Proceeding SustaiN 2014 - International Conference on Sustainable

Transcription

CONFERENCE
PROCEEDING
ISSN: 2188-0999
THE 5TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
FOR HUMAN SECURITY
SUSTAIN 2014
Proceeding of SustaiN 2014
ISSN: 2188-0999
Editorial
The 5th Sustainable Future for Human Security (SustaiN 2014)
Editorial
Agus Trihartono1, Ben Mclellan, Hatma Suryatmaja, Slamet Widodo, M.
Ery Wijaya, Miguel Esteban, Yulianto Prihatmaji.
The 5th Sustainable Future for Human Security (SustaiN 2014) was held in Bali, Indonesia on 1921 October, 2014. The conference was organized by the Sustain Society, with the support of some
institutions as follows:
1. Kyoto University:
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH),
- Inter-Graduate School Program for Sustainable Development and Survivable Societies (GSS)
2. Universitas Gadjah Mada
3. University of Jember
4. Hassanudin University
5. Indonesia Islamic University
6. Sahitya Institute for Research.
The conference covered a wide range of issues with the aim of highlighting potential issues and
paths towards a sustainable future. It attracted a high level of attendance from countries of the
global North and South, with a wide geographical coverage. Since 2010, SustaiN conference have
accepted in more than 1200 papers from 30 countries, the overall accepted ratio is less than 50% or
37% to be exact. The quality of papers received was a testament to the reputation that the
conference has been building over the past five years.
Papers presented at SUSTAIN 2014 were divided into six thematic areas: (1) Energy and
Environment (EnE); (2) Built Environment (BE); (3) Sustainable Agriculture (SA); (4) Sustainable
Tropical Forest (STF); (5) Disaster Management (DM); (6) Social and Politics (SP). Under these
broad areas, a wide-ranging series of presentations was given, which elaborated on current research
across Asia and the world. Being held in Bali, Indonesia’s “Island of the Gods”, the participants
also took part in a tour of some of the main sights and experiences that link modern and ancient
Bali.
The two programmed days of the conference each commenced with keynote presentations which,
like the conference itself, were wide-ranging. The keynote speakers were: Prof. Kaoru Takara
(Kyoto University), Prof. Dwikorita Karnawati (Universitas Gadjah Mada), Prof. Naoshi Kondo
(Kyoto University), and Prof. Mamoru Yamamoto (Kyoto University).
More than 170 participants attended the conference from 12 countries in Asia, Australia, North
America and Europe. Around 161 papers were presented in the two days of the conference. Papers
of the SustaiN are published in three publications, namely: proceeding Conference, the Procedia
Environmental Science, and a special issue of the International Journal for Sustainable Futures for
Human Security (J-SUSTAIN).
19-20 November 2014. Bali, Indonesia
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Editorial
The organizers appreciate the support and assistance of the cooperating organizations, the
participants, presenters and staff. The next SUSTAIN conference is highly anticipated by all the
attendees of SUSTAIN 2014, and the committee expect to build further on the success of this year’s
event.
Chief Editors
Agus Trihartono and Ben Mclellan.
Subject Editors
Hatma Suryatmaja, Slamet Widodo, M. Ery Wijaya, Miguel Esteban, and Yulianto Prihatmaji
Guest Editors:
N. Agya Utama, Suharman Hamzah, Hooman Farzaneh, Robby Permata, Fajar Goembira, Haryono
Huboyo, Makruf Nurudin, Wignyo Adiyoso, Nino Viartasiwi, Novri Susan, and S. Khoirul Himmi.
Secretariat:
Roma Dian, Rasman, and Sri Rejeki.
ii
The 5th International Conference on Sustainable Future
for Human Security
SUSTAIN 2014
Table of Contents
EDITORIAL .................................................................................................................... i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................. iii
WASTE MANAGEMENT .............................................................................................. 1
Scavengers Role in Sustainable Waste Management: A Case Study in Ngempon
(Central Java Province)
Puji Hardati, R. Rijanta , Su Ritohardoyo ............................................................ 1
Utilization 0f Waste from Puffer Fish Skin as Alternative Raw Materials for
Leather Tanning
RLM. Satrio Ari Wibowo, Rofiatun Nafiah, Ardiansyah Priambodo .................. 8
Evaluation Of Municipal Solid Waste Management in Jember District
Khoiron ................................................................................................................ 18
SOIL AND WATER ........................................................................................................ 25
Agricultural Drought Risk Assessment on Rice Crop in The Area Of Java and Bali
D.P. Adikarma Mandalaa, Ahdi Ahmad Fajri ..................................................... 25
ECONOMIC SECURITY ................................................................................................ 36
Struggle Mystical Values Craftsmen “Batik Gajah Oling” And Orientation
Entrepreneurship
Zarah Puspitaningtyas, Djoko Poernomo, Puji Wahono ...................................... 36
FOOD PRODUCTION AND POSTHARVEST ............................................................. 43
Bioassay Development for Detecting Plant Growth Regulator in Seaweeds
Ramal Yusuf, Paul Kristiansen, Abdul Syakur, Hidayati Mas’ud........................ 43
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................ 51
The Behaviour of Drug Inmates in Sexual Fulfillment in Penitentiary in Urban Area
and its Risk toward Hiv/Aids Infection
Dewi Rokhmah, Khoiron ...................................................................................... 51
Location VS Academic Performance of School: Parental Decision in Sustaining
the Futureof their Children, the Case Study of Gombak District
Mariana Mohamed Osman, Syahriah Bachok, Nuraihan Mohd Ibrahim............ 58
iii
Innovation Policy for Minimizing Use of Non-Renewable Plastic Bags in Indonesia
Dini Oktaviyanti, Anugerah Yuka Asmara .......................................................... 71
TRANSPORTATION ...................................................................................................... 86
Pro-environmental awareness among adolescents towards sustainable transportation:
extended
theory of planned behaviour
Nur Sabahiah Abdul Sukor , Nur Khairiyah binti Basri, Sitti Asmah binti Hassan,
Prawira Fajarindra Belgiawan ....................................................................................... 86
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT ..................................................... 98
Green City Parks Model To Reduce Air Pollution as Anticipation to the
Climate Change
Dewi Liesnoor Setyowatia dan Nana Kariada ................................................................ 98
HERITAGE...................................................................................................................... 106
Sustainability Methods in the Protection and Enhancement of the Vernacular
Architecture in Palembang, South Sumatera, Indonesia
Listen Prima ......................................................................................................... 106
WATER TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT ........................................................ 114
Analysis of River Pollution Reduction by the Implementation of Typical
Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) Design, a Case Study of Ten Malls in
Surabaya City
Mohammad Razif , Soemarno, Bagyo Yanuwiadi, Arief Rachmansyah,
Prawira Fajarindra Belgiawan ....................................................................................... 114
GEO DISASTER ............................................................................................................. 123
Managing Lahar Susceptibility Area (Case Study in Kali Putih, Magelang, Indonesia)
Rosalina Kumalawati, R. Rijanta, Junun Sartohadi, Rimawan Pradiptyo,
Seftiawan Samsu Rijal...................................................................................................... 123
Risk Analysis of Mount Raung Eruption in Jember Regency
Zetiawan Trisno, Yunus Ariyanto, Irma Prasetyowati ..................................................... 134
DISASTER PREPAREDNESS, MANAGEMENT AND RECOVERY
Disaster Preparedness at the Public Health Center (a Case Study at
PHC Sumberjambe in the Regency of Jember)
Irma Prasetyowati ............................................................................................................ 144
Improving Global Competitiveness of Lurik to Ensure the Rural Economic
Security of Klaten Earthquake Victims Community
Ernoiz Antriyandarti, Nanang Rizali, Mohammad Harisudin, Susi Wuri Ani ................. 154
iv
Bengkulu City Community Adaptation of Non-Engineering Structure Development
In Swampland Based on Earthquake Disaster Risk Reduction
Muhammad Fauzi, Dwi Setyawan, Budhi Setiawan, Ridhah Taqwa ............................... 161
Communication Model for Disaster Risk Reduction with SMS Gateway and
SOP for Early Warning Communications of Mount Sinabung in Indonesia
Puji Lestari, Eko Teguh Paripurno, Elanto Wijoyono, Isnu Suntoro,
Galih Kartika Brata ......................................................................................................... 172
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Waste Management
Scavengers Role in Sustainable Waste Management: A
Case Study in Ngempon (Central Java Province)
Puji Hardatia*, R. Rijantab , Su Ritohardoyoc*
a
Departement of Geography, Semarang State University, Semarang 52900
Faculty of Geography, Gajah Mada University, Yogyakarta
bc
Abstract
Waste has been a problem mostly in big cities, but now it has also become a problem in suburban areas.
In fact, garbage is inevitable in our life as both a problem and potential source for living. This research aims to
find out the role of scavengers as one of important components in waste management. Scavengers play mutual
symbiotic relationship with the society in which they serve as social asset, and at the same time they earn
living from the activity. However, some parts of the society look down on their presence. As a matter of fact,
waste management through dicsrimation and classification of organic waste and non-organic one has created
positive image on the scavengers who have given sustainable contribution to the environment.
Keywords: Waste, Garbage, Scavengers, Household Livelihood, Waste management.
1. Introduction
Recently, waste has ranked top position in terms of ecological problems. The increasing
number of population also increases the volume of waste. Besides, the changing pattern of
consumption of the society has also created more complex variant and characteristic of the waste.
In Indonesia many attempts have been conducted to deal with this problem; one of which is the
establishment of Law No. 18 Year 2008 about waste management. However, the output is still
considered dissatisfying as the waste still remains a big problem in some areas.
The number of population keeps growing, and this situation results in a lack of job opportunity
especially in formal sectors in many developing countries including Indonesia. The number of
workforce is growing every year, but 69 percent of it cannot be served only by formal sector. Thus,
73.54 percent of the workforce was absorbed by informal sector [1]. Informal sectors have attracted
many job seekers since the jobs do not require specific educational background or skill and
commonly do not have any contract or compulsory tasks, such as scavenger.
Many researches about waste and scavenger have been conducted in many countries. Street
scavenger has a job as a scavenger to support everyday life [2]. Moreover, it is explained that waste
is classified based on its origin, form, forming process, characteristic, and type [3]. Based on its
origin waste is classified into ones coming from household, industry, agriculture, trade, and road. In
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected]
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terms of the form, waste is categorized into solid, liquid, and gas (fume, smoke). Waste is also
classified into many types. For instance, based on the chemical substance it contains, waste is
classified into organic and non organic. In waste management, there are many attempts that might
be taken, such as landfill, recycle, compost, and incenerator [4]. Recycling plastic waste
management can generate heat and steam energy [5]. Most of the housewives who attended the
workshop on compost production did not have a good understanding on the importance of waste
discrimination [6]. Suggests an integrated approach for solid waste management seen from many
aspects including social, economy, culture, politics, and environment, involving stakeholders and
considering bigger system for holistic care [7].
Even though there have been many researches about it, waste remains a big problem in many
areas. Thus, further discussion and study on waste management and the role of scavengers is still
relevant. This study focuses on the role of scavengers in terms of their relationship with waste
management, environment, social, and economy as well as the strategies performed by the
scavengers in managing non-organic waste.
Ngempon Sub-district in Bergas District of Semarang Regency, is one of the locations for
industrial activities. Most of the population work in agricultural and non-agricultural sectors. The
emergence of non-agricultural activities is one indicator of economic diversification in the subdistrict [8]. In certain situation, households are vulnerable to risks caused by the changes, so they
must capability, asset, and activities which rely on the outcome [9]. This brief paper will discuss
how the scavengers play their role in waste management, their strategies and contribution to
household income.
2. Research Method
This research was conducted in Ngempon Sub-district in Bergas District of Semarang Regency.
The research location was one of four villages used as samples in the dissertation by the author.
There were 45 households from each village used as the research subject. 11 percent of households
in Ngempon Sub-district was reported to perform waste management activity, and they are studied
in this paper. Variables which were set are the working system, the role of scavengers of
environmental, social, and economic, strategy undertaken, and its contribution to household
livelihoods.
This study aims to investigate the role of the scavengers and their contribution to household
income using survey approach, intensive interview. To obtain more complete data, data
triangulation to community leaders and local government was performed. The data were analyzed
using descriptive analysis. Waste management system and linkages between types of waste and
waste management were analyzed using a flow chart.
3. Research Area Characteristics
Ngempon experienced rural area diversification associated with middle-scale industry and had
high accessibility as it was situated in the alternative route from Surakarta to Semarang and
regularly used by public transportation. The villlage is located 2 kilometers from the center of
Bergas District, 3 kilometers from Semarang Regency, and 17 kilometers from Semarang
Municipality. Geographically, it is situated at 1100 25‟ 40” – 1100 26‟ 33” East Longitude and
between 70 10„ 55” - 70 11‟ 41” South Latitude.
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The area covers 1.65 km2 and is mostly used for non-agricultural field and some parts are used
for farming. In 2013, it was calculated that the population of the village consisted of 5,744 people
with ratio 87 and 3-4 people per family in average. The density of the population was 3,481 people
per km2. The main occupation of the people was mostly non-agricultural (95.52%) while the rest
(4.48%) work in agricultural sector. Besides, the number of farmer households was 18.3 percent.
The non-agricultural activities included civil servant (3.83%), labor (20.55%), construction labor
(4.89%), traders and transportation (1.92%) and others (64.33%). Scavenger is included in this
“others” group along with other non-formal occupations.
4. Waste Management Characteristics and Types of Waste
Based on this research, 11 percent of households is found in non-agricultural activities, in the
field of waste management. Family head of the household consists of 60 percent male and 40
percent female. All heads of households fall into the category of economically productive
population. Waste management is the main field of occupation. Such this job does not require
higher education, but it enables cash earning quickly. It only requires willingness to work hard
because there are many rivals.
Types of waste management is based on the type of waste, namely waste management of
industrial wastes and waste management of the household. Garbage from industrial wastes as raw
material for small household industry is made into a wide variety of clothing. Household garbage
recycling industry is processed into various types of household appliances.
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5. Working System of the Scavengers
The workers in waste management include collectors, scavengers collecting plastic bags, used
stuff buyers, and recyclers. The collector purchases waste/used stuffs which are no longer usable
but can be recycled from the scavengers. After being sorted, the waste is then selected and packed
until ready in large scale to be delivered to the recycling factories. There are two types of
scavengers. First, scavenger collecting plastic bag is one who walks around the area carrying plastic
bag to pick waste/used stuff which can still be recycled. They do not need any capital since they do
not have to purchase the stuff. The collected stuffs are then sold to the collector. Second, used stuff
buyers who purchase used stuff such as hardware or plastic stuff, so they need some capital to get
the stuff. This type of scavengers usually use bicycle or motorcycle going around the area looking
for those who want to sell used stuff. The collected stuff is then sold to the collector.
Waste Sources
Settlement-Household
Public Service Facilities
Industry
Scavenger Junk
Livelihood Strategies: Social asset (network, trust, reciprocal)
Salvage Collectors
Industrial recycling used goods
Various types of finished goods ready to
use
Fig 2. Flowchart Work Systems Scavengers in Waste Management
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The scavengers work eleven hours per day, going around the houses and settlement, public
services, such as market, hospital, shops, and industry. The collected stuff includes glass bottle,
plastic bottle, other plastic stuffs, paper, cardbox, metal, can, etc.
This group of waste management work on a system in which each member has each its own
role; the scavengers collect the stuff, the collector purchases the stuff from the scavengers, and then
packs them to be delievered to recycling factories. This recycling industry recycles and reproduces
new stuff to be sold to consumers. After being used by the consumers, at certain time the stuff will
be collected by the scavengers and the cycle starts all over again continuously.
6. Livelihood Strategies of the Scavengers
Strategy or method done by the scavengers for living is mainly social capital or asset including
networking, trust, and reciprocal relationship. This networking strategy becomes essential in this
job in which the scavengers interact with anyone as long as they do not trespass other‟s territory.
This strategy is performed by all members in the system including the owner of the used stuff, the
collector, the reseller, and other officials.
Trust is a priceless social asset necessary in this job; from this trust, solidarity among the
members of the system can be built. Besides, there is an interesting fact about the trust between the
scavengers and the collector. The collector as the capital owner gives free loan without any interest
to the scavengers; they only rely on the trust and honesty from the scavengers. The trust built
between the collector and the scavengers can be maintained as they realize they are on the same
boat; they work on the same sector. In Ngempon, one collector has 7-9 scavengers who receive a
loan of 500.000 -1.000.000 rupiahs every week for each depending on the condition of the
scavenger.
Reciprocal strategy done by the scavengers and the collector is possible since they have been
helping each other for a long period of time. Each of them expects rewards from the kindness they
have shared. The scavengers need the collector who provides the capital, while the collector needs
the scavengers to collect the used stuff. This relationship creates a mutual symbiosis.
Social asset which consists of networking, trust, and reciprocal relationship used by the
scavengers at the same time also plays a social role in waste management. This fact is relevant with
the opinion that strategy is necessary for sustainable life.
7. The Role of Scavengers in Waste Management
One of the ways to manage the waste is recycling. The process of recyling non-organic waste
begins with sortingg, collecting, shipping, and processing. The key to success in this process relies
on the first stage (discrimination) since without this step there will be new problem. The role of the
scavengers in waste management for recycling is classified into 3 types: ecology, social, and
economy.
a.
Ecological Role
The scavengers play the role in accelerating the decomposing process. By doing
their job, picking and sorting waste, the organic waste will be composed more easily.
Besides, the more the waste is picked by the scavengers in the community or surrounding,
the less the volume of the waste. This activity helps the process of waste recycling.
The type of waste mostly picked by the scavengers are paper, box, plastic bag,
metal, glass, bottle, in various amount. The scavengers plays the ecological role which is
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very essential in recycling process. The amount of waste they collect is in line with the
size of their contribution to the waste management in their environment.
One of the roles of the scavengers in recycling process in Ngempon is selling
bottles (beer/syrup/sauce) to sauce factory. This activity creates a cycle of collecting the
bottles, submitting them to the collector, and then selling them to the factory. The
reproduced bottles are then sold to shop/market to be consumed.
This waste management strategy has given a huge benefit to the environemnt in
which it has reduced the volume of waste and accellerate the decomposing process. This
fact is relevant with an opinion stated that the technology of recycling plastic waste gives
big contribution to waste management in terms of ecology [5].
b.
Social Role
The scavengers plays a social role which is shown by the interaction among the
scavengers, between the scavengers and the collector, between the scavengers and the
society, and the collector and the recycling industry. The scavengers who collect plastic
bags walk around when doing their job; thus, they have to interract and behave politely in
order to create a good harmony with the society.
The scavengers and the collectors have a good social interaction because they both
have a relationship as a patron and a client. The patron needs the waste collected by the
scavengers, while the scavengers need the patron to sell the waste they collect. The role of
scavengers in this recycling activity is very essential but often considered inferior. On the
one hand, the scavengers are trying to survive. On the other hand, they also have to deal
with the dominating external power which pushes them to the corner. In reality, these
social pressure and social gap have put them into a subordinate position and marginalized
in the development process.
The relationship built between the scavengers and the collector is based on social and
economical interest. The social interest is built by the reciprocal interaction which is
mutually beneficial for both the scavengers and the collector. The collector as the patron
gives space and trust to the scavengers without any guarantee.
c.
Economic Role
The economic role of the scavengers is classified into two: the role in trading and
the role in household living. The scavenger is an important actor in the chain of used nonorganic stuff trade. Their presence can also support the economic activity because they are
not the only actor. There are other actors such as the collector and the recycling industry.
In large scale, the scavengers, the collector and the recycling industry give big contribution
to the economy. The reccling industry cannot work without the supply from the collector,
and the collector cannot supply the stuff if there is no scavengers. Thus, each of them has
their own role.
This study result supports the opinion stated by Sinaga [11] that the scavengers in
the chain of recycling industry is placed as the producer. They are the actor whose role is
picking up the waste as the commodity to be processed and sold with higher value.
In household scale, economically speaking, the income of the scavengers
contributes to the living of the household for about 50-60 percent. Those whose household
relies only on this job give bigger contribution than those who have other jobs. The
income of a small scale scavenger collecting plastic bag is smaller than the used stuff
collector, which is around Rp 20.000,- - Rp 50.000,- and Rp 30.000,- - Rp 55.000,- every
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day. If there is an unexpected necessity, the scavenger can easily get loan from the
collector. The collector who has the capital receives income of Rp 3.75 million per month
while the industry can earn 4 million per month. This result is relevant with the research
conducted [12] explaining that the income of scavengers contributes in solving household
necessities.
8. Conclusion
The scavengers plays ecological, social, and economic roles in waste management. Their role
has to be seen as a part of society; they are professional, clean, and honest. The working system
creates a cycle between the patron and the client which are dependent on each other. The social
asset includes networking, trust, and reciprocal relationship to be used as the survival strategy of
their household. Waste management by sorting waste into organic and non-organic gives positive
image to the scavengers and contribution to sustainable environment. It is expected that there will
be cooperation between government, private, and community, in waste management.
References
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Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS). Survei Tenaga Kerja Nasional. Jakarta. BPS. 2009.
Twikromo, YA.. Pemulung Jalanan Yogyakarta. Konstruksi Marginalisasi dan Perjuangan Hidup Dalam Bayangbayang Budaya Dominan. 1999.
3. Sejati, K. Pengelolaan Sampah Terpadu Dengan Sistem Node, Sub Point,Center Point.Yogyakarta, Kanisius. 2009.
4. Suryandari I, Akhmad H, Ade S. Model Dinamis Pengelolaan Sampah Untuk Mengurangi Beban Penumpukan.
Jurnal Teknik Industri. 2009.11, No. 2. pp 13
5. Al-Salem SM, Lettieri P, Baeyens J. Recycling and recovery routers of plastic solid waste (PSW); A review. Waste
Management. 2009. 29.Pp. 2625-2643.
6. Hardati, P. Pengelolaan Sampah Rumahtangga dengan Teknik Pengomposan di Kelurahan Sekarang Kecamatan
Gunungpati Kota Semarang. Laporan Kegiatan Pengabdian Kepada Masyarakat. UNNES. Tidak Dipublikasikan.
2009.
7. Marshall RE., Farahbakhash K. System Approaches to Integrated Solid Waste management in Developing Countries.
Waste Management. 2013. 33. pp. 988-1003.
8. Rijanta, R. Geographical Perspectives on Roral Diversification. Yogyakarta: Publishing Board of the Faculty of
Geography Gadjah Mada University. 2012.
9. Baiquni, M. The Economis and Ecological Crisis and their Impact on Livelihood Strategies of Rural Households in
Yogyakarta. Dalam Rural Livelihoods, Resources and Coping with Crisis in Indonesia. ICA Publication Series.
Edited by Milan J. Titus & Paul P.M. Burgers. 2008. 3. Pages: 91-114. Amsterdam: ICAS Amsterdam University
Press.
10. Badan Pusat Statistik. Kecamatan Bergas Dalam Angka. Semarang: BPS. 2013.
11. Sinaga P. Kajian Model Pengembangan Usaha di Kalangan Penulung. Ringkasan Eksekutif. 2008. Available at
19/7/14: http://www.smecda.com.
12. Magaji, JY. dan S.P. Dakyes SP, 2011. An Assessment of Socio-Economic Impact of Waste Scavenging as a means
of Poverty Alleviation in Gwagwalada, Abuja. Conference Journal of Environment Studies. 2011. 11. pp 42-56.
Available at: http://works.bepress.com/cjes_kogistateuniversity/1.
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Utilization of Waste from Puffer Fish Skin as Alternative
Raw Materials for Leather Tanning
RLM. Satrio Ari Wibowoa, Rofiatun Nafiaha* dan Ardiansyah Priambodob
a
Lecturers in the Academy of Leather Technology Yogyakarta
b
Alumni of the Academy of Leather Technology Yogyakarta
Abstract
Industrial development in the field of leather is increasing lately, but this increase is less supported,
especially because of the inadequacy in raw materials. Tanneries in Indonesia began to experience the scant of
raw materials, especially raw materials of conventional skin. Actually, the lack of raw leather materials can be
resolved by finding some alternatives, e.g. fish skins. In general, skin consists of 3 layers, i.e. the epidermis,
dermis and hypodermis, though there are differences in thickness due to different habitats. Therefore, this
study aims to know the histological structure and strength through some physical tests of puffer fish as an
alternative material for tannery. Hopefully, the efforts to use Puffer fish skin as an alternative material can
increase the economy of the community.
The research employs repetition method, with three times experiments. Materials used in these
experiments are puffer fish skins, i.e. raw, salted, pickled, and formalin. Each piece was made into histological
preparation, and then its tensile strength, elongation, tear strength, and sewing strength were observed. To
analyze the data, this research uses ANOVA and if there is a difference, the data will be further analyzed using
Post Hoc Test. The results show that, from ANOVA, there are no differences in tensile strength, elongation,
and tear strength; whereas, there is a clear difference in sewing strength. From the histological structure and
the result of physical tests, puffer fish skins can be used as alternative raw material for leather tanning.
Keywords: Histological Structure, Fish Skin, Puffer fish, Tensile Strength, Leather Tanning.
1. Introduction
Manufacture of leather and leather products is one of the eminent National industries. This is
reflected in the contribution of the industry towards national income which reaches $ 6.440 billion.
Although the leather industry is seen as an important industry, there are still many issues that still
need to be addressed, either by the government, employers, or other stakeholders including higher
education institutions. One of the problems often faced by this industry is the lack of raw materials,
i.e. fresh skin. Leather raw material domestic supply can meet 70% of the requirement, and the rest
is imported from abroad. Slaughtering houses in the country are only able to provide 40% of raw
cow skin and 20% of raw sheep/ goat skin. The shortage of raw material plus the import rules have
caused many leather craftsmen stopped their businesses and fired the employees. With the
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technology already mastered by the craftsmen, some efforts can be attempted by making
diversification of raw materials and products.
Tanning is not something new in Indonesia, especially the use of tanning skins of various land
animals, such as buffalos, cows, goats and sheep. The products resulted from the industries include
shoes, bags, jackets and so on. Tanning industry is now experiencing production constraints due to
the shortage of raw materials from farm animals. Alternatives that can be done are the utilization of
fish skin as raw material in tannery. Fish leather is very potential to be developed. Nevertheless, the
development is very slow. Fish skin tanning businesses not only add value to skin waste, but also
become an alternative raw material in fulfilling the demand of tanning industries in Indonesia. It
has been applied to the manufacture of leather-based products, such as bags, jackets, belts, wallets,
shoes and sandals.
Until now, the waste of fish skin has not been used optimally and just becomes garbage. In fact,
fish skin waste has big potential to develop in leather industry. The use of fish skin as raw materials
for leather products also aims to reduce the hunting of wild animals listed in the conservation, and
it can also be used as an alternative leather raw material.
Banana puffer fish (Tetraodon Lunaris) whose existence is quite abundant in Indonesian seas
has not been utilized optimally because the fish is considered a deadly poisonous fish. Therefore,
the purpose of this study is to determine the tensile strength, elongation, tear strength, sewing
strength and histological characteristics of the puffer fish skin in order to make use of it as an
alternative raw material in tannery.
2. Material and Method
The materials used in the study were 12 pieces of puffer fish skin taken in Rembang. In making
the histological preparation, fish skin tissues that will be observed are 3 pieces raw, 3 preserved
with salt, 3 with acid (pickled), and the other 3 with formalin, then they are sliced thin (thickness of
a few microns), affixed to glass objects, coloured and then covered with a cover glass. Samples that
have been processed are more easily observed and will not be damaged in many years, making it
easier to learn more (Suntoro, 1983).
The research employs repetition method, with three times experiments. In every experiment,
this research observes its histological structure and does some physical tests, including tensile
strength, elongation, tear strength, and sewing strength. To analyze the data, this research uses
ANOVA and if there is a difference, the data will be further analyzed using Post Hoc Test. Tensile
strength and elongation tests are based on SNI 06-1795 -1990; whereas, sewing strength test is
based on SNI 06-1117-1989 and Tear Strength Test on SNI 06-1794-1990.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Histological Structure of Puffer Fish Skin
Generally, skin fish contains of 69.6% water, 26.9% protein, 2.5% ash and 0.7% fat. Quality
requirements of fish skin; stingray for example, according to SNI 6-6121-1999 must be 1 mm thick,
has minimum shrinkage temperature of 70oC, a minimum tensile strength of 2000 N, tear strength
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of at least 300 N, the maximum water content of 20%, a maximum oil content of 12% , skin
condition is strong and not wrinkle (Grace, et al, 2008). Fish skin basically has fingertip or
distinctive natural markings that differ from each other.
Yato (2001) states that the connective tissue is generally collagen proteins, as found in the skin
tissue system. There are at least 12 types of collagen that can be identified at a particular location.
Type I collagen is the predominant collagen in animal skin, especially cows, as well as fish skin in
general, although there is type V collagen content in small quantities, in which collagen type I is a
three-spun fibers (alpha helix) of the polypeptide chain. In general, the cow skin collagen is same
with collagen of fish skin, only the content of hydroxy proline in fish skin collagen is less than that
in cow skin. Nevertheless, collagen thermal stability depends on the degree of cross-linking which
is determined by the amino acids formed on the hydroxy proline; thus causing heat resistance of
fish skin is lower than than vertebrata animal skins, such as cows.
The thickness of the skin is not the same in various different parts of the body. The skin
thickness might be caused due to the thickness of one or two parts of the skin; for example in the
area of intra thick scapular which is up to more than 0.5 cm; whereas in the eyelid only 0.5 mm
thick. The average skin thickness is 1-2 mm.
The epidermis is the layer of the skin wide. The epidermis of the skin is always wet, which is
caused by mucus. Mucus is produced by a gland cells inside the epidermis (Omar, 1987). In the
mucus on this layer, there is a cup-shaped gland cell producing a substance (a kind of glycoprotein)
called mucin. If these substances come into contact with water, it will turn into mucus, and make
the epidermis of skin always wet. Fish which do not have scales produce more mucus than fish with
scales. The function of much produced by fish itself is to reduce friction with the body of water that
makes the fish can swim faster (Omar, 1987). While the dermis is the skin layer which is thicker
than the outer one. The dermis contains blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue. This layer also
plays a role in the formation of fish scales on that with scales.
In the dermis of puffer fish skin appearing in the image, there is Chromatophore.
Chromatophore is one of the specific cells with the function, i.e. giving the colour to the skin, such
as yellow or brown. Moreover, in the epidermis there is a basin, which is formerly as the place for
thorn follicles of the puffer fish skin; but in the preparations observed there is no thorn since during
the microtome process, the microtome knife is not capable to cut the puffer fish thorn because of
the structure of the thorn which is very hard.
Long, et al (1996) suggest that naturally, the structure of fish skin dermis can make its tensile
strength is quite high due to the parallel trans structure. The dermis is composed and organized as
parallel fiber layers which tend to form an angle (helically oriented) in the opposite direction.
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Fig 1. Longitudinal Section of Fish Skin (Junaidianto, 2009)
Fig 2. Microstructure of Puffer Fish Skin Thickness
Colouration: H&E Magnification: 100x
Fig 3. Microstructure of Puffer Fish Skin Dermis
Colouration: H&E Magnification: 250 x
Fig 4. Microstructure of Salted Puffer Fish Skin
Dermis Colouration: H&E Magnification: 200x
Fig 5. Microstructure of Puffer Fish Skin with thorn seen,
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Epidermal tissues join the hypodermic tissue forming an organ of the fish skin. Fish skin along
with the muscle, meat, and bones form a useful system for the movement of fish and also as
protective internal organs of the fish which are soft (Darjono, et al, 2001).
Hawkes (1974) states epidermis and dermis of the fish have a complete structure with
protectors. Surface of the epidermis is protected by mucus that prevents from microbes, usually
patterned on the surface of keratinocytes. Set of filaments are spread throughout the keratinocytes
but not to the ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, and the Golgi apparatus.
Fig 6. Microstructure of Pickled Puffer Fish Skin
Fig 7. Microstructure of Formalin Puffer Fish Skin
3.2. Testing Results
The comparison between tensile strength, elongation, tear strength, and sewing strength of the
skin groups (raw, salted, pickled, and formalin puffer fish skins) show significant values: 0.074;
0.228; 0.747 > 0.05. It means there are no differences in tensile strength, elongation, and tear
strength of the skin groups. Whereas in sewing strength, it gives the significant value of 0.001 <
0.05, meaning that there are difference in the sewing strength of the skin groups.
Table 1. Testing Results of Puffer Fish Skin
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The Difference in the sewing strength of the skin groups in detail can be seen in the following
output of Post Hoc.
Table 2. Post Hoc Test
Multi ple Comparisons
LSD
Dependent Variable
Tensile Strength
(I) Group
Raw Fish
Salted Fish
Pickle Fish
Formalin Fish
Elongation
Raw Fish
Salted Fish
Pickle Fish
Formalin Fish
Tear Strength
Raw Fish
Salted Fish
Pickle Fish
Formalin Fish
Sewing Strength
Raw Fish
Salted Fish
Pickle Fish
Formalin Fish
(J) Group
Salted Fish
Pickle Fish
Formalin Fish
Raw Fish
Pickle Fish
Formalin Fish
Raw Fish
Salted Fish
Formalin Fish
Raw Fish
Salted Fish
Pickle Fish
Salted Fish
Pickle Fish
Formalin Fish
Raw Fish
Pickle Fish
Formalin Fish
Raw Fish
Salted Fish
Formalin Fish
Raw Fish
Salted Fish
Pickle Fish
Salted Fish
Pickle Fish
Formalin Fish
Raw Fish
Pickle Fish
Formalin Fish
Raw Fish
Salted Fish
Formalin Fish
Raw Fish
Salted Fish
Pickle Fish
Salted Fish
Pickle Fish
Formalin Fish
Raw Fish
Pickle Fish
Formalin Fish
Raw Fish
Salted Fish
Formalin Fish
Raw Fish
Salted Fish
Pickle Fish
Mean
Dif f erence
(I-J)
34.42000
75.10000*
33.41000
-34.42000
40.68000
-1.01000
-75.10000*
-40.68000
-41.69000
-33.41000
1.01000
41.69000
-25.21333
-7.90000
4.22333
25.21333
17.31333
29.43667
7.90000
-17.31333
12.12333
-4.22333
-29.43667
-12.12333
4.74000
2.28000
5.13333
-4.74000
-2.46000
.39333
-2.28000
2.46000
2.85333
-5.13333
-.39333
-2.85333
62.16667*
5.21667
77.04333*
-62.16667*
-56.95000*
14.87667
-5.21667
56.95000*
71.82667*
-77.04333*
-14.87667
-71.82667*
St d. Error
23.59015
23.59015
23.59015
23.59015
23.59015
23.59015
23.59015
23.59015
23.59015
23.59015
23.59015
23.59015
13.77825
13.77825
13.77825
13.77825
13.77825
13.77825
13.77825
13.77825
13.77825
13.77825
13.77825
13.77825
5.23718
5.23718
5.23718
5.23718
5.23718
5.23718
5.23718
5.23718
5.23718
5.23718
5.23718
5.23718
13.76946
13.76946
13.76946
13.76946
13.76946
13.76946
13.76946
13.76946
13.76946
13.76946
13.76946
13.76946
Sig.
.183
.013
.194
.183
.123
.967
.013
.123
.115
.194
.967
.115
.105
.582
.767
.105
.244
.065
.582
.244
.405
.767
.065
.405
.392
.675
.356
.392
.651
.942
.675
.651
.601
.356
.942
.601
.002
.715
.001
.002
.003
.311
.715
.003
.001
.001
.311
.001
95% Conf idence Interv al
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
-19.9790
88.8190
20.7010
129.4990
-20.9890
87.8090
-88.8190
19.9790
-13.7190
95.0790
-55.4090
53.3890
-129.4990
-20.7010
-95.0790
13.7190
-96.0890
12.7090
-87.8090
20.9890
-53.3890
55.4090
-12.7090
96.0890
-56.9860
6.5594
-39.6727
23.8727
-27.5494
35.9960
-6.5594
56.9860
-14.4594
49.0860
-2.3360
61.2094
-23.8727
39.6727
-49.0860
14.4594
-19.6494
43.8960
-35.9960
27.5494
-61.2094
2.3360
-43.8960
19.6494
-7.3370
16.8170
-9.7970
14.3570
-6.9436
17.2103
-16.8170
7.3370
-14.5370
9.6170
-11.6836
12.4703
-14.3570
9.7970
-9.6170
14.5370
-9.2236
14.9303
-17.2103
6.9436
-12.4703
11.6836
-14.9303
9.2236
30.4142
93.9191
-26.5358
36.9691
45.2909
108.7958
-93.9191
-30.4142
-88.7024
-25.1976
-16.8758
46.6291
-36.9691
26.5358
25.1976
88.7024
40.0742
103.5791
-108.7958
-45.2909
-46.6291
16.8758
-103.5791
-40.0742
*. The mean dif f erence is signif icant at the . 05 lev el.
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The result of comparison between raw and pickled puffer fish skins gives the significant value
of 0,013 < 0,05, meaning that there is a difference in Tensile Strength of the two types of skins;
and between raw and salted puffer fish skins gives the significant value of 0,002 < 0,05, meaning
that there is also a difference. Furthermore, the result of the comparison between raw and formalin
puffer fish skins gives the the value of 0,001 < 0,05, showing that there is a difference; and last but
not least, between salted and pickled which gives the value of 0,003 < 0,05, meaning there is also a
difference in both types of skins. This matter is caused by the difference in preservation methods, in
which the skin has various elasticities and thicknesses. It means that in order to have an optimum
sewing strength, the elasticity and the thickness of skins must be fixed during the tanning process.
In tensile strength, figure 8 below shows that the four groups of the puffer fish skin observed
fulfil the requirement of SNI 0250-1989- A for skin, i.e. the tensile strength must be minimum 100
kg/cm2, and all groups have no differences, so they can be alternative for leather product raw
material. The tensile strength values of all skin groups meet the cosumer acceptance; i.e. puffer fish
skin fulfilling the quality standard will result also on qualified, durable, robust, and comfortable-towear leather products. Tensile strength is maximum amount of force needed to pull the skin until it
breaks; stated in N/cm2.
Fig 8. The Comparison on Tesnsile Strength of Raw, Salted, Pickled, and Formalin Puffer Fish Skin
Skin elongation is the amount of additional length resulted from the skin stretched until it
breaks; divided by the original length. It is stated in percentage (Anonymous, 1990). In general, the
flexible leather has a high tensile strength, because when it receives the maximum pull force to
break, it will be more elastic and give bigger additional length (Purnomo, 1985). Results in puffer
skin research show the elongation of raw skin is 88.94%; salted puffer fish skin 114.15%; pickled
puffer fish skin 96.84% and formalin puffer fish skin 84.72%. Whereas, SNI 0250-1989-A states
that the minimum requirement for elongation is 50%. It means that puffer fish skin well fulfill the
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standard of material for leather products.
ELONGATION
salted skins
150
100
50
0
pickle
formalin
salted
skins
pickle
formalin raw-skins
raw-skins
Fig 9. The Comparison on Elongation of Raw, Salted, Pickled, and Formalin Puffer Fish Skin
Results of the research in tear strength show that, in the measurement of N / cm (1 kgf =
9.8066), the raw puffer fish skin is 473 561 N / cm; salted puffer fish skin f 427.08 N / cm; pickled
puffer fish skin 484.96 N / cm, and formalin puffer fish skin 423.25 N / cm. All have complied
with SNI for leather goods.
Fig 10. The Comparison on Tear Strength of Raw, Salted, Pickled, and Formalin Puffer Fish Skin
Sewing strength is equivalent to the tensile strength and tear strength. If the tensile strength and
tear strength are, the sewing strength is also high. Sewing strength is affected by the thickness of
the skin, collagen protein content and density, the angle of collagen fibers connection and thickness
of korium (Kanagy, 1977). Anonymous (1981) stated that the sewing strength of goat leather
(glace) is a minimum of 50 kg / cm. Results of research confirms that puffer fish skin fulfill the
standards of sewing strength.
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SEWING STRENGTH
200
150
100
50
0
salted skins
pickle
formalin
salted
skins
pickle
formalin
raw-skins
raw-skins
Fig 10. The Comparison on Sewing Strength of Raw, Salted, Pickled, and Formalin Puffer Fish Skin
From all physical tests conducted above, the four types of groups: raw, salted, pickled, and
formalin, meet the requirement of material for leather tanning. Therefore, puffer fish skin can be
used as alternative for leather tanning raw material. The puffer fish skin can be tanned and is one of
the value-added alternatives for fishermen, because it can be processed into finished goods such as
wallets, bags, jackets, belts, shoes, and other leather products that have economic values. Through
the good tanning method, the economic value generated from a sheet of skin can be fully utilized
for a wide range of interesting products with re-use approach. Development of such products is
expected to increase the added value of fishing industry waste, as eminent commodities of marine
and fisheries sector.
4. Conclusion
1.
2.
3.
Puffer fish skin, when seen from its histological structure, can be used as an alternative
material in tannery.
Results from physical test such as tensile strength, elongation, tear strength and sewing
strength show that puffer fish skin can be used as raw material for leather products.
The experiment should be re-tested with more samples.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Darjono; Tabbu, C.R.; Kurniasih; Wasito, R. Dan Sutrisno, B. 2001. Petunjuk Praktikum Patologi Umum (S1).
Laboratorium Patologi Fakultas Kedokteran Hewan Universitas Gajah Mada Jogjakarta. 33 hal.
Hawkes, J. W. The Structure of fish skin. Cell and Tissue. 1974.
Ichsan, B.Z. Epidermis, Dermo-Epidermal Junction, Dermis. Kepaniteraan Klinik Ilmu Kesehatan Anak. Fakultas
kedokteran UNS. Surakarta. 2010.
Irianto HE. Prospek Pengembangan Penyamakan Kulit Ikan. Squalen II(1). 2007: 7-16.
Judoamidjojo RM. Teknik Penyamakan Kulit untuk Pedesaan. Bandung: Angkasa. 1981.
Junaidianto, T. Isolasi dan Karakterisasi Kolagen Kulit Kerapu Macan . FakultasPertanian
Universitas Gadjah Mada, Skripsi. 2009.
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7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Kottelat, M., A.J. Whitten, S.N. Kartikasari & S. Wirjoatmodjo. Fresh Water Fishes of Western Indonesia and
Sulawesi. Periplus Editions Limited, Jakarta. 1993.
Long, J.JR. dkk. Functions of Fish Skin: Flexural Stiffness And Steady Swimming Of Longnose Gar Lepisoteus Osseus.
The Journal of Experimental Biology 199, 2139–2151, Department of Biology, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY
12601 dan Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637 dan 3Center
for Evolutionary and Environmental Biology, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL 60605, USA. 1996.
Omar. Struktur Dasar Kulit Ikan. Fakultas Perikanan dan Ilmu Kelautan. IPB, Bogor. 1987.
Purnomo, E dan Abdullah, S.S. 2011. Pengembangan Kulit Ikan Gurami (Ospronemus Gouramy) Sebagai Alternatif
Bahan Baku Industri Penyamakan Kulit in Berkala penelitian Teknologi Kulit, Sepatu dan Produk Kulit. Vol 10. No.
1 Januari 2011. Akademi Teknologi Kulit Yogyakarta. 2008.
Rahmat A, Sahubawa L, Yusuf I. Pengaruh pengulangan pengapuran dengan kapur tohor (CaO) terhadap kualitas
fisik kulit pari tersamak. Majalah Kulit, Karet dan Plastik 24(1): 19-24.
SNI-06-1117-1989. Cara Uji Kekuatan Jahit Kulit. Dewan Standardisasi Nasional. Jakarta. 1989.
SNI-06-1795-1990. Cara Uji Kekuatan Tarik dan Kemuluran Kulit. Dewan Standardisasi Nasional. Jakarta. 1990.
SNI-06-1794-1990. Cara Uji Kekuatan Sobek dan Kekuatan Sobek Lapisan Kulit. Dewan Standardisasi
Nasional. Jakarta. 1990.
SNI-06-6121-1999 Kulit Ikan Pari Untuk Barang Kulit. Dewan Standardisasi Nasional. Jakarta. 1999.
Suntoro, S. H. Metode Pewarnaan (Histologi & Histokimia). Bhratara Karya Aksara. Jakarta. 1983.
Yato M, C.Yosida, S.Fujiyama, S.mizuta, dan R. Yoshinaka. Identification and Characterizations of Molecular Species
of Collagen in Fish Skin. Journal Food Sciense, Vol 6 no 22, Food Chemistry And Technology, Institute of Food
Techno. 2001.
Yuwono, T.. Biologi Molekuler. Erlangga ; Jakarta. 1991.
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Evaluation of Municipal Solid Waste Management
in Jember District
Khoiron*
Public Health Faculty, Universitu of Jember, Jl. Kalimantan 37 Jember, 68121, Indonesia
Abstract
Solid waste and management become an increasingly urgent problem in cities in Indonesia. If not done
proper management will result in adverse environmental balance changes or unexpected that can pollute the
environment, both on land, water and air. To solve the pollution problem require the handling and control of
garbage. One of waste management is to provide place, removal, temporary shelter, transportation, and final
disposal system managed well. This study aim to evaluate solid waste management in Jember. This study is a
survey. Primary data were collected by field observations and interviews. While the secondary data obtained
through literature review and document the work in the landfill. Data analyze by descriptive analytic. The
study showed that the solid waste management in terms of five aspects, namely: 1) the operational technical
infrastructure still needs improvement from provide place in the source of garbage until final disposal which
sanitary landfill; 2) need laws and regulations to encourage the formation of Regulation on Urban Waste
Management; 3) improve the institutional and institutional powers and functions of waste management
agencies; 4) financial and financing, the tariff structure needs to be adjusted to hold on to the principle of cost
recovery through an equitable basis; 5) the role of the public and private solid waste management is done
individually require a paradigm shift people from throwing garbage into a Solid waste processing. This
research concluded that Solid waste management in Jember is still need for improvement. Need to increase the
quantity and quality of facilities. There needs to be local regulations governing waste management. And need
to increase community participation in waste management.
Keywords : evaluation, municipal, solid waste, management
1. Introduction
Solid waste is unwanted or useless solid materials generated from combined residential,
commercial and industrial activities in a given area. Solid waste management reduces or eliminates
adverse impact on environment and public health and support economic development and improved
quality of life. Solid waste and management become an increasingly urgent problem in cities in
Indonesia. If not done proper management will result in adverse environmental balance changes or
unexpected that can pollute the environment, both on land, water and air. To solve the pollution
problem required the handling and control of garbage. To manage waste so it does not harm people
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or the environment, we need to reduce the amount of waste we create and turn what we can back
into useful materials and resources. Everyone, but especially industries and governments, must take
responsibility for the wastes they create and for preventing waste in the first place [1]. One form of
waste management is to provide place, removal, temporary shelter, transportation, and final
disposal system managed well. This study aimed to evaluate waste management in Jember District.
2. Methods
This study is a survey study. Primary data were collected by field observations and interviews.
While the secondary data obtained through literature review and document the work in the landfill.
The respondents determined by purposive sampling. Number of respondents in this study are 52
respondents spread in 3 sub districts. Respondents consists of public works office, handler solid
waste in urban village.. Data analyzed by descriptive analytic.
3. Result and Discussion
3.1. Solid Waste Generation
Jember district is covering an area of 3293.34 km2, with a population in 2010 were 2,332,726
people [2]. Waste generation in Jember in 2012 was about 1.013.077,58 m3 while the managed
one is only 405.231,03 m3 [3]. To manage existing waste generation, various efforts has been
performed, start from the lug, transfer, temporary collection, transportation and final disposal.
Waste management done in Jember still does not apply the 3Rs (reduce, reuse, and recycle) well.
Conditions of municipal solid waste management in Jember are: a) operational technically,
financing of waste management, public participation, and local ergulations.
3.2. Operational technically
Oprational technically includes: 1) household storage are generally not well disaggregated
between organic and inorganic waste. Generally, the storage can be plastic or metal bin or the
household storage can be fixed brick-box, which is placed in front of the house. The capacity
of the storage varies from 70 - 120 liter. Most of the household storage is open system,
meaning that the storage is exposed to the air. So, fly, rats and other rodent animals can easily
get into the garbage storage. ; 2) While the number Temporary Disposal (TPS) is lacking and
less sanitair condition; 3) the amount of transfer depot is still lacking, especially in residential
areas and densely populated areas. The pattern of waste collection in Jember implement direct and
indirect individual collection pattern. According to SNI No 19-2454-2002, direct individual
collection pattern is activities of waste collecting from waste sources and transported directly to a
landfill site without going through the transfer activities. While the indirect individual collection
pattern is activities of waste collecting from each of waste source brought to the site for transfer
then transported to landfills.
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Direct individual collection pattern applied to waste collecting in several offices, shops and
industry in Jember. Waste from offices, shops and industries such as the Bank Indonesia, dr.
Soebandi hospital, square and pavilion, Alfa, Seger, Karisma, Bobbin Factory, Pakusari
Warehouse, DPU Bina Marga, Wina, Sari Utama, Tunggal Perkasa, Pocari Sweet, 509 Sukorejo,
Roda Tiga and Brigif (Kebonsari) is directly collected by the respective spot then transported to the
Pakusari landfill.
Household
Wheelie bin
Village
Temporaray
Disposal
Place
Truck
Final
Disposal
Shopping Centre
Fig 1. Indirect Pattern of Collecting Solid Waste in Jember District
Indirect waste collection pattern derived from household starts from each house of each RW
collected and transported using garbage cart to garbage depot and then the depot was visited by
the trucks that had been prepared by the Pakusari landfill to be transported to the landfill.
Likewise with garbage from the main roads, main streets and public facilities, garbage will be
collected into a transfer (depot) and then transported to a Pakusari landfill. In usual setting of
municipal solid waste management service, on-site storage is the point at which the service
demand meets its supply. On-site storage can be classified under two catagories (indivual
storage dan communal storage) [4].
The use of temporary disposal is associated with diarrheal disease [5]; 4) The not optimal
utilization of waste facilities and infrastructure, solid waste generation that are serviced operational
technically by DPU Cipta Karya dan Tata Ruang Jember only amounted to 405,231.03 m3 (40
percent); 5) The final solid waste management of Jember City, the Pakusari landfill located in the
Kertosari Village Pakusari sub-District of Jember is a the landfill that is managed by the DPU Cipta
Karya dan Tata Ruang Jember. The Pakusari landfill is the largest landfill in Jember which has
been operated from February 1992, with the publication of the Regent decree KDH TK II Jember
No. 825/1991. the vast of Pakusari landfill is reach 6.8 ha consisting of 13 lots, which have been
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used as many as seven lots, which is still in active use as many as 3 lots and lots that have not been
used as much as 3 lots. Pakusari landfill is about 10 km from the Jember city center.
Fig 2. Temporary Disposal Place (Transfer Depo)
Waste management system used is controlled landfill which is a waste disposal system by way
of spreading waste on the lots that have been provided about 60-100 cm thick compacted and then
covered with soil about ± 40 cm. Source of waste derived from the main area which covers the city
area (Kaliwates, Patrang, Sumbersari sub-districts), as well as Pakusari, Mayang, Kalisat, Silo,
Arjasa and Rambipuji. Facilities and infrastructure owned by the Pakusari landfill include
administrative offices (3 mx 6 m), wall (300 m) with a height of 3 m, 600 m rain water channel, 1
unit of heavy equipment garages, driveways ± 2500 m, operation road ±400 m, biogas waste
channel 18 pieces, 6 pieces of monitoring wells, composting unit 1 piece, Faecal Matter
Management Installation (IPLT) 1 unit with an area of 1.3 hectares, the IPLT pump machine 1 unit,
1 unit of health checks post, incinerator 2 units , heavy equipment wheel loader 1 unit, 1 unit of
excavator and 1 unit of plastic waste thrasher. Landfill conditions are not optimal because: lack of
land area (landfill age should have been exhausted), the services addition of five suburban
subdistrict, the landfill system used is still control landfill it should be system sanitary landfill,
composting is not applied, plastic pellet machine is not in operation , inadequate incinerator).
Sanitary landfill is a technique for the final disposal of solid waste in the ground that causes no
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nuisance or danger to public health or safety; neither does it harm the environment during its
operation or after its closure. This technique uses engineering principles to confine the waste to as
small an area as possible, covering it daily with layers of earth and compacting it to reduce its
volume. In addition, it anticipates the problems that could be caused by the liquids and gases
produced by the decomposition of organic matter [6].
3.3. Institutional of Solid Waste Mangement
Institutions responsible for the operational technic of solid waste management in Jember is
Dinas PU Cipta Karya dan Tata Ruang. Coordination of hygiene management is the responsibility
of the hygiene and street lighting especially hygiene Section who in charged to lead, nurture,
supervise and control the environment and street cleaning and waste transportation. Under the
hygiene Section, the tasks carried out include transporting operations, prepared a manual for the
implementation of the operational service of transporting waste and implement monitoring and
operational control waste transporting. Waste manager in Jember should be formed Department or
Agency, as well as the Final Disposal (TPA) and IPLT into technical Unit Opration (UPT).
Institutional should have capacities of the actors have influenced the existing mechanism for the
collection and disposal of solid waste in the metropolis. This was done through the evaluation of
the existing mechanisms for solid waste collection and disposal bearing in mind that inadequate
collection and disposal are symptoms of weak capacities of and/or poor coordination between the
institutions [7]. Institutional Local condition is influenced by institutions at state level (many
institutions responsibulity to municipal waste management). The involvement of many institutions
in solid waste management led to overlapping responsibilities and weak implementation and
enforcement of laws and regulations of solid waste management [8].
3.4. Financing of Solid Waste Management
Financing of solid waste management still needs to be improved, nowadays it is still less than
1% of the total local Budget. In Indonesia, mostly financed by local goverments is still small
(less than 2% of the total local budget) and cannot balance the needed expenditure on waste
management [8]. No exact figures are available concerning the total retribution from waste
generators, but it is estimated that 1,000 to 1,100 Billion IDR is collected through household
billing, of which 50% from direct waste fees, 27% in combination with the water bill and 23% in
combination with the electricity bill. This amount excludes the direct fees collected by nongovernmental waste collectors in the individual communities [8]. As for the financing from public
dues that goes to the region are still very small, not enough to finance the operations of optimum
services.
3.5. Public Participation
Public participation is still low, community participation in waste management that in Jember
is not good, particularly participation in financing. It can be seen from the realization of fee
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collection in 2012 which reached 56.12%. Besides a role in the financing, the people in Jember
also participate in the technical implementation of the waste processing operations. Participation
is manifested in various forms of activities such as participation in some stage of waste
management, such as garbage collection into the bins and containers and provides its own lug, as
well as the activities of household waste management. Household solid waste management in
Jember District is bad (Figure 3)
60%
56%
40%
14%
20%
11,80%
7,40%
7,30%
Open
dumping
Open land
hole
1%
1,40%
1,20%
Recycle
Closed land
hole
Other
0%
Burn
TPS
River
Fig 3. Management of Waste of Household [9]
Nevertheless, the quality of public participation in the technical activities of waste management
in Jember still needs to be improved, given the lack of public awareness in environmental
maintenance. Indication of the poor quality of public participation can be seen from several things,
among others: low awareness to implement 3 R method; still has the habit of littering; and the high
habit of wearing things that is difficult to decompose.
Efforts to build community participation in the hygiene management, especially the planning,
implementation and supervision of the hygiene management needs to be improved. Public
awareness and community participation would assist in obtaining guidance in carrying out strategic
planning of solid waste management and to enhance appropriate levels of community participation
and a two-way communication in planning and implementing of integrated solid waste
management services [10].
3.6. Local Regulations
The absence of local regulations governing hygiene and waste management. This condition
makes the efforts of law enforcement can not be done optimally. Derivative Government
Regulations of Law No.18 Year 2008, which can be used as reference by the Local Governments
for their own regulations, have not been published by the Central Government. The main
regulations that are urgently needed are: the procedure for using right in the waste management;
manufacturer obligations; type, form and procedure for the provision of incentives and
disincentives; the financing of waste management; as well as negative impacts and compensation in
waste management [8]. Local regualations is important as guidelines of muniscipal solid
waste.Good waste management is integrated.Integrated waste management systems combine waste
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streas, waste collection, treatment and disposal methods, with objective of achieving
envinronmental benefits, economic optimisation and societal acceptability [11].
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
Waste management in Jember is still need to be improved. It needs to increase the quantity and
quality of facilities. It needs for local regulations governing waste management. It needs to increase
community participation in solid waste management.
Reference
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Connant Jeff and Fadem Pam, 2008. A Community Guide to Environmental Health, Heperian, Barkeley, California,
USA
BPS Kabupaten Jember, 2012. Kabupaten Jember dalam Angka 2011
DPU Cipta Karya dan Tata Ruang Kabupaten Jember, 2012. Profil TPA Pakusari
PEPAS, 1993, Information Management for Municipal Solid Waste Management Services, Western Pacific Regional
Office Environmental Health Centre (EHC)
Junias, Marylin dan Balelay Eliaser, 2008. Hubungan Antara Pembuangan Sampah dengan Kejadian Diare Pada
Penduduk Di Kelurahan Oesapa Kecamatan Kelapa Lima Kota Kupang, MKM, Vol. 03, No. 2 Desember 2008.
Jaramilo, Jorge, 2003. Guidelines for the Design, Constructio and Operation of Manual Sanitary Landfills, Pan
American Center for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Lima, Peru.
Mariwah, Simon, 2012. Institutional Arrangements For Managing Solid Waste In The Shama-Ahanta-East Metropolis,
Ghana, Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, Vol. 14, No. 6, 2012.
Anonim, 2012. Scoping Study for Solid Waste Mangement in Indonesia, Indonesia Infrastructure Initiative, Jakarta.
Khoiron and Wibowo SC. 2014. Environmental Health Risk Assessment To Determine Sanitation Risk Area In
Jember District In Supporting Millennium Development Goals. Paper Presented in International Conference On
Envinronmental and Occupational Health 2014, Universiti Putra Malaysia. 7-9 April 2014.
World Bank, 2004. Regional Guidelines on Integrated Solid Waste Management. Prepared by an International
Consortium of Expert Consultants.
Strange Kit, 2002. Overview of Waste Management Options : their Efficacy and Acceptability. Environmental and
Health Impact of Solid Waste Management Activities. 18 Issues in Environmental Science and technology, Hester R.E
and Harrison R.M (editor). Royal Society of Chemistry, Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road,
Cambridge CB4 0WF, UK.
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Soil and Water
Agricultural Drought Risk Assessment on Rice Crop in
the Area of Java and Bali
D.P. Adikarma Mandalaa*, Ahdi Ahmad Fajrib
Abstract
Drought is often occurred in the recent decade in many Asian regions including Indonesia. The intensity and
the affected area of drought in these areas are multiplied from years to years. This phenomenon happened due
to climate change and global warming that is suspected caused by anthropogenic. Because of the drought, the
productivity of some agricultural commodity will be decrease. Decreasing productivity of agricultural
commodity has occurred in many place in Indonesia. Rice crop is the main commodity in Indonesian
agriculture that is also affected by this event. Rice crop is very important for Indonesia because it produce
staple food for most of Indonesian society. Java and Bali are the most important area for rice crop. In Java and
Bali, more than 50% of Indonesian national rice production is produced. The productivity decreasing in Java
and Bali due to drought will give a major impact to national food security in Indonesia. Therefore, the
assessment of drought risk distribution on the productivity of rice crop in this area is important. To assess the
drought effect in agricultural productivity, we use an ecological approach. Crop modeling is one of methods
that can be used to assess the risk in agricultural productivity. In this research, we use crop models namely
Shierary-Rice model. This model is developed to assess crop production from climate data. The result shows
that 10% reduction in rainfall at crop will be followed by 5.8% decreasing the rice-crop productivity. Rice
crop productivity is also affected by rainfall patterns shown in the Oldeman climate classification. Oldeman
agro climatic zone A and B dominating Banten and Jawa Barat areas are relatively less susceptible (8%
decrease in productivity every 10% decrease in rainfall) compared to the other C, D and E Oldeman agro
climatic zone (14% decrease in productivity for 10% decrease in rainfall).
Keyword: Drought; Rice Crop Productivity;
1. Introduction
Drought is often occurred in the recent decade in many Asian regions including Indonesia. There
are four points of view that can be used to learn about drought 1,2. First, meteorological drought is
the current negative anomaly of rainfall both in magnitude and duration in some scales of time.
Second, agricultural drought is the relation between abiotic and biotic aspects. Agricultural drought
occurs when rainfall and soil humidity is insufficient for growth and development of plant. Third,
hydrological drought is the relation between rainfalls to hydrological aspect in some watersheds.
Finally, socio-economical drought is the conditions when the available water cannot meet the water
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +62-878-399-45995.
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needs for social and economic activities of a region. Generally, drought can be defined as a
condition when useable water supply is lower than regional water demand 3. It is different with the
other type of hazards, drought does not have clearly spatial-temporal border3, in which more
intensity and the affected area of drought from years to years. This condition occurred due to
climate change and global warming that is suspected caused by anthropogenic 4. Drought can also
have some effects in human activities. It can affect both social-economic and environment
aspects1. In social-economic aspect, drought can affect many sectors such as agricultural, forestry,
fishery, transportation, banking, and energy, in which agricultural sector is the most affected
sector6. One of impacts in agricultural sector that is caused by drought is a decrease of
productivity5. Decreasing of agricultural productivity is caused by unbalanced condition of
hydrological system in some watersheds3.
Many agricultural commodities are developed in Indonesia. Rice crop is the most important
agricultural commodity in Indonesia since rice is a staple food for most of Indonesians. Rice crop in
Indonesia is generally divided into two types of fields, namely irrigated rice and rain fed. Rain fed
rice is more susceptible to the occurrence of drought than irrigation7,8. There are many studies done
to assess the impact of drought on agricultural productivity, especially drought caused by climate
change9. There are also many approaches that are used to conduct a study on the effect of drought
on agricultural production and productivity. The simulation model is an approach that commonly
used10,11.
Java and Bali are important areas for rice crop in Indonesia. Java and Bali are the rice production
centers in Indonesia which produce more than 50% of rice consumption in Indonesia12. Drought that
often occured in those two areas can reduce productivity6. On the other hand, Java and Bali are the
densest regions in Indonesia. Based on 2010 Indonesian Census, these two regions have 140 million
population. Big numbers of people in Java and Bali implies high demand of rice. A decrease of rice
crop productivity because of the drought in Java and Bali as well as high demand of rice in those
areas cause food security problems not only in these two areas but also across Indonesia. Therefore,
agricultural drought risk assessment on rice crop in the area of Java and Bali is important to be
investigated. This study aimed at assessing the production of rain fed and irrigation rice crops
caused by drought in the area of Java and Bali with a crop model approach.
2. Method
This research was done in the Laboratory of Agro meteorology Section Department of
Geophysics and Meteorology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Bogor Agricultural
University from August 2011 until April 2012. This research was continued from July 2014 until
August 2014 to reassess and reanalyze model product, which were then used to assess the rice need,
rice production and rice availability. There are two important tools which were used in this
research, namely: Shierarry models and Microsoft office. Some materials that are also used in this
research mentioned below:
 Topographic maps of Java and Bali
 Normal monthly rainfall data (1970-2004) gathered from sources such as BMKG, PU, and the
private sector
 Data elevation region DEM (Digital Elevation Model) from SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography
Mission)
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 Population data from BPS
2.1. Models Simulations
Shierary model is generally processed the data through two stages 13. The first stage is generating
climate data using a Shierary Weather model. Monthly climate consists of rainfall and rainy days
are spatially oriented (information contained Latitude, Longitude and altitude). It is used for
generating daily climate data such as temperature (0C), radiation (MJ / m2), RH (%), as well as
wind speed (km / h). The second stage is running an agriculture simulation model. Simulations
model is run in nine agricultural scenarios. They are rainfall decreasing from 0% to 80% with
rainfall intervals of 10% in each province in the area of Java and Bali. Rainfall reduction
determination scenarios up to 80% performed to estimate the influence of an extreme drought with
a decrease in monthly rainfall > 70% that may occur due to the ENSO phenomenon14. There are
also several assumptions which are used in our research:
 Rice variety in Java and Bali is IR64 and they have a base temperature at 170C.
 Soil parameters, such as depth, field capacity and permanent wilting point are considered equal
at every point.
 This model just consider two type of paddy cultivation (Single and double paddy a year). Single
paddy cultivation is considered in rain fed and double is considered in irrigated paddy fields.
 Time of planting for irrigated rice is Juliane date 150 (May 30) during the first planting and 250
(September 7) in the second growing season. Planting in rainfed only once, namely at Juliane
date 250 (September 7). Planting is adapted to the dominant rainfall pattern in the area of Java
and Bali are included in the rainfall pattern Monsoonal.
 Wind speed is considered constant and equal in all places is 5 km/h.
Shierary models simulation used to assess rice crop production in nine conditions from normal to
80% decreasing of rainfall. Rice crop production information is used to conduct rice production in
Java and Bali. Calculation of the needs, production and availability of rice is using these following
formulas:
 Rice Needs: Foodstuff needs of rice obtained from multiplying the number of residents with an
average demand per capita per year. Population data obtained from Population Census on 2010.
Based on National Social Economic Survey, 2009-2013 is known that the average rice
consumption per capita in 2010 amounted to 90.155 kg. Average requirement of rice which
calculated based on the amount of food energy requirements per day is converted by the amount
of rice to rice / carbs 4 Kcal / g (Department of Health, 2005). Rice needs can be formulated as:
Rice needs = Population x average consumption of rice per year
(1)
 Rice Production: Production data based rainfall reduction scenarios, in the form of milled rice
production so the calculation of the conversion of paddy into rice. Conversion of paddy into rice
is 0.632% (C) which equals 100 Kg to 63.2 Kg paddy rice15. Determination of the net amount of
rice is still determined by the value of runoff: seed (0.0088) is called B, the feed (0.02) is called
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Pk and runoff (0.054) is called T. Thus, the availability of rice calories can be formulated as
follows:
Rice production = ((Production x (1-(0.0088+0.02+0.054))x 0.632
(2)
 Rice Availability: Availability of Foodstuff rice can be seen with the production of paddy and
rice fields. Availability can be determined by calculating the reduced food supply with rice food
needs. All rice production in Java and Bali with a pre-defined scenario, reduced demands for
food of rice in the same year, which is known as food availability rice.
Java and Bali regions have about 3.6 million hectares of rice field. Harvested area of Java and
Bali is about 6.5 million hectares consisting of 81% irrigated rice and 19% rain fed. Harvested area
on that region based on BPS12 is about 6.2 million hectares, which have deviation about 4% and it
is caused by grid process used in this study. Many irrigated fields found in relatively flat areas,
because of abundant water supply. In western part of Java, irrigated rice fields often found in the
north, while for central part of Java, irrigated field located in the north and south. Irrigation rice
field in east part of Java, scattered in several locations, both in the north, central and south, while in
Bali Province, irrigation field is prevalent in the south. Distribution of rain fed rice field spreads
evenly in West Java and clumps like in Central Java, Banten and Bali, whereas for the other
provinces, rain fed rice field is not an option for the community. Figure 1 (a) shows the distribution
of irrigated and rain fed rice fields for Java and Bali.
a
b
Fig. 1. (a) Type of paddy field; (b) Oldeman classification
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Dominant rainfall pattern in the area of Java and Bali, is relatively uniform pattern, which is
monthly rainfall monsoonal type with rainfall peaks in December and January16. Although it can be
classified in monsoonal dominant rainfall patterns, paddy areas of Java and Bali have varying
character rainfall. Knowledge of the characteristics of normal monthly rainfall is useful to look at
the ability of an area to provide water supply as one of the inputs in agriculture, especially rice
cultivation. One way to determine the characteristics of monthly rainfall is to use the classification
of the type of climate. There are several methods that can be used for its classification, which is
Oldeman. This method can be used as an option for agricultural purposes. Climate classification
Oldeman is made by referring to the need of water for agricultural purposes. This method divides
the region into several classes using the number of months of wet climatic sequence and the month
with precipitation ≥ 200 mm17. Using the method of Oldeman classification, Java and Bali can be
classified into five agro-climatic zones which are dominated by agro-climatic zone D, zones C and
little zones B. Zone D has wet months between 3 to 4 months. Agro-climatic zone C has a wet
month between 5 to 6 months which indicates that this region has both rainy and dry seasons,
depend of due monsoon. Rice fields in Java region have only one time growing season without
irrigation technology. Zone B has 7-9 wet months, so it is still possible to do farming without the
addition of water through irrigation systems. Spatial distribution of the five agro-climatic zones of
irrigated and rain fed rice fields in Java and Bali region shown in Figure 1 (b). Agro-climatic zone
D is distributed in the northern part of Java and extends from the west end to the east end of Java
Island. Agro-climatic zones A and B are spread in the South area of Banten, West Java to Central
Java. Agro-climatic zones A and B also have wet months longer than the other zones. Agroclimatic zones B are 7-9 months and agro-climatic zones A are more than 9 months. Crop fields
that have agro-climatic zone A allow farmers to grow rice as much as two planting seasons without
any additional irrigation18. Northern part of the region is dominated by Java agro-climatic zone D.
In agro-climatic zone D, farmer must install irrigation system to their rice fields. Agro-climatic
zones A and B are widely spread in the southern part of West Java corresponding to the distribution
of rain fed rice. This agro-climatic zone is still quite fit and able to using rain fed rice field systems
to agriculture.
a
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b
Fig. 2. (a) Rice yields based on Shierary models in nine decreasing rainfall scenarios (b) Productivity
Shierary crops model can be used to assess rice production (rice yields) with climatology
information. Rice yields in each province in Java and Bali that are assessed by Shierary model is
shown in Figure 2 and the distribution of them can be found in Figure 3. West Java, Central Java
and East Java are the most productive provinces in Java and Bali. Rice yields in those three
provinces during normal rainfall condition were about nine million tons. A decrease of rice yield in
Java and Bali when rainfall declined was reducing rice field productivity. Rice field productivity in
Java and Bali was about 4-5 tons/ha in 0% rainfall decreasing scenario. Productivity of rice crop
under normal conditions referred to rice planting productivity in the region Java between 1.2-6.5
tons / ha which was divided into 1.2-4.5 tons / ha, which were then planted in the dry season from
March to June and 3.5-6.8 tons / ha in the wet months of November to February 6. Referring to
Figure 2 (b), productivity of rice plants in all provinces of Java and Bali generally decreased. The
decline in productivity of rice yields in the event of drought due to the response of a plant which its
leaves tended to grow narrower than normal 19. The narrow leaves that could reduce water loss in
plants also could cause a decrease in leaf area for photosynthesis. The process of photosynthesis
had decreased and was accompanied by a decrease of CO2 absorption. A decrease in leaf area
affected the biomass lower than normal conditions. The decrease in plant biomass had also resulted
in a decrease in crop productivity. Changes in productivity in the provinces of Banten, West Java
and East Java in the range of 10-30% were relatively smaller than during a decline of rainfall at
more than 40%. On the other hand, other provinces such as East Java, Yogyakarta, and Bali, the
productivity changes were consistently falling. In addition to a relatively steady decline, the
productivity of paddy in Banten, Jawa Barat and Jawa Tengah were relatively larger than in the
other three regions. Productivity in the three provinces that were still high due to the area had a lot
of rice fields with the main agro-climatic zones Oldeman A and B so that the supply of water from
rainfall was better than other areas.
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Fig. 3. Distribution of rice crop yields in Java and Bali in normal scenario
The drought effect on Java and Bali region can be calculated by the value of the slope (gradient)
that is formed by the decrease of rainfall every 10% as the abscissa (x-axis) and the productivity
decreasing percentage as (y-axis). The equation that links these two variables can be shown by the
linear correlation equation “y = mx”. Value of m is defined as slope that can be used as an indicator
of the drought effect on productivity. The unit value of the slope (m = 1) has the sense that, for
every ten percent reduction in rainfall, it will give effect to one percent of the decrease in rice
productivity. Based on the analysis of simulation results, it had been found that the decline of rice
productivity in Java and Bali was 5.8%. The productivity decreasing in rain fed rice crops every
10% drop in rainfall was about 11.6%, and it was about 4.4% in irrigated rice crop.
Productivity decreasing in rain fed Java and Bali was 65% greater than irrigated rice fields.
Other research found that the decrease of productivity in rain fed rice in Central Java was 20%
greater than the decline in productivity in irrigated rice 6. This value is in contrast to the results
obtained through the run of the model that used in this research. Based on the model in this study,
in the event of drought, rain fed rice in Central Java would experience a 38% decrease in
productivity greater than paddy irrigation in the other regions. The difference between this study
with research conducted by other researchers could be caused by external influences on rice field
experiments that conducted by other researcher such as fertilization, temperature factors, soil, and
other factors. This research only focused on the effect of a decrease in rainfall. The other factors
such as soil, fertilization were considered fixed as well as the run of the model in all regions. In
addition, the diversity of responses spatially productivity decline was also large enough so that the
large difference in the numbers to compare with the response of each type of rice fields might
occur.
Spatial distribution of productivity response to drought in rain fed rice in Java and Bali comrade
shown in Figure 4. Referring to the picture, it can be seen that the paddy fields denoted by green
color (not prone to drought) centered on the southern part of West Java since many rice fields in
West Java regions have the agro-climatic zones A and B. Numbers of Oldemans wet moths in agroclimatic zone A and zone B were relatively bigger than other zones. In contrast to West Java, rain
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fed rice in Java and Bali was yellow and red vulnerabilities. These colors indicated that rain fed in
Java and Bali was vulnerable. Productivity response rate in the rain fed types in Java and Bali was
about 5 to 10% decreasing at every 10% rainfall decline shown by yellow class and >10%
productivity decreasing shown by red color (susceptible). Thus, drought was an important factor
that could affect the productivity of rice plants cultivated in rain fed rice fields 20.
Fig. 4. Distribution of percentage decrease in productivity every 10% decrease in rainfall in Java and Bali
Agro-climatic zone A and zone B was relatively safe from the effects of drought when compared
to other agro-climatic zones. The productivity decreasing per 10% rainfall decline was used as
drought response rate of rice crop productivity in two agro-climatic zones, which was smaller
compared to the decrease of productivity in other zones (Figure 6). The response rate in the A and
B zones had a large difference compared to the response of productivity in C, D and E zones. The
productivity of rice crop by the number of months in the wet zone ≥ 7 was much more steady than
the zone that has a wet month <7 zones D and E zones. It also had the same percentage reduction in
the rate of productivity every 10% drop in rainfall. This equation was most likely occurred due to
the productivity of rain fed lowland rice crops in this region was very small and almost 0 tons / ha.
Furthermore, foodstuff is a basic need and the essence of human life. In other words, it is the
source of life. In this case, Java and Bali have rice as the staple foods. Rice as the staple food is still
used very dominantly in both regions. Indonesian rice consumption recorded is the highest in the
world at 139 kg/capita/ year in the Central Statistics Agency (BPS) 12. Consumption of rice in Asian
countries, such as Japan with 60 kg/capita/year, and Malaysia 80 kg/capita/year. The amount of rice
consumption per capita in Indonesia has declined from year to year. Based on the National SocioEconomic Survey in 2009, the average consumption per capita per year was 91.302 kg/capita/year.
This figure fell in 2010 to 90.155 kg/capita/year as people began to consume food with a variety of
materials. Food needs of rice obtained from multiplying the number of people with an average
demand of rice per capita per year. From data of population obtained from the Population Census
2010 National Socio-Economic Survey, 2009 to 2013, it has been known that the average rice
consumption per capita in 2010 amounted to 90.155 kg. Average requirement of rice is calculated
based on the amount of food energy requirements per day are converted by the amount of rice to
rice/carbs 4 Kcal/g (Department of Health, 2005).
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Based on the assumption needs of rice / capita / year of the survey agency, it can be seen that the
greater the population, the number of its rice needs is also greater. Large population may be
affected by the total area, as in West Java, East Java, and Central Java, which have the largest land
area in Java and Bali. As with Jakarta, a population is large but total area is very small. It is
influenced by the extent of employment opportunities in the capital, so many people from outside
of the province are eager to look for a job here. Banten Province which is near the border of Jakarta
has population around 10 million people whereas Bali and Yogyakarta provinces have population
of more than 3 million people. The highest demand for rice in West Java is followed by East Java
and Central Java as well as Banten, Jakarta, Bali and Yogyakarta respectively. Therefore, the
totalof rice demand in Java and Bali in 2010 amounted to 12,666,898,939 kg/capita/year. Of course,
it is possible that each year will experience an increase in consumption of rice because the
population is increasing every year. The population is large and growing, while competition
utilization of resources (especially land and water) as well as increasingly stringent expected global
warming affected the productivity of the rice in the future. Climate change at this time has a real
impact on agriculture, especially rice farming. Extended droughts affect agricultural productivity,
because the food from agriculture in Indonesia still rely heavily on rain fed agriculture which
means it requires plenty of water. The direct impact of global warming on agriculture in Indonesia
is a decrease in productivity and production levels as a result of the disruption of the water cycle
due to changes in rainfall patterns and an increase frequency of extreme weather anomalies that
result in a shift of time, seasons, and cropping patterns.
Table 1. Population of Java and Bali and Total Requirements Rice Year 2010
Province
DKI Jakarta
West Java
Central Java
DI Yogyakarta
East Java
Banten
Bali
Total
Population
9.607.787
43.053.732
32.382.657
3.457.491
37.476.757
10.632.166
3.890.757
140.501.347
Rice Needs (kg/year)
866.190.037
3.881.509.208
2.919.458.442
311.710.101
3.378.717.027
958.542.926
350.771.197
12.666.898.939
Source : Indonesian Census 2010 and Result of Analysis 2014
Availability of foodstuff rice can be seen from the production of paddy fields. Availability can
also be determined by calculating the reduced food supply with rice food needs. Rice availability in
each decreasing rainfall scenario shown in Figure 5. Based on Figure 5, it revealed that the decline
in rainfall could lead to a decrease in the availability of rice. Provinces of Bali, Banten, Yogyakarta
and West Java had a shortage of rice when rainfall was under 50%.
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Fig. 5. Distribution of percentage decrease in productivity every 10% decrease in rainfall in Java and Bali
The provinces experienced the most severe shortage was West Java Province due to the high
population of this province and lack of irrigation system of its agricultural lands. Central Java and
East Java Provinces were the safest and resistant areas to drought. Based on the simulation results,
the availability of rice in the province was also safe when there was a decrease in rainfall. This
condition happened due to the dominance of irrigated rice crop in the area.
4. Conclusion
Based on these results presented previously, it could be concluded that decreasing in
productivity of rice crops in the area of Java and Bali every 10% drop in rainfall was 5.8. Irrigated
fields were relatively safer than the rain fed with a decrease of 4.4%, while the decline of rain fed
was 11.6%. The province of Yogyakarta was the most vulnerable area in both irrigated and rain fed
rice fields. Productivity decreasing in this province was about 5.3% in irrigated and 14.8% in rain
fed rice fields. However, the province that had the greatest difference between the decline in
productivity in rain fed and irrigation was East Java, which reached twice the response of irrigated
rice. Monthly rainfall pattern had also a major influence to the variation of rice crop productivity
response because of drought. Drought impacts were relatively small with an average of below 8%
productivity decreasing in rain fed paddy fields in Banten and East Java as these areas were
dominated by agro-climatic zones A and B. Based on rice availability assessment, rice shortages
had begun to occur in Bali, Banten, Yogyakarta and West Java Provinces when the decrease of
rainfall was 50% from its normal condition. Central Java and East Java Provinces were the most
secured and resistant to drought. In other words, the availability of rice in those provinces was safe
even though there was a decline of rainfall.
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Soil and Water
References
1. Mishra AK & Sigh VP. A Review of Drought Concept [a review paper]. Elsevier Journal of Hydrology 2010: 391: 202216.
2. Alen CD et al. A Global View of Drought and Heat-Induced Tree Mortality Reveals Emerging Climate Change Risk for
Forest. Elsevier Forest Ecology and management 2010: 259: 660-684
3. Nagarajan R. Drought Assessment. Springer. New York.; 2009.
4. Bates BC., Kundzewicz ZW & Palutikof JP. Climate Change and Water. Technical Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change. IPCC Secretariat. Geneva. 2008. p. 210.
5. Wilhite D A.. Drought. In: Oliver J E, editor. Encyclopedia of World Climatology. New York. Springer; 2005
6. Boling A, Toung TP, Jatmiko SY & Burac MA. Yield Constraints of Rain fed Rice in Jawa Tengah, Indonesia.Elsevier
Field Crops Research 2004.:90: p 351-360.
7. Patuwan G et.al. Yield Response of rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotypes to drought under rainfed lowlands 2. Selection of
Drought Resistant Genotypes. Elsevier Field Crops Research 2012:73: 169-180.
8. Verulkar SB et al. Breeding Resilent and Productive Genotype Adapted to Drought-prone Rainfed Ecosystem of
India.Elsevier Field Crops Research 2010: 117: 197-208.
9. White JW, Hoogenboom G, Kimball BA & Wall GW. Methodelogies for simulating impact of climate changge on crop
production. Elsevier Field Crop Research. 2011: 124: 357-368.
10.Cai Ximing, Yi-Chen E, Rigler C, Zhao J & You L .Agricultural Water Productivity Assessment for the Yellow River
Basin. Elsevier Agricultural Management 2011: 98: 1297–1306.
11. Mo X, Liu S, Lin Z, Xu Y, Xiang Y & McVicar TR. Prediction of crop Yield, water consumption and water use
efficiency with SVAT-Crop Growth Model Using Remotely Sense Data on the North China Plain. Elsevier Ecological
Modeling. 2005: 183: 301-322.
12. [BPS] Badan Pusat Statistik. Tabel Luas Panen- Produktivitas- Produksi Tanaman Padi Seluruh Provinsi tahun 2009.
[online]. http://bps.go.id/tnmn_pgn.php. [1 mei 2012].
13. Handoko. Dasar Penyusunan dan Aplikasi Model Simulasi Komputer untuk Pertanian. Bogor: Jurusan Geofisika dan
Meteorologi, Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam. Institut Pertanian Bogor. 1994.
14. Kuenzer C, Zhao D, Scipal K, Sabel D, Naemi V, Bartalis Z, Mehl SH & Wagner W. 2009. El Nin˜o southern oscillation
influences represented in ERS scatterometer-derived soil moisture data. Elsevier Applied Geography 29 (2009) 463477.
15. United Nation. Conversion of rice. FAO. 2004.
16. [BMKG] Badan Meteorologi dan Geofisika. Drought Assesment over Indonesian related to El Nino and SSTA
Indonesia. Inter-Regional Workshop on Indices and Early Warning for Drought. 2009.
17. Mantel S. Berau Model Forest Area Environmental Datasets and Maps: land System Inventory. Consultant report-juni
2001
18. Kumar A, Veruklar SB, Mandal NP, Variar M, Shukla VD, Dwivedi JL, Singh BN, Singh ON, Swain P, Mall AK,
Robin S, Chandrababu R, Jain A, Haefele, Piepho HP & Raman A. Hight-Yielding, Drought-Tolerant,Stable Rice
Genotypes for Shallow Rainfed Lowland Drought-Prone Ecosystem. Elsevier Field Crop Research. 2012: 133: 37-47.
19. Bocco R, Lorieux M, Seck PA, Futakuchi K, Manneh B, Baimey H & Njiondjop MN. “Agro-morphological
characterization of population of intergression lines derived from crosses between IR 64 ( Oryza sativa indica) and
TOG 5681 (Oryza glaberrima) for drought tolerance. Elservier Plant Science. 2012: 183: 65-75.
20. Venuprasad R, Impa SM, Godwa RPV, Atlin GN & Serraj R. Response to two cycles of divergent selection for grain
yield under drought stress in four rice breeding populations. Elsevier Field Crops Research. 2008: 107: 232-244.
35
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Economic Security
Struggle Mystical Values Craftsmen “Batik Gajah Oling”
and Orientation Entrepreneurship
Zarah Puspitaningtyas*, Djoko Poernomo, Puji Wahono
Universitas Jember, Jl. Kalimantan No. 37 Jember, 68121, Indonesia
Abstract
The purpose of this study was revealed the phenomenon of entrepreneurial orientation “Using” public
economic enterprises and economic institutions that support the improvement of their productivity and wellbeing in the midst of the dynamics of economic development and increasingly fierce competition. Location of
the study in Banyuwangi. The research method uses a qualitative approach. Informants research is creative
entrepreneurs “batik”.
The results showed all the informants produce “batik” -patterned "Gajah Oling ", but the design and layout
of each color is different. The similarity of “batik” -patterned "Gajah Oling" due to the values of mystical
“Using” the community that originates in the culture, that to preserve the "Gajah Oling" the goodness (eg,
growing his business) will continue to side with him. Values that is what has motivated them to work harder
produce “batik” -patterned "Gajah Oling", are independent, do not rely on government, proactively seeking
opportunities, innovative, willing to take the risk of doing business in the sense of daring for others who may
not be profitable, go ahead and continue to seek opportunities to produce better products in order not to lose the
same producer. The hard work they had been able to build economic institutions in the long run will improve
business productivity informant, business continuity is assured and well-being has improved.
Keywords: Entrepreneurial Orientation; Institutional Economics; Business Continuity
1.
Introduction
Osing tribe is a native of Banyuwangi. Their population is about 20 percent of the total
population of Banyuwangi. Some of them make their living as batik maker that specializing in
making batik with "Gajah Oling" pattern. It is believed that the “Gajah Oling" pattern have special
magic, e.g when a baby is restless or have to be out of the house at dusk, then he needs to be wrap
with the "Gajah Oling" pattern to keep him calm and safe from the evil. ("inspirasi" magazine,
2013).
This pattern also common to be used as souvenirs on weddings, parties, etc. Gajah Oling batik
was originally made for ritual needs but now venturing into the aesthetic, social, and economic
aspects. All of these changes have brought new dynamics among the batik makers, they need to
work harder to gain more 'market' and to keep the existence of Gajah Oling pattern.
Knowing the importance of the Gajah Oling pattern, the local government started to provide
protection to preserve Gajah Oling pattern. The local government organized varieties of events,
*
Corresponding author.
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Economic Security
such as Banyuwangi Batik Festivals, Exhibition for Gajah Oling Batik, Gajah Oling Batik Design
Competition, and various batik trainings annually. Now it really depends on how the batik makers
will use these supports to create new designs and do more innovations.
Entrepreneurial orientation is one of the important indicators of productivity and economic
progress. It can be reflected by the high creativity, innovation, ability to see the potential,
opportunities and challenges, as well as the acquisition of knowledge that allows it to be able to
look for other alternatives in the face of various challenges and competitions.
Conversely, lack of entrepreneurial orientation will make a serious threat to productivity,
economic welfare of a community and it will also be a threat to the preservation and development
of cultural property values that manifested itself in a product such as batik with Gajah Oling
pattern.
Given the importance of entrepreneurial orientation, as well as a form of institutional
engineering economy that can sustain economic productivity and well-being of a society, the
research is needed to find a model on how Gajah Oling pattern protect itself to survive as a
manifestation of their value system in the perspective of entrepreneurial orientation.
2.
Theoretical References
2.1. Entrepreneurship orientation
The development of entrepreneurship theory recognizes variations in entrepreneurial role in
economic change (Stam, 2008) sum of the role of entrepreneurs are: 1) those who bear uncertainty
(Knight, 1921), 2) an innovator (Schumpeter, 1934), 3) the decision maker (Casson, 2003 ), 4) a
leader of the industry (Schumpeter, 1934), 5) an organizer and coordinator of economic resources
(Marshall, 1890), 6) a Arbitrageur, observant of opportunities (Kirzner, 1973, 1997), 7) allocator of
resources among a number of alternative uses (Schultz, 1975). It shows that without entrepreneurs,
there will be no economic growth in that area.
Dess and Lumpkin (1996) define entrepreneurial orientation as the processes, practices
and decision-making activities that lead to new things. This implies that the construct of individual
talents, values, attributes, and strong attitudes with regard to motivation, entry into entrepreneurial
activity. Likewise, Frank et al. (2010 ) cites the entrepreneurial orientation presented by Guth and
Ginsberg (1990) and Zahra and Covin (1995) as potential ways to revitalize existing businesses
through risk-taking, innovation, and aggressive competitive behavior .
Dess and Lumpkin (1996, 1997, and 2001) suggest there are five key dimensions of
entrepreneurial orientation, namely: (1) autonomy, (2) innovativeness, (3) risk taking, (4) proactiveness,(5) competitive aggressiveness. Autonomy refers to the independent actions of an
individual or group to bring an idea or vision and resolve to complete. Innovativeness refers to the
tendency of engaging and supporting new ideas, uniqueness, experimentation, and creative
processes that enable the creation of new products, services or processes. Risk -taking refers to the
degree in which individuals differ in their willingness to take risks and rewards received. Proactiveness refers to the initiator and other measures aimed at protecting the safety and search
market share and look forward perspective is reflected in the actions taken in anticipation of future
demand. Competing aggressiveness refers to the intensity of the efforts to put out competitors from
the industry. These efforts will help ensure a high market share and therefore will lead to better
performance.
According to Certo et al. (2009 ) entrepreneurial orientation can occur at three levels, namely:
(a) the level of the individual or labor, (b) the level of business founders or entrepreneurs, and (c) a
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Economic Security
company that has been established . Detail view of Certo et al . (2009 ) can be seen in Table 1
below.
Tabel 1: Level of Entrepreneurial Orientation
Entrepreneurial
orientation
element
Autonomy
Application for
individuals / employees
Application for startups /
founders / entrepreneurs
Show an ability to
develop
independent
tought and not require
step by step instructions
Develop proposals that
specifically react to, or
anticipate the actions of,
competitors
Create processes and system
that allows employees to
develop independent thinking
Highlight how you can
provide
new
and
creative
ideas
or
processes
Identify
how
new
combinations of current
products and services can
serve new markets
Demonstrate an ability
to think ahead, and
anticipate
futute
organizational needs
Recommend proposals
Risk Taking
that
have
more
attractive
return
although they may have
a lower probability of
success
Source: Certo et al. (2009)
Be a first mover or a fast
follower in new or existing
markets
Competitive
aggresiveness
Innovativeness
Proactiveness
Establish a culture of
unconventional tactics rather
than
head
to
head
competition with incumbents
Incur debt or take other risk
in order to seize an
opportunity
Application for
established / top
management team /
boards
Allow individuals and
teams freedom to
champion new ideas
Engage in aggressive
marketing,
quality
improvement,
and
value compared to
competitors
Be
willing
to
canibalize
existing
products, services or
processes
and
venture
beyond
current limits
Influence
market
trends and create
demand
Commit significant
resources to a project
to
ensure
hight
returns
Empirical evidence has support that a business with a very high degree of entrepreneurial
orientation might be using innovation (Manimala, 1992) and enjoy better business performance
(Smart and Conant, 1994). Wiklund (1999) stated that the effect of entrepreneurial orientation on
performance is very large and the strength of the effect increases over time. Therefore, many
researchers argue that investing in entrepreneurial orientation is beneficial to the financial aspect
because it will bring more long term benefits. (in Zhang et al . , 2011).
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Economic Security
2.2 Human Security
The Commission on Human Security define Human Security as: “…to protect the vital core of
all human lives in ways that enhance human freedoms and human fulfillment. Human security
means protecting fundamental freedoms – freedoms that are the essence of life. It means protecting
people from critical (severe) and pervasive (widespread) threats and situations. It means using
processes that build on people‟s strengths and aspirations. It means creating political, social,
environmental, economic, military and cultural systems that together give people the building
blocks of survival, livelihood and dignity.” (CHS: 2003: 4)
The essence of human security is to protect the dignity of the human being to live in dignity by
being free from all obstacles and pressures as well as have an opportunity to participate in various
sectors to achieve a decent living. Protection of human security can be done by governments, nongovernmental organizations, and individuals with clear rules (e.g. laws or regulations). In the
economic context, the government can regulate business protection, fair competition, and so on.
The existence of an entrepreneurial orientation means that the community is able to create business
/ economic on its own and able to keep the business running. Thus, there is indeed a relationship
between entrepreneurial orientations to human security efforts.
3.
Research Method
This is a qualitative research. The focus of research is the phenomenon of entrepreneurial
orientation and engineering economic institutions that support the increased of productivity and
welfare of Gajah Oling batik makers. The analysis is done by making a categorization of a number
of phenomena that was gathered through in-depth interviews. The sources are batik makers who are
also part of Osing tribe. This study used a phenomenological approach.
4.
Result and Discussion
4.1. Overview of the Study
Based on previous study by Wahono (2006) knowledge creations and innovations in the centers
of batik Industries in Java. The result of the study shows that the knowledge creation processes
exist with different level of implementation. The higher the level of knowledge creation, the higher
the innovations will be. Wahono et.al (2011), Knowledge Transfer in the Family Owned Business
in East Java. The study showed that generally knowledge transfer occurs in the bloodline, going
down from generations to generations or it can be transferred to people outside of the bloodline,
those who have gained the trust from the family. Horizontally, knowledge transfer occurs among
batik makers from different business entities. Puspitaningtyas et.al (2013) Entrepreneurship
Orientation Model and Economic Institution „Osing Tribe‟ in Increasing Productivity and Their
Welfare in Banyuwangi. The study showed that the batik makers from Osing tribe succeede in
becoming independent and they have a high entrepreneurship spirit.
4.2. Result and Discussion
There are 3 sources in this study; all are batik makers and also business owners. Source 'A' is
the owner of "Srikandi" art shop in Karang Bendo Village, Rogojampi District. Source 'B' own the
"Gondo Arum" art shop in Pakistaji Village. Source 'C' is the owner of 'Sayuwiwit" art shop in
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Economic Security
Temenggungan Village. All of them are female, married with children and part of Osing tribe. The
setting of this report is focusing on source 'A', while source 'B' and 'C' will serve as triangulators.
Source 'A' had started to learn how to make batik since she was young, she learned it through
her parents. Her batik making skills were getting better after she worked with other batik makers at
'Sayuwiwit' and 'Virdes' for about 5 years. About 9 years ago source 'A' opened her own batik
business and 5 years ago she was opening a batik gallery called 'Srikandi'. Her love for batik has
started since she was young, her parents taught her all about batik and their business. Around age 9,
she had started helping her mother to make batik.
When she grows up, she mastered the batik making skills and started to use her skills to make a
living. When she had to take the responsibility to take care of her family, she is more assured that if
she put more effort in making batik she will be able to make money and send her children to
school.
She started to establish connections with suppliers of the raw materials from Solo, Jogjakarta,
and Bali. At first, she personally went to Solo or Bali to buy the materials she needed such as the
fabric, canting, dye powder, etc. As time goes by, she is able to established a good relationship with
the suppliers so when she need to buy anything she just call them to order the materials and the
payment will be done through bank transfer.
Slowly, the society started to know her as a good batik maker. To sharpen her skills she is
always eager to join trainings on batik making, business management and marketing held by the
Government or other institutions. She was also becoming one of the batik makers that is being
helped by one of state owned enterprise (Pelindo Banyuwangi branch) and she was also got soft
loan that she used as added capital.
Slowly but sure, her business is blooming. At this moment she has 21 people working for her, 7
male and 14 female. If the order for batik is increasing she would hire as many as 24 people. The
main job of the male employees usually are those that required physical activities such as to stamp
the batik pattern to the fabric, dye and take away the wax from the fabric (ngelorot) while the ones
for the female employees are the ones that is more delicate such as copying the design to the fabric,
making small detailed pattern in the batik, covering the design with wax, etc.
The batik that source 'A' producing consist of handmade hand drawn batik, stamp batik and
combination of both. Relating to the dye she use for her batik, source 'A' is using chemicals dye
powder and just recently starting to use natural dye made from plants. Batik with chemical dye
usually has bolder and brighter color while the ones with natural dye are usually softer. Aside from
making batik fabric, source 'A' also make batik wallets, shawls and bags.
In the marketing context, source 'A' had built a good network with some institutions such as
schools, government offices, and other business entity such as suppliers, retailers and whole sellers
and occasionally get special orders for specific occasions. She said that because her gallery is a bit
far from the city she needs to be more aggressive in marketing her product.
The other two sources, 'B' and 'C' also emphasize on the same matter. They need to be proactive
and aggressive in selling their products and it is important to have a good network. For example,
source 'A' is registered as a student at an University in Banyuwangi. She shows her products to her
fellow students who come from different parts of Banyuwangi, and they become part of her
networks. Aside from building networks, the sources also make calling cards with complete
information about them so it will be easier for people to get in touch with them and bur their
products.
The sources seem to have a high artistic sense. When they are inspired by something, they
expressing it in their sketch book and then they transfer the design to the fabric. Therefore a new
motive and design have born purely from their own idea. Aside from that, sometimes the new
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Economic Security
pattern and design is a compromise between their artistic sense and costumer's demand. The one
thing that is never missing from their design is the Gajah Oling pattern. This pattern will always be
the most important part of the design and pattern they are making.
From the dyeing side, source 'A' use the chemical dye and only began to use natural dye last
year. Now she mixed the dye for the dyeing process. She hasn't been able to make her own natural
dye so she still buy it from Solo or Bali. These new things that source 'A' did to increase the batik
selling can be categorized as 'incremental innovation' (Davila et al.,2006).
Her decision to make batik as her main source of income has shown that she is a risk taker.
Seeing how the business blooming shows that it was worth it and that her decision was based on a
careful calculations and also that the management style she use is working well.
One of the risks that she is willing to take is by buying the materials through phone calls. She is
risking the quality of the materials. It can be that the quality of the materials she ordered will be
different from what she expected. But she is willing to take the risk because she will be saving
money and time for not having to travel. The ability to manage risks is a crucial part in managing a
successful business.
The other key of success from the batik business owned by the sources is determined by their
ability to compete with others. It is not easy to compete with the other batik makers so they need to
be able to be ahead of the others by being creative and innovative. Source 'A‟, for example,
combining the Gajah Oling pattern with flowers pattern and using colors that are not too bright or
soft. The pattern drawn in medium to large size with dominant colors of yellow, gold, green, and
blue. This is the trademark designs that source 'A' try to develop as part of her effort to compete
with others.
Source 'B' also trying to build her own trademarks by using bold colors such as yellow, bright
green, red, pink, etc. When asked why she choose those colors, source '' said that the people of
Banyuwangi love the bright and bold colors.
Source 'C' trademark is soft colored and classic Gajah Oling design pattern. Although she also
produced bright colored batik, her specialty is with the classic and soft colored as had been done by
her family from generations to generations.
They realize that to be able to strive and grow, they need to do changes and keep innovating
their products. To survive, aside from competing they also need to work together to sustain their
business. For example, when source 'A' got a relatively large order, she was asking the help from
other batik makers to make some of it so that the deadline of the order can be fulfilled.
Based on this, it is believed that "competing aggressively doesn't mean one should be winning
or losing but it means to grow side by side through working together.”
The choice made by source 'A' to stay in the creative business is her way to become
independent. She wanted to be able to stand on her own feet. It is understood that to be independent
is not easy and very risky but source 'A' did not afraid to take the chances to try and now she
succeed to reach her dreams. To be able to be independent and becoming a successful business
entity on must have courage and determination.
5.
Conclusion
The sources have a good entrepreneurial orientation as said by Schumpeter, Miller, Freel (2000)
and also Esparallardo, et al (2009). They have the values and high determination to use their
resources, tangible and intangible, to make a living by transforming a sheet of white fabric into a
Gajah Oling batik product that have high economic value and also as manifestations of their
heritance.
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They are able to create their own network within the conducive environment created by the
local government. The fact that they are still exists until now is also the sign that their value system
that they inherit from their ancestors is still preserved until now.
Commoditization of mystical values into batik industry changes the life of the batik makers. By
being able to make money from it, the batik makers are free from poverty, therefore they are strong,
independent and they have more freedom in pursuing a better life.
The change from chemical into natural dyes is very much related to the batik makers‟ new
understanding on preserving the environment. By using more natural dyes, the waste won‟t be
polluting the environment. At first this changes effected their selling because the color from natural
dye is not as bright as the chemicals, but step by step the batik makers are succeeded in educating
their customers. Now they are even willing to pay more for the batik product that use natural dye.
Through the changes made by the batik makers, the mystical values are still intact in the form of
a batik fabric without having to lose the economic value. This means that financially they are safe
and the sustainability of the environment is not being disturbed.
This research is expected to be able to give a glimpse of the dilemma between the preserving
mythical values and adding economic value in a sheet of batik in relation to human security and
sustainable development.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
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Certo, S. Trevis; Moss, Todd W.; Short, Jeremy C., 2009, Entrepreneurial orientation: An applied perspective, Business
Horizons 52: 319-324
Denzin, Norman K,. Lincoln, Yvonna S., 1997, Handbook of Qualitative Research, Sage Publication, Pvt, Ltd. New
Delhi, India,
Davila, Tony; Epstein, Marc J; Shelton, Robert.; 2006, Profit Making Innovation, Terjemahan, Penerbit PT. Bhuana
Ilmu Populer, Jakarta.
Espallardo, Miguel Hernandes., Ballester, Elena Delgrado, 2009, Product innovation in small manufacturers, market
orientation and the industry‟s five competitive forces, European Journal of Innovation Management 12 (4): 470-491
Frank, Herman, Kessler, Alexandes, Fink, Matthias, 2010, Entrepreneurial Orientation and Business Performance – A
Replication Study, Strategic Business Review 62, 175-198.
Lumpkin, G.T., Dess, G.G., 1996, Clarifying the Entrepreneurial Orientation Construct and Linking It to Performance,
TheAcademy of Management Review, 21 (1): 135-172.
........., 2001, Linking two dimensions of entrepreneurial orientation to firm performance: the moderating role of
environment and industry life cycle, Journal of Business Venturing, 16: 429-451.
Puspitaningtyas, 2013, Entrepreneurship Orientation Model and Economic Institution „Osing Tribe‟ in Increasing
Productivity and Their Welfare in Banyuwangi, University of Jember.
Wahono, 2006, “Knowledge Creation and Innovation in the Centers of Batik Industries in Java”, Dissertation,
University of Indonesia, Jakarta.
--------------, 2011, Knowledge Transfer in the Family owned Business in East Java, University of Jember.
Wiklund, Johan and Dean Shephend (2005), Entrepreneurial Orientation and Small Business Performance: a
Configurational Approach, Journal of Business Venturing 20: 71-91.
.........., (2003), Knowledge-Based Resources, Entrepreneurial Orientation, and The Performance of Small and MediumSized Business, Strategic Management Journal 24: 1307-1314.
Zhang, David Di.; Bruning, Edward., 2011, Personal characteristic and strategic orientation: entrepreneurs in Canadian
manufacturing companies, International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research 17 (1): 82-103.
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Food Production and Postharvest
Bioassay Development for Detecting
Plant Growth Regulator in Seaweeds
Ramal Yusufa*, Paul Kristiansenb, Abdul Syakura, and Hidayati Mas’uda
a
University of Tadulako, Palu, Indonesia
School of Environmental and Rural Sciences, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia
b
Abstract
Bioassays provide a means for detecting the presence of biologically-active compounds in plant tissues [1, 2].
In addition, in places where advanced analytical equipment is not available, rapid screening using simple and
affordable methods is important. Seeds of soybean variety of anjormoro were germinated [3] and grown in the
dark light at 20°C for 2 days. Ten pre-germinated seeds were immersed in 30 mL solution containing test
solutions of auxins (IBA), cytokinins (kinetin), and gibberellin (GA3). All seeds were distributed randomly in
to Petri dishes containing the test solution. Concentrations of 5e-04 ppmof IBA stimulated root elongation
over that of the control, and a higher concentration of 0.05 inhibited root growths. The peak rate was 0.0005
ppm. Cytokinin activity was determined using the soybean bioassay with kinetin standards. It showed that
kinetin activity peaked at 5 ppm for root elongation. Gibberellin activities using soybean bioassay showed that
the peak activity occurred at around 5 ppm for root elongation. However, at gibberellin concentrations of 50
ppm, root elongation was inhibited.
Keywords : soybean, bioassay, elongation.
1. Introduction
Human population is expected to reach 8.0 billion by 2025 and 8.9 billion by 2050. About 80
million people are being added to the total population each year. It is projected that there is a need
to multiply the world food production in order to feed 8.0 billion people by 2025 [4, 5]. Improving
crop yields in both normal soils/lands and less productive lands is an important requirement to
fulfill the future world food needs.
Chemical fertilisers have been successfully used to increase food production. The excessive
use of chemical fertilisers to address nutrient deficiencies of the soil has generated several
environmental problems, for example, pollution, acidification, and greenhouse gases (GHGs).
Major strategy to counteract the decline of environmental quality is to promote sustainable
agriculture. This can be achieved by performing continuous advances in biological productivity and
efficiency achieved by ecologically sustainable methods. This means sustainability should ensure
that the past and current management and use of natural resources does not diminish the ability to
meet economic, environmental, and social needs for long-term purposes [6]
Despite the development of highly sophisticated and definitive techniques for the estimation
*
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and identification for both natural and synthetic plant growth regulators (PGRs) in plants, including
GC-MS and immunoassays, it is still important and necessary to use bioassays in researches. Such
assays form an integral part of both growth and metabolic studies as part of the quest to understand
the role of PGRs such as cytokinins in plants. Bioassays provide a means for detecting the presence
of biologically-active compounds in plant tissues [1, 2]. Furthermore, in places where advanced
analytical equipment is not available, rapid screening using simple and affordable methods is
important.
In developing countries with important seaweed farming industries such as Indonesia [7], there
is also an opportunity to give added value to the products by processing waste to become fertiliser
[8].
The term bioassay is used to describe the use of living material to test the effect of the known
and putative biologically active substances. When dealing with biologically active substances such
as PGRs, there should be a means to measure their biological activity [2, 9, 10]. Bioassays must
meet several requirements in order to be effective including specificity, sensitivity, ease of
measuring, relative ease in setting up and controlling [10, 11].
The coleoptile curvature test is one example of a bioassay which measures the extent of
curvature caused by the auxin diffusing from an agar block [12]. Another example involves cutting
elongation sections taken from coleoptiles or dicot stems [13] and growing that section in a Petri
dish or other container with different amounts of the partially purified auxin sample. The Avena
coleoptile section test is another example. This test is based on the ability of auxin to stimulate cell
elongation [14]. This test utilises a section of the oat coleoptile and was first used by Bonner in
1933. It has been used widely because it is simple to conduct.
The soybean tissue culture bioassay can be used to assess cytokinin activity [15]. Furthermore,
for cytokinin bioassays, the hypocotyl rather than the cotyledon of soybean (Glycine max) gives
better results [16]. The hypocotyl assay is quicker to perform and required less cytokinin[17].
Manos and Goldthwaite (1976) described the bioassay as a modified soybean tissue culture
bioassay for cytokinins. Soybean hypocotyls were grown under sterile conditions and sliced into 1
mm and cultured for 5, 9, 13, or 22 days on a callus medium with zeatin or other cytokinins. The
fresh weight of sections increased with the cytokinin concentration from 0.0005 to 1 µM. This
hypocotyl assay was more reliable, quicker to perform, and required less cytokinin.
There are various bioassay target species which can be used to test gibberellin [18], such as
dwarf corn, dwarf pea, lettuce hypocotyl, and mung bean [19]. Other bioassays can be related to
amaranthin production. As the presence of gibberellic acid can cause Amaranthuscaudulus
seedlings produce less amaranthin, this can be used as a bioassay for gibberellic acid [20]. A
bioassay of gibberellic acid (GA3) can also be based on the GA3-induced reduction of anthocyanin
content in young seedlings of tomato [21]. It is found that GA3-induced reduction of anthocyanin in
tomato seedlings was linear from 10-5 to 10 mg/L GA3, whereas the reduction of amaranthin in
Amaranthuscaudulus seedlings was linear from 10-3 to 10 mg/L GA3. It indicates that the sensitivity
is greater in the former method.
Bioassays for PGRs have been developed by numerous researchers, but they have
disadvantages and advantages depending on the sources of PGR and the target species. Therefore,
to evaluate the plant growth promoting activity in seaweed products using bioassays, consideration
should be given to sensitivity, specificity, and ease of performance when choosing the bioassay.
The aim of the experiment was to develop a bioassay for common PGRs. The effect of a wide
range of concentrations of auxin, cytokinin, and gibberellin on root elongation seedlings was tested
to generate a standard curve for hormone concentration responses. This experiment was conducted
to develop a standard bioassay that can produce rapid responses which could be conveniently used
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to test the bioactivity of seaweed where sophisticated analytical equipment is not available.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Seed measurement
Seeds of soybean anjosmoro variety were germinated[3] and grown in the dark light at 20°C for
2 days [22] (Fig.1). Ten pre-germinated seeds were immersed in 30 mL solution containing test
solutions of auxins (IBA, indole butirateacid), cytokinins (kinetin), and a gibberellin (GA3). All
seeds were distributed randomly in to Petri dishes containing the test solution (
Fig.2). There were four replicates for each treatment. The measurement of root seed elongation
was conducted at 96 hours after the incubation period.
Fig.1 Soybean seeds preparing for germination.
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Fig.2 Soybean seeds were immersed in solutions.
2.2. Experiment one: auxin bioassay
Solution preparation
Solutions stock of IBA at a concentration of 500 ppm was prepared using the method of [23]. The
remaining test solutions were diluted with water by the concentrations shown in Table1.
Table.1 Auxin treatments with IBA used in experiments 1.
Treatments
Concentration (ppm)
A
0
B
0.000005
C
0.00005
D
0.0005
E
0.005
F
0.05
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2.3. Experiment two: cytokinin bioassay
Seed preparation and incubation were the same as in experiment one. Solutions stock of kinetin at a
concentration of 500 ppm was prepared using the method of [23]. The remaining test solutions
were diluted with water by the concentration shown in Table 2 This experiment was repeated twice.
Table 2Cytokinin treatments with kinetin used in experiment 2.
Treatments
Concentration ( ppm)
A
0
B
0.005
C
0.05
D
0.5
E
5
F
50
G
500
2.4. Experiment three: gibberellin bioassay
Seed preparation and incubation were the same as in experiment one. Solutions stock of gibberellin
at a concentration of 50 ppm was prepared using the method of Tajiet al. (1992). The remaining test
solutions were diluted with water by the concentrations shown in Table 3. This experiment was
repeated some times.
Table 3 Gibberellin acid (GA3) treatments
Treatments
Concentration (ppm)
A
0
B
0.0005
C
00.05
D
0.05
E
0.5
F
5
G
50
3. Statistical analyses
Statistical analyses were carried out with analysis of variance using the R program version
2.10.1 [24]. Assumptions of heterogeneous variances and normal distributions were confirmed, and
significant different means were separated using 95% confidence limits (1.96 × standard errors
[SE]) [25].
4. Results
The effect of auxin, cytokinin, and gibberellin concentrations on the growth of roots shown by the
soybean bioassay are presented below.
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4.1. Auxin bioassay
IBA peaked at 5e-04 ppm (log10) on root length measurement (Fig.3).
IBA
Kinetin
GA
Total root length (mm)
60
40
20
Fig.3 Effect of IBA, kinetin and GA concentrations on root length for the two runs combined.
4.2. Cytokinin bioassay
Fig.3 shows that kinetin peaked at 5ppm (log10) on root length measurement in two repeated
trials. The highest concentrations resulted in the shorter root lengths.
4.3. Gibberellin bioassay
The results indicated that gibberellin peaked at 5ppm (log10) on root measurement in two
repeated trials. Gibberellin with 50 ppm concentration inhibited root growth (Fig.3).
5. Discussion
Various bioassays have been developed for the estimation of PGRs. Most of these are based on
the physiological action of these plant hormones in promoting cell expansion and division and in
delaying senescence [17]. Concentrations of 5e-04 ppmof IBA stimulated root elongation over that
of the control and a higher concentration of 0.05 inhibited root growths. The peak rate was 0.0005
ppm. The pea bioassay used by Whatley and Slife (1983) showed that benazolin and IAA promoted
the elongation of etiolated pea epicotyls. As a growth regulator, auxin is capable of inducing
elongation in root cells when applied at an optimal concentration. Auxin is one of the plant growth
regulators which play a central role in the growth regulator of roots [26]. In higher plants, auxin is
synthesised in chloroplasts of young leaves and induces the process of root formation. In contrast,
48
50
0
5
Concentration (ppm)
50
0.
5
0
5e
-0
6
5e
-0
5
5e
-0
4
0.
00
5
0.
05
5
50
50
0
0.
5
0
5e
-0
6
5e
-0
5
5e
-0
4
0.
00
5
0.
05
5
50
50
0
0.
5
0
5e
-0
6
5e
-0
5
5e
-0
4
0.
00
5
0.
05
0
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cytokinins are synthesised mainly in the root tips but affect shoot development [27]. The ratio
between auxin and cytokinin played a significant role in root production in pea seedlings. This ratio
is different depending on the developmental phase as each phase has different requirements for
cytokinins and auxins [28]. For example, application of exogenous auxins to the root tip or
cotyledons promoted lateral root initiation.
Cytokinin activity was determined using the soybean bioassay with kinetin standards. It shows
that kinetin activity peaked at 5 ppm for root length elongation. At concentrations higher than 50
ppm, kinetin inhibited root growth. As root tissue of soybean shows a response to kinetin, it can be
assumed that soybean roots are sensitive to non-synthetic cytokinins. Therefore, kinetin may be
used as a bioassay to test cytokinin activity in natural seaweed. However, the concentration should
be lower than 50 ppm as this concentration inhibited the root. In bioassay using tobacco shoots
(Nicotianatabacum), cytokinin initiated shoots over a concentration range of about 10 -9 – 10-4 M
[29]. These different results could be related to cytokinin metabolism. When cytokinins are applied
to plant tissue, they are rapidly metabolised. Different plants and different tissues within organs of
plants have shown different patterns [30].
Gibberellin activities using the soybean bioassay showed that the peak activity occurred at
around 5 ppm for root elongation. However, at gibberellin concentrations of 50 ppm, root
elongation was inhibited. This could be an indication that if gibberellin bioassay using soybean is
used as the plants test, it is better to measure the root growth.
In general, the bioassay that we performed in this experiment can be made faster. The bioassay
took 96 hours. Another bioassay using cultured soybean hypocotyl section took 168 hours [16].
However, this was slower than the elongation bioassay using etiolated soybean which took 48 hours
to complete [31]. Furthermore, this bioassay is easy to perform and requires no complicated
analytical equipments.
6. Conclusions
The results indicate that all plant growth regulators promoted root in comparison to controls.
The maximal auxin activity peak as measured by root elongation was 5e-04 ppm, while cytokinin
activity peaked at 5 ppm, and gibberellin peaked at 5 ppm. The new feature of the bioassay
presented in this experiment is the use of auxin, cytokinin, and gibberellin individually on the same
test species. The elongation of roots was measured in this bioassay instead of measuring fresh mass
of roots and shoots, which requires very sensitive balances. Furthermore, the bioassay was
completed in 96 hours.
To conclude, a bioassay based on root elongation of soybean was developed for the activity of
common PGRs. This bioassay technique will be used to measure the auxin-, cytokinin-, and
gibberellin-like activity in natural seaweed and seaweed production (made).
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Devlin, R.M. and F.H. Witham, Plant Physiology1983, Boston: Willard Grant Press.
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Sustainable Development
The Behaviour of Drug Inmates in Sexual Fulfillment
in Penitentiary in Urban Area and its Risk toward
HIV/AIDS Infection
Dewi Rokhmaha, Khoironb*
a,b
Abstract
From 101.036 inmates in penitentiary, 23.409 of them are because of drug case. 70% of them are addicts
and 40% are injection drug user (IDU). Most of them are on active sexual aged. Penitentiary is the high risk
place in HIV Infection because enhancement of high risk bihaviour. This situation get worse because of high
residental level and limited health facility for inmates. Consequently the amount of inmates test result HIV
positive always increase. This research aimed to analyse behaviour of drug inmates in sexual fulfillment in
penitentiary and its risk toward HIV/AIDS infection in urban area.
This research held in Class IIA Panitentiary of Jember in 2012, used qualitative method with
phenomenologic approach. The data is collected by purposive sampling to 8 drug inmates, aged 20-55 by
indepth interview. Data collected is analyzed by thematics content analysis.
The result of this research showed that the majority of drug inmates have libido in penitentiary. Only a few
of them can diverted their libido by doing another activity in work area or praying. The behaviour of sexual
fulfillment of drug inmates are various. Majority of drug inmates did masturbation. A few of them used blue
film from MP3. A few of them did another activity in order to fulfill their sexual satisfaction of themself and
their sexual partner by inserting 2-20 bullets from toothbrush handle to their penis using knife making from
toothbrush handle and coffee powder as depresant. Another responden said when libido came and they did not
have any actifity, they drawed tatoo from dynamo toys modificated with bateray. This actities caused
transmision HIV/AIDS to inmates because there was blood contact from unsteril tools between inmates.
This research concluded that there were risk behaviour in drug inmates in sexual fulfillment. Extra
controling is needed to drug inmates actifity and tools were carried in penitentiary.
Keywords : drug inmates, sexual fulfillment behaviour, HIV/AIDS
1. Introduction
The prevalence of AIDS is five times higher among prison inmates than general population [1].
Prisoners constitute a group at high risk of HIV infection mainly because of the high proportion of
them who are IDU (Injection Drugs User) [2]. In English prison, injecting drug use and needle
sharing represent the greatest risk [3]. The proportion of prisoners who had injected drugs in
Canadian Medium Security Federal rise from 12% in 1995 to 24 % in 1998 [4]. Prevalence and
*
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incidence of HIV among males in Rhode Islan Prisons USA were 1,8%, infection were
significantly associated with injection drug use [5]. In Indonesia, from a total of 101,036 inmates in
penitentiaries, 23 409 of them were because of drug cases. Of that amount, 70% are addicts and
40% are IDUs [6]. Most of them are in the sexually active age. Penitentiary is a high risk place for
the spread of HIV / AIDS due to the increase of high-risk behaviors. The drug inmates in prisons is
one of the key populations. Because the majority of inmates have a history as injecting drug users.
In addition, the facilities in penitentiary environment is limited so it aggravate the vulnerability to
HIV and AIDS infection. Populations at risk include people at risk of contracting or contracting
vulnerable because of risky behavior that is not protected, not sterile syringe exchange as well as
people who contracted because of the jobs, the environment vulnerable to HIV infection, such as
migrant workers, refugees and young people at risk and PLWHA are people who have infected
with HIV [7].
As the estimated vulnerable population of 2006, estimated number of AIDS cases in the WBP
(correctional inmates) and prisoners were as many as 5,129 people. The situation of HIV
transmission in WBP and Narcotics injecting prisoners in the Penitentiary / detention is very likely
in a rhythm with injecting narcotics users outside Penitentiary / detention. The situation of the HIV
epidemic in Penitentiary / detention mentioned above illustrates that HIV transmission in WBP and
prisoners can not be controlled.
The situation get worse by the high occupancy rate and lack of health facilities that can be
obtained by the inmates. As a result the number of inmates with HIV positive test results continues
to increase. The number of WBP and prisoners that are likely to increase in four consecutive years
progressively add the excess occupancy (over capacity) of Correctional Unit. Although the
Correctional Unit annually continues to increase its capacity, but the occupancy are still exceeds the
capacity provided. Pada tahun 2005, kelebihan daya hunian mencapai 31,65% dan meningkat
menjadi 46,81% pada tahun 2008 [8]. In 2005, the excess of occupancy reached 31.65% and
increased to 46.81% in 2008. This situation increase the difficulty of implementing correctional
guidance program, safety, narcotics abuse and illicit trafficking, environmental sanitation and
health, including HIVAIDS prevention programs, tuberculosis, and other opportunistic infections.
From this situation, it is needed to understand how the circumtance of the penitentiary of drug
inmates giving effect of the transmision of HIV/AIDS. This research aim to analyze the behavior of
drug inmates in sexual fulfillment and its risk toward HIV / AIDS.
2. Methods
This research is a qualitative study with a phenomenological approach. This research aimed to
analyze how the behavior of drug inmates in sexual fulfillment and its risk toward HIV / AIDS.
Focus research of the study are drugs inmates, individual charactaristic, environmental factors, and
how can them giving effect to the transmission of HIV/AIDS in the pennitentiary. It conducted
from January to March 2012 in Class IIA Panitentiary of Jember. The data is collected by purposive
sampling to 9 drug inmates which aged 20-55 years-old. Based on the gender of the informants
there are 8 male drug inmates, and 1 female drug inmates. The data was collected by indepth
interview techniques and were analyzed using thematic content analysis with narative eksplanation.
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3. Result
3.1 Overview of Research Informant
The results showed that the majority of drug inmates in the Class IIA Panitentiary of Jember
were male, aged between 20-55 years. The age was classified as reproductive age and sexually
active. The marital status of informants half were married and half were single, with the level of
education were the majority was high school graduation while the minority was high school
graduation and only a few who were taking college. In terms of profession, the majority of
informants were working in the private sector, and only a small fraction were a driver by profession
and there was still a small fraction of college students.
In Class IIA Panitentiary of Jember was the public panitentiary which not giving specifict
facility for drug inmates. The difference place or block was only to separate between incarceration
and prisoners or inmates. The result of the study showed that most of the informants have status as
inmates (receiving verdict from the trial), and only less of them as the incarceration. There was no
diferrences of facility and places or blocks between drugs inmates and the inmates from another
cases. A most of informants were placed in Block B, only a less of them in Block C. The kind of
drugs that consumted of the most of informant are :marijuana, shabu, heroin and ecstasy. Less of
the informans used drugs as valium and trimitidin.
3.2 Inmates Risky Behavior to HIV / AIDS Infection
The results showed that the majority of drug inmates have a desire to have sex in the
Panitentiary. This happened because of the results showed that the age range of most of the
research informants were sexually active at the age of 20-55 years old. Only a fraction of them who
divert their libido by doing other activities such as doing activities in workshops or diverting with
praying. This is the same with the quote of the indepth interview from the informant below :
“...if we talk about the sexual fullfilment of us. It always there...sometimes I make my activity in a large
time with making handycraft for children toys in the penitentiary...or sometimes we do phisical exercise
or watching football on the television.....”. (GG, 34 years old).
It is as the research result by Susanti (2009) which states that the pattern of adaptation in sexual
fulfillment dominant on inmates in Class I panitentiary of Cipinang Jakarta was conformity means
inmates choose to participate in the guidance program during their sentence [9]. The behavior of a
drug inmate sexual fulfillment is very diverse. Most of them do masturbation. A small portion of
them is using porn movie in MP3 to masturbate.
A small portion of informants do other activities related to sexual fulfillment in panitentiary that
is very risky on the transmission of HIV / AIDS. Drug inmates have a risk of contracting HIV and
AIDS more easily than other inmates, because they have a history as injecting drug user. So there is
a possibility that they already have HIV-positive status from before entering panitentiary. Risky
activities stated are by install pellets made from toothbrush handles into the penis. Pellets created
manually from the handle of a toothbrush rubbed on the floor, thus forming a small sphere of 0.5
cm diameter. As for the equipment of pellets installation is by using a handmade blade from
toothbrush handles and using coffee powder as an anti-pain. They do this when the libido appears
and there is no activity in panitentiary. In addition, they draw a tattoo between inmates using a
modified toys dynamo with battery. This is the same with the information from the informant
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below :
....I ever looked that the inmates using install pellets made from toothbrush handles into the penis.
Pellets created manually from the handle of a toothbrush rubbed on the floor, thus forming a small
sphere of 0.5 cm diameter. As for the equipment of pellets installation is by using a handmade blade
from toothbrush handles and using coffee powder as an anti-pain...so there was no blood....They
must payed to the inmates which mounted the pellets USD 20 or giving cigarrette...(GG, 34 years
old)
....When I was in the penitentiary, I was not doing piercing. Because I have done it before I was in
the penitentiary. But I ever looked at my friend as inmates doing piercing with the sewing
needle....for the other inmates using a modified toys dynamo with battery to draw tattoo....Maybe
this was because there was no another activity......(IW, 27 years old).
3.3 The Effort to Decrease The Infection of HIV/AIDS in Drug User Inmates in Pennitentiary and
Human Security Issue
Although Needle and Syringe program (NSP) was implemented in 2006, it uptake has possibly
reduce HIV transmission among injectors with shorter injection hystory, the prevalence of HIV
among IDUs in Indonesia remains unacceptably high. The result of the research showed that the
informant doing risky behaviour to HIV and AIDS Infection because they didn‟t know about the
danger and the infection of HIV/AIDS. This is the same with the information from the informant
below :
....We didn‟t release about the danger of piercing and using pellet to the pennis can infect danger
desease like AIDS until there was VCT program from the pennitentiary.....(GG, 36 years)
A national prisons program was launched in 2005 by The Ministry of Justice and Human Right
with the aim of providing inmates with prevention, care and support service for TBC and/or HIV.
Imprisonment was an independent risk faktor for HIV infection. New inmates could be HIVpositive at the time of incarceration or they may get infected while in prison as injecting drugs
seems to continue in prison under unsafe conditions. Althhough Indonesia implemented a national
strategy for HIV prevention in prisons, chalenges remain to implement appropriate HIV prevention
and care services in this setting.
This research showed that in Class IIA Panitentiary of Jember, has HIV/AIDS Prevention
Program by making corporation with VCT of District Hospital of Jember. Every three mounts there
was VCT and education about HIV/AIDS to the all of prisoners including drug inmates. The aims
of the program is decreasing the infection and the dead are caused by HIV/AIDS in penitentiary.
4. Discussion
The results showed that the majority of drug inmates have a desire to have sex in the
Panitentiary. This happened because of the results showed that the age range of most of the
research informants were sexually active at the age of 20-55 years old.
Only a fraction of them who divert their libido by doing other activities such as doing activities
in workshops or diverting with prayingIt is as the research result by Susanti (2009) which states
that the pattern of adaptation in sexual fulfillment dominant on inmates in Class I panitentiary of
Cipinang Jakarta was conformity means inmates choose to participate in the guidance program
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during their sentence [9]. The behavior of a drug inmate sexual fulfillment is very diverse. Most of
them do masturbation. A small portion of them is using porn movie in MP3 to masturbate.
A small portion of the respondents do other activities related to sexual fulfillment in
panitentiary that is very risky on the transmission of HIV / AIDS. Drug inmates have a risk of
contracting HIV and AIDS more easily than other inmates, because they have a history as injecting
drug user. So there is a possibility that they already have HIV-positive status from before entering
panitentiary. The result of the research showed that some of the drug inmates were drawing tattoo,
piercing and installing accessories in the genitals with unsteril artificial devices. They installed
pellets made from toothbrush handles into the penis. Pellets created manually from the handle of a
toothbrush rubbed on the floor, thus forming a small sphere of 0.5 cm diameter. As for the
equipment of pellets installation is by using a handmade blade from toothbrush handles and using
coffee powder as an anti-pain. Coffee powder has analgesic effect. Robusta coffee contains
antioxidant chlorogenic acid and antibacterial Methicilin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA)
that can reduce free radical and kill bacteria staphylococcus. Therefore, this kind of coffee is
expected to have a capacity to heal wounds faster [15].
There is a relationship between the behavior of drug injectors with the occurrence of HIV
infection (p = 0.01), there is relationship between behavior of tattoo activities with HIV infection (p
= 0.022) [10]. This condition is the same as the results of research in European Prisons that 18 % of
inmates reported that they had been tattoed whilst in prison, which was found to be higher among
injecting drugs user [11]. It is like the results of research in the New York prison who revealed that
a range of consensual and non consensual sexual activity occurs among inmates and between
inmates and staff. Without official access to latex barriers, prisoners use ineffective makeshift
divices, like rubber gloves and used plastic wrap, in attempts to practice safer sex. Prisoners also
shoot drugs intravenously with used syringes and pieces of pens and light bulbs [12].
This practice allows the transmission of HIV / AIDS due to blood contact among fellow
inmates. At the time of the tattoo needle penetrates the skin there will be bleeding, therefore,
transmission may occur when the equipment used is not sterile and has been used by someone who
is infected with HIV. Besides the tattoo, several other behaviors at risk of contracting HIV that
have the relative same level of risk was piercing and installing accessories in the genitals. It is like
the results of research on inmates in panitentiary of Muara Padang which revealed that more than
half (50.6%) had negative attitude and more than half (57.6%) had a risk action against the sexual
deviant behavior [13]. The associations between HIV serostatus and a variety of factors highlights
the potential limitation of risk-factor-based HIV testing in prison, as do the number of potential
undetected HIV cases [14]. This condition was the same with injecting drug user in Bangkok are at
significantly increased risk of HIV infection through sharing needle with multiple partners while in
holding cells before incarceration [16].
There are programs from goverment to decrease the infection of HIV/AIDS on inmates in
panitentiary. A national prisons program was launched in 2005 by Ministry of Justice and Human
Rights with the aim of providing inmates with prevention, care and support services for
tuberculosis and/or HIV. The name of the programs was national Strategy for Prevention and
Control of HIV/AIDS and drug Abuse in Indonesia Correction and Detention Centres (2005-2009)
[17]. During the five years of the strategy, National Guide were developed on voluntary counselling
and testing, case management and HIV care, support and treatment. In addition, several training
workshop were delivered and prison-based AIDS teams were established [18]. This conditions is
the same with the other place of the world. In the South East Asia region, The drug control and
supply reduction agenda is high political importance. A multitude of law enforcement agencies
arevengaged in this work. Nationwide campaigns such as the “ Strike-Hard” campaign in China or
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the “war on drugs” in Thailand dominate the landscape. Viet Nam‟s respone to drug use has
historically focused on deterrence through punishment and supply-side measures [19]. Triangular
clinincs (TCs) werw established in prison as a harm reduction measure to decrease the risk of HIV
transmission and other blood-borne infection [20].
5. Conclusions and Recommendations
This study concludes that there is still found the practice of sexual fulfillment behavior of drugs
inmates in the panitentiary at risk for HIV / AIDS like drawing tattoo with unsteril artificial device,
piercing and installing accessories in the genitals. So it is required for the effort of closer scrutiny
by prison officers on the activities and equipment that were brought by prisoner in the panitentiary.
Beside that, the time in holding cells is an important opportunity to provide risk reduction
counselling and intervention programs to reduce the incidence of HIV/AIDS in penitentiary.
6. Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank to: The Dean of the Faculty of Public Health Jember;The Head
of the Class IIA Panitentiary of Jember, The Head of AIDS Prevention Commission of Jember,
and all staffs of health clinic and all informants in Class IIA Panitentiary of Jember which has
provided opportunities for author to conduct this research.
References
1.
Grinstead O, Zack B, Faigeles B. 2001. Reducing Prostrelease Risk behavior among HIV Seropositive Prison inmates :
The Health Promotion Program. AIDS Education and Prevention Journal : Vol. 13, No.2, pp 109-119.
2. Dufour A et al. 1996. Prevalence and risk behaviour for HIV infection among inmates of a provincial prison in Quebec
City. AIDS : Official journal of the international AIDS Society : Vol. 10 –Issue 9 pp : F29-F33, 935-1055.
3. Edwars A, Curtis S, Sherrard J. Survey of risk behaviour and HIV prevalence in English prison. International Journal of
STD and AIDS. Htpp.//std.sagepub.com/content/10/7/464.short
4. Ford PM et al. 2000. HIV, hepatitis C and risk behaviour in a Canadian medium security federal penitentiary. Q Journal
Medical; Vol 93 : pp 113-119.
5. Macalini G.E et al. 2004. Prevalence and incidence of HIV, Hepatitis B Virus and hepatitis C virus infections among
Males in rhode island prisons. American Journal of Public Health. Juli 2004, Vol 94 No.7: pp 1218-1223.
6.
KPAN. 2008. Strategi Komunikasi Penanggulangan HIV dan AIDS di Indonesia. Jakarta : Komisi Penaggulangan
AIDS Nasional.
7. KPAN. 2011. Rangkuman Eksekutif Upaya Penanggulangan HIV dan AIDS di Indonesia 2006-2011 : Laporan 5 Tahun
Pelaksanaan Peraturan Presiden Nomor 75 Tahun 2006. Jakarta : Komisi Penaggulangan AIDS Nasional.
8. Dirjen Pemasyarakatan Kementrian Hukum dan HAM. 2010. Penelitian Prevalensi HIV dan Sifilis serta perilaku
berisiko terinfeksi HIV pada narapidana di Lapas/Rutan di Indonesia. Jakarta : Dirjen Pemasyarakatan Kementrian
Hukum dan HAM.
9. Susanti, L. 2008. Pola Adaptasi Narapidana Laki-Laki Dalam Pemenuhan Kebutuhan Seksual di Lembaga
Pemasyarakatan Kelas I Cipinang. Tesis. Jakarta : Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Politik Universitas Indonesia.
10. Diansyah, W. 2010. Hubungan Perilaku Berisiko Dengan Kekerapan Infeksi HIV pada Penghuni Lembaga
Permasyarakatan Medan. Tesis. Medan : Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Sumatra Utara.
11. Rotily M et al. 2001.Surveilance of HIV infection and related risk behaviour in European prisons. European Journal of
Public Health ; Vol 11 No.23 ; pp : 243-250.
12. Mahon N. 1996. New york inmates‟ HIV risk behaviours : the implications for prevention policy and program. American
Journal of Public Health ; September 1996; vol 86, No. 9 ; pp 1211-1215.
13. Febrian H, 2010. Gambaran Perilaku Seks Narapidana Di Lembaga Pemasyarakatan Kelas II A Muara Padang Tahun
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2010. Tesis. Padang : Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Andalas.
14. Rosen D.L et al. 2009. Characteristics and behaviour associated with HIV Infection among inmates in the north carolina
Prison system. American Journal of Public Health ; June 2009. Vol 99 No. 6; pp:1123-1130.
15. Susanto Y., Puradisastra S., Ivone K. 2009. Efek serbuk biji kopi robusta (coffea robusta lindl. ex. de willd) terhadap
waktu penutupan luka pada mencit jantan galur balb/c yang diinduksi aloksan. Journal Kesehatan Masyarakat volume 8
nomor 2 Februari 2009 pp 121-126.
16. Buavirat A. et al. 2003. Risk of prevalent HIV infection associated with incarceration among injecting drug user in
Bangkok Thailand : case-control study. BMJ Volume 326 8 februari 2003 pp 1-5.
17. Winarso, I., Irawati, I., Eka, B., Nevendorff, L., Handoyo, P., salim, H. & Mesquita F. (2006). Indonesian National
Strategy for HIV/AIDS control in prisons ; a public health approach for prisoners. International Journal of Prisoner
Health, 2 (3): 243-249.
18. National HIV and AIDS Action and Strategy Plan 2010-2014, Indonesia : Winarso, I (2008), „Moving toward universal
access to prevention and treatment in prisons‟, Presentation at International Harm Reduction Conference, Barcelona :
National AIDS Commision Republic of Indonesia (2010), Republic of Indonesia country report on the follow up to the
Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS (UNGASS). Reporting period 2008-2009.
19. Sharma, M., & Chatterjee, A. (2012). Partnering with law enforcement to deliver good public health: the experience of
the HIV/AIDS Asia regional program. Harm reduction journal, 9(1), 24.
20. Asl, R. T., Eshrati, B., Dell, C. A., Taylor, K., Afshar, P., Kamali, M., & Mirzazadeh, A. (2013). Outcome assessment
of a triangular clinic as a harm reduction intervention in Rajaee-Shahr Prison, Iran. Harm reduction journal, 10(1), 41.
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Location VS Academic Performance of School: Parental
Decision in Sustaining the Future of their Children, the
Case Study of Gombak District
Mariana Mohamed Osmana and Syahriah Bachokb, Nuraihan Mohd
Ibrahimc*
a,b
c,
Senior Lecturer Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Kulliyah of Architecture and Environmental Design,
International Islamic University Malaysia, 53100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Post Graduate Student Kulliyah of Architecture and Environmental Design, International Islamic University Malaysia,
53100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract
This paper presents the assessment on parents’ criteria in selecting public schools to enroll their children in
public schools within Gombak District. The topic of school development and planning is relevant to achieve
sustainable development in urban planning. Planning of school is one of the major elements in a
comprehensive development planning process as it serves the needs of the community. School selection is
always a concern in the school development especially in term of capacity and quality. However, school
development planning faced with many obstacles that need to be improved on the school development and
management. The main criteria in determining the school selection are location, distance, school facilities,
academic school’s performance, extra-curricular activities and school environment. The data collected through
questionnaire survey method. In this study, the sample size is of 400 respondents who will be handed out
specifically for parents that send their children to the public schools. The samples are entered to Statistical
Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) software. The result then analyzed based on Descriptive and Inferential
Statistics approach. The study identified academic school’s performance is the most important criteria of
parents in the school selection for enrolling their children while the extra co-curricular activity is the least
important criteria for them. From the findings, this research proposes recommendations to overcome the issues
and problems with the public school development in Gombak District. Therefore, it will lead to the
improvement of the school planning to cater primary needs for educations at various levels as well to improve
the quality of life of the community.
Keywords : public school, parents’ criteria, school development, community.
1. Introduction
School is part of the community facilities that be planned towards the social sustainability.
Indeed, school development process engages with the skills and knowledge carried out by the
decision makers to develop an effective school for the society. An effective school needs to have a
*
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clear vision, high academic achievement with safe and conducive learning environment for the
students and teachers [1]. The main purpose of the school provision is to cater the primary needs of
educations for the sake of quality of life of the community. In the neighbourhood area, school
becomes a focal point where it purposely functioned as recreational area for the children as well as
meeting area for their parents [2].
The location and distance of the school will determine whether the school is easily accessible or
not. The school must not only accessible from home but also must be accessed from other land use
as well. Therefore, school must be planned within the strategic area surrounded by land use such as
residential, transportation and commercial to provide mobility and accessibility for children during
school trip [3]. On the other hand, safety, convenience and adequacy are some of the basic elements
that must be included in the school development planning. With these elements implemented in the
school development, it is expected they would contribute in improving the quality of education at
all levels.
Nowadays, most parents are engaged with the education of their children by involving
themselves with the very first step which is the school selection. Parents are likely to find it
important to involve in their children’s education by choosing the school that will attend by their
children [4, 5]. The main reason of parents’ involvement in their children’s education is to improve
the academic performance of the children [6]. However, school with higher academic achievement
is not necessarily located closer to home. The typical issue arise among parents is whether to
choose closer school from their home or to choose school with higher academic achievement that is
located far from home.
1.1. Research Background
Parents have a range of choices in deciding the most preferable school for their children. Yet,
there are numerous criteria of parents in deciding a school to enroll their children. Some parents are
seeking for the school that is close to their home [4, 5, 7]. On the other hand, there are also parents
that demand for the school with higher academic achievement [5, 7, 8, 9]. Criteria that parents are
looking for the school to enroll their children are different based on each preference. The common
reason that determines the parental decision on school criteria is socio-economic factor which
include parents’ educational level, household income and number of school-going children [7]. This
paper will analyzed the socio-economic factors that influencing parents’ choice between school
location and school academic performance to enroll their children.
There are many criteria that parents need to be taken into account before deciding the best
school to enroll their children. This paper however focuses on the two important criteria in school
development namely school location and school academic performance. This paper deals with the
impact of school location and school academic performance towards the parents’ decision in
selecting the best possible school for their children. The study was conducted on the selected
primary and secondary level schools in Gombak District. The paper also has analyzed factors
influence parents’ criteria in selecting schools for their children. Lastly, the study provides
suggestions for improvement in the development of public schools in Gombak District. The paper
provides a critical evaluation on parents’ criteria in selecting suitable public school for their
children. Hence, the paper is significant for various parties such as local planning authority, parents
and students.
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1.2. Problem Statements
School sometimes is located in the unsuitable area. This statement is supported by [10] that
mentioned that the school site is located close to hazardous areas such as flood and land erosion.
According to [11], schools should be located in the area that has the availability of public
transportation routes. However, many schools have access problems because they are located in
remote areas without proper transportation network systems [3]. To overcome these problems,
school must be planned with the mixed land use categories such as residential, transportation and
commercial to connect the school to the surrounding neighborhood [12].
Distance between school and home determines the mode choice of student to the school [12].
The catchment area for schools is from 0.4 to 0.8 km radius and within five to ten minutes of
walking distance [11]. Yet, school with wider catchment area increase the distance between school
and home which stops them to walk to the school. [13]. Hence, parents send their children to the
school using private vehicles because of the far distance [13, 14].
Majority of parents choose school because of its location. There is however a high number of
students studied in the school far from their home and they must provide their own transportation to
school [15]. Because of the longer distance, parents normally send their children to the school
themselves using private vehicles such as car, motorcycle an etc. The school location is important
as one of the school choice determinants because parents somewhat send their children to good
quality of school no matter its location [16]. It means, parents are willing to maximize the cost of
travelling the maximum distance as long the school is excel in academic. However, low income
family might find this as obstacle for them which they want their children to increase in academic
excellence but with smaller amount of time and cost.
1.3. Research Questions
From the problems statements, five research questions were generated for this research. The
following research questions were addressed as below:
 What are the criteria that determine parents’ perception in selecting the school for their children?
 Which criteria between school location and school academic performance that parents choose in
enrolling their children?
 What are the factors that influence parents’ decision on the selected school criteria?
 What are the issues and problems regarding school development?
 What are the recommendations that need to be proposed in order to improve the development of
schools in the study area?
1.4. Aim and Objectives
The paper explores current issues and problems faced by parents in choosing the best school for
their children. The aim of this paper is to study the parental decision in selecting public school to
enroll their children in Gombak district. The objectives are:
 To identify parents’ criteria in determining school choice.
 To examine factors influence parents’ decision on criteria of school selection.
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 To provide suggestions in order to improve the school development.
2. Literature Review
The sections starts with the definition of terms related with school development. This section
also compares the resemblances and dissimilarities of the criteria that parents are searching in their
decision of choosing the suitable school for their children. In addition, socio-economic factors
influencing the decision of parents to send their children to school also reviewed. The main
purpose of literatures is to present reviews from the previous researchers regarding topic.
2.1. Definition of Terms
It is important to understand the meaning of school in order to derive the understanding of the
function of school and its significance towards the society. However, in the context of this paper,
public schools that need to be taken into account are those schools under the management of the
government. Table 1 shows besides school definition, the other terms that need to be taken into
account are parent, pupil and teacher.
Table 1. Definition of terms
Terms
Definitions
Parent
“Parent” includes a guardian and any person who has legal or actual control of a pupil
Pupil
“Pupil” means a person of any age for whom education or training is being provided in an
educational institution
Teacher
“Teacher” means a person who –
a)
teaches pupils in an educational institution; or
b)
prepares or issues lessons or corrects returned answers in, for or through a distance
education centre
School
“School” means a place where ten or more persons are habitually taught whether in one or more
classes, but does not include any place where the teaching is confined exclusively to the teaching of
any religion
Government
School
“Government school” or “government educational institution” means a school or an educational
institution established and fully maintained by the government
Source: [17]
2.2. Parents’ Criteria In Choosing Public School
There were a variety of criteria of parents in choosing the proper school for their children.
Parents have freedom in selecting the school that they are desired for their children. Parents are
thinking of all the alternatives before enrolling their children to school. They conclude that the most
significant criteria in choosing school for their children is academic achievement [18]. On the other
hand, distance is seen as the significant factors in school choice as it will determine the
transportation modes of children to the school [15]. Some might argue that the improvement of
students’ academic achievement influenced by the strategic location of school as well as the
students’ daily attendance to school [9, 10]. Yet, these criteria in fact are frequently not meeting
each other in determining the most important criteria in school selection. Therefore, the ranking of
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the most importance criteria in selecting school is decided by giving the choice of priorities to the
criteria [4].
Location is one of the most influential criteria for parents to decide the proper school for their
children [5, 19, 20, 21]. Built environment factors affect the school choice because location will
determine students’ decision of mode choice to the school [2, 13]. School location at one point will
determine the school distance. Distance plays a crucial role in the community not only in term of
choosing school for the children to attend but also in choosing where they want to live [16, 20].
Walking distance is measured by calculating the shortest distance between home and school
entrance. Distance to the local school is measured using each student’s local elementary school as a
proxy for his or her residence.
Students’ academic performance has constantly been a major concern to parents in choosing a
school for their children (5, 9, 16, 19, 20]. Most parents choose academic excellences as the first
priority in choosing school for their children. As school is an essential institution, it needs a
conducive physical and social environment in order to enhance students’ academic performance
[22, 23]. Other than that, [24] cites that students’ academic performance also can be influenced by
parents’ and teachers’ approach. For example, teachers will assist students during school hour while
parents will help them to study at home. The idea of parents’ involvement in their children’s
education helps to improve the children’s academic performance [6]. Higher academic performance
not only affects the students individually but also contributes to the improvement of the school
excellences too that will improve the academic records of the school.
2.3. Factors Influencing School Criteria
The role of school choice is to promote educational opportunity for all. Every child has the right
to receive education. Parents want their children to have nurturing and thriving learning
environments in the school so that they will achieve academic excellences [25]. Parents engage
with their children education because they want their children to have the opportunity to obtain the
best education in the school. It is a dream for every parent to ensure their children will excel in
education. Because of that matter, parents play an important part in the successful of their
children’s academic performance where they are choosing the school based on their expectations,
experiences and standards [6, 16]. Parents with higher level of education expect more on the
academic performance of their children to meet up with their standard of achievement. Parents are
concerned in finding a safe learning environment for their children with quality teachers, programs,
and curriculum which remains students to stay in school (8, 15]. These are some of the school
factors that contribute in assisting parents in the selection of school for their children.
Family backgrounds such as household income and parents’ level of education influence the
parents’ decision to involve in their children academic [13, 20, 26]. On the other hand, there is also
some concerns where school choice would create background segregations in terms of income,
ethnicity and religion [15, 27]. For example, in Malaysia there are two types of government schools
which are i) national schools for Malay, and ii) national type-schools for Chinese and Indian. The
national schools use Malay language as the medium of instruction and English is a compulsory
subject while the national-type schools use Mandarin and Tamil as the medium of instruction while
Malay and English language are compulsory subjects [1]. Although today there are some parents
are sending their children to any school whether national schools or national type-school regardless
their ethnic but the number is low. This proves that public schools are becoming increasingly
segregated by race [27.].
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The disparity of the family background especially in the socio-economic status reflects the
academic performance of the school in the developing countries [28, 29]. Low-income families
have lower expectation on the education for their children. These families might have a high value
on their children’s academic achievement but they find it more costly to achieve those preferences
[30]. The public school system is supposed to provide equal opportunity for children to learn
regardless their social background. Still, students from higher income family is afford to pay fees
for extra tutoring or extra classes outside the school hour compared to low income students who
only depends on the learning from the school. On the other hand, parents with higher income
believed that their children academic achievement influenced by quality teachers who will help in
improving the academic performance [16]. As compared to low-income families, they place much
less weight on academics when choosing schools for their children due to financial constraints.
2.4. Other Studies on the Topic
The topic on criteria in the school selection has been widely discussed. Most of the discussion
was regarding the factors influencing decision of parents in selecting the suitable school for their
children. Parents involved with the school selection in order to sustain the academic excellences of
their children by having them to learn in the high-performance school. Table 2 shows the other
studies on the topic by previous researchers.
Table 2. Research Methods from the Previous Study
Sources
Descriptions
Methods Applied
Delaney (2008)
The study examined factors affecting parental decisions in charter
school enrolment
IV: Race and educational level
DV: Criteria choosing charter school
O’Mahony
(2008)
The study identified factors determining school choice on the
religious schools
IV: Religious factors and school location
DV: School choice
Asikhia (2010)
The study assessed students and teachers’ perception of the causes
of poor academic performance in the secondary schools
IV: Teacher qualification, teaching tools, students
environment
DV: Students’ academic performance
The study was looking at aspects of parental choice in five selected
schools in Ghana
IV: Types of school
DV: Parental choice
Data collection method
Telephone interview
Data analysis method
Multinomial
logistic
regression analysis
Questionnaire survey
Data analysis methods
Correlation analysis
Chi square test
Questionnaire survey
Data analysis method
Chi-square test
Longfield (2011)
Data collection methods
Semi-structured
interviews
Questionnaires survey
Pearson correlation
T-test
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Zainurin
Mohd
(2011)
and
Sabri
The study explored factors that influence parents’ choice of preschools education in Malaysia
IV: Institutional factors and parents’ socio- economic factors
DV: Parents’ choice of pre-school
ANOVA
Questionnaires survey
Correlations analysis
Multiple linear regression
analysis
3. Study Methodology
There are two types of data involved in this research which are secondary data and primary data.
In this research, secondary data obtained from the journals and articles related to the research topic
and any information and authorized documents from relevant agencies while primary data is
collected using questionnaire surveys. The research adopts both quantitative and qualitative data
collection methods which known as mixed methods. Together, both quantitative and qualitative
methods provide a better understanding of the research.
Sampling is crucial in research in order to establish the representativeness for the subject matter.
Yet, the surveying of a widely dispersed population is impractical due to limitation of time,
workforce and availability of respondents in the case study areas. Hence, the convenience sampling
was chosen as any parents could be the respondents as long as they are sending their children to the
public schools. Convenience sampling is adopted in this research because it is the easiest method to
access where respondents are selected due to proximity to the researcher. The targeted group for
this research was the parents of students from the nine selected primary and secondary schools in
Gombak District. The reason of choosing Gombak district as the case study is because Gombak
has been zoning into institutional area based on the Selangor Structure plan. Moreover, Gombak
district has the highest number of schools as compared with other district in Selangor which were
104 schools (retrieved from http://www.pelajarangombak.net on 15 January 2013). As the population is too
large, it is difficult to include every individual. Hence the sample size for this research is only up to
500 respondents only. In this study, the sample size is of 500 respondents which will be handed out
specifically for parents that send their children to the public schools. However, after the data
cleaning, only 400 survey forms are entered to SPSS. Table 3 shows the distribution of the
questionnaire surveys among the selected schools.
Table 3. Questionnaire survey distributions
Schools
Total of Survey Executed
Total of Reliable Survey
SK Gombak Utara
80
65
SK Gombak 1
40
38
SK Gombak 2
30
16
SK Gombak Setia
80
75
SK Taman Setia
30
16
SK Taman Seri Gombak
40
20
Primary Schools
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Secondary Schools
SMK Sungai Pusu
60
59
SMK Gombak Setia
100
91
SMK Seri Gombak
40
30
Total
500
400
Source: Questionnaire survey (2013)
To determine the relative ranking of the factors, the scores were then transformed to importance
indices based on the formula where w is the weighting given to each factor by the respondents,
ranging from 1 to 5, A is the highest weight (i.e. 5 in the study) and N is the total number of
samples. Based on equation, the relative importance index (RII) can be calculated ranging from 0
to1.Importance Index (R.I.I.) RII method was used to transform the choice of answer that had been
used in Likert scale to assess the ranking of each factor by using following equation:
RII =
w
AN
Chi-square is used to test the relationship between socio-economic factors and school criteria.
Chi-square test that was used in this research is chi-square test for independence to explore the
relationship between two categorical variables. The relationships between variables are measured
using Pearson’s r to test its significant level.
4. Data Findings and Analysis
In the questionnaire survey, respondents are required to rank the most important criteria in
selecting school to enroll their children. Based on the literature review, there were six primary
criteria in the school selection namely school academic performance, school location, school
distance, school facilities, school environment and extra co-curricular activities. The mean results
derived were listed in the ranking order to determine the most important criteria in the school
selection for students’ enrolment. Table 4 presents the results from the survey regarding parents’
choice on the school criteria.
Table 4. Parents’ choice on the school criteria
Criteria
School
Academic
Performanc
e
1st
Choice
(Choice
of 6)
No.
(%)
175
(43.75)
2nd
Choice
(Choice
of 5)
No.
(%)
59
(14.75)
Frequency of Respondents
3rd
4th
5th
Choice
Choice
Choice
(Choice
(Choice
(Choice
of 4)
of 3)
of 2)
No.
No.
No.
(%)
(%)
(%)
98
29
32
(24.5)
(7.25)
(8)
RII
6th
Choice
(Choice
of 1)
No.
(%)
7
(1.75)
0.790
Rank
1
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School
Location
94
(23.5)
84
(21)
72
(18)
53
(13.25)
67
(16.75)
30
(7.5)
0.652
2
School
Distance
93
(23.25)
112
(28)
41
(10.25)
32
(8)
49
(12.25)
73
(18.25)
0.650
3
24
(6)
14
(3.5)
60
(15)
37
(9.25)
95
(23.75)
68
(17)
127
(31.75)
93
(23.25)
54
(13.5)
67
(16.75)
40
(10)
121
(30.25)
0.547
4
0.448
5
0
(0)
48
(12)
27
(6.75)
67
(16.75)
130
(32.5)
128
(32)
0.390
6
School
Facilities
School
Environmen
t
Extra
Cocurricular
Activities
Source: Questionnaire survey (2013).
Referring to the result in Table 4, the school academic performance was ranked as 1 with the
highest average mean of 0.790. The second most important criteria of school selection was school
location with the average mean of 0.652. Afterward, the respondents are required to answer yes or
no on the given scenario based on the school criteria. The scenario is about the distance between
school and home VS academic performance of the school.
Table 5. Parents’ opinion on scenarios given
Scenarios
Distance between school and home
VS
Academic performance of the school
School that is located more than 5 km with 100% passed in
academic results
School that is located within 500 metre but only 50%
passed in academic results
Total
No.
(%)
315
78.75
85
21.25
400
100
Source: Questionnaire survey (2013).
The scenario given is distance between school and home VS academic performance of the
school, there were 78.75% (315) respondents choose school that is located more than 5 km with
100% passed in academic results. The other 21.25% (85) of the respondents choose school that is
located within 500 metre but only 50% of the students have passed in academic. The result shows
that parents are willing to send their children to the school that is located far from their home as
long as the school has the higher academic achievement.
As been mentioned before, this paper will examine factors influence parents’ decision on criteria
of school selection. From the literature review, factor that determines parental decision on school
criteria is family background. Parents’ educational levels and household incomes have been found
to be the determinant factors for parents in the school selection. Thus, the next section will present
how those factors influence the parents’ opinion on given scenario. The scenario that will be tested
is regarding the distance between school and home with academic performance of the school.
In this study, educational levels of the parents are categorized into three namely primary level,
secondary level and tertiary level. Chi-square analysis is used to test the relationship between
parents’ educational level with the parents’ opinion on the scenario when school is located more
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than 5 km with 100% passed in academic results. Table 6 below shows cross-tabulation between
parents’ educational levels and the given scenario as well as the result of the chi-square analysis.
Table 6. Relationship between parents’ educational level and parents’ opinion on scenario given
Parents’ Educational Level
School that is located more than 5 km with
Total
100% passed in academic results
Yes
No
8
6
14
Secondary level
149
48
197
Tertiary level
158
31
189
Total
315
85
400
Primary level
Chi-square test between parents’ educational level and parents’ opinion on school that is located more than 5 km
with 100% passed in academic results
Value
df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square
7.703
a
2
.021*
Likelihood Ratio
7.215
2
.027
Linear-by-Linear Association
7.003
1
.008
N of Valid Cases
400
a. 1 cells (16.7%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.98.
Based on the table, there were 315 respondents choose to select school that is located more
than 5 km with 100% passed in academic results while the other 85 respondents answered no to the
statement. This proved that regardless their educational level, parents demand their children to
receive education from the school with higher academic achievement although the school is located
far from their home. This result also shows the importance of higher academic results of children
among the parents.
Chi-square test shows that the education level of the respondents has an impact towards the
parents’ opinion on the scenario given. According to the result showed above, the p-value is 0.021
which is less than the critical value of 0.05. Hence, the null hypothesis (HO) can be rejected. It
concludes that there is a relationship between parents’ educational level towards the parents’
opinion on the scenario to choose school that is located more than 5 km with 100% passed in
academic results.
Parents’ household incomes are categorized into low income, middle income and high income.
Chi-square analysis is used to test the relationship between household incomes with the same
scenario before which is parents’ opinion on the scenario when school is located more than 5 km
with 100% passed in academic results. Table 7 below shows cross-tabulation between parents’
income with the given scenario and the result of the chi-square analysis.
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Table 7. Relationship between household income and parents’ opinion on scenario given
Household Income
School that is located more than 5 km with
Total
Yes
No
Low Income
110
42
152
Middle Income
163
37
200
High Income
42
6
48
Total
315
85
400
Chi-square tests between household income and parents’ opinion on school that is located more than 5 km with
Value
df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square
6.799
a
2
.033*
Likelihood Ratio
6.884
2
.032
Linear-by-Linear Association
6.659
1
.010
N of Valid Cases
400
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 10.20.
According to the table, the result is quite similar as before where there were 315 respondents
choose to select school that is located more than 5 km with 100% passed in academic results while
the other 85 respondents answered no to the statement. This proved that in spite of the differences
in household incomes, parents want their children to attend school with higher academic
achievement even if the school is located far from their home.
Chi-square test shows that the household income has an impact towards the parents’ opinion on
the scenario given. According to the result showed above, the p-value is 0.033 which is less than
the critical value of 0.05. Hence, the null hypothesis (HO) can be rejected. It concludes that there is
a relationship between household incomes towards the parents’ opinion on the scenario to choose
school that is located more than 5 km with 100% passed in academic results.
4. Discussions and Conclusions
Parents are looking into various criteria of school before deciding to choose the best school to
enroll their children. From the survey, there were six criteria of school that parents are taking into
account in the school selection which are, school academic performance, school location, distance
between school and home, the provision of school facilities, school environment and extra cocurricular activities offered by the school. Parents ranked academic performance of the school as
the most important criteria in their decision on school choice. It is followed by school location
which ranked as the second place. Location is related with distance because majority of parents
tend to send their children to the school that is located within closest distance from their home. In
the scenario of school distance VS the academic performance of the school, majority of the parents
are choosing School that is located more than 5 km with 100% passed in academic results. The
results verify that parents will choose academic performance of the school over school location.
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There were many factors that contribute in the parental decision on criteria in selecting school
for their children. The paper focuses on two primary factors which are parents’ educational level
and parents’ income. The socio-economic background of parents will determine not only on the
school choice but also help their children improve their education. For example, high income
family will afford to pay for extra classes or tuition for their children to ensure their academic
excellences. Regardless their educational level, parents want their children to attend the high
performance school so that they it will help them achieve excellence in the future.
The research will contribute to the decision-making by local authorities in term of preparing the
location of the primary and secondary public school in a particular area. The public school will be
planned based on the needs and requirements of the community. Local planning authorities should
consider many aspects such as location, distance, population and accessibility before provide the
setting for the public schools so that the number of public schools are adequate to cater the
population in the future. Parents may acknowledge the criteria that they need to know to sustaining
the education of their children. The case study of this research is within Gombak district. Hence,
the outcomes may not be relevant to public national schools in all over Malaysia. The research
provides a critical evaluation on the public school development and planning.
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Innovation Policy for Minimizing Use of Non-Renewable
Plastic Bags in Indonesia
Dini Oktaviyantia and Anugerah Yuka Asmarab*
Center for Science and Technology Development Studies – Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Jl. Gatot Subroto- South
Jakarta- Indonesia 12710
Ab
Abstract
More million or billion of non-renewable plastic bags which are used to wrap many products (including
foods and beverages) are mostly discarded around the world. It is estimated that everyone contributes 170
plastic bags per year. In Indonesia, there is no exact number how the plastic bags have been discarded on the
land and water. It is assumed that the number of non-renewable plastic bags is more plentiful than the number
of foods and beverages which people eat. Most people discard plastic bags to garbage can, road, beach, forest,
garden, sea, river, and other public spaces. The problem is that generally plastic bags cannot decay in short
time, but it needs 500-1000 years to decay. This problem will bring about many other social problems in the
future like health (disease, virus), environment (land, air, and water pollutions), climate change (global
warming), and economy (wasteful purchase). In Indonesia, high population (more 250 million consumers) is
the main factor on how the plastic bags are used and how the plastic bags are discarded. Government of
Indonesia, in particular Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Trade, Ministry of Small
and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), and Ministry of Health which they are mutual colaboration, can arrange a
regulation and a common guide jointly to minimize the use of non-renewable plastic bags in Indonesia. This
study is a literature review using secondary data in its analysis. The study aims to give explanation about the
grand design of policy to minimize the use of non-renewable plastic bags in Indonesia.
Keywords : policy; government; minimizing; plastic bags, environment.
1. Introduction
Plastic waste that is classified as non-organic waste is very dangerous for the environment. It
takes much time to degrade naturally (1.000 years) and needs 450 years to decompose in water.
According to Plastic Europe year 2008, globally, plastic production and consumption have
significantly increased from 1.5 million tons in 1950 to 245 million tons in 2006 (Baributsa, 2014).
The plastic is used in various human life activities, starting from packaging, shopping, medical
tools, electronic equipment, research activities, and so forth. Siddique et al., (2008) assert that
plastic waste is very visible as it contributes to a large volume of the total solid waste. Precisely,
because of its large visibility, plastic waste (and particularly non-sustainable plastic products) has
been viewed as a serious solid waste problem. Factually, type of plastic that significantly increases
*
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in many countries is plastic (shopping) bags.
Plastic bag, as the largest contributor of plastic waste, comes from the retail business activity in
daily activities all over the world. More million or billion of non-renewable plastic bags which are
used to wrap many products (including foods and beverages) are mostly discarded around the
world. It is estimated that everyone contributes 170 plastic bags per year. Non-renewable plastic
bags are very toxic in the environment, the study by Muthu et al., (2011); and Kamaruddin and
Yusuf (2012) reveal that the amount of plastic bags is discarded by people after they get a shopping
plastic bag from traditional market or supermarkets. Severely, plastic bags are becoming refuse
littering the soil. Plastic bags waste is generally mentioned as “white pollution”, and it gives
negative effects for the sustainability of human environment and life. Zhu (2011) states that the
white pollution not only influences the appearance of a city, but also brings a potential hazard to
environment. The waste of plastic wrap materials mixes in soil and influences crops in assimilating
nutriment and moisture and causing a reduction of output. The exudation of plasticizer and
additives may pollute the underground water. Being burned with urban garbage, the waste of plastic
wrap materials may generate harmful gas which would pollute air, harm human’s health and so on.
The significant use of plastic bags is largely caused by the habit of people who go shopping
from groceries. Consciousness of people to save environment for future life is very low,
particularly in developing countries. Abundant use and offhand littering of plastic bags are still
becoming people’s habit when buying something every day. Not only in developing counties, but
also in developed countries like Japan, Ohtomo and Ohnuma (2014) describe that most Japanese
supermarkets provide free plastic bags for shoppers to carry their purchases, and consumers use
these bags excessively. While in India, according to Online Edition of The Hindu year of 2010
cited by Muthu et al., (2011), it is mentioned that the consumption of plastic bags in India (India’s
per capita consumption) is 150 plastic bags a year. Furthermore, according to Global Warming
White Paper cited by Ohtomo and Ohnuma (2014), every person consumed over 300 plastic bags
every year. These phenomena bring about the incline of pernicious pollution as well as the decline
of life quality.
Plastic bags are the current issues in last decade that become highlight for many governments in
advanced and developing countries. Custom habits to use and to litter plastic bags excessively have
to be minimized to avoid the additional negative effect for the health of every mankind over the
world. The role of government in each country has to be apparent to address the problem of
excessive plastic bags in its country. The support of Government in various shape either regulation
or incentive can promote to minimize the usage of plastic bags. Kete (1994) states that the role of
government is present in setting specific environmental quality and performance goals and for
actively shaping the underlying institutional structure in order to reduce the environmental costs of
economic activity. In line with this statement, Dikgang et al., (2012) argue that policy makers in
many countries have perceived plastic-bag litter as a problem, and they have used a variety of
regulatory tools to address it. These have ranged from traditional command to control regulation,
including the explicit prohibitions against the use of plastic bags.
The anticipation of the increasing plastic waste has been performed internationally by many
countries which are aware of doing the program initially - a program to preserve the environment
by reducing the use of plastic bags in retail activities. The success of the program is determined by
the presence of three roles: the role of government as regulator, the role of retail business as market
participants, and the role of public as consumers who use and manage the waste of plastic bags.
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1.1 Problem Statement
In Indonesia case, according to a survey conducted by the Environment Committee on 10 major
cities in Indonesia, prior to 2000 there was the composition of organic (30%) and non-organic
waste (70%). Then, in 2008 the composition of non-organic waste including plastic waste increased
to 35% . This condition is certainly alarming so that it is needed an immediate anticipation action in
the form of rules, regulations and program activities which is conducted by the government both at
the central and local. As what has been discussed above, policy for minimizing plastic bags is
extremely related to the daily habit of people who live in an area. Muthu et al., (2011) assert that
consumer behaviour and governmental policies play an important role in the disposal stage of
shopping bags. Consumers can choose what they will do next, reusing and recycling the plastic
bags, or disposing the plastic bags without recycling. In the second one, government in its area has
to take more adroit action for addressing this problem. The question of this study is how the grand
design of Government of Indonesia to minimize the use of plastic bags in Indonesia .
2.1. Plastic Bag
Njeru (2006) gives reasons why plastic bag can jeopardize our living. First, plastic waste blocks
gutters and drains, creating serious storm water problems (including water block in drain). Second,
consumption of plastic bags by livestock can lead to death. Third, plastic bags are nonbiodegradable, as such, their presence in agricultural fields decreases soil productivity. Fourth,
improperly disposed plastic bags have been linked to the spread of malaria because they provide
breeding habitats for mosquitoes. Fifth, when burned, plastic bags release toxic gases such as furan
and dioxin, and leave unhealthy residues that include lead and cadmium (Gordon in Njeru, 2006).
There are many kinds of shopping bags made by manufacturers in the whole world. Muthu et al.,
(2011) strongly mention that the most popular shopping bag are plastics, paper, non-woven, and
woven bags. Plastic bags are made from non-renewable resources, where the key ingredients are
petroleum and natural gas. Furthermore, Lajeunesse in Muthu et al (2011) mentions that
polyethylene-high density (HDPE), low density (LDPE), linear low-density (LDPE), linear lowdensity polyethylene (LLDPE) are the raw materials widely used for the manufacture of plastic
bags.
Singer (1995) distinguishes plastics as either thermoplastics or thermosetting plastics. First,
thermoplastics have polymers that change shape when they are heated so they are preferable for
recycling. These include polyethylene tetraphthalate (PET), polypropylene, polystyrene and PVC.
Second, thermosetting plastics have a molecular structure that does not break down when heated so
they are not suitable for recycling. The examples include epoxy resin, phenolic, and polyurethane.
In this study, we delimit the definition of plastic bags on non-renewable plastic bags or nonrecycling plastic bags.
2.2. Policy and Environment Policy
Literally, policy is a wise action or fair distribution to everyone without discrimination. Many
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scholars of public policy have argued about the exact definition of public policy. Policy is more
influenced by political action in its making process (Majchrzak, 1984; Wahab, 2008; Weimer and
Vining, 2011). Many actors who have different interests can penetrate and infiltrate to the policy
process. Indeed, various free-riders will be present in that process. According to pluralist approach,
policy or public policy in general results from conflict, bargaining, and coalition formation among a
potentially large number of societal groups organized to protect or advance particular interest
common to their members. These interest are usually economic, but groups also form around
shared concerns for neighbourhood, ethnicity, religion, values, region, and other issues (Grindle
and Thomas, 1991). In this case, policy is specified to innovative sustainable environment, Kete
(1994) states that environmental policy is the inherent and large role of government (or collective
decision making) in setting specific environmental quality and performance goals and for actively
shaping the underlying institutional structure in order to reduce the environmental costs of
economic activity. Further, Kete (1994) halves the environment policy instrument to categories of
regulatory: first, marketable permits schemes and emission taxes, and second, welfare analytic
technique of benefit-cost analysis (welfare economics) and free market environmentalism. In the
first, the marketable permits schemes adopt a role for the market in the service of socially
determined goals, but are not in any way involved in setting those goals. Nor can they substitute for
the social process – the public policy making process – necessary to establish goals. On the
contrary, both welfare economics and free market environmentalism place the market in the
position of goal-setter.
In this study, marketable permits scheme is preferably used to describe the grand design of
policy for minimizing plastic bags in Indonesia. This scheme needs intervention of government as
Kete’s statement (Kete, 1994) that marketable permits schemes are premised on the idea that the
ends of social regulation will be well-served if we modify the incentives of the private market so
that public goals become private interests. The establishment of a marketable permits system
reveals the visible hand of the state in the act of creating an institutional structure to support
autonomous exchange in a new market, effectively belying the notion of a market as a natural
phenomenon outside society and uninfluenced by government “interference”.
2.3. Innovation Policy at Environmental Issue
To implement the environment policy, recently many governments in various countries conduct
innovative strategy so that their environment programs are successful. Indeed, in advanced
countries, a policy to tackle the environmental issues is premised on innovation policy. The
definition of innovation policy itself is broader than what we envisage before. Chaminade and
Edquist (2010) give a spacious definition of innovation policy as “the public actions that influence
innovation processes, i.e. the development and diffusion of (product and process) innovations’. The
objectives of innovation policy are often economic ones, such as economic growth, productivity
growth or increased employment, and competitiveness. However, they may also be of a noneconomic kind, such as cultural, social, environmental, and military. As in any policy, the
objectives policies are determined in a political process and not by researchers.
Related to environment policy and innovation policy that use principles of managing waste from
United Nations Environmental Programs (UNEP), Ren (2003) has summarized the number of
specific steps about how government can intervene in dealing with waste management. Ren’s
summary is that as sound waste management should follow the hierarchy of four-R (reduce, reuse,
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recycle (or recovery of materials) and recovery of the energy content if it is not recyclable before
final disposal. A number of legal, institutional and technical conditions need to be met:
1.
2.
3.
4.
A regulatory and enforcement infrastructure
Authorized facilities have adequate technology and means of pollution control and effective
monitoring.
More sophisticated yet efficient measures based on market mechanism.
Public participation and information schemes (e.g. Eco-label), awareness raising campaign).
In this case, innovation policy to minimize the use of plastic bags is not merely assumed as
either highly waste processing technology or sophisticated chemical and biological compound, but
it also includes about how government efforts to minimize the use of plastic bags by means of
regulation (institution). It is noticeable that innovation policy to minimize the use of plastic bags is
joint effort among government, private, academician/researcher and society to lessen the toxic
materials within plastic bags through various ways such as to build recycling industries, to impose
levy for excessive plastic bins, to tie coordination among actors, to delimit sale of plastic bags, to
improve consciousness of people as regards good environment, and others.
3. Research Method
This research is a literature study (review) that uses qualitative method. Qualitative method is
preferable at this study because the type of this study that describe the grand design of policy for
minimizing non-renewable plastic bags in Indonesia. The wide and macro spectrum of this study is
gained well through description methods (qualitative) because this method can give more
elaboration and deep understanding pertaining to a social research. Data collection was conducted
on the first of May 2014 until the end of August 2014. The data source was derived from secondary
data, i.e. journal, books, articles, website, and other scientific documents. To analyze the data, the
authors use analytical framework that it is excerpted from Ren (2003) (Figure 1.). This study
describes the review of macro design about how Government of Indonesia should do action to
minimize the use of plastic bags in Indonesia. In addition, the best practice of innovation policy for
minimizing the use of plastic bags in other countries is provided in this study to compare with
Indonesia’s one.
Environment Policy and Innovation Policy have similar terms in conceptual and in practical.
Both are destined to public goals/interests, to share common benefit, and to reduce cost of private
actors. This study uses analysis framework that is a combination from legal infrastructure and
technical infrastructure to address waste or rubbish.
Based on Figure 1. below, environment policy and innovation policy are a part of legal
infrastructure and technical infrastructure. Research and development activity in dealing with waste
management is on part of legal infrastructure, while technological tools and stages to manage or to
recycle waste is on part of technical infrastructure. In this context, waste is identified as nonrenewable plastic bags, and the focus is larger than merely municipal area, exactly a country.
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Legal infrastructure
Institutional framework
Technical infrastructure
Legal means
Policies, strategies
Legislators, policy makers
(representative agency, law makers)
Laws
Waste collection, sorting
Recycling plants
Governments (administrator)
Regulations
Composting facilities
Standards
Specific regulating authorities (local
government)
Incineration plants
Penalty Provisions
Research and
development
landfill
Monitoring and
testing
Fig 1. Diagram of the infrastructure for a municipal waste management
Source: Ren (2003)
4.1. Use of Plastic Bags and Its Dangers in Indonesia
The use of plastic bags will give rise to uncontrolled environment problems. In this case, the
solution must be created for the future, so that the next generations can continue to enjoy the cleanand less pollution earth. In order to create a sustainable life, it is expected that the efficiency of
resource usage as well as the direction followed by the creation of investment and the development
of environmentally friendly technologies can meet the needs in the present and the future.
Environment Committee reveals that in 2008 the composition of non-organic waste including
plastic waste increased to 35%, especially in 10 major cities. Currently, the average Indonesian
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People produce 0.5 kg of garbage per day, and 13% of the garbage is plastic. Plastic waste ranks
third position with totally 3.6 million tons per year, or 9% of the total waste production.
As an example, in Jakarta, revealed from time to time, the use of plastic significantly increases
far beyond the use of paper-made packing. The major reason is that plastic is more efficient and
practical than paper-made packing. Therefore, it should be done when many actors can work
together, finding the right formula to speed up the process of decomposition of the plastic to get
back to nature. Therefore, the necessary interests of the various parties not only they have
awareness, but also they significantly commit to save the earth from a pile of garbage. Piles of
garbage in Jakarta area reach more than 6,000 tons per day and approximately 13% of them are
accounted in the form of plastic waste. Of all the existing plastic waste, 57% is found on the beach.
The total number of 46,000 plastic trash floats in every square mile of ocean. The other example,
the production of plastic waste per day in Bandung reaches 1,625 cubic meters. This new material
can be decomposed in time to 400 years. The presence of plastic waste has become a fear factor,
especially for the citizens of the capital because the type of waste requires hundreds or even
thousands of years to decompose back into the earth. The statistics shows that the total number of
all Indonesian domestic waste, plastic waste types rank the highest second at 5.4 million tons per
year or 14% of the total waste production.
4.2. Learning of Policy from “Other Countries”
In many countries, litter of plastic bags has become serious problems for environment,
especially for sustainable human life. Adiwijaya’s study (2008) explains that the currrent campaign
of restrictions on the use of plastic is intensively carried out in the country - in developed countries
such as the Netherlands where if consumers want to use a plastic bag, it will cost extra. The Belgian
government also implements tax on retail businesses in the use of plastic bags. In addition, some
Asian countries have also begun to make cuts such as the use of plastic bags in China that provide
sanctions when consumers go shopping by using a plastic bag. Similarly, Taiwan and India impose
tax for using plastic bags while Singapore campaigns "Bring Your Own Bag". Even in some
countries have already regulated the use of plastic bags and they have put this issue in the special
rules. In Table 1, we will be able to see list of countries which have campaigns for reducing the use
of plastic bags.
Table 1. Countries reducing the use of plastic bags
No
Countries
Year
Term of Legislation
1
Singapore
2007 Tax
2
Hongkong
2006 Tax
3
China
2008 Tax
4
Taiwan
2003 Tax
5
Belgium
2007 Tax
6
Denmark
2004 Tax
7
India
2009 Tax
8
Ireland
2002 Tax
9
Malta
2005 Tax
10
France
2010 Tax
11
Australia
2002 Ban
12
Bangladesh 2002 Tax
Source: Author, compiled from various sources
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Governments such as UK, China, and Malaysia have had policy for minimizing the use of
plastic bags in their countries through different ways, as follows.
a. Policy for the use of plastic bags in UK: “Material Recycling and Waste-to-Energy”
In United of Kingdom (UK), the Environmental Protection Act (The Act) of the same year
introduced some new provisions specifically aimed at encouraging recycling and also reinforced
the existing waste facilities provisions established under the Control of Pollution Act 1974. There
seem to be three issues which determine the direction of the Government’s recycling policy
(financial viability, environmental costs and benefits, and socio-political benefits). In UK, plastic
recycling industry shows how the market for recycled materials would be affected by the policy
implication of the Government’s target. The recycling process involves private firms and local
authorities. Within an economic framework, it is shown where current and future proposals provide
incentives to recycle. Legislative provisions have affected the market by encouraging supply. The
policy approach adopted by government has resulted in one-sided market stimulation. It is
suggested that incentive must also be directed to increase the demand for recycled materials
(Singer, 1995).
UK Government policy is hierarchical approach. First, waste minimization from source is the
most preferable. Incentives should be placed on industry to minimize the use of all materials in
goods and packaging. Second step is reuse. Consumers should be encouraged to reuse goods and
packaging (such as shopping bags) instead of disposing them. Third step is recycling. Incentives are
needed to encourage collection, sorting, processing and purchasing of secondary materials. If
recycling materials are not feasible, then energy recovery is preferred by means of incineration
without available energy recovery, both being treated on an equal level. In UK, the government
concentrates to energies at the bottom end of hierarchy and we should be moving to the top, waste
minimisation. Government’s aim is to create a framework to encourage an optimum balance
between the different waste management options, so it is necessary to ensure that each option bears
its full cost, and external costs are borne by the polluter (Singer, 1995).
UK Government is committed to self sufficiency in waste management. This principle has been
incorporated by the European Community (EC). EC countries are encouraged to make proper
arrangements for dealing with its own waste. Therefore, UK Government specifically has
conducted three real actions, namely recycling credits and the duty of care on controlled waste and
waste licensing. Recycling credits is the waste recycling credits scheme in section 52 of the
Environmental Protection (EP) Act 1990 in UK. This scheme is to provide an incentive for official
waste handlers and third parties to divert recyclable waste from the waste stream. The third parties
are generally voluntary organisations or WTE facilities. A credit of a fixed amount is paid for every
tonne of waste that is diverted from landfill to recycling. There are two types of credit, the waste
disposal credit (WDC) and the waste collection credit (WCC) 1. In other hand, the duty of care is on
34 section of the EP ACT 1990 which applies to all persons importing, producing, carrying,
keeping, treating or disposing of controlled waste. All holders of controlled waste must ensure that
there is no unauthorised or harmful deposit, treatment or disposal of the waste. Householders are
exempt from the duty of care for their own waste. The holder must ensure that any transfer is to an
authorised person, and a written description of the waste is also transferred. Breach of this duty is a
criminal offence (Singer, 1995).
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b. Policy for the use of plastic bags in China: “Plastic Bags Ban (PBB)”
China’s Government launches the environmental regulation based on scientific approach of
development. The General office of the State Council has released the “Notice about Limiting the
Production and Selling and Usage of Plastic Shopping Bag” in December 31, 2007 and stipulated
that from June 1, 2008, plastic shopping bags with a thickness of less than 0.0025 mm will be
prohibited to be produced, sold, and used; paid using plastic shopping bag should be carried out in
all the commodity-retailed places like supermarkets, shopping centres, peddler’s markets and so on,
no plastic shopping bags could be used for free. In commodity retailing places, the price of plastic
shopping bags must be marked and charged clearly along with all commodities. The Commerce
Department and Development and Reform Commission would formulate specific methods to
manage the paid use of plastic shopping bag in commodity-retailing places, implementing and
putting it into practice and gradually forming a marketing environment of paid using plastic
shopping bag. The coming of “plastic-bag ban” has good positioning and complies with the idea of
scientific development and sustainable development, conforming to the masses’ longing for
improving environment. The “plastic-bag ban” is easy to be accepted by common people, which
will contribute to a successful implementation of the ban (Zhu, 2011).
This program is successful to be implemented for more than years. Consumers have developed a
preliminary habit of proving shopping bag for themselves. Charging reasonably for plastic bags in
supermarkets has successfully reduced plastic bags by two-thirds. There are two existing reasons
why this policy has successfully been achieved. First, According the Law of the People’s Republic
of China on Product Quality, those who get out of line to continue producing ultra-thin plastic bag,
or printing quality mark on illegally made plastic bag, or other behavior that break the law and
regulation, would be given order correspondingly to stop the production, be confiscated products
produced or owned, and be fined and so on. This policy has clearly stipulated that the fine to those
illegal behavior is between 5000-20000 Yuan, which offer an effective basis for supervising and
enforcing the law. Second, the Industry and Commerce departments would supervise and check
when commodity-retailed places like supermarkets, shopping center, peddlers’ market selling and
using plastic bags, and investigate and treat those behavior that sell and use ultrathin plastic bag
according to Quality Law. The supermarkets have high enthusiasm and do well in implementing
plastic bag ban. Each of supermarkets offer plastic bags by price decided by market or without free
plastic bags. Supermarkets having more than 50 chain branches, could save hundreds of millions
Yuan in plastic bag each year. It is widely believed by supermarkets that this policy could not only
protect environment, but also reduce the cost in purchasing plastic bag (Zhu, 2011).
c. Policy for the use of plastic bags in Malaysia: “No Plastic Bag Day”
Selangor State Government (part of Government of Malaysia) has unique policy for minimizing
the use of plastic bags in its area, namely “No Plastic Bag Day”. This policy was commenced
effectively on 1st January 2010. This campaign is aimed at reducing the usage of plastic bags in
Selangor as well as increasing awareness level of consumers on the negative impacts of using
plastic shopping bags. The government’s initiatives of taking Saturday as “No Plastic Bag Day” to
optimize campaign’s impact will be used to measure the acceptance and awareness level towards
protecting the environment among the Shah Alam community. Saturday was chosen because
according to Selangor Exco official “Saturday will be a very effective day to get the message across
to a wider crowd. In practice, households are supporting the campaign initiated by the Selangor
State Government. This campaign should make people understand better about the environmental
damage caused by plastic bags which require a very long term to be disposed naturally. This
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campaign has indirectly educated people about the consequences of not properly disposed plastic
bags, reducing the usage of plastic bags, the long term consequences that the world may suffer as
well as the hazardous environment that our future generation would inherit (Kamaruddin and
Yusuf, 2012).
4.3. Innovation Policy in Reducing The Use of Plastic Bags in Indonesia
Regulation
To support a better life in the environmental management (including plastic bags), the
Government of Indonesia has already have several policy related to the use of plastic bags. Law
Number 23 year 1997 on Environmental Management is one of the regulations related to plastic
bag defined as an integrated effort to preserve environmental functions including planning policy,
exploitation, development, maintenance, restoration, monitoring, and control of the environment.
The other law is Law Number 18 year 2008 on waste management. This law pushes Indonesian
consumers and producers to reduce any plastic bags in daily life and work together to take care of
environment. This law is also imposed to the retailers to limit the use of plastic bags in their efforts.
In line with these regulations, the reduction of plastic bag has been soundly implemented in various
retails and shopping centers in Indonesia.
To support Law Number 32 Year 2009 on Environmental Protection and Management, Ministry
of Environment which performs the function of regulation has implemented Law Number 18 year
2008 on waste management. One of the law contents is forcing the modern retail businesses to limit
the use of plastic bags, including to limit the use of plastic bags in the retail sector. It was expected
that the implementation of the law was effectively implemented in 2009. To date, there is no
bombastic program in lessening the use of plastic bag in Indonesia. Another ministry, namely
ministry of health has regulation Number 2269 / Menkes / Per / XI / 2011 on Guidelines for
Development of Clean and Healthy Behavior. In supporting toward hygienic behavior in the
community, then this law has been derived back into the Regulation of the Minister of Health
Decree No. 876 / Menkes / SK / VIII / 2001 on Technical Guidelines for Environmental Health
Impact Assessment. In the last regulation, it governs about the environmental health impact
analysis, a study about public health aspect, which must be implemented by each head of the
companies ranging from planning, implementation and assessment of a business or development
activities that can have a significant negative impact.
Related to the environmental management, Government of Indonesia through the “Household
Waste Safety” is conducting the Indonesian Health Ministry Regulation Number 3 Year 2014 on
Community-Led Total Sanitation. This law appeals to the public to perform activities in the process
of household waste by promoting the principles of reduce, reuse, and recycle. This is surely to
support the continuity of life with better environmental conditions. Beside two ministries, Ministry
of Trade also plays a key role to support this policy through promotions, incentives, regulations that
direct to “green market”. In Action, Ministry of Trade in the middle of 2014, has conducted food
and beverage fair in US and Canada on 2 April 2014. One of prominent actions is to introduce a
renewable plastic produced by PT Tirta Marta as a private company in Indonesia. This plastic can
wrap various products accepted friendly by soil. This Ministry of Trade’s program can boost the
other governmental agencies, private sectors, and people to save our earth by minimizing the use of
non-renewable plastic bags in Indonesia ( www.kemendag.go.id).
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Factual
The reduction of plastic waste has been actually started in Indonesia, but unfortunately it is not
optimally implemented in Indonesia. In practice, many people do not consider and are not aware
the dangers of using unrecycled plastic bags. It is not easy to change the mindset of Indonesian
society who lack awareness of environment. The fact that plastic waste is harmful to the
environment has been proven scientifically and internationally in the world. Each government has
special programs to reduce plastic waste but it runs separately and does not connect each other.
Fig 2. Non-integrated actors within non-renewable minimizing plastic bags in Indonesia
The Government of Indonesia has taken the initiative to address the problem of plastic waste
since 1970, but in practice there is only a limited discourse and theory, until the issuance of Law
Number 18 year 2008 on waste management in which the technical implementation and the new
rules were implemented in 2009. Businessman is still "half-hearted" in implementing and
supporting the law because they face some challenges of technical conditions which are more
complex in the field. It needs a longtime process by involving the seriousness of the government to
educate the traditional market retailers in limiting the use of plastic bags. The awareness of
Indonesian society is still low in responding to the dangers of plastic waste as well as the concern
for environmental sustainability. In this case, it is necessary to increase seriousness of the
government to educate the public, starting from primary education to a public communication
program.
Actually, the attempt to reduce the volume of waste and waste management has been well
communicated by the Government of Indonesia since the 1970s by campaigning 3-R program,
namely Reduce (limit/reduce), Reuse (reuse), and Recycle (recycle). So far, this program
implementation is unfortunate because it is only implemented in several areas in Indonesia. The
majority of retail companies in Indonesia also have been using renewable plastic bags, but the
companies are only in several big cities in Indonesia.
Ministry of Environment does not work solely. The existence of Minsitry of Industry in
supporting the establishment of waste processing industry or the creation of waste processing unit
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in each industry is needed. Applying the proper waste management system is one of the best ways.
With proper waste management system, the waste problem in the big cities, especially plastic
waste, can be addressed well. The better waste processing tools have, the faster waste
decomposition occur. Ministry of Industry can issue the regulation concerning the process of
recycling plastic bag, particularly for bag manufacturers. Before plastic bags are sold in the market,
the manufacturers must own a permit that mentions that every plastic bags made by its
manufacturer have complied regulation from Ministry of Industry. This regulation stipulates the
standards of renewable, non-toxic, recycling plastic bags. Henceforth, Ministry of Industry can
monitor and evaluate the waste processing machines which are owned by manufacturers of plastic
bag. In additon, Ministry of Industry can promote every manufacturer to conduct research and
development activities so that they can invent many new ideas in making “green plastic bags”.
Ministry of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) has also similiar action to minimze the use
of plastic bags to what Ministry of Industry does. The difference is that Ministry of SMEs focuses
on small and medium manufacturers which produce plastic bags, or this ministry concerns about
retailers/peddlers which use plastic bag to wrap their products. SMEs are boosted to produce and
use renewable bags, even in practice. Ministry of SMEs can promote SMEs to make many
inventions in wrapping products. This invention has to be based on environmental and healthy
aspects. That is why government must encourage innovative climate in enviromntal sectors by
funding the research and development as well as by giving opportunity for everyone to bear “crazypositive ideas”.
Ideally
Actually, regulation related to plastic bag should be connected each others. The ministries in
Indonesia that have any regulations about plastic bag should have a grand design and one
coordinator to be a pioneer for the others. It also needs cooperation from society, industry and
business actors in Indonesia. The success of plastic waste reduction program is not only a burden
for the government alone, but also a challenge for the retail industry actors who interact daily.
Bussiness actors cannot be separated directly from the public and also from the communities
themselves (cosumers). Either bussiness actors or consumers must use plastic bags and manage
plastic waste correctly.
Explicitly, the law mentions that every manufacturer producing plastic bags should make
renewable plastic bags. Therefore, it is needed to conduct research and development and to test
waste in an accredited laboratory. To achieve this goal, government, bussinessman, and society
have to work together.The use of plastic bags is over the current lifestyle, not based on the need.
Surely, it is not difficult to reduce the use of plastic bags when people go shopping. This program
must be accompanied by a clear legal policy to organize, to thoroughly socialize, and to impose
strict sanctions in case of violation. Existing sanctions may include strict punishment by a fine or
by adopting a gradual education to the community.
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Fig 3. Ideal coordination among actors to minimize non-renewable plastic bags in Indonesia
The existing legislation is not only intended for those who use plastic bags, but also expected for
supermarkets, franchise stores, groceries that their existence are currently mushrooming in
Indonesia. Government can exert them (sellers) for not providing plastic bags to customers for free
of charge. This is expected to encourage people to limit the use of plastic bags by carrying their
own cloth bag that can be used many times. Every supermarket or shop that charges a fee to buyers
using new plastic bags (plastic bags is purchased from seller) will remit the result from selling the
plastic bags to government. Next, government will use this return to finance the environmental
management programs.
5. Conclusions
Based on discussion above, in the end of this study, it is summarized that plastic waste gets the
second highest of waste production in Indonesia, there are 5.4 million tons per year or 14% of total
waste production in Indonesia. Actually, Indonesian Government has already had many regulations
to tackle this plastic waste issue, but in practice each regulation has been running separately. In the
other hand, Indonesian society has low of awareness on plastic bag issue.
Based on the problems in Indonesia, we propose some recommendations related to the policies
for Indonesia, namely:
 Government issues regulation to restrict the use of non-renewable plastic bag made by
industries (tend to use biodegradable plastic bag).
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 Government imposes a higher tax to restaurants, food and beverage stores, department
store, and other similar businesses if using non-renewable bags (like plastic bags) to wrap
their products.
 Government gives reward or incentive to plastic bag industries/manufacturers and also to
department stores or business sector at food and beverages if they can minimize the use of
non-renewable bags on their activities.
 Government must give a continual education and socialization to people (consumers) to
bring reused “shopping bags”.
 Government provides place, fund, and other facilities to recycle plastic bag to private
actors by conducting research and development.
 The most important thing is government must be the leader and pioneer for the people.
Each of ministries has to align mutually, and Ministry of Forestry and Environment is the
coordinator for the other ministries.
Fig 4. Inter-connected programs to minimizing non-renewable plastic bags in Indonesia.
This study only sees the problems from the government policies in Indonesia. For the next study,
it needs deeper discussion to see others’ insight from Indonesian society or industry to make this
study more fruitful and complete.
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Transportation
Pro-environmental Awareness among Adolescents
towards Sustainable Transportation: Extended
Theory of Planned Behaviour
Nur Sabahiah Abdul Sukora* Nur Khairiyah binti Basrib, Sitti Asmah binti
Hassanc, Prawira Fajarindra Belgiawand*
a,b
School of Civil Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Nibong Tebal 14300, Pulau Pinang,
Malaysia
c
Department of Geotechnics and Transportation, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai
81310, Johor, Malaysia
d
Kyoto University, Katsura Campu, Kyoto 615-8540, Japan
Abstract
The energy consumption in transportation sector was mostly created by the individual likeness to use
private motor vehicle. High dependency on private motor vehicles has contributed not only to the traffic
problem but also accounted to carbon emission. The objective of this study is to educate the adolescents to
shift their travel mode to school by using more pro-environmental transport mode in order to reduce the carbon
emission in their daily travel pattern. This study aims to investigate the psychological factors that influencing
the adolescents‟ intention to be more pro-environmental. This study found that the behavioural intention was
significantly influenced by the adolescents‟ awareness towards consequences, attitude towards environment
and public transport, the sentiment of moral obligation to change, and the perceived possibilities or difficulty
to practice environmental friendly travel behaviour
Keywords: sustainable transportation; pro-environmental; carbon footprint; theory of planned behaviour Introduction
1. Introduction
Generally, car is a very appealing as a private vehicle compared to other mode of transport with
lots of advantages to the users. The fact that private car use is still a very reliable transport option
and become a dominant mode of transport in most of cities nowadays is undeniable. There are
excessive escalations in world‟s motor vehicles with global production of 45 million cars per year
and it was estimated a billion cars will be produce by1.
Like most developing countries, the demand for private vehicle in Malaysia has increase
tremendously for the last few years alongside with the rapid growth of economics, urbanization and
motorization. Malaysia largest total energy is consumed by this sector accounted for 36% in 2012
*
E-mail address: [email protected]/[email protected]
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Transportation
with highly dependent on petroleum product 2. The total number of registered cars in this country
keep on increasing and 628, 239 was recorded by the end of 2012 3. The rapid growth of total
number car ownership in Malaysia illustration was shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Total car registered from 2006-2012 (Road Transport Department, 2014)
The prior reason of private car become important is due to unrestricted freedom in terms of
accessibility and mobility 4. Moreover, studies shows that attractiveness of modern car has been
surpass other mode of transports in lots of aspects in terms of functional mechanism, social
orderliness, symbolic, and affective 5, 6. These benefits resulted to the increase of car dependency
where people also claimed that car is needed for their socio-economic necessity and undertake daily
activities 7.
In addition the trend of high dependency on private motorized vehicle have had influenced the
travel behaviour of the adolescents. A significant increase from 17% (1969) up to 55% (2003) of
students to commute by motor vehicle either escorted by family or self-driven was recorded in
United States 8. A study in Yogyakarta also found that escorted by family become the highest
students‟ preference on travelling to school 9. Particularly, the dominance of car travel bring
negative impacts to the environment, social and economic, mainly by producing harmful gasses,
scarce of raw materials, noise pollution, traffic congestion, traffic accidents, the depletion quality of
life as well as encroachment of land use 10, 11, 12.
Emissions from road transport vehicles becomes a serious threat to the air quality and causing
worldwide concern due to its rapid growth that release the greenhouse gasses (GHG) 13. The
harmful pollutants derived from the use of fossil fuels which is burned during the chemical process
of engine combustion before emits to the atmosphere depends on vehicle condition as well as the
natural background levels of chemical compound 14, 15. These GHG have the ability to trap
excessive sunlight energy and that in turn warms up the Earth‟s atmosphere. As the human
activities continues to emit GHGs, the global temperature also been increasing and leads to the
unstable atmospheric equilibrium and extreme climate change 16.
Under Kyoto Protocol, the typical six main causes of GHG effect such as carbon dioxide (CO 2),
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and
perfluorocarbons (PFCs) contributed by human activities are considered for the purposes of carbon
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accounting 17. The largest annual proportion emitted globally is CO 2 emission 14. Likewise, the
developing countries are responsible for the increasing of CO 2 emission share especially from
transportation activities 18.
Thus, Carbon Footprint (CF) is widely used to measure the impact of human activities on global
warming 19. The concept of CF introduced in few studies is a measure of GHG emissions that are
directly or indirectly emitted by an individual‟s activities considering all relevant sources, in both
consumption and production which represented in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO 2-e) 20, 21.
Moreover, the recent rise of online carbon calculators have emerged with the growing awareness
on the issues of global carbon emissions levels and climate change. Most of individual calculator
provides a tool that enables individuals to estimate personal or household GHG emissions and link
with lifestyle choices, promoting carbon emission reductions 22. People not only receiving feedback
on personal choices and energy used, but some calculator also coupled with mitigation measures
through carbon offsets or investment that influence individual behaviour change 23.
Efforts aimed to promote the awareness on carbon footprint reduction can be fulfilled by
changing individual routine choices including travel behaviour. Getting more people to choose the
low carbon produce like shifting towards sustainable transport mode choice or reducing trips and
travel activities can be done through approaches in Travel Demand Management (TDM) policy
measure either to offer “stick” (coercive measure) that used penalties or/and the “carrot” (soft
measure) that encourage the use of sustainable transport like educational campaigns 24, 25.
A study affirmed that for the past decades, various coercive transport policy measures have been
implemented referred to „hard‟ policy involving physical infrastructure improvements, traffic
engineering, road space control, and policies like road pricing and parking control 26. However,
these measures are difficult to implement due to less acceptable to the public, political infeasibility
and may not be ample enough to depend on it totally 27, 28.
The coercive transport policy measures using force whilst, the soft measures called travel
behaviour modification technique (TBMT) using a different approach which giving
supports/chances, for example, psychologically motivate individuals in voluntarily modifying their
travel behaviour to be more pro-environment rather than simply acting in response to external
policies or pressures 29, 30, 31. This policy measures is implemented to directly influence car users‟
decision making by raising awareness through informing the consequences, altering the negative
perception towards the use of sustainable transport, and also motivating and persuading them to
switch to alternative travel options 32. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the underlying factors
that affecting the adolescents‟ intention to reduce their individual carbon footprint through the
promotion of using more pro-environmental vehicles in their daily travel activities.
2. Methodology
2.1. Samples
A small pilot study was conducted on a total of 53 students from secondary school (age range
between 13 to 17 years old) in Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang. They were recruited as the target
subjects were to measure their intention to shift from anti-environmental travel behaviour towards
more pro-environment travel behaviour. The participants were gathered in one place for a
motivation session aimed to increase their awareness on the environmental issues and the negative
impact of motorized.
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The participants were required to reconsider their current travel pattern and transportation mode
choice. Therefore, the information on the sustainable transport modes and were provided and the
alternative travel pattern/lifestyles were discussed. After the program ended, the participants were
asked to spend for 20 minutes to filled out a questionnaire contains a few questions on background
characteristics and psychological factors.
2.2. Questionnaire
The questionnaires consisting of the information on respondents‟ background such as
demographic, household characteristic, the transport use for school commuting, as well as the
psychological factors that affecting the intention to reduce the individual carbon footprint. Section
1 is related to the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents. The second section consists of
the psychological factors questions like awareness on consequences, moral obligation, habit,
attitude, subjective and behavioural belief based on environmental and transport issues which
presented in Table I.
Table 1. Description of observe variables
Construct
Awarenes
s
Attitude
Subjective
Norms
Perceived
Behaviour
al Control
Description of Variable
Negative Consequences
Current climate is uncertain due to the effect of greenhouse gases generated by human
activities
The use of private vehicle contributes to the traffic congestion
Private vehicles require the use of high energy and cost
The use of private vehicle emit gases that cause the greenhouse effect becomes more serious
Positive Consequences
The greenhouse effect can be controlled by reducing individual carbon footprint
Individual carbon footprint can be reduced by reducing the use of private vehicle
The reduction in individual carbon emissions can help in improving the environment quality
The use of sustainable transport contributes to the depletion of air pollution
The use of sustainable transport can improve the quality of life and save energy
Attitude towards Environment
I have participated in the club/environmental campaigns specifically concerned to improve the
environment
I am always concerned about the environment in my daily life
I like to help to reduce air pollution and improve the environment
Attitude towards Private Vehicle
I like to use private vehicle to move to desired destination
I feel comfortable and free to travel by private vehicle
I like to choose the fastest way to travel, regardless of cost and consequences
Attitude towards Public Transport
I prefer to use public transport over car
I enjoy to use public transport so that I can interact with other people while travelling
I like to use public transport to save cost and energy
My family encourage me to care about environmental issues
I'm surrounded with friends who care about the environment
My family and friends appreciate my pro-environmental behaviour
I think most of my friends use sustainable transport for daily travel activities
My family often commute by using public transport
My teacher encourage the use of public transport over private vehicle
I am confident that I can protect the environment very well
I feel that it is easy to preserve the environment
I feel that it is difficult to carry out my daily commute without using private vehicle
Item
AW1
AW2
AW3
AW4
AW5
AW6
AW7
AW8
AW9
ATT1
ATT2
ATT3
ATT4
ATT5
ATT6
ATT7
ATT8
ATT9
SN1
SN2
SN3
SN4
SN5
SN6
PCB1
PCB2
PCB3
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Moral
Obligation
Habit
Intention
I do not feel any difficult to use sustainable transport daily
I feel restricted to change my current travel behaviour to be more environmentally friendly
I think that I am capable to reduce environmental pollution by not using private vehicle
Moral Obligation towards Environment
I feel obligated to protect the environment for the benefit of society and future generation
I think that I must practice environmental friendly behaviour to reduce greenhouse gases effect
Moral Obligation towards Transport
I think I must use sustainable transport over private vehicle
I feel that I must refrain from using private vehicle in order to reduce its negative impact on
the environment
I am morally obligated to reduce the number of trips that uses private vehicle
Answer Scale (1 = Car; 2 = Motorcycle; 3 = Bus; 4 = Bicycle; 5 = Walking) for these
activities
Visit relatives/friends
Practice sports activities
Shopping
Socializing with family/friends
Trips for vacation
I intend to use the bus service in the future
I plan to use public transport if the detailed information are given (e.g.: map, routes, travel
time, fares)
I would like to ride the public transport if free ticket is provided
I plan to share a vehicle for commuting
I intend to ride the bicycle/ walk to the nearby places in the future
I will commit myself to change my travel behaviour to be more environmentally friendly in
the future
I intend to reduce my personal carbon emissions in the future
PCB4
PCB5
PCB6
MO1
MO2
MO3
MO4
MO5
HI
H2
H3
H4
H5
INT1
INT2
INT3
INT4
INT5
INT6
INT7
The variables were measured using five-point response Likert scales, ranging from “1 = strongly
disagree” to “5 = strongly agree”. Negative formulated items were reverse in coding. The
psychological measures were designed from the extended of TPB variables with the addition of
awareness and moral obligation factors. The structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used as a
medium to analyze the factors that stimulus the intention on choosing the more pro-environmental
travel modes.
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Analysis
Table 2 presents demographic profile of respondents. The recruited respondents were between
the age ranges of 13 to 17 years old which consisted of 34 males (62.4%) and 19 females (35.8%).
Of these respondents, 52.8% were Malay, 22.6% were Chinese and 24.5% were Indian. Moreover,
it can be observed that more than 50% of the respondents found to be escorted by family members
when commuting to school.
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Table 2. Descriptive analysis of respondent
Variable
Age
Item
% (N)
-
Mean (SD)
14.70 / 1.234
Gender
Male
62.4 (34)
0.64 / 0.484
Female
35.8 (19)
Malay
Chinese
52.8 (28)
22.6 (12)
Race
1.72 / 0.841
Indian
24.5 (13)
Escorted
Guardian
56.6 (30)
0.57 /0.500
Motor Vehicle at
Home
Car
90.6 (48)
0.91 / 0.295
Motorcycle
Car
71.7 (38)
50.9 (27)
0.72 / 0.455
3.56 / 2.888
Motorcycle
Van
Bus
Bicycle / Walking
11.3 (6)
9.40 (5)
3.80 (2)
24.6 (13)
Main Mode of
Transport
The reasons of the adolescents travelling to school with guardian perhaps due to parental fear of
safety issues or there is synchronization between work and school start/end time [10]. However,
since more than 90% of respondents‟ family own motor vehicle at home, about 62.2% of
respondents were recorded commuting to school by private vehicle. Meanwhile, 9.4% and 3.8% of
the respondents travel by van and bus respectively. Only 24.6% commute by active modes which is
walking and cycling.
3.2. Descriptive Analysis
The psychological factors were analyzed by using the Smart-PLS2.0 M3 software, which is the
second generation of multivariate technique that minimizing the error variance for the measurement
and structural models [33]. In order to determine the goodness of measures, the validity and
reliability of the scales was conducted through the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Validity
testify the wellness of the developed variables to evaluate the particular concept it is intended to
measure and the reliability is the test to determine the consistency of the variables in any concept
[34].
Table 3 exhibited the convergent validity test as recommended by [35] that consists of the items
loadings, the composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE) values for the
investigated variables. It can be observed that the construct validity was confirmed since all the
items were loaded significantly which greater than the minimum cut off value for loading at 0.5.
Table 3. Convergent validity and reliability test
Construct
Item
Loadings
CRa
AVEb
α
Attitude (ATT)
ATT2
ATT3
ATT7
ATT8
ATT9
0.701
0.664
0.656
0.704
0.781
0.83
0.50
0.74
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Attitude towards Environment (AEN)
Attitude towards Public Transport
(APT)
Awareness (AW)
Awareness of Negative Consequences
(AWNC)
Awareness of Positive Consequences
(AWPC)
Habit
Intention (INT)
Moral Obligation (MO)
MO towards Environment (MOEN)
MO towards Transport (MOT)
Perceived Behaviour Control (PCB)
Subjective Norms (SN)
a.
ATT2
ATT3
ATT7
ATT8
ATT9
AW1
AW2
AW3
AW7
AW8
AW9
AW1
AW2
AW3
AW7
AW8
AW9
0.904
0.892
0.815
0.865
0.866
0.867
0.829
0.726
0.825
0.741
0.844
0.899
0.915
0.818
0.867
0.844
0.895
H1
0.824
H2
INT1
INT2
INT3
INT4
INT6
INT7
MO1
MO2
MO4
MO5
MO1
MO2
MO4
MO5
PCB1
PCB2
PCB4
SN1
SN2
SN3
SN5
SN6
0.780
0.740
0.784
0.622
0.691
0.677
0.724
0.746
0.748
0.830
0.668
0.909
0.910
0.924
0.880
0.843
0.837
0.730
0.728
0.807
0.714
0.627
0.574
0.89
0.81
0.76
0.89
0.72
0.81
0.92
0.65
0.89
0.91
0.77
0.85
0.90
0.76
0.84
0.86
0.64
0.50
0.86
0.50
0.80
0.84
0.56
0.74
0.91
0.83
0.79
0.90
0.81
0.81
0.85
0.65
0.73
0.82
0.50
0.82
CR = (square of the summation of the factor loadings)/{(square of the summation of the factor loadings) + (square of the summation of the error variances)}.
b.
AVE = (summation of the square of the factor loadings)/{(summation of the square of the factor loadings) + (summation of the error variances)}.
Then, the convergent validity was tested to validate whether the measured construct are under
the proposed concept or not. The CR values describe the degree to which construct indicators
indicates the latent seem acceptable which has exceeded the suggested value 0.7. Meanwhile, [36]
had been explained that the AVE test is conducted to measure the variance capture by the indicators
relative to measurement error should meet the minimum criteria of 0.5. The results showed that the
AVE values were ranged from 0.5 – 0.83.
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The discriminant validity of the construct can be determine by the comparison of the square root
of AVE with the other constructs in the model as suggested by Fornell and Larcker [33]. It is to
ensure that the measures are not reflecting other construct or variables with low correlation [37].
The results showed that all the square root of AVE for each construct were greater than the
correlation between constructs, satisfied the evidence of adequate discriminant validity.
The Cronbach‟s alpha (α) coefficients were used to testify the inter-item consistency of the
measured variables where the minimum baseline is 0.70 for good reliability [38]. The results
indicates higher internal item consistency since the Cronbach‟s alphas for this experiment were
ranging from 0.73 - 0.89 except for habit which was 0.50. This circumstance indicates the poor
reliability since the acceptable level of internal consistency across multiple measurements within
0.50 to 0.70 [39]. Thus, the measurement of this model was satisfactory and provided sufficient
evidence in terms of convergent validity, discriminant validity as well as reliability.
Besides, the relationship between construct were revealed in Table 4. Standard error (SE) and tvalues were found by applying bootstrapping method. The result have shown that several
relationship of the construct in this model were significantly different except for subjective norms
that do not have significant effect on behavioural intention.
Table 4. Relationship between Psychological Variables
Relationship
M
STD
SE
β
t-value
AEN -> ATT
0.570
0.102
0.102
0.559
5.476**
APT -> ATT
0.656
0.093
0.093
0.679
7.294**
ATT -> INT
0.214
0.155
0.155
0.198
1.350#
ATT -> SN
0.589
0.088
0.088
0.570
6.469**
AW -> ATT
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.868
AW -> INT
0.163
0.125
0.125
0.168
1.346#
AWNC -> AW
0.530
0.035
0.035
0.535
15.082**
AWPC -> AW
0.552
0.043
0.043
0.548
12.743**
HABIT -> INT
-0.277
0.118
0.118
-0.272
2.310*
MO -> INT
0.382
0.165
0.165
0.327
2.329*
MO -> PCB
0.316
0.121
0.121
0.312
2.581**
MOEN -> MO
0.592
0.056
0.056
0.590
10.586**
MOT -> MO
0.609
0.051
0.051
0.615
12.006**
PCB -> INT
0.186
0.134
0.134
0.184
1.372#
SN -> INT
0.032
0.127
0.127
-0.073
0.143
0.505
0.107
0.107
0.496
4.616**
SN -> PCB
#
**p<0.01; *p<0.05; p<0.1
In addition, Fig. 2 illustrates the complete path diagram resulting from the test of structural
model shown on the path, which only explicitly portrays the significant construct for a better
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understanding. The figure demonstrated the R2 value and the estimated parameters. The R2 that
describes for the intention of reducing individual carbon footprint was 0.568. This circumstance
indicates that the independent variables were explained by 56.8% of the variance, has the intention
on reducing the individual travel related carbon footprint. The global fit measure (GoF) assessment
also had been carried out to investigate the validation of the PLS model globally [40]. The GoF
value obtained for this model was 0.536 which is adequately supported since it exceeded the
minimum cut-off value of 0.36 for the large effect size of R2.
Fig. 2. Estimated Model for psychological factors affecting the behavioural intention
The model was demonstrated that the relationship between attitude (β = 0.198, p<0.1),
awareness (β = 0.168, p<0.1), habit (β = -0.272, p<0.05), moral obligation (β = 0.327, p<0.05), and
perceived behaviour control (β = 0.184, p<0.1) with the intention to practice more proenvironmental travel behaviour were found statistically significant.
Although habit was found significantly related to the respondents‟ behavioural intention, the
result showed that the direction of its relationship was negative compared to the other significant
construct which had the positive relationship. This scenario indicates that even the respondents
often use private vehicle for current situation, they do have the intention to use sustainable transport
in the future.
Moreover, the moral obligation to protect the environment and reduce car use was found has the
most significant impact on the intention to reconsider current mode of transport preference to be
more environmental friendly for sustainable tomorrow. These effects followed by habit of transport
use, perceived of possibilities and difficulties to use sustainable transport, the attitude towards car
use as well as the awareness towards different consequences of the high dependency on private
motorized vehicle.
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4. Discussion and Conclusion
In this study, the partial least square (PLS) technique had been used to understand the
psychological factors that affecting the adolescents‟ intention to shift their daily mode to school
towards more pro-environmental transport. There were six factors that proposed in the model such
as attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control, awareness on consequences, moral
obligation and habit. The PLS had been used to evaluate the goodness of measure of this model
through observing the validity and reliability of the variables. Based on the results, the measures
were satisfied both convergent and discriminant validity test while exceeded the minimum cut-off
level for reliability as well.
The finding of this paper figured out that all the factors except subjective norms had
significantly contribute to the adolescents‟ behavioural intention to shift mode. The not significant
relationship between the subjective norms and behavioural intention might be affected by the
adolescents‟ that has been misinterpreting the role of social pressure which has certain impact in
their decision or action. They do not realize that their actions more likely have been influenced by
relatives or peers who using the same option of transport [41].
Attitude refers to the respondent‟s opinion or belief. In this study, attitude was defined with two
factors namely attitude towards environment and public transport. The respondents who have
positive belief on preserving the environment and seem likely to enjoy travelling by public
transport have more potential to improve their travel pattern to be more environmental friendly.
Meanwhile, the awareness indicates the knowledge of respondents regarding the impact of
transportation towards the environment. The adolescents‟ behavioural intention of using more proenvironmental transport option was significantly influenced by their sense of awareness towards the
negative and positive consequences of private vehicle use. Hence, the stronger the awareness, the
higher the behavioural intention will be since the adolescents had acknowledge the need to become
green for sustainable tomorrow.
Moreover, the results showed that the feelings of moral obligation had give out the significant
influence towards the behavioural intention with strongest coefficient value compared to other
factors. Thus, the stronger the moral obligation to refrain from using private vehicle for the
preservation of environment, the higher the level of behavioural intention is aimed to lessen
individual‟s emission produce by all means. Interestingly, this study agreed with Abrahamse et al.
[42] where the PCB moderates the relation between moral obligation and behaviour intention. It
reveals when the PCB at the relatively low levels, the stronger moral obligation portrays the
stronger the behavioural intention and vice-versa.
Overall, the results revealed that the psychological factors contribute positively significant
results that induce the intention on reducing personal travel related carbon footprint. The outcome
from this study may trigger the awareness of younger generation to protect the environment for the
sustainable of tomorrow. As a limitation in this study, the motivation or campaign should be held
regularly to improve the student awareness and understanding about the consequences of
transportation and environmental issues. More research should be carried out involving the use of
other technique of intervention like giving incentive to encourage students to use the alternative
mode of transport.
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Acknowledgements
The research was funded by the Institutional Development Division, Universiti Sains Malaysia
through the Delivering Excellence Research Grant (1002 / PAWAM / 910346). The authors also
appreciate the cooperation and support from SMK Seri Nibong, Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang for
participating in this research.
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Sustainable Energy and Environment
Green City Parks Model to Reduce Air Pollution as
Anticipation to the Climate Change
Dewi Liesnoor Setyowatia* dan Nana Kariadab
a
Department of Geography, Semarang State University,Semarang, 52900 Indonesia
b
Department of Biology, Semarang State University, Semarang 52900 Indonesia
Abstract
Urban growth has Implications for the emergence of urban problems such as traffic jams, floods, slums,
social inequality, and the reduced area of green open space. The phenomenon of climate change adds further
weight problems of the city. Came the idea to develop a green city parks program comprehensive and realistic
as a solution to climate change. The research purposes are to: 1) study the density of vegetation and air
contamination in the city, 2) provide guidance a vegetation green city park, 3) develop a model green city
parks to muffle air contamination. The study was conducted in urban areas of Semarang. Object study that
examined is only green city park in Simpang Lima Park and KB park. The research material includes data of
urban green space, the distribution of vegetation, and air quality. Spatial data, including SPOT 5 Satellite
Imagery, topographic maps, land use maps. The data field is park measuring includes air quality, type and
number of trees. Analysis of this research is a descriptive-quantitative, including spatial analysis, laboratory
testing, and modeling of a green city. The main results of the study is software models that has optimal green
city parks to muffle air contamination, is used as an effort to anticipate the climate change. This model will be
able to create a comfortable atmosphere, clean, healthy, controlled air contamination, so that the environment
can be maintained and anticipate of the climate change. The final prediction of the analysis of models of green
urban park software is to determine the amount and type of vegetation that must be provided in a city park
until able to reduce air contamination.
Keywords: green city park, air contamination, park vegetation.
1. Introduction
Climate change is the most serious environmental threat to life (Enete, 2013). Climate Change
in Indonesia is already can be felt, and still a lot of confusion in the society in facing the climate
change. One of the factors that the public response to climate change is the people’s knowledge is
lacking about the climate change. Knowledge and understanding of climate change is needed.
Several attempts have been made to expand the information on climate change, government and
non-government agencies, and many institutions from abroad. Foreign agencies work together to
provide an understanding of climate change, how to adapt to climate change, how to increase the
*
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resilience of the city in the face of climate change. Even educational institutions together a
curriculum to be taught in primary and secondary schools (ACCCRN, 2010).
The principle of climate change is the rising gases carbon dioxide, methane, and other gases.
These gases are normally in small quantities in the atmosphere, can continue to direct sunlight at
the earth's surface. As a result, the temperature at the earth's surface heated. Gas rising into the air
caused by air pollution. Anteplioglu, et al, (2007) says that air pollution occurs due to the increase
in atmospheric contaminants or combinations thereof in the form of dust, moisture, odors, smoke,
and various types of other gases. The number, concentration, nature, and duration of pollutant gases
in the atmosphere, can cause disruption to the environment, such as health problems, damage to
goods or certain objects. Leisure living things become disrupted. Air pollution occurs, when there is
the addition of materials or substances into the air in sufficient concentrations and amounts,
resulting in a negative impact that can be measured in some particular organism.
Transportation denseness in urban areas is the effect of settlement a city that is solid, especially
in terms of the impact of exposure and vulnerability of the extreme events .Growth rapid and not
planned city will weaken susceptibility to disaster risk. Climate change is a function of extreme
weather phenomena which is three, extreme climate and ipcc climate change itself (IPCC,2012)
.Interactions with the public urban transportation, especially concentrating on entity led to the
appearance in a city that is the challenge of climate change. According to fandeli et al .(2004),
fouling of the air pollutant sources in urban is transportation and industrial. Transportation and
industrial pollution caused by the burning of oil energy, consisting of a Pb gas, CO, NO, and SO.
Environmental conditions as recipient highly dependent on the presence or absence of vegetation,
wind strength, wind speed and wind direction (Fandeli et al., 2004).
City is the center of community activities, the consequences happen concentration of
population, so that the direction of development focuses on the development of the physical
infrastructure of the city. As a result, the presence of green space that serves to create a comfortable
town (pleasant liveable city), became increasingly disappearing. The implications of the emergence
of urban growth issues such as congestion, flood, slums, social inequality, and reduced the area of
green space. Air pollution in the city become a serious environmental problem and annoying
damaging ecosystem sustainability and the quality of urban life. One of the technical solutions to
reduce air contamination are: urban vegetation is recognized as an alternative method of fixing may
dampen some air contaminant (Jim and Wendy, 2008). The phenomenon of climate change adds to
the weight problems of the city. A city park with lush vegetation has cooling effect during the day.
Green open space land is effective for heat mitigation (Setyowati, 2010; Pninit et, al, 2012). The
coming idea to develop a program that is more comprehensive green city at the same time realistic
is to anticipate climate change.
Increasingly complex of urban areas problems, serious attention must be done using a special
approach. Development of a green city is a suitable approach to be implemented, because it is an
innovative urban development, which is "out of the box", to face the challenges in urban as well as
answering the problem of global climate change. The area of green space as a catchment area in
Semarang city area or an area of 392.2 ha (15.69%). Regions not recharge, such as buildings and
houses, covering an area of 2106.8 ha (84.31%). Based on these data, the vast green spaces of
Semarang not meet the criteria of an ideal catchment area by 25%. Green space in the city of
Semarang are still to be developed and managed optimally. The development of means of
transportation and industry indicated a source of air pollutant most dominant. Semarang air quality
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concern, in a year of 365 days is only 20% or (70 days) is fairly good day, the rest almost 300 days
have poor air quality (Setyowati, 2010).
Need efforts to address air contaminant intensive and predict optimal green space requirements.
Green area management aims to achieve comfort, sustainability, and environmental compatibility
that can reduce air pollution (Nasution, 2011). Preparation of green space model for the control of
air contaminants and the anticipation of climate change, must be designed appropriately. Approach
with a simulation model is often used to help plan and make decisions on environmentally sound
development. Mangiza (2011) said that the emission in urban areas could not measured accurately,
because no method accepted globally to determine the amount.The size of the emission of grk to
the city determined by the size of the city, growth, the structure and density of populations .
Green city is Realized through greening with parks, urban forests, green or open space. Green
City is a city that is utilizing the water resources and energy effectively and efficiently; reduce
waste; implement an integrated transportation system; ensure the health of the environment; and
synergize the natural and artificial environment (Priest, 2012). Urban park space in the city is laid
out to create beauty, comfort, safety, and health for its users. City park functioned as lungs of the
city, controlling microclimate, soil and water conservation, and habitat for a variety of flora and
fauna (and Cemetery Department, 2010). The main aim of research to develop a model green city
parks optimal to dampen air contamination, as an effort to anticipate climate change. The specific
objective of the research are: 1) assess the density of vegetation and contamination of the air in the
city, 2) providing guidance on the needs of the park vegetation types, 3) develop a model green city
parks optimized to damp air contamination.
2. Research Methods
The study was conducted in Semarang dense urban areas of the building. Objects are such as a
park or green space, especially in Simpang Lima and KB Park. Both parks are in the center of
Semarang City and is the most extensive active parks.
The analysis is spatial analysis, laboratory testing, and modeling. Analysis of the spatial
distribution of vegetation cover and comfort index, green catchment area needs to muffle air
contamination. Laboratory tests to determine air quality, pollutant levels in the tree or vegetation.
Green city modeling to examine the link between green space requirements, air contamination, and
the need for trees in the park, as well as designing the ideal park conditions.
Modeling green optimal for air quality control are prepared with regard to the park (number of
trees, to scatter density and vegetation), the condition of cemaran the air at the park, and directions
management solution city park green. Based on the proposal, then a model of the parameters of the
determination of green city optimal cemaran to control the air in the form of an overlay approach
join in the spatial. Formula was formulated by algorithma as follows.
OKH = Join Spasial (KRH + SCUB + POT + RTHa)
Information: OKH (optimal room green), KRH (the needs of space green), SCUB (source cemaran
air and noise), POT (green potential land ) RTHA (the area of the green actual).
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3. Result
Local Regulation Number 5/ 2004 on Spatial Planning (RTRW) Semarang, basically a set of
green open space. The hope will bring a positive impact to the presence of green space in the city of
Semarang. Policies on regulation, among others, set about the extent and the minimum number of
trees that must be possessed by every area of the home. Bylaw regulate in detail the provisions,
among others: each Neighborhood (RT) shall have a minimum area of 250m2 park with 10 shade
trees; The area of the park at the local level at least 1.500m2 with 20 trees; Park Village level of at
least 1 hectare; Houses with an area of 120 m2 plot of land under the shade trees at least provide 1;
House with land 120-500m2 must provide a minimum of 3 trees, and above 500 m2 minimum of 5
trees.
Area of green space in the Central Semarang Sub District area is of 76.59 ha (12.64%), East
Semarang area of 98.06 ha (13.24%), South Semarang area of 179.27 ha (21.14%), and North
Semarang an area of 266.04 ha (23.32%). Fulfillment vast green space 30%, the addition of green
space in the Central Semarang Sub District of Semarang area of 17.36% and 16.76% area of the
East, are presented in Table 1 Where will meet the broad criteria of 30% green open space (GOS),
it is necessary to increase the GOS at each district. In the Middle District of Semarang shortage of
green space covering 105.14 ha (17.36%), East Semarang area of 124.15 ha (16.76%), South
Semarang area of 75.15 ha (8.86%), and North Semarang an area of 76.22 ha (6.68%) (Setyowati
2010 and 2013).
Table 1 Oxygen Demand and Ability Trees Produce Oxygen
Village
Extent
Ideal
GOS
GOS (Ha)
(Ha)
Needed
Semarang Tengah
76,59
181,73
Semarang Timur
98,06
222,21
Semarang Selatan
179,27
254,42
Semarang Utara
266,04
342,26
Lack of area
(Ha)
105,14
124,15
75,15
76,22
GOS
%
17,36
16,76
8,86
6,68
O2
produ
ced
43.615,2
53.330,4
61.060,8
82.142,4
Trees
needed
348.296
384.788
360.878
677.015
Source: Setyowati, 2013.
According to the results of measurements of air contaminants in park planning and Simpang
Lima park (Table 2), showed that the concentration of air contaminants in Simpang Lima park
higher than that in the Park of KB. Some parameters of the contamination is still below the national
ambient standards, but the dust and noise parameters are already approaching the limits of the
standard. Higher concentrations is shown in the area around Simpang Lima Park, because of the
motor vehicle transport and car and the amount of space that is changed into a concrete building,
concrete park and concrete paths. As a result of this all, cause air contaminant concentrations
approaching ambient quality standards and higher. Concentration of air contaminants passed
ambient air quality standards can cause discomfort to humans as well be bad for his health.
In general, particles that air pollution can damage the environment, plants, animals and humans.
The particles are very harmful to human health. These circumstances led to urban public relations
are not harmonious with the environment. Park City has a value other than beauty also capable of
absorbing dust particles (Abrams, 2010; Ramanathan, 2009).
The effect of greenhouse gases (GRK) caused by the humans (antropogenik) and derived from
the 40-70% is between (mangiza, 2011). One effort that can be done to reduce air contamination in
the District of South Semarang-raising programs conducted by planting thousands of trees in
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strategic areas of the city and the park road worth. Because by being placed in strategic places such,
functions as an absorber of green space in addition to the air and producing oxygen contamination,
can add aesthetic value and coolness and beauty. Can also with the holding of the air quality
recovery program is to be car-free days and greening the city.
Table 2 Parameter Air Pollution in Simpang Lima Park and KB Park
No
Air Contamination
KB Park in
Simpang Lima
Parameter
2012
Park in 2012
1
Carbon monoxide (CO)
8,016
9,161
2
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
3,215
1,683
3
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
6,730
9,824
4
Oxidant (Ox)
0,283
0,251
5
Ammonia (NH3)
0,003
0,004
6
Hydrogen sulfide H2S)
0,004
0,006
7
Dust/TSP
174
119
8
Pb lead
0,120
0,135
9
noise
62,5
65,1
10
temperature
26,5
28,7
11
Humidity
85,5
69,3
Quality Standards
30.000µg/Nm3 (1jam)
400µg/Nm3 (1 jam)
900µg/Nm3 (1 jam)
235µg/Nm3 (1 jam)
2 ppm
0,02 ppm
230µg/Nm3 (24 jam)
2µg/Nm3 (24 jam)
70 dBA
18-28oC
40-60%
Source: Setyowati, 2013.
Increased air contamination caused by the rising number of vehicles and industrial activity. Air
contaminant parameters: CO, NO2, SO2, O3, Pb, H2S, NH3, TSP, and noise. CO levels of air
contamination conditions approaching ambient quality standards, dust/TSP in several locations
already exceeded ambient standards. Other parameters such as NO 2, SO2, H2S and NH3 are still
under ambient quality standards. Air quality in Simpang Lima Park CO has a value higher than KB
Park. Value of CO in Simpang Lima Park μgr 9,161/m3 and KB Park 8,016 μgr/m3. Region that has
a parameter of dust/TSP highest in the park at 174 KB μgr/m3 and in Simpang Lima Park at 119
μgr/m3, the value quality standard dust/TSP 230 μgr/m3 so that the condition dust/TSP at both parks
approach critical number.
Referral needs vegetation on park planning and Simpang Lima park described based on the
value distribution of vegetation, vegetation composition index, and index of vegetation density
(Table 3). Distribution of vegetation be identified from the type and amount of vegetation.
Distribution of tree species in the park include KB, angsana (pterocarpusi indicus), asam kranji
(pithecelobium duke), asam (tamarindusindica), glodogan (polyaithia longifolia), ketapan
(termnalia catappa), butterfly (bauhinia sp), and mahogany (swietenia mahogany). While the
distribution of tree species in the Simpang Lima park include tamarind (tamarindusindica), asam
kranji (pithecelobium duke), and glodogan (polyaithia longifolia). Distribution of vegetation index
inthe Simpang Lima Park at 0.2. Figures 3 show the distribution of vegetation condition is very
bad, because the composition of the vegetation type and density of vegetation including a few very
rare.
Index composition of vegetation in the park planning and Simpang Lima Park includes very few
categories. Vegetation species composition is determined by counting the number of vegetation
types with a total amount of vegetation per unit area. Park KB has a number of 7 types of amenity
trees and the total number of trees shadier are 178 trees. Type amenity trees in Simpang Lima Park
only two types of trees and the total number of amenity trees 292 trees. Tree density index is
included in the category of very rare (<14.0%). Various types of plants reflects the value of tree
density, the higher the density value between trees can minimize and reduce energy radiation from
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the sun. Tree density was determined by counting the number of amenity trees per unit area
acreage.
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Table 3: Distribution, composition, and density of vegetation in Park City
City Park
KB Park
Simpang Lima Park
Extensive garden (m2)
10.500
32.400
Area of Park (%)
24,48
75,52
number of Trees
178
292
Number of Tree Species
7
3
Composition Index (C)
4%
1%
Density Vegetation Index
2%
1%
Distribution of Vegetation
0,06
0,02
Index
Criteria
very Little
very rare
very bad
Source: Research Findings, Iriani and Setyowati, 2014
Vegetation or trees have different abilities to absorb air contamination. Restructuring of the park
by selecting the type of vegetation, which serves to reduce air contamination. Semarang region with
the potential of air pollution because of the transportation and industrial activities. The city is in
dire need of clean and fresh air. Trees in city parks can help in the recycling of air contamination.
The presence of vegetation in urban parks help the public or road users in removing flavor will
saturate urban activity, give oxygen demand, coolness, and beauty that can be felt. In some types of
trees that produce flowers and fruit, besides looks beautiful also give life to animals such as birds.
Giving direction of tree species that have a role in absorbing air contamination in urban areas is
very important. Direction of tree species will help reduce air contamination that occurred in the city
center of Semarang. The air condition is maintained so as not to pass the quality standard limits
specified, Referral tree species that should be present in the park are presented in Table 4.
The results of the data processing of green space on Simpang Lima Park and KB Park indicates
that the condition and function of the park is still less than optimal. The number of trees is still less
because it produces a value that is still sparse vegetation density and distribution of trees included
in the criteria ugly. Composition of the vegetation index value also includes a little. The existence
of the park is still not optimal, causing less functional condition of trees in absorbing air
contamination. Contamination of air in Semarang, especially in the Simpang Lima Park and KB
Park is quite high (although still below the predetermined Quality standard). Levels of dust/TSP
was nearing quality standard, trees absorb dust particles that function has not been widely planted
ataman pad and around the park. Levels of Lead (Pb) and NO 2 needs to watch out because it is
approaching a predetermined number quality standard. Aspects of noise on location of Taman
Simpang Lima and KB Park was very noisy with a number very close to quality standard. The
existence of temperature of air is also become hot because conditions are less shady trees and the
number of trees is still lacking.
Efforts to tackle the second planting trees on the park. Dust absorbing plants need to be planted
mahogany trees, Mabolo, cape, walnuts, red meranti, puppy umbrella, and ebony. For trees planted
tree Pb absorbent resin, mahogany, jamuja, nutmeg, asam kranji, Venus, and glodogan. For NO2
absorption Flamboyan, cape, Angsana, cinnamon red, mahogany, bungur, white teak, and sea
contamination. To function in the park absorb CO 2 and produce O2 it is important to plant a tree
resin, leaf butterfly, gung leucaena, acacia, and banyan. Because the software is generated in
trouble so the research is still simulation of computation in a park needs to be planted any tree
species and how many have not been able ditamp [Display the on this article. The linkage between
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the state park, state of air contamination, and tree species should be planted on both parks are
presented in Figure 1.
The IPPC research (2012) found the cause of the impact of disasters and climate change is the
result of interaction, factors of climate and humans as well as a factor of non climate. Wlash et al,
(2011) said that response a city in addressing climate change is divided into two categories namely:
1) mitigation to reduce emissions and increase GRK (the process of natural or artificial) that can
deprive GRK emissions from the atmosphere, and 2) adaptation to reduce the impact of changes
and optimize dangerous development that has the potential for profitable.
Fig. 1. The output of the model green city park in the form of a solution,
the addition of plant species to absorb air pollution
4. Conclusion
According to the provisions of Law No. 26/2007, the area of urban green space in Hyderabad is
still below 30%. The area of green space in Central Semarang Sub district of Semarang
approximately 17.36% and 16.76% East is still lacking. The results of measurements of air
contaminants dust/TSP approaches the ambient quality standards. Parameters Pb, NO 2, CO2, SO2,
H2S and NH3 are still far from the standard. Green city park models predict the optimal extent of
green space and parks, so it can reduce air contamination from transport activities. The presence of
vegetation in determining the ability of a city park park in reducing air contamination. End of the
analysis software prediction models of green urban park is to determine the amount and type of
vegetation that must exist in a city park.
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G.-K. Plattner, S.K. Allen, M. Tignor, and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY, USA,
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Jim, C.Y., Wendy, YC. Assessing the ecosystem service of air pollutant removal by urban trees in Guangzhou (China).
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Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. Volume 36, 2012, Pages 466-475. ASEAN Conference on EnvironmentBehaviour Studies (ACE-Bs), Savoy Homann Bidakara Hotel, 15-17 June 2011, Bandung, Indonesia.
Pninit C, Oded P, Andrew M. Daily and seasonal climatic conditions of green urbanopenspaces in the Mediterranean
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Heritage
Sustainability Methods in the Protection and Enhancement
of the Vernacular Architecture in Palembang, South
Sumatera, Indonesia
Listen Prima*
Department of Architecture, University of Sriwijaya, Bukit Besar, Palembang, South Sumatera, Indonesia
Abstract
This research aims to determine the interaction of vernacular architecture in the heritage area based on the
potential as cultural heritage tourism, particularly in Palembang, South Sumatera. Vernacular architecture brings
unique form of architecture, since it is established based on the local values and perceptions. Many studies
consider about the importance of vernacular architecture as it brings the identity of indigenous cultures or as the
source of the beauty of the buildings. However, there is separately limited study about the potential of
vernacular architecture values, especially as cultural heritage tourism subject.
Furthermore, it is urgent to develop the protection and enhancement of the vernacular architecture in the
heritage area that fits with the context of the sustainability. Thus, there is a mission to promote the vernacular
architecture in the heritage area based on the potential as cultural heritage tourism. Palembang, South Sumatera
is one of the provinces in Indonesia which is enriched with the several vernacular architecture forms and spread
in many regions along the province. However, most of the buildings are in poor condition and threatened to be
extinct or demolished. It is crucial to identify the approaches in the protection and enhancement of the
vernacular architecture that simultaneously run and develop the cultural heritage tourism, especially for the
cultural heritage tourism in Palembang. The sustainability development could be proposed as an integrated
method for the protection and enhancement of the vernacular architecture since those three elements of
economic, social and environment are the basic principle of it.
Several methods have been used in order to develop the basic theories of the research. The methodologies
give a description of research policy, case study and evaluative analysis. The protection and enhancement of the
vernacular architecture in the case study area of Palembang have several approaches in the case study areas.
There are two levels of legislation applied, whereas Palembang‟s is only based on the national legislation of the
heritage sites, in the absence of any regional legislation. The national legislation could be very limited for the
specific area. Since it is the general guide for all areas in Indonesia, it could not be applied in the case study area
with some specific needs. Moreover, the effectiveness of the regional legislation in the case study area,
Palembang, is very reliant on the challenges of the tourism benefits dominance, law enforcement and awareness
of local public, a lack of funding and supervision.
It is expected that the findings of research could provide useful input into the programs developed by the
local government. The analysis could encourage the integrated sustainable methods for the heritage site
protection and cultural tourism improvement in such local programs.
Keywords: vernacular architecture; cultural; heritage; sustainability
*
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Heritage
1. Introduction
This research evaluates some of the local programs as the implementation of the regional
legislation in Palembang, South Sumatera regarding the protection and enhancement of vernacular
architecture in heritage sites based on their potential for cultural heritage tourism. It is important to
define the influence and role of regional legislation in the protection and enhancement of
vernacular architecture. The legislation studied is implemented in such a way that it reflects its
particular characteristics and profile in terms of the potential for cultural heritage tourism.
Regarding the importance of the protection and enhancement of the heritage sites based on the
potential for cultural heritage tourism, it is urgent to examine the methods for integrating the
protection of the vernacular architecture in heritage sites and tourism development, which have
been applied in each of case study areas in Palembang, South Sumatera. Such examination would
provide a comparison of the local legislation implementation through the local programs in order to
find appropriate methods for case study areas. Besides, no method evaluation and comparison study
have been conducted within the case study areas in Palembang, South Sumatera about the
protection and enhancement of the vernacular architecture in heritage sites based on their potential
for cultural heritage tourism.
Vernacular architecture, especially as cultural heritage tourism subject, holds cultural values for
the local area and community (Hosagrahar 2010:195). Moreover, the protection and enhancement
do not only save and increase the cultural value of the heritage area, but also improve the potential
of economic value that could be found in the heritage sites of some areas. Saving the cultural values
and improving the economic values are the integrated aims of the protection and enhancement of
heritage sites based on their potential as cultural heritage sites.
Hence, the potential of culture and economy encourages the protection and enhancement
sustainability methods as strong combination elements of the methods. It is hoped that the
sustainability methods which bring the economic, social and environment as one approach can be a
future orientation.
The case study of Palembang area embodies the richness of various types of the vernacular
architecture that is mentioned before and needs to be improved since there is a vulnerable condition
in many sites and objects/buildings. However, the protection and enhancement need to be
improved. With the existence of regional legislation, such improvement could be addressed through
various programs dealing with wide areas covered by each province. In addition, regional
autonomy enables each province/city to promote the program which protects the vernacular
architecture of its heritage. However, regional legislation for protection and enhancement does not
exist in all provinces/cities in Indonesia. The complexity of the challenges in the protection and
enhancement of the heritage is being increased by the absence of regional legislation, as the case in
Palembang. Thus, there should be an evaluation of the legislation role in protecting heritage sites,
both by regional and national level legislation. The conflict of interest between the protection itself
and the tourism business could be a problem for the local government. The local government needs
to decide which interest should be prioritized. Thus, the involvement of communities, academics,
experts and other related groups could provide the additional value to the programs in case study
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Heritage
area.
This research aims to determine how local programs enhance and protect the vernacular
architecture in Palembang, South Sumatera and how they fulfil the criteria as the sustainability
methods.
2. Research Methods
Several methods have been used in order to develop the basic theories of the research. The
methodology gives description of research policy, case study and evaluative analysis. Besides, it
also provides a brief description of the case study area.
2.1. Methodology
The main perspective of the discussion is the potential of vernacular architecture in
heritage sites for cultural heritage tourism. The study approaches involve examining policy
implementation, environmental concerns, and social and economic impacts of cultural heritage
tourism. Furthermore, it focuses on how the regulation is applied and the effectiveness of the
regulation in relation to the existing cultural heritage sites.
To conduct this study, the author uses a combination of the three methods of researching
policies, case study, and evaluation of analysis. Researching policy is a step to familiarize with the
kind of policies applied in Indonesia regarding how the protection and enhancement of the
vernacular architecture as cultural heritage are related to tourism. This step is conducted by
collecting, describing and analysing the policies at some level of implementation, such as at the
level of national regulation and the local or regional regulation based on each region of the case
study areas.
The second step of research is case study. As Gillham (2000:102) says that the case study is “an
insight into people‟s life which is required for better understanding and an improved response or
attitude”. The case study is also defined as “a potentially large number of observations on
intervening variables and qualitative measures of different aspects of the dependent variable, so
there is not just a „single measure‟ of the variables or an inherent degrees of freedom problem”
(King et al. 1994). Thus, it is hoped that through the case study method, there could be emerged a
clear description about the condition of the related elements and legislation improvement in terms
of the protection and enhancement of the local heritage sites. Hence, the result of the case study
research could be used to generalize and contribute to the development of the theory about the
protection and enhancement of the vernacular architecture in heritage sites in terms of the
regulatory framework and its implementation (Chatterji 2001). In addition, it has been argued that
the case study method may include both within-case analysis of single cases and comparisons
between or among a small number of cases (Bennett 2001:1514).
The last step, evaluating analysis, involves the analysis and comparison of the regulation
implementation within some projects. The analysis focuses on the impacts of the regulation
implementation by the local government as the local authority, the role of tourism and management
as part of the way to protect and maintain the cultural heritage sites and also about the community
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involvement. There is another analysis of the differences in the system which may assist in
developing system applicable to other areas in Indonesia.
The evaluative analysis of the existing regulation aims to show whether such regulation is
effective enough in the local area for protecting and enhancing the vernacular architecture in
heritage sites based on their potential for cultural heritage tourism.
2.2. Case Study Area (Palembang)
Palembang city is the centre of transportation, docking and trading in South Sumatera. The
location is strategic because it is passed by the road linking Trans Sumatra with regions in Sumatra
Island. Palembang city is divided into two areas by the Musi River, Seberang Ilir to the north and
Seberang Ulu to the south. The Seberang Ilir is Palembang's economic and cultural centre while
Seberang Ulu is the political centre. Deep-water port facilities flowing through the city have been
built along the Musi River. Thus, the government establishes Palembang‟s as “City of Water Tour‟.
Historically, Palembang was the centre of the Sriwijaya Kingdom, a powerful Malay kingdom,
which influenced Southeast Asia much. However, the architectural legacy of Dutch colonization is
still visible in the city.
In terms of protecting and enhancing the vernacular architecture as cultural heritage, the city of
Palembang does not have any specific regional regulation which focuses on these issues. Thus, the
issues related to the cultural heritage are focused in accordance with the National Regulation of the
Law No.11 Year 2010 about The Cultural Heritage. It is not a specific regulation, since its context
is not only based on Palembang area.
Furthermore, based on the content of the Law No.11 Year 2010, the criteria used in the
classification of the cultural heritage are limited. Thus, the regulation does not cover all of areas
needed to secure and preserve the cultural heritage. As Tanudirjo, Daud (2012) argues that as the
requirements of the regulation are set up by the central government, thus there are some objects
which do not fulfill the requirement set down for as the cultural heritage objects/sites in provinces
or districts.
3. Vernacular Architecture’s Protection And Enhancement Methods In Heritage Area Of
Palembang City
3.1. Legislation Framework
In the implementation of vernacular architecture protection and enhancement, based on the
potential for cultural heritage tourism, vernacular architecture is part of the cultural heritage
objects. Based on this official hierarchal system of legislation, there are two kinds of legislation
levels i.e. national legislation and regional legislation, which relate to the existing legislation on the
enhancement and protection of the heritage sites within the case study area.
Since Palembang does not have the specific regulation or regional regulation yet about
protecting and enhancing the cultural heritage sites, the Law No.11 Year 2010 about The Cultural
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Heritage is the guide for the policy and implementation practices within the Palembang area. Thus,
it could be said that the framework legislation for the protection and enhancement of the vernacular
architecture in Palembang is based on the national level. It is slightly different in the case of others
city or province, for examples in Yogyakarta and Bali which have local legislation for the
protection and enhancement of the heritage sites (vernacular architecture).
Since the Law No. 11 Year 2010 is at the national level, it is ratified by the President together
with the Ministry of the State Secretariat and approved by House of Representatives (DPR). After
being approved, the law is supervised under the Home Affairs Department. In provincial/district
government, the governor/major with related provincial departments implements the law based on
the specific context of the implementation. The absence of regional legislation for the protection
and enhancement of the heritage sites has encouraged the establishment of the working unit/team of
“Unit Pelaksana teknis Direktorat Perlindungan dan Pembinaan Peninggalan Sejarah” (technical
unit of historical protection and maintenance) which covers three provinces of Jambi, South
Sumatera and Bengkulu. This unit is responsible for issues related to the protection and
maintenance of the historical objects and sites including vernacular architecture within those three
provinces.
The number of vernacular architecture‟s objects and sites in Palembang is large. However, the
objects and sites have not yet been registered. Since the protection and enhancement of vernacular
architecture in Palembang is based on national legislation, there is a big problem with the listing.
The criteria set up by the national legislation may not be applicable to the objects and sites in
Palembang. Regional legislation that is suitable with the conditions and needs of Palembang has not
yet been ratified by the local government. Thus, the vernacular architecture‟s objects and sites in
Palembang are based on the registration of national heritage criteria. While, the vernacular‟s objects
and sites in Yogyakarta and Bali are based on the regional heritage criteria, since those are
protected under the regional legislation in each area. Furthermore, it is difficult to implement the
sustainable methods for the protection and enhancement for the vernacular architecture in
Palembang, though government has set it as the goal through some local programs.
3.2. Case Study Projects
To protect and enhance the vernacular architecture‟s objects and sites in Palembang, South
Sumatera Province, the local government has attempted to introduce certain programs.
1. Revitalization project of Benteng Kuto Besak (Kuto Besak Fort)
This project has involved the government of Palembang City and the Defence and
Resilience Directorate of Indonesia. This project is believed to be quite successful, since the
area has become more liveable and one of the tourist destinations.
2. Visit Musi (Musi River Trip)
The government of Palembang city has set up the iconic “city of water tourism”, which
offers some vernacular architecture views as heritage sites during the water trip along the
Musi River.
3. The Project of Seribu Lilin (Thousands of Candles) in Kampung Kapitan (Kapitan Village)
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Heritage
Government of Palembang city names the Kampung Kapitan as one of the vernacular
architectures, included in cultural heritage tourism areas in Palembang. This is because the
history of the Kampung Kapitan as an area/village, which consists of some traditional
houses (a mix of Malay, Chinese and Europe styles in the design). The age of the houses is
more than 400 years. Now, most of the houses are in poor condition, since the owners do not
have enough money for their maintenance or renovation. As Kohar (2011) says that the
government of Palembang city always promises to give funds for renovating and
maintaining the houses, but the government has not proven it yet. The government only did
some basic maintenance based on limited money, for example replacing a roof or wall with
cheap material. This supports the view in the literature that the most vulnerable clearing or
changes to cultural heritage sites or buildings are the changes done by the owners
themselves. The government of Palembang city has tried to preserve the area of Kampung
Kapitan by focusing more on the whole area than the buildings/houses themselves. A
controversial project has been run in the area called as “Seribu Lilin (Thousands of
Candles)”. The project tries to maximize the tourism potential of open space by installing
many lamp stands in order to attract tourists as part of “Visit Musi” plan, which is adopted
as a slogan of Palembang tourism. In contrast, the local people in that area do not have
sufficient places for cultural ceremony, such as traditional wedding parties or even places
for the children to play in. The project did not take account the local people opinion. The
government has wanted to make the area interesting for tourists without giving attention on
the impacts of the project itself. Another problem has emerged in relation to the preservation
of heritage sites in this area. The traditional houses have not been well maintained resulting
in traditional houses with weakened structure which cannot be visited by large number of
tourists anymore. Unfortunately, the local government does not appear to be able to take
further action for better sites protection and tourism management.
Based on those local projects in Palembang, the goal for the vernacular architecture
sustainability methods is still in big question. In the implementation, the government of
Palembang city is using simple concepts to revitalize Benteng Kuto Besak Fort. A simple
concept is believed to be the first step in protecting and enhancing the vernacular
architecture. However, as the literature review discussed, one of the most common problems
in doing that kind of project is lack of funds. While in the thousand candles (Seribu Lilin)
project in Kampung Kapitan, although the project is controversial, it is one of the ways for
local government to enhance the heritage sites. However, again, the tourism business is
dominating the goal while ignoring the existence and value of subject itself, the traditional
houses.
In terms of the implementation of the legislation, a number of negative aspects of the regulatory
regimes emerge from an investigation of projects in the case study area. They are as follows:
(i)
Low local public policy enforcement
The local public policy is weakly enforced. This relates to the dominance of other interests.
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The developer has too much power in influencing the government. Thus, the government
has less power than the developer in making decisions. Still, the government can take the
responsibility for the local people who are indigenous to the local area.
(ii) Lack of funds and supervision
Being autonomous, local government in Indonesia has increased the budget of each
region. However, each province/district sets theoretical priorities in making the use of funds.
When the local government does not have enough money to make a big step in protecting
and enhancing the cultural heritage sites, including vernacular architecture, it becomes a
new challenge for the local authority. Other issue that could relate to this is about the lack of
skilful persons in charge. Thus, the project supervision cannot be maximized or even
controlled.
(iii) Limited of local community involvement
Commonly, the community does not involve in any projects of the heritage area. The
local government runs the projects without giving the attention to the local community
needs. As John Schofield and Rosy Schmanski (1948) point out that heritage management
policy and practices are increasingly moving away from state-led interventions and actions
and instead are attempting to take account of ‟the local‟, and draw on the views and
expressions of interest amongst local communities. The case study of Kampung Kapitan
(Kapitan Village) describes that the local government has not done something to promote
the need of the local area and to protect the traditional houses which are in poor condition.
The local government moves the focus on the open space, which ultimately does not change
anything significantly, especially for the local area.
Based on those analyses through the local projects in the case study area, the goal to set
up the sustainability methods in the protection and enhancement is still in the way to go.
Otherwise, it still needs a comprehensive process and method. The sustainability has not
been guaranteed yet in those projects, even in the economic, social and cultural points.
The existing legislation could not ensure the effectiveness of the protection and
enhancement of the vernacular architecture. Both national and regional legislation have less
power and enforcement in most of the case study area. It is due to the fact that those
legislations are not supported by transparency in the process of implementation. Other issues
with varying interests are more dominant than the need for protection and enhancement. The
legislation with the case study area is framed only in order to carry out projects which have
fewer advantages for the cultural heritage area. Furthermore, the cultural heritage area is set
as the means to gain the interest of the tourism business, while the community involvement
is ignored. Thus, by solving these challenges, the effectiveness of the legislation could be
raised at the same time gaining the benefit of the protection and enhancement of the heritage
site.
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4. Conclusion
Based on the discussion and analyses, it could be summarized that the protection and
enhancement of the vernacular architecture in the case study area of Palembang have several
approaches which have not accommodated the needs of each site and object. Moreover, the
programs do not prove the criteria as sustainability methods which accommodate the economy,
social and environment as the integrative elements. It is caused by some of the reasons in the
implementation. There is a strong relationship with the existing legislation, since local government
conducts the protection and enhancement of the vernacular architecture in heritage area based on
the legislation as its basic guide. In the process and supervision of the legislation implementation,
the regional government through the governor would have to ensure the coordination with the
related ministry and department.
The regulatory framework of Indonesian government provides the possibility or chance for the
local government in developing its regional legislation in all provinces/cities in Indonesia based on
their priority need under the law of regional autonomy. However, not all the provinces have their
own regional legislation in all sectors/issues. Regarding the protection and enhancement of the
vernacular objects and sites in the case study area of Palembang, there are two levels of legislation
applied, whereas for Palembang case, it is only based on the national legislation of the heritage
sites, in the absence of any regional legislation. The difference in levels of the legislation would
influence the implementation of the legislation. It is believed that the existing regional legislation
could help the area by applying more specific implementation through the programs based on the
local wisdom or values. The national legislation could be very limited for the specific area, since it
is the general guide for all areas in Indonesia. Hence, it could not be applied only to some specific
needs of the region, in this case Palembang city.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Bennett, A 2001, „Case study: Methods and Analysis‟, in International encyclopedia of the social and behavior science,
pp.1513-1519.
Chatterji, M 2001,„ Case study methods‟, Book reviews/evaluation and program planning, Vol. 24, pp. 363-373.
Gillham, B 2000, Case study research methods, London: Continuum International Publishing
Hosagrahar, J 2010, „Cultural heritage‟, in Hutchison, R (ed.), Encyclopedia of urban studies, p. 195
King G, Keohane R, Verba S 1994, Designing Social Inquiry. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Kohar 2011, Kampung Kapitan Memprihatinkan dan Terancam Musnah (Kapitan Village is worried and threatened
distinct), Infokito, viewed 10 September 2012, http://infokito.wordpress.com/2011/02/20/kampung-kapitanmemprihatinkan-dan-terancam-musnah/
Tanudirjo, Daud S 2012, UU Cagar Budaya belum Akomodasi Warisan Budaya (Cultural Heritage Law has not
accommodated
the
cultural
heritage),
Republika
Online,
Viewed
June
17
2012,
<
http://www.republika.co.id/berita/nasional/umum/12/07/17/m7ajr2-uu-cagar-budaya-belum-akomodasi-warisanbudaya>
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Water Technology and Management
Analysis of River Pollution Reduction by the
Implementation of Typical Wastewater Treatment Plant
(WWTP) Design, a Case Study of Ten Malls
in Surabaya City
Mohammad Razifa,b*, Soemarnob, Bagyo Yanuwiadib, Arief Rachmansyahb,
Prawira Fajarindra Belgiawanc
a
Department of Environmental Engineering Faculty of Civil Engineering and Planning Sepuluh Nopember Institute of
Technology, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia
b
Graduate School of Environment and Development Studies Brawijaya University, Malang 65145, Indonesia
c
Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto 615-8540, Japan
Abstract
The study aims to analyze how much the reduction of pollution of the river is gained by the implementation of a typical
wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) design for ten malls in Surabaya city. It has been obtained that the Surabaya River
pollution load is 65,496.69 kg/day BOD and is 170,077.89 kg/day COD. It is possible to implement a WWTP Anaerobic
Filters system for malls in which the design includes Equalization Tank, Septic Tank, and Anaerobic Filter. The
methodology of this study includes the data collection phase of waste water concentration, waste water flow rate, and the
calculation of WWTP dimensions. It has been obtained that the data flow rate of ten malls is in the range of 77.08 – 587.03
m3/day, and the waste water concentration is the range of 36 – 274 mg/l BOD and 59 – 472 mg/l COD. The design of typical
WWTP for ten malls in Surabaya city has resulted WWTP layout with the area ranging from 84 m2 to 450 m2 which later
can be implemented in a parking lot in the basement of every mall. The total removal of BOD 2556 kg/day BOD and 4074
kg/day COD will reduce the burden of rivers’ pollution in Surabaya if the design of typical WWTP design is implemented
for ten malls. Therefore, in order to increase the total removal, the further research and design for 24 other malls in Surabaya
city are required.
Keywords : anaerobic filter; BOD & COD; river pollution; Surabaya city; WWTP mall
1. Introduction
Surabaya city is located in East Java and the population is three millions. It now has 34 malls and
the number will keep increasing. The wastewater from these malls and other activities has polluted
the city river. One of the conclusions from Indonesia Environment Quality Index 2011 [1] stated
that river pollution is the main issue in every province in Indonesia. Therefore, the first
recommendation is that the environmental treatment activities should be prioritized on the river
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +62-816-540-1291.
E-mail address :[email protected]
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wastewater control, especially in Java Island. Pollution of river quality is a problem in many
countries, such as Brazil [2], Taiwan [3], Korea [4] and USA [5]. One of the causes of the pollution
of river quality in Surabaya city is the poor function of wastewater treatment plant caused by the
activities in the city including its malls and domestics.
Although the standard concentration of waste water quality is treated equally to the standard
domestic waste water quality, the flow rate of a mall is much bigger than the flow rate of individual
domestic. Thus, the load of mall pollution is also much bigger than the load of individual domestic
pollution. The construction of a mall requires the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study
documents, while the construction of a house does not require the EIA study documents. Hence, it
is important for every mall to prepare wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in order to avoid the
environment impact of river pollution. It is possible to prepare the typical WWTP design since the
malls are typically the same.
Typical WWTP design of malls is intended to help the Surabaya city government to control the
river pollution. From the literature review [6,7,8,9], we obtained typical wastewater treatment
process which is suitable for malls in Surabaya city, namely anaerobic filter. By using the criteria of
typical anaerobic filter design which is adjusted with the flow rate and the characteristic of
wastewater from the malls in Surabaya city, we can produce the calculation of the dimension of
WWTP and also the picture of the figure of the detail engineering design.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the amount of reduction of the pollution of the river that
can be obtained with the implementation of typical WWTP design for ten malls in Surabaya city.
The approach of WWTP design employs anaerobic filter system with the application of WWTP
design method for developing countries from Sasse [10].
2.1. River Pollution
According to Environmental Quality Index Indonesia 2011 [1], the provinces in Java island are
at the lower position among many provinces in Indonesia. They are Jakarta (41.31), Banten (49.98),
Central Java (49.92), West Java (50.90), and East Java (54.59). The lower the index (value), the
worse the quality of the environment. One of the conclusions of this study stated that the pollution
of the river is the most important environment problems in every province. Therefore, it is
recomended to prioritize the environmental management activities on river pollution control,
particularly in Java island.
The simulation using Qual2KW program for Surabaya River [11] resulted: the non-industrial
waste pollution load discharged into the river for BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) was
65,496.69 kg/day and for COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) was 170,077.89 kg/day. Surabaya
river is the downstream of the Brantas river in East Java, and Surabaya river itself branches into
Mas river and Wonokromo river. Almost all wastewater of Surabaya river flows into Mas river and
Wonokromo river.
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2.2. Equalization Tank Design
Equalization tank is needed in the WWTP mall due to the possibility of wastewater flow rate
fluctuation and concentration fluctuations which take places every hour during the operation of the
WWTP in 24 hours per day. Tcobanoglous et.al [12] have written the calculation method that can
be used to plan the equalization tank. Since the equalization tank requires mixing process, this
process is approximated by hydraulic mixing process by re-pumping the wastewater accommodated
in the equalization tank using a pump with two times the average flow rate, then the pumped flow
rate is divided by two. Half of the pumped flow rate is streamed to the WWTP plants (septic tank),
while half of the pumped flow rate is returned to the equalization tank which can serve as a mixer
to reach equalization from wastewater concentration.
2.3. Septic Tank Design
In Anaerobic Filter WWTP system, septic tank serves as a building to precipitate solid material
in order to avoid clogging in anaerobic filter medium. The duration for the waste to stay inside the
septic tank is generally shorter than in the household septic tank. If the household scale water from
this septic tank is poured into infiltration wells, this anaerobic filter system water will be poured
into anaerobic filter building. Some of the graphs have been used in calculation to design the septic
tank from Sasse [10] i.e: reduction of sludge volume during storage, COD removal in settlers, and
simplified curve of ratio of efficiency of BOD removal to COD removal.
2.4. Anaerobic Filter Design
Anaerobic filter processing in general uses filter material with medium of gravel or crushed
stone, plastic or other medium. The most recent and widely used material today is PVC material
composed in such a way to produce filter media in surface area for attachment of a very large
bacterial decomposition called honeycomb. The decomposition of organic substances inside
wastewater is done by anaerobic bacteria. These bacteria will decompose organic substance which
has not been composed in septic tank. Some of the graphs that have been used in calculation to
determine anaerobic filter dimension from Sasse [10], i.e: COD removal relative to temperature,
COD removal to wastewater strength, COD removal in relation to specific filter surface, COD
removal in relation to HRT (Hydraulic Retention Time).
3. Methodology
3.1. Data Collection of waste water quality
Wastewater quality data was obtained by conducting wastewater sampling at ten malls in
Surabaya and analyzing it in the laboratory. The initial stage of wastewater sampling was done at
the mall D every hour for 24 hours and analyzed for COD and BOD parameters. Hereafter, the
wastewater sampling was conducted at ten malls and analyzed in the laboratory by using the
necessary parameters in the design, COD, and BOD, based on standards methods [13].
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3.2. Data Collection of waste water quantity
The data of wastewater quantity was obtained from 70% of water usage from each of ten malls
in Surabaya. To obtain an average of water consumption, the water usage in each month, from
January 2013 to December 2013, was processed. The average of water usage per month was
converted into the average of daily usage (m3/day). Then, the results of water usage was multiplied
by 70% to obtain the quantity of wastewater in every mall every day in m3/day.
3.3. The calculation of WWTP dimensions
From the quality data of BOD & COD and wastewater flow rate from ten malls, we calculated
the dimension of WWTP for typical wastewater plant design by using the method from Sasse [10].
From the calculation of dimension of WWTP for ten malls, we did the detail engineering design
(DED) depiction from each of WWTP.
4. Results and Analysis
4.1. Flow rate and wastewater concentration
The results of the calculation of wastewater flow rate concentration for each mall can be seen in
Table 1.
Table 1. Flow rate and wastewater concentration of ten Malls
Mall
A
B
C
D
E
Flow rate
(m3/day)
BOD
(mg/l)
COD
(mg/l)
F
G
H
I
J
Total
122.63
114.28
122.63
126.35
181.84
214.94
235.65
355.41
528.22
587.03
2543.43
36
78
36
274
96
51
160
76
40
228
1117
59
124
59
472
154
83
253
122
64
320
1780
Generally, there will be fluctuations of wastewater concentration at each mall for every hour.
Consequently, in planning WWTP for a mall, it is necessary for a mall to plan equalization tank to
minimize the effect of these fluctuations on the operation of WWTP, though theoretically one of
the advantages of WWTP anaerobic filter is the ability to accept wastewater concentration
fluctuations. To see how much the deviation fluctuations is, we have performed sampling and
laboratory analysis of wastewater concentration every hour for 24 hours for the mall D and the
results are depicted in the chart as in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.
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Fig. 1. Control Chart BOD Mall D during 24 hours
Fig. 2. Control Chart COD Mall D during 24 hours
It can be seen from Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 that the deviation of wastewater concentration for BOD
and COD from the mean are still between the upper and lower bound of 3 Standard Deviation (SD)
measured over a period of 24 hours. Fig.1 and Fig.2 are also one of the considerations to design
equalization tank.
4.2. Dimension of plants
From the data in Table 1, by using design method from Sasse [10], the calculation of tank
dimension of equalization tank, septic tank, and anaerobic filter from ten malls in Surabaya City
has been conducted. The result is shown from Table 2 to Table 4.
Table 2 Dimension of Equalization tank (ET)
Mall
Flow
Height
Width
rate
Length
Surface
area
Free board
volume
Known
Chosen
Chosen
Chosen
Checked
Calculated
Checked
m3/day
m
m
m
m2
m
m3
A
77.08
2.7
2.70
5.40
14.6
0.36
38.54
B
114.28
2.7
3.25
6.50
21.1
0.30
57.14
C
122.63
2.7
3.40
6.80
23.1
0.35
61.31
D
126.35
2.7
3.50
7.00
24.5
0.42
63.18
E
181.84
2.7
4.25
8.50
36.1
0.48
90.92
F
214.94
2.7
4.50
9.00
40.5
0.35
107.47
G
235.65
3.75
4.00
8.00
32.0
0.32
117.83
H
355.41
3.7
4.90
9.80
48.0
0.30
177.71
I
528.22
4.7
5.30
10.60
56.2
0.30
264.11
J
587.03
4.7
5.60
11.20
62.7
0.32
293.51
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Table 3 Dimensions of septic tank (ST)
Mall length of first
length of second
chamber
chamber
Chosen
Chosen
m
m
A
2.60
1.30
B
3.20
1.60
C
3.40
1.70
D
3.50
1.75
E
4.00
2.00
F
4.50
2.25
G
4.00
2.00
H
4.80
2.40
I
5.00
2.50
J
5.60
2.80
Table 4 Dimensions of Anaerobic Filter (AF)
Mall volume of filter depth of filter
length of
tanks (V)
tanks (h)
each tank
calculated
chosen
calculated
m3
m
m
A
77.08
2.25
2.25
B
114.28
2.25
2.25
C
122.63
2.25
2.25
D
126.35
2.25
2.25
E
181.84
2.25
2.25
F
214.94
2.25
2.25
G
235.65
2.25
2.25
H
355.41
2.25
2.25
I
528.22
2.25
2.25
J
587.03
2.25
2.25
sludge
accumulation
Calculated
l/kg.BOD
0.0025
0.0025
0.0025
0.0025
0.0025
0.0025
0.0025
0.0025
0.0025
0.0025
number of
filter tanks
chosen
No.
4
4
4
4
5
5
6
6
9
9
actual volume
of ST
Calculated
m3
26.33
38.88
41.31
45.36
61.56
72.90
78.75
119.88
176.25
197.40
width of
filter tanks
required
m
3.45
5.12
5.50
5.66
6.52
7.71
7.04
10.62
10.52
11.69
space below
perforated slabs
chosen
m
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
filter
height
calculated
m
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
Dimensional equalization including the size, width, and length of the tank for ten malls has been
obtained and shown in Table 2. In addition, the dimensions of the septic tank can be seen in Table
3. The last, The anaerobic filter for the dimension calculation results can be seen in table 4.
4.3. Figures of plants
From the calculation in Table 2 to Table 4, the WWTP dimension calculation of ten malls has
been obtained. Then, the figure of plan and layout from each of WWTP can be performed in order
to obtain the detail figure in the form of DED from ten malls in Surabaya City. Although we have
mentioned before that in this study there are ten malls as the objects of the study, for brevity, we
only show one example. From Mall C, we obtained figure as follows (Fig.3 and Fig.4).
Fig. 3. Layout
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Fig. 4. (a) Part BB; (b) Part AA
If we see Fig.3 and Fig. 4, it looks that the design of the WWTP is too simple compared to
WWTP in general for industrial WWTP purpose or city scale WWTP. Surabaya city does not have
city scale WWTP, thus Surabaya city still applies onsite WWTP for each activity in the city.
Actually, this WWTP is much better than any common WWTP in Surabaya city which is currently
used by every household, office, and shopping centers. Wastewater effluent quality standard for
malls in Surabaya city is currently equal to the quality standards for domestic wastewater effluent
[14]. WWTP anaerobic filter has been successful in experiment in Jakarta Metropolitan City [15].
4.4. Discussion
The pictures of WWTP planning results for the ten malls have generated WWTP layout size of
each mall from the smallest to the largest as shown in Table 5.
Table 5 The flow rate and layout area of WWTP
A
B
C
Mall
3
Flow rate (m /day)
Layout area (m2)
77.08
84
114.28
116
122.63
126
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
126.35
130
181.84
172.5
214.94
195
235.65
205
355.41
295
528.22
417.5
587.03
450
The result of this calculation reveals that the implementation area required for WWTP of ten
malls is not too wide, so that it is possible to install WWTP under the parking lot in the basement of
each mall.
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Since WWTP anaerobic filter has removal ability of 90% [10, 16], the concentration of effluent
in teoretic will be 10% of the influent concentration which has been listed in Table 1. Thus, the
concentration of WWTP effluent teoritic of ten malls can be seen in Table 6.
Table 6. Effluent concentration WWTP of ten Malls
Mall :
BOD (mg/l) :
COD (mg/l) :
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
Total
7.8
12.9
7.8
12.4
3.6
5.9
27.4
47.2
9.6
15.4
5.1
8.3
16
25.3
7.6
12.2
4
6.4
22.8
32
111.7
178
As seen in Table 6, the calculation of effluent of ten malls is in accordance with the effluent
quality standards as regulated by the Governor of East Java No. 72 in 2013 [13], ie BOD = 30 mg/l
and COD = 50 mg/l. If the totals of Table 6 and Table 1 are compared, the operation of the WWTP
of ten malls will be able to produce a total removal of pollution load of waste water into the river
for BOD = (1117 - 111.7) mg/l = 1005.3 mg/l and COD = (1780 - 178) mg/l = 1602 mg/l. If the
pollution concentration is multiplied by the flow rate in Table 1, the pollution load for BOD is
1005.3 mg/l x 2543.43 m3/day = 2556 kg/day and COD is 1602 mg/l x 2543.43 m3/day = 4074
kg/day. When we compare the total pollution load of Surabaya river, the removal contribution of
BOD removal = 2556 / 65496.69 = 3.9% and the removal of COD = 4074 / 170,077.89 = 2.4%.
The result of pollution load removal in Surabaya river will be much better if the implementation is
not only in ten malls, but also in all malls in Surabaya (34 malls) so that all malls have wills to
apply the rule of Governor of East Java No. 72 in 2013 [13]. Thereby, further research is still
needed for the other 24 malls in order to fill Table 1 until Table 6 for all malls in Surabaya city.
5. Conclusion and future research
1. The result of typical WWTP design for ten malls in Surabaya city has produced layouts with
area ranging from the smallest implementation of WWTP 84 m2 to 450 m2 which allows the
largest WWTP implemented on a parking lot at every mall basement.
2. Total removal of BOD was 2556 kg/day and COD was 4074 kg/day. It will reduce Surabaya
river pollution if typical WWTP design is implemented for ten malls. In order to increase the
total removal, it requires further research and design for the other 24 malls in Surabaya city.
References
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Ministry of Environment of Indonesia. Indonesia Environment Quality Index 2011. http://www.menlh.go.id. ; 2012
Morihama, A.C.D., Amaro, C., Tominaga, E.N.S., Yazaki, R.F.O.L., Pereira, M.C.S., Porto, M.F.A., Mukas, P &Lucci,
R.M. Integrated solutions for urban runoff pollution control in Brazilian metropolitan regions. Water science and
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Elmitwalli, Tarek A., Oahn, Kim L. T., Zeeman, Grietje, & Lettinga, Gatze. Treatment of domestic sewage in a twostep anaerobic filter/anaerobic hybrid system at low temperature. Water Research, 36(9), 2225-2232. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(01)00438-9 ; 2002
Puñal, A., Trevisan, M., Rozzi, A., & Lema, J. M. Influence of C:N ratio on the start-up of up-flow anaerobic filter
reactors. Water Research, 34(9), 2614-2619. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(00)00161-5 ; 2000
o , or, er ov , ronislava, & Drtil, Miloslav. The use of upflow anaerobic filter and AnSBR for wastewater
treatment at ambient temperature. Water Research, 36(4), 1084-1088. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S00431354(01)00308-6 ; 2002
Sawajneh, Z., Al-Omari, A., & Halalsheh, M. Anaerobic treatment of strong sewage by a two stage system of AF and
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Sasse, L. Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries. Borda (Bremen Overseas Research and
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Tchobanoglous, G., Burton, F.L., Stensel, H.D. Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, Fourth Edition, Metcalf
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Geo-Disaster
Managing Lahar Susceptibility Area
(Case Study in Kali Putih, Magelang, Indonesia)
Rosalina Kumalawati a,*, R. Rijanta b, Junun Sartohadi b, Rimawan Pradiptyo c,
Seftiawan Samsu Rijal d
Abstract
Merapi eruption in 2010 with VEI 4 has caused three types of volcanic hazard; primary, secondary and
tertiary. Primary hazard is related with ashfall, pyroclastic surge, and lava flow. Secondary hazard occurs after
the disaster phase, due to another triggering factor like rain and will cause lahar flow. Tertiary hazard is a long
time impact of volcanic environment. Loss of spring is an example for this one. From those volcanic hazard
types, lahar becomes the most dangerous one because its impact takes place along the river channel. After
Merapi eruption in 2010, the most destructive lahar happened in Kali Putih, west flank of Merapi, as our
research area.
This aims of the study are: 1) to know the community perception in lahar susceptibility area, which could
inform us the psychology condition of inhabitant living in hazard area and 2) to do economics valuation related
lahar, especially its materials. It can build a new perspective that lahar is not only hazard but also resource due
to its materials that can be converted into a profit. To reach those aims, we build comprehensive methods,
geographical method and economics method. Geographical method relates with the determination of lahar
susceptibility area using the combination of remote sensing, GIS and geomorphological approach. The
interpretation of high resolution satellite imagery to define any building in research area, such as house, bridge,
henhouse affected by lahar, was used. GIS is used for modeling lahar zonation, while geomorphology assists to
know the direction of lahar flow. Economics method is very useful for lahar valuation. We conducted CVM
(Contingent Valuation Method) because it could estimate economic value of any commodity that are not
usually traded by market. Besides, this method could measure Willingness to Pay (WTP) and Willingness to
Accept (WTA) in a community by emphasizing the personal preference in the way to assess the public goods
with the value currency standard.
The result shows that research area could be divided into four criteria: safe zone, low susceptibility,
moderate susceptibility and high susceptibility. Lahar overflow is about 1.78 km2 in five villages: Gulon,
Jumoyo, Seloboro and Sirahan (in Salam Sub-district), and Blongkeng (in Ngluwar Sub-district). There are
4,124 buildings (houses) standing in high susceptibility zone. The individual behavior and perceptions about
lahar are positive although their correlation is so weak. It has been calculated lahar material (sand) costs IDR
462,434,733,686. while the total amount to build a new permanent house with 90 m2 is approximately IDR
90,000,000. It means that lahar from Merapi eruption in 2010 could build 5,138 houses. In this case, lahar has
not only hazard but also resource, depending on the management.
Keywords : lahar, Merapi, economic valuation, GIS
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +62 812 1580 082.
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1. Introduction
Indonesia is located in subduction zone with three major tectonic plates, Indo-Australia, Eurasia
and Pacific. This condition makes the country have a fertile soil and a lot of volcanoes, which 129
are active and around 10-15 are in potential condition to erupt1. One of the most active and most
observed volcanoes in Indonesia is Merapi2. It lies on 7° 32.5’ south latitude and 110° 26.5’ east
longitude, between Yogyakarta Special District and Central Java. In 2010, Merapi erupted with VEI
4, the greatest VEI since 1822 with 150 million m3 pyroclastic materials or 5 times greater than the
last eruption in 2006.
Material eruption clustered in the western flank of Merapi, and due to the rain as triggering
factor it became a lahar flow in Kali Putih and destructed several villages in Kali Putih channel 3 as
depicted in Figure 1. Lahar is a rapid mudflow mixture of rock debris and water (other than normal
streamflow) from a volcano8. This term comes from Javanese introduced by Scrivenor (1929) when
he was monitoring dynamic flow at Kelut Volcano, Indonesia. Then, Van Bemmelen in the 1949
tried to add the definition to make it more clearly8.
Fig 1. 3D visualization and some related photos taken post lahar occurrence in western flank of Merapi. (Courtesy
photo: boranan.blosgspot.com and Kumalawati’s collection)
Lahar has a huge power to destruct anything along its stream. More than 1000 houses along Kali
Putih were destructed and immobilized the main traffic-lane between Yogyakarta-Semarang for a
few days. Although there were no victims, lahar has swept out the farming land. Many inhabitants
lost their occupation and opportunity to earn the life. It makes them try to convert their activity
from farmer to miner. They try to mine the lahar debris such as sand, gravel and rock. In the
circumstances, lahar becomes controversial whether it has hazard or resource. When it comes it has
a massive power to destruct. Meanwhile, after it passes, it leaves an inheritance that has benefit
when it is sold to be sold.
Lahar has two sides of economics value, tangible and intangible. Tangible means that lahar can
be valuable whether it is consumed or not, for example the lahar utilization to build a residence.
Intangible means that lahar has no value. In fact, the community living in the western Merapi
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volcano thinks that lahar is only disaster and has no valuable thing to be used 4. This research
attempts to explore the valuable thing of lahar. The focus is to enrich the community knowledge
about lahar from another point of view.
2. Research Method
The aims of the research are to know the community perception in lahar susceptibility area and
to do the economic valuation of lahar. This chapter is divided into three parts, method to define
lahar susceptibility area, how to know the community perceptions and the economic valuation
equations. The explanation of research method is stated below.
2.1. Define lahar susceptibility area
There are four factors influencing the area susceptibility level, i.e. geographic situation, pattern
and distribution of element at risk, sensitivity and geomorphology 5. We build lahar hazard map by
GPS tracking, cross section using laser ace and contour interpolation. GPS tracking and cross
section measurement were done in the research area and contour interpolation perform with GIS
Software. Element at risk condition, especially the house, is interpreted from IKONOS imagery.
Figure 2 below describes the workflow to build lahar susceptibility area.
Fig 2. Workflow to define lahar susceptibility area
2.2. Measuring the community perception
The community perception in research area was measured using four points Likert scale, from 4
which means strongly agree, 3 which means agree, 2 which means disagree, and 1 which means
refuse to answer. The primary data were obtained by in-depth interview using questionnaire with
several stakeholders (village government, community and refugees). To validate the answer from
every correspondence, a Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was held in three sub-district nearly Kali
Putih channel, Srumbung, Salam and Ngluwar.
The questionnaire has three main parts, namely the general data of respondents, building data
and community perceptions. General data of respondents are used to explore the condition of
inhabitants in the research area. Some questions related to this points were the respondents’
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distribution in every susceptibility level, the respondents’ age, level of education, sex, marital
status, religion and occupation. We assume that those could influence the community perception.
Some questions ask about the building condition (its size and age) after disaster phase condition
and status. The size and age of building describe the element vulnerability risk of lahar. The wider
building the more amount of loss and the older the building the easier to damage. The community
perceptions relates to their living time, intention to move from the village after disaster, their
experience in lahar and how dangerous are lahar for them. Every question is asked in each
susceptibility level to compare the community knowledge and spatial distribution of it. More detail
information can be seen in Appendix 1.
2.3. The economic valuation
Economic valuation to assess lahar impact used etic and emic. Etic is an expert approach while
emic is local knowledge approach. We used Continent Valuation Method (CVM) to do this one.
CVM is a method to estimate economic value of any commodity that is not usually traded by
market. It could also measure Willingness to Pay (WTP) and Willingness to Accept (WTA) in a
community by emphasizing the personal preference in the way to assess the public goods with the
value currency standard. The measures were set into two susceptibility areas, high and medium
with per individual household as the respondent. The valuation is only for sand and physical
destruction of element at risk.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Lahar susceptibility area
Lahar materials consist of sand, clay, gravel and rock, flow streaming down from the highest to
the lowest contour value. The most widely lahar overflow happened in Jumoyo with 0.58 km 2 with
the total amount of lahar overflow was 1,78 km2. For the lahar stream, many rivers located in the
west flank of Merapi have the high level of lahar susceptibiliy (Kali Blongkeng, Kali Batang, Kali
Bebeng and Kali Putih). We decided that high susceptibility of lahar area located more less 0-50 m
from the river, the riverbank was low and the slope was flat or nearly flat. It could make the lahar
overflow due to its velocity and volume in which the body of the river could not accommodate it.
The moderate level of lahar has a distance between 50-100 m, and the low level is in between 101250 m. The safe zone is in outrange of the low level. However, we must pay attention on the
riverbank and slope condition. The lower condition the more danger the lahar.
Lahar susceptibility area makes 41,791 houses vulnerable. Sirahan has 1,546 houses located in
the high susceptibility area as the highest one in the research area. The number of destructed house
can also be found in Sirahan with 553 houses has the highest level of destruction. We divided the
destruction level of the house as the most affected lahar risk into five classes i.e. collapse, high
damage, medium damage, low damage and no damage. The building material, number of floor, and
distance from the river and lahar sediment were assessed to determine the damage criteria. Based
on our observation, there are only three types of building materials, namely brick/concrete brick,
wood and combination of both. Almost all buildings in the research area have only one floor and
they are located in between 0-250 m from the river. The houses located in the 0-100 m with 3 m
lahar sediment certainly collapsed. While buildings made from wood had the worst damage
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although the lahar sediment was 1 m. If the lahar sediment reaches 3 m, it will cause the heavy
damage.
The mapping of susceptibility area could make the settlement planning after the lahar effect will
be more accurate, as seen in figure 3. The settlement planning relates to another physical
development such as school, medical, road, bridge, etc. If we create it accurately we can adapt the
natural phenomena. Natural hazard cannot be avoided, but its impact can be reduced. Natural
activities such as volcano and earthquake could not be stopped and are nearly unpredictable, so that
human must be concerned with the sign of nature and try to live in harmony with nature.
3.2. The community perception
We propose several questions to analyze the community perception related lahar, i.e. general
information about respondents, their perception and distribution related lahar characteristic, and the
relationship between behavior and perception. The result shows community assumption that if the
lahar hazard is medium, they are not worried though can destroy the house. There is no different
invention in every susceptibility lahar hazard level, and the community are still considering that
lahar does not have either high or low risk (see figure 4).
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Fig 3. Lahar susceptibility in five most destructed villages. Color gradation indicates the susceptibility level, the darker the
more susceptible
3.3. Lahar as medium dangerous disaster
Generally, there is no difference perception for those living in different lahar susceptibility area.
They agreed that lahar has medium dangerous disaster (figure 4). This statement is in line with the
basic theory stated that people who once experience of having disaster could have more knowledge
about it”9,10 and they know how to react if it comes. The primary data shows that the respondents
are the native inhabitants who have been living there since 29 up to 58 years ago and 88.14%
among them have experienced of lahar before the 2010 eruption. Lahar is not dangerous disaster for
them. Meanwhile, the recent situation of Merapi eruption and its following hazard are totally
different3,11 from its last eruption in a decade. Lahar as its secondary hazard flowing through Kali
Putih with more than 50 times lahar occurrences3 has changed the 42.2 % of inhabitants’
perceptions that lahar is a very dangerous disaster, while 55.3% considers lahar as medium
dangerous disaster and 13% considers lahar as low dangerous disaster.
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a
b
c
d
Fig. 4. Pie diagrams show the answer percentage from the age of inhabitants living there (a); have they ever met lahar as
long as they live there (b); after the Merapi eruption in 2010, do they want to move to another safe place (c); and what is
their perception about lahar in their village (d)
As lahar is a medium dangerous disaster, they would not move from their village. All
respondents have the same choice not to move. They thought that lahar only occurs when Merapi
has eruption, and it just happens once every four to five years and if lahar comes for a few days,
they can move temporaryly to the refugee shelter then return to their village. Although their house
were fell apart, they can re-build it together or do ‘Gotong Royong” an Indonesian term for working
together to build or do something. There is also another reason that could make the community
refuse to move. They are afraid if they are in the new place, they have no suitable job or guarantee
of living similar to what they have before.
According to these condition, we suggest for those who are responsible to them must give a
socialization first about anything related to lahar or volcanic disaster. The socialization is needed to
make them more understand that they live within the lahar path. They need to be informed that
lahar has three main triggering factors i.e. rain-fall, eruption with rain-fall, and collapse of crater7,8.
Thus, lahar could happen not only in eruption phase but also in the rainy season. Second, if the
stakeholders want to relocate the inhabitant, they must make sure that in the new site, inhabitants
are guaranteed to get another activity that is similar or more than that they have in the last village.
The stakeholders have to bring proof that living in the new place makes the inhabitant
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happier/richer than before. If they still refuse to move from their old village, we must build some
spatial settlement allocation that does not lie on the lahar path, because the direction of lahar path
could be predicted, thus we can bring the settlement more safely.
3.4. The economic valuation
Sabo DAM (lahar controlled structure) in figure 5, could not retain lahar in the 2010 case. All of
Sabo DAM in Kali Putih stream was designed to hold up approximately 1.172.160 m3, whereas in
the last event, lahar volume was about 7,707,245 m3 or 600% bigger than estimation. It makes 17
Sabo DAM along Kali Putih shattered. To normalize the river condition fully dominated with lahar
material, the activity of lahar material mining should be made. People carry away lahars sand, rock
and gravel using several heavy equipment such as bulldozer, excavator and saver, then people sell
them to the another city around Central Java Province. These activities are not conducted by natural
inhabitant living there, but by people or company from another city that has a huge financial
capital. Natural inhabitants rarely work there, it implies that they could not get a benefit from lahar
material.
a
b
Fig 5. Latest condition of Sabo DAM in Jumoyo (a) and Srumbung (b) after lahar phase
Economic valuation of lahar plays a big role in this way. We must open the inhabitant and
government eyes that lahar could be converted into IDR if the management works well. From our
field of observation, sand material price is about IDR. 60,000 per m3 and if it is multiplied by the
total lahar volume in along Kali Putih as we stated above then the total amount is IDR.
462,434,733.
Building size in the research area is dominated with less than 193 m2 (appendix 1, question
number 8) in which we agree 90 m2 as our standard building size. So, we can convert the total
amount of lahar’s sand into the amount of house that could be build. Three different standard prices
are proposed, ministry of public works with IDR. 2, 441,700/m2, Central Bureau of Statistics (BPS)
and BAPPEDA6 with IDR. 1,300,000/m2, contractor with IDR. 1,250,000/m2, and community
standard price as IDR. 1,000,000/m2. We calculated using community standard price because it can
reflect natural condition of the community and it has minimum standard price for every type of
houses, i.e. permanent house, semi-permanent and non-permanent. By using IDR. 462,434,733,686
it could build 5,138 housing units. So, lahar in research area could become resource and make some
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profit for the community. Lowest disadvantages due to the collapse of risk element were
experienced by non-permanent house with IDR. 9,430,000 and the most disadvantage is permanent
houses, their collapse is equal to IDR 104,000,000.
Table 1. Standard price to build a 90 m2 house
Price standard
Ministry of public works
Contractor
BPS/BAPPEDA
Community
Per m2
2,441,700
1,250,000
1,300,000
1,000,000
90 m2
219,753,000
112,500,000
117,000,000
90,000,000
4. Conclusion
This study area could be divided into four criteria of susceptibility area, i.e. high susceptibility,
medium susceptibility, low susceptibility and safe zone. The main parameters to decide it were
riverbank condition and degree of slope. High susceptibility area covers four villages, three villages
in Salam Sub-district (Gulon, Jumoyo and Sirahan), also one village in Ngluwar Sub-district
(Blongkeng). Sirahan is the most destructed village due to lahar from Merapi in 2010.
There is only one perception of lahar from the community living in the different susceptibility
criteria, that is Medium (>50%). They do not think that lahar is the most deadly hazard due to
Merapi eruption. Several factors that could influence their mind are the period of disaster,
magnitude and livelihood issue. Different condition of susceptibility do effect their thought.
Collecting community perception is not an easy work. We need to build up enumerator capacity
because it represent us to face the respondents. The thinking level similarity between the researcher
and the enumerator about the questionnaire needs to be achieved, then expectable answers are likely
to be found. Enumerators must have a skill to explain what we want to obtain within this research
and they know how to deliver the question to the respondents. Some questions in the questionnaire
are maybe sensitive and it could disturb their privacy. So, preparing the enumerator becomes the
main agenda in this research type.
Sand material from lahar is equal to IDR. 462,733,686 if it is sold and this is same as the total
amount to build 5,138 housing units with every single unit has 90 m2 in size. Whereas, the number
of destructed houses due to lahar was ‘only’ 1,290 houses. The quantity of houses that can be build
using lahar material (sand) exceeds the destructed house; so based on this invention we can say that
lahar could be profitable for the community. We calculated the sand from lahar composition only.
There are still rock and gravel that have not been yet calculated. For those want to do the same
research, there is still a chance to do it with rock and gravel.
Acknowledgements
This paper is part of Rosalina Kumalawati’s dissertation. We are very thankful for those who are
in charge with it (family, assistant, colleague, etc.) and especially to our supervisor; Prof. Dr. R.
Rijanta, Prof. Dr. Junun Sartohadi, and Dr. Rimawan Pradiptyo who have successfully encourages
and guided us to finish this research.
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Appendix A. Percentage of respondent answer (n = 1021)
0
50
No.
100%
Answer (%)
Questions
Respondent data
1
Number of respondents in each level
of susceptibility
2
Age of respondents (years old)
3
Respondents level of education
4
Sex
5
Marital Status
6
Religion
7
Occupation
High
Medium
Low
Safe
40.4
13.6
42.2
3.8
15-34
35-54
55-75
>76
10.28
65.13
23.01
1.56
ES
JHS
SHS
Bachelor
44.66
20.37
26.64
8.32
Male
Female
82.27
17.72
Single
Widower
Widow
Married
1.66
1.76
8.52
88.05
Islam
Catholic
Christian
Hindu
98.04
0.58
1.07
0.29
Farmer
Laborer
Enterpreneurship
Others
29.18
27.32
20.76
22.72
Building data
8
9
10
Building size
Building age (years)
Building condition after lahar event
<193 m2
Ownership
>386 m2
4.6
1.37
94.02
< 10
10 - 19
20 -29
>30
25.17
40.74
Low
Damage
43.09
34.08
Medium
Damage
9.69
0
Heavy
Damage
8.71
No Damage
38.49
11
193 - 386 m2
Own
By Family
Rental
92.85
6.46
0.68
< 29 yrs
29 - 58 yrs
> 58 yrs
38.39
52.39
9.2
Community perception
12
How long have you been living
there?
13
Do you have a plan to move from
your village after this condition?
Yes
No
0
100
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14
Have you ever experienced the lahar
event?
15
Do you think that lahar is dangerous
disaster?
Yes
Never
88.14
11.85
Very
Dangerous
Medium Dangerous
Low
Dangerous
42.2
55.3
2.4
References
1. Sumintadiredja., P. Vulkanologi. Bandung: ITB; 2000.
2. Kusumadinata., K. Hadian., R. Hamidi., S. Reksowirogo., L.D. Data Dasar Gunungapi Indonesia. Bandung: Departemen
Pertambangan dan Energi; 1979.
3. De Bélizal, Edouard., Lavigne, Franck., Sri Hadmoko, Danang., Degeai, Jean-Philippe., Dipayana, Gilang Aria., Mutaqin,
Bachtiar Wahyu., Marfai, Muh Aris., Coquet, Marie., Le Mauff, Baptiste., Robin, Anne-Kyria., Vidal, Céline., Cholik, Noer.,
Aisyah, Nurnaning. Rain-Triggered Lahars Following the 2010 Eruption of Merapi Volcano, Indonesia: a Major Risk. Journal
of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 2013;261: 330-347.
4. Harini, R.. Kajian Spasial Lahan Pertanian Terkonversi Melalui Metode Valuasi Ekonomi di Kabupaten Sleman. Laporan
Penelitian. Yogyakarta: Universitas Gadjah Mada; 2009.
5. Bacharudin, R., and D. Wirakusumah., The Role of Geomophology in Volcanic Hazard Mitigation, Apllied in Indonesia,
Volcanological Survey of Indonesia, Paper in The Remote Sensing and Natural Disaster Symposium, Tsukuba, Japan: 1998.
6. BAPPEDA., Indek Harga Kabupaten. Magelang: BAPPEDA Kabupaten Magelang; 2010.
7. Lavigne, Franck. Lahar Hazard Micro-zonation and Risk Assessment in Yogyakarta City, Indonesia. GeoJournal 1999;49: 173 –
183.
8. Lavigne, Franck., Thouret, J.C., Voight, B., Suwa, H., Sumaryono, A. Lahars at Merapi Volcano: an Overview. Journal of
Volcanology and
Geothermal Research 2000;100: 423 – 456.
9. Ozdemir, O. Risk Management Decisions in Low Probability and High Loss Risk Situations: Experimental Evidence. Ankara:
Department of
Business Administration, Turkey; 2000.
10. Li, H, L., Hsiu, Y, H. Assessing the Demand Factors for Residential Earthquake Insurance in Taiwan: Empirical vidence on
Spatial
Econometrics. Contemporary Management Research 2007;3: 347 – 358.
11. Dipayana, G, A., Nugraha, H., Hadmoko, D, S., Wacano, D., Wahyu, A, D., Cahyaningtyas, F. Estimasi Perubahan Morfologi
Sungai Pasca
Erupsi: Aplikasi Data LIDAR dan DEM Processing di Kali Gendol. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Pendayagunaan Informasi
Geospatial
Untuk Optimalisasi Otonomi Daerah 2013; ISBN 978-979-636-152-6: 170 – 176.
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Risk Analysis of Mount Raung Eruption
in Jember Regency
Zetiawan Trisnoa*, Yunus Ariyantob, Irma Prasetyowatic
a,b,c
Public Health Faculty, University of Jember, Jl. Kalimantan 37 Jember, 68121, Indonesia
Abstract
Geologically, Indonesia is located at the confluence of three plates and is part of the ring of fire. This
condition makes Indonesia a catastrophic eruption-prone state. Volcanic eruption can lead to the mortality and
large losses. Mount Raung is an active volcano that is located in populated areas. Jember Regency is one of the
potential areas affected by the Mount Raung future eruption. In fact, it is found that there are drastic
morphological changes of caldera wall rocks on the west side that face Jember. Morphological changes are
demonstrated by the cracks on the caldera walls, landslides, weathering processes of caldera rocks formations
and blockage of lava flows in the domes near the western caldera wall. Risk analysis of the Mount Raung
eruption aims to analyze the risk level as the information on the disaster risk reduction. The research objects
comprise of three districts, including Sumberjambe, Ledokombo, and Silo Districts.
This research uses a descriptive approach based on the index analysis. Risk analysis research is based on the
analysis of the threat index, vulnerability index and capacity index. Finally, it develops disaster risk maps based
on the overlay techniques using the Geographical Information System (GIS) application.
The results of the three districts in Jember indicate that the threat level is at the moderate level, the
vulnerability level is high, and the capacity level is at the moderate level. Therefore, the risk level of the Mount
Raung eruption in Jember regency is high.
Conclusion: The risk level of the Mount Rang eruption in Jember is classified as the high risk. Thus, an attempt
is necessary to increase community preparedness and contingency plans immediately at the disaster-prone
areas.
Keywords : Mount Raung, Jember Regency and risk analysis
1. Introduction
Geologically, Indonesia is located at the confluence of three plates: the Pacific, Indo-Australian
and Eurasian Plates. Additionally, Indonesia lies on an active mountain range (ring of fire) which
stretches from Sabang to Merauke. This leads Indonesia to be a catastrophic eruption-prone state
[1]. Jember is one of potential areas affected by the Mount Raung future eruption. In recorded
history, the big eruption of the Mt Raung occurred at least five times. The devastating eruption
occurred in 1638 causing a massive landslide (debris avalanche) stretching as far as 60 kilometers.
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It struck Jember and caused thousands of deaths [2]. The Centre of Volcanology and Geological
Hazard Mitigation (PVMBG) has predicted that there are three affected areas of the Mt. Raung
future eruption, including Sumberjambe district, Ledokombo district and Silo district [3].
Based on the field surveys by Bardownsky (2013), drastic morphological changes of caldera wall
rocks that face Jember are found. Morphological changes are demonstrated by cracks on the caldera
walls (8 m wide and ± 400 m deep), landslides, weathering processes of caldera rocks formations,
and blockage of channel flows at the mouth of the lava domes. This invention causes the area under
the slopes of the Mount Raung to be potentially affected by the volcanic materials such as hot
clouds, lava flows, and toxic gases [4].
The impact of the Mount Raung eruption can cause various problems such as social, economic,
and environmental problems as well as the health problem and even death. Therefore, we should
increase the disaster preparedness for the Mount Raung eruption through the mitigation. Risk
analysis of the mount eruption is one of activities in the disaster mitigation based on the assessment
of threats, vulnerabilities and capacities [5]. Risk analysis of the Mount Raung eruption aims to
know the risk level of the Mount Raung eruption as the information on disaster risk reduction and
preventive action.
2.
Methods
The type of this research is a descriptive study. Furthermore, the assessment of each variable
uses analytical techniques. Risk analysis is based on the analyses of the threat index, vulnerability
index, and capacity index. The calculation is as follows:
Specification:
T : Threat index
V : Vulnerability index
R : Risk Index
X’I : Value of the standardized indicator
based on the Regulation
of the Head of BNPB No.02/2012
Wi : Weight of each indicator
The threat index is determined based on the status of Disaster-prone Areas/ Kawasan Rawan
Bencana (KRB) and the geologists’ assumption and the roar from the volcano observation. The
respondents for the status determination of KRB are three, comprising of the head of the Regional
Disaster Mitigation Agency of Jember, Geologists, and Head of the Jember Disaster Rescue
Organization. The KRB map of Mt Raung (2007) is used to find the susceptible areas based on the
eruption history. The assumption of the experts is used to determine and predict the threat level of
the susceptible areas. The vulnerability index is calculated based on the total vulnerability index
based on four indicators, including the physical, social, economic and environmental indicators,
while the capacity index is based on the health facilities index and health workers index. The
capacity index calculation uses the method of comparison and assessment of the needs of the health
standards by the government decree on the management of health resources in the volcano disaster
T: WT1X’T1 +……..+ WTnX’Tn
R: WR1X’R1 + ……..+ WRnX’Rn
V: WV1X’V1 + ……..+ WVnX’Vn
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management. The results of the analysis are developed in the form of disaster risk maps using
overlay techniques using the Geographical Information System (GIS) software application.
The data collected in this study are primary and secondary data. The primary data in this study
are obtained from the interviews with Geologists, BPBD of Jember (the Regional Disaster
Mitigation Agency of Jember) and observers of Mount Raung using a questionnaire. The secondary
data are taken from some sources: a) BPBD, such as the KRB Maps of Mount Raung (200), b) The
Central Bureau of Statistics, such as the residential density, the number of critical facilities (health
centre, hospitals, Polindes (Pondok Bersalin Desa/ a village birth facility) and Electricity
Networks), Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP), productive land areas (rice, corn and soy),
and forest types, c) Agency of Society Empowerment, such as the number of vulnerable groups (old
men, under-five children, pregnant women, poor family, disabled people) and the population
density, d) the District Office, such as the number of public facilities (schools, houses of worship,
office buildings) and population density data, and e) the Jember Department of Health Service, such
as health facilities and health workers in the Mount Raung management.
The analysis steps include scoring the data, determining the weighting factors, and making
the index calculation. The index variables are calculated using general guidelines for disaster risk
assessment based on the regulation set by the Head of BNPB (the National Disaster Mitigation
Agency) No.02 Year 2012 [5]. The formula is used to determine the susceptibility classification of
interval classes [(highest vulnerability index value - low vulnerability index value) / number of
classes] and the risk analysis formula used in this study is Risk: Threat x Vulnerability / Capacity [6]
3. Result
3.1 Threat Assessment
The threat derives from the volcanic endogenous rock forms (solid, liquid, and gas) which may
threaten and tend to cause damage, losses and victims. Based the KRB map of Mount Raung, there
are three districts in Jember that are directly adjacent to Mount Raung and have ever been affected
by the impact of Mount Raung eruption in the past, including Sumberjambe District, Ledokombo
District and Silo District.
a) Threat Index
The regulation of BNPB (2012) states that the eruption threat index is based on the KRB status
of each disaster-prone area. Threat distribution based on the KRB status of Mount Raung eruption
based on the experts’ assumption can be seen in the following table.
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Table 1. Eruption Hazards Index Raung in Jember
Districts
Status of KRB
Weight
(%)
II
II
II
100
Sumberjambe
Ledokombo
Silo
Threat
Index
0.67
0.67
0.67
Specification
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Based on the table 1 above, the KRB status of the three districts is at status II, and it is known
that the threat index on each district has the same value which is 0.67 at the moderate level.
3.2 Vulnerability Assessment
Vulnerability of the disaster-prone areas is identified through four indicators, including the social
vulnerability, physical vulnerability, economic vulnerability and environmental vulnerability. The
physical vulnerability and economic vulnerability are converted from Indonesian Rupiah (IDR) to
United States Dollar (USD). The conversion reference is BAPPENAS (the National Development
Planning Agency) (2008) about disaster damage and loss assessment [7].
Based on the data, the total amount of the conversion of the houses in the three districts is high
as it is greater than 66,666 USD. The amount of the public facilities conversion is high or greater
than 83,333 USD and critical facilities shows the high value as it is greater than 83,333 USD. The
economic vulnerability level of the highest Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) is
977,778,314 IDR or 81,481 USD. When compared with the BNPB regulation (2012), GDRP of each
district is classified as high or greater than 25,000 USD. The highest land productivity level based
on the production type and land area is owned by Silo District. The amount of rice produced is as
much as 21,111.8 tons with the vast amount of land of 3,985 ha. The lowest land productivity is in
Ledokombo District with 7,411 ha of land that can only produce 10,426 tons of rice and with 1,630
ha of land that can produce 7,571.7 tons of corn. Based on the results of the calculation of the
economic loss of productive land area compared to the BNPB regulation (2012), the productive land
areas of Sumberjambe and Silo are 4,916 USD and 13,833 USD classified as moderate (4,166 –
16,666 USD), while Ledokombo district shows the total of 1,666 USD classified as low (< 4,166
USD).
In the social vulnerability, Sumberjambe District has the highest population density with 495.5
people / km2. Meanwhile, Silo District has the lowest population density compared to the others
with 349.71 people / km2. In addition, the highest percentage of the vulnerable group at
Sumberjambe District is 71.3%. Based on the regulation of the head of BNPB (2012), the percentage
of vulnerable population at the threatened area is high (> 40% of the total population).
Based on the environment vulnerability, it is known that Ledokombo District has the largest
forest area of the other districts, including 7,600 ha of protected forest, 3,594 ha of productive forest
and 182.2 ha of natural forest. Silo District has forest complexity consisting of 3,292.02 ha of
protected forest, 979.7 ha of productive forest, 135 ha of forest and wild life nature reserves, and 12
ha of forest conservation. Based on BNPB (2012), the protected forest and productive forest areas at
the disaster-prone areas are large (> 50 ha of protected forest areas and > 30 ha/ area).
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The vulnerability index of the Mount Raung eruption in the districts is based on the physical
vulnerability, economic vulnerability, social vulnerability, and environmental vulnerability. The
class intervals of disaster vulnerability of Mount Raung use three class divisions: low, medium and
high. The classification of vulnerability indices consists of low (0.33 - 0.51), medium (0.52 - 0.70),
and high (0.71 - 0.89). Distribution of the vulnerability index of the Mount Raung eruption in
Jember can be seen as follows.
Table 2. Distribution of Vulnerability Index of the Mount Raung Eruption
Based on the table 3 above, it can be seen that the vulnerability indices of the Mount Raung
eruption in Sumberjambe, Ledokombo and Silo are high. It can be concluded that the Mt Raung
future eruption can cause large losses and high mortality rates.
3.3 Capacity Assessment
Health resources have an important role in the disaster management. Health resource
determination is one indicator of the level of capacity in the efforts of the disaster risk reduction.
The measurement of the capacity in the disaster management is based on human resources of the
health and health facilities that have been prepared before the disaster. Overall, the health resource
management is prepared as the efforts to mitigate the disaster of Mt Raung as listed in contingency
plans for the disasters. The Regional Disaster Mitigation Agency is responsible for making
contingency plans by involving cooperation of cross-sectors.
The management of health facilities has been still done internally by the Jember Department of
Health. Health facilities that are prepared in the disaster management efforts in Jember include four
health centers (Sumberjambe, Ledokombo, Silo I and Silo II) and two hospitals (RSUD Soebandi
and RS Kalisat) [8]. It is known that the health facilities for the preparedness of the pre-disaster
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mitigation are good. The total population of 241,425 people at the disaster-prone area is threatened.
Referring to the Depkes/ the Health Department (2001), the health facilities that have been prepared
for the Mount Raung eruption using the comparison with the total population of the disaster-prone
area are sufficient [9]
In this study, the researchers classify the level of the capacity of health facilities into three
classes: low, medium and high. Low capacity indicates that there is no plan or health facility in the
disaster management. The moderate capacity means that the management of health facilities has
been made and meets the minimum standards of the disaster management, but there is an absence of
a written approval legitimated by Regents and of the contingency plans. The high capacity is shown
if the system of the health facility management meets the standard provisions in the disaster
management, and the contingency plan has been arranged and inaugurated by the Regent. However,
the management of health facilities in the Mount Raung disaster is still internally done by the
Department of Health of Jember and there is no formal approval/ agreement by the Regent, so the
capacity index based on the health facilities is moderate.
Measurement of the capacity based on the health workers uses value scores for each type of
health workers that are compared to the standard of health workers by Depkes (2001). The Value of
1 is given if the number of prepared health workers is the same or more than the specified number of
health workers, while 0 is given if there is no health workers or the number is less than the number
in the provision. The capacity index based on the health workers in the Mount Raung future eruption
can be seen as follows.
Table 3. Capacity Index Based on the Health Workers related to the Disaster of the Mt Raung Eruption in Jember
Health Workers
Number
Scoring Percentage of Population
(%)
1.
Rapid Action Force
a. Medical Facilities
1) General Practitioners
2) Surgeons
3) Physician Specialists in Anesthesia
4) Advanced Nurses
(surgical and
emergency nurses)
5) Disaster Victim Identification ( DVI)
6) Pharmacists / assistant pharmacists
7) Ambulance driver
b. Expert surveillance epidemiologist /
sanitarian
c. Communications Officer
2. Team of Rapid Health Assessment (RHA)
a. General Practitioners
b. Epidemiologists
c. Sanitarian
3. Medical Assistance Team
10
5
5
3
1
1
1
1
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.41
0
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0.41
0
0
13
1
0.41
13
0
1
1
0
1
0.41
0
0.41
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Based on the table 4, the result of the analysis shows that the population percentage presented by
health personnel is 5.38%. The total capacity level is determined through the calculation from grade
intervals based on the indices of health facilities and health workers. The components in the total
capacity index consist of 60% of health facilities and 40% of health workers. The total index
capacity of the Mount Raung eruption in Jember is 0.35 or the capacity level is moderate.
3.4 Risk Analysis of the Mount Raung Eruption
The risk analysis of the eruption of Mt Raung using variable index values consists of threat (T),
vulnerability (V) and capacity (C). The formula of risk analysis is “R = T * V / C” [6]. Risk
classification of the Mount Raung eruption includes Low Risk: 0.64 - 0.99, Medium Risk: 1.00 1.35, and High Risk: 1.36 - 1.71. The risk of the Mount Raung eruption in Jember can be seen as
follows:
Table 4. Risk Distribution of the Mount Raung Eruption in Jember
Districts
Threat
(T)
Vulnerability
(V)
Capacity
(C)
Risk
(R)
Class
Sumberjambe
Ledokombo
Silo
0.67
0.67
0.67
0.75
0.77
0.73
0.35
0.35
0.35
1.43
1.47
1.39
High
High
High
Based on the table 5, the risk of each district prone to the Mount Raung eruption in Jember
(Sumberjambe, Ledokombo and Silo) is categorized into the high-risk level. A high-risk area is an
area that has close distance to the eruption source. The risk map of the Mount Raung eruption in
Jember can be seen in the following figure.
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Figure 1. The Disaster Risk Map of the Mount Raung Eruption in Jember
4.
Discussion
The risk analysis of the Mt Raung eruption is based on the indices of three indicators including
the threat, vulnerability and capacity. The result shows that the threat index of each district has the
same value of 0.67 at the moderate level. The KRB status of the three districts belongs to the KRB
II. The area belonging to the KRB II is an area that is potentially affected by the hot clouds, lava
flows, rock (incandescent), heavy ash rain, hot mud, and toxic gases [1,2].
The vulnerability index is the result of the total calculation of four components: physical,
economic, social and environmental. Based on the analysis of the vulnerability, it is known that the
three districts (Sumberjambe, Ledokombo and Silo) have high vulnerability. If the level of the
economic vulnerability of a threatened area is higher, the loss will be greater [10]. The impact of
lava flood and ash can cause damage and economical loss at the agricultural sector. Physical
damage of the agricultural and industrial sectors decreases the productivity and the loss affects the
GRDP of the region [11].
Similarly, the eruption of another volcano, the Mount Raung future eruption may result in
economical damage caused by eruption materials. According to CARRI (2008), volcanoes will
spew out water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrochloric acid (HCl),
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hydrofluoric acid (HF), and volcanic ash into the atmosphere. The volcanic ash and pyroclastic
flows that are spewed into water, air and land can kill plants [12]. The social vulnerability indices
of the Mount Raung eruption in Sumberjambe, Ledokombo and Silo are high. It can be predicted
that the Mt Raung future eruption can cause a large number of losses and high mortality rates.
Daryono (2011) said that one of the effects of the volcanic eruption is that the volcanic materials
and lava flood will cause damage and losses of people's homes [10]. Catastrophic losses of
volcanoes include the cost used to repair and rebuild homes and agricultural land. The high
vulnerable population will affect the high mortality rates. In addition, the high density of the
vulnerable group influences the evacuation process and rescue process. The high number of
vulnerable groups will make the evacuation process become difficult and take more time. Losses
can be from homes or buildings that are damaged or destroyed because of the volcanic materials,
deforestation and destruction of the agricultural sectors. The high mortality rates are caused by the
high vulnerable group’s rate at the threatened area. Therefore, the areas with the high degree of
vulnerability must have extra control and supervision, and increase the preparedness in order to
reduce the losses and large number of deaths. According to Coburn (1994), forests serve as natural
vegetation [13]. Natural vegetation is an indicator of the response and disaster prevention in
disasters, especially volcanoes. The large forest areas will reduce the level of social vulnerability or
the exposure to the eruption materials. Dense natural vegetation will be able to hold and slow the
rate of lava flows and volcanic materials of the eruptions. However, the negative impact is that the
large forest area will certainly increase the chances of the damage of the woods. Deforestation
needs the forest reclamation efforts that require funds and great improvement.
The ash of the volcanic eruption has high potential to cause health problems. Volcanic ash
contains chemical compounds that are highly toxic and carcinogenic chemicals such as carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide. The clinical manifestations can cause respiratory
tract infections, asthma, conjunctivitis, skin irritation, allergic rhinitis and cancer [14, 15]. The
management of health facilities in the Mount Raung disaster is still done internally by the
Department of Health of Jember and there is no formal approval/ agreement by the Regent, so the
capacity index based on the health facilities is still imperfect. Moreover, the intermediate level of
the capacity indicates the handling of victims after the future eruption of Mt Raung is less. Thus,
prevention and preparedness programs through the sector of health resources must be increased,
such as the addition of health personnel or the training for health workers.
The result of the risk analysis shows that the risk of each district prone to the Mount Raung
eruption in Jember (Sumberjambe, Ledokombo and Silo) is at high-risk level. The high-risk area is
an area that has close distance to the eruption source. Therefore, the area has high possibility to be
affected by the volcanic materials, it is difficult for human beings to save themselves, and the
possibility to be affected is very high [1]. Therefore, the Mount Raung eruption in Jember at shortterm and long-term periods can result in a large number of deaths and property losses.
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5.
Conclusion and Recommendation
The risk level of the Mount Raung eruption in Jember can be classified at the high risk. The
eruption of Mount Raung in the future is predicted to cause damage, losses and even large number
of death. Thus, the government of Jember should increase community preparedness, make
contingency plans and evacuation ways immediately, and do the rescuing simulation at the disasterprone areas.
Acknowledgements
Authors realize that this study preparation could not be separated from the help and support
from the various parties. Therefore, authors would like to express their gratitude and appreciation to
our parents, RGR Team, Camat/ the Heads of Sumberjambe, Ledokombo and Silo Districts,
Stevanus Bardowsky, the Head of Dinkes of Jember and all the parties that we could not mention
one by one.
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Management. International Journal.Columbia, South Carolina; 2008
Coburn A.W. Modul Mitigasi Bencana. Program Pelatihan Manajemen Bencana. Edisi Kedua. UNDP; 1994
Horwell, Claire.J. The Respiratory Health Hazards of Volcanic Ash; a Review for Volcanic Risk Mitigation.
International Health Article. Department of Earth Sciences: University of Cambridge; 2005
Elliot.A.J, et al. Syndromic Surveilans to Assess the Potential Public Health Impact of the Icelandic Volcanic Ash
Plume across the United Kingdom, April 2010. Journal International .www.eurosurveilance.
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Disaster Preparedness, Management and Recovery
Disaster Preparedness at the Public Health Center
(a Case Study at PHC Sumberjambe
in the Regency of Jember)
Irma Prasetyowati*
Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Population, Faculty of Public Health, Jember University,Kalimantan 37,
Jember 68121, Indonesia
Abstract
Preparedness is a series of activities undertaken by an organization to anticipate disasters
through appropriate measurements effectively and efficiently. Mount Raung is one of the active
stratovolcanoes. It, geographically, is situated in the territory of Situbondo, Bondowoso, Jember
and Banyuwangi, East Java. Sumberjambe is one of the districts in Jember regency. It is vulnerable
to the activities of Mt Raung that is still active. The purpose of this research was to study the
disaster preparedness at the Health Center of Sumberjambe, and save community’s activities and
constraints that occurred in the disaster management. This type of research was a quantitative study
with descriptively observational study design that was conducted at the Sumberjambe health center
for four months. The research subjects were the Head and the staffs of the public health center
handling the disaster preparedness. The results showed that the disaster occurring in the
Sumberjambe District in the last five years was the volcanic ash rain of Mt Raung (February-May
2013). There were three villages that suffered the effects of the ash rain, including Gunung Malang,
Rowosari, and Jambearum. The type of diseases that arose after the disaster was Acute Respiratory
Infection (ARI). The logistics in the public health center were available mostly for respiratory
diseases and skin diseases. The Sumberjambe public health center did not provide any specifically
logistic emergency supplies. Overall, the health care for the disaster preparedness was quite
complete because there were an emergency team and a hazard map. However, it did not have
emergency tents and funds for the disaster. The preparedness for the environmental health was still
not optimal. Save community’s activities in the disaster management were implemented, but there
were still some obstacles. The advice given was that the disaster preparedness conducted by the
public health center should be done intensively, gradually and sustainably in order to handle the
disaster properly.
Keywords : disaster preparedness, PHC
* Corresponding author. Tel.:+6281-330-403-092; fax:+68331-322-995
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1. Introduction
Disasters are events that threaten and disturb lives and livelihoods caused by both natural and
non-natural factors and human factors that lead to cause human fatalities, environmental damage,
loss of property and psychological impacts [1]. A disaster brings temporary changes to a
community. People think about problems they normally do not consider—the risks they face from
hazards, the quality of local housing, ways in which the community can be better planned and
constructed, the local scenic and other natural resources, livability. At the same time, public
officials have the media attention that enables them to garner support for innovative ideas. A
disaster forces a community to make a seemingly endless series of decisions—some are large, some
are small, some are easy, and some are quite difficult. Technical and expert advice becomes
available from public and private sources. Financial assistance flows into the community, enabling
it to tackle more ambitious projects than will normally be the case [2].
Sustainable practices (and the awareness of the principles of sustainability) introduced during
preparedness can be institutionalized within the community’s decision-making, budgeting, and
planning processes to ensure that they endure over time. Ideally, a community will develop
indicators and a schedule for monitoring and tracking change and needed improvements. Such
institutionalization will help build awareness of the many aspects of sustainability as local
residents, public officials, city staff, and businesses come and go. The heightened awareness will in
turn nurture an acceptance of sustainable practices as a local, public value and a way of life [2].
A paradigm changes from disaster management into reducing disaster risk. It means that
currently the implementation of disaster management is more focused on the pre-disaster step than
the emergency response step [3]. Preparedness is a series of activities undertaken by the
organization to anticipate disasters through the proper steps effectively and efficiently (training,
rehearsal, infrastructure preparation, human resources, logistics and finance).
Fig 1. Disaster Management Cycle
(source:: emeraldinsight.com)
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Based on the picture, the cycle shows the disaster management activity which is conducted
through three stages: the pre-disaster, during disaster, and post disaster. Pre-disaster activities
include preventions, mitigations (softening/ taming the effects), and preparedness. At the time of
disaster, as the disaster takes place, emergency response activities, recovery and reconstruction
activities are conducted. Preparedness is an effort that is focused on a developing plan to undergo
the disasters [5].
Mt Raung is one of the active stratovolcanoes with a truncated conical form of lava and
pyroclastic products. Administratively, Mt Raung is located in Situbondo, Bondowoso, Jember and
Banyuwangi, East Java. According to the record, a big eruption of this mount occurred at least five
times in 1586, 1597, 1638, 1953 and 1956. The devastating eruption occurred in 1638 with a
massive landslide (debris avalanche) stretching as far as 60 kilometers. It destroyed Jember and
killed thousands of people [4].
Geographically, Sumberjambe is a plateau at an altitude of 446 meters up to 625 meters above
the sea level and is located 35 km north of the city which lies in Jember between 08.06595 (SL) and
113.89885 (EL). Sumberjambe is a disaster-prone area because it is located near Mt. Raung. The
disaster occurring in Sumberjambe in the last 5 years was the volcanic ash rain of Mt Raung
(October 2013), which caused many people to suffer from the respiratory infection.
Preparedness is important to ensure that the action that is going to be taken immediately after
the disaster occurs is the fast, precise, and effective one. The purpose of the research was to study
about the preparedness of the disaster management at the public health center in Sumberjambe,
Jember.
2.
Methodology
This was a quantitative study with a descriptively observational design. This research was
conducted at the public health center in Sumberjambe Jember for 4 months. The subjects of the
research consisted of the head and two staffs of the public health center who handled the disaster
preparedness in this place. The techniques of data collection used were checklist and questionnaire.
The data used were primary data and secondary data. The primary data were obtained through
interviews with the head of the public health center of Sumberjambe and the staffs who handled the
disaster preparedness. It consisted of the disasters that had ever occurred in the last 5 years, the
village/rural areas where disasters might possibly happen, the condition of the logistics in the public
health center, the disaster preparedness for the health services, the disaster management
preparedness for the healthy environment, the preparedness for surveillance, and the
recommendation making for the health prevention. In addition, it was supported by the secondary
data dealing with the data referred to the study. The data obtained were grouped in a table, and then
analyzed by using a descriptive analysis to determine the frequency distribution. It was used to
analyze the save community and the obstacles to the disaster preparedness at the public health
center of Sumberjambe.
3. Result
The public health center of Sumberjambe is located in the disaster-prone area affected by the
eruption of Mt Raung, so the preparedness is necessary to undertake in order to reduce the risks of
the volcanic eruption.
3.1 The Disasters Occurring in the Last 5Years
The disasters that occurred in Sumberjambe in the last five years, precisely in February to May
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2013, were the ash of the Mt Raung, cyclones, eruptions and landslides. The type of diseases that
arose after the natural disaster in form of the ash was the Respiratory Infection. There were three
villages that suffered the impact of the volcanic ash such as Gunung Malang, Rowosari, and
Jambearum.
Each disaster-prone village had risky population that was easy to get affected by the disease
because of the disaster. The populations at risk included babies, infants, pregnant women, and the
elderly. The number of the population at risk in each village can be seen in Table 1.
Table 1. Number of Risky Population at Disaster-Prone Villages
Risky Population
Names of the Disaster-Prone Villages
Gunung Malang
Rowosari
Total Population
7.994
5.006
The Number of Household
2.684
1.905
The Number of Infants
128
238
The Number of Toddlers
492
88
The Number of Children
830
675
The Number of Pregnant
131
40
Women
The Number of Elderly
826
430
The number of
8
7
malnourished children
The number of homes
2.031
1.800
UCI Village
UCI
Non UCI
Source: Primary data 2014
Jambearum
8.668
3.111
1089
581
1.425
UCI
According to the Table 1, the large number of risky populations was in Gunung Malang
village. The largest population was the village of Jambearum. Rowosari was one of the villages
included in non-UCI village. According to the Health Minister Decree No. 828 of 2008, the Village
of Universal Child Immunization (UCI) is a village in which the total number of infants who have
received primary series completely in a year is greater than or equal to 80%.
The kinds of diseases and the number of the people suffering them in three disaster-prone
villages in one year can be seen in Table 2.
Table 2. Number of Illnesses and Sufferers Last Year
Name of diseases
Name of Disaster prone
villages
Gunung Malang
Diarrhea
18
Dengue
ARI (Acute
156
Respiratory Infection)
Skin disease
18
Eye disease
Malaria
4
Hepatitis
3
Typhoid
4
Measles
2
Others
Rowosari
85
130
Jambe Arum
125
140
14
6
2
1
3
1
-
24
10
2
6
6
Diphtheria: 14
Based on the Table 2, the disease that was mostly suffered was Respiratory Infection,
indicating 156 people as the highest number of the people who lived in Gunung Malang. Last year,
there was an outbreak of diphtheria suffered by 14 people in Jambearum.
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3.2 Disaster Preparedness for Health Services Department, Environmental Health, and Logistics
According to the analysis of data obtained from both the public health center and the
interviews, the following table shows the data:
Table 3. Preparedness in Health Service Department, Environmental Health and Logistics
Variables
Facilities and Infrastructure
1. The public health center has an Emergency Room (ER)
2. Emergency Room details
ER is available for 24 hours with care service
ER is available for 24 hours with health care on call
ER is only available on working hours
3. Ambulance (completed with equipments and drugs)
4. Fast Coomunication devices
5. PHC has tents
6. PHC has an identity of preparedness team
( uniforms, banners, flags)
7. Standard ER equipments
Human Resource (HR)
1. Total number of doctors in PHC
2. Trained Doctors
3. The number of paramedics
4. Trained nurses
5. Trained driver
6. Other trained workers (PHC)
7. Some people were trained HP
8. Any emergency team
Management
1. PHC has a guide for Emergency Medical Service
2. PHC has a system with related cross-sector networking
3. PHC has an early warning system in keeping with the specifications of the local
susceptibility
4. PHC has a hazard map
5. PHC has a disaster fund
Outer Aspects
1. PHC has socialized the society about the possibility of disasters
2. PHC has implemented the disaster managements (pre-disaster, during disaster, and
post-disaster)
Environmental Health
1. Is there any place for refugees (in PHC) if the disaster occurs?
2. Are there any sources of clean water that can be used if the disaster happens?
Logistics
1. Is there any specific medicine for disaster preparedness?
2. Is there any tent for disaster preparedness?
Yes/No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
2
2
16
14
1
4
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Based on the Table 3, the preparedness of the disaster management in the department of health
care was done by making an emergency team and creating a hazard map. Mapping was useful for
anticipation and evacuation as the disaster occurred. The public health center did not have any
emergency tents and funds for the disaster management just in case the disaster might occur in
Sumberjambe. The hazard map of the Sumberjambe public health center can be seen on Figure 2,
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as follows:
Fig 2. Map of Prone Volcanic Disaster of Mt Raung Tahun 2014
Figure 2 shows that the villages, which were prone to the impacts of the eruption of Mt Raung,
were Gunung Malang, Rowosari, and Jambearum.
The preparedness of the disaster management in the department of environmental health,
especially the resources, was still not optimal. The problem of the spreading diseases caused by
environmental sanitation in the disaster areas might occur. The effort which could be done by the
public health center was ensuring the adequate amount of safe drinking water, the adequacy of
basic sanitation facilities, the disposal of excreta, liquid waste and solid waste, and the sufficient
shelters. From the logistic data above, the large number of logistics was for respiratory diseases and
skin diseases. The public health center of Sumberjambe did not provide specific logistic supply for
the disaster, but it only provided the supplies related to the program. It did not provide additional
food logistics for infants and toddlers because it had been supplied by BPBD (The Regional
Disaster Mitigation Agency). The logistics were placed in the disaster camp of the local district.
3.3 The Activities of Save Community
Save community’s activities that had been carried out in the disaster preparedness by the public
health center were coordination meetings done by the district team and BPBD of Jember, a strong
village (Desa Tangguh), collecting resources such as the number of vehicles, and establishing a
monitoring office as the main service. The establishment of a strong village (Desa Tangguh) was
done in three villages affected by the disaster through a disaster simulation exercise in collaboration
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with BPBD and Koramil (The sub-district military compound). In addition, socialization to the
society was done to provide information as early as possible so that they could anticipate the impact
of it. The main monitoring service post was conducted by the Koramil of Sumberjambe. If the
people were in danger, the society could immediately report.
This activity was also supported with the temporary shelters, evacuation routes and shelters.
The temporary shelters in Sumberjambe can be seen in Table 4.
Table 4. The Temporary Locations
Locations
Capacity (people)
Jambearum
8.000
1. Village
hall
of
Pringgondani
2. Pringgondani State Junior
High School
3. State Elementary School
04 Sumberjambe
4. Sumberjambe Field
Rowosari
4.500
1. Mosque of Baitul Inayah
2. Village office of
Sumberjambe
02 Sumberjambe
4.State Elementary School 03
Sumberjambe
Gunung Malang
9.400
1. Village Office of
Cumedak
01 Gunung Malang
02 Cumedak
4. Gunung Malang Field
5. Cumedak Field
Water Sources
Water
Company
Latrines
Yes
Public kitchen
Yes
Water
Company
Yes
Yes
Water
Company
Yes
Yes
The table 4 above shows that the three disaster-prone villages had temporary shelters located in
the village center, schools (elementary and junior high schools), fields, warehouse, mosques and
village offices. The shelters have been equipped with a good water source, latrines, and a public
kitchen that could help the victims fulfill their daily needs. There were evacuation routes on the
three locations, which were shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Evacuation routes
Locations
Evacuation Routes
Jambearum
1. Pringgondani
village
office
2. Pringgondani
State
Junior High School
3. Warehouse owned by
Nopik
04 Sumberjambe
5. Sumberjambe Field
Rowosari
1. Baitul Inayah mosque
2. Sumberjambe’s village
Means of Transportation
Trucks, pick-ups, cars and
motorcycles
Times Needed
25 Minutes
motorcycles
15 minutes
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Gunung Malang
office
02 Sumberjambe
03 Sumberjambe
1. Cumedak village office
01 Gunung Malang
02 Cumedak
4. Gunung Malang Field
5. Cumedak Field
motorcycles
15 minutes
The evacuation routes were provided with the means of transportation such as trucks, pick-ups,
cars and motorcycles that could be taken for 15-25 minutes. As planned, the shelters were in the
public health center as the first shelter, and village health shelters of Jambearum, Rowosari, and
Gunung Malang.
4. Discussion
Sumberjambe public health center is a public health center that covers nine villages in
Sumberjambe with three villages included in disaster-prone areas. The disaster-prone villages are
Gunung Malang, Rowosari, and Jambearum. Therefore, the public health center must have logistic
supplies for volcanic disaster preparedness. The disaster logistics can be defined as the process of
planning, implementing, and monitoring/ controlling the flow and storage of goods, materials, and
effective and efficient information in terms of cost, from the starting until the point of use (by the
victims), which aims to meet the needs of the users [6]. Obviously, the logistic supplies of the
Sumberjambe public health center to post-disaster diseases had been available to complete. It
means that the logistic supplies in the Sumberjambe public health center had met their needs and
numbers.
The planning management of pre-disaster, during disaster and post-disaster of the
Sumberjambe public health center had run well. It had emergency response guides, networking
systems with cross sectors and an early warning system that fitted right with the specifications of
local vulnerability and had a hazard map as pre-disaster planning. Tents and preventing funds to
establish a health post in the shelters were not available. Management was important to reduce the
risk through a planned, coordinated, integrated and comprehensive disaster prevention, mitigation,
and preparedness, and to reduce the number of losses and victims, as well as to handle the refugees,
as it is planned, coordinated, integrated and comprehensive through emergency responses.
The preparedness for handling the disaster in the public health center of Sumberjambe,
especially for environmental health, was not optimal because it did not fulfill the criteria. From the
results obtained, it only identified the evacuation locations and sources of clean water that could be
used as the disaster occurred, while the means of sewage and wastewater in refugee camps,
evacuation capacity, and waste bins such as plastic bags were not available. Poor environmental
health planning would cause a public health problem because it became a breeding ground for
diseases.
Save community’s activities in the disaster management were conducted well by listing the
number of vehicles, socializing to the community, and establishing a monitoring office of the main
service and shelters, evacuation routes and shelters. Although these activities were planned well,
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but there were some problems and constraints in managing the disaster. The problems were the
socialization that was not intensive, gradual and sustainable, the lack of society’s awareness of the
importance of the disaster preparedness, and the characteristics of Mt Raung that were different
from the other mountains. The danger sign of Mt Raung often rises in November and cuts down in
July, so it is difficult to predict.
Local communities and individual residents, in general, lacked the skills, education and
understanding of how to prepare themselves for emergencies and disasters properly. This could be
attributed to many factors but the following three major factors will be discussed here. First,
people, in general, had failed to be prepared for emergencies and disasters because they had not
been made aware of the dangers and hazards that might affect their local communities. Second,
readiness of campaigns in the past had only offered limited access to generalized information that
was not geographically specific to the types of threats each community might face. Third, people
without internet access had been left without any easily accessible way to get information on how
to prepare for emergencies and disasters [7].
A solid and cost-effective solution that would reach a diverse audience and be able to provide
geographically specific and expert organized information about local hazards and how to prepare
accordingly was needed. The solution proposed here was simple, cheap and easy to maintain.
Placing bulletin boards in all the cities, counties and state parks that will feature the disaster
information and local hazard information was a good way to involve residents in being proactive
about the disaster preparedness. Unlike other methods used to prompt residents in the past to
become disaster ready, this program would actually provide an abundant amount of information
that would be location that was specific, all in one place, reliable, easily accessible, in multiple
languages, and free [7].
5. Conclusion and Recommendation
The disaster that occurred in Sumberjambe in the last five years was the volcanic ash rain of
Mt Raung. The Sumberjambe public health center is a PHC located in a disaster-prone area,
affected by the eruption of Mt Raung. It did not provide specific logistic supplies for the disaster;
the logistic supplies were only for the programs. It had an emergency team and a hazard map, but it
did not have the available funds for the disaster management. The disaster preparedness for the
environmental health had not fulfilled all of its aspects. Save community’s activities in the disaster
management had been well conducted. The district of Sumberjambe is an area which is prone to the
volcanic activities in which Mt Raung is still active. However, there were still some obstacles. The
disaster preparedness conducted by the public health center of Sumberjambe should be done
intensively, gradually and sustainably in order to handle the disaster properly. Placing bulletin
board of structures type in all the cities, countries and state parks that would feature disaster
information and local hazard information was a good way to involve residents in being proactive
about disaster preparedness. The disaster management should be carried out on pre-disaster, during
disaster, and after the disaster that could be handled quickly and appropriately. There was a need of
controlling from the department of health on the performance of public health center in taking care
of the disaster.
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Acknowledgements
Researcher would like to thank:
a. Dean of the Faculty of Public Health Jember;
b. Chief of Health Department of Jember;
c. Head of Public Health Center of Sumberjambe and the staffs;
d. Head of Sumberjambe District; and
e. Danramil (the sub district military commander) of Sumberjambe
that have already given an opportunity for researcher to conduct a study entitled, "Disaster
Preparedness at the Public Health Center in Sumberjambe Jember".
References
1.
Indonesian Ministry of Health. Health Effects Due to the eruption of Mount Merapi. Jakarta; 2007.
2. http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/publications/informer/infrmr3/informer3d.htm
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Ristrini, Rukmini, Oktarina. the Analysis of Policy Implementation of the Disaster Preparedness for Health in West
Sumatra. Research Bulletin of Health Systems. 2012. Vol. 15 (1): 91-102.
Mulyana. Disaster-Prone Regions Map of Mt Raung Eruption. Bandung; 2007.
MOH. Guidelines for Human Resource Management (HRM) Health in Disaster Management. Jakarta; 2006
BNPB. Disaster Contingency Planning. Jakarta; 2011
http://fema.ideascale.com/a/dtd/Preparedness-and-Sustainability-Linkage/315370-14692
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Improving Global Competitiveness of Lurik to Ensure the
Rural Economic Security of Klaten Earthquake
Victims Community
Ernoiz Antriyandartia*, Nanang Rizalib, Mohammad Harisudinc,
Susi Wuri Anid
a, c, d
Agribusiness Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Sebelas Maret University, Jl. Ir. Sutami 36 A, Kentingan, Surakarta
57126 Indonesia
b
Craft Textile Department, Faculty of Literature and Fine Arts, Sebelas Maret University, Jl. Ir. Sutami 36 A, Kentingan,
Surakarta 57126 Indonesia
Abstract
The economic condition of the majority of Klaten earthquake victims has not fully recovered after the
earthquake in 2006. Therefore, some strategies to accelerate the recovery of the local economy are needed.
One of the strategies is to develop the business potential of hand-woven crafts known as ‘lurik’ as an excellent
product of Klaten. Improving global competitiveness of lurik is expected to greatly affect the economic
security of Klaten earthquake victims community.
This study is aimed at (1) identifying the factors that affect the supply and demand for exports of lurik
from Klaten; (2) examining the development of its export demand in the international market in the last
decade; (3) analysing its export performance, in terms of its comparative advantage in the international trade
within the past a decade.
This study used primary and secondary data. Secondary data used were annual data (time series) which
were analyzed using regression to estimate the factors that affect the demand for exports of the lurik from
Klaten. The trend analysis was used to identify its trend. The analysis of RCA and RA was used to analyze the
comparative advantage, and TSI analysis was used to examine its position in the international market.
The export demand for Klaten’s lurik was jointly affected by the value of GDP/capita export destination
and the currency exchange rates. Its exports were likely to increase over the study period. The result of export
performance analysis indicates that lurik has higher competitive potentials than the share of the world export
market. However, it is not congruent to other woven products and the product is into the export expansion
stage.
Keywords : Comparative Advantage, Hand Woven, Rural Economic Security, International Market
1. Introduction
Globalization has led to rapid changes in all areas of human life such as economic activity and
acculturation among nations. It intensifies market relations among nations and results in not only
lower barrier to entry for trade and investment in other countries but also less difficulty in
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +62-271-637457; fax.: +62-271-637457
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preventing the entry from foreign cultural influences. Nowadays, competing with modernization
and globalization, hand-woven cloth or ‘lurik‟ is almost extinct in spite of the fact that many rural
communities in Klaten depend on this creative industries sector. 620 units of ‘lurik‟ small
businesses in the area affected by earthquake in Klaten need to develop their potentials (Suyitno,
2007).
Once a prominent traditional cloth in Klaten, the image of lurik as an excellent product is now
fading due to various obstacles which have not been resolved, particularly the problem of artisans
weaving regeneration. The weaving is usually a home-based artisan activity, mostly done by
women. This study uses a framework that the rural economic security in Klaten depends on the
sustainability of lurik as of potential economic activity. Klaten is the main producer of the handwoven cloth known as lurik produced with traditional weaving (without machine). Figure 1
illustrates the lurik industry in Klaten.
Fig 1. “Lurik” Hand Woven in Klaten
Lurik is a woven cloth that has a special pattern for the lane lines. The Complete Dictionary of
Javanese defines it as a striated pattern or Iorek-Iorek, which means lines in Indonesian (Anggraeni,
2007). Lurik is one of the Javanese cultural heritages to be preserved. It is the typical traditional
cloth in the reign of the Mataram Kingdom, and it is almost extinct today. To ensure its
sustainability as creative industry of Javanese cultural heritage, it is necessary to improve its
performance in the international market. Developing the potential of ‘lurik‟ in the international
market will increase its demands, which lead to its increasing production. Thus, it will be followed
by increasing income that will ensure the sustainability of the economic recovery of the earthquake
survivors in Klaten.
The increase of global competitiveness of lurik greatly affects the economic security of Klaten
Community. This is in accordance with Schwab (2014) who explained that there is a complex
relationship between competitiveness and sustainability as measured by its social and
environmental dimension. The position of competitiveness is the key driving force of prosperity in
society, recognizing that high levels of competitiveness are crucial to sustained prosperity.
Improving global competitiveness means developing an economy as the set of institutions, policies,
and factors that determine the level of productivity of an economy.
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This study is aimed at (1) identifying the factors that affect the supply and demand for exports
of lurik from Klaten; (2) examining the development of its export demand in the international
market in the last decade; (3) analyzing its export performance, in terms of its comparative
advantage in the international trade within the past decade.
2. Methodology
This study used primary and secondary data. The secondary data used were annual data (time
series) which were analyzed using regression to identify the factors that affect the demand for
exports of the ‘lurik’ from Klaten. The trend analysis was done to examine its trend. The analysis of
RCA and RA was used to see the comparative advantage and TSI analysis was used to investigate
the position of the ‘lurik‟ of Klaten in the international market.
2.1. The Demand Analysis of Klaten‟s „Lurik‟
To estimate the demand for lurik product, the researchers used the following models and variables.
Yd = f (x1, x2)
(1)
Description:
Yd = the export value of the ‘lurik‟ of Klaten to the United States
x1 = per capita GDP of the destination country
x2 = currency exchange rate
2.2. The Trend Analysis of Klaten’s Lurik
The trend analysis or often called secular trend is the average change (usually every year) in the
long run. If the symptoms studied shows an increase, the trend we have will demonstrate an
average increase, or a positive trend. However, if we find the symptoms shows a decrease, the trend
we have will demonstrate an average decrease or negative trend. Equation trends with Least Square
method is as described in Equation 2 (Maddala, 2001).
Yi = a + bxi
(2)
Description:
Yi = export value of ‘Lurik‟ from Klaten
a = number constants
b = coefficient of the trend line
xi = time (year i)
2.3. Export Performance Analysis of Klaten‟s Lurik
In free trades, a specialization of production at international level will result in more products
to trade in international commerce. Thus, all countries can simultaneously benefit and the
advantages of a country are derived from the sacrifice of other nations (Salvatore, 1995).

Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA)
An RCA index shows the ratio of the export market share of commodity of a country or a firm
to the market share of the commodity in the world market (Laursen, 1998). RCA can be defined as
shown in Equation (3).
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C = (Xtij / Xtj ) / (Xtiw / Xtw)
(3)
Description:
C
= Value of RCA index
Xtij = Commodity export value of exporting country/firm
Xtj = Total commodity export value of exporting country/firm
Xtiw = Value of world hand woven cloth export
Xtw = Value of total world export
The index value greater than 1 indicates that the commodity market is greater than the
measured average of the relevant export commodities from around the world.

Acceleration Ratio (AR)
This method is to look at the comparison between the acceleration of export growth of a
company/country to accelerate the growth of world imports. AR is formulated as shown in
Equation (4).
AR = Trend of export from Klaten + 100
Trend of world import + 100
(4)
A commodity is considered to have a comparative advantage if its AR is larger than 1 (Darwanto,
2004).

Trade Specialization Index (TSI)
Trade Specialization Index (TSI) method incorporates product life-cycle namely the
segregation of industrialization and the trade patterns. This analysis shows that the description of a
commodity has experienced or is experiencing growth saturation and the value of the TSI indicates
a country's exports and imports for a particular commodity. The amount of a commodity index TSI
can be explained in Figure 2.
The TSI is calculated based on the following formula:
TSI = Nx – Nm
Nx + Nm
(5)
of which:
TSI = TSI index
Nx = the value of hand woven cloth export of Indonesia
Nm = the value of hand woven cloth import of Indonesia
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TSI
1,0
0,5
TSI
Time
0,0
-0,5
-1,0
I
II
III
Introduction Import Expansion
Subtitution Export
IV
Maturity
V
Re-Import
Fig 2. Trade Specialization Index (Darwanto, 2004)
3.1. Demand Analysis of Klaten‟s Lurik
This study used the data of Central Java Province textile exports as a proxy export for the lurik
of Klaten. The result of regression analysis shows that the value of GDP/capita export destination,
significantly influencing its demand at 5% significance level. The increase in GDP of destination
country will lead to an increase in its demand. The variable exchange rates did not significantly
affect its demand for exports (Table 1).
Tabel 1. The Estimation Result of Demand Analysis of Klaten „Lurik‟
Variable
Coefficient
Standard of Error
Constant
-12.59011216
12.03463609
lnGDP
3.881960746** 1.124271085
LnExchange Rate -0.999759614
1.393394979
R2
0.73
F-stat
6.81**
*Significant at 10% level; **Significant at 5% level; ***Significant at 1% level.
Source: Data Analysis, 2013
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3.2. The Trend Analysis of Klaten‟s Lurik
From the trend analysis, we can see that the exports of Klaten’s lurik tend to fluctuate
throughout the study period. However, in general, based on a linear line, it can be said that there is
a rise in its exports (Figure 3).
600000000
y = 3E+07x + 3E+08
R² = 0,4546
500000000
400000000
300000000
200000000
100000000
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Fig 3. The Trend of Klaten’s Hand Woven Demand
3.3. Export Performance Analysis of the Klaten‟s Lurik
Klaten hand woven cloth or lurik has many weaknesses to be able to compete in the
international market, in terms of export management system and management. Lack of attention
and facilities from the government become the major problems for the low comparative advantage
of the lurik product from Klaten. The producers export lurik only when they receive order from
buyers abroad. Export process is done in person; the buyer comes to the producer with the desired
design. After that, the producers produce the order and deliver it through an intermediary located in
Yogyakarta.

Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA)
From the analysis, it is found that the RCA index is greater than 1 (2:36). Thus, it can be seen
that the share of lurik commodities markets of Klaten is greater than the average commodity
exports of textiles from around the world. The lurik of Klaten may also have a comparative
advantage in the international market. It is a useful finding as well as a challenge and an
opportunity for artisans weaving in Klaten to make breakthroughs that the products are increasingly
competitive and have a strong positioning in the international markets like other textile commodity
of Central Java Province.

Acceleration Ratio (AR)
This method was applied to see the comparison between exports growths accelerated in Klaten
and world import growth. Because the level of import export data in Klaten District was not
available, we used the export trend of Central Java Province. The analysis of Acceleration Ratio
(AR) was conducted to analyze the growth rate of exports from Central Java in comparison with
accelerated world export growth. Using such a comparison, it can be seen that the lurik of Klaten,
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which is a part of Central Java Province, has comparative advantages in the international market.
An index of Acceleration Ratio (AR) is greater than one; thus, the product has a comparative
advantage. From the calculations, the AR index was 0.96, meaning that the acceleration of growth
in exports of „lurik‟ was lower than the world export growth accelerated of weaving products. The
AR index is less than one, and it means that the lurik of Klaten does not have a comparative
advantage compared to woven products from other countries in the world.

Trade Specialization Index (TSI)
The analysis of trade specialization index of the lurik from Klaten in this study is conducted
using the analysis of textile products on a scale of TSI province because Klaten does not import
„lurik‟ products. Thus, the result of the analysis reflects the value of the TSI textile of Central Java
Province. The value of textile products of Central Java derived from the results of the analysis can
describe the position of Central Java Province textile products in the international market, which
means that it also describes the position of the lurik of Klaten marketed in the international market.
Based on the calculation results, it can be seen that the results of the calculation value of the TSI for
„lurik‟ products looks stable ranging from 0.288 to 0.29. It indicates that the product has reached
phase III, the stage at which it is still in the expansion of the export product.
4. Conclusion
„Lurik‟ export demand in Klaten was jointly affected by the value of GDP/capita export
destination and the currency exchange rates with R2 = 73%. Its exports from Klaten was likely to
increase over the study period with R2 = 45%. RCA average value of 2.36 indicated that the
products have the potentials to compete higher than the share of the world export market. AR value
of 0.96 indicated that the product is not having a comparative advantage compared to other woven
products, textile fabrics or other types from other countries. TSI mean value of 0.29 indicated that
the product of the lurik of Klaten is at the export expansion stage.
Its export demand can be improved through the innovations of the products in order to be
compatible with the international standard. The government can support through active promotion
to the international market. Thus, the demand of „lurik‟ would increase significantly and lead to the
increase of sustainability of creative industry such as this as the Javanese cultural heritage. Finally,
the rural community affected by earthquake in Klaten can increase their revenue by constantly
innovating production associated with the implementation of appropriate product development
strategies implemented in the international market to ensure the economic security.
References
1. Anggraeni, F. Lurik, Dari Masa ke Masa. Majalah ARTISTA 2007; 10: 1-2.
2. Darwanto, DH. Hand Out Agribisnis Internasional. Yogyakarta :Magister Manajemen Agribisnis UGM; 2004.
3. Laursen, Keld. Revealed Comparative Advantage and The Alternative as Measures of International Specialisation.
DRUID Working Papers 1998; 98-30.
4. Maddala, GS. IntroductiontTo Econometrics. Ohio State University. New York: Prentice-Hall; 2001.
5. Salvatore, D. Ekonomi Internasional. Jakarta: Erlangga; 1995.
6. Schwab, K. The Global Competitiveness Report 2014–2015. Geneva :World Economic Forum; 2014.
7. Suyitno. Pemberdayaan Industri Tenun Lurik ATBM Di Daerah Klaten Pasca Gempa. Prospect. 2007; 3 (5):1-6.
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Bengkulu City Community Adaptation of NonEngineering Structure Development in Swampland Based
on Earthquake Disaster Risk Reduction
Muhammad Fauzia*, Dwi Setyawanb, Budhi Setiawanc, Ridhah Taqwad
a
Civil Engineering, Bengkulu University. Kandang Limun street, Bengkulu, He is currently undertaking his PhD Program at
Environmental Science, Sriwijaya University.
b
Soil Science and Environment Science, Sriwijaya University. Padang Selasa 524 street, Bukit Besar, Palembang 30139,
Indonesia
c
Civil Engineering and Environment Science, Sriwijaya University
d
Social Science and Environment Science, Sriwijaya University
Abstract
The earthquake has caused many casualties and property loss. The public’s understanding of the risks of
living in an earthquake prone area, such as the city of Bengkulu, is very important especially for areas with
low soil bearing capacity such as marshland. This study aims to determine the form of adaptation that public
has made on wetlands in order to minimize losses due to earthquake engineering and social approach based on
Disaster Risk Reduction. This study uses purposive sampling method to decide the location of the study and
random sampling method to choose the sample. The research that has been conducted is an effort to adaptation
based Disaster Risk Reduction by the community, namely the construction of buildings in terms of adaptation
and behavioral adaptation. Adaptation in terms of construction includes basic soil structure improvement,
adaptation to the foundation, and adaptation to the type of roof used. In addition, this study has formulated an
assessment of the modest house on wetlands. Assessment is designed to enable the public to judge for
themselves the Non Engineering Structure they owned. This assessment is a spreadsheet with the final result of
a category of the simple earthquake-resistant construction of their homes, whether it is appropriate (green
color), less appropriate (yellow), or does not fit (red).
Keywords : simple house, adaptation, Disaster Risk Reduction
1. Introduction
Swamp area in Bengkulu Province covers 12,411 ha consisting of 11,609 ha lowland heath and
bog ebb and flow of around 802 Ha (BPS Bengkulu Province, 2010). Despite the fact that the area
has low carrying capacity, the settlement in such this marshland increases, and it creates an
insecurity. Given the Bengkulu province at quake 4 territory, it is vulnerable to major earthquake
disaster. The real evidence is the big earthquakes on June 4, 2000 at magnitude 7.3 on the Richter
Scale (SR) to the position of the epicenter located around 60 km below sea level. In the aftermath,
93 people were found dead, 2065 were injured, ± 40 thousand buildings and residential homes were
*
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damaged (Zen, 2003). In addition, a large quake also occurred on 12 September 2007 with a
strength of 7.9 on the Richter Scale (SR) and the epicenter was 10 km below sea level with 14
people dead, 38 people injured, and ± 21 thousand housing residents damaged (Satkorlak North
Bengkulu, 2008).
An important lesson from this tragedy is the importance to reduce the risk of danger (hazard
mitigation) and to increase the level of security (survival rate) through improvement of housing and
residential environment and environmental engineering. Building damages and casualties due to
earthquake disasters can be reduced by way of adapting to the environment where our people live.
Adaptation within the question is how communities adapt grammar residential neighborhood with
environmental condition which is very prone to earthquake hazards. It incorporates excellent efforts
and an attempt to minimize the occurrence of damage to the construction of buildings and to reduce
fatalities.
2. Basic Theory
2.1 Land Use
In general, the use of land in Indonesia is the real result of a long process of continual
interaction, a balance, as well as the dynamic state of the population between activities on land and
limitations in the surroundings where they live (As-syakur, 2010). Increasing land use by humans
such as for a place to stay or to do business in compliance with public access and other facilities
will cause a narrowing of available land. The issue of environmental degradation will affect the
balance of the ecosystem. This is due to the use of land which does not consider the ability, carrying
capacity and shape designation of the land, as for the example is wetlands (Pewista, 2013). The area
of wetlands decreases as people put up buildings thereon, which is apparently with high risk of
getting easily damaged during earthquake since they are built above swamp.
2.2 Wetlands
According to the Ramsar Convention (1991), wetlands is an area of brackish, swamps, peatland
or water area, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary (provisional), with water
flowing or stationary, fresh, brackish or salt, including the region with marine water the depth of
which at low tide (low tide) does not exceed 6 meters. Indonesian Government Regulation No. 27
Year 1991 about the Swamp mentions that swamp is the land that is naturally waterlogged
continuously or seasonally since natural drainage is impeded and has specific physical, chemical,
and biological characteristics.
2.3 Building
House is defined as a building that serves as a home or residence and means of family building.
In house building, there are one or several bedrooms, livingroom, bathroom, toilet, and kitchen
which are fully interconnected to each other. Based on its construction, home building consists of
permanent and semi-permanent home. Permanent home means a home that is constructed with
foundation, brick walls, a roof and a floor. In addition, the construction of permanent housing is
made of concrete, stone and steel (Puspantoro, 1996).
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According to Supribadi (2002), components of the structure constitute the main component
because it serves to support the load, either vertically, horizontally or self-weight of the building.
The structural components consist of:
1. Sub Structure
Sub structure is the part of the building which is located at the bottom floor of a building or part
that is in the soil, such as concrete blocks (sloop) and foundation (Supribadi, 2002). The lowest
part of a building is intended to hold the entire weight of the building on the foundation. It
includes its own weight and the weight of soil directly above the foundation.
2. Upper Structure
Upper structure is the part of the building that is located on the top floor surfaces such as walls,
columns, doors, windows, ring beam and roof truss and its parts (Supribadi, 2002). These
structures must be able to guarantee the top in terms of safety and comfort. Therefore, the
materials used in this building have design criteria; among others are strong, fire resistant,
durable for long term use, easy to obtain and set up, and economical (easy maintenance).
2.4 Adaptation and Mitigation of Earthquake Disaster
Adaptation is necessary in order to anticipate the effects of catastrophic disasters in various
fields and to minimize the negative consequences of the disaster. According to Law Number 21 of
2008 on the Disaster Management, disaster mitigation is a series of efforts to reduce disaster risk,
both physically and through the development of awareness and capacity building facing the threat
of disaster. Each region has a way of mitigation and adaptation to different disaster strikes, such as
earthquakes. An earthquake is a disaster that often occurs in Indonesia. This is because many
regions in Indonesia are adjacent to the active fault zone. When efforts to predict earthquakes have
not shown positive results, the best effort in anticipation of the earthquake is the mitigation and
adaptation to the environment.
In order to carry out disaster risk reduction, the public must have a strategy. The strategy is a
tactic intended to align the order of life in response to the situation of residence which is prone to
earthquake (adaptation). This tactic is a way for the community to avoid or minimize the threat of
the elements at risk. Having tactics in dealing with situation such as this is mandatory to achieve a
peaceful life. For example, if the death toll n the earthquake is largely due to falling building / house
collapse, then the act of adaptation is to build homes that will stand in earthquakes. For people who
have not been possible to build earthquake-resistant housing with the construction standards of
earthquake resistance, then the choice is to build a simple earthquake resistant houses with materials
from wood or bamboo (Hardoyo, 2011).
According to Susetyo (2006), learning can mitigate through school, as well as directly to
common people. For the general public, mitigation incorporates several stages, namely pre-disaster
stage, disaster or emergency stage, and post-disaster phases.
3. Research Method
The research location was chosen based on purposive sampling method by taking into account
various considerations and conditions as well as the state of research areas. As for the determination
of the sample using random sampling methods, it took into account predetermined criteria.
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3.1 Primary Data
The primary data were obtained by dealing directly against the object to be carried out by means
of observation, interviews and distributing questionnaires to the respondents who were in the study
site. Questionnaires were filled out by a surveyor through a direct interview with the respondent.
Surveyors came directly to the houses selected as a sample and then explained the respondents
about the items that they had to answer. Each house was given one questionnaire.
In this study, the population is the simple house that has a permanent construction and is built on
swamp land at the study site. The number of respondents that should be qualified as minimum
sample size was calculated based on the number of houses built on swamp land. The number of
non-engineering structure built on swamp land is shown in Table 1.
Tabel 1. Data on the number of houses built on swamp land
Numbe
r
1.
2.
3.
Total (
)
The Number of Non Engineering Structure built on swamp land
(x)
Sub-district
Muara Bangkahulu
Sungai Serut
Ratu Agung
4037
4350
3277
 x = 11664
Siregar (2010) states that the technique to determine the size of the total sample population is
known by using the Solvin formula. The reason of using this formula is to obtain a sample which is
representative, more certain or near existing population.
N
n
(1)
2
1  N  e 

Where as:

n
N
e
= Minimum sample of house built on swampland
= Number of population groups in the swamp land
= Percentage of research leeway because of sampling error (0.10) and
the 90% confidence level
Based on the number of houses built on swamp land shown in Table 1., equation (1) can be
performed on a total sampling as follows:
N
11664
n

 99,15 sample
2
2
1  N  e  1  11664 10 
 


Therefore, the number of sample taken is 100 sample respondents. The other way to calculate
the number of samples to be taken is to use a sampling technique called unit sample fraction (fi) ie
for each sub-population as the multiply factor. The total sample fraction is adjusted for the strata. Fi
value is calculated through the following calculation:
The amount of per-stratum sampling fraction is:
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N
(2)
f 
i N
i
The amount of per-stratum sub sampling fraction is:
(3)
n  f n
i
i
Where as:
fi
= Sampling fraction stratum.
Ni = Number of individual elements contained in the stratum population.
N = Number of individuals in the entire population.
n
= Number of members included in the sample.
ni = Number of members included in the sub-samples per stratum.
The total sample of respondents is shown in Table 2:
Table 2. The total sample of respondents
Number
1
2
3
Sub-District
Muara Bangkahulu
Sungai Serut
Ratu Agung
Total ( )

The total sample (houses)
35
37
28
x = 100

3.2 Secondary Data
The secondary data were collected through the study of literature from several books related to
building materials and home structures in terms of the concept of earthquake resistant houses.
Additional data were collected from various agencies, including JICA data, Bappeda Provinsi
Bengkulu and BPBD (Regional Disaster Management Agency), PU, BPS, and some other sources
from both printed and web-based materials.
According to Wikantiyoso (2009), disaster mitigation efforts in the perspective of spatial
planning can be done by performing the process of anticipation not only by creating a comfortable
environment but also by formulating the potential disaster and mitigation strategies. Conceptually,
mitigation includes:
1. Architectural Design
Taking into account the principles of structural strength, avoiding vertical discontinuities,
designing non-structural elements.
2. Preparing the Community Social
Public awareness (social readiness) of the social aspects of disaster (warning systems,
anticipation and response time of the disaster and post-disaster management, etc.).
Survey research done in three districts in the city of Bengkulu showed a variety of answers from
the community as reflected in the answers of the respondents in the questionnaires. Answers from
the public can provide a hint of adaptation measures of the local communities in the face of the
earthquake. The steps or local adaptation strategies in the face of the earthquake, among others:
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4.1 Construction Adaptation
There are two kinds of mitigation efforts according to Ishikawa (2002): structure mitigation and
non-structure mitigation. Mitigation efforts in the form of the structure is the building and
strengthening of infrastructure potentially affected by the disaster, such as making structural
engineering and construction to hold and strengthen the building or build an earthquake retaining
structure. Besides, avoiding the disaster area to anticipate the impact of disasters (through
consideration and calculation of construction).
Forms of adaptation in terms of earthquake-resistant construction which have been done by the
community, based on the questionnaire answers, are as follow:
1. Soil Structure
Subgrade structural repairs have been done by the community. The data demonstrate that 86%
of respondents claimed to have made efforts related to the improvement of the basic soil
structure, yet very few people understood how to stockpile soil correctly. This can be seen in
Figure 1. It shows that nearly four out of five respondents were directly involved in land
hoarding, and only 2% of respondents built channels to drain water in the marshland, and 5% of
respondents created channels to drain water, then fill it with soil.
Community Adaptation of Sub grade soil
structure
2% 5% 14%
Do not do anything
Do live land fill
Make a drainage to dry
Make a drainage to dry after that landfill
79%
Fig. 1. Percentage of Community Adaptation of Sub grade soil structure
2. Foundations Construction
Foundation is the most important component in the construction of buildings because it is the
structure of the lower part of the building that is directly related to the functioning of l building
loads directly to the ground. Based on Figure 2, it can be learned that, in the case of community
adaptation to the work of the foundation, 1% of respondents would be more likely to increase
the size of the foundation, more than a third of respondents raise or increase the depth of the
foundation, 13% spread a layer of sand, and more than half of the respondents made cerucuk
under the foundation. Based on this statement, it can be concluded that the society had to adapt
with the home building construction, especially the building foundation
Community Adaptation Against Foundation Work
1%
31%
Enlarge size foundation
Elevating Foundation
Sand layer spread
55%
13%
Cerucuk made under the foundation
Fig. 2. Percentage of Community Adaptation Against Foundation Work
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Based on in-depth interviews with respondents, cerucuk used under the foundation is that of
mangrove wood which mount every 1 meter along the building foundation with a diameter of
approximately 10 cm and a depth of 1 meter. Cerucuk is used to increase the carrying capacity
of the marshland and reduce land subsidence. In addition, the cerucuk use is based on
indigenous communities, and it is found only in house construction in wetlands while it is not
used in dry areas. This means that people already know how to minimize the potential damage
of buildings due to an earthquake, especially for building foundation.
3. Roof Construction
Almost all the community uses multiroof type of roof (see Figure 3). This suggests that the
public option in using this type of roof is considered appropriate due to the preference of people
who live in earthquake-prone region got a type of material that is lightweight and safe.
Comparison of Roof Type
2%
8%
Sago palm
Roof tile
Zinc
Multiroof
90%
Fig. 3. Comparison of Roof Type Percentage
4.2 Behavior Adaptation
According to Wikantiyoso (2009), understanding the behavior of the earthquake (seismic lines,
the epicenter, as well as the tendency of shifting the earth's crust), planning and design of cities and
buildings, people anticipate earthquake conditions, quality of the construction, community
preparedness, as well as the time of the earthquake. All these must be understood in the interest to
minimize the impact of damage to buildings and cities due to the earthquake.
According to Malik (2012) in his study in Pangalengan District, the social unrest that made
people in Pengalengan District suffered from heavy damage from the earthquake was due to the
following reasons:
1. Total ignorance of disaster.
2. Ignorance of the public about the physical condition of the residential location.
3. Dense and clustered settlement pattern due to limited land.
So far, it can be learned that there is very little communnity’s preparedness in the face of
disaster.
The extensive interviews during this research include the efforts to engage in dialogue about the
various aspects of life, especially on matters relating to the concepts of people’s adaptation which is
shown in how public build houses corresponding the seismicity associated with conditions that
often occur in the city of Bengkulu. There are some interesting things concerning people’s behavior
in order to adapt with the earthquake:
1. Binding cabinets that are connected directly to the wall
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Binding cabinets that are connected directly to the wall in order that in the event of an
earthquake, the closet did not fall and harm the occupants of the house.
Protecting and securing the house from thieves
As a form of house protection against thieves, people install a trellis on the windows and doors
added with a plated door lock. Therefore, during an earthquake, people sometimes find
difficulty to run out of the house as soon as possible.
Parking cars facing highway
At night, a car is parked in the garage of the house facing the street in order to facilitate access
out of the house and then go to the evacuation route in the event of an earthquake. In addition,
the car fuel is filled in full.
Timing of earthquakes
Time of the earthquake could significantly affect the death toll. For example, earthquakes
during the day will be more likely to cause casualties than at night. This is because at daytime
people are at work and in community centers, so as they panic to save themselves, it potentially
leads to more loss of life.
Degradation of adaptation process
This is due to the assumption that human nature can cope with the knowledge that he has.
Conditioned environment which is deliberately designed in accordance with human’s lifestyle is
often unable to adapt with the place of residence.
Disaster Management
Disaster management is necessary due to lack of knowledge that results in disaster
unpreparedness of society in anticipation of damage to homes and even loss of life following an
earthquake. Knowledge of disaster can be improved through socialization, training, seminars,
raising public awareness of disaster-prone areas and others. Socialization and training on
strategies in the face of disaster risk has actually been done by the local government and
relevant agencies, but there are some things that make the socialization less effective, namely:
a. Socialization is not done intensively, so people assume knowledge on disaster risk is not
important.
b. Poor coordination between parties.
c. Sosialization does not touch the society which requires knowledge of the disaster, such as
people who live in the wetlands. Instead socialization are applied only to government
employees (administrative elite).
d. Socialization and pre-disaster-based training have been rarely done prior to disaster. Instead,
socialization is often conducted after the disaster. It is not appropriate to anticipate the risk
of disaster.
4.3 Non Engineering Structure Assessment on Disaster Swampland
Based on the results drawn from the questionnaires and interviews that have been conducted
with the respondent, the writers of this research design the format of assessment towards building a
simple home in swampland based on Disaster Risk Reduction. The assessment was made in a
written sheet. Community is expected to make its own assessment of the Non Engineering
Structure. The assessment was conducted on the use of building materials, foundation, walls, roof
structure, and dimensions of concrete structures. The results of this assessment show categories:
green, yellow and red colors..
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The results of the assesment evaluation of simple house built on wetlands as it was
construccted by the homeowners, manifested in the form of "Assessment Form" as follows:
1. Green (Figure 5.)
The green color indicates that the house complies with the rules on building simple construction
of earthquake resistant houses on wetlands
2. Yellow (Figure 6.)
The yellow color indicates that the house is less compatible with the rules for building simple
construction of earthquake resistant houses in wetland. there are several components that do not
fit
3. Red (Figure 7.)
The red color indicates that the house does not comply with rules of building simple
construction of earthquake-resistant houses in wetlands. There are many components evidenced
by the house that does not fit.
However, it does not mean that the house in green and yellow categories are home safe and will
not be damaged during the earthquake. Homeowners must remain vigilant and be sure to leave the
house when the earthquake happen.
5. Conclusions and Suggestions
5.1 Conclusions
Of a series of research activities and data analysis, the researchers conclude that:
1. People have started doing adaptations to their homes building located on wetlands, such as
adaptation to the basic soil structure, adaptation to the foundation work, and adaptations to the
roof.
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2. In addition to adaptation, the society also have to equip themselves with doing strategies in the
face of disaster risks, among others: using the funnel below the building foundation, choosing
the proper materials used for the manufacture of brick foundation, and a closet that is directly
connected to the wall.
3. There are some less appropriate things that people often do which result in inability to minimize
the earthquake risk, among others are lifestyle that is less balanced with knowledge of disaster,
the use of railings at the windows, and panic during an earthquake.
4. Assessment sheet as a guide to building a Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) based house
construction demonstrates the corresponding category (green color), less compatible (yellow), or
does not fit (red color).
5.2 Suggestions
Suggestions as for advice to be conveyed by the author are as follows:
1. Ther is a need for a more detailed adaptation to the building structure, which is balanced with
sufficient knowledge of disaster.
2. It is expected that the presence of advanced research can provide sufficient information to the
community in adapting DRR based on the existing conditions in the city of Bengkulu as a region
prone to earthquake.
References
1.
2.
Badan Pusat Statistik Provinsi Bengkulu, Provinsi Bengkulu Dalam Angka, Bengkulu; 2010.
Hardoyo, S. R. Strategis Adaptasi Masyarakat Dalam Menghadapi Bencana Banjir Pasang Air Laut di Kota
Pekalongan, program Magister Perencanaan dan Pengelolaan Daerah Aliran Sungai dan Pesisir (MPPDAS),
RedCarpet Studio, Indonesia, Yogyakarta; 2011.
3. Ishikawa, M., Landscape Planning for a Safe City, Annals Geophysics Journal; 2002, 25(6), 833-841.
4. Konvensi Ramsar, The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat, Ramsar,
Iran; 1991.
5. Malik, Y., Penentuan Tipologi Kawasan Rawan Gempa Bumi Untuk Mitigasi Bencana di Kecamatan Pangalengan
Kabupaten Bandung, Fakultas Pendidikan Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Jawa Barat,
Bandung; 2012.
6. Puspantoro, B., Konstruksi Bangunan Gedung Tidak Bertingkat, Universitas Atma Jaya, Indonesia, Yogyakarta; 1996.
7. Republik Indonesia, Undang-Undang No. 21 Tahun 2008 tentang Penyelenggaraan Penanggulangan Bencana,
Sekretariat Negara, Jakarta; 2008.
8. Siregar, S., Statistik Deskriptif Untuk Penelitian, Rajagrafindo Persada, Indonesia, Jakarta; 2010.
9. Supribadi. Ilmu Bangunan Gedung, Armico, Indonesia, Bandung; 2002.
10. Susetyo, H., ‘Disaster Preparedness and Natural Disaster Victim Services: Lesson learned from Japan and Indonesia’,
Kyoto University, Center for Southeast Asian Studies 2 November; 2006.
11. Wikantiyoso, R. (ed)., Kearifan Lokal dalam Perencanaan dan Perancangan Kota; Untuk Mewujudkan Arsitektur Kota
Yang Berkelanjutan, Fakultas Teknik Universitas Merdeka Malang, Indonesia, Malang; 2009.
12. Zen, H. ‘Internasional Seminar/Workshop on Tsunami’, Makalah Gempa Bumi Gubernur Bengkulu, Jakarta; 2003 Hal
241-248.
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Communication Model for Disaster Risk Reduction
with SMS Gateway and SOP for Early Warning
Communications of Mount Sinabung in Indonesia
Puji Lestaria*, EkoTeguh Paripurnob, Elanto Wijoyonoc, Isnu Suntorod, Galih
Kartika Bratae
Faculty of Politic and Social Science, Pembangunan Nasional University ”Veteran” Yogyakarta, Jalan Babarsari 2,
Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
b
Faculty of Mineral Technology, Pembangunan Nasional University ”Veteran” Yogyakarta, Jalan SWK 104(Lingkar
Utara) Condongcatur, Yogyakarta 55283, Indonesia
c
Combine Resource Institution Yogyakarta, Jalan KH Ali Maksum 183 Sewon Bantul, Yogyakarta 55188, Indonesia
c
Combine Resource Institution Yogyakarta, Jalan KH Ali Maksum 183 Sewon Bantul, Yogyakarta 55188, Indonesia
e
Faculty of Politic and Social Science, Pembangunan Nasional University ”Veteran” Yogyakarta, Jalan Babarsari 2,
Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
a
Abstract
The study aims to develop a disaster communications as an early warning system danger of Mount
Sinabung in Karo Regency, North Sumatra. The research implemented method is descriptive qualitative
research by using focus group discussion (FGD), interviews, trials and application of the model.
Communication models applied for disaster mitigation are in the form of an early warning system using
Information and Communication Technology with SMS gateways, as well as Group Communication Strategy
(Government, community, volunteer) to arrange SOP of Sinabung Disaster Communications Management to
be a useful guideline for Karo local government to prevent unpredicted Mount Sinabung disaster. The results
of the research are understanding between researchers with Karo local government specifically with BPBD’s
Karo in (1) the importance of early warning system using SMS Gateway in the case of Mount Sinabung; (2)
the requirement of hazard map of Mount Sinabung. (3) the necessity of the SMS Gateway to support Mount
Sinabung early warning systems, (4) the establishment of early warning system community based on
government and society under the control of BPBD’s Karo district, and (5) the draft of SOP for early warning
communications of Mount Sinabung. This study recommends the implementation of a disaster
communication model via SMS gateway for government and community-based to mitigate disaster of Mount
Sinabung.
Keywords : Disaster communication management, Gateway SMS device, SOP, Sinabung,
1. Introduction
Mount Sinabung is located in Karo District, North Sumatra Province, Indonesia. This mountain
is not active from "Carbon Dating", an activity known for heat clouds occurred 1200 years ago
* Corresponding author. +62 815 6874 669; fax: +62-274- 487-147
a
E-mail address: [email protected],
b
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(Solihin Agus, 2014). The Volcano erupted on August 27, 2010 and it continued from 2013 to
2014.
Aktivitas Kawah G. Sinabung
SEBARAN ABU LETUSAN
Aktivitas erupsi 2010 dan September
s/d November 2013 berasal dari
Kw. Selatan
Lubang kawah aktif
Hingga awal desember
kawah utara
kawah selatan
Kw. Utama
Kawah Utara terbentuk tanggal
15 Oktober 2013
Sejak pertengahan Desember 2013,
pertumbuhan kubah lava, letusan dan
awan panas hingga saat ini keluar
dari Kw Utama
Rumah roboh dan Lahan perkebunan rakyat
rusak akibat hujan abu lebat (Lokasi Desa Kuta
rakyat jarak 4 Km timur laut dari G. Sinabung)
Hujan Abu di Luar
Radius 5KM Sukandebi
Letusan 11 Nopember
2013 diikuti awanpanas 1,5
km ke Tenggara
Kerusakan lahan perkebunan penduduk di Desa
Sukameriah (3,5 km di lereng Selatan G. Sinabung)
Letusan tanggal 18 Nopember 2013
ketinggian 8 km
Letusan tanggal 19 Nopember 2013
ketinggian 10 km
Fig. 1 The eruption of Mount Sinabung in 2010 and 2013 (Solihin Agus,2014:3,8).
Based on geochemical measurements from 1 September 2013 until 14 April 2014, the mountain
is still potentially dangerous (observation until April 2014). Intensive monitoring is still underway,
as well as the outreach to community about the threat of Mount Sinabung eruption activity
continues intensively. Mount Sinabung activity status is still ALERT (level III), starting from 8
April 2014 at 17:00 pm (ESDM, 16 April 2014).
Peta Kawasan Rawan Bencana G. Sinabung
Sangat berpotensi
terancam awan panas,
gas racun, dan Guguran
lava, aliran lava
7 km
r = 3km
5 km
sumber
guguran lava
1 Feb’14 pkl 10:30
3 km
Sangat berpotensi
terancam lontaran batu
pijar
(diameter > 4 cm) (radius
3 km)
Berpotensi terancam
awan panas,
gas racun, guguran lava,
aliran lava
Berpotensi terancam
lontaran batu pijar
(diameter 1-4 cm) (radius
r = 5km 5km)
Berpotensi terancam
terlanda lahar hujan,
dan perluasan awan
panas
r = 7km
Aliran lava (lk 10 juta m3)
Sebaran awanpanas
Berpotensi terancam
hujan abu,
material pijar (diameter <
1 cm)
(radius 7km)
Desa-desa yang masih
tetap diungsikan (Status
SIAGA)
Fig 2: Map of Sinabung in disaster prone areas (Solihin Agus,2014:28).
Various disaster issues in Indonesia has raised national awareness regarding the importance of
disaster risk reduction. Disasters likely happen, therefore it is best to prepare to manage these
unavoidable events (Hokao,Daungthima,2013). The issue of disaster management is one of the nine
national development priorities in 2010-2014, which aims to build a strong Indonesian community
dealing with disaster. In this regard, studies on disaster communication are indispensable to
establish disaster resilient communities through disaster mitigation. Communication in disaster
period is very important to anticipate destructive effect, therefore, this is a mandatory skill for
responsible agency. Strengthening community management of natural disaster mitigation is
necessary, such as disaster information management, evacuation, an evacuation process, a common
kitchen, managing aid for refugees, and others.
At the time of Mount Sinabung eruption in 2010, the disaster management during the
emergency response communications was not well-coordinated due to the absence of SOP
(Standard Operating Procedure) of Disaster Management Communication used to guide the
implementation of the emergency response, limitation usage of interactive media (internet) which
specifically informs the disaster, and absence of the Regional disaster Management Agency
(BPBD) (Lestari, et al, 2013).
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In connection with the above findings, this study aims to develop a model of disaster
communication through websites and sms gateway for disaster mitigation in BPBD Karo district of
North Sumatra. This research is helpful for people who are threatened by disaster in Karo, Local
Government as well as Karo district of North Sumatra province in achieving national development
priorities with the urgency to establish disaster resilient communities. Stipulated by the Law of the
Republic of Indonesia Number 24 Year 2007 on Disaster Management, the victims of disasters
need to be rescued immediately, starting from pre-disaster, emergency response, reconstruction and
rehabilitation. An effective disaster communication will be able to reduce the risk of disaster. This
was disclosed by Dody Ruswandi, Preparedness Deputy of BNPB, quoted from (Kompas,
Wednesday, 04/06/2014, page 13) whoargues that research in disaster management is actually one
of the fundamental basis of disaster management, as stipulated in Article 3 of Law No. 24 of 2007.
Besides, the reality of the lack of research on the background of the disaster is shared by BNPB
Kemdikbud Kemristek and the implementation of scientific research meeting 2014 which is
expected every year can result in a national blueprint for disaster research.
In order to overcome the problem of lack of research on disasters, Lili Kurniawan, Director of
Disaster Risk Reduction, BNPB, quoted from (Kompas, Wednesday, 04/06/2014, page 13) who
argues that BNPB currently has been working with 12 universities in Indonesia in developing
disaster research with a different focus by reflecting potential disaster area, for example UPN
"Veteran" to discuss volcanoes outside of Yogyakarta. UPN "Veteran" Yogyakarta becomes one of
the universities that believes to conduct a study of volcanoes in Indonesia, because the performance
of Disaster Management Study Center (PSMB) has contributed significantly to the studies about
disaster management, particularly volcano.
Disaster communication model has been developed in Yogkarta (such as Jalin Merapi). Jalin
Merapi Media Center Coordinator, Nasir Ahmad (interviewed in 2011) states that the agency
information systems are built to utilize the variety of communication tools, such as: wind chimes
radio walkie-talkies, mobile phones, websites, to social media. Nasir says that the number of
communication tools for those involved in our system are too many. All means of communication
are linked in a managed system. The information system can work because Jalin Merapi has
prepared previously. So, during the emergency response period, all parties work without having to
think again. Moreover, the information system also seeks to serve all stakeholders, including
disaster victims.
Disaster communication is the management of messages production process or information
about disaster, spreading and receiving messages from the stage pre-disaster, disaster and postdisaster. As noted by Breakwell (Rod, et al, 2012: 4), the principal rationale for risk communication
before, during and after natural hazards is to initiate and direct the protective action. Studies on
disaster communication have been done by several researchers, Puji Lestari, (2007); Badri,
Muhammad (2008); Nugroho (2008); Puji Lestari, Susilastuti, Retno Hendariningrum (2009);
Ramli (2010), Junaedi, Dawn (2011), Noviani Ratna (2012), and Hidayat (2012), Puji Lestari,
Agung Prabowo and Arif Authority (2012), According to the results of the Sustainable
Management of Earthquake Disaster Communication in the Gantiwarno district, disaster
communication management is the process of planning, organizing, implementing, and evaluating
the government policies related to the earthquakes management in the area in 2006 and it was
found that earthquake disaster management communication in Gantiwarno was not good enough in
which it lacked of planning, organizing, implementation and evaluation. It caused many victims
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who died, had pain, stress, and a lot of victims were neglected. Thus, the conflict among the
community and even with government officials occurred.
Related to disaster management according to Nugroho (2008: 2), efforts to investigate the
disaster-prone areas require cooperation and coordination among various government institutions.
With the absence of coordination (communication), there will be reactive impact instead of solutive
endeavor of disaster mitigation. Badri (2008) examines the communication management in Bantul
earthquake DI. Yogyakarta. Communication plays an important role in disaster management,
especially to synergize government policies and programs, non-governmental agencies involved in
disaster management.
Some of these studies confirm that the disaster communication is an important activity and
should be planned to anticipate the disaster. Things that should be done in an effort of Preparedness
or disaster preparedness and volcano mitigation according to one of the researchers who was the
chairman
of
Centre
for
Disaster
Studies
UPN
"Veteran"
Yogyakarta)
(http://www.psmbupn.org/consul/kesiapsiagaan-and-mitigation bencana-mountain-api.html) are:
(1) a disaster resilient community should know the characteristics of the disaster-prone areas threat;
(2) disaster risks are analyzed by performing threat analysis, vulnerability analysis, and analysis
capabilities; (3) a communication network in public radio HT, Hp, internet networks should be
established to access information from both government and the community to update the condition
of the volcano; (4) the existence of regional action plans (RAD) or a contingency plan at the
provincial government level, district to village action plan (RAK) at the community level, which
are the activities in disaster risk reduction (DRR), such as training on disaster, building early
warning means, building communication networks and so on; (5) the existence of any party
cooperation, especially people who are in disaster-prone areas around the volcano; (6) focusing
activities to reduce risk before the volcanic eruption; (7) disaster mitigation efforts made in the
community to reduce vulnerabilities and increase the communities ability to reduce disaster risk,
e.g. disaster training, emergency response training (PPGD) etc.. The theme of this research is a
continuation research by the author since 2006 and has been published by Journal of Science
Communication accredited (Lestari, 2007), namely the earthquake in communication management
in Gantiwarno. Furthermore, the authors also conducted research on conflict management
communication in quake-affected areas (Central Java and Yogyakarta) and has been published in
the Journal of ISKI (Lestari, Susilastuti, and Retno Hendariningrum, 2009).
According to the research results by Lestari, et al (2013), disaster communication of Merapi
2010 used social networking media, such as facebook, twitter, and HT, HP beside the mass media
of television, radio and newspapers as well as magazines. The media is very effective in reducing
disaster risk of Mount Merapi in DI.Yogyakarta. Communication and interpersonal group were also
performed at the time of emergency response, including through the Forum for Disaster Risk
Reduction (FPRB) and many communities were formed at that time. Researchers also examine the
models of disaster management communication with students of UPNV Yogyakarta (Lestari,et all
2013). Disaster communication model is very topdown, less involving elements of mass
communication and Internet media. Its communication command, which directly uses HT and HP
media, is still limited as well (sometimes no signal).
Based on these findings, researchers are interested to contribute ideas to develop a model of
disaster communication in Karo district of North Sumatra. Communication model is assessed using
appropriate technology (TTG) which is a website and SMS gateway Communication SOP disaster.
The model of community-based disaster communication is believed to reduce the risk of Mount
Sinabung catastrophe in the Karo district of North Sumatra.
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3. Research Methods
This study used a qualitative approach and the previous research on the development of
Sinabung disaster communication model in Karo district of North Sumatra, erupted in 2010.
Researchers developed a communication model for a community-based disaster mitigation of
Mount Sinabung. Primary data were collected from interviews with the head of the National
Agency for Disaster Management (BNPB). This research partner was the Head of the Regional
Disaster Management Agency (BPBD) in Tanah Karo in order to obtain information on the relevant
disaster communication model. The data sources given and resource disaster management were
mostly done in SKPDs. They also have potential to manage Karo local government websites. The
development of communication model through websites and sms gateway can be implemented by
the expected human resources in the department,. Subsequently, Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
with the following research subjects were attended by several related stakeholders: (1) Head of
BPBDs, (2) Head of Social Services, (3) Head of Kesbanglinmas, (4) Chief of Medical Officer, (5)
Dept. of Education, (6) District Commanders, (7) BVMBG / Sinabung Postal observation, (8)
police chief, (9) representatives of NGOs, (10) representatives of people from the church and
mosque (11) representative of volunteers, (12) representative of disaster victims (sub-district). The
collected data through focus group discussions resulted in several important statements: (1)
experience was once undertaken by the participants in the following programs of Sinabung disaster
management in 2013, (2) constraints were experienced during the disaster management, (3)
response of the Sinabung disaster management in 2013, (4) the model of communication for
disaster mitigation Sinabung cana Sinabung, (5) SMS Gateway Program and SOP Disaster
communication. The data were analyzed with descriptive-qualitative techniques. First, the data set
was presented in a data display, then those which were not relevant to subject matter were reduced
and categorized. The next stage was making the interpretation and conclusion of the study. The
conclusions were drawn from the obtained results by the communication model overview for
Sinabung disaster mitigation.
4. Results And Discussion
4.1. Building SMS Gateway for Sinabung
SMS Gateway was tested in Sinabung, and a few things were prepared. Building the
information media must be begun by mapping the users who are the target groups, such as media.
In the context of disaster management of Sinabung Volcano eruption, mostly could not be mapped
since there are community groups and government who are interested in the information about the
volcano. It needs to analyze the required information by both groups and the expected role
performed by the groups.
Table 1 Target Group Design and Sinabung Management SMS Information
Source of Information
Sinabung PPGA
PPGA Sinabung
Target Groups (users)
Government (District Government
Karo Karo BPBDs)
Category Information
Information of Sinabung Volcano
status
Society (Leaders / Community
Leaders in KRB Sinabung, local
community media)
Information and knowledge about
Sinabung Volcano
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Nature of Information
Closed / limited
Open / public
Frequency Information
Emergency
Periodic
There are two audiences/key target groups, namely the government and society. Government, as
an SMS recipient, is expected to make the decision-making process policies which are
appropriately and accurately based on SMS early warning information. Meanwhile, the public is
expected to take a decision for the security and safety of themselves, their families, and the
environment based on the SMS information. Both groups get information from PPGA Sinabung as
a media center or SMS gateway administrator for Early Warning of Sinabung eruption. Categories
and the nature of the information for these two groups are different. Government gets detailed and
essential information, which are necessary for regional policy decisions, e.g. to decide the
evacuation orders. Meanwhile, SMS information to community groups focused more on
information about the volcano and it is useful knowledge for disaster education in the family and
community environment. Therefore, information via SMS gateway will not shut the role of
government down to carry out the duties to provide information in an emergency situation decision
directly to the public. SMS information about the status of the mountain (emergency) can be
submitted directly to the public with the local government consent.
The system is built in two parts, namely the technical application (technology) and the program
management. Frankly speaking, the system are constructed through several stages, including:
 Dissemination process of ideas and concepts to the system mantained by stakeholders and
citizens.
 The collection and management of mobile number in the system (input number, categorization
in a user group)
 Media Management Center as a source of information (PPGA Sinabung)
 Socialization and training to use the system to the user
 Preparation of SOP in the use and management of information systems
This system has been built by a team of Information Technology COMBINE Resource
Institution (London) with UPN "Veteran" Yogyakarta online at http://sms.combine.or.id/sinabung
address. Operating system and application server SMS enabled in COMBINE are connected to the
Internet with a public IP. Sinabung SMS Gateway Services is published by a number 0823-13159900. The parties in Karo would be trained to use this system after the dissemination of ideas and
concepts carried out in March 2014. The process would be a pilot phase system in using a beta
version which results are used as a reference of refinement system functions as needed in the field.
It is targeted in the end of 2014 that SMS gateway service application to support early warning
systems and disaster prevention of Sinabung Volcano eruption could be fully implemented.
4.2. Standard Operation Procedure (Sop) of Early Warning System For Sinabung Volcano
Standard Operation Procedure (SOP) is a standardized set of written instructions regarding the
administration of the various activities within organization or institution (government) about how,
when, where and by whom it is performed. SOP is a guideline or a reference to perform job duties
in accordance with the functions and performance assessment tool organization or institution
(government agencies), based on technical indicators administratively and procedurally, which in
accord with working procedures and systems at the concerned unit. The preparation of SOP is
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based on (1) Presidential Instruction No. 7 of 1999 on the Establishment of System and Procedure
Activity, Preparation of Government Performance Accountability. (2) Decree of the Minister of
State for Administrative Reform No. KEP / 25 / M.PAN / 2/2004 on Guidelines for Preparation
General Public Satisfaction Index Services Unit Government Agencies. (3) Regulation of the
Minister of State for Administrative Reform No. PER / 15 / M.PAN / 7/2008 on General Guidelines
Reforms (institutional, management, and human resources).
The function of an early warning system is to convey information in advance about the physical
effects of hazard to people who are affected (Samarajiva, Rohan, 2005). Therefore, early warning
systems are complex and require the interrelated relationship between many disciplines, such as
natural and social sciences, engineering, governance and public services, disaster management
arrangements, the mass media, and community assistance(Paripurno,2008). Thus, the development
and maintenance of warning systems and coordination require a wide array of individuals and
institutions contribution. Without the involvement of all stakeholders, such as authorities and
government agencies in various sectors at all levels, disaster risk community, civil society
organizations (NGOs) or non-governmental organizations or NGOs and private sector, the early
warning system will not be effective. Whether the warning is delivered to the public in the disaster
risk area or not, it depends on the awareness and ability to carry out the roles and responsibilities
of all actors in the chain of communication.
4.2.1
The Role Of The Parties In An Early Warning Volcanoes Sinabung
The Role of Sinabung Volcano Early Warning Communication chain allows the news
dissemination on the early warning hazards of volcanic eruptions and lava as well as landing timely
and effectively. News and direction are issued by the competent authorities and the use of
communication channels is agreed upon, so that people who are at the dangers of volcanic
eruptions and lava can leave and save themselves from the area before the danger comes. The chain
of communication at each volcano is connected by Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation
(PVMBG) to the public at vulnerable areas which are prone to volcanic eruptions and lava. The
parties involved in the communication chain of early warning include: the Center for Volcanology
and Geological Hazard Mitigation (PVMBG), National Disaster Management Agency (BNPB),
Local Government, particularly Prevention Disaster Agency (BPBD) of North Sumatra province
and Karo District, television station (TV) and radio in national and regional level (government and
private), the Indonesian Armed Forces (TNI), the Indonesian National Police (INP), Society for
Disaster Management Organisation (CBO PB) as the Indonesian Red Cross (PMI), radio Inter
Indonesian Population (NEAT), Organization of Inter Radio Population of the Republic of
Indonesia (ORARI), Standby Force disastrous (Satgana), disaster Response Team (Tagana), Search
and Rescue team (SAR), Youth, community disaster risk through the village chief and the village
council (BPD), cellular service provider, and hotel manager/tourist attractions. The institutions that
play a role in the chain of Early warning are obliged to provide confirmation immediately that they
have received the news chain of early warning information sent by PVMBG.

PVMBG is an institution under the aegis of Geology - Ministry of Mineral Resources and
Energy, the observation and monitoring of Mount Sinabung. PVMBG has a mandate to provide
information about the conditions and determine the status of Mount Sinabung, provide
advice/recommendation to the Government through BNPB, to North Sumatra Provincial
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Government and District Government of Karo and BPBD, for subsequent use in formulating
disaster-response policies and following up for people in disaster prone areas. Sinabung
Volcano Observation Post (PPGS) in the district of Simpang Empat is the representative of
Karo PVMBG.
 BPBD and Karo regency government are obliged to coordinate with the Local Government Unit
(on education) to determine the appropriate policy advice/recommendation to PVMBG, and
hereinafter inform the public in Disaster Prone Areas (KRB) of Mount Sinabung through local
government entities in sub-district, village chief and BPD. BNPB and BPBDs of North Sumatra
Province obligation is to support the district policy. When the warning status is in Level IV, the
Local Government of Karo is the only party in the chain of early warning communication of
volcanic eruption hazards that has authority and responsibility to decide and announce the
evacuation status officially based on the advice/recommendation of PVMBG. Local
Government is responsible for promptly and widely announcing and providing clear direction
and instructive to assist the residents in the KRB to act quickly and appropriately to face the
danger of volcanic eruptions.
 TNI-Police is obliged to follow up the status of volcano news and volcano conditions presented
by BPBD. TNI- Police can play a role in efforts to disseminate the news on the volcano early
warning status of volcanic eruptions, especially at the local level. Police Force can support the
community's response to any change in status, including people evacuation. TNI-Police is also
obliged to prepare immediate emergency response, search and rescue activities and emergency
assistance.
 It is obliged to follow the news on education and the status of volcano early warning news and
lava volcanic eruption delivered by BPBD. Education plays a role in efforts to disseminate the
news on the volcano early warning status of volcanic eruptions, especially at the local level.
Education can support the community's response to any change in status, including people
evacuation. SKPD is also obliged to prepare immediate emergency response, search and rescue
activities and emergency assistance.
 Community leaders, at sub-district, village chief and BPD, are obliged to follow up the news
status of volcano and the early warning news of volcanic eruptions and lava submitted by
BPBDs. Community leaders ensure that the news dissemination and the news on the volcano
early warning status of volcanic eruptions have been delivered to the community. Community
leaders ensure the community's response to any change in status, including the evacuation.
Community leaders are also obliged to immediately prepare the emergency response, search and
rescue activities, and emergency assistance.
 Radio Stations - TV national or regional (government and private) must broadcast the news on
the volcano early warning status of volcanic eruptions and lava, and suggestions submitted by
BPBD. TV and radio stations are parties in the communication chain of early warning of
volcanic eruptions that have a direct and quick access to the public. TV and radio stations are
obliged to immediatly suspend the ongoing broadcast and broadcast the early warning of
volcanic eruptions and lava hazards, as well as suggestions received from BPBD to viewers and
listeners.
 Vulnerable people, both inside and outside the disaster-prone areas (KRB), are entitled to
inform about the dangers of volcanic eruptions as well as instructive directives allowing people
who are in danger to act appropriately and quickly. Communities are responsible to save
themselves from the dangers of volcanic eruptions. Individuals and public bodies are required to
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
forward the correct information and direction to others. PB organizations participate in the
dissemination of news regarding the status of volcanoes, volcanic eruption early warning news
and lava, as well as suggestions submitted by the social organization and religious society by
facilitating the process happened in the community.
Mobile service provider is one part of the chains in the volcanoes news status and early warning
of volcanic eruptions and lava through SMS mode. These service providers are obliged to pass
on the news status of volcanoes and volcanic eruption early warning of BPBDs to the registered
mobile users. Internally, they need to provide higher service for sending SMS from BPBD.
Thus, where it happens the solid currents SMS, SMS from BPBD will take precedence to get to
the user. In addition, they are required to keep the servers for these services remain operational
continuously and well. All these services are free of charge. There are two types of news
formats on hazard warning status volcanic eruption. Short text format is used for dissemination
via short messages (SMS) with a limited number of characters (160 characters). While, long text
format contains more complete information in the form of a letter for dissemination via
facsimile, electronic mail, and web sites. The outline for the text formats length are: (a) the head
of the document which shows the charge of resources, namely PVMB as official warning news
provider; (b) institutions which are concerned as the ones having main mandate for this
information; (c) information content consisting of 5 (five) components, namely the first
component/introduction containing a description of the volcanoes general character, the second
component containing a visual observations and seismicity observations, the third component
containing potential hazards that occur in the form of solids, liquids and gases and lava, the
fourth component which is the conclusion, the fifth component which is the recommendations
for local governments and communities; (d) the person who is in charge of information, in this
case is the head of PVMBG; and (e) a list of stakeholders who need to pay attention on this
information..
4.2.2
Status, Recommendations and Community Work
Status is part of the volcano early warning system followed by a series of actions that
demonstrate the preparedness at the community level.
Table 2: Status, Recommendations and Community Work
Volcano
Recommendations
Status
Normal
Community in KRB I and II can perform
everyday activities.
Communities in KRB III, are allowed to hold
daily activities with the increasing awareness
and obliged to comply the prevailing provision
of local government with the appropriate
technical recommendations from geological
body, ministry of energy. This step is the
preparation for KRB III society.
Community Activity & BPBDs
1 Socialization of mineral resources map KRB
2 Understanding the character of volcanic hazards
3. Public understanding on the residence location in
the KRB
4 Documenting the residents in vulnerable areas
5. Documenting resource in disaster prone areas
6
Preparation
of
standard
operating
procedures/standard operating procedures
7 Preparation of evacuation routes and lanes marked
8. Training on preparedness
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Emergency
Vigilant Society in KRB I is still able to hold
general activities with the increased alertness;
People in KRB II can still perform activities
day-to-day with the increased vigilance to
hazards;
Alert
Community Alert in KRB I increases the
vigilance by not doing activity around the
valley rivers that disgorge in the peak area;
People in KRB II start to prepare for refuge
while waiting orders from government area
according to technical geological bodies
recommendation, ministry of energy and
mineral resources; Communities in KRB III
are restricted to have activity around the crater
Caution
Society in KRB I, II, and
III are immediately evacuated
based on the recommendation of
local government with
appropriate technical recommendations
of the geological body,
ministry of energy and
mineral resources.
1 Dissemination of information increase in the status
of geological bodies.
2 Updating population data in disaster prone areas
3 Updating vulnerable populations in disaster prone
areas
4 Documenting resource in disaster prone areas
intensified
5. Preparation of equipment and communication
systems
6 Preparation of an evacuation plan
7 Preparation of evacuation transportation
8 Preparation of refuge
9 Preparation of a common kitchen
10 Explanation to the community
11. Group division
2 Warning signs are ready to operate
3. Evacuation transportation equipment is ready for
operation
4. Place of refuge is ready for operation
5. Operating public kitchen
6 Security is prepared and activated
7 The procedure remains activated
8. Equipment and communications systems are
activated
9 Determination of emergency response command
2 The warning signs sound
3. Oral and written evacuation command from the
commander of the emergency response.
4. Procedure remains activated
5. Evacuation done
6 The evacuation operation
7 Common kitchen is operated
8 Security is operated
9. Crisis center perpetrators of Communication
Volcano Status and Communication Volcano
conditions are operated
Table 3: Agency and information message
Agency
Determination and status
information
Information volcano volcanoes
conditions
Information volcano conditions
Geological Observations PVMBGvolcano
Determination and information
status
Regent, BPBDSKPD, TNI, POLRI
BPBD, SKPD, TNI, POLRI, community,
Coordination volcano status
Information volcano conditions
Socialization status of the volcano
Socialization status of the volcano
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Agency
Media, Community Leaders
Determination and status
information
Information volcano volcanoes
conditions
Socialization response to volcanic
Volcano response
Evaluation
volcanic
of the response to
5. Conclusion
Disaster communication management is the management of communication or coordination
activities that may reduce the risk of disaster or minimize the vulnerabilities and disaster hazards.
Disaster communication management is the responsibility of central and local government together
with the community, in realizing the maximum protection for people and their assets from possible
disasters. Implementer of disaster communication consists of PVMBG- and geological agency,
Center of Regional Disaster Prevention (BPBD), Regional Working Unit (SKPD), Indonesia
National Army (TNI), Police of Republic of Indonesia (POLRI), civil society organization, media,
society figure, and surely the society itself.
This research generates a recomendation to decision-makers, both central and local government,
disaster experts and the public who are expected to further improve personal communication for the
implementation of disaster management as one priority in the national development and it can be
realized in a variety of regions in Indonesia. SMS Gateway program and disaster communications
SOP can be an alternative volcano communication model.
Communication chain enables early dissemination of information regarding volcano eruption.
This handout will be released by the agency authority through communication tools, so that the
vulnerable society of volcano eruption will have immediate respond to rescue from risky territory
before the crisis comes.
Volcano status is an integral part of early warning system followed by sequence means to equip
civil society preparadness toward disaster response. Normal status (first level category) comprises
of Disaster Prone Area (KRB), understanding of the volcano characteristic, society understanding
on the living area within KRB territory, data gathering in prone area, standard operational
procedure formulation, and preparing route and evacuation sign through simulation. In alert stage
of volcano level, agencies need to conduct the information dissemination of status from geological
agency, society data renewal in KRB territory, intensify preparing communication device and
mechanism, transportation for evacuation, and refuge facilities such as barrack, public kitchen, and
any mechanism. At the second highest status, it needs an increasing intensity of disaster response
activities, so does the communication process when the increasing level of volcano status and any
other threat. The most important communication aspect is the warning system of early warning
sign. At this level, all of the refuge instrumenta will be always ready to be operated and also the
activation of disaster response mechanism by related agency. When disaster reaches the peak stage,
all early warning signs have to be ringed to force the evacuation process of local people. Therefore,
when the condition enters to this stage, every refuge facility has to be ready and activated.
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ISSN: 2188-0999
The optimal usage of SMS Gateway and communication procedure will be significant disaster
response endeavor. Yet, in order to implement the mechanism, it requires active and responsive
participant. Communication helps to reduce the victim and material loss caused by disaster. This
study recommends the implementation of disaster communication model via SMS gateway for government
and community-based to mitigate the disaster of Mount Sinabung.
Acknowledgements
The authors express their gratitude and high appreciation to all those who have helped this study,
including; Higher funding through grants of DP2M National Strategic Research DIKTI Indonesia
2014 th, Chairman, secretary, and staff BPBD Karo, LPPM UPN "Veteran" Yogyakarta, the
authors whose writings are quoted in this article.
References
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