salute” has an important place in the study of visual rhetoric. Scholarly
research reveals as supported by this article time and again that political imagery is
powerful and enduring in the minds of the public. Further, photographs seek to affect
evaluations of presidents’ credibility, image, agenda, and authority (Erickson, 2009).
This paper has discussed the implications of the “latte salute”. It also argues for
greater understanding of the nature of political images.
Given what we know about the nature of political imagery, and more specifically
presidential photos, it can be said that political images are not untouched reliable
sources for images that are unorchestrated. I encourage you to remember this as you
consume mediated images. I also encourage you to view them analytically with
concern for the nature of the political photo. Is the image purely created or used for
99
propaganda? Too often political scenes are engineered to further political agenda
alone. The game of the visual spectacle is crafted to manipulate the public into beliefs
that may not reflect truths that are hidden behind a veil of visibility.
The president himself could have staged this rendering in order to make deep and
meaningful connections between his presidency and that of past presidents for his
audience of constituents. In yet another revealing political cartoon Obama is drawn
facing a cartoon President George W. Bush. Both president in this cartoon are holding
an item respectively, one a dog, and the other a coffee mug as they salute one
another. The cartoon highlight a shared moment in which both presidents lack the
proper form in their wave. Time seems us to continue to bring us these images
coincidentally.
Speculating that the presidency would strategize in such a way may seem beyond
what the general public might assume, however as we have come to understand the
presidency is a performative role where there are winners and loser, and creating a
desired image may make or break a candidate requiring that they manipulate their
appearance to create a socially constructed self out of desired elements.
The visual is so very important to our construction of our social realities. The
importance that we place on it however can be manipulated. This must be
acknowledged when acting as consumers of media through which our daily lives are
regularly influenced. The “latte salute” is a reminder to continue to question what we
see and where and by whom its meaning is derived and framed.
100
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Birdsell, D.S. & Groarke, L. (1996). Toward a theory of visual argument.
Argumentation & Advocacy, 33, 1-10.
Darcy, R. & Richman, A. (1988). Presidential travel and public opinion. The
Presidency in a Bicentennial and Quadrennial Election Year, 14, 85-90.
Deluca, K.M. (1999). Image politics: The new rhetoric of environmental activism.
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Mellon Lecture. Lecture conducted from the Canadian Centre for Architecture.
Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
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McCabe, K. (2012). Climate-change rhetoric: A study of the persuasive techniques
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Communication, 39, 35-58.
Mitchell, W.J.T. (1994). The pictorial turn. Picture theory: Essays on verbal and
visual representation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mullen, L. (1997). The President’s visual image from 1945-1974: An analysis of
spatial configuration in news magazine photographs. Presidential Studies Quarterly,
27, 819-834.
Mulvey, L. (1975). Visual pleasure and narrative cinema. Screen, 16(3), 6-18.
Oliverio, K. “The rhetoric of leadership: A look at leadership through the rhetorical
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Tagg, J. (1993). Evidence, truth, and order. Photographic records and the growth
of the state. The burden of representation: Essays on photographies and histories.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
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Presidential Studies Quarterly, 27, 637-645.
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Move the Public”
doi: 10.17349/jmc115205
P-ISSN: 2056-9785
E-ISSN: 2056 9793
[email protected]
ADVERTISING IN VIRTUAL WORLDS: THE EXAMPLE
OF SECOND LIFE
DİNÇER ATLI ∗
TUNCER CAN ∗∗
ABSTRACT
As consumers become decreasingly responsive towards traditional forms of advertising,
advertisers are turning towards more innovative methods.
Virtual worlds provide an
extraordinary potential for new and enhanced modes of advertising. This study examines the
opportunities of the virtual world, Second Life, as a new platform for businesses’ advertisement
and promotional activities. First, we briefly introduce the concept of virtual worlds and virtual
advertising. Then, we go on to explain the development of advertising, with special emphasis on
its evolution alongside technological developments. Furthermore, we discuss how virtual worlds
developed and how the features of these worlds lent themselves to advertising. Second Life,
the most popular virtual world application, is given a special emphasis, and we shall explore
opportunities and practices for virtual advertising in this virtual world application.
Keywords: Virtual Advertising, Second Life, Virtual Worlds, Advertising
INTRODUCTION
From Facebook to YouTube, Flickr, Wikipedia, Blogger, Digg, Instagram, Tumblr
and Twitter, we have seen an increase in the diversification of social media
applications. Among the various social media platforms, social virtual worlds that
emulate the real world have received attention as growing virtual spaces. Today virtual
world applications like “Second Life, Multiverse, Dreamworld, Microsoft Virtual Earth,
Active World, There, Meet Me” are widely used today. We can explain how a social
virtual as a three-dimensional (3D), Internet-based, immersive, massive multi-user
virtual environment wherein participants interact with their virtual representatives for
various purposes, including educational endeavors and business (Duncan, Miller, &
Jiang, 2012; Jin & Bolebruch, 2009).
∗
Assistant Professor, The Pennsylvania State University, USA / Uskudar University, Turkey.
[email protected]
∗∗
Assistant Professor, Istanbul University, Turkey. [email protected]
104
Social virtual worlds resemble the real world, and an extensive number of
participants engage, via their avatars, in various social activities and business
transactions. Three-dimensional, virtual environments like Second Life, which is the
most popular and fastest-growing example of such environments, offer a promising
corporate communication channel for brand marketing, advergaming (Advertising in
video games), and interactive advertising (Duncan, Miller, & Jiang, 2012; Jin &
Bolebruch, 2009). In this regard, virtual worlds are not only designed to entertain
users, but also to attract them into an experience. Advertising is much more effective
when it appeals to multiple senses, and this effect is further heightened in emotional,
novel, or unstructured, stimulating environments, such as the kind seen in many
virtual worlds (Barnes, 2007).
Lee (2004, p. 32) states that availability is “a psychological state in which virtual
objects are experienced as actual objects.” This definition offers prominence for
research on interactive advertising in immersive 3D virtual worlds. The possibilities
that are available within virtual worlds heighten customers’ responsiveness to
advertiser presence; therefore, we could benefit greatly from studying the consumer’s
point of view and experience inside such worlds (Jin & Bolebruch, 2009).
As advertisers try to find ways to reach more consumers, virtual worlds have
become more attractive as a medium, like massively multiplayer online computer
applications. Recently, the number of participants in massively multiplayer online
computer applications has steadily increased, and this trend shows little if any signs of
reversing (Marketing Weekly News, 2013).
Furthermore, there is a limited but growing literature examining the use of online
avatars in marketing and advertising. Evidence suggests that avatars and virtual
representations have the possibility of positively influencing trust and online
purchasing intention (Barnes, 2007).
In this study, we will examine the advertising practices pursued by businesses in
the platform of Second Life. Primarily, we will focus on what kind of opportunities the
social virtual world Second Life holds as a new platform for businesses’ advertisement
and promotional activities.
THE VIRTUAL WORLDS
In terms of virtual worlds, humans have always been virtual: “virtuality” has
followed human culture from its origination. Symbols trigger imaginary worlds that
inclined to be virtual worlds by containing traits that emulate real social worlds (Fornäs
et al. 2002). Naturally, some have seen as the first virtual reality spaces the
“subterranean cyberspaces” developed by prehistoric cave paintings (Rheingold 1991;
Heim 1995; Cited in Boelstorff, 2008).
From another perspective “Virtual reality is older than sin. It is the illusion of
heaven, the peyote vision, the Dionysiac confusion. It is the play, the distinctive, the
opera, any system envisioned for losing ourselves in another world (Schwartz 1996).
Imagination, dreams, rituals, language and etc., could all be deliberated virtual
(Boelstorff, 2008).
105
Antiquity aside, general agreement can be found in the literature that virtual worlds
as we conceive of them today arose during the 1970s. The exact date depends on
whom you ask. The following narrative highlights prominent contributors to the three
generations of virtual worlds and how their milestone contributions affected future
worlds (Downey, 2014).
Early stages of virtual worlds’ virtual environments were largely based upon the
gaming community (Hodge, Collins, & Giordano, 2009). Thus virtual worlds’ origin
began in the first implementations of text-based role playing games. The first multiuser dungeon (MUD) was programmed and with the spread of the Internet, these
computer games became available beyond the boundaries of the university networks
in 1979 (Pannicke & Zarnekow, 2009).
In today's world Virtual worlds are part of a larger group of Internet-based
applications called social media or web 2.0 which build on the ideological and
technological foundations and allow the creation and interact of user-generated
content. Other social media related applications consist of blogs, social networking
sites (e.g., Facebook); collaborative projects (e.g., Wikipedia), content communities
(e.g., YouTube) (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2009).
“Virtual” here is an adjective describing “an object, a service, or an activity that is
situated or is performed in a cyberspace, that is, on the Internet” (Buha, V., Janičić,
R., Filipović, V., & Gligorijević, 2011, p.51). From a different viewpoint the term of
“virtual world” describes an electronic ecosystem that visually mimics physical spaces
where people can meet and communicate with virtual players and virtual objects and
things (Bainbridge, 2007). In other words, in three-dimensional (3D) virtual worlds,
users are represented by their virtual faces and identities with animated characters
called “avatars” that interact with other actors by texting or through voice
communication (Jin & Bolebruch, 2010; Fiedler, 2009).
Virtual worlds are often developed to apply online entertainment and social
networking for users through a kind of alternative world (Barnes, 2007). Furthermore,
virtual reality enables various activities in an artificial environment through simulation
(Buha, V., Janičić, R., Filipović, V., & Gligorijević, 2011).
In this respect, virtual worlds are delineated with regards to startlingly futurist
capitalist hype. Firstly, all they seem new, and this clear novelty is primarily to their
being shed light on as heralds of a forthcoming utopia of unexpected chances hint of a
looming dystopia of alienation, or trinkets of a passing fad (Boelstorff, 2008).
Nowadays millions of people on a regular basis get involved in virtual worlds,
adapting to them with varying degrees of ease, demonstrating that something is
staying the same; something is acting as a cultural environment upon which these
resolute new virtual worlds are figured (Boelstorff, 2008).
Further investments and the development of new virtual worlds consist of four key
element: the enormous growth of internet connections, decreasing prices for these
106
connections, the large progress of computer technology and graphical user interfaces,
and the development of business models which assured secure revenue streams
(Pannicke & Zarnekow, 2009).
Present debates in Virtual Worlds literature have not definitively emphasized the
media’s beneficialness for allocated work. Besides that the concept of Virtual Worlds’
capacity to get their users engaged to many kinds of activities over geographical
boundaries is intelligible embedded in much of the reasoning in Virtual Worlds
literature yet (Hakonen & Bosch-sijtsema, 2014).
As it can be seen in Figure 1: virtual worlds from the first generation were
principally text and fantasy based, small in scale (250 users or less), (e.g., Dungeons &
Dragons and Middle Earth). Second generation worlds were larger scale systems
(1,000 or more users) and witnessed the growing use of graphical worlds, the
introduction of social-oriented worlds, and the development of worlds in which users
could generate objects and shape their world in real time. Besides that the third
(current) generation notes that the age of massive systems (10,000+ simultaneous
users), visually striking 3D worlds, and a growing range of genres and types of virtual
worlds (e.g., Massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs), multi-user virtual
environments (MUVEs), and Massively Multiple On-Line Educations (MMOLEs)
demonstrate an affinity for fantasy, science fiction, pseudo-reality (Downey, 2014).
Figure 1. Generational Traits of Virtual Worlds.
Source: (Downey, 2014, p.57).
These hundreds of virtual worlds that players have to choose from each target a
distinct class of people. There are virtual worlds for children such as Disney’s
Toontown, Club Penguin, and Pirates of the Caribbean. Some virtual worlds for teens
include Whyville, Habbo Hotel and Second Life for Teens. There are also virtual worlds
targeting adults such as The Sims Online, World of Warcraft, and Second Life. Hence,
every virtual world shares the attributes outlined above while targeting a distinct set of
people (Papp, 2010). As these environments become more pervasive, research
examining this phenomenon will be needed to better understand these 3D spaces
(Mennecke, Mcneill, Ganis, & Townsend, 2008).
107
Some other important features of virtual worlds identified by (Book, 2004) are listed
below:
1. Shared Space: the world permits users to get involved the same ambiance.
2. Graphical User Interface: the world represents space visually, ranging between
in style from 2D “cartoon” to more immersive 3D settings.
3. Immediacy: the world allows real-time interaction
4. Interactivity: users may modify, develop, and generate personal content.
5. Persistence: the world’s existence does not correlate to users logging in.
6. Socialization/Community: the world allows the formation of real life social
groups such as clubs, cliques, housemates, neighborhoods, guilds, etc.
Lately, virtual worlds have become open to new forms of interaction and
commerce. Therefore, virtual worlds have the capacity to become new channels for
marketing content and products, amalgamating virtual e-commerce (“V-Commerce”)
(Barnes, 2007).
There are more than one hundred virtual worlds, and even more are under
development. Increasingly, online virtual worlds are becoming a technology of
substantial importance for marketers and advertisers (Barnes, 2007). Moreover,
companies realize the importance of advertising on the web (Barnes & Mattsson,
2011).
ADVERTISING IN VIRTUAL WORLDS
It is traditional to contend that pre-modern advertising developed to sell goods in a
distinct form of an economic system. Word of mouth and pictorial signs were the main
methods of advertising during the middle ages. Modern advertising came to light from
a systemic situation in capitalism. Advertising generates a crucial field of continuity
between the end of Fordist growth in the years 1970s and the transition to flexible
specialization and post-Fordism (Odih, 2007).
The global reach of companies has grown to surround the world during the last two
decades (Hakonen & Bosch-sijtsema, 2014). While the Internet was originally seen as
a hazard to brands, the essential attributes of e-commerce have had quite the
opposite effect. The Internet has rendered the successful establishment of brands on
the Web more pivotal instead of reducing the value of these brands (Jin & Bolebruch,
2010).
Postmodern advertising in the hyper-real world, where each thing evolves into
everything else, is based upon the intersections between image, appearance and
simulation. Clear understanding of these alterations in the deciduousness of
advertising esthetics is the ‘convergence’ of advertising mediums and their
enhancement into the diaphanous streams of new electronic media (Odih, 2007).
From this aspect primary attribute of advertising media, the advertisements can be
separated into two groups: the physical advertisement and the virtual advertisement
(Chang, Hsieh, Chiang, & Wu, 2010).
108
The decreasing success of known forms of advertising due to an increasing
resistance of audiences induces advertisers to act towards newer and more innovative
forms of advertising (Sander & Altobelli, 2010). Thus, advertising in virtual worlds is a
newer form of reaching recipients. Organizations and brands in all areas of business
have utilized the existence of virtual reality to reach their recipients; a cheap form of
advertising, many more are trying the phenomenon of virtual world advertising. Virtual
advertising is also a new way regarding customization and flexibility. Besides that
virtual worlds allow sponsorship events, selling virtual products, establishing
opportunities for virtual commerce and broadcast advertisement through virtual malls,
radio
stations
and
billboards
(http://emerging-advertisingmedia.wikispaces.com/Advertising+in+3D+or+Virtual+Worlds).
Practices of virtual advertising first came to light in the Europe regarding sport
properties, broadcast companies and event managers was a premium alternative
application to advertising in the soccer games because the lack of commercial breaks
within these broadcasts (Boddy, 2004; Cited in Tsuji, 2007).
Virtual worlds’ exceptional flexibility and potential for new and enhanced modes of
advertising facilitate people to utilize it as all in one channel. These features of Virtual
Worlds include the product placement of 3-D objects on real world billboards and radio
analogs, advergames and cross-promotion coupons (Vedrashko, 2006; Barnes, 2007).
Virtual advertising has some benefits over traditional advertising media. One of the
advantages of virtual advertising is that placing advertising within the game does not
permit players to change it even if they stop following the program. A further
advantage is that virtual advertising allows people to embed companies’ emblems on
any surface of the broadcast, which then boosts brand advertising exposure. This
means that virtual advertising enables companies to repeatedly expose their products
and brands to their target audience. One last crucial advantage is that a virtual
advertising platforms allow for the animation of brand signs (Tsuji, 2007). But still,
regarding virtual advertising, the Return on Investment (ROI) for many of the
companies is not sufficiently high. The reason for this is that many of the companies
are advertising through a new medium and they want to benefit from it while
remaining low priced. In this respect, in second life platform, players can hire a virtual
billboard that has 200,000 impressions (measured a single impression as 15 seconds of
cumulative exposure) is only costs at $30 which would mean a CPM (Cost Per
Thousand)
of
a
really
low
amount
at
$.15.
(http://emergingadvertisingmedia.wikispaces.com/Advertising+in+3D+or+Virtual+Worlds).
ADVERTISING IN SECOND LIFE
Second Life is an Internet-based virtual world developed by Philip Rosedale and the
team at San Francisco-based Linden Lab and launched on June 23, 2003. It had, in
2014, about 1 million regular users (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Life; Hodge
et al., 2009). Second Life is the most popular and fastest growing virtual world on the
Internet (Jin & Bolebruch, 2009). According to statistics as of the date of March 15,
2015, there are currently close to 41 million avatars in Second Life, with a daily New
Signups: 8000 to 11000 (https://danielvoyager.wordpress.com/sl-metrics/). Therefore,
in 2015 Second Life is the leading 3D virtual world. As a unique space where you can
109
be whoever you'd like, build and sell whatever you can imagine, and have fun with
others from all over the globe while you explore this interesting virtual world, listen to
live music concerts, play games, shop in the world's largest user-generated virtual
goods
economy,
and
much
more
(http://www.lindenlab.com/products/second-life ).
Second Life is rapidly being realized as a significant new medium for brand building.
Hence, nowadays some companies are located in the Second Life platform as can be
seen below from Table 1.
Alphabetical List of Prominent Real Life Brands in Second Life
1-800flowers.com
ABN AMRO
Adidas
AJAX football
club
Aloft Hotel
Suites
Amazon
AMD
American
Apparel
American Cancer
Society
Australian Info
Ind Assoc (AIIA)
Autodesk
Bain & Company
Bantam Dell
Books
Bartle Bogle
Hegarty (BBH)
BBC Radio 1
Crayon
Logica CMG
Crossguard IP
Attorneys
Daily
Telegraph
Dell
Make Magazine
Edelman
Marketing
Magazine
Mazda Europe
Endemol
Europ
Assistance
Exploratorium
Museum
Faasen &
Partners
Field Fisher
Waterhouse
(FFW)
Fox Atomic
Gabetti
Property
Solutions
Greenberg and
Lieberman
H&R Block
Harvard Law
School
Best Buy Co.
Inc.
Bigpond
Hipcast Expo
Center
IBM
BMW
Infinite Mind
Major League
Baseball
Manpower Inc.
Random
House/Bantam
Reebok
Regina Spektor
Renault (Formula
1 Team)
Reuters
Text 100
Thompson
Thompson
NETg
TMP
Worldwide
Toyota
Mercedes Benz
Sapphire
Technologies
Save the Children
Charity
Saxo Bank
Microsoft
Scion
MovieTickets.com
Sears
MTV
Semper
International
SirsiDynix
Visa Europe
NASA
Sky News
Nat. Basketball
Assn (NBA)
Nat. Oceanic &
Atmosp. Adm
(NOAA)
NBC
Softlab Group
Warner Bros
Music
Weather
Channel
Wells Fargo
Meme Science
Munchester
Castle
New Business
Horizons
NicoBloc
Sony
Sony-Ericsson
Springer Verlag
Sprint
UGS
Unitrin
Direct
Universal
Motown
Records
Uitvaart.co
m
Vauxhall
Vodafone
WindUp
Records
Wired
Magazine
Xerox
110
Calvin Klein
ING
Nissan
Channel 4 Radio
Intel
Channel 10
(Microsoft)
Choquette & Co
Accounting
Church &
Crawford
Circuit City
iVillage
Northsound Radio
Scotland
NPR
Sun Microsystems
Iwantoneoftho
se.com
JK Travel
PA Consulting
Sundance Channel
Penguin
KAWG&F
Philips
SuperMarketGuru.
com
Suzanne Vega
Cisco
Kelly Services
CNET
Kraft Food
Coca-Cola
Kweli's
Brownstone
Lacoste
Phoenix Film &
TV
Plachta Law
Office
Playboy
Coldwell Banker
Coldwell Banker
Legacy
Comcast
STA (Student
Travel Assoc)
Starwood Hotels
Yahoo
Yankee
Stadium
TAM Airline
Talis
TechSoup
Pontiac/GM
Telus
Leo Burnett
Press Association
Telstra
Life Heart Beat
Press Dispensary
Tecnisa
Table 1 Alphabetical List of Prominent Real Life Brands in Second Life
Source: http://www.nbhorizons.com/list.htm 2015 (as of April 19, 2015)
For instance, in Second Life, application consumers navigate their customized
avatars in the three-dimensional (3D) environment. Such avatar-based 3D virtual
environments offer promise as a corporate communication medium for brands and
interactive advertising, in the sense that companies can create spokes and sales
avatars that personate their brand and product (Jin & Bolebruch, 2009).
Figure 1. Snapshot: Example of advertising in Second Life
Apart from getting publicity as mentioned on blogs or the web, the Second Life
platform has the potential to allow for brand marketing advertisement for companies
111
and businesses. Some companies, for example, have created a presence in Second Life
that drives people to their own land by organizing engaging events like lectures, talks,
competitions, or concerts. Through these events, new people and new buyers can be
introduced to a business or a company or even to the services provided by them.
Companies such as Apple, Coca-Cola, Dell, MTV, BBC, Amazon, Sony, Mercedens-Benz,
Kraft Food, Intel etc. have presence on Second Life and are engaged in publicity
activities and advertising on their own land. To Jin and Bolebruch (2012, p. 3) “the
ability to offer vivid and engrossing social interactions with spokes-avatars within 3D
environments is the key advantage of interactive marketing in Second Life.”
Another option for businesses and companies is that, instead of renting their own
land, to use the services of agencies who are organizing publicity events on 3D Virtual
Worlds. For example, DBC is an interactive cross media content maker, broadcasting
on the web, in virtual worlds and social networks, filming and photographing live
events, producing content and bringing it to the audience (http://www.dbc-tv.com/).
These agencies create their own presence and land for such events and provide
advertising activities and content for the advertisers.
Furthermore, being present within SL can be assumed to improve brand awareness
and brand image, which subsequently contributes to improvements in brand
knowledge and customer-based brand equity (Keller, 1993; Cited in Kaplan &
Haenlein, 2009).
Companies and businesses who have a presence on the Second Life Grid should
also keep the people on their sim and engage the visitors with different techniques
such as advergames. Advergames could range from allowing visitors to hunt for gold
or fish, to manipulate a virtual product to earning discounts or coupons for real
products in real life while spending time playing advergames on Second Life land of
the business.
There are other agencies and networks providing brand marketing advertisement;
Metabizlist lists 67 advertising and marketing companies in Second Life
(http://www.metabizlist.com/). These agencies help with distributed advertising in
Second Life by putting up posters or kiosks that can distribute information, links,
objects, or provide teleports to the sponsoring location for a small fee on many
popular venues in Second Life, from malls to clubs to gathering points
(http://wiki.secondlife.com/wiki/Advertising_in_Second_Life). Also, some companies
could pay per click for those adverts of pay per impression. For instance, SecondAds
charges 15 L$ per click on the advertisement or 50 L$ (0.05 L$ per ad view) per 1000
impressions in the form of an ad board located in a busy sim (www.secondads.com).
They also pay people with land on Second Life who are willing to host such an
advertisement board.
Companies and businesses could also engage in active and interactive advertising
of their products in the form of wearables such as T-shirts and caps on which they
could put their logo or write scripts around their virtual products so that potential
buyers engage in interaction with those virtual products. Companies could also provide
112
a hat with their logo which people could give to others, creating viral distribution for
their brand. The hat could be scripted so that giving it to someone could open a
website or a Second Life notecard with more information about the product or a
coupon for a discount on the product.
Figure 2 Snapshot: Another Example of advertising in Second Life
Many businesses and companies could also use avatars as a promotional vehicle.
The use of recommendation avatars and immersive, realistic interactions with them
increase favorable brand attitudes and brand-self connection among consumers. In
avatar-based 3D virtual environments, corporations can establish locations as
information databases for their companies (Jin and Bolerbruch, 2012, p. 5). Avatars
could engage people in conversation and offer links to websites, coupons, or other
direct followup actions. These avatars could be either real people or scripted bots to
engage in conversation and each time another avatar clicks on them or talks to them
they give away a notecard of a product. “An expanded form of person-to-person
advertising can take the form of brand personification, whereas brand icons or
personalities are realized in Second Life for engagement with Residents. An example of
this would be “Nestle Nesquik”, where the Nesquik Bunny Avatar entered Second Life
and
attended
a
variety
of
events.”
(http://wiki.secondlife.com/wiki/Advertising_in_Second_Life).
However, Jin and Bolerbruch (2009) in their study found out that human avatars
generate better results with the customers than with the bots although they “confirm
that avatar-based advertising in Second Life can contribute to increase product
involvement and positive attitudes toward a product and regarding regard to modality
effects, these results also offer empirical support for the importance of multiple
modalities in advertising; advertising messages conveyed through multimodal 3D
spokes-avatars are more effective in terms of improving product involvement and
attitude toward the product than is mere exposure to unimodal audio messages.” (p.
56).
113
Second Life platform allows for the incorporation of diverse media, including Shared
Media audio and video streams. In addition, there are radio and TV stations in Second
Life which provide streaming broadcasts. These streams can incorporate advertising,
as radio and TV do in real life.
Figure 3. (Snapshot) Another Example of advertising in Second Life
CONCLUSION
Virtual worlds are involved in a bigger group of Internet-based platform called
“social media,” which create the technological and ideological foundations of Web 2.0
and allow for the creation and exchange of user-generated content (Kaplan &
Haenlein, 2010). From this standpoint, virtual advertising is a unique and innovative
type of advertising. The Second life platform, certainly the most popular and fastest
growing one amongst the virtual worlds, is a three-dimensional virtual environment.
Second Life is rapidly becoming recognized as an important new channel for
advertising. Eventually, the Second Life platform has the great potential to allow for
the advertisement of companies and businesses. This young platform of advertising is
still in its early and experimental stage, but in our current world it is too important an
opportunity to take advantage of the new generation target audiences. Besides that,
many of the companies prefer this new platform for their advertising practices due to
its low pricing policy.
Our study was conceived as an exploratory analysis and can only be seen as a first
step toward a better understanding of advertising on Second Life, and there are
several areas of future research that merit deeper investigation. Moreover, future
research could measure the impact of virtual advertising compared with other types of
advertising such as TV spots or sponsoring, in order to evaluate the effects of
integrated communication and cross-media advertising and the effectiveness of
different kinds of virtual advertising.
114
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doi: 10.17349/jmc115206
P-ISSN: 2056-9785
E-ISSN: 2056 9793
[email protected]
SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS OF E-NEWSPAPERS INTERFACE
VIEWS WITHIN THE SCOPE OF ADVERTISEMENTS1
BAHAR DİNÇAKMAN ∗
ABSTRACT
Interface of a website is a designed and composed space and it is like a paper to be filled
with visual and inscriptive data. Advertisements on newspapers can reach to readers both by
physical and virtual space. As district from traditional techniques, online advertisements realize
presentation functions by the fee for taking place on web pages without any paper or print cost.
However, with today's revised advertising policy laws, due to enhance of advertising spaces, the
main information and images are almost stuck between the advertisements on webpage of enewspapers. On the web interfaces of e-newspapers, almost half of the page is covered with
advertisements without attention of design principles. In this context, with the purpose of
arranging web pages more appropriately to the design principles and transferring actual
information to the readers with more simple design approach the selected newspapers’ web
interfaces will be discussed with semiotics.
Keywords: E-newspaper, Interface, Advertisement, Design Principles, Semiotics
INTRODUCTION
In the past, advertisements were limited only in printed media such as magazines,
newspapers. Today, the advertisements taking place on e-newspapers and emagazines that are seen on computer screens have crossed the line much more than
the ads in printed media. Once an e-newspapers interface is opened, an advertisement
video can be seen on the screen. It depends on the reader to watch or not to watch
this video. As the icon for closing the video, advertisement image is clicked, the
advertisement disappears from the screen. However, the advertisement is not limited
with addition video or image. As any web page is opened on internet, it can be seen
the banner advertisements are located on all over the space of the web page. In the
same way, when the interfaces of e-newspapers are opened, varied advertisements
located on the web page with different techniques may be seen.
1
(This article has been presented in Portugal, International Conference on Media Business
Landscapes)
∗
Dr., Fine Arts Faculty, Communication Design and Graphics Department, Afyon Kocatepe
University, Turkey, [email protected]
118
Semiotic Analysis of E-Newspapers Interface Views within the Scope of Advertisements
In this study it is aimed to analyze the interface views of e-newspapers within the
scope of advertisements and to evaluate the designs of these pages taking into
account elements such as advertisement space and the information space. This study
is mostly important to indicate the space using on first page of e-newspapers that
carries the main function of giving information. In this context, web interfaces of enewspapers are analyzed by the table below by comparing the first seen screen as the
website is opened. Actual e-newspapers interface views have been obtained from
internet. The newspapers that are chosen for this study are from Turkey and Portugal:
Birgun (One day), Cumhuriyet (Republic), Gazete Vatan (Newspapers Homeland),
Haberturk (News Turc), Hurriyet (Liberty), Milliyet (Nationality), Radikal (Radical),
Sabah (Morning), Star are from Turkish media. Correio da Manhã (Morning Post),
Destak, Diário de Notícias (Daily News), Expresso (Express), I (abbreviation for
information), Jornal de Notícias (Journal News), Oje, Público (Public) and Sol (Sun) are
from Portuguese media.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Information carries the meanings of “advice, introduction, getting news, newsmaking, and communication” (Yuksel, 2010: 11). Information is “data that is accurate
and timely, specific and organized for a purpose, presented within a context that gives
it meaning and relevance, and can lead to an increase in understanding and decrease
in uncertainty (www.businessdictionary.com). Communication can be described as
information sharing process in its simplest form (Coskun, 2011: 131). Especially news
making and communication concerning media, advertising and informing about a
product, an institution, a task or a service carries importance for this research. Media,
the plural of “medium” in Greek (http://tr.wikipedia.org/), refers to communication
channels through which news, entertainment, education, data, or promotional
messages are disseminated. Media includes every broadcasting and narrowcasting
medium such as newspapers, magazines, TV, radio, billboards, direct mail, telephone,
fax, and internet (www.businessdictionary.com). The internet is at the heart of the
digital age; it has facilitated the creation of a global network of computer networks,
which create the infrastructure for all online activity (Chadwick, 2012: 673). Enewspapers is the online version of printed newspapers. An interface of e-newspapers
is the space to arrange the writings and images of the news, the links of e-newspapers
content, and the items of the newspapers’ corporate identity. “Briefly an advertising
purposes to inform, to persuade, to make comparisons and to remind” (Taskin, 2012:
207). E-advertisement is an online advertisement that is realized on internet. The
online advertisements on e-newspapers are considered in the scope of this study.
Whether online or off, the main objective of advertising is to increase sales.
Advertising also aims to increase brand awareness. Advertising is based on the simple
economics of supply and demand. Advertisers aim to stimulate a consumer need and
then satisfy that need (http://www.saylor.org/books).
Increasing integration movements and technological developments have shortened
the distance between advertisements and customers. The advertisements carried on
the internet, are regarded as a new advertising channels and modern advertising
methods. “Today, the brand issue has spread to many areas such as the branding of
products, individuals, destinations even branding of countries” (Yilmaz, 2011: 1).
Kotler (2012: 37), in his book “Foundations of Marketing Today”, as on the current
119
situation of marketing today, indicates: "there are trends from mass marketing to
marketing for qualities, instead of operating only in traditional markets, entering on
the internet, from a single-channel marketing to multi-channel marketing". Companies
consider web sites as an additional power to develop basically their products
separately or to develop their brands totally. A guest that has entered to the web site
can get an idea about the company or brand within the view and ambiance of the web
site (Kotler, 2012: 97). In electronic commerce, sellers has the opportunity to
introduce and sell their products and services to the World, buyers can choose freely
among many products and services (Mankan, 2011: 87). As Mankan and Kotler
indicates, the electronic communication brings opportunities to the companies to reach
to consumers easily. When it comes to newspapers, e-newspapers publishing can be
more actual. As a breaking news takes place on internet website, on e-newspapers
page, the next day the news can take place on printed newspapers. The priting costs
are eliminated on e-newspapers publishing. When it comes to readers, they can read
all newspapers on virtual sphere easily. It is hard to buy all printed newspapers, but on
virtual sphere by clicking the e-newspapers addresses the e-newspapers can be read
easily.
Online media advertising is a wide range related to the connection to the internet
users surfing through pages on virtual sphere (newspapers, magazine, blog, social
media, etc). According to Sozeri and Guney, “When "media" is said, various activities such as news, advertisement, film, music, discussion program, arts, sport- come to
minds. If it is thought that all these activities are related to a society’s cultural and
intellectual world, the importance of media industry for modern society reveals (2011:
13). And Kotler cites about the importance of media choosing to reach to the
audience; “The media must be chosen for their ability to reach the target market costeffectively. Besides the classic media of newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and
billboards, there is a flurry of new media, including e-mail, faxes, telemarketers, digital
magazines, in-store advertising, and advertising now popping up in skyscraper
elevators and bathrooms. Media selection is becoming a major challenge” (2003: 4).
When it comes to advertising online, it becomes crucial to choose the right space for
advertising and the right kind of advertising for taking attention of the audience.
Internet is a huge empty sphere to build an structure of written and visual data. For an
aesthetic and accurate communication way, design principles carry importance on
designs on virtual sphere, too.
Advertising is an important issue for e-newspapers. As being a virtual sphere for
advertisements, e-newspapers are the media for advertising the trades that aim to
stay memorable, to remind their existence on markets to the customers and to
strengthen their relations with customers. “It is hard to collect in a single title of the
effects electronic commerce brought to economic life. Electronic commerce, affects
almost all areas of economic life and leads to big changes. However, some units of
business life are more affected by this change” (Mankan, 2011: 109). According to Er
and Ozden international advertising has dimensions including the entire environment
of a global company: The issues such as political environment, the media system,
culture, language, and ethics come into question (2011: 107). On this scale, enewspapers is an advertising media, but it has some difficulties for advertising. As a
general situation, perception process is very limited on virtual sphere that the internet
120
users spends a few seconds on pages to find the right data on e-newspapers. Aytemur
indicates that communication can be established only when a cooperation can be done
with the receiver (2000: 16). During the reading e-newspapers process, readers see
the advertisements located on the website. As much as the website design guide, an
advertisement or advertising area, location, size and other circumstances are so crucial
for being understood, perceived. For example some advertisements are located in
banners with images and slogans. But there are also video advertisements in some
newspapers. In this case, the sound comes into the advertisement ambiance. It is tried
to take readers’ attention by expanding their perception dimensions. “Advertising, has
no coercion of personal selling. Because advertising audience has supervisory powers
over advertising" (Coroglu, 2002: 23, 24). If the reader does not want to see the
advertising video, he can close it directly and go on reading the news. But the
advertisements oriented on perception by multiple senses strengthens the advertising
message and can make the brand remarkable by creating awareness.
SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS of E-NEWSPAPERS INTERFACES
The interfaces of newspapers have been captured for semiotic analysis in the scope
of this research. With this analysis it is aimed to see the first opening side of the
newspaper not the whole page but what is seen as soon as the page is opened. The
newspapers that have been chosen fort his study are Birgun (One day), Cumhuriyet
(Republic), Gazete Vatan (Newspapers Homeland), Haberturk (News Turc), Hurriyet
(Liberty), Milliyet (Nationality), Radikal (Radical), Sabah (Morning), Star from Turkish
media and Correio da Manhã (Morning Post), Destak, Diário de Notícias (Daily News),
Expresso (Express), Jornal de Notícias (Journal News), Oje, Público (Public) and Sol
(Sun) from Portuguese media.
Name of
E-newspapers
Birgun (One day)
Cumhuriyet (Republic)
Advertisements located in
the web interface
-
Qualifications of the
advertisement
121
-
City by city activity guide
Banner advertisement with one
image and slogan
Gazete Vatan (Newspapers Markafoni, Trendyol, Marjin
Banner
advertisements
of
Homeland)
shopping websites
Haberturk (News Turc)
Paraf, Kalekent
Banner advertisement of credit
card (Halkbank, Paraf), video
(Kalekent)
Hurriyet (Liberty)
Tchibo, Vestel
Banner advertisement and video
advertisement
Milliyet (Nationality)
1V1Y.com, Casper,
Unnado, Banner advertisement, video,
MNG cargo
Radikal (Radical)
Trendyol
Banner advertisement
Sabah (Morning)
Bedel (soap opera), Ziraat
Turkey Cup (sports)
Star
MT Oto Center, Akbank, Finspor,
Zekeriyaköy
Correio da Manhã (Morning Geziko, Cetelem (Credit), Correio
Mail)
da Manhã (Discount accessible
see store)
Destak
Grammarly
Diário de Notícias
News)
Expresso (Express)
(Daily Babil
Siemens
I
(abbreviation
for The Sims 4
Information)
Jornal de Notícias (Journal Jackpot, Barclays, 1V1Y.com
News)
Oje
-
Banner
Vidas)
advertisement
(Flash
Advertisement video
Advertisement video & banners
Advertisement
advertisement
-
video,
Público (Public)
Jumping Talent, The Homesman Banner advertisement
Sol (Sun)
Dhoze
Video advertisement
Table 1 Analysis of Turkish and Portuegese e-newspapers
Banner
122
Figure 1 Interfaces of Turkish E-Newspapers
Birgun e-newspaper does not include an advertisement. The images are located in
a grid system. The newspapers name is on a White background and it can easily been
read. The latest news image is bigger than the images on top because of hierarchical
system in the website design. The writers of articles, portrait photographs, names and
article names are written in a grid system, too. Birgun is a clear, easily perceptible enewspapers design.
Cumhuriyet (Republic) e-newspaper has only one advertisement, City by city
activity guide. This advertisement banner has taken a little place on top of the enewspaper. The logotype of Cumhuriyet is located on left side of the web page. The
titles of the e-newspapers contents are written with white on grey banner. There is a
slide for news and the image of the passing news takes place from left to right side of
the page. There are smaller images down of the page, too. As a general view, this
website is a clean and easily understood design. The images and writings, titles
slogans are not placed so closely. There is a hierarchical structure on this e-newspaper
web interface.
Gazete Vatan (Newspapers Homeland), has advertisement banners on right and top
side of the web page. These advertisements are arranged with google advertising. The
logo Vatan is smaller than the advertising logotypes. The slide is tight vertically and
there are three parts for news titles and images and these news are so closed to each
other with slogans, images and titles. The spacing element is not used carefully. The
news and advertising areas are so near to each other.
123
The interface of Haberturk (News Turc), has two advertisements (Paraf, Kalekent)
on top and on the right side. The daily, important news cannot be seen as the
webpage is first opened. The interface view is filled with titles, a few news images and
big areas for advertising. All links, images and advertising areas are so near to each
other. The space element is not sufficient for an easy reading.
Hurriyet (Liberty) has Tchibo, Vestel advertisements. Hurriyet logotype is located on
left top of the newspapers page with titles of newspapers contents. As the webpage of
Hurriyet is opened a daily crucial or important news title cannot be seen. The
advertisements are remarkable mostly. The magazine news banner takes attention
after the advertisements.
Milliyet (Nationality), includes 4 advertisements: 1V1Y.com, Casper, Unnado, MNG
cargo. The only news title can be seen is under the interface and the image cannot be
seen exactly. The advertisements take a large part of the interface. The logo is big
enough to be seen easily but on the first opening of the e-newspapers any news can
be seen. The advertisements are not related to each other. Thus, a disunited view is
seen on Milliyet e-newspapers page.
Radikal (Radical) has only Trendyol advertisement. The daily news are grouped on
a slide and can be chosen easily to be read. There are titles for the e-newspapers
content on top and on right side of the page. For the advertisement, only a small part
is given and this does not affect the e-newspapers composition. According to the
interests of news, a reader can easily find what to read.
Sabah (Morning) is like a TV webpage design due to the big part of the soap opera
advertisement. Sabah has two advertisements: Bedel (soap opera), Ziraat Turkey Cup
(sports). The soap opera advertisement has replaced instead of space element. No
matter what advertising takes place in a big area of an e-newspapers, the hierarchical
power of advertisement effects reading, finding the news, titles and images easily. The
page does not seem as a good composition. ıt is filled with different groups of data
and it is hard to read the news.
Star e-newspaper interface has 4 advertisements: MT Oto Center, Akbank, Finspor,
Zekeriyakoy. The e-newspapers interface of Star has different parts for both
advertising and news, too. The news images and slogans are located with a slide. But
the advertisements surround this part and there is no space between data. It is hard
to find the news, articles and other news data.
124
Figure 2 Interfaces of Portuguese E-Newspapers
125
Correio da Manhã (Morning Mail) has 3 advertisements on right side: Geziko,
Cetelem (Credit), Correio da Manhã (Discount accessible see store). This e-newspaper
has four lines on top colored differently but appropriate to each other and the logotype
of e-newspaper is place on red line. The advertisement is located by Google, according
to that the Turkish webpages can be seen. The other two advertising areas are located
by Portuguese advertisings. The daily news are shared by slides and it is on left side of
advertisements. As being on bottom of e-newspapers interface, the news can be easily
found and read.
Destak has advertisement (Grammarly) based on Google search, too. The
advertising is located on the right side of e-newspapers interface. The logo is placed
on a red line on top of the interface. The news articles titles and writers’ names,
images and other datas are placed on a white background and there is a space
between them. The e-newspapers can be read easily due to the well-composed
elements.
Diário de Notícias (Daily News) has only one advertisement on right side. This
advertising area is a small part of the e-newspaper and does not affect reading or
finding the news on website. The e-newspapers has three columns for organizing
news. The composition is done by considering design principles. There is a hierarchy to
find to read the news is easy. The data are separated by white space areas.
Expresso (Express) has a big area for video advertising (Siemens). The big banner
area includes video, writings and images. The logotype of the newspaper can be seen
blue easily on a blue line. Due to the big advertising area, the news cannot be seen as
soon as the e-newspaper page is opened. The data, titles, the images are located by
considering design principles. They are separated and are not so near to each other.
Jornal I (abbreviation for Information) is opened with a full screen advertisement of
The Sims 4. As the advertising window is closed the e-newspaper page is opened. The
Sims 4 advertising is located on a banner on right side of the newspaper. This enewspaper includes white, black, yellow and dark grey backgrounds. The yellow
background is effective for taking attention and the news are located hierarchically.
Jornal de Notícias (Journal News) e-newspapers interface is opened with Jackpot
advertisement window. When it is closed two more advertisements are located on the
website (Barclays, 1V1Y.com). The advertising on top takes more place, but it does not
affect the logotype of the newspapers, because it is located on top on a blue line. The
writings, titles and images are located with grid system and this is a positive way for
readability.
Oje does not have any advertisements and the e-newspapers web page design is
appropriate to graphic design principles. The data, titles are located by grid system
and they can be read easily. The space element is used effectively. The news are given
by large slides.
126
Publico (Public) logotype is placed on top, left side of the webpage on a dark red
line. There is two small advertising areas (Jumping Talent TV program, The
Homesman movie). Three columns are used to separate news data and all the writings
are readable due to the appropriate design standard.
Sol (Sun) has a video advertisement of Dhoze. The logotype of the newspapers is
located small sized on left top of the webpage. The background is black and between
news windows there is a few space and the webpage is not easily understood. The
lately news are given on a window and the writings are written on a white background
to be read easily. The windows are located in a grid system but this is not sufficient to
be understood for the news data.
CONCLUSION
With the purpose of exploring the relation between e-newspapers and the
advertisements on the interfaces of e-newspapers, the samples are analysed with
semiotic analyse. The e-newspapers Birgun has no advertisement on web interface,
Cumhuriyet from Turkish media, Oje and Publico from Portuguese media have the
least advertisement on web interface. In the study, considering design principles,
inspite of advertisement including, it is seen that Portuguese e-newspapers have more
legible and easily understood than Turkish E-newspapers web page designs in general.
On Turkish e-newspapers more images have been used than Portuguese enewspapers. Turkish e-newspapers interfaces has less space between images and
writings and this directly influences visual perception in a bad way. As a consequence
for Turkish newspapers, a newspapers interface is generally filled with advertisements
except a few e-newspapers. The website design for newspapers is not organised
completely with design principles. Advertisements are the most effective parts of enewspapers interfaces. It is hard to find an article, a detailed news area. The space
element is not considered. Some newspapers logotypes are smaller than advertising
logotypes. It is clear that Jurnal I has advertisements almost all over the web interface
like Sabah with advertisement of soap opera. As Jurnal de Noticias and Expresso are
opened, the video advertisement taking half of the web page starts to play. Sol enewspaper web design has a complex design because of having no space on the web
page.
It is a fact that virtual media such as e-newspapers have spaces on the web pages
for advertising companies and the incomes from advertising are crucial for media
institutions. However, it is a necessity that the web page designs requires to be
organized for the benefits of readers. A reader can exit from advertising video by
decision and clicking. However it becomes hard to find the news that is needed to be
read. A clear and easily perceptible website carries functions to be read easily and for
an e-newspaper the initial function is to be read easily.
Even though international websites are opened, national advertising banners in
accordance with the scanning data can take place on the page. In a foreign country’s
web page, the advertisements of a different country’s local company can be seen. This
is because of the newspaper’s using Google advertising system. When a person has
clicked some internet addresses, they are used as advertisements on the pages of enewspapers.
127
Honest, consistent, reliable advertising can easily use on web interfaces as the
sample of Turkish e-newspapers Cumhuriyet (Republic). The activity advertisement
take a small banner place and this situation of the advertisement does not affect the
news space, writings and images.
In the scope of this study, the interface views of e-newspapers on computers are
analyzed. In the next step, the investigation can be framed with the interface views of
e-newspapers on smart phones. By this way, the advertising on virtual media and enewspapers can be investigated more profoundly.
Social and cultural dynamics are significant factors for the advertising types in any
space. Especially in new media, the variables of readers (age, gender, education,
browsing locations), the advertisement clicks (number, the people chosen to see more
information about the advertisement), the duration of monitoring the advertisement
video need to be analyzed deeply for understanding the advertising issue on virtual
sphere.
128
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129
doi: 10.17349/jmc115207
P-ISSN: 2056-9785
E-ISSN: 2056 9793
[email protected]
INTERACTIVITY AND POLITICAL COMMUNICATION:
NEW MEDIA TOOLS AND THEIR IMPACT ON PUBLIC
POLITICAL COMMUNICATION
BURTON SPEAKMAN ∗
ABSTRACT
Based on the interactivity theory, this study examines relationships between people’s political
media commentary online and through traditional methods. Data from Pew Research Center (N=
2,253) shows that those who were actively participated in political discourse using traditional
methods were more likely to make statements on newspaper websites and using social media
about politics. Higher level of education also predicted participation in political communication in
the new media environment.
Keywords: Interactivity, Motivation, New Media, Traditional Media, Social Media
INTRODUCTION
Methods for news reporting and reception are changing with the audience no
longer are limited to consuming news (Carr, Barnidge, Lee, & Tsang, 2014; Scott,
Millard, & Leonard, 2014). There are more information sources and new means to
interact with information. Political communication online is an interesting niche market
because of its devotees. Enhanced connectivity and information availability have
transformed what people know and how they know it, because more information is
available now than any time in history (Flanagin & Metzger, 2008). The web has
altered the production and distribution of news content. Staffs at media companies
communicate in real-time with their audiences using social media, email, or online
commenting. Media companies have numerous opportunities to interact with their
audience. It is important to consider interactive tools are being both used by
consumers and diffused by the news industry.
The use of interactive features online has increased political involvement
(Kruikemeier, van Noort, Vliegenthart, & de Vreese, 2013). The question is are those
increases are among people already involved in politics or these interactive features
are attracting new involvement (Gibson & Cantijoch, 2013). Increased political
interaction online is particularly true for the younger audience; who are considered
∗
Graduate Student in the School of Communication at San Diego State University.
[email protected]
132
Interactivity and Political Communication: New Media Tools and their Impact on Public Political
Communication
politically apathetic (Vitak et al., 2011). Media companies can enhance interactivity
with measures such as providing opportunities for the public to communicate with
journalists, allowing the audience more control over comment forums, and making
participation as simple as possible to encourage interaction.
LITERATURE REVIEW
New communication technologies have redefined many concepts in mass
communication (Kiousis, 2002). The Internet shifted communication from traditional
one-way to multimodal model (Hoffman & Novak, 1996; Schultz, 2000). This leads to
interactivity theory, which is important because most online communication tools are
designed around interaction. Interactivity is often used synonymously with
communication on the web (McMillan & Hwang, 2002). Interactivity theory examines
people’s captivation with communication possibilities inherent in computer-mediated
groups, which could include sharing media content or social media posting (McMillan &
Hwang, 2002; Rafaeli & Sudweeks, 1997). Interactivity theory argues that increased
interaction between the audience and the media outlet leads to a more engaged
audience (Ha & James, 1998; Rafaeli & Sudweeks, 1998). The theory surmises that
frequent and positive interaction between journalists and their audience will benefit
coverage and increase audience participation and time spent on websites. It is further
assumed that the audience wants to interact with the communicator (Ha & James,
1998). Interactive communication methods offered online led to the development of
interactivity theory to discuss forms of computer-mediated communication (Hoffman &
Novak, 1996).
Interactivity has dramatically increased due to new web-based communication
channels (Kiousis, 2002). For example, Facebook, Twitter, and comment boards on
newspaper websites are new media channels through which people argue and discuss
political issues. Among these, Mitchell, Gottfried, Kiley, & Matsa (2014) found
Facebook to be the most significant social media to receive political news. Additionally,
75% of respondents to a Pew questionnaire of more than 2,000 adults used Facebook
for political commentary, compared to about 25% each for Twitter, Google Plus, and
LinkedIn (Mitchell, Gottfried, Kiley, & Matsa, 2014).
Social media helps diffuse news online and focuses on interaction. Increased
interaction on social media increases political engagement (Kushin & Yamamoto,
2010). In the same vein, Chan and Guo (2013) found online media consumption and
use of Facebook were significant factors in determining political activity among
American youth. Facebook and Twitter offer a place for young people to meet, discuss,
or plan political actions (Chan & Guo, 2013). Many politically active groups of young
people use social media to distribute political information (Jenkins & Carpentier, 2013).
Youth engage in political interactions online because these platforms offers greater
equality online because they find these platforms liberal and more open to their
comments compared to traditional offline organizations (Jenkins & Carpentier, 2013).
While not as popular, Twitter offers a way to receive, interact, and disseminate
news to other users while at the same time it creates a community among participants
133
(Hull & Lewis, 2014). Social media represents a technical advancement in interactivity.
The form has changed the way people receive and interact with media content. People
have no issue with seeing a news story on Facebook or Twitter, adding their own
comment, and retweeting or sharing the news with friends or followers. This is
because the structure of online interactions. Social media does not have the traditional
relationship of sender and receiver; everyone is one equal footing with the ability to do
both (Becker, Clement, & Schaedel, 2010). This is in opposition to most commercial
media sites where the audience is mostly a passive news recipient.
In spite of the development of interactive media tools online, questions remain
about their use. Online interactivity remains low, but those who use interactive
measures represent a growing minority (Chung & Nah, 2009; Larsson, 2011). Users
want interactive options available, they appreciate online interactivity more than they
use it, (Chung & Nah, 2009; Larsson, 2011). These interactions could include posting
on Facebook, tweeting stories, commenting on news articles, sharing articles, or a
variety of other options. Research has shown electronic participation in politics is
multidimensional, which indicates those who interact tend to do so in multiple ways
(Gibson & Cantijoch, 2013). In contrast, communicating through traditional means
includes phone calls, letters to the editor, or even mail correspondence.
Internet access is a necessity for political interaction online. Digital divide, caused
due to factors such as income, education, age, accessibility in some areas, and
excessive cost in other locations (Guillen & Suarez, 2006), restricts potential Internet
users from participating in political communication. Increased Internet use nationally
has helped to bridge the divide (Lilleker & Koc-Michalska, 2013). However, a segment
of the older population avoids the Internet for gratification reasons and remain
separated by choice (Lilleker & Koc-Michalska, 2013). When it comes to Generation Y
nearly everyone uses social media (Bolton, et al., 2014). Overall, social media are
increasing people’s ability to comment on news, and politics more specifically online.
Hypotheses
H1: Age will be positively related to political communication using traditional
methods such as letters to the editor or phone conversations that are not Internetbased.
Individuals who pay attention to politics and integrate information via the media
tend to know more about political issues and be more politically active (Kwak,
Williams, Wang, & Lee, 2005). Those who are politically active tend to consume more
media overall (Scheufele, 2002). Therefore I expect that those who are politically
active will be more likely to interact with the media. Interactivity theory argues that
identification with something, like a political cause or candidate, would be highly tied
to someone’s motivation to participate (Rafaeli & Ariel, 2008). Therefore based on the
theory those who comment on politics would so using the more interactive forms
offered by digital media.
H2: Higher levels of income will be positively related to commenting on online
stories or on social media.
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Communication
H3: Higher levels of education will be positively related to commenting on online
stories or on social media.
These hypotheses relate to interactivity theory using the concept of the digital
divide. Digital literacy skills are one of the most important factors in bridging the digital
divide at all levels of education (Peña-López, 2010). The younger population is digital
natives and therefore those who do not learn digital literacy skills fall further behind
(Smith, 2012). Technology alone does not turn students into digital natives, and
education is important (Smith, 2012). Income is also a factor. Those with lower
incomes are less likely to use online technology and therefore online interaction with
others is limited (Choi & DiNitto, 2013; Zhang, 2013). Countries that are more
developed have faster Internet diffusion and shorter lag times in the populace
developing Web skills (Zhang, 2013). Those with higher incomes have more interest
and efficacy in all types of online communication. In both cases these groups are more
likely to interact online simply because they are more likely to have access and use the
Internet to communicate with others. Those with higher incomes and education levels
tend to use the Internet in ways that help to protect their place in society (van
Deursen, van Dijk, & Peter, 2015). Their study showed an increasing number of people
using the web for interaction. It further found that both education and income levels
were statistically significant (van Deursen, van Dijk, & Peter, 2015).
H4: Those who comment about news stories online will also be the respondents
most likely to respond using traditional means.
People who are into political news tend to communicate their views making sure
that others know what they think (Ellis, 2014). The Internet is a key source for political
information (Kushin & Yamamoto, 2010). The emergences of interactive web sites
have facilitated, at least in part, the growth of online political behavior (Kushin &
Yamamoto, 2010).
H5: Age is negatively related to interacting with political news stories published on
the Internet.
The younger population best receives web-based political communication (Xenos &
Foot, 2008). For youth the least common methods of political participation were
writing a letter to a newspaper or writing an article for a magazine or newspaper
(Vitak et al., 2011). The most common were posting to a Facebook wall or a politically
oriented status message (Vitak et al., 2011). Overall activity that took less work was
most popular (Vitak et al., 2011). Online expression is simply easier for certain types of
tasks and discussions (Walther, 1996). The effects of online communication tools on
the political activity of the younger population were visible in the 2008 presidential
election (Bakker & de Vreese, 2011). In a study of college students, Kushin and
Yamamoto (2010) showed that online expression was significantly related to
situational political involvement. Since younger people are moving much of their
communication to online means interactivity theory would argue that they will
comment using the means with which they are most comfortable.
135
METHODS
This study uses a survey from the Pew Research Center as the primary source of
data. The instrument is part of a phone questionnaire conducted by the Princeton
Survey Research Associates International for Pew Research Center’s Internet &
American Life Project (Pew Research Center, 2013). There were 2,253 adults who
participated, including 900 who responded via cell phones; landline telephones were
used to contact the remaining respondents (Pew Research Center, 2013). Princeton
Survey Research Associates International conducted interviews between July 16, 2012
and Aug. 7, 2012; there was a 95% confidence interval (Pew Research Center, 2013).
Most questions had a sampling margin of error of 2%, Internet and social media
questions had a 3% error rate (Pew Research Center, 2013). Random dialing was used
to reach respondents (Pew Research Center, 2013).
This study included questions about age and commenting on politics using
traditional or new media methods. The first independent variable for this study is age,
which is an interval variable. The mean age is 52.62, the range was 79, and the
standard deviation is 19.52 (Pew Research Center, 2013). When looking at issues
involving the digital divide, it is also important to look at the variables of income and
education. Low income keeps a number of people from using the Internet with 34% of
those under 60, and 17% of those over 60 using the web (Choi & DiNitto, 2013).
Income as a variable helps to define the digital divide and is the most influential factor
that determines access to the Internet (Hilbert, 2010). Education is a significant factor
to someone’s use of the Internet for all people regardless of their skill level with the
web (van Deursen & van Dijk, 2010). Globally education is the most consistent
predictor of someone’s Internet use (van Deursen & van Dijk, 2010). Lower education
levels were significantly different in both the ability to complete online tasks and time
spent online (van Deursen & van Dijk, 2010).
The second independent variable traditional communication was operationally
defined as the answer represented Question 14 of the survey, “How often do you
discuss politics and public affairs with others in person, by phone call, or by letter?”
(Pew Research Center, 2013). The potential answers were every day, at least once a
week, at least once a month, never, don’t know, and refused, resulting in an ordinal
level scale (Pew Research Center, 2013). This question design showed how often
someone commented in person, by phone, or through a letter to another person about
politics and public affairs. There were 369 (16.4%) respondents who discuss politics
daily, 626 (27.8%) weekly, 416 (18.5%) monthly, 325 (14.4%) less than monthly, and
499 (%) never discuss politics (see table 1). There were 14 respondents who refused
to answer and 4 who stated they did not know.
The dependent variable operationally defined by Question 15, “How often do you
discuss politics and public affairs with others ONLINE – such as by e-mail, on a social
networking site or by text message? Would you say every day, at least once a week, at
least once a month, less than once a month, or never?” (Pew Research Center, 2013).
This is also an ordinal variable (Pew Research Center, 2013). The frequency table
showed that 110 respondents representing 5.7% used online techniques to comment
about politics and a combined 19% comment online at least one a week. There were
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Communication
56.3% of respondents, which represented 1090 people, who never comment about
politics online (see table 2). The figures must be viewed in relation to Pew studies over
time, which does show adoption of online commenting (Pew Research Center, 2013).
There were 5.7% of people who commented online daily with the remainder
commenting weekly or less frequently.
The operational definition independent variable of political activity was a combined
interval variable derived from combining the following questions about respondent
activities from the Pew dataset: attended a political rally or speech; attended an
organized protest of any kind; attended a political meeting on local, town or school
affairs; worked or volunteered for a political party or candidate; been an active
member of any group that tries to influence public policy or government, not including
a political party; worked with fellow citizens to solve a problem in your community.
This variable was created to indicate who was truly active in politics amongst the Pew
respondents.
FINDINGS
Spearman’s Rho correlations were used to determine relationships because the
variables are at the interval and ordinal levels. The correlation tests showed significant
results between several variables. In terms of demographic data both income and
education indicated moderate correlations between income and education and if
respondents commented on political issues using traditional means. There were weak
and very week correlations between those who comment about political issues online
and both income and education (see table 3). This relationship seems to predict that
individuals who discuss politics with others will do so regardless of how the
communication occurs. There was not a significant relationship between age and either
of the commenting variables, meaning that H1, Age will be positively related to
interpersonal communication and communication by mail or telephone, and H5, Age is
negatively related to interacting with political news stories published on the Internet
were not supported because the null cannot be rejected. This study seems to indicate
that age is not a factor.
The two hypothesis related to demographics are being considered together. H2,
which higher levels of income will be positively related to commenting on online stories
or on social media, was supported. The regression showed statistical significant
however it was a low level. H3 was supported both correlations and regressions
however both were also a low levels of support. When considering both H2 and H3 it
can be ascertained that while there is some effect of demographic variables that effect
is not large. Age and income combined represent just over 3% of the total variance
found.
These five factors predicted 32.3% of the variance related to a person’s willingness
to comment using new media tools (see table 4). The two behavior variables,
traditional political communication (β=.366, p<.05) and political interaction (β=.340,
p<.05). These findings show support for H4, which stated that those who comment
137
about news stories online are the respondents most likely to respond using traditional
communication tools.
Based on the results of the various statistical tests it is not possible to identify a
consistent relationship between all three of the variables. However, the adoption of
interactive media tools may simply be a matter of time, with more people participating
as time passes. Garrison noted “Adoption of new ideas, technologies, and practices
requires time in any social system even a small and highly focused professional system
such as journalism,” (2001, p. 221). Information technology reaches critical mass
representing widespread use much quicker in the interactive technologies associated
with the Internet compared to traditional ones (Garrison, 2001).
The digital divide factors were investigated using a linear regression analysis. To
avoid multicollinearity age, income, and education were separated from the behavioral
variables and examined separately. The concern was that as Weaver and Drew (2001)
showed behavioral factors such as political interaction and communication could create
a sizable influence suppressing the potential significance of digital divide variables (see
table 5). Removing this variable did not impact the results of age or income. The
overall regression predicted 4.2% of the variance. However education did become
significant (β.197, p<.001).
The digital divide must also be considered with certain segments of the population
not having the skills to participate in online interaction. While the van Deursen and Dijk
(2013) stated that those with lower incomes who have web access use the Internet
more often they do so in a more superficial manner. However, the most prominent
issue remains age in determining Internet use (van Deursen & Van Dijk, 2013). The
older population may eventually be forced to adopt new technologies as even
government entities transfer services online (Choudrie, Ghinea, & Songonuga, 2013).
The most important barrier at this point to older people using the web is a lack of
knowledge and/or skills (Choudrie, Ghinea, & Songonuga, 2013). This lack of
knowledge and skills does not appear to be a long-term concern as digital technology
becomes pervasive in society (Olphert & Damodaran, 2013). The results from this
study indicated that amongst the three demographic variables age was the least
related to someone’s willingness to comment online. Therefore while age might have
been a barrier at one time it now appears other factors such as income and education
are better correlated to divisions in online access studied by the concept of the digital
divide.
The results of this study appear to show that convergence is not limited to media
companies. The public is also practicing convergence. Those who comment using one
method seem willing or want to express their opinions in a number of different types
of forums. There apparently is little consideration if that interaction occurs in person or
online. Those who want to comment about politics seem to do so wherever they
interact with others. Interactivity theory would appear to state that because the
Internet is a superior method of communication for feedback and response more
people should comment online (Rafaeli & Sudweeks, 1998). However, the results of
this study indicate at this point that is not the case (Rafaeli & Sudweeks, 1998).
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Communication
DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION
After running the analysis of the data, there are a few relationships that appear to
exist between the three variables. The first those who are willing to comment on
politics seem to interact with people regardless of the form based upon the regression
finding. Therefore people are more willing to comment through face-to-face, mail, or
letters about political issues will also be willing to comment on news stories or on
social media about politics. This means that even with new technology that makes
interaction simpler there is a significant portion of the population that remains silent.
One issue that must be addressed is the more than 1,000 respondents do not interact
online at all with political communication. There are a number of potential motivations
that appear to be necessary for people to participate in online commentary. These
include building relationships, group attachment and expressing their identity (Wang &
Fesenmaier, 2003). Social connection is also a factor in if and how often people
interact online (Ledbetter et al., 2010). The fact that people cannot control everything
posted, i.e. the wall comments of others or other story comments, prevents some
people from participating online (Ledbetter et al., 2010). There is also the issue of
offline relationships influencing online ones because in solely online communities there
are more people who will not participate, while in the more active communities it
appears those involved have a traditional relationship as well (Matzat, 2010). Digital
literacy also plays a role, because even if someone is online their willingness to
become involved is impacted by his or her perceived level of digital literacy (Matzat,
2010).
Trends indicate more people are commenting online be through social media or
commenting on news stories on media websites. Between 2009 and 2012 there were
6% more people who used the Internet and Internet usage has risen by 37% since
2000 (Pew Research Center, 2013). In terms of using the Internet to get news there
are 43% more people accessing news online (Pew Research Center, 2013). Similarly
there are 29%more people who use the Internet to get political news since 2000 (Pew
Research Center, 2013). Finally the number of people who never use new media tools
to discuss politics online has fallen by 9% between 2008 and 2012 (Pew Research
Center, 2013). However, there is still more research needed in this area as the public
transition to new media technology. Internet usage and social media appear likely to
continue to increase in adoption rates.
Table 1. Use of traditional communication methods for political comments such as face-to-face,
phone, or mail. N= 2,253
Frequency
Percentage
Daily
Weekly
Monthly
369
16.4
626
27.8
416
18.5
Less than
monthly
325
14.4
Never
499
22.1
Table 2. Use Online techniques to comment on politics N= 1,937
Daily
Weekly
Monthly
Less
Never
than
monthly
Frequency
110
258
235
242
1090
Percentage 5.7
13.3
12.1
12.5
56.3
Don’t
Know
4
.2
Refused
Don’t
Know
Refused
0
0
2
.1
14
.6
139
Table 3. Spearman’s Rho correlations for age, traditional communication, online communication,
income, education, and political interactivity
Age
Traditional
Online
Income Education
Political
Activity
Age
1
Traditional
.018
1
Online
Income
Education
Political Interactivity
.039
.47**
1
.09**
.206**
.094**
1
.005
.328**
.200**
.356**
1
.114*
.288**
.424**
.117**
.035
1
*
Note: N = 2,253 for age and traditional, N = 1,937 for online
Potential responses for traditional and online were 1 = Every day, 2 = At least once a week, 3 =
At least once a month, 4 = Less than once a month, 5 = never, 8 = don’t know, 9 = refused.
Potential income answers were 1 = Less than $10,000, 2 = $10,000 to under $20,000, 3 =
$20,000 to under $30,000, 4 = $30,000 to under $40,000, 5 = $40,000 to under $50,000, 6 =
$50,000 to under $60,000, 7 = $60,000 to under $75,000, 8 = $75,000 to under $100,000, 9 =
$100,000 to under $150,000, 10 = $150,000 to under $250,000, 11 = $250,000 to under
$500,000, 12 = $500,000 or more, 13 = don’t know or refused.
Education responses were 1 = None, or grades 1-8, 2 = High school incomplete (grades 9-11), 3
= High school graduate (grade 12 or GED certificate), 4 = Technical, trade or vocational school
AFTER high school, 5 = Some college, no 4-year degree (includes associate degree), 6= College
graduate (B.S., B.A., or other 4-year degree), 7 = Post-graduate training/professional school
after college (toward a Masters/Ph.D., Law or Medical school), 8 = Don’t know, 9 = Refused.
* p < .05
* * p < .01
Other results are not significant
Table 4. Regression comparing five variables to how likely someone is to comment on politics
using new media tools. The independent variables were age, traditional communication tools
and political interaction.
Unstandardized B
SE
Beta
Age
.001
.002
.02
Income
-.003
.011
-.007
Education
-.022
.019
-.027
Traditional Political
.354
.022
.419
Communication **
Political Interaction
.523
.033
.340
**
R = .57, Adjusted R Square = .32, F = 154.40, d.f. 5, p < 01**
140
Communication
Table 5. Regression comparing 3 variables to how likely someone is to comment on politics
using new media tools. The independent variables were digital divide variables of age, income
and education.
Unstandardized B
SE
Beta
Age
003
.002
.040
Income
-.043
.013
-.093
Education
-.122
.022
-.150**
R = .208, Adjusted R Square = .042, F = 25.125, d.f. 3, p < .001**
141
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P-ISSN: 2056-9785
E-ISSN: 2056 9793
[email protected]
USES AND EFFECTS OF MYSPACE AMONG CHRISTIAN
TEENS AND YOUNG ADULT
MICHAEL S. JEFFRESS ∗
ABSTRACT
In 2008, MySpace was one of the world’s top Internet destinations. Behind only Google and
Yahoo in Internet traffic in America, it was the most popular social networking site (SNS) with
some 300,000 profiles being added daily. Although MySpace would soon be supplanted in the
SNS world by the likes of Facebook and Twitter, it still has over 50 million unique users each
month and over 300,000 video views monthly. Research performed during the period of its
height in popularity is still valuable not only for historical perspective, but also for what it
teaches about the habits of SNS users today. This study of the uses and effects of MySpace
among Christian teens and young adults (n = 242), computes four composite variables: a
Positive Effects Variable (PEV), a Negative Effects Variable (NEV), an Expressing Faith Variable
(EFV), and a Friends and Family Variable (FFV), in order to consider interaction effects among
various categories such as, age, gender, church attendance frequency, MySpace use experience
and frequency, number of MySpace friends, etc. The results provide important insights for those
who wish to maintain and promote a group identity through SNS platforms.
Keywords: MySpace, SNS, Social Networking Site, Computer Mediated Communication,
Religion, Group Identity
INTRODUCTION
According to Pew Internet survey findings (Lenhart & Madden, 2007b) over half of
all American adolescents between the ages of 12 and 17 had created a personal profile
on a social networking site (SNS) by 2007. Nearly half who had done so, visited an
SNS one or more times daily, and the one they chose to visit 85% of the time was
MySpace, before Facebook supplanted MySpace in global visitors in April 2008 and in
U.S. Internet traffic in May 2009 (Albanesius, 2009). The SNS for which Rupert
Murdoch paid $580 million in 2005, was the king of SNS’s until it reached its peak in
December 2008 (Gillette, 2011). Although, MySpace’s popularity has waned, it is
poised for a comeback. As of November 2014, MySpace boasted 50.6 million monthly
users, which amounts to a 575 percent increase since 2013, and it ranked 16th in
∗
Assistant Professor, Department of Mass Communication, Nicholls State University.
[email protected]
146
Uses and Effects of MySpace among Christian Teens and Young Adult
comScore’s Video Metrix by garnering 300 million video views during the same month
(Morrison, 2015).
At its height, MySpace received an estimated 110 million users each month (Stone,
2007) and accounted for “12 percent of all Internet minutes” (Levy, 2007). A check of
the Internet ranking site Alexa.com on December 10, 2007, revealed MySpace behind
only Google and Yahoo in traffic for the day in the United States and in sixth place
globally. While Facebook would soon leapfrog past MySpace, the latter was still
adding “an average of 320,000 new profiles every day” (Noguchi, 2006).
The rise of MySpace left religious organizations scrambling for how to react. It
became critical for churches, and in particular youth ministers, lay leaders and parents,
to understand how Christian teens and young adults use MySpace and its effects on
them. In her practical outline for using MySpace in youth ministry Peggy Kendall,
associate professor of communication at Bethel University, states it plainly,
Gaining a better understanding of MySpace and other social networking technology is
critical if we want both to understand young people and to protect them. Whether you
decide to use online social networking as part of your ministry or [not], it is important to
understand why and how kids use it. This is essential, because kids like it, use and
misuse it, think and dream about it, demonstrate great anguish when they can’t get on,
and probably aren’t going to tell you about it unless you ask. If you want to find out
how your students are feeling, who their friends are, what they do in their free time,
what they like, what they don’t like, and what hurts them deeply, I challenge you to sign
on (Kendall, 2007; pp. 23-24).
The current study on the uses and effects of MySpace on Christian teens and young
adults seeks to inform readers how they view and use MySpace in relation to their
faith. It provides descriptive data to show how Christian teens and young adults are
using MySpace and the effects they perceive it to be having on their faith. It engages
other general population studies on SNS’s in order to raise hypotheses about expected
comparisons or contrasts. It also discusses the opportunities MySpace presents for
religious organizations to promote their group identity and how well the results
indicate these prospects are being seized.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Much is publicized about the dangers floating around in cyberspace. One needs
only to recall MySpace’s highly publicized removal from its network of some 7,000
convicted sex offender profiles (Gordon, 2006) or the popular series of sting operations
to catch sexual predators showcased on NBC-TV’s Dateline. No one denies the
concerns for trust and privacy among SNS’s (Dwyer, Hiltz, & Passerini, 2007),
especially as it pertains to youth (Tynes, 2007), but youth are not the only vulnerable
ones. In a meticulously planned experiment researchers at Indiana University (Jagatic
et al., 2007) successfully phished a school SNS for personal data and then contacted
487 members of the network and got 72% of them to click on a harmless, bogus link,
which could just as easily have been a virus or worse. Others have done parallel tests
with similar alarming results (Ferguson, 2005).
In addition to the threats to personal security, a few studies on online
communication at the dawn of the new millennium argue that it displaces face-to-face
147
communication, even among friends and family, resulting in negative social and
psychological effects (Kraut et al., 1998; Nie, 2001; Morgan & Cotten, 2003). Kraut et
al.’s (2002) 3-year follow-up study, however, shows a dissipation of negative effects
and adds weight to the growing preponderance of research suggesting that, while the
dangers are no less hazardous, the benefits of SNS’s outweigh the risks.
Research indicates people are attracted to virtual communities, like MySpace, for
their potential to provide information, social support, friendship, and recreation
(Ridings & Gefen, 2004). Findings also suggest SNS’s offer positive effects for young
people’s well-being and social self-esteem (Bryant, Sanders-Jackson, & Smallwood,
2006; Valkenburg, Peter, Schouten, 2006).
These findings prompt our first
hypothesis:
H1: Christian teens and young adults will perceive that MySpace offers more
positive than negative effects on their faith.
As well as research that argues online interaction creates bonds as strong and
important to people as offline interaction with many of the same attributes
(Haythornthwaite et al., 2000; Haythornthwaite, 2005) and helps families and friends
stay connected and support each other from a distance (LaRose et al., 2001, Howard,
Rainie, & Jones, 2001), a strong case has been made that online communication does
not detract from but actually strengthens and enhances offline relationships (Kendall,
2002; Kavanaugh & Patterson, 2001; Bargh & McKenna, 2004; Kavanaugh et al., 2005,
Wellman, et. al., 2001). Studies show online communication often stimulates face-toface connectivity in everyday life (Wellman & Haythornthwaite, 2002).
Valkenburg & Peter (2007) put the stimulation versus displacement hypothesis to
the test in a sample of over 1,000 Dutch youth between 10 and 17 years of age who
use multiple forms of online communication and found the stimulation hypothesis
substantiated. In fact, people who first experience trouble forming relationships faceto-face are likely to form relationships online and bring them into their “real” world
(McKenna, Green, & Gleason, 2002). Examples abound of people who first meet
online and later develop intimate relationships (Wildermuth & Vogl-Bauer, 2007). 1
Furthermore, research suggests that for many people it is easier to express their
“true selves” online versus face-to-face, thus the physical relationship is strengthened
through the cyber sharing (Bargh, McKenna, & Fitzsimons, 2002).
SNS’s, such as MySpace, with their high user control features and multiplicity of
communication tools, e. g., e-mail, IM, photos, video, and music, offer many avenues
for people who already share an offline environment to extend and strengthen it, as
well as create new ones.
The following hypotheses are thus proposed:
1
This researcher is also a pastor, who, for example, has been involved with two weddings in
the past two years stemming from relationships first formed online.
148
H2: As an extension of their everyday lives, Christian teens and young adults will
express their Christian faith on MySpace.
H3: Christian teens and young adults will use MySpace to stay connected with
existing friends and family, and to a lesser extent to make new friends.
H4: Christian teens and young adults will say they use MySpace to flirt and explore
dating options.
H5: Christian teens and young adults will say they use MySpace because it is easier
for them to communicate there and share who they really are.
Research has only just begun to explore the worlds of the newest and increasingly
popular SNS’s: MySpace and Facebook. Ellison, Steinfield and Lampe (2007) examined
the benefits of Facebook for creating and boosting social capital among Michigan State
University students. Dwyer (2007) presented the findings of her small qualitative
study on MySpace and its usefulness for impression management to the 40th Hawaii
International Conference on System Sciences.
Two studies funded by the Pew Internet & American Life Project (PIALP) (Lenhart &
Madden, 2007a, 2007b) provide the best data on teens’ use of SNS’s to ascertain
general population habits for comparison with the present study. According to these
extensive studies, older teens, and particularly girls, are more likely to use SNS’s.
About two-thirds (66%) of teens restrict access to their profiles and 59% limit access
to friends they know. Almost half (48%) visit an SNS daily. Nine out of 10 (91%) use
SNS’s to communicate with people they see on a regular basis. Just under half (49%)
use SNS’s to make new friends. Only 17% say they use SNS’s to flirt, while 46% admit
to posting false information on their profiles. In light of these figures, an additional
hypothesis comes into view:
H6: Among Christian teens and young adults, females will visit MySpace more
frequently and for longer periods of time.
METHODOLOGY
During a doctoral seminar in the 2007 spring semester titled, “Media and the
Church,” a group decision was made to focus on the uses and effects MySpace on
Christian teens and young adults. Over the course of three weeks, the class met to
discuss possible approaches and developed questions for an online survey. The
outcome is 123 questions that measure general media uses (n = 2), general MySpace
uses and effects (n = 70), Christian MySpace uses and effects (n = 44), plus
demographics (n = 8). Participants were given the chance to provide their e-mail
address at the end of the survey for a chance to win a $50 iTunes gift card as a thank
you for their survey completion. The researcher and another colleague created the
survey using the online resource Survey Monkey. Class members were encouraged to
e-mail survey links to their contacts, and a link was posted on a university listserv to
invite subscribers to participate. One colleague offered extra credit to her college
students to take the survey resulting in some 25 submissions. Permission was also
granted by the principal of a local Christian school to give middle school and high
149
school students the opportunity to take the survey during an upcoming computer
class.
In addition to these efforts, MySpace itself was used to solicit responses. A
colleague created a MySpace profile for the class project titled, “Christians and
MySpace” (www.myspace.com/christians andmyspace) to generate interest in the
research by publicizing the question, “Please let us know about your experience with
MySpace,” and the survey link. Finally, a search of Christian groups within MySpace
was made and uncovered a large network called, “Christian Teens of MySpace.” The
MySpace group profile has over 90,000 friends on its list. The group was joined in
order to gain access to its discussion board, where a bulletin was posted announcing
the survey and providing the link. Colleagues divided up the first 500 members and
the last 500 members on the group list and contacted them through their MySpace emails with a short note about the survey and the link.
FINDINGS & DISCUSSION
These approaches resulted in a total of 452 survey submissions with 444 (98%)
completed. Two colleagues assisted with coding the open-ended questions. These
coded responses were inserted into the survey results’ spreadsheet, which was then
loaded into SPSS 15.0 for analysis. Since this study focuses on Christian teens and
young adults, the results of those who either did not respond to (n = 126) or
answered “no” when asked if they considered themselves to be Christian believers (n
= 27) as well as those who did not provide their age (n = 29) or were older than 30
years of age (n = 28) were eliminated. This results in a total sample of N = 242
Christian teens and young adults. This sample represents a broad demographic of
people who are heavy consumers of digital media and MySpace in particular. Tables 1
thru 3 illustrate that sample of Christian teens and young adults consists of over twothirds females, and 70% of the sample are ages 17 to 25. This is consistent with the
PIALP findings that older girls better represented in the MySpace world. This sample
has representatives from most major denominations, and one out of five says he or
she belongs to a non-denominational church, with 72% attending church one or more
times weekly.
More than 9 out of 10 say they frequently or more than frequently use the Internet.
Over half spend 3 to 6 hours daily on the Internet, with nearly half spending less than
1 hour on MySpace daily and most of the other half spending between 1 and 4 hours.
The vast majority spend less than 1 hour per visit to MySpace. Over 80% have a
personal profile on MySpace with a slight preference toward keeping their profiles
open to the public. Almost a third of the sample with profiles report having over 200
MySpace friends, while about one-fourth has less than 50.
Table 1. Christian Teen & Young Adult Demographics (N = 242)
Gender
Male
Female
31%
69%
Ethnicity:
Asian/
Asian American
African/Caribbean
Black/
4%
2%
Denomination
Assembly of God
Methodist
Catholic
Church of Christ/
7%
6%
5%
150
Table 1 (continued)
Age
11 to 13
12%
14 to 16
16%
17 to 19
26%
20 to 25
34%
26 to 30
12%
School
Public
16%
Private
22%
Home
3%
Missing
60%
African American
Hispanic/Latino
Caucasian
Other
Missing
Education
In middle school
In high school
High school grad.
Some college
College grad.
Graduate school
6%
6%
72%
7%
2
Christian Church
Non-denom.
Baptist
Others
Missing
Attendance
More than 1x/wk.
1x/wk.
Few times/mo.
1x/mo. or less
Christian holidays
Never
Missing
14%
24%
5%
34%
10%
13%
14%
20%
26%
20%
2%
40%
32%
12%
9%
4%
4%
0.4%
Table 2. Christian Teen & Young Adult Media Use
(n)
Never
(n)
Seldom
(n)
Occasionally
(n)
Frequently
(n)
More than
frequently
(%)
Frequently
or more
Television
5
35
65
101
36
57%
Radio
13
47
66
76
40
48%
Magazines
38
89
73
36
5
17%
Newspapers
58
102
50
27
1
12%
Video/PC games
64
66
51
35
26
25%
Laptop/Notebook
59
33
26
38
86
51%
Personal Computer
28
21
31
61
100
67%
I-Pod/Mp3 Player
68
29
37
62
46
45%
Cell Phone
18
8
23
79
113
79%
Internet
2
3
15
62
158
91%
Media type
Table 3. Christian Teen & Young Adults Internet & MySpace Use Descriptives
Time daily
daily on Internet
< 1 Hr.
1 to 2 hrs.
Time spent
Time spent per
Personal
daily on MySpace
visit to MySpace
9%
47%
72%
Yes
81%
22%
35%
21%
No
18%
3 to 4 hrs.
31%
14%
4%
5 to 6 hrs.
21%
1%
2%
7 to 8 hrs.
8%
1%
0.4%
profile?
(n) = 240
Type of profile
151
Table 3. Continued.
> 8 hrs.
7%
1%
0.4%
Private
37%
(n) = 238
(n) = 240
(n) = 239
Public
44%
Have both
3%
Time of day MySpace
# of
most often accessed
(n) = 207
MySpace friends
0-25
15%
26-50
9%
51-100
8%
6am-10am
5%
10am-2pm
10%
2pm-6pm
23%
6pm-10pm
45%
101-200
12%
10pm-2am
9%
201-300
24%
2am-6am
0.4%
(n) = 222
301+
(n) = 200
8%
Use frequency for
other SNS sites
Never
42%
Seldom
14%
Occasionally
22%
Frequently
22%
(n) = 240
Time had
personal profile
< 6 mos.
19%
6 mos to 1yr.
22%
1 to 2 yrs. 31%
2 to 4 yrs.
14%
(n) = 208
The amount of time users have had a MySpace profile is fairly evenly distributed
which indicates this sample includes people in various stages of development in the
MySpace world. Another interesting observation is that 44% of the sample report they
occasionally or frequently use other SNS’s in addition to MySpace. Among those SNS
multi-users, 82% (n = 92) mention Facebook when asked what other sites they use.
In light of these findings on demographics and MySpace use descriptives and
frequencies, a final hypothesis and one research question come into focus:
H7: Young Christian teens will be more likely to have a private MySpace profile and
those with public profiles will have higher numbers of MySpace friends.
RQ: In light of the diversity of the sample and the broad scope of the survey
questions, which survey items will load highest in terms of M and mode?
TESTING THE HYPOTHESES
This study asks Christian teens and young adults to respond to the statement in
Q78, “My experiences at MySpace have little to do with my Christian faith.” The
majority is either neutral (24%, n = 59), disagree (19%, n = 45) or strongly disagree
(26% n = 64). This indicates that, while some are not sure, more believe than do not,
some relationship exists between MySpace and faith. In order to test H1 to see
whether or not they perceive MySpace has more positive than negative effects on their
faith, two composite variables are created. A Positive Effects Variable (PEV) is
computed using 12 Likert scale (1 to 5) items measuring perceived positive effects.
152
PEV (n = 221) scores a strong reliability coefficient, a = .95. A composite Negative
Effects Variable (NEV) was also computed using 5 Likert scale (1-5) survey questions
addressing negative effects. NEV (n = 226) also scores high on reliability, a = .81.
Table 4 lists the questions comprising PEV and NEV together with individual M and SD
scores.
Table 4. Positive & Negative Effects Variables Individual Questions with M & SD
Positive Effects Variable (PEV)
Q96. My use of MySpace has caused me to become more involved with a local church, 1.9(1.1)
Q98. Because of my experiences at MySpace I read the Bible more often, 1.9(1.1)
Q99. My experiences at MySpace have made my Christian faith more real to me, 2.1(1.3)
Q100. Because of my use of MySpace I volunteer more at my church other Christian
Organizations, 1.8(1.0)
Q101. Because of my use of MySpace I now pray more often, 1.93(1.1)
Q102. My experiences at MySpace have strengthened my relationship with God, 2.1(1.2)
Q103. I have a greater understanding of the Bible because of my experiences at MySpace,
1.9(1.1)
Q104. Because of my experiences at MySpace I am a better person, 2.1(1.2)
Q105. I have a stronger relationship with my Christian friends because of MySpace, 2.5(1.4)
Q110. I contribute more to charitable causes because of my MySpace experiences, 1.7(0.9)
Q112. I better understand other religions because of my experiences at MySpace, 2.0(1.7)
Q114. My lifestyle is more Christ-like because of my MySpace experiences, 2.0(1.1)
Negative Effects Variable (NEV)
Q97. Sometimes I am ashamed of what I have done at MySpace, 1.7(1.1)
Q106. MySpace has weakened my Christian faith, 1.6(0.9)
Q108. I think my morals/values have declined because of my experiences at MySpace, 1.6(0.9)
Q113. MySpace has been more harmful to me than beneficial, 1.7(0.9)
Q116. My experiences at MySpace have made it harder for me to resist things I believe that are
wrong, 1.7(1.0)
For PEV, M = 23.9 SD = 11.2, min./max. = 12/58, and mode = 12. For NEV, M
=8.2, SD = 3.5, min./max. = 5/19, and mode = 5. On the surface these figures lead
one to suspect Christian teens and young adults perceive MySpace only minimally
affects their faith for good or bad. As noted above, Q78 indicates youth believe their
faith should be engaged at MySpace. So why do they not believe their faith is being
affected, especially in a positive direction? Could this be due to the fact that church
youth groups are not utilizing what MySpace has to offer them? This seems likely due
to the fact that a 55% (n = 133) either disagree or strongly disagree with Q76: “I am
part of a local church group that uses MySpace.”
While M and mode for both PEV and NEV are low, Statistical analysis uncovers
some interesting and highly significant relationships among them. Independentsamples T-Tests reveals ns variance between genders in terms of PEV, but for NEV,
F(2, 224) = 5.8, p < .01, with M = 9.21(3.9) for males and M = 7.73(3.2) for females
This indicates that, although both groups perceive low negative effects from MySpace,
females are more confident this is true. An ANOVA test reveals that age creates
153
significant variance both for PEV, F(4, 216) = 2.8, p < .05, and NEV, F(4, 221) = 3.84,
p < .01. Age is also negatively correlated to both PEV, r = -.18, p < .01, and NEV, r =
-.21, p = .001. An interesting pattern, which Table 5 illustrates, emerges here; a
parallel inverse relationship between M for PEV and NEV by Age develops through the
first four age intervals.
Table 5. M (SD, Min./Max.) of MySpace Effects Variables by Age*
______________________________________________________________________________
Age
PEV
NEV
PEV NEV
11-13
29.5 (15.3, 12/58) 9.7 (4.1, 5/17)
n = 19
22
14-16
26.9 (10.9, 12/54) 9.3 (4.0, 5/19)
37
37
17-19
23.2 (11.0, 12/54) 8.3 (3.7, 5/18)
60
59
20-25
21.6 (10.2, 12/56) 7.2 (2.8, 5/17)
77
78
26-30
23.7 (9.4, 12/43) 8.1 (3.0, 5/14)
28
30
This pattern raises interesting questions for further study to be discussed later.
Church attendance also impacts PEV and NEV.
The results of ANOVA for
PEV*Attendance are, F(6, 213) = 2.9, p < . 01. Whereas NEV*Attendance reveals no
significance through ANOVA, it does in correlation analysis together with PEV. Two
slight but significant negative correlations exist: PEV*Attendance, r = -25, p < .001,
and NEV*Attendance, r = -.13, p < .05. This suggests that as frequency of church
attendance increases not only do perceived positive effects from MySpace decrease,
but also the perceived negative effects decrease.
Furthermore, the amount of time spent daily on MySpace predictably affects
perceptions. ANOVA shows PEV*Time, F(5, 214) = 4.9, p < .001, and NEV*Time,
F(5, 219) = 2.3, p = .05. Correlation analysis reveals that, unlike church attendance’s
negative consequences, the amount of time spent on MySpace has a mild positive
correlation, PEV*Time, r = .23, p < .001, NEV*Time, r = .19, p <.01. This indicates
that the more time Christian teens and young adults spend on MySpace the more likely
they are to believe it positively affects their faith, and the perception of negative
effects goes down as well. H1 is, therefore, supported.
H2 predicts Christian teens and young adults will express their Christian faith on
MySpace. To test this, Q20 asks, “Do you express your Christian faith at your personal
MySpace site?” By a margin of 87% (n = 175) to 13% (n = 27), Christian teens and
young adults testify to sharing their faith on the MySpace profile. They are divided,
however, when it comes to sharing their faith on MySpace with people they do not
know (M = 3.0, SD = 1.4, n = 233) and are fairly sure they are not interested in
accepting friend invites from strangers in order to share faith with them (M = 2.62, SD
=1.3, n = 234).
In order to determine if, in fact, the 87% who claim in Q20 to express the faith
actually do, a composite Expressing Faith Variable (EFV) is formed using 10 Lickert
scale (1-5) items that test respondents on practical ways faith might be expressed at
MySpace. Table 6 presents the individual components of EFV.
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Table 6. Expressing Faith Variable (EFV) with (M, SD)
______________________________________________________________________________
Q74. I like to share my Christian faith in MySpace with people I do not know, 3.0(1.4)
Q75. When I communicate with my friends in MySpace we often talk about
the Christian faith, 2.7(1.3)
Q79. When I share music with others at MySpace it is usually Christian
Music, 2.6(1.5)
Q82. I use MySpace to discuss the Bible with others, 2.4(1.4)
Q84. I use MySpace to pray with others, 2.2(1.3)
Q85. I use MySpace to organize Christian events and activities, 2.2(1.2)
Q87. I like to use MySpace to express my Christian faith
through music, 2.7(1.5)
Q89. When I share videos at MySpace they usually have a Christian message, 2.1(1.2)
Q93. I sometimes accept invitations at MySpace from strangers to be a “friend” so I can
share my Christian faith with them, 1.9(1.2)
Q95. I use MySpace to express my Christian faith through art, 2.0(1.2)
For EFV, M = 23.9, SD = 10.1, min./max. = 10/49, n = 222, and on reliability, a =
.92. While the mode is lamentably 8.0, 44% (n = 103) of the sample score, M ≥ 20. 2
Neither gender nor age creates any significant difference in M for EFV. However,
significance does occur when tested against the number of MySpace friends
participants have, F(7, 181) = 3.0, p < .05. Those in the two lowest range of friend
number intervals, 0-25 and 26-50, score the highest average means, M = 22.3, SD =
7.7 , n = 35, and M = 23.5, SD = 6.8 n = 20, respectively. This may suggest those
with modest amounts of MySpace friends take their friends more seriously or else feel
they have a closer connection to express their faith with them.
When it comes to the likelihood that Christian teens and young adults will express
their faith on MySpace, church attendance plays an interesting role. ANOVA uncovers
that church attendance creates significant variance in EFV, F(6, 214) = 6.6, p <.001.
A bivariate analysis shows a modest and highly significant negative correlation (r = .39, p < .001) exists between EFV and attendance. Why does church attendance have
a negative effect on EFV? Is it possible that those who attend church more frequently
are being warned more about the dangers and so a negative association between faith
and MySpace develops? Or is it that as they spend more time with friends at church,
they go to MySpace as a means of escapism from church-like activities? This deserves
further study.
While the numbers are somewhat lackluster, H2 is supported by virtue of the fact
that 87% of the sample claims to express their faith. The M of EFV, however, is not
2
A higher M might have resulted if Q74 and Q93 had been better worded, “I like to share my
faith with non-Christians on MySpace” and “I sometimes accept friend invites from nonChristians so that I can share my faith with them.” Because the former statement reads
“…with people I do not know,” and the latter, “…invites from strangers,” non-Christian family,
friends, and acquaintances are not factored.
155
impressive. If such a majority says they express their faith on MySpace, why are the
scores for average means not higher on the variables that are conducive to expressing
faith on Myspace? This likely indicates that Christian teens and young adults are either
hot or cold about sharing their faith and this results in a lower M, or they consider
themselves to be expressing their Christian faith merely by selecting “Christian” in their
personal profile for the religious category. Either way, it seems churches need to do
more to encourage teens and young adults to make the most of MySpace’s
opportunities to express their faith.
H3 predicts that Christian teens and young adults will use MySpace to stay
connected to existing friends and family and to a lesser extent to make new friends.
To put this hypothesis to the test, six variables were transformed into a composite
Friends & Family Variable (FFV), M = 18.9, SD = 5.5, min./max. = 6/30, and mode =
21. Table 7 provides the list of the FFV items.
Table 7. Friends & Family Variable (FFV) with (M, SD)
______________________________________________________________________________
Q22. I use MySpace to talk to my closest friends, 3.8(1.2)
Q25. I use MySpace to feel connected with others, 3.1(1.4)
Q47. I use MySpace because friends comfort me there when I go through
difficult times, 2.0(1.2)
Q54. I use MySpace to look for friends with whom I’ve lost touch, 3.7(1.3)
Q66. I use MySpace to keep in touch with family members, 2.24(1.5)
Q81. I use MySpace to stay connected with my Christian friends, 3.4(1.4)
In the aforementioned PIALP studies of teens’ SNS’s use, findings show that girls
are more likely to use SNS’s “to reinforce pre-existing friendships, while for the boys…,
the networks provide opportunities for flirting and making new friends” (p. 1). This
study indicates that for Christian teens and young adults, females do score a
significantly higher mean on FFV, M = 19.6, SD = 5.1, versus males, M = 17.4, SD =
5.8; with F(2, 222) = 2.5, p < .01. In addition, age plays an even greater role, F(4,
219) = 4.0, p < .01. Teens ages 14 to 16 score highest, M = 25.3, SD = 3.9,
min./max. = 11/30. Neither Church attendance nor number of friends creates any
significant interaction effects. The amount of time that users spend daily on MySpace,
however, does, F(5, 217) = 7.4, p < .001. Correlation analysis brings to light a mild
and substantial positive relationship between daily use of MySpace and FFV, r = .28, p
< .001, especially through the first three time intervals. Table 8 demonstrates this
positive association.
Table 8. Daily MySpace Use and FFV Correlation
Hrs/daily
M
SD
<1
16.8
6.1
1 to 2
20.7
4.0
3-4
21.5
3.9
Min./Max
6/27
9/30
13/30
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The first half of the H3 is supported. Christian teens and young adults, particularly
females and younger teens, use MySpace to connect with existing friends and family.
The second half suggests that they will also use MySpace make new friends, which
PIALP finds males more predisposed. In order to test this part of H3, the responses to
Q43, “I use MySpace to make new friends,” are examined. For Q43, n = 235, M =
2.6, SD = 1.4, and the mode is 1. This indicates that Christian teens and young adults
are not eager to see MySpace as a place to make new friends.
An independent-samples T-test shows gender to play no role here. ANOVA tests
for Q43 with age, number of friends, and church attendance variables confirms no
significance either. Suspecting that those who are newer to MySpace might be more
likely to want to make new friends to populate their friend’s list, an ANOVA was
performed on this variable. This suspicion proves correct, as those with a personal
MySpace profile less than 6 months score a higher M (3.2) and lower SD (1.3), F(3,
201) = 2.8, p < .05.
Unlike the general population sample findings of PIALP, where 49% use MySpace
to make new friends, this sample of Christian teens and young adults indicates that
both males and females equally have minimal desire to make new friends through
MySpace. Less than 30% agree or strongly agree that they use MySpace to make new
friends, and these are more likely to be in their first few months of MySpace use. This
perhaps indicates their parents and church leaders, together with the amount of press
devoted to online predators, have reinforced the old adage, “Don’t talk to strangers,”
to them for the virtual world. It also supports other studies that indicate people use
SNS’s primarily to interact with existing friends and family. H3 is, therefore, validated.
H4 suggests that if behaviors in SNS tend to mirror and reinforce those in offline
communities, then it stands to reason that even Christian teens and young adults will
flirt and explore dating opportunities within their MySpace network. Table 8 displays
the two straightforward questions in this study and their results, which provide data
for an answer.
Table 9. Flirting and Dating on MySpace
Q38. I use MySpace to find
people I might date
M
Gender: Male (n = 73)
2.0
Female (n = 161)
1.3
Age:
ns
Q68. I use MySpace to flirt.
Gender: Male (n = 70)
1.9
Female (n = 163)
Age:
11-13 (n = 25)
14-16 (n = 37)
17-19 (n = 60)
20-25(n = 81)
SD
Min./Max
n/a
n/a
1.2
0.7
1.1
1.5
2.2
2.2
1.3
1.3
n/a
1.0
1.5
1.4
.78
.69
n/a
1/5
1/5
1/5
1/5
157
While the means are surprisingly low, the PIALP conclusion that boys are more
likely to use SNS’s for flirting finds support among this Christian sample. T-tests show
significant interaction for gender both at Q38, F(1, 232) = 4.2, p < .05 and especially
Q68, F(1, 232) = 41.6, p < .001. In addition Q38 has strong variance when an
ANOVA is performed against age, F(4, 228) = 8.3, p < .001. A univariate ANOVA,
furthermore brings significant interaction effects when gender and age are combined
in a 2 x 5 factorial model with Q68. In this design, the main effect of age is
significant, F(4, 223) = 7.6, p < .001. The main effect of gender is borderline
significant (p = .06) and F (1, 223) = 3.5, and age*gender yields F(4, 223) = 4.3p <
.01. The same design setup with Q38 brings significance only at the main effect of
gender, F (1, 224) = 23.2, p < .001.
These findings do not reveal Christian teens and young adults are gung ho to use
MySpace to find dates and to flirt. It is clear that young boys are far more likely to be
tempted to use MySpace to flirt, and males in general are more open to finding a date
on MySpace. As it stands, however, with over 80% either disagreeing or strongly
disagreeing with Q38 and Q68, H4 must be rejected. 3
H5 hypothesizes that Christian teens and young adults will say they use MySpace
because it is easier for them to communicate there and share who they really are. To
check the first part of H5, Q50 gauges agreement level with the statement, “I use
MySpace because it is easier for me to communicate there.” 4 For the second part of
H5, Q45 sets forth, “I use MySpace to let people know who I really am.” The fact that
both questions score a mode of 1 casts serious doubt on H5. For Q50, n = 233, M =
2.6, and SD = 1.3. For Q45, n = 234, M = 2.5, and SD = 1.3. In each case about half
either disagree or strongly disagree with the statements (Q50, n = 110, Q45, n = 117)
and 25% are neutral (Q50, n = 59, Q45, n = 59). While these figures seem to dismiss
H5, further examination uncovers a few noteworthy points.
ANOVA reveals age bears influence on Q50, F(4, 228) = 2.5, p < .05, and Q 45,
F(4, 229) = 2.6, p < .05. Teens ages 14 to 16 score the highest means between
groups with M = 3.0, SD = 1.3, for Q50, and M = 2.8, SD = 1.2, on Q45.
Furthermore, the amount of daily MySpace use creates significant variance for both
Q50, F(5, 226) = 9.4, p < .001, and Q45, F(5, 227) = 5.9, p < .001. Time spent daily
on MySpace is mildly correlated positively to the belief that it is easier to communicate
there, r = .20, p < .01 and the propensity to share who one really is, r = .27, p <
.001.
3
Poor wording at Q38 and Q68 likely contribute to the low scores. Had Q38 better stated, “I
use MySpace to increase my chances for dates,” or “I use MySpace to communicate with
people I might date,” and had Q68 better stated, “I use MySpace to flirt with my friends,” then
scores and perhaps even some of the interaction effects would possibly be different.
4
The question arises, easier for them to communicate there than where or how else? Some
respondents might be thinking here about face-to-face while others of different digital media
devices and platforms. Because other questions contrasted online actions with offline, the
assumption is they had in mind the latter, but this is uncertain.
158
This suggests that while Christian teens and young adults typically do not believe it
is easier for them to communicate on MySpace or to be open about who they really
are, teens 14 to 16 share this conviction not quite as strongly as others, and for all age
groups time spent each day using MySpace is a mitigating factor. For now, however,
based on this sample and results, H5 is rejected.
H6 suggests that among Christian teens and young adults, females visit MySpace
more frequently and for longer periods of time. To test this hypothesis, a Chi-square
was performed to look for interdependence between gender and Q3, “Approximately
how many hours each day do you use MySpace?” and Q6, “Approximately how many
hours do you use MySpace each time you go there?” The results were unimpressive.
For Q3, Chi-square (5) = 4.5, p = .47 (2-sided), and for Q6, Chi-square (5) = 2.8, p =
.73 (2-sided). Gender clearly plays no role in terms of how often and long MySpace is
accessed among Christian teens and young adults. H6 does not find support.
Although the amount of time spent on MySpace among Christian teens and young
adults does not vary significantly between genders, it does between age groups. For
Q3*Age, Chi-square (20) = 29.8, p < .05 (1-sided), and for Q6*Age, Chi-square (20)
= 32.5, p < .05 (2-sided). Table 10 presents these results and shows the frequencies
of MySpace use for the top two categories distributed by age.
Table 10. MySpace Use by Age
11-13yrs
14-16yrs
17-19yrs
20-25yrs
26-30yrs
Use/per day
< 1 hr/day
1-2 hrs/day
59%
22%
26%
47%
40%
44%
54%
33%
60%
20%
n=27
n=38
n=62
n=83
n=30
81%
15%
53%
39%
66%
28%
82%
12%
77%
17%
n=27
n=38
n=61
n=83
n=30
Time/per use
< 1 hr/use
1-2 hrs/use
These results indicate that the youngest Christian MySpace users are primarily
logging on for less than an hour and most likely that is consumed in just one use. The
middle and late teens are far more likely to use MySpace for up to 2 hours daily and
since the majority say each time they use MySpace it is for less than an hour, this
indicates they are more frequently logging on to MySpace. Older young adults reflect
the adolescent’s patterns of use with their daily use matching their daily time per use.
H7 postulates that out of concern for protecting their private information and
guarding against morally objectionable communications, young Christian teens will be
more likely to have a private MySpace profile and those with public profiles will have
higher numbers of MySpace friends. As noted in Table 1, 38% (n = 91) of Christian
teens and young adults have a private profiles and 44% (n = 107) have public profiles.
Six percent (n = 6) claim to have both a public and private profile. Chi-square tests
produce significant findings for Q13*Age, Chi-Square (8) = 13.5, p = .05 (1-sided),
and for Q13*Number of Friends, Chi-square (14) = 38.7, p < .001 (2-sided). Table 10
159
shows the impact of age on profile type, which as predicted, shows that as age
increases, the likelihood that the profile setting becomes public increases.
Table 11. Profile Setting by Age
Setting
11-13yrs
14-16yrs
Private
71%
60%
Public
29%
40%
n = 17
n = 37
17-19yrs
41%
59%
n = 56
20-25yrs
26-30yrs
37%
33%
63%
67%
n = 67
n = 27
An unexpected development, however, transpires upon closer examination of
Q13*Number of Friends. One expects to find those with public profiles having the
highest friend counts due to the fact that their profiles can be freely accessed. As
Table 12 sets forth, the Chi-square results indicate that this is true up to a point, but
the gap closes once the friends’ list passes 200. Among Christian teens and young
adults with 300 or more friends at MySpace, the probability that their profiles are
private is greater.
Table 12. Profile Setting by Number of Friends 5
Setting
0-25
26-50
51-75
76-100
101-200
201-300
301+
Private
36%
38%
47%
43%
47%
50%
59%
Public
64%
62%
53%
57%
53%
50%
41%
(n = 36)
(n = 21)
(n = 19)
(n = 28)
(n = 58)
(n = 20)
(n = 17)
These results seem to support H7 generally, but further research should examine
the relationship between public and private profile settings with uncommonly large
friends’ lists.
A final research question comes to focus now, in light of the fact that the survey
instrument is so large, measuring up to 143 inputs from respondents on 125 questions
that span multiple facets of MySpace uses and effects, which survey items will score
the highest means and modes? Table 12 gives a snapshot of the highest loading
factors.
5
The total sample for this test is n = 200. Each interval except for the fourth and sixth has one
response for both profile settings. These responses were factored in with the public setting
totals, since they do not reflect a strong preference for private only. One response in the both
category was unclassifiable and excluded.
160
Table 13. Highest Loading Survey Items in terms of M, SD & Mode
Survey item
Q22. I use MySpace to talk with my closest friends
Q54. I use MySpace to look for friends with whom I’ve lost touch
Q24. I use MySpace to feel connected with others
Q27. I use MySpace to share information with others
Q58. I use MySpace to share photographs with others
Q60. I use MySpace because I enjoy interacting through e-mail or IM
Q81. I use MySpace to stay connected to my Christian friends
Q74. I like to share my faith in MySpace with people I do no know
Q90. I often interact with others at MySpace whose religious beliefs
are different than mine
M
3.8
3.7
3.1
3.1
3.0
3.1
3.4
3.0
SD
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.3
1.4
1.3
1.4
1.4
Mode
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
3
2.7
1.4
3
Interestingly the modes for every question beyond the nine reported in Table 13
score the lowest possible mode (n = 1). This only exacerbates the significance of
these nine items. All but Q74 and Q90 point to a preference of using MySpace to
connect, communicate, and share information and pictures with existing friends. The
fact that Q74 scores high is surprising since the general results related to EFV were
weak, and Q90 suggests church leaders and parents need to make every effort to
prepare their children for the diverse and sometimes confusing voices calling out to
them in MySpace. This need only grows stronger when one factors in Gross, Juvonen,
& Gable’s (2002) study of 7th graders IM use, which reveals that whom adolescents
engage in online communication determines the effect it has on them and those with
“social discomfort or detachment” are more likely to turn to online communication for
comfort (p. 87).
CONCLUSION
Christian teens and young adults claim they express their faith on MySpace. The
majority believes their MySpace involvement should be related to their faith, but they
do not see MySpace impacting their faith strongly in any way. Despite this fact, a
positive relationship exists between how often they use MySpace and PEV. Age proves
to be negatively related both to PEV and NEV. This is good on the latter, because as
Christian MySpace users age and mature one hopes they will perceive, and actually
experience, less negative effects. However, the former is disappointing. One prefers
to think with age and development more positive effects would be perceived and
experienced. The fact that this is not the case and that the frequency of church
attendance shows to be negatively correlated to EFV indicates that church leaders and
parents are behind the curve on MySpace. They need to educate themselves not only
on the dangers, but also on the many possibilities MySpace affords for expressing and
strengthening faith. Absolutely, the number of those who say they are not involved in
a church group on MySpace needs to drop sharply from the current level of 55%.
On a positive note, Christian teens and young adults strongly believe that MySpace
helps them connect with others and strengthens their existing relationships with family
and friends. This is especially true for girls and those ages 14 to 16. While they seem
less likely than the general population to desire to use MySpace to establish new
161
friendships, they do express that they are open to share their faith in MySpace with
people they do not know and to interact with those who have different religious
beliefs. Church leaders and parents need to explore how they can safely equip and
encourage their teens and young adults to use MySpace as an evangelistic platform.
This study reveals, surprisingly, that Christian teens and young adults do not care
much to engage in flirting or seeking out dates through MySpace. While it is
suggested that these results might be skewed by wording that does not specify
“friends” as the objects of their flirtations and dating explorations, they do clearly show
a stronger predisposition among younger boys. With this in mind, church leaders and
parents, would do wise to offer instruction and counsel for young boys on appropriate
online propositions to the opposite sex and help their young ladies to know how to
process them.
Older Christian teens and young adults are less likely to say they use MySpace
because it is easier for them to communicate there and share who they really are.
Younger teens, ages 14 to 16, however, are more likely to say this is true, and the
more time they spend on MySpace the more this belief is reinforced. This suggests
that Church leaders and parents should focus resources to better equip and provide
opportunities for this group to share face to face communication. Also, because this
age group seems most enthusiastic about their MySpace use, extra caution must be
stressed to protect their privacy and security, while at the same time highlighting the
positive opportunities that exist when MySpace is viewed and used in a healthy way.
The majority of young Christian teens keep their MySpace profiles private until they
reach age 17. This is positive because it helps safeguard, though not completely,
Christian MySpace users when they are at their most vulnerable state. Interestingly
enough, among this study sample, the majority of those with the highest level of
friends have private profiles. This mitigates against complaints that might arise from
younger users that having to keep their profile private keeps them from having as
many friends.
One final observation that has been reserved for the conclusion that some
observant readers may have realized is this: in order to have a MySpace profile users
must testify that they are at least 14 years old. This sample of Christian teens and
young adults, however, includes 11% (n = 27) between ages 11 and 13 who say they
have a MySpace profile. What should the churches response be to this? Is this any
worse than teens and young adults who over exaggerate their age in order to try to
avoid niche-marketed advertising that for the age groups under consideration can
contain images and products deemed objectionable? Due to the fact that MySpace is
so popular and those within the 11 to 13 age groups feel much pressure and
temptation to join, Christian groups could perhaps petition MySpace executives to
create a related MySpace site for this age group that could carry the desirable
MySpace brand and also allow for possible parent-approved networking to older family
or friends on the already existing network.
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This research has provided helpful data that can be utilized by churches and
parents to consider what they are or are not doing to help nurture their kids’ religious
identity in SNS environments and encourage them to express it openly through their
SNS use. It also showcases the need for more studies to build upon and expand these
findings. For example, a survey of Christian parents and youth ministers would
provide a treasure of information to compare with the current study. Furthermore, the
items listed in Table 13 could each be developed into studies that could reveal why
these are so valued and how they can be better utilized for nurturing and expressing
Christian faith on MySpace.
163
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doi: 10.17349/jmc115209
P-ISSN: 2056-9785
E-ISSN: 2056 9793
[email protected]
A NARRATIVE CRITICISM OF LIFESTYLE REALITY
PROGRAMS
TRAVIS LOOF ∗
ABSTRACT
This article seeks to understand and explain the relationship between lifestyle reality
television programs and consumers. Specifically, this article outlines this relationship from a
critical narrative perspective by interrogating two common story structures within lifestyle reality
programming. By analyzing these narratives, conclusions are drawn about the role of story in
consumer behavior. Additionally, this article argues that through the combination of the
rhetorical situation of the housing collapse and narrative storytelling, consumers are taught how
to perceive and interact when considering the purchase of a house. Finally, this article
synthesizes Social Cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) in conjunction with Narrative theory (Fisher,
1984) to explore how rhetorical criticism can use social science to better understand lived,
mediated, experience.
Keywords: Lifestyle reality television, consumer, narrative, narrative theory, interdisciplinary,
reality television, housing collapse
INTRODUCTION
Television provides an insight for viewers into various worlds both imagined and
real. These worlds are explained through stories that connect to the viewer. According
to Fisher (1984), these stories are the most fundamental form of communication,
which he calls narratives. The narrative paradigm simply describes ways that stories
are used to construct ideological ideals and promote certain worldviews. This paradigm
can be applied to a variety of media. In this essay I will apply the narrative paradigm
to reality television, focusing on two lifestyle reality television programs, House
Hunters and Love It or List It.
The recent proliferation of reality television continues the narrative tradition of
providing stories that humans use to make sense of the world around them. However,
finding one definition of what constitutes reality television is a tedious task. Reality
television as defined by Cavender and Fishman (1998) is distinguished by programs
that “claim to present reality” (p. 3). This particular definition fits well into Fisher’s
(1984) conception of narratives needing fidelity and probability. Potter et al. (1997)
∗
Texas Tech University. [email protected]
168
offers a broader definition of reality television to include local and national news,
broadcast news, magazines, talk and interview shows, and nonfiction narrative
programs. These definitions, although inclusive, provide little by way of refining the
definition for reality television. More recently a more refined definition of reality based
television programs is offered by Nabi, Biely, Morgan, and Stitt (2003) by stating that
reality based televisions programs are “Programs that film real people as they live out
events (contrived or otherwise) in their lives, as these events occur” (p. 304). Further
developing their definition, Nabi et al. (2003), also explain key elements of a reality
based television program: (a) people portraying themselves (b) filmed at least in part
in their living or working environment rather than on a set, (c) without a script, (d)
with events placed in a narrative context, (e) for the primary purpose of viewer
entertainment.
However, having a clear definition of what reality television is only provides a
definition of the genre without defining the subject of this essay, lifestyle reality
programs. Everett (2004) offers the definition of the sub-genre “transformation TV” to
categorize television shows that depict real people partaking in do-it yourself projects.
This sub-genre will be the focus of this essay. Lifestyle reality television programs help
shape the way we see the world around us by portraying the ideologies of
consumption in a narrative form.
ARTIFACTS
This essay will attempt to understand how lifestyle reality television programs
encourage audiences to perceive the experience of purchasing a house and the
housing market, further reinforcing the ideals of consumption. Specifically this essay
will analyze the television programs Love It or List It and House Hunters. Additionally,
this article will take the unique perspective to understand these cultural artifacts by
utilizing both a rhetorical narrative analysis and the application of a theoretical
framework derived from social cognitive theory. The use of these two distinct
frameworks allows for critical analysis of reality television from multiple perspectives,
from the individual (social cognitive) to the societal (narrative). In order to accomplish
this task, I will first provide a description of each program and its context.
House Hunters is a 22-minute reality television show that first premiered in 1997.
The program follows potential homebuyers in their struggle to find the perfect home.
Each episode follows the homebuyers as they look at three different homes, one of
which they will ultimately purchase. An omniscient narrator provides a detailed review
and drums up speculation about each house. Each episode follows a strict formula by
which a narrative is constructed. A standard episode will first introduce the potential
homebuyers by providing detailed background information, helping the audience
understand that these are “good and normal” people. The program will then
introduces the realtor who will provide expert insight into the purchase of a home as
well as giving the audience a short and to the point synopsis of the housing market in
that particular area. The program then introduces a series of houses that will act as
the antagonist in the narrative.
The house hunters are then given a tour of the houses. During the tour the hunters
will openly discuss the features they like and dislike. After each of the homes has been
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examined, the realtor and the house hunters will discuss the pros and cons of the
home. In a final segment the potential homebuyers discuss which home they should
purchase. After the selection has been made and the home is purchased, cameras are
invited back to the location after a period of time to show how the house hunters have
become acclimated to the property. Although simple, this effective method of
storytelling allows audiences to experience the drama of purchasing a house while
maintaining suspense in the mind of the audience by not revealing the outcome until
the very end. Additionally, the program cultivates attitudes within the audience about
what is desirable in a home and what is wrong/bad in a house.
The second program that this essay will attempt to analyze is Love It or List It.
Love It or List It is a popular Canadian reality television program that has recently
been syndicated on HGTV (Home and Garden television). The program follows two
hosts and a family (a new family is selected for each episode) as the family tries to
determine if they should love their current home or purchase a new house with the
help of the hosts. One of the hosts of the show is named Hillary. Hillary is an interior
designer who tries to convince the episode’s family to love the current house they live
in by completing extensive renovations. The second host is David. David is a realtor
who attempts to persuade the family to list their current house in favor of a different
property, which David has selected for them. In order to assist Hillary and David, the
family provides a list of must haves. These lists are the criteria that the family will use
to decide whether they should love their current home or list it. In order to understand
how these programs shape and cultivate attitudes, I will first analyze the rhetorical
situation in which the narrative functions within.
RATIONALE
Lifestyle shows such as House Hunters and Love It or List It occupy a valuable
position in the minds of many of its viewers. In particular, lifestyle and transformation
television provide more than mere entertainment but rather they provide a coaching or
education for their audiences. One reason coaching is utilized within lifestyle
programming could be that television content is geared to aggregate audiences to sell
to advertisers. Indeed a preview of any of the programming discussed within this
essay will surely find advertisements for various household improvement projects.
Coaching the audiences to recognize the needs or perceived needs of the characters
within the narrative are essential to the consumption behaviors of potential viewers.
Although advertising has an embedded incentive for the coaching of attitudes, an
examination of the rhetorical situation may provide a deeper understanding of how the
narrative functions within the ideology of consumption at large.
RHETORICAL SITUATION
The reason I argue that lifestyle programs are so prevalent is because they act as a
reaction to the rhetorical situation in which the housing bubble burst in 2006 that
avalanched into what would become a global recession. Lim (2008) explains that in the
lead up to housing bubble, bankers and middle class families saw a direct benefits
from “unsustainable“ mortgage lending practices. Bankers made millions and low to
middle class families benefitted from minimal down payments. In Lim’s (2008) analogy
he declares that the “party” was harshly cut short, resulting in a loss of millions of
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dollars. For decades, home ownership was seen as part of achieving the American
dream. When crafty and sometimes questionable mortgage policies came about, this
opportunity or “party” was expanded to even more people. Lim (2008) explains how
just prior to the housing bubble the American dream of owning a new home was
advanced at nearly an unprecedented level:
Many large housing developers aggressively pushed mortgages to borrowers in
order to boost sales. For example, Pulte Home (the country’s largest developer by
market capitalization) provided mortgages for 90% of the houses they built. These
new players have neither the credit skills nor the interest to conduct proper due
diligence of potential homebuyers. Their interest is in pushing out the houses as fast
as they are built. (p. 3)
The American dream, which was house ownership, only lasted as long as the
money existed. As soon as the aggressive mortgage loan rates began to keep pace
with the market, these exotic loans began to show a much darker side, ultimately
resulting in detrimental outcomes such as “In 2006, 1.2 million household loans were
foreclosed, up 42% from the previous year” (Lim, 2008). It is within this rhetorical
situation that lifestyle programs were/are building an attitude towards a new type of
relationships with homes. For instance, larger home improvement chains have seen a
very specific attitude become prevalent, “When you can't sell, repair and maintain
instead. That seems to be what's happening in the troubled housing market…
Executives at home-improvement retailers are finding consumers continuing to take on
smaller, discretionary projects” (Zmuda, 2011). The reaction by viewers to the housing
market crash has created a new way in which we talk about housing, but in particular
it has changed how we engage in home improvement and lifestyle reality
entertainment. From a theoretical perspective, the prominence of House Hunters and
Love It or List It can be explained by social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986).
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Social cognitive theory posits that people learn from one another. Recent work with
media has shown that viewers can also learn from on-screen figures. Nabi (2009)
corroborates this point, “That is, by observing others’ behaviors, including media
figures, one may develop rules to guide subsequent actions and/or be prompted to
engage in previously learned behavior” (p. 11). However, observational learning within
television reality has only been studied within the context of body image, violence, and
sex (Nabi, 2009). In the same way that other media has been shown to model
behaviors, House Hunters and Love It or List It seek to teach, instruct, and inoculate
obedience by showing audiences how and what to look for when buying a home.
Furthermore, “people are subconsciously continuously comparing themselves to
others, and in particular to those whom they like and admire” (Festinger, 1954;
Jansson-Boyd, 2010; Wheeler, 1991). The dyads shown on House Hunters and Love It
or List It provide instruction and comparison for the audience through the criticism and
praise bestowed to each house shown in every episode. The way we communicate and
tell stories provides the basis for this analysis and lends itself to narrative criticism.
This essay will attempt to understand the basic narrative features of the two lifestyle
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reality television programs, House Hunters and Love It or List It, specifically; setting,
character, events and narrative typology.
SETTING
The setting of House Hunters and Love it or List it is a central component of the
narrative structure in both stories. In order to understand how each of these narratives
complete the objective of teaching, instructing, and inoculating obedience, I will fully
analyze the setting as a central feature. I will first look at House Hunters. House
Hunters is an episodic reality television show, following a similar formula for each
episode. The setting changes with each new episode, however, the micro setting of
each episode, which is the individual house, plays a unique and important role in the
structure of the narrative. Each house can functionally be used as an antagonist in the
story of each episode. As such, the importance of each of the three houses looked at
in an episode is paramount to the telling of the story.
When the house hunters enter a new house for their ultimate consideration, the
viewer is given a tour of the house narrated by the realtor and the perspective
homebuyers. Within each new setting the house hunters comment and critique the
various features of the home. For example, when entering a new kitchen it is quite
common for a prospective buyer to comment on the materials used to build the
countertop. Such distinctions by the house hunters allow for the viewer to be
“educated” or “coached” on how and what to look for when purchasing a home or
what is wrong about their current home. Although each new setting provides conflict
within the story, it is the prospective buyer’s judgment and comments that favor or
diminish each individual setting. The settings are thus highly developed, detailed, and
reviewed for the viewer to complete the narratives objective of teaching, instructing,
and inoculating obedience. House Hunters shares many of the same traits with Love It
or List It specifically within the feature of setting.
Love It or List It is also in episodic program that follows a formula. However, the
participant’s current home is a prominent setting within the program. Thus, within any
given episode a large amount of time is spent on describing the positive and negative
features of the participants’ current home. For example, a participant on Love It or List
It may explain that she absolutely needs a home office and if this were not possible
she would need to move or in the verbiage of the program, List It. In the same
hypothetical episode her significant other might explain to the viewer the reasons they
should stay in their current home, or Love It. As the story progresses the participants
are also shown other homes that meet their requirements. These other settings
provide the basis for conflict, both among the participants and among the hosts or
personalities. Although these houses provide some of the setting within the story, a far
more noteworthy setting exists.
The most prominent setting of Love It or List It, usually takes place within the
current participants home. A common occurrence within the program occurs when
major unexpected renovations are needed. Thus, the home shifts from merely a
setting to an antagonist, which ignites conflict amongst the family. For example, when
renovating a basement to accommodate a home office, the hosts of the show may find
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trouble with the home’s foundation. In every episode of Love It or List It this technique
is used to show the prominence of the setting by creating a source of contention. With
the help of setting, Love It or List It is able to teach, instruct, and inoculate obedience
within the audience.
Setting plays a role in almost every narrative. However, with these two programs
under analysis, the role of setting is elevated and central to the narrative. House
Hunters continually changes settings to inoculate viewers to ideas about how and what
to look for when buying a home. The strategies are utilized by having the participants
commentate on the good and bad qualities of each setting without a baseline
comparison. In contrast, Love It or List It focuses much more on the current home.
That is not to say that Love It or List It does not cultivate attitudes within the viewer,
but rather it increases the fidelity of the story while at the same time providing a
roadmap for changing, renovating, or purchasing a home. The rhetorical situation in
which these programs are shown make almost no mention of the current housing
market with the exception of the occasional statement of how good house prices are in
that particular area. Furthermore, these programs only show the benefit and positives
of renovating or buying a home without caution or a full evaluation of the
consequences. It is through the evaluation of the setting that a full picture of the
programs characters begins to emerge.
CHARACTER
The character within the programs are seemingly complex, however, with a deeper
level of analysis across multiple episodes, it becomes clear that the characters are
uniform and shallow. The characters within House Hunters are nearly all recycled each
episode. For example, a typical episode will include: a two-person house hunting party,
a realtor, a narrator, and most importantly the three houses that the dyad can choose
from. The dyad is defined not by their character or good judgments but rather by each
persons wants or must have for a new home. The realtor (a secondary character)
often provides a dose of reality to that episodes couple with an explanation about what
they can expect in that particular housing market. The narrator provides a review and
exposition about the house hunt for the viewer in order to keep the characters
judgment salient within the viewers mind. In this way the narrator ensures that the
viewer is continuously reminded of why a house is “good” or “bad.” Each house that
the participants view is framed in such a way to create a unique character for the
house that is mediated through the exposition by the house hunters. In framing each
house as a “good” or “bad” character, this gives the protagonist (the house hunters)
an enemy or antagonist (the bad houses). These flat characters within House Hunters
serve to teach, instruct, and inoculate audiences to the attitudes and beliefs about the
housing market and homes in general from the perspective of the creators and
producers of the program. Love It or List It has a very similar cast of characters, but
with a few additions.
A typical cast of characters within an episode of Love It or List It will include: a
couple (usually representing a family), interior designer Hillary (who urges the family
to love the home they currently reside in), expert realtor David (who urges the family
to list their current home in favor of a new and different property), and finally the
current home the family resides in. The dyad usually has one member who is
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vehemently against moving (Love It) and one who is strongly in favor of moving (List
It). Hillary and David then personify these positions. David will search out properties
for the couple to agree upon. In Love It or List It, the position of the realtor is a more
central character than in House Hunters. Hillary, will renovate the house within the
participants budget. An interior designer by trade, Hillary, must balance aesthetics
versus the functionality of the home. This inner tension provides working space for
arguably the most important character within the program, the current home. The
current home is shown to be a broken place just short of satisfactory. When Hillary
interacts with the current home the inevitable plot device of an “unplanned” renovation
spurs the current home to become an antagonist within the narrative. The house is
then actively exerting itself against another character. Although the dyad looks at
other properties, the current home is only property to be personified within Love It or
List It. Personifying the current home allows for audiences to understand in a narrative
form how their current home may be less than the perceived ideal.
Characters within a story are often portrayed in a way that suggests an audience
should model their attitudes, beliefs, and actions based on the character shown.
Indeed the characters of both House Hunters and Love It or List It provide a narrative
rationale for how people should view and purchase homes. The setting and characters
of the both of these programs provide sufficient elements for a narrative to exists,
however, the necessary condition of the narrative’s events needs to be fully
understood.
EVENTS
Typically narratives will utilize two types of events in a story construction. These
two types of events, kernels and satellites, are different in their significance to the
story but also in how they function within a narrative. The major events that occur
within a narrative are called kernels. Kernels cannot be omitted from a story without
destroying narrative coherence. In comparison to kernels, minor plots events are called
satellites. Satellites are not central to a story like kernels are, but they help develop
and elaborate on major events. Foss (2009) explains the importance of satellites
“satellites are not crucial to the narrative and can be deleted without disturbing the
basic story line of the narrative, although their omission would affect the form of the
narrative and the form’s rhetorical effects,”(p. 337). Within lifestyle reality television
how do events transpire and create meaning for the audience? In order answer this
question I will focus on a typical episode of House Hunters and Love It or List it
The typical House Hunters episode follows an undistinguished and mechanical story
line. That is, every episode of House Hunters will follow a standard progression of
events. In order to elaborate on an episode a chronological analysis will be completed.
The first event that a viewer is shown is the introduction to the house hunters. This
event is a satellite event because the reasons for the couples unhappiness and
backstory are inconsequential for the first kernel event. The first kernel event occurs in
the first few minutes of an episode where the dyad explains that they need to change
their current living space. Within this kernel the audience is given numerous reasons
for this event but also given an insight into the house hunter’s needs and wants. The
174
audience is then introduced to a series of three houses, each of which is surveyed and
critiqued for the audience by the house hunters. The introduction and the houses
themselves represent satellite events. The reason why the houses are considered
satellites is they are functionally deleted and replaced with each new episode. The
kernel event that is shown in every episode is the house hunter’s judgments within a
given house. For example, within an episode of House Hunters the couple will enter a
house and comment and critique the various features of the house. These comments
direct movement within the narrative. After surveying the complete house, which is
supplemented by the satellite events of differences within features of the home i.e.
cabinets, master bedroom size, and flooring, the couple will recap with the realtor and
discuss for the audiences the various positives and negatives of the house. This recap
and discussion represents a kernel as the narrative is based around reasons to prefer
one material good and home over another.
This process is repeated two more times within two different homes in every
episode. The final kernel that occurs is the deliberation and selection of a home. The
final kernel is supported by the previous kernel and satellite events, but is not actually
the last event. The last event the audience is shown is actually a satellite event that
shows the house hunters moving into their new home. The satellite epilogue provides
a reason and elaborates on the final deliberation by the house hunters. These events
and their sequence provide a greater understanding of the narrative structure, but in
order to provide a broader criticism of lifestyle reality programming I will also analyze
the events of Love It or List It.
Love It or List It unsurprisingly utilizes a stock story line in each of its episodes that
is similar to the format of House Hunters. The episode opens up with a satellite event
of the introduction of a family who is currently having problems with their house. The
family makes the decision to list their current house or renovate their existing home,
which is the first kernel event. This kernel event is made up of two conflicting opinions
by the couple. One person in the dyad wants to sell the house, while the other person
wants to list the current house in favor of a new domicile. The couple then elicits the
help of a realtor and interior designer to assist with their various positions. The duo
provides a list of wants and must have for the hosts to accommodate into their next
living space. These wants and must have scenes are a satellite events which supports
the elaboration of a kernel event of selecting a house. However, the next event shows
a completely different house then the dyad currently resides in. This event functions as
a satellite to show that there are other options that can work for the couple. After
seeing a house that has some of the features that the meets some of the needs and
wants, the couple returns home to find a major kernel event. This kernel event, which
happens nearly every episode, is that the interior designer finds a major problem with
the current home. The problems range from the deterioration of the foundation or the
presence of asbestos throughout the house. The dyad will than visit two more houses,
both of which represent satellite events supplementing the kernel event of the
eventual deliberation and debate over if these homes can compare to their current,
renovated, home. Following the survey of three houses and overcoming the vast
problems with the residence current homes, the final kernel event occurs. The final
event is the showing of the current remodeled home and the couple’s decision to love
their current home or list it in favor of one of the other homes. As in House Hunters
175
this selection is not the final event but rather the penultimate event as the episode
shows how happy the family is with their decision, in the concluding satellite event.
The similarities of events within the episodes of both House Hunters and Love it or List
it can help explain the objectives of the narrative.
The research question that this essay attempts to understand is how lifestyle reality
television programs teach, instruct, and inoculate audience obedience to the ideology
of consumption. The first similarity that can easily be seen by dissecting the events
within the narratives of the programs is the introduction satellite events. These events
are predicated on another event that is presumed and only covertly shown. This
presumed kernel is an event that had caused the residents to not like their current
situation. In this way the characters enter the narrative already in a state of chaos,
which is to be corrected by selecting the “right” house. House Hunters and Love It or
List It then represent a divergence from the traditional narrative paradigm where
characters enter a story to face a major kernel event which needs to be overcome.
This may be one explanation, however, another explanation could be that the viewer
and participants share the same rhetorical situation in that the kernel event that
initiates action is the housing crisis or a material dissatisfaction that is inherent in a
consumer material society. Regardless of which interpretation is selected the result is
the same; House Hunters and Love It or List It instruct, teach, and inoculate
obedience within a perceived audience. The rhetorical situations that occupies the
presumed prologue within these programs are not the only evidence and criteria of
measuring the narratives objective within events.
Perhaps the most important kernel that exists within both programs is the
deliberation over which house should be selected. The reason that the deliberation
scene is the most important event is two-fold. The first reason is that that every
episode of both programs has a variety of satellite events that surround the features of
a house. For instance, a house might not have a granite countertop. This feature
represents a conflict within the couples wants and must haves as a reason to prefer
the house. However, because these features are interchangeable they represent minor
details that only serve to compliment the kernel feature of deliberation. This creates a
major event where audiences can get a close and detailed review of what features
“should” be important or unimportant and why.
The second reason that the deliberation event is important is because it highlights
the focus of the narrative. The narrative accentuates the houses in each program as
characters in their own right as mentioned earlier, however, it is through the analysis
of the events that it can be clearly seen that the characters, both the couple and the
houses, are secondary to the real objective of the narrative. The objective of House
Hunters and Love It or List It is about training audiences to understand what is
deemed as good and what should be sought after in a home. The events of House
Hunters and Love It or List It clearly show a behavior that is intended to create a
modeled behavior within the audience. The events all steer the narrative towards
showing how to make changes based on a mass consumption paradigm. However, it is
within this context that the question turns towards asking what kind of narrative is
House Hunters and Love It or List It?
176
NARRATIVE TYPOLOGY
The type of narrative a story falls under can provide many interesting details about
a program. Frey (2006) explains that a narrative can take four conventional forms.
These forms are comedy, romance, tragedy, and irony. Each of these forms follows an
archetypical pattern by which media consumers can expect a story to progress. Foss
(2008) explains an example of this in a comedy’s basic plot will show a “protagonist
[who] challenges an established authority and wins happiness and stability in the end
(p. 314). To fully understand what type of narratives House Hunters and Love It or List
It are, a definition of romantic narrative, provided by Foss (2009), seem to be the best
fit, “A romance (which does not always involve love), the protagonist completes a
quest against an enemy and emerges victorious and enlightened (p. 315). This
definition of romance provides a great starting point to understanding how these
programs operate under their given archetype.
House Hunters follows the couple, or the protagonists, in their quest or hunt for a
house. The enemy in this narrative is represented by the characterization of the
houses, as well as the decision to select from these houses. In this way, the dyad must
struggle to find its way through the house hunt overcoming their own insecurities and
houses that do not satisfy their definition of good. Once a decision is made to move in,
the program always includes a segment where the couple is shown to have moved into
the selected house. This highlights the victorious and enlightened house hunters. The
same type of archetypical storyline is also present in Love It or List it.
In Love It or List it the family is the protagonist in this romantic narrative. However,
in this program, compared to House Hunters, the protagonist is completing a quest
against an intangible enemy as well as their current home. The intangible enemy is the
decision to move or not. The enemy within their current home is the serious flaw that
is discovered during the renovation process. After a tumultuous decision making
process the family inevitability selects the “correct” house, and like House Hunters, the
protagonist family is shown to be enlightened and victorious in their conquest.
These narratives that depict the homeowners moving from a state of chaos and a
state of dissatisfaction towards complete happiness and enlightenment, represent the
very essence of what it means to be a romantic narrative. Comparing these television
series to epics from times past can illuminate this point even more clearly. For
instance, when looking at stories involving Arthur and the quest for Camelot it
becomes clear that only through the quest do the protagonist become better through
the trails and tribulations. For House Hunters and Love It or List It, it is clearly the
quest that makes the protagonist better in the end.
However, I argue that in these quests that the on-screen personalities are not the
only people that go through such a transformation. Specifically, the audience, is shown
through instruction and inoculation of obedience how they to can find their
enlightenment and happiness through the quest for a perfect house. In this way, the
narrative type of romanticism provides an ideal framework for completing both
programs objectives of teaching, instructing, and inoculating obedience for the
audience.
177
CONCLUSION
Television is a powerful medium that people continually turn to for entertainment.
Contained within the entertainment television landscape are countless narratives that
help individuals make sense of the world in which they occupy. It is with this
knowledge in hand we can start to understand how programs can educate and
influence our perceptions of the world around us. Within the rhetorical situation of the
aftermath of a housing crash, the quest to overcome the odds, and seek to win out
over the market is a perfect story. The setting of each house and the decisions that
are made about the homes provide a great background for the character to flourish.
The houses as characters in each program provide great narrative space as the
antagonist, constantly trying to relegate the participants to their current,
unsatisfactory, home without any growth. These interactions are acted out in a series
of events. A full analysis of the series of events suggested that the decision event was
the most important kernel in both series. The programs formulaic approach to reality
television does not seem to inhibit the fidelity of the story. On the contrary, the
scripted nature provides a perfect way to highlight how the protagonist moves from
lowly unhappy people to happy and enlightened people. As this progression occurs,
the audience also encounters the same transformation. It is in this this way that
lifestyle reality television programs help the audience experience the romantic quest of
purchasing a house by creating a frame of reference for their own lives. The programs
that this essay discussed show how these types of programs teach, instruct, and
inoculate obedience towards the housing industry.
178
REFERENCE
Armstrong, M. (Producer). (2010). Love it or List it [Television Series]. Canada: Big
Coats Productions
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive
theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. In J. Bryant
and D. Zillman (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., pp.
121– 153). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Brickner, T. (Producer). (2011) House Hunters [Television Series]. USA. Pie Town
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Cavender, G., & Fishman, M. (Eds.). (1998). Television reality crime programs:
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Chatman, S. B. (1980). Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film:
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Everett, A. (2004). Trading Private and Public Spaces @ HGTV and TLC: On New
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Toronto Press.
Jansson-Boyd, Cathrine. (2010). Consumer Psychology. McGraw Hill Publishing.
New York, New York.
Lim, Michael Mah-Hui (2008) Old wine in a new bottle: subprime mortgage crisis:
causes and consequences, Working papers // The Levy Economics Institute, No. 532
Nabi, R. L., Biely, E. N., Morgan, S. J., & Stitt, C. R. (2003). Reality-Based
Television Programming and the Psychology of Its Appeal. [Article]. Media Psychology,
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Potter, W. J., Warren, R., Vaughan, M., Howley, K., Land, A., & Hagemeyer, J.
(1997). Antisocial acts in reality programming on television. [Article]. Journal of
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Wheeler, L. (1991). A brief history of social comparison theory. In J. Suls & T.A.
Wills (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 3–21).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
P-ISSN: 2056 9785
E-ISSN: 2056 9793
doi: 10.17349/jmc11500
Social, Cultural and Political Effects of Mass Media
Industry’s Mode of Production and Operation

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