Message in the Music - Hip

Transcription

Message in the Music: Political Commentary in Black Popular Music from Rhythm and Blues
to Early Hip Hop
Author(s): James B. Stewart
Source: The Journal of African American History, Vol. 90, No. 3, The History of Hip Hop
(Summer, 2005), pp. 196-225
Published by: Association for the Study of African-American Life and History, Inc.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20063998
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MESSAGE IN THE MUSIC:
POLITICAL COMMENTARY IN BLACK
POPULAR MUSIC FROM RHYTHM AND
BLUES TO EARLY HIP HOP
James
B.
Stewart
"Music is a powerful tool in the form of communication
assist
in organizing
[that] can be used to
communities."
Gil Scott-Heron (1979)
This
essay
examines
the content
of political
commentaries
in the
lyrics
of
Rhythm and Blues (R & B) songs. It utilizes a broad definition of R & B that
includes
intended,
sub-genres
in part,
Soul."
such as Funk and "Psychedelic
to address
persisting
misinterpretations
The
of
investigation
the manner
is
in
which R & B influenced listeners' political engagement during the Civil Rights
Black
in R & B lyrics
is
of the messages
The content
a fuller
how
and
of
the
creativity
appreciation
and collective
the lyrics facilitated
listeners' personal
with
associated
is to
the
awareness
of
The broader
and engagement.
essay
objective
a foundation
and
the historical
for understanding
political
precedents
Power
deconstructed
imagery
political
establish
Movement.
to enable
and lyrics of Hip Hop.
of the music
implications
to consist
of
is understood
For present
commentary
purposes,
political
or
and
or
assessments
of
the
social,
economic,
descriptions
implicit
explicit
as well as the forces creating
of people of African
conditions
descent,
political
exclude most R & B compositions
criteria deliberately
these conditions.
These
focus on
of songs in this genre, similar to the Blues,
because
the vast majority
to
not
meant
This
some aspect
is
of male-female
imply that
relationships.1
of political
is devoid
male-female
relationships
examining
to
address
that
here
restricted
is
attention
however,
lyrics
music
implications;
the
directly
relationship of African Americans to the largerAmerican body politic. While
ideas
of political
a number
selected
have discussed
of commentators
aspects
not
has
the
of
this
B
main
in
R
&
found
commentary
corpus
political
lyrics,
to
been subjected
analysis.2
systematic
the present
and theoretical
Historical
underlying
perspectives
precedents
A
of
are
next
the
section.
in
discussed
commentary
types is
typology
inquiry
in
R
& B
to
selected
and
used
examine
then presented
commentary
political
lyrics from the 1960s through the early 1980s. The concluding section briefly
considers
commentary
the extent
to which
in Hip Hop
the typology
music.
196
is useful
for understanding
political
Political Commentary
in Black Popular Music
197
HISTORICALPRECEDENTSAND THEORETICALFOUNDATIONS
There
are
a variety
of
classical
and more
contemporary
commentaries
about the role of music in African American culture that provide useful
insights for the development of a framework for understanding the political
of R & B. Early
20th century
advanced
perspectives
by Zora Neale
W. E. B. Du Bois,
and Alain Locke
remain relevant
for interpreting
African
musical
forms. Hurston
insisted
American
that African
contemporary
was
American
folklore
of authentic
the core component
African
American
most
this
the
authentic
in
culture.3
idea,
commentary
Extending
political
role
Hurston,
music
lyrics
should
African descent.
originate
in the organic
everyday
experiences
of people
In The Souls of Black Folk Du Bois maintained
of
that the
one of the most
useful documentations
of the long
songs" provided
and
that
of
this
form of
Thus,
history
oppression
struggle against
oppression.4
a bearer of historical
to
music
became
the
similar
in
role
of
memory,
griots
to
In
sorrow
West
African
societies.
addition
the
in
these
many
conveyed
that there was also a "faith in the ultimate
of
songs, Du Bois
argued
justice
that
"minor
cadences
of
to
and
often
and
calm
things"
despair change
triumph
can be observed
Similar shifts in moods
confidence."5
and assessments
in R &
B lyrics.
"sorrow
Philosopher Alain Locke went even further than Du Bois by proposing
in predominant
that changes
African-American
musical
genres were
closely
in the sociopolitical
with major
correlated
transformations
and economic
milieu
for African
Locke's
that in the absence
of
views
Americans.6
suggest
to shape the content
external
efforts
of African
American
in
music,
changes
content
correlated
be
in
should
with
the
and
social, political,
lyrical
changes
economic
for African
circumstances
Americans.
Locke
Moreover,
emphasized
that African
American
music was deeply
the
in
American
cultural
ingrained
to the point
fabric
that it "furnish[es]
the sub-soil
of our national
music."7
the need
to explore
in
suggests
perspective
commentary
political
in terms of not only its impact on African Americans,
black music
but also on
Americans
of European
and Asian
descent.
Some
echo many
of the classical
commentators
contemporary
positions
role of music
in African
about the special
life and culture.
Samuel
American
Locke's
Floyd asserts that "all black music making is driven by and permeated with the
memory of things from the cultural past and that the viability of such
of and criticism
and
of works
play a role in the perception
a
of
to
black
music."8
this concept
of
performances
Applying
sub-genre
R & B, historian
Van
William
"as an indigenous
that,
Deburg
argued
of the collective
African American
served
expression
[Soul music]
experience,
as a repository
of racial consciousness
the medium
of
[that transcended]
memory
should
entertainment [and] provided a ritual in song with which African Americans
could identify and through which they could convey important in-group
symbols."9
In a similar
vein,
disc
jockey
Reggie
Lavong
declared,
"like Blues,
198
Soul
The Journal of African American History
music
and
reflects,
defines,
of black Americans."10
aspirations
directs
the
strategies,
expectations,
and
These claims about the political efficacy of R & B have been challenged
by Brian Ward in Just My Soul Responding: Rhythm and Blues, Black
and Race Relations
who argued that, "on its own Rhythm
and
Consciousness,
or social action possible,
or even likely,
Blues
had never made mass
political
or simple way."
in any direct
to Ward,
R & B "had always
According
a cultural
the territory
between
of a black
navigated
being
expression
was organized
which
and essentially
insurgency,
by other means
shaped by
other intellectual,
and socio-economic
and being a surrogate
forces;
political,
for such action."11 While
resolution
of this controversy
is beyond
the scope
of this
to
the
debate
the
current
need
the
investigation,
signals
ground
an
as
an
in
of
the
of
role
music
influence
exploration
general
interpretation
on individual
human behavior.
and collective
a functional
Some
role in early
argue that music
played
anthropologists
human development
transmission
and
of
retention
information
by facilitating
for
individual
and
survival.
This
is
in part,
necessary
group
accomplished,
occurs
the
of
through
phenomenon
"auditory
imagery."
Auditory
imagery
one has a "song on the brain," that is, one has the experience
when
of hearing
the song without
how
examining
stimulation.
A study by David Kraemer
and others,
auditory
the brain processes
to
similar
found
that
music,
previous
an
research
"visual
is triggered when
imagery,"
regarding
auditory
imagery
a
a
version
with
is familiar with a song. When
heard
of
individual
song
subjects
some
the brain
the missing
words.
lyrics missing,
involuntarily
supplied
a
that
occurred
in
the
researchers
found
this
Moreover,
part
imaging
specific
a
not familiar with
when
of the brain that was not accessed
subjects were
song.12
In a broader
audio and visual
induced by music
enables
sense,
imagery
an idea used by Samuel Floyd
to access
to ground
listeners
related memories,
to music
his study The Power
of Black Music.
Floyd argued that "our responses
on our reactions
are based
to the artistic
embodiment
and
of struggle
as depicted
in contrived
and
fulfillment
events,
refinements,
relationships,
to the daily
scenarios
These
constructed
represent
analogs
as "various
to
what
achieve
he
describes
balance
between
struggles
and
and
of
tension
manifestations
repose,
opposition
including
failure
and
and
and
achievement."13
accommodation,
hope,
aspiration
on
to elaborate
content
The likelihood
that listeners
supply corroborative
idealizations."
human
in music
that
is acknowledged
the political messages
by Ward, who
reported
few Soul songs and even fewer Soul singers openly
"with relatively
embracing
after Montgomery,
black audiences
the organized
struggle during the decades
and Movement
sometimes
themselves
found
bestowing
political
meanings
. . . and
on ostensibly
involved
songs
messages
[that] sometimes
apolitical
from the original
intentions
popular
readings of songs which were far removed
of
those who
document
made
the wide
the music."14
variety
One
of political
of the thrusts
messages
is to
of this investigation
to audiences
in using
available
Political
Commentary
199
R & B as a vehicle for their personal and collective political affirmations and
empowerment.
Ward's dismissal of the political potency of R & B lyrics stems in part
from
his
emphasis
of R & B
on what
artists
he perceives
in the Civil
as the
Rights
limited
personal
Movement,
the
involvement
intensifying
over time, and the progressive
of
of the music
commodification
disappearance
to political
education
and community
radio stations
committed
development
is no question
There
that provided
outlets for songs with political messages.15
that in a world inwhich black popular music is highly commodified there is no
guarantee
communities
becomes
maximize
content
lyrical
writers
from which
the
within
the realities
existing
As
black
music
and performers
originate.
to
to control
interests
by corporate
subject
seeking
increasingly
to
and
its
both
its
community
well-being
linkage
organic
profits,
are weakened,
if the controlling
financial
interests are
particularly
that
mirrors
sensibilities
to the social
external
Neal
cautions
Anthony
constraints
principal
"hyperconglomeration"
music
that is never
called
urban
core black
Marc
orbit of the music's
constituency.
one
of
the
in the Key
that
in Songs
Black
Life
of
era
on
black
the
of
radio
during
placed
the
that gets played?or,
is on "the music
rather,
on commercial
radio stations
in so
that specialize
played
formats."16
to recognize
that new technologies
have significantly
of
disseminated
reduced
the
messages
traditionally
political
formats.
The music
has much
audio
for example,
video,
through
recording
to impact
than audio
the listener's
conscious
greater
recordings
potential
of auditory
and visual
the
the combination
However,
imagery.
through
dissemination
of political messages
through this format is even less likely than
with
commercial
audio recordings
due to even stricter control
by corporate
interests and associated
for visual media.
efforts to expand markets
As noted by Floyd,
of R & B "into a racially
the transformation
integrated
in the
it as their own began
and whites
music with African Americans
claiming
Chuck
with
the
ascendance
of
Little
Richard
and
1940s" and accelerated
of R & B raises the issue of how political
The
interracial
audience
Berry.17
to
in ways
that target specific
available
any listener can be shaped
messages
It is also
sub-groups.
non-black
important
effectiveness
Some messages
The
audiences.
may
two
be simultaneously
intended for both black
groups may
similarly
interpret messages
dissimilarly depending on the extent of the use of culturally-specific
and
or
linguistic
are perceived
to which
and the degree
conditions
through comparable
When
lenses.
and performers
writers
in intentional
audience
engage
to communicate
differentiation
with
internal
and
external
simultaneously
a modern
variant
entendre
this reflects
of the type of double
audiences,
to promote
reflected
in many
of the Spirituals
sung during the era of slavery
features
and provide
the Underground
such as,
Railroad,
guidance
along
cases
Low
In
Sweet
other
Chariot."18
commentaries
may be
"Swing
political
some
to target specific
fashioned
As an example,
audiences.
integrationist
are directed
to external,
commentaries
non-black
such as
audiences,
primarily
resistance
200
In contrast,
in popular music.
nationalist,
phenomenon
are
and
to
anti-establishment,
messages
revolutionary
typically
shaped
internal
mobilization.
promote
community
political
or behavior
In general,
the impact of the lyrical content on the psyche
of
or
on
several
audiences
factors.
These
the
include
single
multiple
depends
and creativity
of the message
the
forcefulness,
content;
sophistication,
of
the
of
and
the
of
salience
the
message.
efficacy
style
delivery;
perceived
over time in the
These
in turn, are heavily
influenced
elements,
by changes
with
the
"crossover"
of music
and consumption,
dissemination,
technologies
production,
along with
race
the ever-evolving
of
and
relations
inter
social-political
landscape
In
differences
in
musical
the
tastes.19
addition,
generational
stylistic
a particular
set the boundaries
that define
conventions
of course,
genre will,
the format of any associated
commentaries.
Moreover,
prescribing
political
the conditions
to a given time period will heavily
and events specific
influence
as well as
the subjects of political
the target audiences
lyrics and will determine
the content
of the commentary.
Audience
is also facilitated
in the sites
segmentation
through differences
where
different
music.
Guthrie
introduces
the
subgroups
experience
Ramsey
to describe
of "community
and private
theaters,"
concept
spaces
"public
a place
a highly
to negotiate
with
audiences
with
others?in
[that] provide
cultural
such as music
Before
mean."20
and
way?what
expressions
Power Movement,
racial segregation
demanded
during the Civil Rights-Black
distinct
in which African
Americans
listened to and experienced
music.
spaces
These
included
informal
interactions
friends,
among
places
family gatherings,
and theaters
in the community.
These
parties,
organizational
meetings,
the generation
of group-specific
theaters
facilitated
community
segregated
of political messages.
interpretations
The political
saliency of R & B songs was further intensified
by the efforts
as platforms
of some African
to use their shows
American
disc jockeys
for
Brian Ward
education.
has provided
account
the most
political
comprehensive
of the role of radio in the southern civil rights struggle. However,
in analyzing
social
these initiatives he fails to examine how the disc jockeys carefully selected
the political
delivered
messages
songs to underscore
through other
had much
disc jockeys
Northern
latitude than their southern
greater
to intermingle
narrative
and the judicious
counterparts
commentary
political
with
of
songs
messages.
play
political
cannot
The
of these
diversified
theaters
be
community
importance
awareness
in gauging
the impact of R & B on listeners' political
and
overstated
but is easily overlooked
when
and
engagement,
only commercial
production
are examined.
is the context
This
in which Van Deburg
distribution
channels
music
often made
maintained
that "more overtly
little impact on
political
was
the
these
of
record
national
charts,
message
songs
[but]
spread
particular
formats.21
underground
demonstrated
a modern-day
via
in subsequent
sections,
'grapevine
telegraph'."22
the wide variety of message
& B lyrics provided rich ingredients for robust political discussion.
As
will
content
be
in R
201
TOWARDA TYPOLOGYOF POLITICALCOMMENTARIESINR & B
The traditional lack of attentiveness
to the content of political
commentaries inR & B is illustrated by Ward's contention that "Rhythm and
absorbed
black
in mass
consciousness
and reflected
them
changes
means
of
musical
certain
and
devices
by
primarily
performance
techniques,
rather than in the form of neat narrative
Even when
expositions."23
analysts
the significance
of R & B lyrical content,
there has been a
acknowledge
to lump very different
in ways
that
tendency
types of messages
together
nuances.
an
uses
overlook
distinctions
and
As
Van
example,
Deburg
important
Blues
the construct
of
protest songs"
the Impressions's,
including
Power
Sake) Give More
a
Black
from
and Gil
Man,"
"updated
list of songs,
"(For God's
"Message
Not Be Televised."24
The
traditional
significant difficulty
use
of broad,
a widely
to implicitly
diverse
conjoin
on
the Chi-Lites's,
"Keep
Pushing,"
to the People,"
the Temptations's,
"The Revolution
Will
Scott-Heron's,
undifferentiated
classifications
introduces
in fully appreciating the complexity of political thought
in R & B lyrics. At the same time, some researchers
contained
have provided
a more
hints for developing
of commentaries.
useful
refined
It is
typology
that the "documentary"
is the most
basic
generally
agreed
type of political
commentary found in R & B lyrics. William Van Deburg
suggests that the
on the state of black
a running
commentary
documentary
"provide[s]
In general,
documentaries
culture."25
conditions
negative
highlight
prevalent
in black communities.
Brian Ward
that
the
"musical
and lyrical affinity
argued
circumstances
of black
of R & B to the material
that economic
lives, dictated
as
factors
often
loomed
in
its
in
did
black
life."26
songs,
large
just
they
are often
in documentaries
contained
Descriptions
presented
using
quasi
or non-pejorative
This
rhetorical
facilitates
objective
language.
strategy
with both internal and external audiences,
with each able to frame
engagement
distinct
interpretations.
Three
additional
of documentaries?"Jeremiads,"
"All God's
types
an
Children
and
"Defiant
Declarations,"
target
Challenges"?typically
external
audience.
from the analysis
of African
American
Borrowing
speeches
an
and sermons,
Jeremiads
three
of the
assertion
components:
incorporate
core
as
a
to
a
of
values
covenant
ascribed
with
declension
God;
significance
to live up to this promise
America's
failure
to its
with
detailing
respect
treatment
of African
and a prophecy
outcomes
Americans;
outlining
positive
or negative
in the case of repentance,
from
the
consequences
stemming
status
of
the
perpetuation
quo.27
All
God's
tout common
Children
Declarations
interests
and
shared
of
African
Americans
to
and
non-blacks
for
experiences
argue
equal
to equality,
removal
of barriers
and a reduction
of intergroup
treatment,
conflict.
sometimes
the role of external
in changing
Lyrics
emphasize
agents
cases
in
are
but
outsiders
and
insiders
conditions,
many
simultaneously
to work
to solve
critical
social
Ward
encouraged
cooperatively
problems.
202
. . . used
1960s
soul songs of the early-to-mid
"'engaged1
invocations
imagery and the sounds of soul, rather than direct
quasi-religious
or the Movement
to make
and
their racial provenance
of race, Jim Crow,
than
demand
Defiant
relevance
obvious."28
(rather
Challenges
political
cease
forces
and desist
behavior.
that external
from exploitative
entreat)
or promises
to terminate
outcomes
failure
Threats
of negative
from
or conditions
are standard features. As suggested
behavior
by the
oppressive
use of
more
an
is
with
limited
lyrical style
employed
terminology,
aggressive
that most
claims
nuance
such
near
Van Deburg
that
types of commentaries.
suggested
are
on
in
the
order
the
that
social
songs emphasize
significant
changes
to
emanate
than
from
and are more
horizon
likely
revolutionary
than
evolutionary
in the other
processes.29
The other broad types of internally focused political commentaries can be
"Collective
"Awareness
Solutions,"
Self-Criticism,"
Self-Help
Raising
and "Spiritual
"Confrontation
Manifestos,"
Declarations,"
"Revolutionary
to
is designed
Awareness
Self-Criticism
Transcendence
Raising
Explorations."
set of circumstances
and
of a particular
listeners about the seriousness
educate
can be leveled
either
to document
action. Criticism
the need for corrective
as
or
business
at
such
owners,
groups
preachers,
politicians,
generally
specific
awareness
are the lack of political
or teachers. The primary bases of criticism
called
to
to take action
and the failure
and severity
of a problem,
the origins
era
"Black
Power
As
Van
eliminate
asserted,
Deburg
debilitating
predicaments.
. . .
Americans
African
soulsters
taught that in order to alter social conditions,
same time,
at
At
the
to
looked
the
themselves."30
first had
way
they
change
as
are
the
external
forces
negative
major
culprit producing
targeted
typically
conditions.
to sharpen
also
Solutions
Collective
attempt
political
Self-Help
for solving
of
further
have
the
but
consciousness,
guidance
providing
objective
in Soul Music
for
Haralamabos
Michael
observed,
community
problems.
in
some
for
conditions
the
is
"concern
R
&
in
that
B,
expressed
example,
. . .
as something
to
[and they] are condemned
poorer areas of black society
to
work
to
individuals
mobilize
commentaries
These
be eradicated."31
attempt
local resources
that use
activities
in self-help
solving
problem
collectively
cases
some
for specific
on
In
aid.
external
rather than relying
suggestions
are
offered.
conditions
to ameliorate
problematic
strategies
to
actions
self-defense
advocate
Declarations
Confrontational
aggressive
in black
control
of external
manifestations
indirect
and
direct
combat
of
Law enforcement
violence.
including
external
of
visible
political
symbols
of illicit drugs, are
such as purveyors
for direct
confrontational
strategies.
are
sometimes
national
organizations
necessary,
by any means
as
the most
often
targeted
other external
control. However,
forces,
as high priority
identified
also
targets
communities
are
agents
Existing
and
neighborhood-based
chastised for exhibiting timidity in protecting the interests of the community.
These
commentaries
about
the
consequences
address
of
audiences
external
indirectly
of
not relinquishing
control
through warnings
in
institutions
key
Political
black
communities.
black
nationalism
203
Commentary
Such
commentaries
during
prevalent
Manifestos
the context
flow
the Black
from
directly
Power era.32
several
variants
of
in African
American
problems
broader
of
patterns
global
oppression.
Calls
for the wholesale
of existing
and economic
restructuring
political
a major
constitute
institutions
of the lyrics. Global
feature
distinguishing
are
localized
often
and
its
the primary
manifestations
corporate
capitalism
are called
focus
of revolutionary
transformation
commentaries.
Audiences
to
connect
with
efforts
of
to
around
the world
upon
groups
marginalized
a
more
for
humane
international
order. From this vantage
local
struggle
point,
as advocated
in confrontation
declarations
be necessary,
but
control,
may
to achieve
true liberation.
coordination
of efforts
insufficient,
Consequently,
are
to maintain
and multi-cultural
local
viable
communities
alliances
Revolutionary
within
communities
frame
of
sometimes
thus addressing
external audiences
advocated,
indirectly. According
are grounded
to Van Deburg,
such commentaries
in the view held by some
one of both race and
black
leftists
that, "the black nationalist
struggle was
class
linked
to the struggles
and therefore
of Third World
necessarily
liberation
movements."33
Transcendence
to seek solutions
to
urge listeners
Explorations
their daily struggles
by achieving
personal
spiritual enlightenment.
Presumably
a higher
can be achieved
consciousness
and
spiritual
through meditation
race
diminished
focus on the day-to-day
confrontations
and
racial
surrounding
as a means
is often advocated
to move
to a
inequality.
Drug experimentation
Spiritual
is seemingly
transformed
from a
Thus, drug culture
plane of existence.
of oppression
into a liberation
of
this
strategy. Widespread
adoption
would
reduce
racial
and
to
tensions
contribute
the
lifestyle
presumably
elevation
of the general
human condition.
is
sometimes
Deracialized
imagery
of performers
used to increase
to external
the attractiveness
audiences.
As
were
some
such
commentaries
to
attractive
Ward,
suggested
by
especially
higher
source
of
members
middle-class
"the first
of post-Movement,
mobile,
generation
young
upwardly
the
extent
to which
Americans,
gamely
testing
to black advancement
traditional
barriers
in the new
really had been erased
are
of
each
elements
summarized
in
Key
commentary
meritocracy."34
type
1.
Table
African
204
Table 1
Commentary
Type
Documentary
Typologies
Audience(s)
Internal/External
Describes
document
possible
Key Characteristics
negative conditions designed to
the magnitude
of problems and
causes
External
to implement
outsiders
Challenges
humanitarian beliefs and values
All God's Children
Declaration
External/Internal
on
treatment
Calls
for equal
based
assertions of common interests and shared
Defiant Challenge
External
that external forces cease
Demands
desist from exploitative behavior
Jeremiad
experiences
and
to
Awareness Raising
Self-Criticism
Internal
Describes negative conditions designed
broaden concern within the community
Collective
Solution
Internal/External
Calls for collective problem-solving
relying on local resources
Confrontational
Declaration
Internal/External
to
Advocates
self-defense
aggressive
confront direct and indirect manifestations
of external control in black communities
Revolutionary
Manifesto
Internal/External
Calls for overturning existing political and
to advance
economic
institutions
liberation struggles
Internal/External
to
Advocates
spiritual
enlightenment
reduce social
tension, with
drug use
to heighten
sometimes
advocated
Self-Help
Spiritual
Transcendence
Exploration
efforts
consciousness
to
in efforts
of multiple
audiences
introduces
complexity
some
not
do
fit
In
commentaries
themes.
addition,
neatly
interpret political
than one of the
of more
characteristics
into any single category,
exhibiting
of
hurdle because
the classification
issues pose no major
These
typologies.
The
targeting
individual songs in this investigation
is undertaken
largely in support of
to
in which
have worked
artists and writers
of the ways
creatively
exploration
means
a
as
The
value
is
classifications'
convey messages
effectively.
principal
The
to ascertain
of particular
the relative
types of statements.
prevalence
to
which
of the extent
the assessment
also facilitate
classifications
performers
as
and style of commentaries
and writers
altered
the orientation,
content,
new
and
social
and political
conditions
changed
technological
capabilities
emerged.
205
POLITICALCOMMENTARYINR & B
Although the typology introduced previously is designed primarily for the
classification of political commentary inR & B and Hip Hop, it is important
to recognize
example,
commentary
For
would
to other genres.
of this basic approach
the potential
applicability
to the examination
it has been applied
of political
directly
to expect
that the Blues
in the Blues,
it is unrealistic
although
the full range of political
exhibit
by this
themes encompassed
classification
scheme.35
era of the early 20th century,
Jim Crow
Blues
artists were
the
During
were
same
at other
to
of
control
forms
social
that
directed
the
subjected
As a consequence,
the political
commentaries
that were
Americans.
African
advanced
whites.
were
to reduce
structured
The
the likelihood
of a backlash
type of aggressive,
political
challenging
Power Movement
for
fueled,
example,
by the Black
even the most
Blues
Instead,
visionary
performers.
from offended
commentaries
that were
were
to
inconceivable
Blues
artists
used
finely honed descriptive skills to highlight the effects of oppression
to raise
awareness
external
of sympathetic
and/or
audiences
common
Americans
African
among
solidarity
by documenting
to survive
and enhancing
the resolve
in the face
of daily
experiences
and
All
Children
God's
Declarations
Documentaries,
Jeremiads,
oppression.
were
external
the principal
Blues
commentaries
used to communicate
with
were also the
and All God's Children
audiences.
Documentaries
commentaries
a sense of common
for conveying
vehicle
among African
destiny
principal
Americans.36
Unlike
and style of political
the Blues,
the content
in
commentaries
R & B have been dominated
urban
northern
the
sensibilities,
by
reflecting
of the large-scale
from the South during
influence
the post
out-migration
designed
promote
the
their
in ways
World War II period. The preeminence of Detroit (Motown) and Philadelphia
as major
was one outcome
sites of R & B music
of
(Philly Sound)
production
was also a
this dramatic demographic
shift away from the rural South. Chicago
as one
site of R & B creative
and Curtis Mayfield
major
production,
emerged
of the most incisive commentators in the R & B tradition.37 Highlighting
in no way
this
the significance
of southern-based
labels such as
pattern
more
the
commentaries
Stax; however,
Memphis-based
hard-hitting
political
were
in the North,
where
African
faced
Americans
less
likely to originate
social
controls.38
Hall
has
how
distinct
south to
oppressive
Perry
investigated
routes
north migration
collectives
with
reproduced
pre-existing
geographic
distinct
diminishes
cultural
in specific
elements
northern
cities. Hall
that subtle
argues
across
in
are
cultural
differences
and experiences
sensibilities
communities
some
in
the music
in each locale.39
reflected
In
this is an
produced
respects,
extension
of Locke's
for disaggregation
of the broad
arguments,
allowing
between
and music.
social conditions
patterns of correlation
was
R & B music
Commercialized
also a form of dance music
and
a
was
format
with
extensive
and
instrumentation
developed
highly
stylized
206
to maximize
packaged
record
sales.
This
genre
was
created
by
transforming
traditional R & B through changes in lyrics and in the rhythmic organization
to ensure that it would
The modified
format was sanitized
not be
to
and
be
white
could
audiences
overtly
easily duplicated
by white
to perform,
artists
selected
i.e., cover
songs originally
by black
performed
a high
This market
artists.40
also encouraged
of role
orientation
degree
a
in
differentiation
As
and
among performers,
writers,
consequence,
producers.
of the music.
offensive
cases
many
it is difficult
to identify
the precise
source
of
ideas
expressed
in
commentaries.
political
A significant body of R & B songs with political commentary did not
begin to appear until the mid-1960s after some of the initial victories in the
continued
discussion
of
Some
early commentaries
Rights Movement.
For
Blues
"Chain
in
Sam
Cooke's
addressed
lyrics.
previously
example,
of how the criminal
is a stark reminder
system operates
(1962)
justice
Gang"
as a vehicle
the optimism
that engulfed
of social control.41 Reflecting
many
the early
and performers
1960s, R & B writers
expressed
guarded
during
outcomes
Sam
of the freedom
about the positive
long-term
struggle.
optimism
in
his
is Gonna
1965
after
"A Change
released
Cooke's
Come,"
mysterious
"It's
is a mournful,
call for a new political
death,
yet hopeful,
dispensation:
42
is gonna come, yes it will."
but I know a change
been a long time coming,
Civil
issues
The Impressions' "Keep on Pushing" (1965), written by Curtis Mayfield,
is
of an
confidence
directed
commentary
expressing
internally
were
of African
Americans
fortunes
and
economic
political
improving.43
a flurry of
of the Civil Rights Movement
The early successes
encouraged
All
God's
Children
with
focused
commentaries
and internally
both externally
Some
references.
without
but
songs use the
characteristics,
explicit
religious
a
from
with
different
train
of
passengers
backgrounds
traveling
metaphor
a common
in
to capture
the idea of shared
interests
destination
toward
written
Get
The
racial justice.
(1964),
Ready"
"People
Impressions'
pursuing
is a classic
Other songs using the train metaphor
example.
by Curtis Mayfield,
reference
include
to invoke
interracial
religious
images with no explicit
unity
another
that
example
the
Gladys Knight and the Pips' (1969) "Friendship Train," written by Norman
Whitfield and Barrett Strong, and the O'Jays' "Love Train" (1972), written by
and Leon Huff.44
Kenny Gamble
to
Americans
commentaries
focused
Some
urged African
internally
of
to
their
worthiness
demonstrate
institute self-improvement
equal
strategies
Awareness
of All God's Children,
elements
treatment.
These
lyrics combine
The
commentaries.
Collective
and
Self-Criticism,
Staple
Self-Help
Raising
and
Luther
Mark
written
Rice
Yourself
Ingram,
(1971),
by
"Respect
Singers'
of
"Choice
The
of this rhetorical
is one example
Impressions'
strategy.45
uses
a
more
to
indirect
written
Curtis
Colors"
approach
Mayfield,
(1969),
by
convey
a similar message:
207
People must say to the people,
A better day is coming for you and for me;
And with a little bit more education and love for our nation,
We'll have a better society.46
The Four Tops'
"Keeper of the Castle"
(1972), written
by Dennis
and Brian Potter, emphasizes
to maintain
listeners' responsibility
and
cover
the
in
urban
conditions
The
the
communities.47
of
improve
physical
album containing
two
the title song, "Keeper of the Castle,"
presents
images
one tidy and well
of the same mansion,
the other dilapidated.
This
kept,
two
for
black
futures
actual
with
the
communities,
suggests
imagery
possible
on choices made
Americans
themselves.
path depending
by African
heavily
Lambert
The
rhetorical
strategy
of Collective
elements
A more
pessimistic
thus
Awareness
and
Self-Criticism
synthesizes
Raising
commentary.
Self-Help
of Jeremiad
to
body
political
commentary
began
appear in the early 1970s, induced in part by the failure of the Civil Rights
to generate
Black Power Movement
life for urban black
residents.
This
some Blues
to the unrealized
artists
any significant
thematic
shift
changes
parallels
associated
in the quality
the response
of
of
with New Deal
expectations
in the 1930s and 1940s. Stevie Wonder
this sentiment
policies
aptly captures
in a unique
in "Visions"
articulated
type of All God's Children
commentary
to the rhetoric and dream of Martin
allusions
Luther King,
Jr.,
(1973). Using
Wonder
in reducing
whether
has
progress
questions
significant
inequality
occurred:
People hand in hand,
Have I lived to see the milk and honey land?
Where
a dream
hate's
is this
Or
and
a vision
love
in my
forever
stands,
mind?
Or is this a vision inmy mind?48
use
The
of Jeremiad-like
in this commentary
characteristics
is subtle?a
as
found
in
other
well. Roberta
commentaries
Flack's
strategy
"Tryin' Times"
and Leroy Hutson,
of
is another example
(1969), written
by Donny
Hathaway
a rhetorical
Jeremiad features:
strategy using understated
You
the
got
riots
and
the ghettos,
And it's all around;
And a whole lot of things that are wrong,
Are
I don't
down.
going
understand
it,
From my point of view,
said do unto others,
Somebody
As you would
have
them do unto you.
have
to suffer,
Folks wouldn't
If there was more
love for each other,
These
are
trying
times.49
208
on to challenge
to change
to become
in efforts
active
a
the dynamics
in the
theme also advanced
conflict,
intergroup
producing
on Earth"
"You Make
Your Own Heaven
& Hell Right Here
Temptations'
Whitfield
and Barrett
Stevie Wonder's
(1970), written
by Norman
Strong.50
of America"
is an interesting
"Jesus Children
Jeremiad
that takes to
(1973)
to religious
to
task listeners who
subscribe
for failing
values
presumably
their beliefs
into action.51
translate
Flack
goes
"(Don'tWorry) If There's a Hell Below We're All Gonna
Curtis Mayfield's
Go"
is one
(1970)
The
song
strategy.
listeners
of
begins
the most
innovative
examples
with a monologue
by a woman
of
this
promoting
rhetorical
the view
that the simple solution to all of the world's problems is following the
prescriptions set forth in the Bible. Mayfield then identifies various groups
are
to social
for contributing
sisters,
ills, including
brothers,
culpable
and
the
and
He
then
their
crackers,
blacks,
supporters.
whiteys,
police
all
and
behaviors
tolerated
enunciates
the
various
describes
by
dysfunctional
a
then
we're
all
"if
hell
there's
below,
gonna
warning,
go."52
to its Jeremiad
is significant
In addition
features, Mayfield's
commentary
concrete
and
for its focus on the detailed
of
conditions
description
oppressive
who
Other writers
of perpetrators
of exploitation.
to
the same
commentaries
convey
documentary
identification
have
used
type
performers
of message.
epic Living for the City (1973) is especially noteworthy for
Stevie Wonder's
ingenious
southern
inculcate
and
interweaving
oppression
traditional
differences
describes
of several themes. Wonder
the
led to northern
migration,
a
in
the
face
values
of
myriad
family
that
the persistence
efforts
heroic
of
to
of dehumanizing
and
faced
of
subordination
in
the
forces,
patterns
by black males
mores
to
in
values
conditions
and
southern
in
difficulties
females,
applying
with
illicit drugs
when
involvement
and likely outcomes
the urban North,
with a racist northern criminal justice
leads to engagement
system.53
"Inner City Blues
Marvin
Holler)"
(Make Me Wanna
(1971),
Gaye's
and "What's Going
On"
and James Nyx,
written
(1971),
Gaye
by Marvin
and Renaldo
both paint
Marvin
written
Benson,
Gaye,
by Al Cleveland,
of deteriorating
pictures
graphic
social
conditions
and offer
stinging
critiques
of skewed public policy priorities. Portions of "Inner City Blues" exhibit
subtle Defiant
moon
Rockets,
commentary
Challenge
shots,
Spend it on the have nots,
we make
Money,
'Fore we
Oh,
make
you
it,
it you take
want
to holler,
see
it.
The way they do my life,
Make
me
wanna
holler,
The way they do my life,
This
ain't
livin',
This
ain't
livin'.
characteristics:
value
209
to an alternative
In "What's Going On," Marvin
Gaye pleads for allegiance
an
an
of
in
Awareness
Self-Criticism:
system
Raising
example
mother
Mother,
There's too many of you crying;
brother,
Brother,
brother,
of you dying.
There's
far too many
know we've
You
got to find a way,
some
To bring
lovin' here today?Yeah.
to escalate,
father we don't need
father,
Father,
is not the answer,
You
see, war
For only
love can conquer
hate.
You
we've
know
a way,
to find
got
To bring some lovin' here today,
Picket lines and picket signs
Don't punish me with brutality;
Talk
Oh,
so you
to me,
what's
Yeah,
can
see,
on,
going
what's
going
on.54
on black pride arising
Power Movement
and the emphasis
in
and blossoming
in the early
1970s
several
Defiant
inspired
commentaries
that incorporated
Black Power
elements.
Challenge
ideological
the
of
theme
James
black
include
songs
articulating
Representative
pride
The
Black
the mid-1960s
Brown's "Say it Loud" (1969), and Billy Paul's "Am I Black Enough for You?"
song is a
the
about
counterexample
general
previously
of
limited
southern
record
commentaries
relatively
production
political
by
and Huffs
creative.
Gamble
labels, even though the lyrics are not especially
to
need
the
listeners
continue
for
until
the goals
lyrics emphasize
struggling
as
in embracing
have been achieved
and to be steadfast
their black
identity,
turn
in
the
of
Black
for
expressed
phrase,
"stay
enough
you."
(1972),
written
by Kenny
to the
Gamble
and Leon Huff.55
claim
introduced
James
Brown's
for power and self-determination
in Defiant
also found voice
struggle
as
commentaries
such
the
the
Power"
Brothers'
Isley
Challenge
(1975),
"Fight
The
written by Ernie Isley, Marvin
Isley, O'Kelly
Isley, Ronald
Isley, Rudolph
include the O'Jays'
"Give
Isley, and Chris Jasper.56 Other examples
the Power They Want"
written
Gamble
and
Leon
(1975),
by Kenny
the Chi-Lites'
the People
and
Huff,
"(For God's Sake) Give More Power to the People" (1971),
written
to black
The challenge
by Eugene Record.57
interwoven
with
War
anti-Vietnam
strong
sentiment.
was
oppression
Edwin
Starr's
sometimes
version
"War (What Is It Good For)" (1970), written by Norman Whitfield
Barrett
"Bring
Strong,
the Boys
set
the
Home"
tone
for
(1971),
this
written
type
of
commentary.58
Norman
by General
Freda
Johnson,
of
and
Payne's
Greg
Perry, and Angelo Bond, links the war to family and relationship disruption.59
Marvin Gaye's "What'sHappening Brother" (1971), written by James Nyx
and Marvin
Gaye,
of a documentary
is another
of anti-war
commentary
example
than Defiant
In this song,
Challenge.
style
that has more
takes on
Gaye
210
the
a black veteran
to find out what
of
role
attempting
Americans:
home
returning
changes
have
after
occurred
in the war
service
who
is
of African
in the situation
Hey baby, what'cha know good?
I'm just gettin' back, but you knew Iwould.
War is hell, when will it end,
will
When
start
people
gettin'
together
again,
Are things really gettin' better, like the newspaper said?
What else is new my friend, besides what I read?
is tighter
than it's ever been.
Money
I don't understand,
Say man,
on across
this land.
What's
going
Ah what's happening brother,
Oh
yeah,
what's
happening,
my
man?60
the 1950s and 1960s the dissemination
During
was
commentaries
disc jockeys
facilitated
announcers
and
by the heightened
on AM
stations.
of musical
consciousness
They were
political
black
of many
the first
among
the Civil Rights Movement?announcing
conducting
meetings,
about
and
informed
listeners
civil
leaders,
keeping
rights
were
inclined
also
and
in
for
the
They
justice.
struggle
equality
developments
as
to R & B songs with political
thrusts. However,
to give significant
airplay
to FM formats
in the 1970s, the new formats de
AM radio lost its popularity
of
messengers
interviews
with
and
and community
affairs
both disc jockeys
programming,
emphasized
In addition,
the
commentaries.61
of airplay for political
reduced
the likelihood
from 7" to 12" records (LPs) as the industry standard was underway,
transition
on R & B was not manifested
until the
the impact of this transition
although
to the LP as the industry
standard
facilitated
The
shift
mid-1970s.62
came
to
and as media
in the record
consolidation
conglomerates
industry,
over the content
it became
of albums,
less
control
and more
one song with
even
content
overt
to
have
most
artists
for
political
possible
effects
on an album because
about potentially
of concerns
included
negative
from
resistance
on sales. As an illustration, Marvin
faced
Berry
strong
Gaye
exercise
more
Gordy when he proposed the What's Going On album because Gordy saw little
in the project.63 Gordy was wrong.
in the early
film genre
the so-called
blaxploitation
writers
that
and
difficult
the most
performers
challenge
source of political
to maintain
the role of R & B as a major
in seeking
faced
associated
these films were
In essence,
in black communities.
commentary
an inauthentic
theater described
of the type of community
variant
with
by
commercial
potential
The emergence
1970s was perhaps
Guthrie Ramsey
of
in his book Race Music.64
The brainchild of Hollywood
to bolster sagging Hollywood
these films were designed
magnates,
theaters. Moviemakers
into
movie
Americans
African
bringing
about persistent
communities
in black
the growing
frustration
revenues
tapped
by
into
poverty
and
Political
lack of access
211
Commentary
to public
and
resources,
they disseminated
a perverse
political
and illegal
conspicuous
consumption,
gender exploitation,
glorifying
a
as
as
such
elements
of
viable
for
activities,
strategy
drug dealing,
"getting
over on the man."
The powerful
combination
of visual
and audio
imagery
enhancement
had a much more pronounced
effect on individual
and collective
message
sensibilities
than
traditional
music
stimuli.
The
titles
of
some
of
productions are well known and include Superfly (1972) and Across
Street
(1972).65
Blues
(1972),
on
counterattack
In some ways,
Berry
Motown's
following
external
efforts
of Lady
Gordy's
production
to California,
relocation
to define
the representation
of
these
110th
Sings
was
the
a
black
life
and culture in film. Through an in-depth examination of the tragic life of
Billie Holiday (played by Diana Ross), Gordy emphasized the complexity and
of African
humanity
blaxploitation
Gordy's
given
Americans,
in contrast
to the caricatures
in the
offered
move
is somewhat
ironic
On
discussed
album,
Going
genre. This
seemingly
progressive
to Marvin
resistance
Gaye's What's
previously.66
to develop
conscious
black musicians
who were
Some
contracted
socially
to
films
neutralize
the
thematic
the soundtracks
for blaxploitation
attempted
content and visual
the
audio
commentaries
imagery by producing
challenging
In effect,
these cultural warriors
of the underground
economy.
a
in
external
cultural manipulation.
of
type
guerrilla
campaign
against
engaged
are
and Bobby
Two of the more notable
Curtis
examples
Mayfield's
Superfly
110th Street soundtracks.67
Womack's
Across
to
is a five-and-a-half-minute-tribute
Curtis Mayfield's,
"Freddy's Dead,"
glorification
one of the film's main
na?ve Freddy,
A good-hearted
casualties.
the tragically
man
a
the
life
in
is killed
weak-willed
of
up
yet
Freddy
caught
pusher,
in
the
cutthroat
world
the
character
by
unceremoniously
navigated
Superfly
to think beyond
listeners
asks
immediate
by Ron O'Neal.
Mayfield
played
the
and
economic
forces
that
and
understand
larger political
gratification
like the death
tragic endings
producing
shape the scenarios
We're all filled up with progress,
But
We
Ain't
with
Imust
sometimes
can
deal with
But
reality,
confess,
and dreams,
it mean?
does
rockets
what
said,
nothing
'Cause Freddy's
goes
Mayfield
the underworld
dead.
on
to challenge
via Awareness
If you don't try,
You're
Why
die.
gonna
can't we brothers
Protect
No
one's
one
another?
serious,
And itmakes me furious,
Don't
of Freddy:
be misled,
Just think of Fred.68
black men
Raising
to reevaluate
Self-Criticism:
their
engagement
212
Bobby Womack's
Johnson also focuses
an autobiographical
become
entangled
"Across
110th Street," written
by Womack
on one character
in a larger drama. However,
is used to describe
how black males
approach
in the underworld:
and J. J.
in this case
can easily
Iwas the third brother of five,
Doing
to do
I had
whatever
to survive.
I'm not saying what I did was alright,
But breaking out of the ghetto is a day-to-day fight.
Been down so long it never did cross my mind,
I knew there was a better way of life Iwas just trying to find.
You
don't
what
know
do
you'll
'til you're
put
under
pressure,
Cause 110th Street is a hell of a tester.
a Collective
stanza Womack
In the closing
offers
Solution
in
Self-Help
cease
a
men
to
and
desist
with
for
black
the
from
engagement
making
plea
the larger
the social
function
of the ghetto within
drug trade and examine
economy:
political
Hey
there's
Brother,
a better
way
out,
Snorting that coke, shooting that dope;
Man
you're
out.
copping
Take my advice, its either live or die,
You
The
gotta
be
families
Would
strong
if you
on
the other
catch
hell
the
same
In every
city
Harlem
want
side
without
of
to survive.
town,
a ghetto
around.
is going
down,
thing
of every ghetto
is the capital
town.69
case
are used
to engage
In both examples
studies
in
the individual
are
since
the commentaries
Self-Criticism.
Awareness
However,
Raising
to counteract
the negative
in the films
rather than fully
imagery
designed
to
Collective
the
survival
alternative
strategies,
incorporate
potential
explore
some
was
To
Curtis
limited.
Solutions
extent,
Mayfield
effectively
Self-Help
was able to broaden
in the
the sources
of oppression
the dialogue
regarding
on
the
album.
first
"The
Cocaine
chorus
of
and
Song"
Superfly
monologue
over
many
people
I have
in my opinion
have the same fears,
similar
tears,
I've met
And
They
Shed
Die
in so many
the years,
that people
found
are
the same
years.
seem to have suffered
oppressed
to coast.
coast
In every
continent,
The
the most,
Now our lives are in the hands of the pusher man;
We break it all down so you might understand
How
to protect
yourself.
everywhere.
Political
Commentary
Don't
no profit
make
for
213
the man.
I'm so glad I got my own;
So glad that I can see,
My life's a natural high,
The
man
can't
put no
thing
on me.70
international
references
elements
of Revolutionary
Mayfield's
suggest
the invocation
Manifestos
while
of "a natural high"
is representative
of the
type of language used in some Spiritual Transcendence
Explorations.
as noted previously,
southern
record
labels such as Stax were
Although,
less
likely
to produce
a significant
body
of
political
commentary,
artists
associated with the Stax label did have a visible impact on the political
climate. The film Wattsax, originally released in 1973, illustrates how political
in R & B and Soul music was
introduced
commentary
The
live
theatre"
settings.
performance
community
constituted
another
represented
by Wattsax
type
to the blaxploitation
counterforce
films
of the early
into new
"community
approach
of musically
based
1970s. Wattsax
is an
theater
combination
of documentary
and Awareness
Self-Criticism
Raising
in a cinematic
format. The film,
Mel
is a
Stuart,
produced
by
to
the
Watts
dedicated
riots
of
1965.
The
of
focus
the
retrospective
primary
interesting
embedded
film is theWatts Summer Festival's concert held at the Los Angeles Coliseum
The concert
various
Soul music
Isaac
featured
artists,
including
Rufus
the
the
Bar
and
Luther
Thomas,
Hayes,
Staple
Kays,
Singers,
Ingram.
The concert
is interwoven
with
interviews
"the State of
footage
dissecting
Black America"
in the early
1970s and the effects
of the riots on both Los
and
the
U.S.71
Angeles
in
1972.
Philadelphia International Records also exhibited impressive creativity in
its unmistakable
"Sound of Philadelphia"
some of the
to produce
harnessing
best examples
of organic Awareness
and
Self-Criticism
Collective
Self
Raising
commentaries
of the 1970s. As noted by Nelson
the
Help
George,
although
are
to
crafted
avoid
of
to
for
lyrics
carefully
assignment
culpability
problems
outside
forces,
Harold
Melvin
and
the Blue
Notes'
"Wake Up
Everybody"
(1975), written by Gene McFadden and JohnWhitehead, as well as McFadden
and Whitehead's
"Ain't No
of this approach.72
Stoppin'
Us Now"
(1979),
are
important
examples
The album Let's Clean Up the Ghetto (1977) captures the essence of the
broader
International
The record company's
initiative.73
Philadelphia
ability
to mount
this type of community
while
venture,
empowerment
functioning
as a component
of CBS's black music
is an interesting
essentially
department,
to the more
contrast
traditional
control
of lyrical content
style of corporate
discussed previously. This album features the Philadelphia International All
Stars: Lou Rawls, the O'Jays, Teddy Pendergrass, Harold Melvin and the Blue
Notes, Billy Paul, Dee Dee Sharp Gamble, the Intruders, Archie Bell and the
and The Three Degrees.
The title song, written
Drells,
Leon Huff,
and Cary Gilbert,
is a medley
involving most
Gamble,
by Kenny
of the All-Stars
that
214
to participate
in a physical
clean up effort
listeners
the
"because
is our home."74 The titles of several of the other songs on the album
ghetto
to Do
the album's
broader
"Now Is the Time
thrust including,
convey
It,"
"New Day,
New
"Year
and
of Decision,"
World
"Save
the
Comin',"
The organization's
Children."75
emergent
community
strategy
development
was announced
on the album
in Kenneth
Gamble's
placed message
prominently
cover:
"The only way we can clean up the physical
is to first clean up
ghetto
implores
the mental ghetto. With the help of almighty God, we will be able to turn this
'cause it's the
into a positive
system. Our first step is cleanliness,
community
to
International
Records
demonstrated
closest
godliness."
Philadelphia
thing
to charity
all profits
its commitment
from the album
for five
by donating
not
to
is
the
The
reference
classification
easy
religious
interpret using
years.76
in this investigation.
Nelson
observes
that by the
system
George
presented
in
Kenneth
International
Gamble
viewed
mid-1970s,
part as "a
Philadelphia
a
to
world
view
from
which
that
proselytize,
espousing
obliquely
platform
his private
belief
in the tenets of Islam."77 Gamble's
to
revealed
attachment
a different
on
of Islam introduces
the
the Nation
traditional
focus
perspective
that reference
of All
Children
Declarations
Christian
God's
theology.
to
with
resonated
adherents
its
the
Nevertheless,
message
Christianity
through
of shared values of community
invocation
empowerment.
to Los Angeles
1972 raises
The relocation
of Motown
from Detroit
circa
can
It
be
that
the
relocation
dismantled
issues.
several
argued
interesting
to serve as a significant
existed
for Motown
community
potential
in which
Some argue that
commentary
important political
originated.
of his
little notice
the lives of the
intentions,
Gordy
disrupting
provided
move
was
when
the
members
of the "Motown
family"
planned
formally
move
that
for
had
while
others
claim
the
been
announced,
plans
developed
Whichever
version
is accurate,
there is little doubt
well
in advance.78
that
in regional
and political
with
the
differences
culture
consciousness,
along
a
necessitated
in
Motown's
of
several
artists,
change
important
departures
no longer a
so that by the mid-1970s,
it was
orientation
and operations
whatever
theater
source
significant
of
incisive
"Visions"
(1978), written
illustrative
of
the few
attempts
essentially
sample
"one day a change
mind"
(Stevie
earlier
is gonna
political
on the album titled, Natural
commentaries
come"
Wonder).79
to produce
by Motown
(recall
The
by slightly
Sam Cooke)
song
fits
Commodores'
and Lionel
by Thomas McClary
during this period. Released
The
commentaries.
political
Ritchie,
is
commentary
High,
the lyrics
like
phrases
modifying
in my
and "I see visions
easily
into the Spiritual
with
the focus on a "natural high."
classification,
commentary
is one indicator of
of the "natural high" and "visions" metaphors
a
new
that emerged
of
the influence
commentary
during this
style of political
is
with
the
Brown
often
credited
in
music.
James
Funk
originating
period
as
on
relies
that
characterized
musical
"Funk,"
heavily
style
upbeat
a
use
a
and
of
extensive
thick
bass
line,
rhythm guitars
syncopated
rhythms,
or
The
West
hollered
and
chanted
horn
vocals.80
section,
rhythm-oriented
Transcendence
The use
was
an
215
theater production
site for Funk music
community
some
In
commentaries.
the West
Coast
that incorporated
respects
political
a counterreaction
to the high
levels
of
locus of this genre
represented
Coast
important
confrontation emerging out of the Watts Riot of 1965 and the activities of
the Black Panthers and U.S.81 Thus, although the titles of "Don't Call Me
Nigger, Whitey" (1969) and "Stand" (1969), performed by Sly and the Family
line, the lyrics and the musical
imply an assertive
political
a
"Don't
different
Call Me Nigger,
very
project
Whitey"
perspective.82
use of the
is most
notable
for the use of synthesized
the extensive
voices,
electric guitar to produce discordant
sounds, and minimalist
lyrics, all of which
an
become
Funk
music.
of
elements
"Stand"
promotes
important
actually
notion of empowerment,
individualistic
mention
of
any
deliberately
avoiding
Stone,
format
seemingly
A
groups.
specific
similar
in which
rich ones
rhetorical
is employed
in "Everyday
strategy
to blue and yellow
people,
long hair and
ones appear to be used to avoid potential
that might
result from language
explicitly
references
and poor
(1969),
People"
short hair, and
to the "crossover"
damage
potential
black-white
relations.83
addressing
The Motown
group,
led by writers/producers
Norman Whitfield
and
Barrett
Strong,
responded
own variant of this genre,
to the challenge
posed by the new format with
were
soul." The primary examples
"psychedelic
well-known
hits "Cloud Nine"
Temptations'
its
the
(1969) and "Runaway Child
on drugs and teenage
songs focus respectively
(1969). These
are
documentaries
that offer
little guidance
for
largely
in the lyrics.84 The "new" Temptations
dramatized
problems
a status solidified
of the counterculture,
when
representatives
Norman
Whitfield's
the Vietnam
protest
outspoken
against
Running Wild"
and
rebellion,
the
overcoming
were greeted
as
they
War,
recorded
with
the failure of political
"Stop the War Now."85
to proliferate
Transcendence
commentaries
in the early
Spiritual
began
and mid-1970s.
To some extent
such commentaries
reflect
disillusionment
to overcome
Movement
advocacy
and the Civil Rights-Black
Power
structural
Between
1972 and 1975 the
inequalities.
income of black families was stagnant and the unemployment
median
rate for
black men
7.0 to 12.5 percent.86
from
In addition,
jumped
widespread
to busing to obtain public school desegregation
resistance
also arose during this
a context
These
social
conditions
for the type of Spiritual
period.
provide
Transcendence
commentaries
and Fire's
exemplified
by Earth, Wind,
"Keep
Your Head to the Sky" (1973), written by Maurice White, and "That's the
Way of the World" (1975), written by Maurice White, Charles Stepney, and
Verdine
White.
Listeners
are told
in "That's
the Way
You will find, you will find peace of mind,
If you look way down in your heart and soul,
Don't
Stay
hesitate,
young
'cause
at heart,
the world
'cause
you'll
seems
never,
cold,
never
part.87
of
the World":
216
there are a few cases where
artists
Funk
however,
in
commentaries.
Defiant
persisted
Challenge
Housing
segregation
produced
most major
1960 and 1970,
urban areas between
Atlanta,
Boston,
including
San Francisco,
and
Los Angeles,
New York, Philadelphia,
Cleveland,
Chicago,
election
the
of
black
in
of
these
DC,
mayors
many
Washington,
enabling
of
Parliament's
in the late 1960s and early
examination
cities
1970s.88
At
the
same
time,
majority black urban centers in "Chocolate City" (1975), written by George
an
uses
Bernard
Worrell,
interesting
a
to
and
chord
present
changes
abrupt
spoken
centers.
to
The
of
urban
"Chocolate
control
tribute
black
City"
euphemistic
are used to characterize
cities where
black majorities
and "CC" metaphors
a political
were
claim on those spaces:
likely to emerge and to stake
William
Clinton,
of
combination
and
Collins,
word
CC, they say you jive and
on the positive
side, you're
Hey
But
game,
my
and
piece
can't
of
be
the
changed.
rock,
And I love you, can you dig it?89
to be one outcome
of
central cities are suggested
in many
Black majorities
we
to address
of external
forces
the failure
"Hey,
injustices:
long-standing
but we did get you, CC." The chorus
didn't get our forty acres and a mule,
as a subtle warning
to external
audiences
"gaining on you" is used extensively
black
urban
shifts
from
about unspecified
consequences
producing
demographic
to
well
advised
would
be
is
that
outsiders
The
implicit message
majorities.
reduce
structural
that
inequalities.
support policies
in the Funk genre. Nelson
is an outlier
Parliament
In many
respects,
was
orientation
this
that
origins
argues
shaped by its Detroit
group's
George
area. More
in
this
found
the
radical
and influenced
metropolitan
politics
by
into any of
in the 1970s, do not fit readily
Funk and Disco,
popular
generally,
music.
dance
and
toward
orientation
with
their
in Table
the categories
1,
party
to
a
was
that
outside
force
that
Disco
Nelson
helped
argues
disruptive
George
that
maintains
he
between
More
roots."
from
its
R
&
B
pointedly,
"away
pull
and
into "a sound of mindless
evolved
1976 and 1980 Disco music
repetition
more
charitable
R
B."90
A
&
overwhelmed
with
exceptions,
lyrical idiocy that,
not wholly
devoid
that both Funk and Disco were
conclude
assessment
might
are prime
the
of
Both
connotations.
of political
phenomenon
examples
as the creation
in circumstances
of party music
Poole
described
by Thomas
in the face
celebration
where
there is no reason to party as a form of defiant
and
of "dehumanizing"
hostility
oppression.91
as exemplified
of Gil Scott
commentaries,
by the music
Revolutionary
Heron
and
to the tendency
toward
served as a counterforce
and
late
1970s.
the
mid
in
music
in
black popular
commentary
to
resurrect
the
himself
Scott-Heron
"Bluesician,"
positioned
the Last
muted
political
A self-described
Poets,
tradition of political commentary in the Blues. Tracing his lineage directly to
Scott-Heron
Hughes,
. . .Robeson,
Hughes,
by]
Langston
[used
stated
his
and others
intent
[and]
to "adapt
. . .
[work]
certain
these
theories
theories
in
our
own
context
Hughes's
poem
content
around
life
Africa,
"Letter to the Academy"
to many
similar
South
217
of Scott-Heron's
concerns,
and
(1933) exhibits
daily
living."92
a cadence and
compositions:
But please, all you gentlemen with beards who are so wise and old
write
And
who
And
whose
better
souls
than we
have
do,
triumphed,
(In spite of hungers and wars and the evils about you),
And
whose
books
have
soared
in calmness
and
beauty
Aloof from the struggle to the library shelves,
the desks
And
of
students
and who
are now
classics-come
forward
And speak upon the subject of the Revolution.
We want to know what in the hell you'd say?93
is demonstrated
most
debt to the Blues
in the
concretely
oriented
"The
Get
Out
of
the
in
Ghetto
which
commentary,
Blues,"
internally
he attacks
the lack of political
consciousness
among African
Americans,
of their social circumstances:
irrespective
Scott-Heron's
I know
you
think
cool,
you're
Lord, if they bus your kids to school,
I know
Just
think you're
you
'cause they bus
cool,
your
kids
to school.
But you ain't got a thing to lose,
You just got the "Get Out of the Ghetto Blues."
I know
think
you
If you gettin'
cool,
you're
two welfare
checks.
You done told me you think you're cool,
Because
you
gettin'
two welfare
checks.
Yeah, but you got ten years to lose (if you get caught),
Just trying to fight the "GetOut of the Ghetto Blues."94
Scott-Heron's
best known
"The Revolution
Will
Be
Not
composition,
at
is
directed
both
internal
and
external
In this spoken
audiences.
Televised,"
word
treatise Heron
lambasts
the police,
civil
traditional
culture,
popular
and
rhetorical
rights leaders,
by multinational
advertising
corporations,
using
to those employed
similar
in the earlier commentary,
"When the
strategies
Revolution
Original
Comes,"
Last
(1970) written
by Oyewole,
and performed by The
Poets:
There will be no pictures of pigs shooting down brothers on the instant replay,
There will be no pictures of pigs shooting down brothers on the instant replay,
There will be no pictures of Whitney Young being run out of Harlem on a rail with a
brand
new
process.
There will be no slow motion or still lifes of Roy Wilkins strolling through Watts in a
red, black, and green jumpsuit he has been saving just for a special occasion.
Green Acres, Beverly Hillbillies, and Hooterville Junction will no longer be so damn
relevant.
And no one will care ifDick finally got down with Jane on "Search for Tomorrow,"
Because Black people will be in the streets looking for a brighter day
The Revolution will not be televised.9^
218
PASSING THE TORCH?FROM
THE BLUES AND R&BTOHIP
HOP
the revolution
Of course,
envisioned
and the Last
by Gil Scott-Heron
Poets did not materialize,
and a complex
of economic,
political,
sociological,
and technological
would
forces
in the
1980s
and delimit
the
converge
and range of political
in R & B. Conditions
commentaries
in
prevalence
black
inner-city
election
Reagan's
dismantle
communities
as President.
worsened
Reagan
funded
federally
antipoverty,
He appointed
archconservatives
programs.
Opportunity
Ronald
considerably
following
to
moved
discredit
and/or
swiftly
and
affirmative
action
job training,
to head the Equal Employment
(EEOC) and the United
Commission
States Civil
Rights
in turn, reduced
Commission
thousands
(USCRC) who,
sharply or invalidated
of discrimination
suits filed against employers.
racists and hate groups
White
were
emboldened
anti-civil
Racial
attacks
and
by Reagan's
rights posture.
Americans
and other minorities
harassment
increased
of African
dramatically
on several major
term in office,
racial incidents
including
during his second
college
financial
campuses.
aid that
students.96
At
the
same
The Reagan
administration
also introduced
sharp cuts in
access
for poor black and other non-white
limited college
the number
of
time,
of broad
the illusion
black
elected
officials
to
continued
in
creating
creating
difficulty
the
for
the
conditions.
This
agents
worsening
responsible
identifying
awareness
and the articulation
of easily
in turn, inhibited political
ambiguity,
members
of
the
black
middle
class
commentaries.
Many
digested
political
were
to
in inner cities
the dismal
conditions
and relocate
able to escape
most
declined
between
and
1990
in
of
1980
the
actually
suburbs?segregation
urban centers.97
This
exodus
accelerated
disinvestment
in
processes
major
social
isolation. Overall,
the real median
incomes
inner cities and heightened
American
1975
of African
and families were
men, women,
stagnant between
was
which
in
12.5
and 1985. The black male
rate,
percent
unemployment
expand,
inclusion
and
1975, rose even higher to 13.2 percent in 1985, and remained in double digits
at
10.4
Americans
percent
newly
in
1990.98
incarcerated
Correspondingly,
in federal
and
approximately 58,000 in 1980 to 87,000
almost double by 1990 to 169,500."
by
number
the
state
prisons
1985?a
of
escalated
African
from
figure that would
commentators
have
political
including
high
problems,
schools,
incarceration,
public
inadequate
brutality,
police
unemployment,
In
that perpetuate
behaviors
and dysfunctional
oppression.
apathy,
political
"Is This
R & B-influenced
the
the R & B tradition,
Fatback's
documentary,
a
uses the spoken word
Future?"
format,
(1983), written
by Gerry Thomas,
to draw connections
and an R & B musical
background,
staple of Hip Hop,
since the 1980s,
Thus,
to address
been
forced
R & B,
and Hip Hop
social
worsening
and public policies.100
in black communities
conditions
deplorable
was
same
"The Message,"
the
the
time
classic,
Hip Hop
period,
During
same
the
of
the
Flash
and
issues.
Grandmaster
released,
many
exploring
between
219
Furious Five's "TheMessage" (1982), written by Ed Fletcher, Melvin Glover,
Sylvia Robinson, and Clifton Chase, is more of a Defiant Challenge
the
While
commentary.
lyrics
are articulated
word cadence, the background music
in a classic
Hip
Hop
spoken
infuses both traditional R & B and Funk
elements.
The song contains
the type of graphic
of oppressive
description
in the best Blues
and R & B commentaries,
conditions
found
and issues the
to external
audiences
in some of the more
found
type of subtle warnings
assertive R & B commentaries:
It's like a jungle
it makes
sometimes,
me
wonder
me
wonder
How I keep from going under.
It's like a jungle
How
I keep
Broken
glass
People
I can't take
it makes
sometimes,
from going
everywhere,
on the
pissing
the smell,
can't
under.
stairs, you know
take the noise,
no money
to move
I got
out, I guess
in the front room,
in the back
roaches
I got
Rats
they
just
don't
care.
no choice,
Junkies in the alley with a baseball bat.
I tried to get away, but I couldn't get far,
A man
Don't
with
push me
I'm trying
a tow
cause
not
truck
I'm close
to lose my
my
repossessed
to the edge,
car.
head.101
as a form
theater project,
Hip Hop, as a new community
initially emerged
of mass
unfettered
fueled
attachments,
expression,
corporate
largely
by
by the
of inner-city
in street performance
harsh realities
life. Its origins
in
reflected,
of
effects
control
commercial
media
of
outlets.
part, the pervasive
stultifying
The general
is characterized
black media
climate
of growing
by a pattern
in ownership
consolidation
and control.
This
has had especially
process
on black radio news,
a key complement
effects
to R & B political
negative
in the 1960s and early 1970s. The decline
commentaries
of black radio news
news broadcasts,
to expect mundane
listeners
has conditioned
thereby dulling
to incisive
listeners'
commentaries
receptivity
political
by progressive
Hip
artists. Black
Commentator
that "the near death of black radio
argues
has been a major
in the erosion
of black political
factor
organization
nationwide"
and that "chains like Radio One gradually
news from
eliminated
or
the mix, offering
talk
local
and
that
instead,
syndicated
pretending
morning
radio jockeys
could double as news people."102
Even given these major constraints,
to R & B
Hip Hop's organic
linkages
to
its
that
will
exhibit
suggest
approaches
commentary
conveying
political
of the same developmental
a
observed
R
for
&
B.
As
many
patterns
Hop
news
the classification
can be
scheme
introduced
in this investigation
consequence,
used both to recognize
and
track
the
tendencies
in
evolution
patterns
general
of commentaries.
uses the documentary
for example,
to describe
format effectively
Nas,
historical
and contemporary
of
in
black
in
communities
patterns
oppression
220
the song "Black Zombie," and the Jeremiad commentary has been creatively
adapted by the British alternative Hip Hop group, Jamiroquia, in the song
on Planet
an innovative
Earth."103 Michael
Franti
offers
All
"Emergency
God's Children
in
Human
the
Franti
commentary
"Stay
(All
Freaky People)."
calls on people
common
to address
of all cultures,
and ethnicities
races,
as
to
and
each
other
and recognize
stop perceiving
problems
"freaky people"
that they are "all God's children."104 Mos Def s "Umi Says" is a solid example
of a Spiritual Transcendence Exploration in which he calls on Umi (his
mother) and Abi (another spiritual being) to help black people overcome
in the face of moral uncertainty.105
their problems
a paradigmatic
Shakur provides
of a Defiant
Tupac
example
Challenge
in the song "Troublesome
he declares
"in your
96," in which
commentary
In what
wildest
like me."106
is probably
dreams, you couldn't picture a nigga
"Fuck tha Police"
the classic
Confrontational
Declaration
commentary,
by
swarm on any muthafucka
is made
that "Ice Cube will
in a
the promise
NWA,
link between
The
and contemporary
earlier
uniform."107
political
the Last Poets
commentaries
is illustrated
collaboration
with
by Common's
on the composition
"The Corner."
In this Awareness
Self-Criticism,
Raising
corners
or
laments
that
"on
the
kill
and
West
rob
Kanye
niggaz
dyin' just to
a livin'," while
make
the Last Poets remind
listeners that "the corner was our
our Stonehenge,
our Taj Mahal,
our monument,
our
Rock
of Gibraltar,
blue
to freedom,
to peace,
and to love."108 To address
these
issues,
streets
5 proposes
that the people
take it back to the concrete
(the
in
the
Collective
"Concrete
commentary
community)
Self-Help
The Coup
Manifesto
issue a powerful
Revolutionary
Finally,
Schoolyard."109
and
and
in "Ride the Fence,"
corporate
greed
challenging
imperialism
calling
to global oppression.110
and direct challenges
for proactive
some of the evolutionary
and
between
Hip Hop
Unfortunately,
parallels
of
incisive
R & B are problematic
for the continuing
production
Hip Hop
success
in establishing
and
commentaries.
unprecedented
Despite
political
the
of
record
Motown,
years
labels,
early
paralleling
maintaining
independent
seem singly oriented
toward the pursuit of profit, with
many Hip Hop moguls
testimonial
Jurassic
little
concern
representational
for
the
social
arena, Hip
and
Hop
content
of their
political
artists face many
challenges,
products.
not the
In the
least of
is the rebirth of dysfunctional and denigrating imagery propagated
through blaxploitation in both films and music videos. Interestingly, Nelson
George argues that the old blaxploitation films have been appropriated by
which
To the extent
that these
for their own purposes.111
artists
and Bobby Womack
set by Curtis Mayfield
the precedents
but no such figure has
there will be cause for optimism,
(discussed
previously),
scene.
on
of the
the
traditional
the
Instead,
images
yet emerged
Hip Hop
are
into
well
have
introduced
and
"hustler"
and
and
been
alive
product
"pimp"
a recent addition
to the energy
drink
lines such as Nellie's
"Pimp Juice,"
some
Hip Hop
mirror
purposes
market.
a few
are, however,
the
Violence"
"Stop
There
sponsored
111
encouraging
signs. The Hip
and "Get Out
the Vote"
Hop
community
initiatives
clearly
follow
in the footsteps of some of the more progressive efforts by R & B
artists.
As
an
example,
the
"Stop
to Philadelphia
similarities
movement
the Violence"
International's
community
development
to encourage
voter
artists
greater
Hop
offset
the depoliticizing
influences
of the
radio discussed
Several major figures
in
previously.113
Efforts
by Hip
can, to some extent,
initiatives.112
participation
in black
changes
owned
to promote
International
the world of Hip Hop have also established foundations
community development in the spirit of previous Philadelphia
efforts.114
initiatives,
some
bears
the jury is still out on the success
and sustainability
of these
can hope
re
that these are early
indications
of a political
that can realize the liberatory potential
of Hip Hop.
While
one
awakening
NOTES
I am deeply indebted to Thomas Poole for lending his knowledge of the
in this research.
I also owe a special
thanks to Caryl Sheffield
for invaluable
in researching
assistance
in Rhythm
and
commentary
political
on earlier drafts. My
comments
and for helpful
Blues
to
deepest
gratitude
to assist
Blues
Derrick Alridge for identifying Hip Hop compositions that fit into each of the
comments
Detailed
by Perry Hall and V. P. Franklin
categories.
in the refinement
of the analytical
invaluable
framework.
thematic
been
have
^For a treatment
in black music using a similar methodology,
see James B.
of black male-female
relationships
Between
Black Males
and Females
in Rhythm
and Blues Music
of the 1960s and
"Relationships
1970s," The Western Journal of Black Studies 3 (3, 1979): 186-96.
that include some discussion
of political commentary
in R & B or related genres
2A partial list of monographs
would
include Samuel A Floyd, Jr., The Power of Black Music
The Death
1995); Nelson George,
(New York,
in Black
The Birth of a Sound
Soul Music,
Haralambos,
of Rhythm and Blues
(New York,
1988); Michael
America
(New York,
1974); Marc Anthony Neal, Songs in the Key of Black Life, A Rhythm and Blues Nation
L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon,
and American
The Black Power Movement
(New York, 2003); William
Stewart,
Culture,
1965-1975
1992); and Brian Ward, Just My
(Chicago,
and Race Relations
(Berkeley, CA, 1998).
Soul Responding,
and Blues,
Rhythm
Black
Consciousness,
*See Zora Neale
(New York,
Hurston,
1970), 39-46.
"Characteristics
of Negro
Expression,"
inNegro:
the "Sorrow Songs"
14 of The Souls
in Chapter
4Du Bois describes
Songs." W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (Chicago,
1903).
5Ibid., 264.
"Alain Locke, The Negro and His Music
n
13.
'Locke, The Negro and His Music,
10.
8Floyd, The Power of Black Music,
(New York,
An Anthology,
of Black
Folk,
ed., Nancy
entitled
Cunard
"Of the Sorrow
1969).
in Babylon,
205.
9Van Deburg, New Day
in
118.
Soul Music,
Haralambos,
10Quoted
11
429.
Ward, Just My Soul Responding,
Adam E. Green,
and William
M.
12David Kraemer, C. Neil Macrae,
Silence Activates
158.
Auditory Cortex," Nature 434 (10 March 2005),
226-27.
14Ward, Just My
Soul Responding,
203.
Kelley,
"Musical
Imagery:
Sound
of
222 The Journal of African American History
15Ibid.
16Neal, Songs in the Key of Black Life, 142.
179.
xoFor an impressive
on the Underground
audio collection
of songs that facilitated movement
see
Railroad,
and Kim Harris, Steal Away, Songs of the Underground
Railroad.
Reggie
Appleseed
Recordings
(1997).
Samuel Floyd discusses
how the chariot trope has been "repeated and revised many
times in many
titles" in
The Power of Black Music,
213.
in George, The Death of Rhythm and Blues.
extensively
19Many of these issues are discussed
20Guthrie Ramsey, Race Music
(Berkeley, CA, 2003): 77.
21
Brian Ward, Radio and the Struggle for Civil Rights in the South (Gainesville,
FL, 2004).
215.
22Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon,
Just My Soul Responding,
14.
New Day in Babylon,
213.
23Ward,
24Van
Deburg,
25Ibid.,215.
204.
26Ward, Just My Soul Responding,
97
for example, David Howard-Pitney,
^'See,
The Afro-American
Jeremiad:
Appeals
in America
Justice
for
(Philadelphia,PA, 1990).
Just My
28Ward,
Soul Responding,
300.
New Day in Babylon,
212-13.
29Van Deburg,
30ibid.
3
haralambos,
32
Assertions
Soul Music,
121.
to control key community
Americans
institutions were endorsed by most
the right to engage
in retaliatory
claims advancing
had significantly
violence
fewer
however,
nationalists;
adherents. See the discussion
of these issues in Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon,
152-55.
of the need
for African
154.
33Ibid.,
Just My Soul Responding,
428. Ward refers specifically
here only to the attractiveness
of Disco.
B. Stewart,
in the Music:
Political
in pre-Hip Hop Black Popular Music
Commentary
"Message
Lyrics," unpublished manuscript.
3 "This
see
of the essence of the Blues has been presented by various researchers,
for example,
interpretation
1988).
of the 1920s (New Brunswick,
Daphne Harrison, Black Pearls: Blues Queens
of R & B has been discussed
3'The
by several
important role of northern urban centers in the development
in The Death
in Just My Soul
authors,
of Rhythm and Blues and Brian Ward
including Nelson
George
34Ward,
35James
Responding.
of Stax and southern R & B or Soul, see Peter Guralnick,
Sweet
3?For an in-depth discussion
(New York,
1986).
Rhythm and Blues and the Southern Dream of Freedom
in African American Studies (Knoxville,
TN, 1999).
39Perry Hall, In the Vineyard. Working
is found in Jonathan Kamin,
4^This
interpretation
inMusic
3 (1978), 278-98.
Black Perspective
41Sam
Cooke,
"Chain Gang,"
Cooke,
"A Change
42Sam
The Best
is Gonna
"Parallels
of Sam Cooke,
Come,"
vocals
The Best
in the Social
by Sam Cooke,
of Sam Cooke,
Reaction
to Jazz and Rock,"
RCA Victor
Volume
Soul Music:
2, vocals
The
(1962).
by Sam Cooke,
RCA
Victor (1965).
43Curtis Mayfield,
^Norman
Whitfield
"Keep on Pushing,"
and Barrett
Strong,
Soul (1969);
International
Gladys Knight & the Pips,
by the O'Jays, Philadelphia
4^Mark Rice and Luther Ingram,
(1972).
Singers, Stax Records
4?Curtis
Records
47Dennis
Mayfield,
Keep
"Choice
on Pushing,
"Respect Yourself,"
of Colors,"
vocals
ABC-Paramount
by the Impressions,
(1965).
"Friendship Train," Gladys Knight & the Pips Greatest Hits, vocals by
"Love Train," Back Stabbers,
vocals
and Leon Huff,
Kenny Gamble
Records
(1972).
Bealtitude:
The Young Mods'
Respect
Forgotten
Story,
Yourself,
vocals
performed
by the Staple
by the Impressions,
Buddah
(1969).
Lambert
and Brian
ABC Records (1972).
Potter,
"Keeper
of the Castle,"
Keeper
of the Castle,
vocals
by the Four Tops,
223
vocals by Stevie Wonder,
Tamla Records
48Stevie Wonder,
"Visions," Innervisions,
(1972). For an in-depth
see Deborah Atwater,
discussion
of political
in the music
of Stevie Wonder,
themes
"Political and Social
in the Music
in African-American
of Stevie Wonder"
A Reader,
Rhetoric:
ed., Lyndrey Niles
Messages
IA, 1995): 139-49.
(Dubuque,
Hathaway
Corporation
49Donny
Recording
and Leroy
Hutson,
First
"Tryin' Times,"
Take,
vocals
by Roberta
Atlantic
Flack,
(1969).
and Barrett Strong,
"You Make Your Own Heaven
and Hell Right Here on Earth,"
vocals by the Temptations,
thanks to Caryl Sheffield
for
Shack,
Gordy Records
(1970). My
this song.
recommending
^1
Stevie Wonder,
of America,"
"Jesus Children
Tamla Records
Innervisions,
50Norman
Whitfield
Psychedelic
(1972).
52Curtis Mayfield,
Curtom
Mayfield,
If There
"(Don't Worry)
Records
(1970).
Is a Hell
We're
Below
All Gonna
Go," Curtis,
vocals
by Curtis
Tamla Records
53Stevie Wonder,
"Living for the City," Innervisions,
(1972).
"Inner City Blues
^4Marvin Gaye and James Nyx,
(Make Me Wanna Holler)," What's Going On, vocals by
Marvin Gaye. Tamla Records
"What's Going On,"
(1971); Al Cleveland, Marvin Gaye, and Renaldo Benson,
What's Going On, vocals by Marvin Gaye, Tamla Records
(1971).
Black and I'm Proud," Say It Loud?I'm
Black and I'm
55James Brown and James Ellis, "Say It Loud?I'm
vocals by James Brown, King Records
in
Proud,
(1969). James Brown
is, of course, a contradictory
figure
terms of political
stances. His songs "America Is My Home" and "Living in America"
extol a much more
This contradiction
has been highlighted
in The Death of Rhythm and
integrationist message.
by Nelson George
103. Kenny Gamble
and Leon Huff,
"Am I Black Enough for You," 360 Degrees
Blues,
of Billy Paul, vocals
International Records
by Billy Paul, Philadelphia
(1972).
5?Ernie Isley, Marvin
Isley, O'Kelly
is On. T-Neck
The Heat
(1975).
Isley, Ronald
Isley, Rudolph
Gamble
and Leon Huff,
"Give the People What
^'Kenny
Records
International
Philadelphia
(1975); Eugene Record,
to the People,
(For God's Sake) Give More Power
People,"
this song.
(1971). My thanks to Caryl Sheffield for suggesting
and Barrett
58Norman Whitfield
Records
(1970). Originally
Gordy
Isley, and Chris
"Fight the Power,"
Jasper,
vocals
Survival,
They Want,"
by the O'Jays,
to the
Power
"(For God's
Sake) Give More
vocals by the Chi-Lites,
Brunswick
Records
Strong, "War (What Is It Good
recorded by the Temptations.
For)," War & Peace,
vocals
by Edwin
Starr,
59General Norman
vocals by Freda
Johnson, Greg Perry, and Angelo Bond,
"Bring the Boys Home, Contact,
Invictus (1971). My thanks to Perry Hall for suggesting
this song.
"What's Happening
60James Nyx and Marvin Gaye,
Brother," What's Going On, vocals by Marvin Gaye,
Tamla Records
(1971).
6Tor more
information about the history and activities of disc jockeys and announcers
on black AM stations,
see
the
Smithsonian
various
dimensions
of
at
black
radio
programs
exploring
Nelson George
insists in The Death of Rhythm and Blues
that AM
http://www.si.edu/sp/onair/radpgms.htm.
stations that are black owned and oriented are culpable, along with FM, for diluting their black image in order
to attract more ad revenues.
Payne,
of the impact of technological
62For a useful discussion
"The Impact of
changes on R & B, see April Reilly,
on Rhythm
and Blues," The Black Perspective
inMusic
1 (No. 2, 1973): 136-46; Dave Marsh
Technology
77k?Heart of Rock & Soul: The 1001
argued that singles still dominated R & B through the mid-1970s?see
Greatest Singles Ever Made
(1989; reprinted New York,
1999).
?3For an account of the tensions between Gordy and Gaye
The Golden
Years (Iola, WI, 2001), 79.
Dahl, Motown:
surrounding
the album, What's
Going
On,
see Bill
Race Music.
64Ramsey,
110th Street actors Paul Benjamin
?5In Across
and Ed Bernard play two Harlem
residents driven by desperate
to steal $300,000
circumstances
from the local mob. In Superfly,
actor Ron O'Neal plays Youngblood
Priest, a
Harlem coke dealer who wants to get out of the business but must outwit the cops who have a vested
interest
in the Harlem dope trade.
66See
note 64.
67Curtis
Records
Mayfield,
(1972).
Superfly,
Curtom
Records
(1972);
Bobby
Womack,
Across
110th Street,
United
Artist
224 The Journal of African American History
68Curtis Mayfield,
69Bobby Womack
and Peace, United
Curtom Records
"Freddy's Dead," Superfly, vocals by Curtis Mayfield,
and J. J. Johnson,
"Across 110th Street," Across
110th Street, vocals
Artist Records
(1972).
"No Thing on Me,"
70Curtis Mayfield,
Perry Hall for this recommendation.
71 A
of
review
the
film
Superfly,
vocals
Wattsax
by Curtis Mayfield,
by
George
http://www.reelmoviecriticcom/movies20034q/idl947.htm.
source.
My
Curtom
Records
to Tom
Poole
Womack
be
to
Thanks
(1972).
can
Singleton
thanks
(1972).
by Bobby
at
found
for suggesting
this
McFadden
"Wake Up Everybody,"
and John Whitehead,
Wake Up Everybody,
vocals
by Harold
and the Blue Notes,
and John Whitehead,
Philadelphia
(1975); Gene McFadden
"Ain't No Stoppin' Us Now," McFadden
& Whitehead,
vocals by Gene McFadden
and John Whitehead,
(1979).
Philadelphia
72Gene
Melvin
Leon Huff, and Cary Gilbert,
73Kenny Gamble,
vocals by the Philadelphia
International All-Stars,
"Let's Clean
Philadelphia
Let's Clean
Up the Ghetto,"
International
(1977).
Up
the Ghetto,
74Ibid.
nc
'
and Victor Carstarphen,
JJohn Whitehead,
Gene McFadden,
"Now Is the Time to Do It," Let's Clean Up the
vocals
International
and Leon Huff,
Ghetto,
by Teddy Pendergrass,
Philadelphia
(1977); Kenny Gamble
"Year of Decision,"
Let's Clean Up the Ghetto,
vocals
International
by The Three Degrees,
Philadelphia
and Leon Huff, "New Day, New World Comin'," Let's Clean Up the Ghetto, vocals by
(1977); Kenny Gamble
International (1977); G. Heron,
"Save the Children," Let's Clean Up the Ghetto, vocals
Billy Paul, Philadelphia
International
by the Intruders, Philadelphia
(1977).
is printed on the album jacket.
commitment
76This
The Death
77George,
78For a brief account
move
from Detroit
intentions were well
Fall
of theMotown
79Thomas
of Rhythm
in connection with the
experienced
by many associated with Motown
see Dahl, Motown:
to Los Angeles,
The Golden
The case that Gordy's
Years, 41-43.
in advance
known
is made
in Nelson George's Where Did Our Love Go?: The Rise and
Sound
McClary
145.
and Blues,
of the difficulties
(New York,
1985).
and Lionel Ritchie,
"Visions," Natural
High,
vocals
by the Commodores,
Motown
Records
(1978).
of Funk, see Ward, Just My Soul Responding,
attenuated description
350-357.
about the Black Panthers,
the only effort to provide an
large number of books have been written
of the U.S. organization
is Scot Brown's Fighting for US, Maulana
the US
examination
analytical
Karenga,
and Black Cultural Nationalism
(New York, 2003).
Organization,
80For a more
81While
a
Stand!, vocals by Sly & the Family Stone, Epic Records
Stewart, "Don't Call Me Nigger, Whitey,"
82Sylvester
(1969); "Stand!, Stand!, vocals by Sly & the Family Stone, Epic Records
(1969). My thanks to Caryl Sheffield
these songs.
for suggesting
(1969).
Stewart, "Everyday People," Stand!, vocals by Sly & the Family Stone, Epic Records
and
"Cloud Nine," Cloud Nine, Gordy
and Barrett Strong,
84Norman Whitfield
(1969); Norman Whitfield
Barrett Strong, "Run Away Child, Running Wild," Cloud Nine, Gordy (1969).
This interpretation
85Norman Whitfield,
"Stop the War Now," Solid Rock (1972), vocals by the Temptations.
83Sylvester
is presented in "ClassicMotown, 1959-1988," http;//?to?i?,m9tQwn,?om/ajtist,^P^?9l?^QS&sr?=lb&md=?2^
8?For
historical
family
income data see U.S.
Census
http://www.census.gov/hhes/income/histinc/f07b.html:
table F-7B.
"Historical Income Tables,"
Bureau,
For unemployment
data, see U.S. Census
Bureau,
CurrentPopulation Survey, httpiZ/dfttetblS^QV/sgrvlct/SttrveyOutputSerylct
87Maurice White,
"Keep Your Head To
(1973); Maurice White, Charles Stepney,
to the Sky, vocals by Earth, Wind & Fire, Columbia
the Sky," Head
"That's the Way of the World,"
That's the Way
and Verdine White,
of theWorld,Columbia (1975).
88 For
detailed
segregation
see
data,
Cutler/Glaeser/Vigdor
Segregation
Data,
http://trinitv.aasduke.edu/~ivigdor/segregation/
89George
Parliament,
Collins,
Clinton, William
Casablanca
(1975).
90George,
The Death
of Rhythm
and Bernard
and Blues,
155.
Worrell,
"Chocolate
City,"
Chocolate
City,
vocals
by
9Thomas
Christian
and Existential
Poole, "Theological, Moral,
DC, 6 January 1995.
Ethics, Washington,
92"BBB
Interviews
94Gil
Scott-Heron
vocals
Televised,
95Ibid.;
Gil Scott-Heron,"
Abiodun
(1933)
MO,
(Columbia,
"The Get Out of
Jackson,
RCA Records
Scott-Heron.
(1974).
Oyewole,
"When the Revolution
Comes,"
paper presented
Works
2001),
Cutler/Glaeser/Vigdor
Segregation
Data,
of
the Ghetto
ofLangston
Hughes,
Volume
1,
231-32
Blues,"
The Last Poets,
The Revolution
Will
Not
Be
(1970).
Douglas
of how former President Reagan's
social policies disadvantaged
9?For a useful discussion
on the Reagan
and other similarly situated groups, see John L. Palmer, ed., Perspectives
DC, 1986).
97See
at the Society
6 (No. 3, 1979): 36.
in The Collected
and Brian
by Gil
in the Blues,"
Themes
Bulletin
Black Books
"Letter to the Academy,"
Hughes,
ed., Arnold Rampersad
1921-1940,
93Langston
The Poems:
225
African
Years
Americans
(Washington,
http://trinitv.aas.duke.edu/-ivigdor/segregation/
data is extracted from U.S. Census Bureau,
income and unemployment
"Historical
Income Tables,"
98Family
Table F-7B and Current Population
Survey.
to federal and state prisons are taken from various
issues of Prison and Jail Inmates at
99Data for admissions
of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.
Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, U.S. Department
Midyear,
"Is This the Future?," Is This the Future?,
100Gerry Thomas,
and Clifton
101Ed Fletcher, Melvin Glover, Sylvia Robinson,
Records
(1982).
Ways
102"Many
to
Pressure
Black
Radio,"
The
vocals
Chase,
(1983).
Spring Records
"The Message,"
The Message,
Sugar Hill
by Fatback,
Black
Commentator.
Jamiroquia,
"Emergency
E-Mailbox,
Issue
46,
http;//www,bla?k?ommentator,?om/46/46..gmml,titml
The Lost Tapes,
1(*3Nas, "Black Zombie,"
on Planet Earth, Sony (1993).
104Michael
Franti,
105Mos Def,
106Tupac
107N.W.A.,
108Common
"Stay Human
"Umi Says," Black
Shakur,
"Troublesome
Sony
(2002);
on Planet Earth," Emergency
Six Degrees
(All the Freaky People), Stay Human,
on Both Sides, Rawkus
(2002).
96," Greatest Hits,
(1998).
Interscope Records
(2001).
"Fuck tha Police,"
(featuring
(2002).
Straight Outta Compton, Priority Records
the Last Poets), "The Corner," Be, Geffen Records
(2005).
5, "Concrete Schoolyard,"
EP, Interscope Records
(1997).
110The Coup, "Ride the Fence," Party Music, Tommy Boy (2001).
11
kelson
(New York,
1999).
George, Hip Hop America
former
leader of Boogie Down
founded
the "Stop the Violence Movement"
in
Productions,
112KRS-One,
1989 and organized
the all-star charity single "Self-Destruction,"
which
raised half a million
dollars for the
in 1989. Russell
Simmons
is another Hip Hop mogul who
National
Urban League
is involved
in various stop
the violence
initiatives.
^Jurassic
and several Hip Hop artists
are
Simmons
LL Cool
113Russell
J, Rev. Run, and Jadakiss,
including
the "One Mind. One Vote" campaign
two million
that has a goal of registering
voters between
spearheading
the ages of 18 and 34 by the November
election and a total of twenty million
voters over the next
presidential
five years. The nonpartisan
initiative
is reaching out to Hip Hop fans through the syndicated
radio show
hosted by Doug Banks and through voter registration
booths set up on the 2004 Doug Banks
Jam Session
concert tour.
Damon
(Bad Boy Records),
114Puffy Coombs
Jermaine Dupri (So So Def Records),
and Dee
have created their own foundations.
Dash (Rockefeller
Records), Master
and Wakym
all donate
(Ruff Ryders)
P (No Limit Records),
to charities and
heavily

Message in the Music - Hip

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