The theory of met expectations applied to expatriate

/,It,
.l
,l
llunum Resource Management 12 :3 May 2001 357-372
The theory of met expectations applied to
expatriate adjustment : the role of crosscultural training
Paula Caligiuri, Jean Phillips, Mila Lazarova, Ibraiz Tarique and
Peter Biirgi
Abstract This study will test two hypotheses to determine whether the formation of
expectations (prior to the global assignment) affects expatriates' adjustment . This study
utilized a sample of seventy-three expatriates who completed questionnaires approximately ten months after arriving in their host countries . All the expatriates had predeparture cross-cultural training, but the training varied in perceived relevance . The
expatriates were assigned either to countries where their native language was spoken (e .g .
Americans in the UK) or to countries where their native language was not spoken (e .g .
Americans in France) . The results of the mediated regression analysis suggest that the
more tailored and relevant the pre-departure cross-cultural training, the more expectations
were either met or positively exceeded . Analyses suggest that both cross-cultural training
and the language spoken in the host country affect the accuracy of expatriates'
expectations prior to the assignment - and that having accurate expectations, in turn,
positively affects cross-cultural adjustment . The results from this study encourage
organizations to develop programmes that will ensure their expatriates have realistic
expectations prior to their global assignments (e .g . through tailored cross-cultural
training).
Keywords Expatriates ; cross-cultural training ; met expectations ; global assignments ;
cross-cultural adjustment .
In order
(MNCs)
to remain competitive in today's global marketplace, multinational companies
have recognized that global human resource management is critical for their
success . Global HR is essential for MNCs' global competitiveness for many reasons,
including its integral involvement in facilitating the success of expatriate assignments
Il onache and Fernandez, 1999 ; Scullion, 1999 ; Stroh and Caligiuri, 1998) . Successful
I'tidu ('uligiuri, SMLR, Department of HRM, Rutgers University, 94 Rockafeller Road,
Janice L,evin Building, Rm 200B, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA (tel : +1 732 445 5228 ; fax :
+ 1 712 445 2830 ; e -mail : caligiur@rci .rutgers .edu) ; Jean Phillips, SMLR, Department of
11kM, Rutgers University, 94 Rockafeller Road, Janice Levin Building, Rm 212,
I'iscatuway, NJ 08854, USA (tel : +1 732 445 5825 ; fax : +1 732 445 2830 ; e-mail :
jmlQ?69(n)rci . rutgers .edu ) ; Mila Lazarova, SMLR, Department of HRM, Rutgers
I Inivrrsity . 94 Rockafeller Road, Janice Levin Building, Rm 200E, Piscataway, NJ 08854,
I ISA (tel : + 1 732 445 0742 ; fax : +1 732 445 2830; e -mail : lazarova@eden .rutgers .edu) ;
Ihiat, Tarique, SMLR, Department of HRM, Rutgers University, 94 Rockafeller Road,
mime I .cvin Building, Rm 216, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA (tel : +1 732 445 5973 ; fax : +1
712 ..$45 2930 ; e -mail : tarique@eden .rutgers .edu) ; Peter Burgi, International Orientation
Resources, 51H) Skokie Boulevard, Suite 600, Northbrook, IL 60062, USA (tel : + 1 847 205
WOO : lax : + 1947 205 0085 ; e-mail : pburgi@iorworld .com) .
7'he International Journal of Human Resource Management
ISSN 0958-5192 print/ISSN 1466-4399 online © 2001 Taylor & Francis Ltd
h ttp://www .tandf.co .uk/journal s
D01 : 10 .1080/09585190010026185
358
The International Journal of Human Resource Management
expatriate assignments are indispensable
to MNCs for both developmental and
functional reasons (Adler, 1983 ; Brake et al ., 1994 ; Dowling et al ., 1998 ; Mendenhall
and Oddou, 1985 ; Stroh and Caligiuri, 1998 ; Tung and y Miller, 1990) . As such,
researchers and practitioners alike are interested in determining how to facilitate the
success of expatriates' global assignments .
Success on a global assignment is greatly influenced by an expatriate's cross-cultural
adjustment to the host country (Black and Mendenhall, 1990 ; Caligiuri, 1997 ; Kealey
and Protheroe, 1996 ; Sappinen, 1993) . For example, cross-cultural adjustment is
positively related to performance on the assignment and negatively related to the
premature termination of the assignment (Black, 1988 ; Caligiuri, 1997 ; Tung, 1981) .
For these reasons, research examining ways to predict and improve cross-cultural
adjustment have received much attention in the recent past (e .g . Aycan, 1997 ; Aryee
and Stone, 1996 ; Black and Gregersen, 1991 ; Black et al ., 1991 ; Kealey, 1989 ; McEvoy
and Parker, 1995 ; Morley et al., 1999 ; Robie and Ryan, 1996 ; Schneider and Asakawa,
1995) .
Cross-cultural adjustment can be facilitated if the expatriate has an awareness of the
norms and behaviours that are appropriate in the host country (Black and Mendenhall,
1990) . Thus, many MNCs offer cross-cultural training (CCT) to teach expatriates the
host country's appropriate norms and behaviours . For more than twenty years, CCT has
been advocated as a means of facilitating effective cross-cultural interactions and crosscultural adjustment (Ashamalla and Crocitto, 1997 ; Brewster, 1995 ; Li, 1992 ; Katz and
Seifer, 1996 ; Kealey and Protheroe, 1996) . There has been a positive trajectory of
growth with respect to MNCs who are offering CCT . For instance, in the early 1980s,
Tung (1981, 1982) found that only 32 per cent of MNCs offered CCT . Almost twenty
years later, the 1998 Global Relocation Trends Survey Report indicates that 70 per cent
of the 177 MNCs surveyed provide CCT of at least one day's duration (Windham
International & National Foreign Trade Council, 1998) .
Cross-cultural training has generally been defined as any intervention designed to
increase the knowledge and skills of expatriates to help them operate effectively in the
unfamiliar host culture (Brewster and Pickard, 1994 ; Harris and Brewster, 1999 ; Kealey
and Protheroe, 1996 ; Shumsky, 1992) . The objectives of CCT are threefold . First, CCT
should enable expatriates to determine (in advance) the appropriate cultural behaviours
and suitable ways of performing necessary job tasks in the host country (Brewster and
Pickard, 1994 ; Black and Mendenhall, 1990 ; Kealey and Protheroe, 1996) . The second
objective of CCT is to help expatriates cope with unforeseen events in the new culture
and to reduce conflict due to unexpected situations and actions (Earley, 1987) . The third
objective of CCT is to create realistic expectations for expatriates with respect to living
and working in the host country (Black and Mendenhall, 1990 ; Black et al., 1991) . This
study focuses on the last objective . The study will examine the influence of CCT on the
creation of accurate expectations, and how the accuracy of these expectations, in turn,
will affect cross-cultural adjustment .
Most of existing research on CCT is based on anecdotal or limited information and
has a number of research design deficiencies . Large proportions of the studies to date
are somewhat narrow in scope, which limits the generalizability of conclusions about
the effectiveness of CCT (Kealey and Protheroe, 1996 ; Selmer et al ., 1998) . Moreover,
most of the past research on CCT, as well as research in the broader area of crosscultural experience, has been conducted not with expatriate employees but with other
populations of international sojourners, such as students or peace corps volunteers (see
Black and Mendenhall, 1990, 1991) . As many authors point out (e .g . Black and
Mendenhall, 1990 ; Church, 1982 ; Hammer et al ., 1998), there are certain dissimilarities
Caligiuri et al . : The theory of met e_apeciations 359
in the foreign experiences of different types of sojourners . For example, Hammer et al .
t 1998) identify several differences between the student experience and the corporate
assignment (e.g. different intercultural situations and responsibilities, different motivations and expectations in respect of the international experience) . Such differences
make generalizability of conclusions about the impact of CCT on the corporate context
questionable . Finally, the most commonly stated criticism of the existing research on
CCT is that it lacks clear theoretical grounding and is inconclusive about its
effectiveness (Black and Mendenhall, 1990 ; Blake and Heslin, 1983 ; Chen, 1994 ;
Kealey and Protheroe, 1996; Selmer et al ., 1998) .
To address this criticism, our study will test hypotheses based on the theory of met
expectations (Porter and Steers, 1973 ; Wanous, 1980, 1992) to examine the influence of
CCT on cross-cultural adjustment .
i
Met expectations and cross-cultural training
The theory of met expectations proposes that the more congruent an individual's
expectations are with the individual's reality once on the job, the greater the
individual's satisfaction and adjustment (Porter and Steers, 1973 ; Wanous, 1980, 1992) .
Researchers have discussed the possibility that realistic recruitment and orientation
messages (typically designed to create a realistic level of initial expectations) might be
useful when employees enter new or ambiguous settings such as expatriate positions
(Phillips, 1998 ; Wanous, 1980, 1992) . Little research has been conducted investigating
met expectations in the context of global assignments (see Black, 1992 ; and Stroh et al .,
1998, for exceptions) .
Porter and Steers (1973) were the first to define met expectations in an organizational
context. An important aspect of Porter and Steers' (1973) definition of met
expectations, discussed further by Locke (1976), is that only expectations for important
aspects of the job (or organization) are relevant to the met expectations hypothesis .
Including all expectations would include irrelevant or inconsequential expectations that
would have no bearing on ultimate adjustment and job survival .
Global assignments differ to the extent that the cultures, values and other
characteristics of the host country differ from those of the expatriate's home country .
On dimensions for which the host country is similar to the expatriate's home country,
training is less likely to influence the degree to which the expatriate's expectations
about the assignment are realistic and likely to be met when on the assignment . Predeparture training on dimensions that are highly relevant to the expatriate's transition is
important (Harris and Brewster, 1999) and is more likely to lead to realistic
expectations about the assignment . For example, in some cultures bargaining is a
central part of the shopping process . In other cultures, bargaining is rarely, if ever, done
when purchasing goods . Cross-cultural training on how to bargain would not improve
the accuracy of expatriates' expectations if they will not need to bargain in the host
country . We propose that the relevance of pre-departure training will be related to more
accurate expatriate expectations .
Hypothesis 1 :
J
The relevance of the content of the cross-cultural training programmes will be positively related to expatriates' met expectations
(i.e., those with more relevant training will report that their host
country was easier than they thought it would be) .
360
The Luernaiional Journal of Human Resource Mana l,enuenr
Perceived similarity and expectation creation
Expatriates create their expectations of the host country prior to leaving their home
country . If expatriates have insufficient or ambiguous information about the hint
country, they will use mental short cuts, such as stereotypes, to create expectations
about it . Stereotypes are defined as `cognitive structures that contain the perceiver's
knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about a human group' (Hamilton and Troiler,
1986 : 133). Stereotypes are simplifying mechanisms individuals use to handle the
complexity and the uncertainty of the environment that surrounds them (Cauthen et al .,
1971 ; Hamilton and Sherman, 1996 ; Johnston and Coolen, 1995 ; Schaller et al . .
1995) .
Stereotypes arise from `defining first and observing second' (Katz and Braly, 1935 :
181), that is, from `labelling' someone as a member of a certain category and using the
characteristics previously associated with that category to form an opinion about that
person even though no personal interaction between the perceiver and the perceived has
occurred . Relevant to global assignments, stereotyping causes expatriates to categorize
all host nationals on the basis of their nationality . The expatriate who is stereotyping
may have a set of characteristics that they attribute to all host nationals (for example,
`British people are very polite' or `all Italians are poor at time management' (Cauthen
et al ., 1971 ; Francesco and Gold, 1998 ; Sherman, 1996 ; Snyder, 1981) . Thus,
stereotyping can lead to over-generalizations about host nationals and inappropriate
assessment of any individual's traits (Allport, 1954 ; Hamilton and Sherman, 1996) .
Although useful for processing information in a situation of uncertainty, stereotypes
can also create expectations which, if untrue, may lead to inaccurate evaluations of
situations and to the development of `an inappropriate, ineffective, and frequently
harmful guide to reality' (Adler, 1986 : 58) . Given that cultural stereotypes are often
formed on the basis of little (e.g . a short trip to a country) or misleading (e.g. TV)
information, the expatriate's reality may run counter to the reality of a given situation
once the expatriate moves to the host country, thus producing unmet expectations . This
mismatch between expectations and reality may potentially encumber the cross-cultural
adjustment of expatriates .
Stereotypes are misleading when expatriates over-generalize characteristics of the
host nationals in terms of both differences and similarities . In fact, similarities may be
more of a concern in terms of the expatriates' met expectations . For example, one way
of categorizing a country is by the language spoken in that country . An expatriate may
stereotype all Anglophone countries (e.g. UK, USA, Australia, Canada, New Zealand)
and assume that they share a common culture because they share a common language .
Expatriates may assume cultural similarity between their own culture and the culture of
the host country if their first language is spoken in that host culture . In the case of lack
of any specific information about the host country, the global assignees may stereotype
the new culture within the familiar boundaries of what they know is true about their
own culture . Subsequently, on the basis of one specific characteristic (i .e. familiar
language), they may infer other characteristics of that culture and expect few, if any,
differences between living in their home and living in their host country .
While language is undoubtedly very important for expatriate adjustment, its cultural
context should always been taken into consideration . Understanding of the meaning of
words alone does not provide a key to fully understanding a culture . The anecdotal
literature provides examples of expatriates who experienced unexpected adjustment
difficulties when, upon arrival, they became conscious of the fact that knowledge of the
language does not equate to understanding of the culture . For example, the 1994 Global
Caligiuri ei al. : The theory of met expectations 361
Relocation Trends Survey Report quotes an American expatriate in the United Kingdom
as saying `(while 1 assumed] minor differences in culture and language . . . jl found] in
reality, differences are greater' (Windham International & NFTC . 1994 : 13) . This
expatriate described how he had to face the challenge of adjusting his expectations to
reality . The theory of similarity creating expectations is used to formulate the second
hypothesis .
Hypothesis 2 :
Expatriates going to countries where their first language is spoken
will have more negative met expectations (i .e . believe that the
country was more diflicult than they thought it would be) .
The outcome of met expectations : cross-cultural adjustment
These expectations, created by either CCT or perceived similarity (i .e . language), could
affect expatriates' cross-cultural adjustment . Although applied to the global assignment
context, the creation of expectations has been previously found in the literature on
domestic organizational adjustment or socialization . Various stage models of organizational socialization (e .g . Buchanan . 1974 ; Feldman, 1976 ; Louis, 1980 ; Porter et a! .,
1975 ; Schein, 1978 ; Van Maanen, 1976 ; Van Maanen and Schein, 1979 ; Wanous, 1980,
1992) all assume that unmet expectations cause a variety of post-entry adjustment
problems . A mesa-analysis by Wanous et al . (1992) found that met expectations are
related to higher job satisfaction, organizational commitment, intent to remain, job
performance and job survival than unmet expectations . In the case of expatriates, in
particular, Black ( 1992) found that accurate expectations were related to higher levels
of repatriation adjustment and job performance, compared to inaccurate expectations .
Hypothesis 3 :
Expectations will positively affect cross-cultural adjustment, in that
expatriates with met or positively exceeded expectations will have
greater cross-cultural adjustment than those whose assignments were
worse than expected .
Combining the three hypotheses, this study will determine whether the formation of
accurate expectations resulting from relevant cross-cultural training affects crosscultural adjustment .
Methods
Sample
US (N=65), Canadian (N=4), Italian (N=2), German (N=1) and UK (N=1) nationals
were participants in this study . All participants were currently on a global assignment
in any one of twenty-nine countries . The host countries were the US, Malaysia, the
Netherlands, Singapore, Germany,' Switzerland, UK, Luxembourg, Austria, Japan,
Mexico, South Africa, Venezuela, Argentina, Russia, Philippines, Australia, France,
Poland, China (Hong Kong and Taiwan), South Korea, Brazil, Saudi Arabia, Sweden,
Spain, United Arab Emirates and Israel . The mean age for the sample was 38 .7 . Sixtytwo expatriates (85 per cent) were married . Sixty (82 per cent) were male . The
participants worked for thirty-one different multinational companies and at the time of
data collection had been on their assignments for an average of 10 .6 months . In this
sample sixteen expatriates spoke English and were going to English-speaking countries
(e .g . Americans going to the UK or Australia) . The balance (N=57) spoke English,
362
The Iniernalional Journal of Human Resource Mana,~Ienienl
German, or Italian - but were expatriated to countries with a different host national
language .
Procedures
Ten months after a participant began his or her global assignment, he or she was sent
the post-arrival questionnaire . The questionnaires were sent from International
Orientation Resources (IOR), a cross-cultural training company, and returned directly to
IOR . The participants were told that their responses were confidential and would not he
shared with their organizations . The surveys were being conducted solely for the
purpose of IOR's programme evaluation and continuous quality improvement .
The cross-cultural training All participants in this sample went through a structured
one-day cross-cultural training with an International Orientation Resources trainer . The
CCT consisted of a structured session conducted by a professional cross-cultural trainer .
The topics covered in the structured CCT included the following business issues :
business protocol, work ethic, management style, how to motivate personnel, how to
give feedback and problem solving . In addition to business issues, general aspects of the
target culture were also covered : housing, shopping, medical facilities, recreational/
entertainment facilities, social customs/etiquette, culture shock and dominant values in
the host country . All cross-cultural trainers working for IOR are instructed in the same
format for delivering the training . Reliability across cross-cultural trainers is enhanced
by practice, rehearsal and evaluation of their performance against a standard IOR
protocol .
Measures
Relevance of training Fourteen dimensions covered in each cross-cultural training
session were rated for relevance . Participants rated each dimension based on the
question : `How important was the information you received during your cross-cultural
training . . .? Sample dimensions included: (1) dominant values in the host country, (2)
negotiation strategies and (3) shopping . Each dimension was rated on a five-point scale
(I = very unimportant to 5 = very important) . The items were added to create an
aggregate relevance score . Scores ranged from 2 .33 (most of the information was not
relevant for the given assignment) to 4 .79 (most of the information was highly relevant
for the given assignment) . The mean for this scale was 3 .71 (SD = .64) . The alpha
coefficient of the training relevance measure was .90 .
Language similarity Each participant was given a code of either I (same language
spoken in the home and host country) or 0 (a different language is spoken in the home
and host country) . Twenty-two per cent of the expatriates were in countries were the
same language was spoken.
Expectations The index of expectations was created from two sets of parallel
questions. The first set of three items asked individuals to rate `Before you left for your
international assignment : (1) to what extent did you expect socializing with host
nationals would be difficult? (2) To what extent did you expect the host country culture
to be different from your country's culture? And (3) to what extent did you expert
culture shock?' The second set of three items asked individuals to rate `Now t'hai you
are on your international assignment : (1) is socializing with host nationals difficult'' t 2 1t
Caligiuri et al. : The theory of met expectations
363
Is the host country culture different from your home country's culture? And (3) have
you experienced culture shock?'
Both sets of items were rated on a five-point scale (I = not at all, 3 = to some extent,
5 = to a very great extent) . Each parallel `before assignment' item was subtracted from
the `on assignment' corresponding item . The result of this was three items ranging from
+4 to -4 . The three items were then added to create an expectation index . The index
ranged from + 12 (much better than expected) through - 12 (much worse than
expected). Zero, according to this index, suggests that assignment was about as the
expatriate expected . The true range for this index was -4 .0 to +8.0 (mean = 1 .33, SD
2.18) .
Cross-cultural adjustment Expatriates rated their cross-cultural adjustment on a
5-item scale . Each item was rated on a five-point scale (1 = not at all, 3 = to some
extent, 5 = to a very great extent) . Sample items include (1) do you feel comfortable
living in this host country? And (2) have you adapted to living in the host country? The
alpha coefficient of the cross-cultural adjustment measure was .83 . The mean of this
scale was 4 .05 (SD = .66) .
Results
The correlation matrix for all variables included in this study is represented in Table 1 .
According to the correlational analyses, preliminary support was found for hypotheses
1 and 2. A positive relationship was found between the importance of the cross-cultural
training and expectations (r = .23, p < .05) . A negative relationship was found between
language of the host country (same or different) and expectations (r = - . 19, p < .10) .
This suggests that expatriates in countries where their home-country language is spoken
were more likely to have unmet (or negative) expectations . Further, expectations were
positively related to cross-cultural adjustment (r = .31, p < .01) . This provides
preliminary support for Hypothesis 3 .
To test the mediated hypothesis, a series of regression analyses was conducted . We
have followed the approach recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986) to test mediated
regression . Baron and Kenny (1986) outline a three-step procedure of regression
equations that would need to be tested sequentially to determine if a combined mediated
model is present . In step one of their procedure, the mediator is regressed on the
independent variables . The regression weights for the independent variables should be
statistically significant if support is to be found for step one of the procedure . In step
two, the dependent variable is regressed on the independent variable . In order for
support to be found for this step, the independent variable should have a statistically
significant beta weight . In step three of the procedure, the dependent variable is
Table 1 Correlation matrix of the variables in this study
Relevance of training
Language of host country
Met expectations
Cross-cultural adjustment
Notes
*p< .10 ; **p< .o5 ;
***p< .ol .
Mean
SD
Relevance of
training
Language
Met
expectations
3 .71
.22
1 .33
4.05
.64
.42
2.18
.66
- .02
.18*
.24**
- .22**
.13
.27 ***
364
The International Journal of Hunan Resource Management
Table 2 Regression analysis predicting met expectations (Step 1), expectations before the
assignment and perceptions on the assignment
Language
Relevance of
training
Overall R
Overall R 2
Overall F
Met expectations
B
t
Expectations before
the assignment
B
t
Perceptions on
the assignment
B
t
-1 .13
-1 .48
- .35
- .66
.30
.88
.61
.28*'
.08**
3 .06**
-1 .90*
1 .55
-3 .02***
.91
2 .83
.45***
.20***
8 .73***
.13, ns
.02, ns
.61, ns
Notes
Lower scores on language indicate the same language is spoken in the home and the host
countries .
The right two columns reflect the decomposition of the mediator variable, met expectations (in the
left column) .
*p< .10 ; **p< .05 . ***/)< .0l .
regressed on the mediator and the independent variable . For this step to be met, the
mediator should he statistically significant but the independent variable should drop to
non-significance, thus supporting the mediator model .
In step one (see Table 2), we regressed the proposed mediator (met expectations) on
the independent variables (training relevance and language similarity) . In support of
step one of Baron and Kenny's (1986) procedure, we found that the independent variables had a significant positive effect on realistic expectations (F = 3 .06, p< .05) .
In step two (see Table 3), we regressed the dependent variable, cross-cultural
adjustment, on the independent variables . Results suggest a significant positive effect of
the independent variables on cross-cultural adjustment . Training importance predicted
cross-cultural adjustment (R = . 23, p< .05) which supports step two of Baron and
Kenny's (1986) procedure . In the last step (see Table 4) we regressed the dependent
variable, cross-cultural adjustment, on both the independent variables and the mediator
(in two subsequent steps) . We found a significant positive effect of met expectations
(the proposed mediator) on cross-cultural adjustment (R = . 27, p< .05) and the
independent variables were not significant . Also, the overall R2 was significant
(R 2 = .14, p< .05) . Thus, we found support for our mediated hypothesis because we met
the requirements of all three steps of Baron and Kenny's (1986) procedure .
Table 3 Regression analysis predicting cross-cultural adjustment (Step 2)
Beta
Language
Relevance of training
Overall R
Overall R 2
Overall F
Notes
*p< .10 ; **p< .05 ; ***p< .Ol .
.14
.23
.27*
.07*
2 .70*
T
1 .18
2 .03**
Caligiuri et al . : The theory of reel expectations
365
'fable 4 Regression analysis of met expectations predicving cross-cultural adjustment
( .titre 3)
Beta
T
Step 1
Language
Relevance of training
Step 2
Met expectations
Overall R
Overall R2
Overall F
.19
.17
1 .63
1 .47
.26
2 .14**
.37**
.14**
3 .46
Notes
4 °p< .10 ; **p< .05 ; ***p< .01 .
Language similarity and CCT relevance could have an effect on met expectations as
a result of three things : an effect on perceived experience but not pre-departure
expectations, an effect on pre-departure expectations but not on perceived experiences
or an effect on the difference between pre-departure expectations and perceived
experiences (met expectations) . Consistent with the arguments raised by Edwards
(1995), decomposing the met expectations variable into its component parts (predeparture expectations and perceived experiences) allows us to understand what is
driving the observed effects . The complementary nature of the components of the
difference score is evidenced in the fact that subtracting the unstandardized B weight
for the effect of the independent variable on perceived experiences equals the
unstandardized B weight for the composite . For the example, for the effect of language
similarity on met expectations :
B met
expectations = Bperceived experiences -Bpre-departure expectations
or [-1 .135=- .349-(-1 .483)] .
This procedure allows a more comprehensive understanding of what is driving the
effects of the independent variables on met expectations .
Using the technique described by Edwards (1995), we examined the independent
effects of the two components of met expectations, pre-departure expectations and
perceived experiences . The decomposition of the met expectations dependent variable
was done by running two additional regression analyses . The first analysis regressed
pre-departure expectations on language similarity and CCT relevance . The second
analysis regressed perceived experiences while on the assignment on language
similarity and CCT relevance . The results of both regressions are reported on the right
side of Table 2 . When the met expectations score was decomposed, a very salient
finding emerged . Both independent variables (the relevance of CCT and whether the
expatriates' first language was spoken in the host country) were significant predictors of
the expatriates' expectations prior to the assignment (R2 = .20, p< .01) . When the
language was the same, expatriates expected an easier adjustment, and when CCT was
highly relevant, expatriates expected more difficulty in their adjustment . This suggests
that CCT and language similarity will affect the creation of expectations . Neither
J
independent variable was a significant predictor of the expatriates' perceptions while on
the assignment - suggesting that it is the creations of expectations, and not actual
perceptions, which affect cross-cultural adjustment .
366
The I7nernational Journal of Human Resource Management
Discussion
This study was designed to determine whether the formation of expectations affects
expatriates' cross-cultural adjustment . In particular, this study examined two potential
factors affecting the creation of expectations : cross-cultural training and whether the
expatriates' first language was spoken in the host country . This study found support for
the hypothesis that the expectations created prior to an expatriate going on the global
assignment would affect his or her cross-cultural adjustment . Two findings were
especially interesting from both a theoretical and practical perspective . Each finding is
outlined below .
The relevance of cross-cultural training
The decomposition of the met expectations mediator variable produced an intriguing
finding regarding the theoretical underpinnings for the effectiveness of CCT . As
hypothesized, the findings were consistent with the theory of met expectations - which
proposes that the more congruent an individual's expectations are with the individual's
reality once on the job, the greater the individual's adjustment will be to the job (Porter
and Steers, 1973 ; Wanous, 1980, 1992) . Our analyses found that highly relevant CCT
created either accurate expectations or expectations of difficulty prior to the assignment .
These accurate expectations, in turn, affected expatriates' cross-cultural adjustment
after arrival in the host country . This finding could be interpreted as follows : the less
relevant the CCT, the more expatriates assumed the global assignment was going to be
easy, and vice versa . At one extreme, the expectations created either an accurate reality
or a `nice surprise' when it was not as difficult as the expatriates' thought it would be .
This positively affected cross-cultural adjustment . At the other extreme, CCT that
lacked relevance created the expectation that the host country would be easy . This
expectation, in turn, negatively affected cross-cultural adjustment .
The influence of language similarity
This study suggests that, in the absence of complete information, expatriates may be
creating stereotypes on the basis of language similarity . In particular, those expatriates
who spoke the language of the host country expected an `easier' experience in the host
country . On the other hand, those expatriates who did not speak the language were more
likely to expect a more difficult time on the assignment . As suggested in past literature
on stereotyping, the expatriates' stereotypes may have led them to false expectations
(Allport, 1954 ; Hamilton and Sherman, 1996) . Those expatriates who went to differentlanguage countries may have expected the host country to be more difficult - possibly
generalizing the challenge of learning a new language to other aspects of the
assignment . As with the CCT, the decomposition regression results suggest that
language similarity affected the creation of expectations before the expatriates went on
their assignments . These expectations, in turn, affect the expatriates' cross-cultural
adjustment while on their global assignments .
Limitations
While this study makes an important theoretical contribution to the CCT literature, it is
not without limitations . The sample of expatriates is predominantly from the US . Future
studies should test these hypotheses with samples of expatriates from around the world .
Theoretically, one would not expect substantial differences regarding the influence of
expectations on cross-cultural adjustment . The difference may be that different cultures
Caligiuri et al . : The theory of met expectations
367
create expectations differently. In addition, the sample in this study has over thirty UShased multinational organizations from a wide variety of industries . Unfortunately, it
was not possible to conduct an analysis by industry given the limitation of the data
collection. Future studies should examine the combined effect of industry and
nationality to expand the generalizability of the findings .
A few considerations with respect to the way in which the met expectations variable
was measured should be taken into account . First, this study assessed expatriates' recall
of what they remembered expecting the assignment to be like, rather than their actual
expectations prior to departure . To assess expectations, a difference score was created
between the recall variable and the expatriates' current perceptions of the global
assignment . Employing a longitudinal design, future studies should examine the actual
expectations of expatriates' global assignments prior to the assignment .
Care was taken to reduce potential biases in this study . For example, the demographic
variables were assessed at the front end of the survey, and the criterion variable, crosscultural adjustment, was placed at the end . This was made in an effort to reduce the
possibility of self-generated validity (Feldman and Lynch, 1988) . In addition to the
concern for self-generated validity, attention was paid to the possibility of inflationary
bias . Inflationary bias is a potential concern when both the criteria and predictors are
self-reported (Campbell, 1982 ; Crampton and Wagner, 1994) . To reduce this concern,
these hypotheses were not tested exclusively using same-source data (e.g. language
spoken in the host country) . Future studies should gather data from multiple sources,
whenever possible. For example, multiple assessments of an expatriate's cross-cultural
adjustment (e .g. self, spouse) should be examined to increase the reliability of the crosscultural adjustment measure .
Future research
This study assessed two possible influences on the creation of pre-departure expectations and, ultimately, cross-cultural adjustment . In the context of increasing crosscultural adjustment, there are many other predictors that should be examined in future
studies on the effectiveness of CCT . For instance, it has been proposed that crosscultural training should be strategically offered throughout the global assignment
(before and during) to ensure maximum adjustment (Selmer et al ., 1998) . It has been
further proposed that the host nationals, in addition to the expatriates, should receive
cross-cultural training to assist in the adjustment process (Vance and Paderon, 1993) .
Refining the context of CCT research even further, the effectiveness of CCT
programmes may be affected by the divergence of the home and host cultures and the
type of cross-cultural adjustment under consideration (Selmer, 1999) . In addition to met
expectations, future studies should examine these aspects of CCT on cross-cultural
adjustment .
Above and beyond CCT, comprehensive theoretical models have included many
additional predictors of expatriate adjustment (e.g. Aycan, 1997 ; McEvoy and Parker,
1995 ; Morley et al., 1999 ; Suutari and Brewster, 1999) . Empirical support for various
aspects of these models is beginning to emerge in the research literature . For example,
personality (Caligiuri, 2000 ; Ones and Viswesvaran, 1999), perceptions of host
ethnocentrism (Florkowski and Fogel, 1999), perceived organizational support upon
repatriation (Selmer, 1998), expatriate mentoring (Feldman and Bolino, 1999) and
family adjustment (Caligiuri et al., 1998) are demonstrated predictors of expatriate
adjustment . Future studies should take a broader perspective to examine these
predictors, as well as CCT, as antecedents of cross-cultural adjustment .
368
The international Journal of Human Resource Management
Practical implications
This study shows that it is not the experience itself that tends to drive adjustment, it is
pre-departure expectations . Our findings have clear implications for the management of
global assignees in multinational organizations . We recommend three `best practices'
(from specific to more general) that we believe have resulted from this study .
Consistent with the recommendation of Harris and Brewster (1999), our first practical
recommendation is to tailor a CCT programme explicitly to the individual expatriate's
situation in order to provide the maximum relevance . This relevance can be achieved by
ensuring that the cross-cultural training company takes into account the specific location
of the assignment (e .g . rural or urban), the family situation (e .g . spouse's career,
children's ages) and position within the company (e .g . executive, technical specialist)
when developing the training programme . Thus, an unmarried technical engineer
assigned to a manufacturing facility in southern Italy would receive a very different
training programme compared to a married executive assigned to cosmopolitan Milan .
In a general CCT programme, these individuals would both receive training for Italy and would likely find various aspects of the training less relevant .
Our second recommendation is for multinational organizations to provide CCT even
when their expatriates have accepted assignments in countries where their native
language is spoken . A 1994 USA Toduv article reported several anecdotes about
Americans living in the UK . The Americans interviewed in this article shared the same
frustration - that the transition to the UK was much more difficult than they thought it
would he (Wall, 1994) . This study provides Support for the nature of their frustration .
Thus, neither the companies nor the expatriates should assume that the transition to a
same-language country will he easy . In fact, these expatriates may need additional CCT
to help overcome their stereotypes or their inappropriate expectations . According to
Harris and lrewster ( 1999) . this recommendation may he especially challenging to
implement in organizations which believe that a technically competent manager will be
technically competent - regardless of the location, domestic or international .
Our final recommendation is for multinational organizations to offer more than just
CCT to improve the accuracy of the expatriates' pre-departure expectations . In addition
to CCT, multinational companies can offer a visit to the host country prior to accepting
the assignment (i .e . a look-see visit), formal and informal opportunities to discuss their
move with former expatriates (i .e . repatriates), self-selection instruments and the like .
Organizations should consider the fact that all the information they offer an expatriate
prior to the assignment will influence his or her expectations - and that the goal for
managing those expectations should he accuracy .
While the world is indeed getting smaller, multinational organizations must be
continually reminded that cultural differences are very real - and that they will affect
the success of their expatriates on global assignments . These CCT practices are one way
to improve the multinational organization's chances of having well-adjusted expatriates
on critical global assignments . In turn, the improved cross-cultural adjustment of
expatriates should lead to [letter performance in the global arena - for both individuals
and their organizations .
References
Adler, N .J . (1983) `Cross-Cultural Management Research : The Ostrich and the Trend', Academy
of Management Review, 8 : 226-32 .
Adler, N .J . (1986) International Dimensions q/' Organizational Behavior . Boston, MA : Kent .
Allport, G .W . (1954) The Nature oj' Prejudice . Cambridge, MA : Addison-Wesley .
Caligiuri et al. : The theory of tact expectations
369
Arycc, S . and Stone, R . (1996) 'Work Experiences, Work Adjustment and Psychological Wellheing of Expatriate Managers in Hong Kong', International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 7 : 150-64 .
Ashamalla, M .H . and Crocitto, M . (1997) 'Easing Entry and Beyond : Preparing Expatriates and
Patriates for Foreign Assignment Success', International Journal of Commerce and Management, 7 : 106-14 .
Aycan, Z . (1997) 'Expatriate Adjustment as a Multifaceted Phenomenon : Individual and
Organizational-level Predictors', International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8 :
402-14 .
I
Baron, R .M . and Kenny, D .A . (1986) 'The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social
Psychological Research : Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations', Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 51 : 1173-82 .
Black, J .S . (1988) 'Work Role Transitions : A Study of American Expatriate Managers in Japan',
Journal of International Business Studies, 19 : 277-94 .
Black, J .S . (1992) 'Coming Hhome : The Relationship of Expatriate Expectations with Repatriation Adjustment and Job Performance', Human Relations, 45 : 177-92 .
Black, J .S . and Gregersen, H .B . (1991) 'Antecedents to Cross-Cultural Adjustment for Expatriates
in Pacific Rim Assignments', Human Relations, 44 : 497-515 .
Black, J .S . and Mendenhall, M .E . (1990) 'Cross-Cultural Training Effectiveness : A Review and
Theoretical Framework', Academy of Management Review, 15 : 113-36 .
Black, J .S . and Mendenhall, M .E . (1991) 'The U-Curve Adjustment Hypothesis Revisited : A
Review and Theoretical Framework', Journal of International Business Studies, 22 : 225-47 .
Black, J .S ., Mendenhall, M . and Oddou, G . (1991) 'Toward a Comprehensive Model of
International Adjustment: An Integration of Multiple Theoretical Perspectives', Acadenny of
Management Review, 16 : 291-317 .
Blake, B .F . and Heslin, R . (1983) 'Evaluating Cross-cultural Training' . In Landis, D . and Brislin,
R .W . (eds) Handbook of Intercultural Training, Vol . 1, Issues in Theory and Design . New
York : Pergamon Press, pp . 203-23 .
Bonache, J . and Fernandez, Z . (1999) 'Strategic Staffing in Multinational Companies : A
Resource-based Approach' . In Brewster, C . and Harris, H . (eds) International HRM :
Contemporary Issues in Europe, London : Routledge, pp . 165-82 .
Brake, T., Walker, D .M . and Walker, T . (1994) Doing Business Internationally : The Guide to
Cross-Cultural Success . Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin .
Brewster, C . (1995) 'The Paradox of Expatriate Adjustment' . In Selmer, J . (ed .) Expatriate
Management: New Ideas for International Business . Westport, CT : Quorum Books, pp . 1 1535 .
Brewster, C . and Pickard, J . (1994) 'Evaluating Expatriate Training', International Studies of
Management and Organization, 24 : 18-35 .
Buchanan, B . (1974) . 'Building Organizational Commitment : The Socialization of Managers in
Work Organizations', Administrative Science Quarterh', 19 : 533-46 .
Caligiuri, P .M . (1997) 'Assessing Expatriate Success : Beyond Just "Being "There" ' . In Aycan, Z .
(ed .) Expatriate Management: Theory and Practice, Vol . 4 . Greenwich, CT : JAI Press,
pp . 117-40.
Caligiuri, P .M . (2000) 'Selecting Expatriates for Personality Characteristics : A Moderating Effect
of Personality on the Relationship between Host National Contact and Cross-cultural
Adjustment', Management International Review, 40(l) : 61-80 .
Caligiuri, P .M ., Hyland, M ., Joshi, A . and Bross, A . (1998) 'A Theoretical Framework for
Examining the Relationship between Family Adjustment and Expatriate Adjustment to
Working in the Host Country', Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(4) : 598-614 .
Campbell, D .J . (1982) 'Determinants of Choice of Goal Difficulty Level : A Review of Situational
and Personality Influences', Journal of Occupational Psychology, 55 : 79-95 .
Cauthen, N ., Robinson, 1 ., and Krauss, H . (1971) 'Stereotypes : A Review of the Literature
(1926-1968)', The Journal of Social Psychology, 54 : 103-25 .
Chen, L . (1994) 'Cross-cultural Training Effectiveness : A Meta-Analysis', unpublished Master's
thesis, Central Michigan University .
370
The International Journal
of Human
Resource Management
Church, A .T . (1982) `Sojourner Adjustment', Psychological Bulletin, 9 : 540-72 .
Crampton, S .M . and Wagner, J .A . (1994) 'Percept-Percept Inflation in Micro-organizational
Research : An Investigation of Prevalence and Effect', Journal of Applied Psychology, 79 :
67-76 .
Dowling, P ., Welch, D . and Schuler, R . (1998) International Human Resource Management, 3rd
edn . Cincinnati, OH : South-Western College Publishing .
Earley, C .P . (1987) 'Intercultural Training for Managers : A Comparison of Documentary and
Interpersonal Methods', Academy of Management Journal, 30 : 685-98 .
Edwards, J .R . (1995) `Alternatives to Differences Scores as Dependent Variables in the Study of
Congruence in Organizational Research', Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes, 64 : 307-24 .
Feldman, D .C . (1976) `A Contingency Theory of Socialization', Administrative Science
Quarterly, 21 : 433-52 .
Feldman, D .C . and Bolino, M .C . (1999) `The Impact of On-site Mentoring on Expatriate
Socialization : A Structural Equation Modelling Approach', International Journal of Human
Resource Management, 10 : 54-71 .
Feldman, J .M . and Lynch, J .G . (1988) 'Self-generated Validity and Other Effects of Measurement
on Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior', Journal of Applied Psychology, 73 : 421-35 .
Florkowski, G .W . and Fogel, D .S . (1999) `Expatriate Adjustment and Commitment : The Role of
Host Unit Treatment', International Journal of Human Resource Management, 10 : 783-807 .
Francesco, A .M . and Gold, B .A . (1998) International Organizational Behavior . Upper Saddle
River, NJ : Prentice Hall .
Hamilton, D . and Sherman, S . (1996) `Perceiving Persons and Groups', Psychological Reports,
103 : 336-55 .
Hamilton, D.L . and Troiler, T .K . (1986) `Stereotypes and Stereotyping : An Overview of the
Cognitive Approach' . In Dovidio, J .F. and Gaertner, S .L . (eds) Prejudice, Discrimination and
Racism . Orlando, FL : Academic Press, pp . 127-63 .
Hammer, M .R ., Hart, W . and Rogan, R . (1998) `Can You Go Home Again? An Analysis of the
Repatriation of Corporate Managers and Spouses', Management International Review, 38 :
67-86 .
Harris, H . and Brewster C . (1999) `An Integrative Framework for Pre-departure Preparation' . In
Brewster, C . and Harris, H . (eds) International HRM: Contemporary Issues in Europe . London :
Routledge, pp. 223-40 .
Johnston, L . and Coolen, P . (1995) `A Dual Processing Approach to Stereotype Change' .
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21 : 660-73 .
Katz, D . and Braly, K. (1935) `Racial Prejudice and Racial Stereotypes', Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 30 : 175-93 .
Katz, J . and Seifer, D . (1996) `It's a Different World Out There : Planning for Expatriate Success
through Selection, Pre-departure Training and On-site Socialization', Human Resource
Planning, 19(2) : 32-47 .
Kealey, D .J . (1989) `A Study of Cross-cultural Effectiveness : Theoretical Issues, Practical
Applications', International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13 : 387-428 .
Kealey, D . and Protheroe, D . (1996) `The Effectiveness of Cross Culture Training for Expatriates :
An Assessment of the Literature on the Issue', International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
20 : 141-65 .
Li, L .C . (1992) `The Strategic Design of Cross-Cultural Training Programmes', Journal of
Managerial Development, 11 : 22-9 .
Locke, E .A . (1976) `The Nature and Causes of Job Satisfaction' . In Dunnette, M .D . (ed .)
Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology . Chicago : Rand McNally, pp .
1297-349 .
Louis, M .R . (1980) `Surprise and Sense Making : What Newcomers Experience in Entering
Unfamiliar Organizational Settings', Administrative Science Quarterly, 25 : 226-51 .
McEvoy, G .M . and Parker, B . (1995) `Expatriate Adjustment : Causes and Consequences' . In
Selmer, J . (ed .) Expatriate Management : New Ideas for International Business . Westpoint, CT :
Quorum Books, pp . 97-114 .
Caligiuri et al. : The theor of met expectations 371
Mendenhall, M . and Oddou, G . (1985) `The Dimensions of Expatriate Acculturation : A Review',
Academy of Management Review, 10 : 39-47 .
Morley, M ., Burke, C . and Finn, G . (1999) `Irish Expatriates in Moscow : Exploratory Evidence
on Aspects of Adjustment' . In Brewster, C . and Harris, H . (eds) International HRM :
Contemporary issues in Europe . London : Routledge, pp . 204-22 .
Ones, D . and Viswesvaran, C . (1999) `Relative limportance of Personality Dimensions for
Expatriate Selection : A Policy Capturing Study', Human Performance, 12 : 275-94 .
Phillips, J .M . (1998) `Effects of Realistic Job Previews on Multiple Organizational Outcomes : A
Meta-analysis', Academy of Management Journal, 41 : 673-90 .
Porter, L .W . and Steers, R .M . (1973) `Organizational, Work, and Personal Factors in Employee
Turnover and Absenteeism', Psychological Bulletin, 80 : 151-76 .
Porter, L .W ., Lawler, E .E . III and Hackman, J .R . (1975) Behavior in Organizations. New York :
McGraw-Hill .
Robie, C . and Ryan, A .M . (1996) `Structural Equivalence of a Measure of Cross-Cultural
Adjustment', Educational and Psychological Measurement, 56 : 514-21 .
Sappinen, J . (1993) `Expatriate Adjustment on Foreign Assignment', European Business Review,
93(5) : 3-11 .
Schaller, M ., Boyd, C ., Yohannes, J . and O'Brien, M . (1995) `The Prejudiced Personality
Revisited : Personal Need for Structure and Formation of Erroneous Group Stereotypes',
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68 : 544-55 .
Schein, E .H . (1978) Career Dynamics: Matching Individual and Organizational Needs . Reading,
MA : Addison-Wesley .
Schneider, S .C . and Asakawa, K . (1995) `American and Japanese Expatriate Adjustment : A
Psychoanalytic Perspective', Human Relations, 48 : 1109-27 .
Scullion, H . (1999) `International HRM in Medium-Sized MNEs : Evidence from Ireland' . In
Brewster, C . and Harris, H . (eds) International HRM : Contemporary Issues in Europe . London :
Routledge, pp . 48-63 .
Selmer, J . (1998) `Expatriation : Corporate Policy, Personal Intentions and International Adjustment', International Journal of Human Resource Management, 9 : 996-1007 .
Selmer, J . (1999) `Adjustment to Hong Kong : US vs . European Expatriates', Human Resource
Management Journal, 9 : 83-93 .
Selmer, J ., Torbiorn, I . and de Leon, C . (1998) `Sequential Cross-cultural Training for Expatriate
Business Managers : Pre-departure and Post-arrival', The International Journal of Human
Resource Management, 9 : 831-40 .
Sherman, J . (1996) `Development and Mental Representation of Stereotypes',
Personality and Social Psychology, 70 : 1126-41 .
Journal of
Shumsky, N .J . (1992) `Justifying the Intercultural Training Investment', Journal of European
Business, 4 : 38-43 .
Snyder, M . (1981) 'On Self-Perpetuating Nature of Social Stereotypes' . In Hamilton, D . (ed .)
Cognitive Processes in Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior . Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum, pp .
183-212 .
Stroh, L .K . and Caligiuri, P.M . (1998) `Increasing Global Competitiveness through Effective
People Management', Journal of World Business, 33 : 1-16 .
Stroh, L .K ., Gregersen, H .B . and Black, J .S . (1998) `Closing the Gap : Expectations versus Reality
among Repatriates', Journal of World Business, 33 : 111-24 .
Suutari, V . and Brewster, C . (1999) `International Assignments across European Borders : No
Problems?' . In Brewster, C . and Harris, H . (eds) International HRM : Contemporary Issues in
Europe . London : Routledge, pp . 183-202 .
Tung, R . (1981) `Selecting and Training of Personnel for Overseas Assignments', Columbia
Journal of World Business, 16 : 68-78 .
Tung, R . (1982) `Selection and Training Procedures of U .S .,
Multinationals', California International Review, 25 : 57-71 .
European, and Japanese
Tung, R . and Miller, E . (1990) `Managing in the Twenty-First Century : The Need for Global
Orientation', Management International Review, 30 : 5-18 .
372
The International Journal of Human Resource Management
Vance, C .M . and Paderon, E .S . (1993) 'An Ethical Argument for Host Country Workforce
Training and Development in the Expatriate Management Assignment' . Journal o/' Business
Ethics, 12 : 635-41 .
Van Maanen, J . (1976) 'Breaking In : Socialization to Work' . In l)ubin . R . (ed .) Handbook of
Work, Organization and Society . Chicago . IL : Rand McNally .
Van Maanen, J . and Schein, E .H . (1979) 'Toward a Theory of Organizational Socialization' . In
Staw, B .M . (ed .) Research in Organizaiional Behavior, Vol . I . Greenwich . CT : JAI Press, pp .
209-66 .
Wall, B . (1994) 'U .S . Expats Seem Ill-prepared for U .K . Culture', USA l'oday, 16 September :
A2 .
Wanous, J .P . (1980) Organizational Entry : Recruitment, Selection, and Socialization of'
Newcomers, 1st edn . Reading, MA : Addison-Wesley .
Wanous, J .P . (1992) Organizational Entry : Recruitment, Selection, and Socialization of
Newcomers, 2nd edn . Reading, MA : Addison-Wesley .
Wanous, J .P ., Poland, T .D ., Premack, S .L . and Davis, K .S . (1992) 'The Effects of Met
Expectations on Newcomer Attitudes and Behaviors : A Review and Meta-analysis', Journal of
Applied Psychology, 77 : 288-97 .
Windham International & National Foreign Trade Council (1994) Global Relocation Trends 1994
1
Survey Report .
Windham International & National Foreign Trade Council (1998) . Global Relocation Trends 1998
Survey Report .
I