A Political Economy of Public Transportation in Timor

A POLITICAL ECONOMY OF PUBLIC
TRANSPORTATION IN TIMOR-LESTE
PREPARED BY
THE ASIA FOUNDATION
DILI, TIMOR-LESTE
SEPTEMBER 2015
A Political Economy of Public Transportation in Timor-Leste
Report authors: Alexander Cullen & Susan Marx
Methodology assistance: Edward Rees
Field research assistant:
Mario Pinheiro
Editing and fact checking:
Tamara Failor, Gobie Rajalingam & Diana Fernandez
Cover photos:Conor Ashleigh
Report photos:
Alexander Cullen, Conor Ashleigh (p.36)
Editing and layout:
Lewti Hunghanfoo
Published by: The Asia Foundation
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About The Asia Foundation
The Asia Foundation is a nonprofit international
development organization committed
to improving lives across a dynamic and
developing Asia. Informed by six decades
of experience and deep local expertise, our
programs address critical issues affecting
Asia in the 21st century—governance and
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empowerment, environment, and regional
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development as a peaceful, just, and thriving
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Headquartered in San Francisco, The Asia
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in 18 Asian countries and in Washington, DC.
Working with public and private partners, the
Foundation receives funding from a diverse
group of bilateral and multilateral development
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individuals. In 2014, we provided more than
$108 million in direct program support and
distributed textbooks and other educational
materials valued at over $11 million.
About the Authors
Alexander Cullen is a PhD candidate at the
University of Melbourne where his research and
teaching focus is driven by development and
human geographic concerns for environmental
contestation and local livelihoods. After
multiple years in Timor-Leste working as an
independent researcher and within local and
international organisations, Mr. Cullen has
accumulated significant experience in a wide
range of issues resulting in numerous published
papers. Such issues include land tenure, microfinance, local governance, traditional resource
management and participatory GIS.
Susan Marx is the Foundation’s Country
Representative in Timor-Leste. She has a
background in urban planning, and worked on
large government-funded redistributive urban
planning programs in South Africa in the late
1990s after the fall of apartheid. She previously
worked on community driven development
programs in Afghanistan, before serving as the
Foundation’s Acting Country Representative in
Kabul prior to moving to Timor-Leste in 2010.
She has been the Representative in Timor since
2013.
A POLITICAL ECONOMY OF
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION IN
TIMOR-LESTE
Prepared by The Asia Foundation
Timor-Leste
September 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD 2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4
4
5
6
6
Land transportation – buses, angunas, microlets, taxis, ojeks Maritime: Nakroma Ferry Aviation Recommendations INTRODUCTION Research objectives Research framework Methodology 9
9
10
10
PART 1: LAND PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION 12
Introduction Land public transportation vehicle types District and inter-district road transport Buses Anggunas Microlets Taxis Ojek - Motorcycle taxis International connectivity via land transportation Summary of current service provision Legal frameworks governing land public transportation Service access and transportation Insurance District mapping: Public transportation networks Gleno - Ermera Maliana - Bobonaro Same - Manufahi Baucau Public transport user survey results User experiences Safety Demand for network and user experience improvements Conclusions regarding survey data Recommendations Possible new regulatory and economic structures for transportation provision business models 12
12
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14
15
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17
23
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26
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PART 2: MARITIME BASED PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION 36
History Facilities Current services Ticketing 36
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Future services Legal regulation Gaps and challenges Recommendations 39
39
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40
PART 3: CIVIL AVIATION PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION 41
History Current access International services Domestic services Other services Regulations, laws, and governance Gaps and challenges of aviation transportation Single carriers and high prices Future possibilities Recommendations 41
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45
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PART 4: ADDITIONAL DIMENSIONS OF PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION 48
Gender dimensions of public transport Gender-based violence Transportation: Business and employment Prospective programs Recommendations Tourism and transportation Airport arrivals and tourism Recommendations 48
48
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CONCLUSION 54
REFERENCES 56
APPENDIX I - Mobile Communication Technologies Options 58
Option 1: Full scheduling, ticketing, and route management orchestrated through mobile devices Advantages Disadvantages Option 2: Simplified bus operator driven mobile tools Advantages Disadvantages 58
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APPENDIX II – Public Transportation Survey Questions 61
FOREWORD
Timor-Leste today is a young, stable, and
relatively safe developing democracy. While
it has made great gains in its quest for
democracy, it has been less successful in
transforming a largely agrarian society to
one that is prosperous and productive. The
government continues to struggle to provide
effective services to the majority of its citizens
in a consistent and efficient manner. Most
of the existing services are concentrated in
the major urban areas (especially the capital
Dili), and dwindle as one travels further from
the economic heart of the country. Initiatives
such as the government’s National Suku
Development Program (PNDS) notwithstanding,
the majority of Timorese lack access to many
basic services like healthcare, education,
and employment. Many factors combine
to result in this inadequate level of service
delivery, not least of which include the
competing priorities faced by a poor, young and
rapidly growing nation with limited time and
resources to get it right. Further hampering
the effectiveness and efficiency of servicedelivery systems is: conflicting legislation for
sub-national development; unclear (or often
non-existent) policies; ineffective budgeting
and execution of budgets; lack of coordination
and inter-sectoral planning; and finally lack of
evidence-based research to influence policies
and program design. While the main focus of
much of the literature centers around issues
of government corruption and inefficiency,
2
at the heart of the problem is the common
citizen’s inability to access needed services to
increase access to resources and economic
opportunity, as well as general wellbeing.
This paper was commissioned to unpack one
of the most necessary services required by
the vast majority of the population in order
to be productive members of society, public
transportation.
Public transportation as a concept is generally
understood to be the sharing of a mode of
transportation, by strangers without prior
arrangement. In many instances public
transport is considered a public good, and may
even be subsidized by the government (city,
state or federal), either through investment in
necessary infrastructures (trains, stations), or
subsidized fares. One of the key characteristics
of public transportation is that most of this
form of transportation runs on a pre-determined
(often published) schedule.
Public transport as it exists in Timor-Leste today
is largely operated in privately owned vehicles
on a for-profit basis, with no adherence to a
published schedule, and lacking in regulation or
oversight regarding safety, security, and quality
of service.
Through our work in analyzing public policy in
Timor-Leste, the Foundation, at the request
of the Office of the President, conducted the
following Political Economy Analysis of public
transport in Timor-Leste. The main objective of
the study was to gain a basic understanding of
the penetration and function of public transport
in the country. Feedback was solicited from
operators, owners, as well as end-users to paint
a basic picture of the functioning, challenges,
and opportunities for public transport in TimorLeste.
The methodology of the study was co-designed
by Edward Rees and the Foundation’s Country
Representative Susan Marx, who managed
the project and oversaw the final report. The
research and initial draft report was written
by Alexander Cullen from the University of
Melbourne. The authors are grateful for the time
and insights from a multitude of stakeholders
in government, development partners, civil
society and the general public who contributed
to this report. I am also particularly grateful for
the insights and support from Douglas Lucius,
a Transport Economist and Team Leader for
the Timor-Leste Transport Master Plan. The
results of this report will be widely shared
with stakeholders in government (national
and municipal level) as well as multi-national,
NGO, and other agencies engaged in transport,
infrastructure, and economic and other
empowerment projects.
full economic and wellbeing potential. Through
this work, we aim to collaborate closely with
members of the national and sub-national level
governments, in gaining a greater understanding
of the challenges, and lessons learned from
elsewhere in the region and beyond, to better
address these critical needs. The research
involved a thorough stakeholder analysis and
study and will further engage other actors
already active in the field of urban governance to
ensure coordination and that the most effective
recommendations can be made.
We are grateful for the opportunity to work
with the Office of the President on researching
important matters concerning the general
wellbeing and economic prosperity of TimorLeste.
Respectfully,
Susan Marx
Country Representative
Dili, Timor-Leste
September 2015
Through this report, the Foundation endeavors
to contribute to the discourse around one of
the most important inputs required by the
national population in order to achieve their
3
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Despite ongoing challenges, and ongoing
limitations with mobility, public transportation
in Timor-Leste is in fact functioning within the
country. This occurs with minimal regulation
and state input (apart from maritime services).
However, large gaps exist in terms of service
provision and considerations relating to
user experience, safety, effectiveness, and
efficiency warrant serious and meaningful
attention. If Timor-Leste is to develop its
public transportation system in an adequate,
safe, and accessible fashion, it will require
not only financial and human resources, but a
concerted effort at coordination between both
government and private sector stakeholders.
A careful cost-benefit analysis could provide
useful insights into the inputs and adjustments
required to afford the nation a safe and effective
system of transporting the majority of its
citizens.
2. Current boarding practices for inter-district
passengers is illegal but alternative methods
are hampered by the lack of terminals.
In summary, public transportation in Timor-Leste
remains for the most part informal and private
with minimal state intervention, regulation, or
subsidy. Below is a brief summary of the main
findings of this study:
• Better conditions should result in:
Land transportation – buses,
angunas, microlets, taxis, ojeks
5. Safety and security considerations.
1. Scheduling and regulated terminal use are
severely lacking, yet highly desired by the
majority of stakeholders. Certain considerations
include:
• Current use and operation patterns are sporadic and inefficient.
• Significant research into local needs and
use patterns is required, although it appears
that the Department of Transport has to
some extent investigated this.
• Under-use of formal terminals results in
increased traffic congestion, accidents, and
safety concerns.
4
3. Lack of regulation and policing.
• No existing government policies and
regulation with regard to market entry,
fares, safety, security, and operator
licensing.
• Deconcentration of centralized government
powers to district may well assist this if
transport regulation is decentralized and
should be considered in the development of
the local municipal capabilities and terms of
references.
4. Road conditions.
• The poor condition of the roads impacts
negatively not only on the accessibility, but
also in the cost to operate and the user
experience.
- Lower prices
- Faster transportation times
- More providers entering into the transportation sector
• The lack of published schedules results in
long wait periods which pose a significant
security risk for users, particularly women.
• Safety with regard to vehicle road
worthiness, operator licensing, limits on
passenger numbers, and driver shifts are
in no way addressed and are issues that
require attention across all forms of public
land transport.
6. Regulatory considerations.
• As with many other sectors, the heavily
siloed approach in the transportation sector
across relevant government departments is
problematic in terms of service provision.
There is a lack of cross-departmental
coordination and communication of
needs and solutions. Coupled with
horizontal challenges, the lack of upward
communication and feedback through
government institutions results in a lack of
systems to integrate and improve services
based on feedback or identified needs.
A particular short-coming is the lack of
devolvement of responsibility and financial
control by central government institutions to
the district (municipal) administrations.
• Little or no coordination and engagement
between district-level agencies and
central ministries in terms of district public
transportation needs.
• There is some evidence that the
government is trying to regulate new
entrants into inter-district bus and microlet
routes, in some cases limiting vehicle
volumes on these routes. This is likely in
part to try to encourage servicing on less
popular routes, of which a notable number
remain underserviced, usually in areas of
significantly poor roads.
• Despite a new law requiring, at minimum,
third party liability insurance by all vehicle
operators in Timor-Leste, participation and
use of third-party (or higher) insurance is
extremely small, and non-existent amongst
public transport operators.
- Increased activity in Oecussi under ZEEMS has resulted in the commencement of a return 168 seat daily rapid-ferry from Dili to Oecussi.
• The purchasing of two new ships should
alleviate current demand and allow for
additional routes.
- Tentative new route planning exists for joining south coast to north once Suai port facilities are constructed, i.e., Dili-Baucau-Com-Suai.
2. Overloading is frequent and common and therefore also dangerous for public safety.
• The boarding process also leaves much
to be desired as crowds frequently rush
a much-too-narrow staircase to board the
boat.
• Rates for ticketing are unknown due to the
illegal nature of some ticketing services.
3. Current ticket services are inadequate and
prone to corruption / illegality.
• No designated ticketing office exists.
• Rates are unknown due to the illegal nature
of some ticketing services.
• Ticket purchasing is chaotic and encourages
rough behavior, which makes it particularly
difficult for women to get tickets.
Maritime: Nakroma Ferry
• Scalping of tickets is common.
1. In part due to the high subsidy of the cost,
resulting in an artificially reduced price1, demand
greatly exceeds the current available supply of
services, resulting in frequent disruptions in
services.
• Family connections are common for
securing tickets thus excluding those
without such connections.
• Adequate demand exists for an additional
Atauro to Dili trip or possibly an extra Dili
to Oecusse trip (and during extremely high
demand the ferry could run twice a week).
• The Dili-Oecusse leg is problematized by
common transport of materials and goods
which take up significant room but are also
prone to theft.
1
4. Conditions onboard the ferry are cramped
and comfort is minimal.
Lucius, Douglas. Email correspondence. Transport Economist and Team Leader Timor-Leste Transport Sector Master Plan (TLTSMP)
5
5. Inclement weather has in the past resulted
in safety issues on the route between Oecusse
and Dili.
6. A lack of technical experience inhibits quality
control of the Nakroma maintenance.
• Servicing is less frequent then it should be.
• Inspections of vessels is weak.
• Repairs are commonly prolonged. Ministry
requests and financial needs often take
significant time to execute.
7. Current route provision is too infrequent
for District and State administration of public
services on Atauro.
Aviation
The vast majority of Timorese are prohibited
from aviation mass transportation and it is
likely to play an extremely small role in terms
of meeting transportation needs of the general
public. International travel is expensive in
comparison to the region. Even as fares fall in
line with lower cost flights within Indonesia, the
majority of Timorese will be financially unable
to utilize the service. Increases in frequency
of services to key international aviation nodes
is limited by current runway size and airport
facilities, and are unlikely to result in increased
tourism.
1. Aviation in Timor-Leste is currently prohibited
by a lack of an Air Operator Certificate (AOC)
and necessary regulation. Currently the lack of
laws restricts individual seat sales domestically.
The main priority should be drafting and passing
necessary aviation laws and certification.
• Currently operators are registered under
laws outside of Timor-Leste.
2. There is limited domestic aviation
connectivity in Timor-Leste. Upgrading of
airports in Suai and Oecusse is likely to result
6
2
in the beginning of public access to domestic
legs, but only small aircraft will be flying these,
and patrons are likely to be government, NGO,
and business travelers.
3. Single carrier routes internationally from
Dili currently result in high fares although the
addition of a new carrier on the Dili-Denpasar
leg and soon Dili-Darwin leg should result in a
sharp decrease in fares and dampen current
price gouging.
4. Facilities at Dili Airport must be improved
particularly if Look Out Circulars (LOC) are to
be introduced in the future. Current security
standards, safety equipment, and operations
require significant upgrades.
Recommendations
Below is a summary of core operational
recommendations for the different transport
sectors examined:
Land public transportation
1. Scheduling for ticket purchasing and terminal
use.
If regulated properly, scheduling should
ensure a more effective and efficient mass
transportation network. This will greatly
diminish wait times and facilitate better
connectivity. This should also work to eliminate
aggressive behavior by the onboard driver’s
assistant or konja.
• Scheduling: Scheduling will improve
efficiency and provision of service
throughout the day and decrease extensive
wait times and limit the act of keliling.2
Scheduling efforts should seek to establish
inter-district departure and arrival times
during daylight hours whenever possible
and sync with sub-district transport and
local use needs. Scheduling will be more
viable if road conditions improve, decreasing
travel times.
Keliling is the practice by which drivers slowly circle neighborhood areas outside a terminal searching for additional passengers and calling out the destination repeatedly.
• Advanced ticketing: Ticketing services
will help reduce passenger waiting times,
practices of keliling, and aggressive konja
behavior. Establishing effective advanced
ticketing will be a challenge as it will require
scheduled bus departures, centralizing and
coordinating a data register of tickets, and
orchestrating payments to relevant individual
bus drivers.
• Option to explore mobile ticketing:
Opportunities for incorporating mobile-based
technologies to fill identified scheduling and
ticketing gaps should be examined. If earlier
recommendations relating to scheduling,
ticketing, and terminal use are implemented,
the large mobile phone ownership in TimorLeste raises opportunities for ticketing and
scheduling processes to be conducted via
mobile technologies.
• Terminal rehabilitation and use: To
implement scheduling, the building or
rehabilitation of terminals will be required.
Currently most terminals remain degraded
or unused with poor facilities. Posting of
schedules, if implemented, must be clear
and regularly updated. Proper lighting and
waiting facilities should be incorporated.
Maintenance for upkeep could be facilitated
through a bus docking tariff incorporated
into the ticket price.
2. Increased operational management and
planning.
The above operational changes will require
increased involvement and management
from the relevant operating institution(s). An
institutional framework or body that governs
individual bus operation would facilitate this and
streamline management as well as regulation
enforcement. Whether this is orchestrated
through transportation collectives/associations,
public transport companies, or government
agencies, increased involvement and oversight
will be required from the Directorate of Land
Transport. Currently the department lacks
sufficient human resource capacity, cross
institutional co-ordination experience, and
operational knowledge to manage this. The
Directorate will therefore require significant
investment and support across departments
and sectors.
3. Creating conditions for alternative
transportation business models for providers.
The enactment of scheduling is problematized
by current transport business models that
prioritize full passenger load (and excess)
above passenger comfort, on-time departure,
and single port boarding (such as terminals).
Therefore, the system requires either a
different business model or intensive regulation
(with greater coordination and involvement
from Transit Police) to enforce operational
requirements. The viability and inherent
challenges in state control of main bus routes
through individual contractors should be
assessed.
4. Driver identification.
The implementation of a driver identification
system that legitimizes and authorizes use
would aid in safety, security, regulation, and
policing. This would be particularly beneficial in
taxis where security issues amongst women
passengers commonly result in discomfort
and limit use, particularly approaching dusk.
Displayed complaint numbers that are free to
call should also be explored. However, without
adequate policing or involvement amongst a taxi
driver organization or body, traction for such an
initiative might be difficult to achieve.
5. Encourage the creation of a bus operator
union/association.
The creation of an association or union of bus
drivers and bus owners could help disseminate
core standards in passenger service needs as
well as provide a disciplinary environment or
institutional framework to manage poor service
delivery.
6. Rehabilitation and improvements in road
corridors.
Improvements in road conditions would be
vastly beneficial to public transport connectivity.
Certain main transit corridors are currently
under repair or are intended to be repaired in
the near future. Improved road conditions will
ensure vastly diminished transportation
7
times; reduce petrol and maintenance cost on
vehicles; and encourage more entrants into
the market. These should result in decreased
costs for individual passengers. An important
consideration here are road widths which
influence passing and safety. Widening roads
could also raise land acquisition issues.3
Maritime public transportation
1. Increased ferry services.
Currently there is a much greater demand for
ferry services than is currently provided to
both Atauro and Oecusse from Dili. The current
schedule and capacity of the ferry indicates
that an additional trip to Atauro is possible with
minimal institutional arrangement.
2. Improved ticketing.
Ticketing services require reformatting as the
current system that allocates tickets is chaotic,
unequal, and biased against women’s access
to purchases. Ticketing reform and attention to
corrupt practices, such as employees favoring
family members for tickets, scalping, and selling
extra illegal space above the allowed amount,
should occur. Customers wishing to secure
tickets commonly wait in areas outside the port
without shade, often for hours. This also poses
traffic congestion and safety issues.
3. Improved boarding.
Waiting and boarding facilities are required.
The general safety during boarding is severely
hampered by the narrow staircase and often
rushing crowds who storm the boat when
boarding. This is both inconvenient, and
represents a serious safety issue with potential
for a ‘stampede’ type incident.
Regulation measures should take into account
rampant scalping practices particularly for the
Nakroma Ferry.
4. Devolvement of authorization for repairs.
Increased inspection of vessels and increased
capacity of engineering staff and a focus on the
3
8
Lucius, Douglas
quality maintenance cycle is needed.
Aviation public transportation
1. Regulation and law making.
Necessary laws and regulation should be
formulated by the Civil Aviation to ensure
air transportation is capable of registration
within Timor-Leste and a code of operation
is enacted to ensure quality and safety of
practice. Regulation should be passed that
would facilitate the selling of individual seats on
domestic flights rather than entire charters of
the plane.
2. Airport upgrading.
Upgrading of services and equipment is
needed, including increased security, at Dili
International Airport. Increased runway length
and width would improve safety for landing.
However, increased air traffic is unlikely to
result in benefits to the poorest sections of
Timorese society.
INTRODUCTION
Public transportation is an essential service and
a key mode for accessing livelihood needs for
the vast majority of Timorese people. Critically,
most rural communities are only connected
to vital social services or wider economic
networks by public transport systems.
Connectivity to health facilities, education
opportunities, and markets, primarily manifest
through public transportation systems, is
severely restricted by a lack of route services.
Cultural ceremonies, family visits, and tourism
are also key reasons for public transportation
patronage. However, across land, air, and
maritime sectors, current service provision
within Timor-Leste exhibits a gamut of
deficiencies that renders it less than optimal.
As a nation with a highly subsistence based
economy and low income levels, efficient
and functional public transportation remains
paramount. However, considerable issues
of accessibility and quality of service hinder
efficacy, particularly across marginally located
community groups. The only bus terminals are
located in Dili and Baucau. Rural communities
are on average four kilometers (65 minutes
of travel time) away from a bus route, but the
reality is that long-distance buses will pick up
few, if any, passengers between their original
and final destination (DNE 2008). Patrons face
further issues including long wait times, lack
of terminals and clear scheduling, protracted
transit times, and concerns of comfort and
safety.
The purpose of analysis in this report is to
advance a clear picture of the current service
delivery of public transport, regarding its
regularity, legal protections, safety and security
concerns, and commercial considerations, as
it compares to current and future demand.
It is assumed here that improvements in
connectivity to livelihood needs will bring wider
socio-economic benefits beyond the individual
user experience due to enhanced accessibility
to essential services as well as increased trade
and economic generation.
Research objectives
The objective of this research paper is to
provide an overview of problematic gaps
and challenges in the provision of public
transportation in Timor-Leste. The paper includes
9
a critical overview of current social, legal,
economic, and environmental challenges in
public transport provision across land, maritime,
and aviation networks and seeks to outline
potential recommendations to meet these
gaps. A particular focus is placed upon poorer,
ruralized access to public transportation. This
paper utilizes a political economy approach
that stresses positions of stakeholder power
and informal accessibility. As such, evidence
was gathered from various sectors and social
hierarchies to frame the research. While the
outcomes of the research paper provide a
set of recommendations, further nuanced
research would be beneficial, particularly into
detailed options for the proposed remedy and
confirmation of accurate route needs. The
scope of this research paper did not allow for
a thorough statistical analysis of transportation
needs on specific routes, but nonetheless a
robust overview of current operations is made.
Research framework
This report uses a political economy approach
for analyzing the issue of public transportation
in Timor-Leste. This framework traditionally
prioritizes understanding social change and
historical transformation. According to the
Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development’s Development Assistance
Committee (OECD-DAC), “political economy
analysis is concerned with the interaction of
political and economic processes in a society;
including the distribution of power and wealth
between groups and individuals, and the
processes that create, sustain, and transform
these relationships over time.” Put more
simply, political economy analysis examines
the relationships between economic and
political structures, processes, and outcomes.
Collectively, political economists analyze the
production, distribution, and consumption of
wealth in a society (Mosco 1996).
10
As a tool, political economy analysis aims to
ensure the insertion of politics into a robust
framework that illuminates the key gaps
and challenges of social benefits within and
across institutions, as well as loci of power.
In particular, attention is given to how power
is differentiated throughout institutional
landscapes as well as communities at an array
of conceptualizations. Furthermore, although it
seeks staid economic veracities, it also strives
to make apparent historical structures that
influence or constrict certain aspects of the
research focus.
This report specifically utilizes the notion
of power with regard to opportunities of
access as a means of framing the research
methodology. In this manner, differentiated
access and associated barriers become central
to analysis and as important as economic
dimensions of social change. Access to
transport is limited or enabled by many factors
in Timor-Leste, and varies across different
social, economic, environmental, and political
arenas. For example, persons’ access may
be dictated by distance and time required to
reach passable roads, frequency of vehicle use
of routes, number and destination of routes,
financial costs, and time required on route
due to road or vehicle condition. Other factors
include knowledge or familiarity with current
operations, exclusion or danger experienced
by membership to certain social groups (i.e.
gender dimensions), and time and opportunity
constraints due to familial, educational, or
health obligations.
A commonly identified issue within the
development landscape of which this research
report operates is that of practical application
outside the analysis arena. While the political
economy framework is effective in identifying
key power holders and critical issues that
undergird common development hurdles,
it can be problematic in terms of outlining
applicable recommendations (Beuran et al.
2011). Therefore the recommendations given
are prepared cautiously with further critical
reflection encouraged.
Methodology
This report utilized a variety of critical research
methods to illuminate the current gaps and
challenges inherent in public transportation
provision in Timor-Leste. These included: a desk
based literature review; semi-formal interviews
with key stakeholders; an experiential
mapping of current land-based networks; and
a targeted survey of passenger experiences
on public transport. By employing a political
economy framework to analyze current mass
transportation challenges in Timor-Leste, a
focus on opportunities of access and power
across scales was used to refine and focus the
data gathering. A phenomenological research
approach was also key to data gathering and
therefore, a number of bus and ferry rides were
undertaken.
A desk based analysis of relevant literature and
current legal frameworks assisted in revealing
prevalent deficiencies in mass transportation, in
Timor-Leste and globally, as well as identifying
relevant stakeholders. Comparative cases
studies within Southeast Asia were also
examined. The resultant stakeholder list
included more than 40 interviewees. Interviews
were semi-formal and conducted with a wide
range of actors including:
• Government actors at national and
district levels;
• Transport operators and related service
providers;
• Passengers;
• Relevant NGO stakeholders;
• Members of the business community.
Observational and participatory research
methods were employed in order to map and
experience current transportation networks
in Timor-Leste. This included significant time
spent at informal terminal areas and commuting
on a number of different routes, including the
Nakroma Ferry. This helped facilitate on-theground mapping of inter-district connectivity
and related socio-economic dimensions of route
operation across four districts: Baucau, Ermera,
Bobonaro, and Manufahi. Fieldwork also
focused on circular routes between western
district capitals, i.e. Dili–Same–Suai–Maliana–
Dili.
Finally, a survey of passenger experiences
was undertaken with over 350 respondents.
The survey sought to understand use patterns,
frequency, needs, and desired improvements
for better service provision. The survey was
also designed to uncover how these viewpoints
were dispersed amongst different users.
Passengers were interviewed both while
currently on and awaiting public transportation,
which assisted in exacting distributional
elements of key issues amongst public
transportation users. Because of difficulties in
securing respondents in areas without terminals
or in states of disembarkation, the respondent
population was heavily biased in representation
of respondents travelling by bus on eastern
route sectors from Dili.
Figure 1: Western district capital connectivity. Fieldwork routes taken in the process of on the ground research.
11
PART 1: LAND PUBLIC
TRANSPORTATION
Introduction
Land transportation is the most important and
most utilized form of public transport in TimorLeste. For rural Timorese, it is key to accessing
a plethora of social and economic opportunities.
The majority of citizens are highly dependent
upon it for core livelihood activities and
accessing critical government services. Access
to education, health services, markets, church
related activities, customary ceremonies, and
importantly family visits are all facilitated by
local land public transportation.
These services are largely inadequate to
passenger requirements, inefficient, and costly
for local incomes. Further, access and quality
is not uniform across Timor-Leste, or amongst
community institutions. A recent report on
migration found that the average walking time
to the nearest transportation point was 31
minutes. For many rural Timorese, this is then
exacerbated by long wait times and uncertainty
of scheduled departures. To reach an urban
center where, for example, markets, higher
education institutions, and health facilities are
located, the average walking time was 110
minutes (Housen 2012). This extended time
demonstrates the importance of a functional,
efficient, and accessible public transport
system for sustainable rural livelihoods.
Issues of low accessibility to public
transportation are alleviated by private
vehicle ownership or alternative socio-cultural
arrangements of shared access to private
vehicles. Individual vehicle ownership in TimorLeste is rising, but for the vast majority of
Timorese, the economic costs of ownership
place the acquisition of such an asset out
of reach. The 2010 Census shows 14.3% of
households owned a motorbike and 5.4%
owned a car/van, but this is much lower for
rural households where the average was 7.4%
12
and 2.1% respectively (DNEUNFPA 2011). This
section of the report provides an overview of
land transportation in Timor-Leste through an
economic, livelihood, and operational lens.
Land public transportation vehicle
types
Land public transportation in Timor-Leste is
facilitated by a variety of vehicle types that
are utilized depending on proven suitability to
specific route road conditions, distance, and
state regulation. Inter-district and intra-district
public transportation routes (the focus of the
research report), are serviced largely by three
vehicle types: microlets, anggunas, and buses.
There are other vehicles that ply core transport
routes but act as charters and are often used
for the transportation of goods as well as
passengers. Thus, trucks are often observed
assisting passengers in various forms of
commute, but are rarely employed solely
for this task, except when demand during
ceremonial or community based events
outstrips capacity of public transport vehicles.
In most cities and towns, public transport
includes microlets and taxis. In two western
district centers, ojeks (motorbike taxis) are also
used. International transportation occurs largely
by bus, on routes from Dili to the northernmost border crossing to Indonesia. With strong
family, economic, and socio-cultural ties to
West Timor, this route is extremely important
for Timorese international travel.
District and inter-district road
transport
The main roadways in Timor-Leste can be
understood to radiate from Dili to district
capitals. From district capitals, smaller, more
degraded roads connect to sub-district centers
of population concentrations. Generally sukus
(villages) without access to these roadways will
be connected to sub-district centers by roads
or pathways in states of even poorer condition.
Public transportation services are heavily
restricted, or non-existent, on such roads.
Buses ply long distance inter-district routes. For
intra-district travel, which commonly requires
using severely degraded roads (particularly
hazardous in the wet season), angguna trucks
are often employed. Such trips frequently take
between one and five hours. For shorter trips
on popular routes with paved roads, microlets
are used. They also function as inner city
transport on set routes in Dili, and in smaller
numbers within Baucau. Short inner city
journeys without prescribed routes are provided
by taxis, of which there is an abundant, but
dilapidated number in Dili. Taxis are also present
in Baucau, but in much lower concentration.
Lastly, ojeks are common in Maliana and Suai.
They operate as a form of motorcycle taxi
and are commonly chartered for short trips. In
the first seven months of 2014 there was an
average of the following public transport service
vehicles registered per month: 123 taxis, 93
microlets, 18 anggunas, nine buses, and one
international bus, with the most popular month
of registration being April.
This next section will elaborate further about the
services of each, but with a greater focus on
inter- and intra-district transportation.
Buses
Buses act as the primary form of inter-district
public transportation in Timor-Leste and provide
crucial transportation links between Dili and the
district capitals. The buses accommodate 24
passengers and commonly carry many more,
despite licensing limits. They are vividly colored
and often individually stylized with ornate nature
scenes, pop stars, or wild decals. Each bus is
also individualized by a unique name, which is
stenciled in large letters on the front along with
the route that the bus purports to travel. Buses
are further customized through the addition of
loud stereo speakers and elaborate windshield
or dashboard decorations that may greatly
reduce visibility.
Currently there are 158 buses registered for
service on routes in Timor-Leste. Bus ownership
and operation of routes occurs on a small scale
with the majority of businesses possessing only
a single vehicle. Fleets are rare although owners
may have other businesses such as shops or
bengkels (workshops).
Figure 2: An angguna waiting for passengers before
departing Same.
Anggunas
Anggunas are modified, medium-sized flat-bed
trucks with two benches installed for seating.
They have room for up to approximately 20
people, the majority of whom stand. They can
carry significantly more cargo than microlets can
13
accommodate. Anggunas are most common
on intra-district routes between sub-district
population centers and the central district
node. The road conditions on such routes are
often more greatly degraded, which anggunas
are more capable of navigating compared to
microlets or buses.
Currently there are approximately 446
anggunas registered in Timor-Leste. Angguna
owners are frequently located in the sub-district
centers rather than the district centers their
route serves to connect, and their operation is
often framed as a form of social goodwill for
the community, as well as in economic terms.
Angguna owners often purchase this type of
vehicle because of the social capital it affords
within the community, in addition to the logical
economic benefits. Anggunas are the form
of transport most likely to be dangerously
overcrowded because of the lack of seating and
reduced policing in the districts to ensure safe
operation.
distance. This fee is mandated by government
regulations. In the past, spiking fuel prices
have motivated microlet drivers and owners
to protest in favor of increasing the fee. A
microlet owner who wishes to operate a set
route needs to apply at the Department of Land
Transport where they will be allocated a route.
The department has the power to limit route
entry depending upon the number of operators.
There are 10 routes in Dili and three in Baucau.
Operation is daily, during daylight hours only.
There are 623 microlets registered for public
transportation use in Timor-Leste. Where road
conditions are adequate, some district to subdistrict routes are operated with microlets.
Microlets are often similar to buses in terms
of their vivid decorations and loud music.
Operators see these attributes as key to
attracting customers, however, some patrons
are uncomfortable with the volume of the
music. Other concerns include overcrowding
and cigarette smoking within the vehicle.
Figure 3: A rural microlet depositing passengers at the Suai market
Microlets
Microlets are small vans that are accessed by
passengers through a side door. A driver and
a konja (assistant) are the onboard operators.
Microlets are most common in Dili and Baucau
where they ply prescribed routes and a set
fee of 25 centavos is charged no matter the
14
Microlets are licensed to carry only 14
passengers but will often overload with many
more.
Taxis
Taxis are a frequent sight on Dili roads and
provide charted transportation services within
the city for fees ranging from $US1-3 per
ride4. Taxis are usually painted yellow and are
converted second-hand sedans. Taxis must
be registered with the Department of Land
Transportation, Public Transportation Section,
and a licensing fee exists for their operation.
Taxi owners, rather than their drivers, are
responsible for taxi registration and licensing.
This means often the driver is not the owner but
instead an employee or a renter of the vehicle.
Although regulations governing taxi operation
exist, many of these are rarely followed. One
such example is that taxi drivers are legally
obliged to wear a designated uniform, but in
current taxi operation, this is extremely rare.
Taxi operation is primarily limited to daylight
hours with few operators willing to provide
services at night. Before the 2006 crisis,
operation at night was normal, but current
operators maintain a lingering wariness of
potential damage and danger that may be
inflicted at night in certain areas. Taxi drivers
who do operate at night charge a greater
amount and are only accessible by phone, as
they do not seek random waiting passengers on
the street.
Taxis are often outfitted with superfluous
decorations such as spoilers, decals, and fake
engine protrusions. Windshield decorations and
tinting are common, and limit the visibility in
and out of the taxi. Tinting is an illegal practice
but policing of it is weak. Despite the effort and
expenditure on decorations, many taxis are in a
poor state of mechanical soundness.
Although the dilapidation of vehicles raises
on-road safety concerns, concerns related to
passenger security, particularly for women,
have become more prominent in recent years.
This is expounded in the gender section. The
lack of photo identification displays in taxis
4
and regulation of drivers (rather than owners/
operators) are examples of issues that require
greater scrutiny to encourage safer services.
Ojek - Motorcycle taxis
Motorcycle taxis, or ojeks as they are known
locally, provide similar services to taxis but
largely only within Maliana and Suai and the
service is unregulated. Ojeks provide local
transportation but may be charted for further
journeys to sub-districts and, less commonly,
other district centers or Dili. Ojek drivers work
to cultivate a client base, often around certain
seasons or in response to particular needs such
as pensioners needing to collect their pensions.
Local trips around the district town start at 50
centavos while further journeys to sub-district
centers cost from USD$5-10 depending on
distance and road conditions. To maintain
profitability, at least 10 passengers per day
are needed, depending on the fares. This may
accrue the ojek driver approximately $10 dollars
per day, before the cost of fuel is paid out of
this.
Motorcycle ownership is seen as an attractive
proposition for many Timorese. It provides
convenient access between home and services,
but is also a status symbol. Ojek work is
appealing to many who lack other opportunities,
as there is no regulation and few barriers to
entry. This results in an oversupply of drivers.
The idling of such drivers while they wait for
passengers crowds market places, but also
provides convenient mobility for market visitors
or those departing mass transport vehicles that
congregate informally in such areas.
International connectivity via land
transportation
Land based international public transport is
abundant in Timor-Leste, and often the only
affordable means for Timorese citizens traveling
International travelers and consultants often suffer from exhorbitant price-gouging by taxi drivers demanding $10 and even $20 per trip that should only be $1-3. Aggressive and even violent behavior toward riders is not uncommon in these instances, and something which needs addressing by the Ministry of Transport as well as Tourism. See The Asia Foundation’s “Survey of Travelers to Timor-Leste 2014” for more information about the use of taxis by travelers: http://asiafoundation.org/publications/pdf/1460
15
to Indonesia. The most important routes involve
daily departures of buses from Dili to the
northern-most border crossing and beyond to
Atambua or Kupang.
International land crossings exist at border
checkpoints between the districts of Covalima,
Bobonaro, and Oecusse with West Timor,
Indonesia. Land border crossings are available
at:
•
•
•
•
Salele – Covalima
Motain (Batugade) – Maliana
Tuni Bibi/Memo - Maliana
Bobometo, Sakato and Wini – Oecusse
Official records indicate that 150,791 persons
passed through land immigration checkpoints
in 2013. Of these Batugade was the busiest,
accommodating more than half.5 The main
international public transport routes occur on
buses providing service through to Kupang and
Atambua via this checkpoint. Passengers must
exit the bus at Batugade and cross through
immigration where an Indonesian counterpart
service provides bus transportation on to West
Timor destinations, such as Atambua and less
frequently other smaller villages.
The costs of using the through service
is high for average Timorese citizens, but
provides the most convenient service and is
the predominant form of international public
transport. Fares to Atambua are $15 while
further to Kupang is $23. It is still cost effective
(though time deficient) for Timorese traveling
further afield to destinations in Bali or Java
to use the Dili – Kupang bus to connect with
cheaper Indonesian domestic flights or buses.
A service provider estimated that approximately
four buses a day depart Dili for Kupang at 8am.
The same buses ferry passengers traveling in
the opposite direction back to Dili at 4pm. There
are 23 buses registered with the Department
of Land and Transport that specifically cater
to international transit. Passenger demand
increases over Easter, Christmas, and
Ramadan.
16
5
Microlet services ply routes from the district
centers of Suai and Maliana to respective
proximate border crossings of Salele and Tunu
Bibi. Border crossings are limited by the hours
of immigration operation, bribery demands
by custom officials (although anecdotally this
seems lower on public transportation compared
with private vehicles), and poor road conditions
between Dili and the border. Roads improve
considerably in West Timor. The international
bus service competes with independent
Maliana-Dili bus operators that are able to drop
passengers close to the border at Batugade but
require passengers to arrange their own public
transportation after crossing into West Timor.
Thus fewer passengers use this service.
The frequency of service and the state of
current road conditions render it necessary
for companies to frequently replace buses.
One prominent service provider estimated a
life span of three years for each vehicle before
replacement.
In addition to the use of public transportation to
cross the border, flow of people and goods are
further hampered by the cumbersome vehicle
permits and expensive visas (costing on order
of $50 for a single entry). Permits for private
vehicles are difficult to obtain, and visas for
Indonesia take excessively long to obtain from
the Indonesian Embassy in Dili.
Interest exists in an overland transport corridor
between the enclave of Oecusse and the rest
of Timor-Leste. Such a corridor would prove
immensely beneficial for travelers to Oecusse,
easing congestion on current ferry services,
and ensuring crucial connections to Dili are
maintained during disruptions because of
ferry repairs. However, Indonesia has rejected
early proposals on the grounds of security
issues (Anon 2002). A visa-free land corridor
linking Oecusse with Timor-Leste is not being
actively considered (ICG 2010). Current existing
Indonesian visa regulations require prior
application and entail high fees for each entry,
Informal border crossings are common between Timor-Leste and Indonesia but public transportation is not a common avenue to accomplish this (Perdani 2014).
Figure 4: Microlet routes of Dili - there are a total of 10 lines
rendering overland transit services inoperable
and an expensive endeavor.
Summary of current service provision
Dili acts as the central network node for public
transportation in Timor-Leste. Main routes
radiate out from Dili to the district capitals and
are serviced generally by buses. It is rare that
buses provide route access exclusively from
one district to another, except where the main
road network passes through a district capital
on the way to Dili. In this manner connecting
to different district capitals by public transport
can be challenging and time consuming, often
depriving rural communities of alternative
nearby market options. Transportation options
between Same and Suai are limited and
unpredictable; trip length could exceed 24
hours depending on time between the required
vehicle transits. Likewise, travelling from Suai
to Maliana or Same to Ainaro is made difficult
by numerous transitions between different
sub-district services or limited services and
departures at inaccessible times.
Less busy roadways connect district capitals to
sub-district population centers and these are
usually serviced by anggunas, or microlets (if
the road conditions are adequate). Departures
on these routes are usually less frequent and
the profit diminished in comparison to district
capital to Dili services.
Short distance intra-city transportation needs
are met by microlets, taxis, or ojek charters and
walking. Often all three levels of transportation
networks (district, sub-district, and local) will
be used in a completing a trip. Considering the
frequency of extended wait times probable
for each leg, inter-district travel time can be
extremely long with little actual rest between
departure point and final destination.
Public transportation business models:
Buses
The economic dimensions of bus operations
reflect informality with little prescribed
regulation; nonetheless a transportation
business model has germinated which is
common across most rural public transportation
enterprises. Owners employ drivers (sometimes
acting as the driver themselves) to operate and
manage the bus an agreed number of trips to
and from Dili per day. If the destination, such as
Baucau, is proximate and demand high enough,
two or feasibly three return trips are possible.
Longer trips that navigate the central south
thoroughfare commonly complete a return trip
in two days.
There are two variations on a common business
model. In the first and most common, the driver
is expected to pay the owner an amount of
money equal to selling every seat on the bus,
for every leg of the trip. Income derived from
this pre-determined amount is used by the
17
bus operator to purchase petrol, make repairs,
supply the agreed salary to the driver and konja
and any other associated costs. If the full fares
are not obtained, then the deficient amount is
deducted from the driver’s salary. However, any
extra income that the driver is able to derive
above the expected amount through extra
passengers or charges for additional cargo
they are able to keep. This results in potentially
lucrative income on frequent and popular legs.
In the second variant, the driver is allocated a
certain percentage of takings instead of a fixed
monthly salary. In this second variant the driver
may be paid 10-15% of the takings, depending
on negotiation, or a mixture of both may occur.
Bus drivers are commonly members of the local
family network of the owner. This is because
trust plays a central role in the relationship
between the two. The owner expects insurance
mediated through wider community networks
of respect to ensure the bus will be maintained,
driven with care, and the collection of daily
takings unproblematic.
The numbers of vehicles operating on routes
from district capitals to Dili are semi-formally
regulated by the Department of Land and
Transport. Limits are placed upon the number
of buses on route and in this manner the
department hopes to encourage operation
on less popular routes while managing the
TABLE 1: EXAMPLES OF PERCEIVED AVERAGE INCOMES FROM ROUTE OPERATION
Same – Dili Route (Monthly)
An informant provided estimations on salaries, fuel use, and expected monthly income (USD$3,000). Rough
estimations of gross income dependent on full patronage and daily use were also made based upon one
return trip every two days. These proved roughly generally equivalent.
Ticket price
Trips per month x seat numbers
GROSS INCOME
General estimate
Respondent
estimate
9
690
6210
~3000
Fuel: 80L x 15
Salaries: Driver (175),
Conductor (50)
Servicing and TOTAL COSTS
maintenance
1440
225
150
Income
Costs
1815
Approx. income 4400
Maliana - Dili Route (Monthly)
An informant provided estimations on salaries, fuel use, and expected monthly income. This was
approximately $USD3,500. Rough estimations of gross income dependent on full patronage and daily use
were also made by the researcher, which approximate the informant’s income expectations on this route.
Ticket price
Trips per month x seat numbers
GROSS INCOME
General estimate
Respondent
estimate
6
1380
8280
3500
Fuel: 120L x
30 (~1.20/L)
Salaries: Driver ($35 + Servicing and TOTAL COSTS
10%), Conductor (70) maintenance
4320
430
Income
Costs
150
4900
Approx. income 3380
Baucau - Dili Route (Monthly)
The informant on this route was a driver who provided his expectations regarding known costs. Because
of the better roadways, proximity to Dili, and popularity of the route, this particular vehicle driver drove four
legs a day (two x return trips).
Ticket price
Trips per month x seat numbers
GROSS INCOME
General estimate
Respondent
estimate
4
2760
11040
N/A
Fuel: 120L x
30 (~1.20/L)
Salaries: Driver (400),
Conductor (80)
Servicing and TOTAL COSTS
maintenance
5400
480
150
Income
Costs
6030
Approx. income ~5000
18
potential for oversaturation of route providers on
popular ones. The department has also imposed
set prices for travel on certain routes, although
this does not occur on sub-district routes and is
often raised by konjas, given the opportunity.
Purchase of a bus is an expensive undertaking
and unfeasible for the vast majority of Timorese
seeking small business opportunities. When
purchasing a vehicle new, prices may range
from $USD35,000 to 40,000, depending on
whether the purchase is made in country or in
West Timor, where prices are lower. On many
routes the average life for a bus is approximately
10 years. Second-hand buses can be purchased
for less, with interviewees indicating a
market rate of approximately $USD15,000.
Life expectancy with second-hand buses is
considerably lower. Tires are frequently in need
of replacement (every two to three months).
The average income for a bus owner, and driver,
varies depending on the popularity of the route,
condition of the road, and frequency with which
the bus can travel per day. The table below
provides a snapshot of the potential incomes of
some of the most popular routes serviced by
buses.
For less, with interviewees indicating a
market rate of approximately $USD 15,000.
Life expectancy with second-hand buses is
considerably lower. Tires are frequently in need
of replacement (every two or three months).
The availability of fuel factors into the operations
of public transportation in Timor-Leste, including
price. The vast majority of stations are located in
Dili where petrol pricing is significantly cheaper
and operators preference the city as the main
location to procure fuel if the route services it.
Outside of single stations in Baucau, Maliana
and Suai, intra-district services must rely on
informal sales points with substandard storage
methods and higher costs. Petrol is frequently
smuggled across the border in Maliana
where Indonesian subsidies greatly reduce
price. However, many operators complain of
mechanical failure as a result of using smuggled
fuel that is often further diluted.
Figure 5: Fuel for sale in Gleno
Lack of scheduling
The current business model for inter-district and
inter-sub-district public transportation places the
onus of economic responsibility on the driver.
The driver must fill all seats on any route trip or
forfeit a portion of his salary. Due to this, the
driver often will not depart until the maximum
number of passengers is reached. This results in
long waiting times at the departure point and an
unwillingness of operators or drivers to commit
to scheduled departure times. This practice also
encourages the act of keliling.
Keliling is the practice by which drivers slowly
circle neighborhood areas outside a terminal
searching for additional passengers and calling
out the destination repeatedly. Occasional
difficulty in filling seats on less popular routes
can result in substantial time and fuel costs due
to this practice. Although the practice is illegal,
it is tolerated by traffic police and is a common
method to obtain passengers. In the passenger
survey, 75% of users indicated a desire to
see keliling ended and do not enjoy or find the
practice safe.
The lack of certain departures makes tickets
unnecessary to public transportation operation
in Timor-Leste. The vast majority of users,
related government institutions, and operators
have highlighted ticket use as beneficial to the
19
Figure 6: Inter-district bus terminals in Dili. Tasi Tolu on the far left servicing western districts, Taibessi servicing central and
southern districts, and Becora servicing eastern districts
passenger experience. Passengers in particular
would like the ability to purchase tickets in
advance for a service that would depart at a set
time. This would save significant waiting and
help ensure transportation on the future day or
time needed.
The role of terminals
Currently terminal use in Timor-Leste is minimal
and this restricts the ability for scheduled
departure or ticket sales. Dili possesses three
different terminal areas:
• Becora - servicing the East (Baucau,
Viqueque, Lautem, Manatuto)
• Taibessi - servicing the Central South
(Same, Ainaro, Aileu, Suai)
• Tasi Tolu - servicing the West (Ermera,
Liquica, Bobonaro)
However, these terminal areas are in variable
states of disrepair and use. Defense forces
presently occupy the Tasi Tolu terminal and
therefore the main road nearby has altered
into an informal gathering area for civilian bus
passengers. This poses traffic congestion and
safety issues, compounding organizational
matters and passenger discomfort due to the
prominent dust generated and an absence of
20
waiting areas, shade, or toilet facilities. The
Taibessi terminal has been newly designated
to a currently unoccupied site neighboring
the new market. The site is planned for the
construction of a terminal, but a precise
timeline for commencement is still unknown.
Although visited by vehicles, the difficulties of
access, lack of facilities, and poor patronage
by potential passengers means bus operators
spend little time waiting there. Instead they
commonly undertake keliling to other areas that
are easier for passengers to access or more
commonly known, such as the roadside around
the previous terminal area in Hali Laran. Becora
is the most functional terminal in Dili, but still
in need of serious upgrades including paving,
designated waiting areas, and bays. Due to long
wait times before departure, access to toilets is
critical for passengers, yet no facilities exist.
Most other terminals in district capitals are nonexistent and instead have informally evolved
into sites where vehicles coalesce to wait for
passengers. Similarly they lack organization,
paved bitumen, and facilities.
The business model used in public
transportation operations is problematic in that
it encourages unsafe practices of overcrowding
and discomfort amongst passengers. Every
paid passenger above the set limit and extra
money received from charges for cargo is kept
by the driver, a significant portion of income.
Therefore most buses carry more passengers
than what current regulation allows. Without
dedicated capacity to regulate and police this,
this is likely to continue. Police attention to
riding on the roof of the bus has largely curbed
this, but outside of Dili where police presence is
reduced, it is not uncommon.
Due to competition for passengers or often
late departures, boarding and disembarking
buses from home or set points is a common
occurrence, especially at night when connecting
urban transport is not running. This practice
is prohibited by law but rarely enforced. The
practice often adds significant time to total
travel time. With regards to safety it proves
a double-edged sword as many (particularly
women) are content to be dropped home during
hours of heightened insecurity with little public
transport. However, many living on inaccessible
or minor roads in urban areas are still forced to
walk to access points and wait for pick up, often
at night and at the expense of personal security.
Road infrastructure
The speed and efficacy of land public
transportation is heavily dependent upon the
quality and accessibility of roads along routes.
Road infrastructure therefore plays a significant
role in the travel experience and is regarded by
stakeholders across a variety of spectrums and
institutions as key to effective service delivery.
According to the 2015 Timor-Leste Transport
Master Plan, Timor-Leste has an estimated
8,701km of roads. Of this total, 1,440km are
classified as ‘national’ roads, 745km as ‘district’,
716km as ‘urban’ and a further 1,700km as
‘core rural roads’. The remaining nearly 50%
(4,100km) are considered “non-core” rural
roads, some of which are little more than tracks
and unsuitable for motorized vehicles. The
national road network has about 450 bridges
nationwide, totaling 8,488 lineal meters.
Maintenance of these remains a concern with
at least 26 out of 44 bridges requiring ‘urgent
attention’ in 2010, still remaining so in 2014.
During occupation, Indonesian authorities
invested heavily in road infrastructure by
building new and better roads in far greater
magnitude than anything undertaken by the
Portuguese administration. This was key in
assisting the military apparatus to maintain
control over a disperse population and to
respond rapidly against resistance fighters.
Half the network is bitumen paved, although
much in a degraded state. Approximately 1,430
kilometers of road links the district centers,
and this forms the national network, with an
additional 870km of district roads providing links
to large administrative centers. The remaining
3,020km are rural access or feeder roads. The
national road network has about 317 bridges,
with an average length of 34 meters; half of the
bridges are less than 10 meters in length (The
World Bank 2014).
Poor road conditions are cited as a common
concern amongst rural villages, particularly
those in remote locations (Asian Development
Bank 2007). In rural areas the average walking
time to the nearest passable road is 18.8
minutes; during the wet season, that road
would be accessible only 63% of the time (DNE
2008).
Distance to a bus stop was on average 1 km in
urban areas and 4 km in rural areas in 2007, but
this varied widely across districts. Travel time
to a bus stop or terminal likewise varied from
22 minutes in urban areas (Dili 13 min), to 65
minutes in rural areas. Despite strong concerns
across sectors about people’s proximity and
access to roads, the density of the road
network and levels of penetration is high in
Timor-Leste in comparison to other low-income
countries (The World Bank 2014).
Current inter-district road conditions are poor
and because of sub-standard construction,
difficult terrain, and heavy annual rains, they are
prone to rapid degradation. This is particularly
pertinent in mountainous areas where the
harsh conditions of certain roads significantly
slow travel times, wear down vehicles, and
create dangerous driving conditions. Vehicle
dilapidation creates barriers to entry to transport
provision, as repair costs are inflated beyond
21
TABLE 2: TOTAL RECORDED TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS IN TIMOR-LESTE JANUARY – MAY 2014. SOURCE: RDTL POLICE,
TRANSIT DEPARTMENT
RESPONSIBILITY
Driver factor
100%
Vehicle factor
0%
Road factor
0%
District
TRANSIT POLICE: Recorded Traffic Accidents
Timor-Leste
Minor injuries
Serious injuries
Deaths
Total cases
18
8
0
18
1
8
0
15
Bobonaro
15
9
0
22
Baucau
55
13
1
55
Aileu
Ainaro
Dili
194
50
10
396
Ermera
2
6
1
8
Covalima
7
4
4
12
Liquica
51
17
2
48
Lautem
4
4
1
11
Manufahi
36
5
2
8
Manatuto
8
1
5
13
Oecusse
4
4
0
5
Viqueque
31
14
2
17
426
143
28
628
TOTAL
typical wear and tear and the vehicle’s lifespan
is significantly reduced.
Road transportation and safety
Identifying critical safety issues for Timorese
public transportation is difficult given the
unavailability of data on public transportation
accidents specifically. Vehicle dilapidation also
raises safety concerns. However, interviews
with Timorese Transit Police and their collected
accident data locates fault in driver error for
the vast majority of cases. This indicates
deficiencies with current licensing and training
issues. Many bus drivers interviewed across
numerous districts had their license obtained
and organized for them by their employers.
Road traffic deaths (estimated) per 100,000
have been slowly increasing from 17.5 in 2007
to 19.5 in 2013 (WHO 2013; UNESCAP 2012).
The official total for traffic accidents in 2012
was 1913 according to Timor-Leste Transit Police
(personal correspondence), but is likely to be
higher as many accidents are not properly
reported.
22
Jan 1 - 31
May 2014
Employment
The number of those employed in
transportation and storage according to the
2010 Labor Force Survey was 8000, 3.4% of
the total employed population (RDTL 2010). The
overwhelming majority are male with primary
or pre-secondary education and two thirds
reside in urban areas. 6000 are employees
rather than self-employed and of these,
approximately 2000 (24.4%) are considered
vulnerably employed. 80% are employed in a
business of between one and four persons.
The number employed in mobile transportation
is uncertain as only 2000 were regarded as
having no location and/or being mobile. This
could imply that other jobs within the 8000
are primarily in storage or different aspects of
transportation. Average pay was USD$140/
month, which is similar to the average pay
of drivers interviewed in the course of this
research (USD$147.50). However, konjak on
average earned approximately $50 per month.
The total number of public transportation
vehicles currently registered (excluding taxis)
provides an estimation of 2500 jobs in landbased public transportation (Department of
Land Transport 2014).
Legal frameworks governing land
public transportation
The Department for Land Transportation, which
is couched within the Ministry of Transport
and Communication, is the body responsible
for formulating and implementing public
transportation policy. The most important laws
relating to the provision of land based public
transportation in Timor-Leste are:
• BASIC LAW ON THE ROAD TRANSPORT
SYSTEM - Decree-Law No. 2 /2003
• HIGHWAY CODE - Decree-Law No. 6/2003
• REGULATION SYSTEMS OF PUBLIC
TRANSPORT - Ministerial Diploma 3/
MTCOP/2003
Under Timorese law, companies providing
public transportation must be incorporated as a
company, have a valid operator vehicle license,
and be Timorese owned (by an individual or a
business that is greater than 50% Timorese).
Licensing requires that a vehicle be less than
15 years old (exceptions exist for remote areas
and in instances where newer vehicles are not
available) and requires renewing annually with
payments ranging from US$10-30, depending
on vehicle type. Six-monthly inspections are
also required under Article 110 of the Highway
Code Decree-Law No. 6/2003. Furthermore the
government has the right to set tariffs on public
transportation under Section 21 of Decree-Law
2/2003, but private operators, such as taxis, are
free to set their own.6
Certain regulations are stipulated but rarely
followed by service providers and operators.
Vehicles are required to have fire extinguishers
and first aid kits, but most do not. Tinting is also
prohibited but popular. The Ministerial Diploma
MTCOP 3/20003 also specifies that route
proposals and set embarkation and departure
times for such routes will be submitted to the
Directorate of Land Transport and followed.
Furthermore, the department can specify quality
and regularity of service particulars by way
of public service obligation. Set route times,
however, are rarely adhered to. The dropping of
passengers at sites other than terminals is also
deemed unlawful. No drivers were observed to
conform to the law on driver uniform use during
the period of research.
Also apparent was anecdotal evidence of
widespread corruption of the provision of
vehicle and driver licenses. The majority
of drivers interviewed indicated that their
license had been organized and provided by
their employer without any driver testing or
sometimes even vehicle inspections.
Service access and transportation
For a large majority of Timorese people,
access to essential services such as health
and education is made possible due to public
transportation. Improved and more efficient
access is limited by deficient or infrequent
public transportation systems. An ADB study
examining the gender and poverty dimensions
of an upgraded road network found that many
of the villages they encountered relied on public
transport or walking to reach health facilities
(Asian Development Bank 2007). While 77.1% of
people use clinics, they are typically 3 km away
and require an average travel time of 1 hour
(DNE 2008). Hospitals are located only in some
district capitals and may take extensive time to
reach, particularly if the traveler reliant on public
transportation from a sub-district node that
enjoys little route activity.
Education services are also commonly located
far from the rural Timorese household, with
extremely limited transportation options.
According to survey census work in 2007,
6
Public transport in Timor-Leste is complicated given that most ‘public’ transport, including buses, are essentially privately operated. The difference here is based largely on the fact that buses and microlets operate on set routes.
23
primary schools are on average 1.2 km away at
a travel time of 30 min. Secondary schools are
on average at a distance of 4.5 km, requiring
69 min for travel time. Only 27.5% households
use and access secondary schools (DNE
2008). A more recent survey found that the
average walking time for rural households
is 37 min to primary schools and 92 min to
secondary schools. Public transportation is key
in connecting rural families with education, but
limitations in provision, frequency and cost will
often necessitate migration to a district capital
or Dili to live with a family member (Housen
2012).
Insurance
Third party insurance is compulsory for all
vehicles in Timor-Leste under Public Instruction
No. 07/2010 “On Compulsory Third Party
Liability for Motor Vehicles Insurance.” This
stipulates all motor vehicles require insurance
covering bodily harm, but property damage
remains unregulated. The public instruction
also stipulates the set rates for premium
annual cover and payment limits for third party
indemnity. All land public transportation vehicles
are set at a premium rate of USD$50 per
annum. Current uptake on required insurance
is very low and enforcement remains difficult.
No mass transportation buses have insurance
and NiTL (the national insurer of Timor-Leste)
estimates only 5-10% of motor vehicle owners
are aware of the requirements.
So far no claims have been made for accidents
involving mass transportation. Limitations to
uptake include a lack of knowledge of the law
but also low enforcement. The costs of USD$50
per year are therefore not seen as worthwhile,
particularly as coverage is void if specific safe
passenger numbers are exceeded. Considering
the income for drivers from extra passengers,
it is unlikely that adherence to legal passenger
numbers will occur.
24
Figure 7: Ermera sub-district transport nodes
District mapping: Public
transportation networks
To unpack the current operational gaps and
challenges of rural public transportation, a
general mapping exercise of nodal exchanges
and related socio-economic landscape was
undertaken in the four districts of Baucau,
Bobonaro, Ermera and Manufahi. The desire
was to produce snapshots of localized rural
transportation needs, gaps, and opportunities,
but also illuminate differences in connectivity
and linkages in inter-district networks.
Gleno - Ermera
Road conditions in the very mountainous
Ermera district are generally poor, limiting
connectivity while increasing travel times.
Public transportation from Dili to Gleno takes
approximately two hours. This route is serviced
mostly by microlets.
Currently the road from Dili to the district
center of Gleno is being upgraded and when
completed should decrease travel times
significantly as well as improve the longevity
of public transportation vehicles that ply this
road. Because the road presently lacks asphalt,
it creates extremely dusty conditions that are
uncomfortable and pose health hazards for
passengers.
Road conditions make connecting to the
main sub-district centers of Hatolia, Atsabae,
Letefoho, and Ermera from Gleno even more
difficult. Railaco is located on the main GlenoDili road connection and is accessed more
easily from Gleno or Dili than other sub-districts.
Similar to other districts, the highest demands
for public transportation from sub-district nodes
to Gleno occur on the district’s market day,
Thursday. Due to the importance of coffee
to the local economy, picking season (from
June to August) also sees a high increase in
public transportation use. In the wet season,
transportation on these routes is more difficult,
slower, and at times halted.
Maliana - Bobonaro
Bobonaro is one of the most populous districts
in Timor-Leste. As it borders West Timor,
and many families have members on either
side, it is heavily reliant on functioning public
transportation for border crossings as well as
to access basic services. Like other districts,
Bobonaro comprises of mountainous terrain in
which many towns are located and commonly
difficult to reach by public transportation.
Degraded roads in poor condition play a role in
this and limit sub-district connectivity.
As the third most populous city in Timor-Leste,
the capital of Maliana is serviced frequently by
buses to and from Dili. This route has proved
popular enough amongst operators that the
Department for Land and Transport has curtailed
additional public transportation vehicles.
Two important sub-district population hubs,
Atabae and Balibo, lie on the main roadway
between Maliana and Dili. These are relatively
well serviced due to the prominence of bus
transportation to the capital, including good
road conditions in comparison to other subdistrict nodes. Batugade, the town closest to
Timor-Leste’s busiest border crossing, is also
well serviced on this route. The worst sections
are near Balibo and between Liquica and Dili.
Figure 8: Sub-district connectivity in Bobonaro. Maliana
acts as the main transportation hub.
Much of the road is currently being upgraded at
the time of this writing. The construction should
make travel more comfortable and quicker in
the future but renders the experience extremely
dusty and uncomfortable at present.
Other sub-district towns experience greater
difficulties with regard to access. Due to
navigational challenges, both Cailaco and
Bobonaro are serviced by anggunas. The
road condition from Maliana to Lolotoe is so
poor that public transportation operators do
not service this sub-district town. Instead
passengers are required to charter anggunas
willing and available to run the route. Road
connections to Suai exist following the
roadway past Bobonaro, but access via public
transportation is extremely time-consuming and
sporadic, entailing a number of changes and
waits.
The main terminal is located 7 km outside of
town and very close to the border with West
Timor, at Tunu Bibi. Problematically this terminal
has few facilities or shops. During the day it is
not patronized as most of the disembarkation
and boarding and corresponding waiting
happens very early in the morning.
Buses and sub-district route carriers usually
visit and perform keliling in the center of town
25
around the main market space. In this same
area there are ojek drivers who provide short
journeys for single passengers. Microlets run
from the central market area to Tunu Bibi, but
this service halts to nothing more than a trickle
by afternoon. Saturday is usually the busy day
on intra-district routes to convey passengers to
the weekly market, while Sunday usually proves
the busiest day for the Dili–Maliana route.
Illegal fuel smuggling is extremely common but
large bus operators are largely hesitant to use
cheaper fuel as some have experienced vehicle
damage from poor quality fuel that has been
mixed with other liquid.
Same - Manufahi
The district of Manufahi encompasses difficult
terrain that makes public transportation
operation arduous, particularly to certain subdistrict centers. The district’s main thoroughfare
progresses roughly north to south as a forked
section of the main south coast road from Dili.
Road conditions are poor between the district
capital of Same and north to Maubisse, creating
long commute times and demanding driving
conditions. However, this section is currently
undergoing construction, including a widening
of the road which will greatly improve travel
times and comfort. Commuting to Dili will be
further improved once a new bypass road via
the Comoro River from Aileu is completed.
The district is comprised of four sub-districts
including Same, but two of these are poorly
serviced, without regular public transportation
options connecting them to the district capital.
The main destinations are Betano on the south
coast, Hatu-Udo in Ainaro district, Welaluhu in
Alas and Natabora in Manatuto district. Serious
issues exist in the deficiencies of transport to
Turiscai or to Alas town proper.
The Manufahi District Administration noted a
reduction in the number of public transportation
businesses, which he blamed largely on poor
road conditions which impact vehicles and
result in reluctance of operators. The difficulties
of accessibility inhibit connectivity to markets
resulting in reduced economic opportunities or
26
growth. Furthermore delivery of government
services within the district and public access to
social/state amenities in Same are impacted.
Accidents relating to poor road and vehicle
conditions, including on public transport, have
occurred in the past on Manufahi roads.
The time, financial, comfort and other factors
already discussed in this paper therefore
impact on markets in Natabora, Hatu Udo,
and Suai. The busiest days for transportation
in the district are the market days of Saturday
and Sunday. The route to Betano experiences
increased demand on Monday during its weekly
market. There is a hospital in Same and people
journey from the sub-districts for complicated
medical treatment that cannot be remedied at
sub-district clinics.
Currently, no terminal exists although there
is an unstructured space where buses park
and wait for passengers within the market.
Anggunas do not utilize this informal terminal
space and will perform keliling to fill up before
they depart. There are plans to construct a
terminal, which incorporate tariffs for bus
docking and ticketing. However, the District
Administration indicates that until devolvement
of power to implement localized plans from the
state administration to the districts, this cannot
occur. A terminal would not only facilitate better
organization of passengers and vehicles, but
would place greater fiscal responsibility with
the district administration, who also recognizes
that such changes take significant time to
implement.
Baucau
Baucau experiences the greatest amount
of public transportation activity after Dili
and acts as an important hub for the east.
Services between Dili and Baucau are very
frequent during the day in comparison to
other destinations due to the proximity to Dili,
relatively smooth roads between the two cities,
and the high passenger demand. Buses are
used on this section, and despite their large
passenger capacity, departures are relatively
steady. Over 40 buses ply the route. Baucau
is located on the route from Dili to the district
Figure 9: Baucau and surrounding sub-district transport nodes
capitals of Los Palos and Viqueque, and in some
administrative and economic matters acts as the
main hub of the east, attracting passengers in
need of Baucau‘s bureaucratic, financial, market
or education services.
Baucau also serves as the chief intra-district
hub for public transportation services from the
five sub-district capitals: Baguia, Laga, Quelicai,
Venilale, and Vemasse. Public transportation to
the sub-districts of Baucau occurs via anggunas
or microlets depending on the road conditions.
Baguia experiences the longest travel times
to Baucau and the worst conditions and is
therefore serviced primarily by anggunas. Laga
and Vemasse are situated on the main north
coast east-west roadway where the road quality
enables operation by microlets. Laga is serviced
by more vehicles because of a bigger population
and its location to the east, where it is unable
to capitalize on frequent Dili-Baucau services
like Vemasse. Quelicai must rely on anggunas
for public transportation, and though some are
used to commute between Venilale and Baucau,
microlets are also able to use this route with
relative ease. The busiest day for transportation,
particularly from sub-district transport nodes,
are the Baucau market days of Thursday and
Sunday. Baucau is the only other town to have
a localized microlet service, with three different
routes connecting the old and new town and
the central market area.
With increasing traffic, there is greater need
for traffic signs and organization in Baucau,
including in so far as the use of an official
bus terminal. Currently the bus terminal is
functional, but in a state of disrepair, with
low patronage. Repairs are occurring slowly.
Whether or not any upgrades will impact
on current attitudes and use, remains to be
seen – nonetheless plans exist to develop the
area as a transportation hub. It appears that
limited financial and human resources, and
heavily ingrained habits of use, are likely to
continue to limit patronage. Instead much of the
transportation leaves from a central roundabout
close to the market and may sporadically
enter the terminal while conducting keliling
for passengers. Despite police insistence and
threats to operators of prosecution for illegal
courting customers in this area, drivers continue
to prefer and return here for passengers while
the terminal area remains quiet, dusty, and
underused. To ensure greater safety with
future vehicle transportation, police checks and
engagement beyond seeking enforcement of
terminal use will be necessary.
Public transport user survey results
Over 350 short surveys were employed in the
process of the research to better gauge current
user experiences, needs, and expectations of
public transportation provision on inter-district
services. The surveys aimed to gather data on
27
passenger usage patterns, costs, concerns
of safety, infrastructure deficiencies, and
organizational structures of management. The
surveys demonstrate that public transportation
is indeed key in meeting core livelihood needs,
but that expectations regarding service delivery
are much higher than what is current available
and gaps exist that stifle efficiency, comfort,
and efficacy.
Connecting to services and use
Visiting family, accessing markets, and
moving house were commonly cited as the
main reason for using public transportation.
In general, women tend to use public
transportation for a wider variety of reasons
compared to men. With regards to frequency of
use, 78.4% of respondents used the route they
were interviewed on one to four times per year,
and 64.5% were using the route to visit family
at the time of survey.
Certain bias in characteristics of interviewees
became apparent once the data was analyzed,
likely due to conditions around locating
respondents. A preponderance were students,
more men than women were interviewed,
and the vast majority were travelling from
Dili to other destinations. The most common
destinations were Los Palos or Baucau. The
reason for this is that people were more
reluctant to be interviewed after completing
a journey, rather than before when they are
waiting. Because eastern departures took place
from the only proper terminal in Dili, it was
easier to locate respondents and interview
them in a comfortable environment. Buses to
other destinations were rarely parked, instead
involved in keliling. The destinations of Baucau
and Los Palos also had the most frequent
departures and hence the most passengers.
With regards to the use of public transport to
access essential services, 31% of individuals,
or a family member, had visited a health or
hospital facility in the last three months, and on
average this occurred 4.41 times. The survey
showed that a large portion of interviewees
were students. Consequently, of respondents,
48.7% said they had used public transportation
for accessing education in the last three
months, and during this period an average of
68.1 trips were taken by these respondents. Of
respondents, 40% had used public transport
to access a market in the last three months7,
and during those three months, had visited a
market an average of 5.12 times.
28
TOTAL
48.3%
21.6%
56.8%
28.7%
33.1%
31.8%
25.5%
32.3%
30.4%
6.4% 66.0%
5.4% 52.1%
5.7% 55.7%
Other
52.1%
55.3%
23.3%
31.8%
Moving
house
23.3%
21.3%
24.1%
23.3%
Connecting
to other
transport
42.0%
Customary
ceremonies
Male
80.9%
48.6% 76.3%
52.3% 77.3%
62.8%
Wedding
70.2%
Church
17.0%
Work
66.0%
Vist family
Market
buying
Female
Tourist
Market
sales
Education
TABLE 3: USES OF PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION BY INTERVIEWEES
1.1%
3.5%
2.8%
User experiences
Time commitments
The surveys sought to collect users’ frequency
and purpose of travel on their particular route.
Their experience of travel encompasses three
general areas: ability to connect to services/
purpose, time commitments, and onboard
experiences.
The average trip length to visit a market was
124.7 minutes, while education was much
closer at 14 minutes (which likely reflects the
fact that a large number of survey respondents
were students in living in Dili and using microlet
transportation).
7
This statistic is from a separate question but as can be seen from Table 1 - Uses of Public transportation by interviewees, a very similar response rate as to this question was obtained.
The time required to travel to the boarding point
was on average 27.7 minutes, while the average
waiting time prior to departure was over an hour
(65 minutes). The time needed post-journey
from the arrival location to final destination
was on average 47.3 minutes. This totals to an
average 140 minutes of journey time in addition
to the actual time traveled on the route leg.
The differences in pre- and post-journey travel
likely reflect the bias in interviewee numbers
that were mostly travelling from Dili to other
locations. Public transportation in Dili is more
frequent and private vehicle ownership is much
higher, which helps shorten the pre-journey
travel time versus time required for travel
following arrival in another district.
Economic limitations are an important factor in
patrons’ transportation decisions. In contrast,
many are time abundant and/or flexible and
are likely to sacrifice journey time for financial
savings. Nonetheless, extensive travel
times restrict the time available for farming,
housework, or education, and impinge on
economic productivity.
Around 30% of respondents’ families had
private transport.8 The majority of private
vehicles were motorbikes, which were
unfeasible for the trip in question due to
distance or being used by someone else. Many
passengers interviewed had not boarded their
vehicle at a terminal or similar designated area.
Only 66 of respondents out of 338 boarded
their bus at a station. Of those who boarded at
a bus station, 51.7% of respondents walked to
the boarding point, while 21.6% used microlets
and 17% used taxis before boarding. After
disembarking, 53.1% of respondents walked to
their next or final destination, while 19.3% used
a motorbike.
Onboard experiences
23.3% had carried goods for other people.
The survey probed users on their views toward
the onboard experience. The table below
provides a brief summary of responses:
Passenger perceptions of onboard comfort
TABLE 4: PERCEPTIONS OF PASSENGER COMFORT
AND REASONS FOR DISCOMFORT
Frequency Percent
Comfortable
248
70.4
Overcrowding
85
24.1
Fast driving
35
9.9
Slowness
27
7.7
Too many stops
53
15.1
Keliling
56
15.9
Sitting next to opposite sex
21
6.0
Unsafe
63
17.9
Small seats
34
9.7
Bumpy
55
15.6
Standing
35
9.9
Dirty
42
11.9
Noisy
62
17.6
Smoking
68
19.3
4
1.1
Other
Nearly three-quarters of users (70.4%) indicated
that they felt comfortable travelling alone on
public transportation. The survey probed those
who indicated that they were ‘uncomfortable’
further, to determine reasons underlying
this perception. Of these, 81.4% identified
overcrowding as the core issue (24.1% of total
respondents), 65.2% listed smoking as their
main concern, and 60.5% thought the bus
condition or route was unsafe.
In general, most respondents saw the quality
of route service as unchanging. However,
over 90% of interviewees indicated that there
were more vehicles providing route service in
comparison to last year.
Of respondents, 20.7% of carried goods for
transport, and on average had paid an extra USD
$3.50 dollars for the services. A third (31%) of
respondents reported carrying money for other
people at some point on previous journeys, and
8
Note this is quite high as the national average as of 2007 was ~8%.
29
80%
R o u t e S e r v i c e : p a s t ye a r
70%
57%
60%
50%
Don't know
40%
Not at all
Somewhat
30%
1%
Yes
20%
10%
0%
Female
19%
23%
Better
Worse
Same
Male
Total
Figure 11: Comfortable traveling alone
Don't know
While violence is not extremely common,
17.6% of respondents had experienced or
witnessed violence on public transportation.
Significantly more men than women expressed
this, usually with the violence occurring
between a passenger and an outside person.
With regard to other onboard instances
of crime, 13.4% of respondents reported
experiencing or witnessing theft on public
transportation.
Route vehicle numbers:
p a s t ye a r
2%
7%
TABLE 4: EXPERIENCES OF THEFT AND VIOLENCE ON
BOARD PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
1%
90%
Safety factors experienced on public transport
Experienced or Experienced
witnessed theft or witnessed
violence
Female
More
Less
Same
Don't know
Figure 10: How does service and vehicle numbers on this
route compare to one year ago?
Safety
Although 70.5% indicated they were
comfortable travelling alone, slightly more
women responded they were not at all
comfortable (8.5% compared to 5.1%)
compared to men.
30
9
7.4%
6.4%
Male
15.2%
21.4%
TOTAL
13.4%
17.6%
The survey endeavors to gain an understanding
of user perceptions toward both safety and
security onboard, as well as in waiting areas.
Only 37.5% of respondents found the waiting
areas for public transportation to be safe or very
safe.9 While 28.4% thought they were not safe
at all, a larger proportion of women rather than
men reported feeling unsafe (insecure).
In general, this paper uses the term “safety” to refer to driver safety, accidents, road worthiness and driver behavior; compared to “security” which refers specifically to crime, or the threat of crime. In this particular instance however, the term ‘safe’ refers to personal security, rather than safety of infrastructure.
Conversely, in assessing the safety and
that agreed with needed changes to improve
roadworthiness of vehicles, only 40.1% of
safety in public transportation provision.
respondents indicated that bus transport was
Improvements in security (on board and in
safe or very safe. Of respondents, 19.3%
terminal), lighting, tickets, police regulation,
thought that the vehicles were not safe at all,
and prohibition of keliling were all popularly
citing overcrowding as the main source of
noted as key improvements needed for safety.
concern. A further 85% of respondents cited
It’s notable that across almost all safety and
that dust posed a risk to their health. The chart
security concerns,73.5%
a greater percentage of
below displays the percentage of respondents
women expressed needs77.7%
for improvements in
Needed safety improvements
72.4%
Fire extinguisher
80.9%
Better escape from vehicle
Remove windshield decoration
Buy tickets in advance
Tickets
49.4%
60.6%
Pick up only at terminal
Driving at safer speeds
85.6%
More employees
No overcrowding
78.6%
87.2%
No riding on the roof
Checks on vehicle maintenance
Police checks on vehicle driving
Drop at terminal
Arrive before dark
No keliling
Drop at house
Scheduling
Driver ID
Security
Lighting
0%
10%
20%
30%
Male
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Female
Figure 12: Respondent agreements with safety improvement needs for current public transportation
31
Scheduled departure
Selling tickets/built ticket office
Transportation rules/organisation/regulation
Terminal
Security/police
More vehicles on route
Road improvement
Toilets
Vehicle condition
No konjas
Information about services provided
Safe/comfortable passenger numbers
Toilets on boat
Faster services
Pick up at home
No smoking
Dedicated transportation hold for cargo
Cheaper
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
Figure 13: Passenger suggestions for improvements in public transportation provision
Demand for network and user experience
improvements
Three key needs identified by respondents
were: scheduling, advanced ticketing, and
upgraded terminals with facilities such as toilets
and waiting areas. Considering the long waiting
times passengers experience, the desire for
toilet facilities is understandable. The desire
for schedules reflects passenger unhappiness
about a lack of predictability that contributes to
extended wait times before departure. Advance
ticketing would assist in journey planning as
well as securing seating without long wait
times. Respondents were also concerned about
poor organization at “terminals” and would like
to see better regulation and management of
vehicles and departures.
When passengers were asked directly about
their preferences for scheduling and tickets,
overwhelmingly they replied in the affirmative,
indicating the employment of these as key to
improving public transportation.
32
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Preference for
schedule
Preference for
tickets
Figure 14: Percentage of respondents that answered
positively to preferences for scheduling and ticketing in
public transport provision
Conclusions regarding survey data
The respondents interviewed overwhelmingly
demonstrated a preference for scheduling and
ticketing. Ticketing systems can only occur
when departure times are scheduled and
enforced. A well-organized terminal is needed
as well as institutional management across
routes and individual buses.
People see overcrowding on buses not just
as an issue of comfort but a safety concern.
The key preferred changes mentioned above
would aid maintaining safe passenger loads.
The vast majority of public transportation
users either waited by the side of the road
for their bus or rang the driver. This poses
extreme inconveniences for passengers related
to waiting, or barriers for those who do not
have direct access to bus drivers. A published
schedule that is routine and adhered to would
assist in addressing this.
An array of different services are accessed
through public transportation and though the
number of transportation operators is growing,
demand for better and more frequent services
is growing, too. These developments are key
to encouraging localized economic growth and
increasing access to education. Organizational
input at an institutional level is also needed
to assist in better provision of services and to
ensure improvements in quality.
Recommendations
Scheduling and tickets
Users are overwhelmingly in favor of reintroducing practices scheduling and ticket
reservation. Scheduling will greatly decrease the
time burden on public transportation users and
limit inconvenient night departures. Passenger
safety should also improve as time spent at the
terminal or the roadside decreases. Scheduling
will allow advanced ticketing to occur which
assists in certainty and planning. The practices
of keliling and aggressive konjak activities to
attract passengers need to be discouraged, and
ticketing will assist in this.
Terminal provision, regulated use, and
organization
Use of terminals will provide a safer
environment for boarding and disembarking
from buses. It will also allow better regulation
of transport and the possibility of scheduled
departures. It is recommended that terminals
are constructed or upgraded to include
adequate waiting facilities such as toilets.
Rigid enforcement of terminal use will reduce
exposure to dust that is experienced while
waiting in de facto roadside areas and prevent
keliling or other practices that slow departures.
Terminals managers should be employed to
ensure operational smoothness and provide a
level of security.
Improvements in road conditions
Improved road conditions do not factor as
highly into passenger concerns as much as
other aspects such as scheduling, tickets, and
terminal use. However, improvements in road
conditions will reduce journey times, increasing
efficacy and efficiency. Furthermore, vehicle
damage and fuel use should be diminished
resulting in cheaper service provision and more
market entrants.
Encourage the creation of driver and
operator associations
While they do not exist yet in Timor-Leste, such
organizations can better negotiate with the state
regarding fair expectations of service provision
and economic reimbursement. Furthermore,
they could be essential for self-regulating
quality of service amongst drivers. Enforcing
self-governing operational expectations would
confer stronger legitimacy on the association
and give it ample power in negotiating working
conditions and functional expectancies. This
would remove pressure from regulatory bodies
and police and provides a cross institutional
landscape to better formulate service delivery
and user experience.
33
Provision of regulatory structures (or other
means) to encourage new transportation
provision business models
The current business models employed in
the provision of public transportation are
beneficial in that they function with relatively
little regulation or input from bureaucratic
institutions. Therefore, a relatively functional
transportation network is able to operate
despite low financial or human capacity inputs,
particularly at management levels. However,
this current model privileges operators over
passengers, with little impetus for needed
improvements. The model inhibits the reintroduction of scheduling or ticketing and
encourages unsafe practices of overcrowding
and aggressive konja behavior. Formulations
of new business models are needed. The
following are given as examples, and are
not the sole avenues for improving services.
Further critical research into options is
encouraged.
Explore options of incorporating
mobile technologies into better public
transportation
Mobile phone use amongst Timorese is high
and there are opportunities to incorporate
evolving mobile phone technology into
current service provision, to improve efficacy,
accountability, and quality, in particular related
to delivering the efficient and cost effective
operational changes mentioned above. An
overview of particular options are provided in
Appendix B.
Possible new regulatory
and economic structures for
transportation provision business
models
Invitation by the state for a sole company
to provide core transport routes, with
necessary regulations
One option is for the state to negotiate with a
single institution who would manage services
and orchestrate operational procedures at the
34
request of relevant government institutions.
Such an agreement could cover enforced
scheduled departures and a set number of
vehicles on all routes, using tax revenue to
assist operators forced to run below passenger
capacity. In this manner, the relevant state
department management capacity is not
challenged except with liaising and negotiating
with the provider. The awarding of the contract
would be dependent upon a level of service
quality that should be easier to uniformly
enforce.
There are issues with this model that make it a
less attractive option. Firstly the contracting of
a single company for a number of years would
stifle economic competition, and likely restrict
operators entering the market. The current law
outlining state responses to monopolization
seem to apply to basic needs such as food,
but not to public goods such as transportation.
Secondly, all transportation is currently operated
on an independent and nearly individualized
level. It is likely that this approach would cause
serious conflicts and harm a number of small
businesses, such as individual operators,
who would forfeit their investments to date.
Companies must also be largely Timorese by
law and it is unlikely that any company with
significant operational experience exists within
the country currently. Therefore the firm would
need to be foreign. The firm would have a
board and ownership structure that is majority
Timorese to meet ownership requirements,
but profits would likely travel outside the
country, and management may well be foreign
workers. This offers limited opportunities for
building local management capacity. Because
of the likely backlash from current operators
(some being veterans who have built their
transportation business with pension payments
and carry strong political support), current
economic leaders within Timor-Leste have
advocated against this option in interviews.
Sub-contracting of set times and routes by
the state
Currently the state issues licenses to operators
for use of a route, limited to a specific number.
In this sense a certain level of sub-contracting
is already taking place, but the license carries
no obligations with regard to service provision
quality or frequency. Fare prices are supposedly
set by government regulation but operators
routinely inflate these indiscriminately. A
possible new business model would involve
total management of services by the state and
sub-contracting of vehicles and drivers to each
route.
Under this model the state would operate
the national transportation network as a state
company, with the emphasis on providing
quality service and extending the network as
widely as possible to meet citizen needs. The
state would set the number of trips per day and
the exact departure times. Sub-contracting of
independent operators would occur to supply
quality transportation services on that particular
route for a specific departure. Because
the state would be paying operators for a
particular route, it would be necessary to act
as the collection agent for fees. An integrated
ticketing service to sell tickets would fund subcontracting payments and operational fees, such
as terminal maintenance and management.
Further research would be needed to identify a
fair and viable service fee to be paid per route
to operators. Superficial analysis of current
operator economic models show large profits
from operation, which would be diminished in
the case of state management, and yet still may
prove attractive to new entrants. Price setting
for tickets should correspond to the route, time
of day and demand. In this way, popular routes
and departure times could supplement services
to remote or more isolated destinations where
demand is lower but public transportation is
still essential. While it would not be possible
to separate profit from number of passengers
entirely, this could prove beneficial in
alleviating the need for operators to overload or
significantly delay service until a certain capacity
is reached.
all sectors would be needed to determine
schedules that meet the various user needs
and demands. Management structures
with far greater human resource capacities
would be needed to manage regulation and
organization of the system. This would require
more government employment in the sector,
which may be beneficial, but would also
entail substantial organizational responsibility.
Increased enforcement would also be needed
to ensure operators, drivers, ticket vendors,
and terminal managers are adhering to the
laws and regulations, and not collecting illegal
fares or fees. A high-functioning ticketing
system would likely require the establishment
and management of a computer database
system. It would be beneficial to encourage the
perspective of payment for services through
official tickets as maintaining and improving
a system in which patrons feel ownership or
a sense of national pride. A mobile phonebased ticketing service would prove practical,
and useful for organization and real time data
feedback. This is explored in greater detail in
Appendix I.
This model also entails risks, as the state will
likely be subsidizing travel at some financial
cost. Additional research into current and
projected transportation use patterns across
35
challenges that limit efficacy and passenger
usability.
History
As an island in the Indonesian archipelago
maritime transportation has been historically
important for Timor-Leste, particularly for
trade. In Timor-Leste’s history, Suai, Betano,
Com, and Pantai Makassar / Liafau have all
hosted ports for trade and material exports
such as sandalwood, coffee, and slaves. The
importance of maritime service connectivity
was paramount for administration of Oecusse
under the Portuguese. This was also true
for transportation services to Atauro, where
administration posts and a prison were
established (ISEG 2002).
PART 2: MARITIME BASED
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
Maritime public transportation is essential
to the service delivery and image of the
government of Timor-Leste. As a half island
nation with an enclave in West Timor and
substantial populations on Atauro, ferry
services connecting these geographical entities
to Dili and the mainland is fundamental for
effective governance, the delivery of services,
and for citizen access to educational, health,
economic, and cultural needs. Maritime
transportation is particularly pertinent given the
population size of Oecusse and the difficulties
of cross border access.
Currently there are two key maritime public
transportation routes: Dili–Oecusse and
Dili–Atauro. Despite the essential nature of
these transport services, operations on these
corridors occur with a number of gaps and
36
During Indonesian occupation, the importance
of maritime transportation and port functionality
in Oecusse was reduced by the removal of
border controls as the enclave was incorporated
into the East Nusa Tenggara region. A
small harbour was constructed in Com and
routes to nearby Kisar and Alor established.
However, upon independence, concerns about
connecting Oecusse to the rest of the newly
sovereign nation were raised, and scheduled
ferry services from Timor-Leste to Indonesian
ports ceased.
During the United Nations Transitional
Administration in East Timor (UNTAET), there
existed a complete reliance on UN air and
sea assets for movement of personnel and
goods between Oecusse and the rest of TimorLeste. These operations largely excluded East
Timorese and ended with the departure of
peacekeepers in 2004 (Bano & Rees 2003).
A small-scale ferry service between Oecusse
and Dili commenced in May 2002, under heavy
subsidy from an international donor. This vessel
was replaced in 2007 by the Berlin Nakroma,
which was built in Surabaya under assisted
financing by the German government.
Facilities
The port in Dili is the main, and only
international, port of entry to Timor-Leste
and is located near the center of the town.
It has a wharf length of 300 meters and can
concurrently accommodate two large vessels
with a draft of up to seven meters. Nascent
plans and policies have been developed for
a larger port development in Tibar, but this is
focused on expanding cargo and container
capabilities and is unlikely to shift maritime
passenger departures away from Dili.
Roll-on, roll-off facilities are available for
front-loading vessels such as the Nakroma
Berlin. Improvement works at the port were
undertaken by the UN Peacekeeping Force
(wharf extension), with USD$5.7 million of
bilateral aid from the Government of Japan (for
fenders, channel access, navigation aids, and
upgrading of the container yards), and by the
Emergency Infrastructure Rehabilitation Project
(USD$1.3 million) for completion of the wharf
extension, slipway repair, and paving (The World
Bank 2014).
There is also an old Japanese-built cargo port at
Mahata in Oecusse which was constructed in
1995 during Indonesian Occupation, which was
recently proposed by JICA as a potential site for
rehabilitation.
Close to Dili port is a fuel terminal operated by
the Indonesian State Company Pertamina. Small
wharfs or jetties are located at Hera, Tibar, Com,
Caravela, Oecussi, and Atauro Island.
Current services
Currently the only public transport maritime
services occur between Dili port and the district
of Oecusse, and between Dili and the island of
Atauro. These routes are financed by the state,
and are carried out using the Nakroma Berlin
ferry.
The vessel was built in 2007. It has 1134
10
gross tonnage and measures 47.25 meters
with roll-on roll-off capabilities. Up to 300
passengers and 170 tons of cargo are capable
of being transported.10 Until recently it was
registered in Jakarta and thus operated under
the Indonesian flag because legal frameworks
Figure 15: The Nakroma Berlin
did not allow Timorese ship registry. Currently,
it is unregistered and in need of certification.
All operating crews are Indonesian, as trained
Timorese crews do not exist.
The ship makes a twice-weekly journey to
Oecusse, departing Dili on Mondays and
Thursdays at 4:00 pm. The journey takes
12 to 13 hours and leaves for the return leg
on the next day. The ferry makes a weekly
stop at Atauro departing on Saturday at
approximately 8.30am and returning the same
day. Opportunities exist for a secondary service
to Atauro on Wednesday, at which time the
ferry sits idle in Dili port. Previous policy had
promised contracting two legs per week on
this route and interviewed stakeholders have
indicated that restrictions in service are not
financial in nature. Nonetheless, a second
weekly service has been implemented.
Because of the absence of key services in the
two locations, frequent connections between
Dili, Oecusse and Atauro is paramount for
the local communities. Access to financial
institutions and opportunities to purchase goods
such as building materials are only available in
Passenger numbers do not count children, who currently travel for free.
37
38
The vast majority of the time, tickets sell out
on route legs as demand outstrips the 300
passenger capacity of the Nakroma. Conditions
on board are commonly congested, and general
seating areas filled with smoke. It is highly
likely that the ferry is overcrowded above
safe passenger limits. Boarding is chaotic
and dangerous on a narrow staircase. Ticket
prices are now set at USD$4 per Dili–Atauro
leg and USD$13 Dili-Oecusse leg. Estimates
of an average operation cost of USD$40,000
per week are not met by ticket sales and
instead the service is highly subsidized by
the government and the German Society for
International Cooperation (GIZ). The agency also
supports strengthening Port Authority capacity,
training, and provides technical cooperation.
Private charter services are operated by
Compass between Dili and Atauro on a daily
basis, but the high cost (USD$45 one way)
restricts many Timorese from use. Other
private charters operating the route include the
daily transit conducted by Beloi Beach Hotel
(USD$45 for adults and USD$25 for children,
one-way) and M.V. Atauro (USD$35 for adults
and USD$20 children, one-way) which departs
twice a week. Informal transportation on fishing
boats from Atauro is instead sometimes used.
Both these forms of transport are regarded as
less than optimal considering sea conditions,
and only run in calm conditions. Life vest
availability and use is problematic on such
transportation.
Private charter services under the management
of Malaysian-owned Dragon Star Shipping Lda
commenced rapid same-day services from Dili
– Oecusse (departing Dili at 8.30am, arriving
Oecusse at 1230; departing Oecusse at 1300
and returning at 1700). Priced at USD$35 for
Economy, USD$45 for Tourist and USD$55
for VIP, the 168 seat vessel travels at a speed
of 28 knots to complete the daily journey in
4 hours. Featuring air-conditioned travel and
on-board televisions, the new line of sea travel
appears to have been established in response
to transporting government and private sector
clients to the Zona Espesial ba Ekonomia Sosial
de Merkadu (ZEESM) in Oecusse.
Ticketing
Current ticketing experiences for the Nakroma
ferry are problematized by informal sales
(including no basic ticketing infrastructure), poor
scheduling, preferential treatment, and illegal
scalping. No ticket office exists and instead
takes place through a fence with no organized
line. Conditions can sometimes be aggressive
and causing many women to shun the activity.
While ticketing purchasing opportunities are
scheduled, they are not published and are liable
to change.
The constant high demand for tickets and
poor organization of sales mean many patrons
Figure 16: Passengers waiting to get tickets. Many are hoping to catch the attention of officials inside the fence. Little
order or organization exists.
miss out. Out of 16 passengers queried, 15
had tried to buy tickets and been unable to
on at least one occasion in the previous three
months. Commonly officials allocate tickets to
known associates on request and without these
connections obtaining a ticket can often be
difficult, particularly during popular travel periods
such as Easter, Christmas, and Ramadan. There
have been reports of tickets being scalped for
50% above standard fare. A manifest list is
supposed to ensure that scalping doesn’t occur
but passenger names or identification are not
checked on boarding.
APORTIL (Administração dos Portos de
Timor Leste – the authority that manages
port operations) doesn’t regard investigating
or addressing scalping as their responsibility.
During the field research, operator employees
approached the researcher about the purchase
of unofficial tickets because the tickets had
apparently sold out. Numerous others were sold
such tickets or allowed to walk on board. Other
interviewees reported experiencing similar
occurrences.
Future services
An additional ship is under construction in
Germany to support more frequent service
to Oecusse and Atauro as well as to ensure
continued service during annual maintenance
downtime. Anecdotal evidence during
consultation suggests there may be another
ship to complement this fleet in the tender
process. The new ferry will cover a north-south
coast route of Oecusse–Dili–Carrabela–Com–
Suai. These auxiliary vessels are being supplied
in light of additional anticipated demand due
to the new special economic zone status of
Oecusse.
Legal regulation
APORTIL is the harbor authority, while the
Directorate for Maritime Transport (DNTM) is
the safety regulator. For budgeting purposes,
11
Lucius, Douglas, email correspondence.
the Nakroma Ferry is a separate entity, each
with a separate budget item. APORTIL is
responsible for port operations and though
somewhat an autonomous directorate, is
still charged with implementing ministerial
directives. It is also commonly reliant on
decisions within the ministry for financial or
policy developments which have been known
to be protracted in the past. Development
of a legal framework for maritime passenger
operation is undertaken by the National
Directorate of Sea Transportation, under
Article 13 of the constitution of the Republic of
Timor-Leste. The United National Convention
on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which was
ratified by Timor-Leste in 2013, requires a legal
framework for maritime operation that TimorLeste currently does not have. The National
Directorate of Sea Transportation resides within
the General Directorate for Transport and
Communication. The Directorate is tasked with
the responsibilities of crafting the regulatory
framework relating to technical passenger
safety and vessel certification and inspection.
The state through ministerial regulation
sets ticket prices. In practice, APORTIL’s
management runs all three agencies. There is
common agreement that APORTIL and DNTM
should be separate units, mainly to avoid
conflict of interest. What is less clear is whether
the port authority should also be running the
ferry.11
Gaps and challenges
Although the service is currently functional, it
would benefit from a critical review of current
functionality as well as dedicated policy
attention.
Some of the main barriers for quality service
provision as identified by stakeholders include:
maintenance and lack of management and
oversight from government ministries. In
particular, communication through ministerial
and department hierarchies and a lack of
devolved authority compounds the lack of
39
management skills at decision-making centers.
While maintenance and cleaning is required
every 18 months, at the time of writing,
inquiries revealed that 36 months had passed
before the most recent maintenance cycle.
Decisions on ordering and stocking necessary
parts often occur too late and are then
compounded by bureaucratic procedures for
release of finances for invoice payments. This
results in long wait times for repair and delays
to operation.
Regular service to Dili is key for higher-level
health facilities and education institutions, and
family connections.
The necessary maintenance skills and aptitude
are lacking in Timor-Leste, further inhibiting the
efficiency of ferry maintenance. Because of
this and the absence of an adequate dry dock,
repairs take place in Surabaya, compounding
repair time. From October 2013 to February
2014, the ferry was out of commission for an
inordinately long time that was extended by
errors in the ordering of a suitable replacement
ferry. Oecusse and Atauro were effectively
estranged during this period because of
management issues. The clear gaps in terms
of maritime authority and legal frameworks for
governance and registration of vessels would
benefit from more critical attention.
Current route provision is inadequate for district
and state administration of public services on
Atauro. Orders to change scheduled trips by
the government for their temporary needs or
concerns will sometimes occur and impinge
upon ferry functionality while disrupting
scheduled departures.
Passenger demand is far greater than what
is currently available. Statistics for the last
three years have estimated operation at full
capacity of 86,400 people per annum, but
sources within the port have indicated that true
numbers travelling onboard are unknown but
upwards of 50% higher, raising serious safety
concerns.
40
According to stakeholders interviewed, there is
potential and desire for additional weekly ferries
to both Oecusse and Atauro. This may be
alleviated in the future if the rumored Nakroma
II begins service.
Recommendations
Increased ferry services
There is a much greater demand for ferry
services than is currently provided to both
Atauro and Oecusse. The existing schedule
and capacity of the ferry indicates that an
additional trip to Atauro is possible with minimal
institutional arrangement.
Improved ticketing and boarding
Ticketing services require reformatting, as
the current allocation system is chaotic,
unequal, and biased against women’s access.
Ticketing should be reformed to address
corrupt practices such as employees practicing
favoritism, scalping, and selling of fares above
allowed passenger numbers. Waiting times to
secure tickets are currently often hours long
and take place in areas outside the port without
shade. This also creates traffic congestion and
safety issues. In addition to waiting rooms, a
dedicated ticket office should be established
with sufficient barriers and infrastructure to
accommodate lines. Such an office should
have a notice clearly displaying ferry departure
schedules, ticket prices, and scheduled times
for ticket sales.
Devolvement of authorisation for repairs
Greater independence from the ministry
is key to facilitating better management.
In any case, reforms will require increased
capacity of engineering staff, support for a
quality maintenance cycle, and an improved
legal framework that addresses the needs of
maritime passenger operations and vessel
registration.
PART 3: CIVIL AVIATION
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
Aviation plays a small role in the use of public
transportation by Timor-Leste’s population.
Routes are few, access is difficult for those
located outside of Dili, and prices are generally
prohibitive for the average citizen. Nonetheless,
air links are important in Timor-Leste, particularly
with regard to travel to Indonesia for education
and family reasons. Improving accessibility of
air transportation in Timor-Leste also has wider
implications in terms of cross-institutional social
and economic benefits. For example, current
high international fares restrict the potential
growth of the tourism sector. Addressing gaps
in the industry is therefore important as benefits
may transcend immediate passenger needs.
History
Under Portuguese rule the main airport was
built in Baucau and handled international flights,
including flights from Darwin. During Indonesian
occupation, Dili became the territory’s most
important air hub and commercial use of the
Baucau airport ceased. Post-independence,
the airport and facilities within (including
immigration), were managed by the UN. In
May 2003, the Timorese government assumed
control and management.
In the late 1990s, Merpati operated the only
commercial flights into East Timor between
Jakarta and Dili, via Denpasar, as well as
between Kupang and Dili. This service was
halted following the independence referendum
and ensuing violence. In January 2000, Air
North began the first commercial airline
service between Darwin and Dili, with Qantas
beginning the same route in May of the same
year. Qantas ceased operation of this leg in
2003. In 2000, Merpati also resumed flights
between Denpasar and Dili but the company
eventually folded and ceased operations in
2009, leaving another Indonesian carrier,
Sriwijaya Air the sole operator between Dili and
Denpasar.12 As of 2015, Air Timor, the chartered
company that runs the Dili to Singapore leg
partnered first with Garuda, and later with
Citilink Indonesia, to introduce a second daily
service between Denpasar and Dili.
Current access
As of 2013, there are eight airports and eight
heliports across the country. The airports are
located in Suai, Baucau, Los Palos, Same,
Atauro, Dili, Maliana, and Oecusse. Of these,
only two paved runways are suitable for
handling commercial jets.
The Civil Aviation Authority (AACTL) manages
and owns all facilities at the airports, although
district airports, often comprising little more
than a grass or dirt landing strip, are currently
very minimal. The main airport is Presidente
Nicolau Lobato International Airport (WPDL)
in Dili. The runway is short by international
commercial standards at only at 1849 meters,
which restricts accommodation of aircraft larger
than Boeing 737 or C-130 Hercules. Fuel types
of Jet A1 and Avgas are available at WPDL only,
through prior arrangement with companies
Stars TL and Pertamina.
The airport and its facilities are functional for
current services although improvements and
upgrades would be beneficial for safe and
efficient service. Runway lights previously
existed but currently there are none; all flight
services occur during daylight hours. X–ray
services are currently inadequate and prohibit
some forms of cargo transportation.
Aviation safety and organisational reporting
12 http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Foreign_Affairs_Defence_and_Trade/
Completed_inquiries/1999-02/east_timor/report/c02
41
in documentation Timor-Leste is lacking,
but previous records have noted electrical
generator failures and inadequate fire and
rescue preparation. The Baucau airport
experienced the only airplane accident since
independence, when a non-commercial Russian
Illusion airliner crashed in the mid-2000s, due to
poor visibility.
International services
Currently WPDL is the only Timorese site
to operate international aviation services.
During Portuguese rule, the Baucau airport
served as the international airport, but this
was appropriated for Indonesian military use
at occupation and closed to civilian traffic.
Although longer and wider, the 500 meter
altitude of the runway and unpredictability of
weather made landing more difficult than in
Dili. WPDL handled approximately 150,000
passengers in 2012. Based on IFC predictions
of traffic demands, that number could double
in 10 years, and amount to 500,000 in 20 years’
time.
Flights to and from Dili connect to three
international airports. At the time of research,
a Dili-Singapore route is operated by Air Timor
three times a week, utilizing a chartered Silk Air
Airbus A319. While Air Timor is the country’s
only operating airline company, its model is
such that it establishes scheduled charters
flights with existing airlines to fly routes from
Denpasar and Singapore, to Dili. Dili-Darwin
flights are provided by Air North eight times a
week and Sriwijaya Air operates on the DiliDenpasar route eight times per week. All routes
are currently operated by sole carriers that have
inflated ticket prices beyond common regional
pricing on similar legs.
Terminal facilities are operationally fair, but
to enhance user experience, renovation and
upgrading of facilities is needed. Overcrowding
of the VIP terminal areas currently slows
operations and ground operators recommend
reducing VIP access.
42
Future expectations
The government currently plans to extend the
runway at WPDL to 2100 meters initially and
eventually 2500 meters, however, it appears the
upgrades have stalled since 2011. The proposed
extension stems from aspirations to provide
direct flights to major Asia-Pacific hubs, such as
Hong Kong, Brisbane, Sydney, and Melbourne,
ultimately seeking flights with a range of 2100
nm. However, anecdotal information in relation
to airport and runway size, current facility
quality and demand suggests such routes are
unlikely to be commercially sustainable in the
near future. Notably, the runway in Dili currently
supports A320s which could fly to Hong Kong,
therefore it is likely that insufficient demand is
the constraint, and not the runway length.
Furthermore other commercial stakeholders
caution that airport runway extensions will
occur decades before demand necessitates
larger aircrafts that require such extensions,
by which time degradation or costly upkeep
is likely. Increases in traffic can be absorbed
by additional flights at current aircraft sizes,
particularly as the current scheduling of three to
four flights a day is minimal. These stakeholders
suggest prioritizing the upgrading of current
terminal facilities.
Air Timor has recently negotiated operation
of a Denpasar – Dili route that is hoped will
ultimately precede a future Dili – Darwin
service, through a Garuda Indonesia charter.
This may necessitate the establishment of a
transit lounge, which currently doesn’t exist, as
well as improved handling services.
Domestic services
Currently no commercial domestic services
operate within Timor-Leste, however as of
mid-2015 the prominent businessman Pedro
Carascalao signed an agreement with Airfast
Indonesia to commence domestic services
between Dili-Kupang, Dili-Atauro and DiliOecusse. Advertisements on social media for
the new operator, Pecar Air claim that service
will commence at the end of 2015.
The domestic airstrips in Timor-Leste are largely
the legacy of Indonesian built infrastructure.
Oecusse, Suai, Maliana, Atauro Island and
Same have small landing strips capable of
handling light aircraft. Baucau has larger
capacity than WPDL, but its distance from Dili
and lack of greater terminal facilities limits use
as an international terminal. Suai is currently
undergoing considerable upgrading of runway
length, in light of the south coast refinery and
port development, an airport of comparable size
to Dili is currently planned.
According to Mission Aviation Fellowship
(MAF) currently the sole provider of internal
air flights, the Ministry of Health is driving
much of the upgrades and improvements to air
fields. An air field at Viqueque is currently under
construction, although temporarily halted at the
time of research. Proposals have been made
for an additional airstrip in the western area of
the Oecusse district as well as one in Laculbar,
Manatuto. Runway conditions are generally
fine for small aircraft, but Same and Oecusse
provide challenges in terms of overgrowth, and
Los Palos in terms of age.
MAF services were requested by the Ministry
of Health for medical evacuations and have
been operating in the country since 2007.
Currently MAF provides the services of GA8
Airvan (with a capacity of seven passengers
or 500 kg of cargo) to Suai, Maliana, Baucau,
Los Palos, and Same, but these operate solely
on a charter basis for medical evacuations or
emergency relief. Dili to Suai takes 30 minutes,
in comparison to seven to eight hours by road
transportation. The organization is structured
as a non-profit and thus operates through large
subsidies, but offers charter flights at sliding
rates depending on the organization chartering.
Thus a reduced plane charter rate is available for
NGOs and Government ministries and is free
for medical emergencies. Recent services to
Atauro have been frequent and used often by
tourists.
Given relevant regulations and laws do not
yet exist in Timor-Leste, MAF operates under
Australian regulations with pilots and aircraft
registered in Australia. Currently only charter
flights are allowed under Australian operating
law, requiring the chartering of the whole plane,
rather than selling individual tickets. MAF has
indicated that the formulation of the required
regulations by government could enable this.
Due to the time of off-ocean maintenance
occurring on the Nakroma ferry connections
from Dili to Oecusse, and given the difficulties
of land border crossing, MAF flights on that
corridor are more frequent. In consideration
of current demand and the establishment of
the Oecusse Special Economic Zone, MAF
and Air Timor recognize the potential for future
affordable domestic services. MAF currently
flies approximately two or three times per week
to Oecusse, with increases when ferry service
is unavailable, though the current costs of
domestic flights make them prohibitive for the
vast majority of Timorese travelers.
The greatest Issues identified are the ability to
sell seats through appropriately implemented
regulation and promotion of community
ownership/investment of airfields to ensure they
are maintained. MAF has indicated it knows of
no current issues with land conflict for airstrips.
Other services
A number of foreign operated helicopter
operators provide service mainly to the oil
and gas industry. Specifically, ENI, the Italian
operator of the Kitan oil fields in the Timor Sea,
charters four to six helicopter flights a week to
rotate crews currently working on Oil drilling
platforms. This service is operated by Malaysian
Helicopter Service (MHS) in joint venture with
Timor Gap.
Regulations, laws, and governance
The institutional responsibility for operation,
planning, and implementation of aviation
services rests with Civil Aviation Timor-Leste,
a government organization located within the
Ministry for Transport and Communication.
43
The Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP)13
has currently expired and needs to be updated.
Although Timor-Leste is a member of the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO),
the Civil Aviation Authority is not certified by
ICAO so can’t yet create civil aviation laws.
Therefore, carriers are registered in nearby
countries, and fly under these countries’ laws.
This is problematic when such laws conflict
with Timorese needs. Air Timor, Air North, and
MAF have an Airline Operator Certificate (AOC)
for Australia, so regulation is to Australian
standards. Currently, there are no regulations
for operations conducted in Timorese airspace,
limiting the state’s ability to control and collect
fees on aircraft passing through.
pass before funds are received, negatively
impacting airport repair and maintenance as
well as the provision of effective services.
He argues that with financial autonomy, the
airport management could appoint contractors
and push through improvements. He blames
delayed autonomy for the current state of the
airport facilities.
In June 2013, Timor-Leste signed an agreement
with Singapore encompassing fifth air freedom
rights (air freedom rights are explained in
Table 7 (opposite) and in November 2010,
agreed fourth air freedom rights with Indonesia
(allowing two Indonesian airlines to serve on
routes to Timor-Leste for a total of 14 flights
per week). Agreements with Australia have
been made for fifth air freedom rights, but
official signing to confer these rights has
yet to take place. Services between Dili and
Darwin are operated under fixed period nonscheduled (charter) flight permissions issued by
the Department of Infrastructure of Australia,
as there are currently no formal air service
arrangements in place with Timor-Leste.
Currently, WPDL operations are encumbered
by the delayed separation of the institution
from the Civil Aviation Authority, according
to the airport director. Regulations ensuring
this were passed in 2006, but have yet to be
formalized and enacted by the Ministry. A core
issue with regard to this separation is the level
of institutional financial autonomy. Currently the
fees collected are paid into the Ministry, and
the airport applies for funds for maintenance or
new purchases. The director says that months
44
13
In aviation, an Aeronautical Information Publication (or AIP) is defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization as a publication issued by or with the authority of a state and containing aeronautical information of a lasting character essential to air navigation. It is designed to be a manual containing thorough details of regulations, procedures and other information pertinent to flying aircraft in the particular country to which it relates. It is usually issued by or on behalf of the respective civil aviation administration.
TABLE 7: A BRIEF SUMMARY OF AIR FREEDOMS UNDER OPEN SKIES AGREEMENTS
Air Freedoms of the Skies:
As established first at the International Civil Aviation Convention of 1944 in Chicago, the following
standardized air rights are negotiated in order to determine agreements on air services between
sovereign nations. The Air Service Agreements (ASAs) are trade agreements between governments
and contain administrative (soft) and economic (hard) provisions. They define the number of airlines
allowed to service the markets, route structures, flight frequencies, seats, the type of aircraft, costs
of doing business, and tax policies, among others. The soft provisions cover taxation, exemption
from duties on imported aircraft parts, airport charges, and transfer of funds from ticket sales from
abroad, and so on. The hard provisions cover pricing and capacity limits.
Greater market liberalization is known as an ‘open skies policy’ according to which foreign airlines are
given access to, from, and beyond a nation’s airspace in exchange for reciprocal traffic rights in their
home markets. Singapore was the first nation in Southeast Asia to undertake an open skies policy
in the 1960s, which proved critical for the expansion and growth of Singapore Airlines. Currently,
new multi-party agreements are proving central to the current regional expansion of airline routing,
particularly amongst Low Cost Carriers (LCCs) in Southeast Asia. A current Multilateral Agreement
on Air Services lifts the restrictions of flights to and from ASEAN member nations. In its distilled
form, the agreement calls for unlimited third and fourth freedom rights between ASEAN capital
cities for implementation by 2008, and unlimited fifth freedom rights between ASEAN capital cities
for implementation by 2010.
Freedom Right
First Freedom
Second Freedom
Third Freedom
Fourth Freedom
Fifth Freedom
Sixth Freedom
Seventh Freedom
Eighth Freedom
Explanation
Right to fly over a foreign country without landing
Right to allow technical stops without the enplaning or deplaning of
passengers or cargo
Right to carry passengers or cargo from one’s own country to another
Right to carry passengers or cargo from another country to one’s own
Right to carry passengers or cargo between foreign countries as part of
services connecting the airline’s own country
Right to carry passengers or cargo between a second and third country by
stopping in one’s own country
Right to carry passengers or cargo between two foreign countries without
continuing service to one’s own country
Right to carry passengers or cargo between two or more points in one
foreign country
Gaps and challenges of aviation
transportation
International and domestic aviation transport
in and to Timor is to some extent a chicken
and egg problem. While it can be argued that
there is low demand, due to the infrequent
supply, the opposite also rings true. Anecdotally,
evidence suggests that if affordable internal
flights were readily available, businesses, civil
servants and development partners would
eagerly avail of cheap domestic flights in lieu of
long and arduous road journeys to the districts.
Provided the government would pay for their air
travel, domestic services could improve access
of elected and appointed officials to the areas
outside of Dili.
Similarly, it begs the question if a more
affordable flight from Darwin would not bring
more weekend tourists to Dili, currently
deterred by the high price tag of a flight
45
between Darwin and Dili. However, the barriers
to entry remain high with inadequate facilities,
regulatory challenges and uncertain or untested
demand.
The size of the WPDL runway is often cited as
a major barrier to attracting longer haul flights,
for example, to Melbourne or Hong Kong.
That being said, the runway does currently
accommodate A320s which would put at
least Hong Kong within reach. For longer-haul
flights, the extension of the runway would be
costly and require the displacement of nearby
communities. Furthermore, greater route
demand has yet to be demonstrated that would
necessitate such upgrading. Alternatives such
as a greater number of smaller craft landings
have not been tried, despite opportunities to
schedule more flights. Despite the drafting
of plans for a number of options of runway
expansion in 2011, little has occurred since
then.
The greater size of Baucau airport and
possibilities of further expansion provide an
additional option for international travel, but
the upgrading and revamping of facilities is
unlikely due to the concentration of political and
economic power in Dili. The distance between
Dili and Baucau is too far for commutes to the
airport (two and half hours by road), yet not
far enough to cost-effectively demand regular
domestic flights between Dili and the second
city.
Current lack of an aviation legal framework
poses difficulties in terms of air transportation.
Current operators are registered outside
of Timor-Leste and operate under foreign
aviation laws. For example, MAF is unable
to sell individual tickets, as the current legal
framework requires the chartering of the entire
plane. This restricts possibilities for increased
domestic air travel.
Single carriers and high prices
The predominance of single carriers on
international routes has resulted in higher fares
and limited service. Increased competition
should greatly lower prices while also providing
46
more seats. Low Cost Carrier (LCC) airlines
in particular could provide substantially
cheaper options than currently available.
However, consistent passenger traffic and
higher occupancy rates than currently occur
are needed for viable and regular servicing of
Dili by such carriers. LCCs also require quick
turnaround from landing to takeoff to minimize
time spent on the ground. This necessitates
effective and efficient airport services as well
as quality facilities. WPDL had previously
accommodated turnaround times of 17 minutes
on 737 flights during UN management,
indicating that this may be possible. However,
current deficiencies in equipment and human
resources likely impact the capacity for such
efficiency. Landing costs and ground charges
in Dili are currently double what they are in
Denpasar, while facilities are much lower in
quality, further dissuading LCCs from entering
the Timorese market. Although generally good
quality, baggage handling times and customer
service improvements at the airport remain
important factors. Lax security measures are
another concern.
Future possibilities
The greatest domestic demand is for regular
service legs between Dili and Oecusse and
Dili and Suai. Focusing on pro-poor patronage
and access, regular connections to Oecusse
are needed from the perspective of access to
services as well as democratic local governance
participation within state institutional
frameworks. Such needs are currently
compromised by time and costs involved in
traversing land borders, ferry unreliability,
and trip length. The furthering of south coast
development and continued degradation of
road infrastructure between Dili and the south
coast will encourage regular connections to
Suai. However, it is likely that patronage will
be dominated by the natural resource industry,
promoting higher fare premiums that will be out
of reach for average Timorese.
Recommendations
• Rectification of legal framework
deficiencies: The most noted gap in air
transport is legal and regulatory in nature.
It is recommended that this be addressed
so that the Civil Aviation Authority and other
relevant institutions are able to regulate
and provide aviation laws appropriate for
the country. Such actions should facilitate
the development of safe, domestic air
transportation.
efficient services and maintenance.
• Selling tickets: A new AIP should be issued.
A legal basis for ICAO certification for
Timor-Leste should be developed so that the
government stipulate exact laws and issue
AOCs. This should ensure that individual
tickets on domestic service flights can be
legally sold, including on MAF flights.
• Domestic flight services from Oecusse
to Dili: The provision of a more frequent,
regular domestic service to Oecusse is
necessitated by current travel times on
alternative forms of transportation and
the isolation of the enclave from other
districts. Opportunities for this provision
and necessary institutional adaptations and
facility upgrades should be explored.
• Encourage market competiton: Engagement
and clearer regulation of additional carriers
on current routes would create market
competition amongst operators and provide
more affordable tickets to passengers.
The presence of two carriers on the DiliDenpasar route is a promising development
in this respect.
• Improved and upgraded facilities: Rather
than focusing on runway expansion to
handle larger aircraft, focus should instead
be placed on upgrading buildings, waiting
rooms, airport services, key essential
equipment and security measures to ensure
quality of facilities reflects international
passenger needs and expectations.
Introducing a for-profit airport operator, with
general quality assurance and oversight
from the government, as has been done in
many other countries, might facilitate more
47
PART 4: ADDITIONAL
DIMENSIONS OF PUBLIC
TRANSPORTATION
Gender dimensions of public
transport
Women equally use and rely on public
transportation as much as men in Timor-Leste
(Asian Development Bank 2007). However, the
dimensions of gender inequality in Timor-Leste
are manifest in different use and accessibility
to public transportation in a number of ways.
This report seeks to illuminate some of the key
issues of current mass transportation from a
gender perspective, and suggest strategies to
overcome these challenges.
Timor-Leste has inscribed laws to ensure
gender equality and reduce marginalization of
women within differing formal arenas (RDTL
2002) (Constitution, Section 17). Nonetheless,
the majority of informal and traditional social
institutions remain fundamentally patriarchal
in their power structures while further
perpetuating high rates of gender-based
violence (National Statistics Directorate,
ICF Macro 2010). Women’s domestic work
commitments are much higher than men, they
are more vulnerable to poverty (ADB, UNIFEM
2005), and their political participation is limited.
Girls face a range of impediments to education
access including informal or domestic work
expectations, long travel distances, familial
male child preferences, and early pregnancy
(ADB; UNIFEM 2005). Furthermore, women
receive disproportionately less scholarships
and have a lower literacy rate compared to men
(CEDAW 2013). Culturally and economically,
women are marginalized by low access to
credit, discriminatory land and inheritance
practices, and the control of their movements
48
by men. Of ever-married women in Timor-Leste,
31% reported that their husbands insist on
knowing where they are at all times, and nearly
one in 10 women reported that their husbands
do not allow them to meet with their female
friends (National Statistics Directorate, ICF
Macro 2010).
In many ways, women are informally
restricted from access to transport in ways
that men are not. They experience different
barriers and limitations to utilizing public
transport and are more vulnerable to shocks
in transportation access. Specific challenges
include: fear of harassment and violence on
public transportation and in waiting areas
including limitations in access to ticketing, and
susceptibility to forceful or coercive konjak
tactics.
Gender-based violence
A perceived lack of safety or experiences
of discomfort on public transportation are
common concerns for female passengers,
particularly on land-based transport. According
to our survey, women, more so than men,
are made uncomfortable by the habits of
smoking and loud music common on buses and
microlets. Furthermore, women interviewed
for this report felt unable to address the driver
about these issues. Coercive passenger herding
by konjak and problematic overcrowding are
other practices that female passengers are
more vulnerable to than men onboard microlet
and inter-district bus transport. Many women
interviewed expressed discomfort at the
tight seating arrangements, particularly with
unknown male passengers. Many women,
particularly on longer journeys, expressed
that it is often necessary to seek (often male)
accompaniment because of perceived potential
threats. Priority seating for pregnant women
or those with disabilities does not yet exist,
although common social mores usually ensure
women are provided with seats on local public
transport over men.
A lack of regulated ticketing means that
differential pricing occurs and women are more
prone to be intimidated into higher prices.
Furthermore, some women respondents have
opined that equal treatment and access to
services experienced by men often come at
the expense of a submissive role that must
be enacted. As one respondent framed this
experience, “you are sometimes required to act
or play nice for equal treatment.”
Due to the current underuse of terminals
by buses, passengers are often required to
wait roadside. Many departures for distant
destinations occur late at night, increasing
feelings of insecurity for women passengers.
Women generally feel worried about the
threat of violence after daylight hours and
this problematizes travel at dusk on poorly
patronized route sections or in taxis to areas
without busy street activity. This was made
starkly apparent with the well-publicized recent
story of the rape and murder of a woman by a
taxi driver (ETLJB 2013).
The common strategy of proximate delivery
of passengers within urban areas of the
destination, particularly outside of local
public transport operating hours, is more
convenient and safe for women compared to
disembarkation at a terminal. However, fear and
discomfort at being alone as the last passenger
remains. Many female passengers are cautious
and fearful of prospects of sexual violence
perpetrated by the driver or konjak.
Such fear is not limited to buses and microlets.
Such incidents, intimidation, and threats in Dili
taxi services constrain widespread sole female
use. Current practices of tinting taxi windows
or decorating the inside of windshields with
numerous mirrors aimed at passengers,
create spaces of intimidation and insecurity for
women. Even travelling in groups is avoided late
afternoon and night.
Figure 17: A konjak has just run up to taxi depositing
female passengers in Tasi tolu and grabbed the luggage
without asking permission and is already taking it on to
their microlet
Women are the primary sellers of produce
and thus would prefer access to bigger
markets such as Dili to bolster sales. Difficulty
and discomfort during bus use restricts
this. Likewise, women rather than men are
commonly the family member who accompany
children to hospitals or clinics using public
transportation.
49
Transportation: Business and employment
The dominance of male access to formalized
employment and the subsequent unequal
power equation restricts women’s access
to vehicle operation in Timor-Leste. This has
meant that women drivers are less common
than men. Existing expectations of women
as primarily responsible for childrearing and
housework create barriers to employment
within the transportation sector. Despite
discrimination against women as drivers,
female bus operation managers are common.
Prospective programs
In response to highlighted issues of genderbased violence and insecurity the National
Director for Transport has indicated potential
measures to address unsafe transportation
conditions for women. These include taxi
driver registration, displayed identification
on dashboards, and the posting of a hotline
number for registering of complaints or safety
concerns and online submission within taxi
cabs. These responses were welcomed by the
women’s advocacy organization Rede Feto,
but presently are not drafted or designed for
implementation.
Rede Feto has indicative plans to implement
gender sensitivity training for drivers to support
a safer environment for female passengers.
Such a program would include certification
stickers on vehicles to indicate completion of
the program and thus promote such vehicles
for female use. Funding available has not been
confirmed for such a program, nor has it been
studied how regulation of certification or display
would take place.
Recommendations
• Explore the establishment of regulated
and secure market spaces at or adjacent
to government prescribed and planned
terminals. This would potentially benefit
inter-district market sellers, of whom the
majority are often women.
50
• Introduce programs and regulation of driver
registration, including identity displays
and promotion of the safety and security
advantages of using only taxis with valid
registration. The prominent display of
a complaint or safety hotline number
should also be explored as an option.
Such developments will require increased
regulation and enforcement, including
introducing legal procedures to address
non-adherence.
• Install adequate lighting and other measures
at terminal waiting areas to ensure
security. This was high priority particularly
amongst women survey respondents when
discussing improvements.
• More research of women-only
public transport options within Dili is
recommended. Such options include
women-only microlet services that are
provided on an established ratio (i.e. akin to
every one in 10 on popular routes or during
times of high demand). Similarly a women’s
only taxi association or collective might
provide transportation options that are safer.
Such services would require female drivers.
The provision of such services should not
preclude efforts to improve conditions for
women related to other taxis and microlets.
This study recognizes that isolating women
from the problem while not demanding
accountability from male service providers
and users is not a feasible long term
solution, but that, as in other countries in
which women face harassment on public
transport, this system could provide a
comfortable transportation alternative.
Tourism and transportation
Transportation plays a significant role in tourism
development, and the ability of transportation
providers to offer services to a particular
location is integral to local economic growth.
Since independence, tourism has been viewed
as a key opportunity to reduce Timor-Leste’s
economic reliance on oil revenues, but the
sector remains extremely underdeveloped.
Cursory findings of this research indicate vast
gaps in tourist access to public transportation.
Transportation networks and linkages govern
the flow of travelers and in this regard the
travel opportunities for tourists both to and
within the country are tied to the accessibility
of varying transportation modes. Early in
2000, the lack of suitable organized internal
transportation services was identified as
greatly inhibiting sustainable tourism growth
in Timor-Leste (Carter et al. 2001). Currently,
public transportation use by tourists continues
to be extremely low, limiting localized tourism
development at key potential locations because
of poor integration into transportation networks,
route paucity, and limited connection to
strategic nodes.
In its 2014 Survey of Travelers to Timor-Leste,
The Asia Foundation identifies that travelers14
exhibit extremely low use public transportation
for tourism purposes (Rajalingam, 2014).
Given the lack of a formal, efficient public
transportation system with clearly available
information on schedules and destinations,
the majority (59%) of travelers to Timor-Leste
used non-public vehicles to access and explore
holiday destinations in Timor-Leste (Rajalingam,
2014). Within this majority only 20% of travelers
indicated the use of car rental for travel, while
a greater proportion (39%) relied on personal,
friends, or family member’s vehicle for transport
(Rajalingam, 2014). Car rental is expensive
and restricts social engagement and cultural
exchange with Timorese citizens. The expensive
day rate also prohibits longer stays at district
locations, which means tourists spend less in
rural communities, limiting opportunities for
dispersed economic development.
Private vehicle use remains the primary
transportation mode for tourism access in
Timor-Leste. Personal, work, friend, or family
vehicle loan or private rental car use constituted
14
the vast majority of tourist transportation
experiences in Timor-Leste (approximately 72%).
Only 2% of travelers used buses as their main
mode of transportation, indicating significant
barriers to tourist access of inter-district public
transit.
Some of those barriers include:
• The lack of a schedule or posted display of
scheduled departures;
• Inability to buy tickets;
• Problematic connections with other public
transportation;
• Inconvenient departure and arrival times;
• A lack of terminal or designated departure
point;
• Inability to access required information on
bus operations/operators;
• Aggressive konja behavior;
• Language barriers.
While satisfaction towards the use of rental
vehicles were high (86%), satisfaction towards
public transport was much lower at 66% and
65% for taxis and buses respectively. The
observations are indicative that improvements
are needed to enhance visitor use and
experience.
More
Less
Same
Don't know
Friend/family's vehicle
24%
Rental vehicle
20%
Personal vehicle
15%
Work/company vehicle
12%
Taxi
12%
Boat
8%
Walk
2%
Other
2%
Motorbike
2%
Bus
2%
Microlet
1%
Bicycle
1%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
Figure 18: Visitor transportation modes 2014 survey of
travelers to Timor-Leste
For the purpose of the 2014 Survey of Travelers to Timor-Leste and to align with international standard definitions, travelers were defined as individuals over the age of 17 who were either (i) foreign nationals residing abroad; (ii) foreign nationals residing in Timor-Leste; or (iii) Timorese nationals residing abroad. From this sample, only respondents who had travelled within Timor-Leste for leisure purposes during their current trip or in the past year, were identified as valid respondents to participate in the survey.
51
The average cost of transportation per leisure
trip was $151 and although 57% perceived this
as good value for money, this pricing is high
compared to experiences of similar number of
routes and distances in other Southeast Asian
countries.
Tourist primarily use maritime public
transportation when travelling between
Atauro Island and Dili, although more intrepid
travelers also utilize the overnight ferry to visit
and explore Oecusse. Challenges to tourist
use of the ferry include knowledge of ticket
vending locations and times. As a result, many
international tourists utilize the more expensive
charter speedboats and an increasing number
are chartering the MAF airplane for flights to
Atauro.
Although it is safe to say that the limited
public transportation options is a factor in the
stunted tourism development in Timor-Leste,
it is unlikely that by merely addressing these,
it will have a major socio-economic impact (at
least in the short-term). This is because the
below-average transportation options is merely
one of many challenges facing the nascent
tourism industry in Timor-Leste. According to
research conducted in 2007, political instability,
low price competitiveness, poor infrastructure
and low capacity and skills represented the
main hurdles to the national tourism industry
(Pedi 2007). Arguably since then the country
has stabilized politically, but at least anecdotally
residents of nearby Darwin, Australia still
perceive Timor-Leste as potentially unstable.
Based on economic projections from the
Foundation’s 2014 Survey of Travelers to TimorLeste, tourism exists as the second largest
sector in the non-oil economy, after agriculture.
At USD$14.6 million the true economic value
add from the sector is expected to be much
larger once domestic tourism calculation are
incorporated. Despite this tourism provides few
52
15
employment opportunities outside of the capital
(Collings 2013). Accurately estimating tourist
numbers in Timor-Leste is problematic as official
statistics rely on numbers obtained from the
issue of tourist visas, which are used by visitors
for reasons other than tourism, and are often
obtained by a single individual entering multiple
times.
In 2014, Timor-Leste received 93,483 arrivals
(General Directorate of Statistics Timor-Leste,
2015) of which it can be estimated that 39,840
visitors traveled for leisure during their stay.15
Estimates of 51,000 tourist arrivals at Dili
airport are expected to rise 3.5%-6.5% per
annum in the near future (IFC 2013). A more
accessible public bus system would likely
attract backpackers, who spend less money
per day, but often visit more locations while
visiting the country for a longer time. This
would help promote a more even distribution
of tourism revenues across a larger number
of businesses outside of Dili. It is important
to recognize that with a current comparatively
low number of tourists (which is much less
than official figures), an increase of 3.5%-6.5%
pa translates into small increases in persons
likely to invest the time in overcoming the
difficulties of engaging with land based public
transportation. However, if improvements with
inter-district bus scheduling are undertaken it is
likely that patronage will rise and may assist in
developing backpacker-centered tourism outside
of Dili.
Airport arrivals and tourism
Local civil society organization Fundasaun
Mahein has recognized significant issues with
taxi services targeting arriving passengers at
Dili airport (Fundasaun Mahein 2012). Though
informal in scope, issues of aggressive
behavior of taxi drivers, extortion of fares
beyond previous agreements, and inappropriate
In the 2014 Survey of Travelers to Timor-Leste 1666 individuals were approached for interview, and only 710 (43%) were included in the sample as valid respondents who traveled for leisure during their trip. The estimate of 39,840 travelers in 2014 is determined by applying the same inclusion principle and proportionate calculation to the total number of arrivals the country received in 2014. By definition this number therefore include expatriate and other travelers residing in Timor-Leste, who arrived at the airport, and who plan on engaging in some form of leisure travel.
behavior, particularly towards women,
problematize initial tourist experiences in
Timor-Leste. The organization highlights similar
recommendations mentioned elsewhere in
this report including, regulated taxi dispatch
at the airport, set map and zone fees, driver
identification, a complaint hotline, and minimum
security personnel (police) to ensure tourist
security. Other stakeholders in the Dili business
community, airport operators, and government
intuitions have also expressed similar
sentiments regarding possible improvements.
Exploration of a standard coupon option
purchased at a dedicated taxi counter has been
suggested by a number of stakeholders as a
means to alleviate current problems of substandard taxi service at the airport.
• Waiting areas and requisite facilities at
terminals;
• Improved bus quality;
• Upgrade of inter-districts roads which will
improve transit times and onboard comfort.
Figure 19: Dilapidated and unused taxi stand sign at Dili
Airport
Recommendations
To assist in the ease of tourist use of interdistrict bus transportation it is recommended
that the following be introduced:
• Limit or concentrate bus boarding and
departures to dedicated terminals;
• Schedule departures and arrivals;
• Publish a clear and frequently updated
schedule;
• Ensure organized, clearly and consistently
priced, and safe taxi services at Dili airport.
The following changes are less imperative, but
would still greatly improve tourist experiences
of inter-district bus use:
• Options for purchasing tickets in advance;
53
CONCLUSION
Although public transportation is currently
operating in Timor-Leste, functionality is
low, informal, unsafe, and slow, with little
regulation. While current operator business
models remove bureaucratic burdens and
responsibility, it achieves this at the cost
of user experience, comfort, and access.
The vast majority of Timorese rely on public
transportation for everyday needs, but many
of these communities are impoverished,
socially marginalized, and rurally located. As a
result, it is exactly the groups who need public
transport the most, who suffer as a result of
Timor-Leste’s current public transportation
inadequacies.
The current land transportation system
benefits operators, through large and lucrative
business opportunities (if they are able to
raise the high initial capital required to enter
the market) with little management by the
Department of Land Transportation. Maritime
transportation is well subsidized, removing
cost barriers, but ferry frequency does not
appear to meet current demand. This is
particularly problematic in light of Oecusse’s
geographic isolation from the other 12 districts,
and frequent maintenance and management
inefficiencies that sever maritime routes.
Domestic aviation transportation is still nascent,
and unlikely to prove financially accessible to
the average Timorese citizen in the near future.
Nonetheless, improved commercial aviation
services can provide other benefits related
to economic growth, cultural exchange, and
enhanced delivery of government services. To
reap these benefits, priority must be placed on
developing adequate legal framework, rather
than initiatives such as extensions to the Dili
airport runway.
Alternative economic models for service
provision are needed to address these issues.
This will likely require a greatly enhanced
role of bureaucratic regulation in operational
matters, and may entail consolidating private
land transportation operation, with negative
54
economic repercussions for smaller-scale bus
operators. Opportunities for meeting current
service gaps through systems that leverage
new technologies such as mobile phones
should be analyzed and tested.
This research confirms user desires for
improved safety and security measures to
enhance the on-board experience of public
transport in Timor-Leste. That being said, any
increased involvement by the government on
operational and organizational initiatives will
require the political will and a concerted to
improve coordination and more effective vertical
integration between government institutions,
namely between the Ministry of Transport and
various departments and directorates. This
requirement by itself inhibits rapid decision
making, cross-sectoral program and policy
feedback, program ownership, and service
provision responsibility.
All the challenges notwithstanding,
opportunities exist in improving current access
to public transport within Timor-Leste, with
the potential for a positive impact across
numerous sectors including education, health,
local economic development, and safety and
security, while strengthening social networks.
Perhaps not surprisingly, these benefits will
be most evident amongst some of the most
marginalized communities of Timor-Leste.
REFERENCES
ADB UNIFEM, 2005. Country Gender Assessment: Gender and Nation Building in Timor-Leste, ADB.
Anon, 2002. TNI rejects proposal on land travel to/from E. Timor’s Oecusse. The Jakarta Post.
Asian Development Bank, 2007. Socially Inclusive and Gender-Responsive Transport Projects: A Case
Study of the Timor-Leste Road Sector Improvement Project, ADB.
Bano, A. & Rees, E., 2003. The Oecussi Ambeno Enclave: part of East Timor isolated inside
Indonesia . Online opinion. Available at: http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=1509
[Accessed September 26, 2014].
Beuran, M., Raballand, G. & Kapoor, K., 2011. Political economy studies: Are they actionable? Some
lessons from Zambia.
Carter, B., Carter, R.W. & Prideaux, B., 2001. Development of Tourism Policy and Strategic Planning
in East Timor, Occassional Paper.
CEDAW, 2013. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, UN.
Collings, M., 2013. Establishing A Community-Based Tourism Network In Timor-Leste: Opportunities
And Prospects. pp.1–15.
Department of Land Transport, 2014. Lista Trajecto Tansportes Publico, draft figures.
DNE, 2008. Timor-Leste Survey of Living Standards 2007, RDTL.
DNEUNFPA, 2011. Population and Housing Census 2010: Suco Report, RDTL.
ETLJB, 2013. Organised crime in Timor-Leste responsible for rise in violence - August 2013.
East Timor Law and Justice Bulletin. Available at: http://www.easttimorlawandjusticebulletin.
com/2013_08_01_archive.html [Accessed September 28, 2014].
Fundasaun Mahein, 2012. Taxista Airportu: Ignora Lei Baziku Nian? | Fundasaun Mahein. Fundasaun
Mahein - Blog. Available at: http://www.fundasaunmahein.org/2012/11/27/airport-taxi-drivers-ignoringlittle-laws/ [Accessed September 28, 2014].
Housen, T., 2012. Migration Patterns and the Impact of Internal Remittances on Poverty and Human
Capital in Timor-Leste. pp.1–43.
ICG, 2010. Timor-Leste: Oecusse and the Indonesian Border. ICG, pp.1–20.
IFC, 2013. Presidente Nicolau Lobato International Airport: PPP Investor Conference. PPP Investor
Conference, pp.1–22.
ISEG, 2002. History of Timor. Instituto Superior de Economia e Gestão, pp.1–170. Available at: http://
pascal.iseg.utl.pt/~cesa/History_of_Timor.pdf.
Mosco, V., 1996. The political economy of communication: Rethinking and renewal. 13.
National Statistics Directorate, ICF Macro, 2010. Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey 200910 [FR235]. pp.1–428.
Pedi, D., 2007. Community-based ecotourism as a pro-poor development option: A case study of Tua
Ko’in Eco-village, Atauro Island, Timor-Leste. Melbourne: School of Global Studies, Social Science
and Planning. Melbourne, RMIT University.
Perdani, Y., 2014. Safeguarding the porous border into Timor Leste | The Jakarta Post. The Jakarta
55
Post.
Rajalingam, G., 2014. 2014 Survey of Travelers to Timor-Leste,The Asia Foundation. Available at:
http://asiafoundation.org/publications/pdf/1460.
RDTL, 2002. Constitution Of The Democratic Republic Of Timor-Leste, Timor Leste.
RDTL, 2011. Population and Housing Census of Timor Leste, 2010, RDTL.
RDTL, D., 2010. Timor Leste Labour Force Survey, Dili: DNE.
The World Bank ed., 2014. Transport in Timor-Leste, The World Bank. Available at: http://
go.worldbank.org/KVSPYH8GI0 [Accessed September 18, 2014].
UNESCAP, 2012. Timor-Leste Country Profile. UNESCAP. Available at: http://www.unescap.org/stat/
data/syb2012/country-profiles/Timor-Leste.pdf [Accessed September 18, 2014].
UNMIT, 2011. Timor Leste Communiations and Media Survey. pp.1–92.
WHO, 2013. Global status report on road safety 2013, Geneva: WHO. Available at: http://www.who.
int/violence_injury_prevention/road_safety_status/2013/report/en/.
56
APPENDIX I - Mobile
Communication
Technologies Options
Mobile communication technologies have
made significant strides in usability and
applicability in developing nations. Key
services are now provided through simple
mobile phone handsets, such as banking,
weather updates, government information,
and purchasing of goods. Mobile phone
ownership in Timor-Leste is high (UNMIT 2011;
RDTL 2011), and this presents opportunities
to exploit services and networking available
through persistent and increasing mobile
phone use. In particular, mobile phone-based
features could be developed to meet some
key public transportation gaps. Two options for
implementation in this regard are presented
below.
Option 1: Full scheduling, ticketing,
and route management orchestrated
through mobile devices
This option presupposes that a public
transportation authority oversees route
management and organization. Buses for
individual scheduled trips on set routes
are charted from local operators, and the
transportation authority collects payment from
passengers. In these cases, operators may or
may not supply the driver.
Mobile phone technology could allow a user to
access for free a set of commands that furnish
options for all routes and upon selection of
a route, individual dates and then scheduled
departure times (and ticket costs). Potential
passengers are then able to access scheduled
departures on a variety of routes without visiting
the terminal or calling individual operators. Such
a service would be similar to features already
available to users to check their current minutes
balance with their telecommunications provider.
The user could select a scheduled trip and
purchase a ticket with the passenger name
attached to it. The trip could be paid for
using pre-paid mobile minutes, or pulsa. The
passenger would then receive a text message,
confirming ticket purchase and allocating a ticket
code.
For patrons without a mobile phone or enough
phone credit, ticket offices located at terminals
could provide this service. Official ticket
sellers could achieve this with the use of only
a mobile phone device with dedicated credit.
Upon receipt of payment from the user, the
seller provides a receipt and a ticket code that
is generated by the system. Individual kiosk
operators who possess a phone could also
fulfill this role and charge a minimal fee for the
service on top of the ticket price.
The user arrives at the terminal before
departure, and as they board the bus gives
their name and individual code to the driver. The
driver has on his phone an individual manifest
of all passengers that had purchased tickets
and associated codes. This is used to check
passengers boarding. This method enables
passengers to purchase a seat fare with the
specific seat reserved, but board at any point on
the route. Likewise passengers could flag a bus
mid-route, but purchase a fare from the driver
immediately using the mobile phone technology.
To ensure customer satisfaction, individual
bus number and driver identification could be
displayed in vehicle along with a free or cheap
hotline to register complaints.
Transfer of phone credit between users
is already commonly practiced and
understood in Timor-Leste. In this model,
the telecommunications company acts
independently to deploy mobile payment
service, and could provide a feature such as an
independent mobile wallet for the user mobile
account (phone credit). The deployment of this
model is challenged by a lack of integration with
57
ticket payments from the telecommunications
company in a currency form. This will likely
involve a financial cost. Similar models have
been successfully piloted in other developing
countries.
Advantages
The advantages of this system are:
• It facilitates the advanced purchase of
tickets.
• It encourages scheduled departures and
terminal use. Bus drivers have no impetus
to wait past a scheduled departure time
and terminal use will be critical for boarding
passengers.
• The risks of unsafe overcrowding by drivers
are somewhat addressed.
• Passengers have the capacity to buy tickets
that allocate a specific seat even if they are
boarding mid-route.
• Timorese mobile technology users are
already familiar with certain network
functionalities such as credit transfer and
menu access that should ease adoption of
this system.
Under this option, it is presupposed the current
system provision remains in place. Phone
users subscribe to operators on a certain route.
The operator posts a message detailing the
predetermined place and time of departure.
Subscribers have the option to commit to
purchasing a seat. The commitment might cost
the user a small fee as a guarantee for the seat.
If enough seats are committed, the driver posts
a second notice to all subscribers announcing
that the service is full. Those who have
reserved a seat arrive at the predetermined
time and place of journey departure and the bus
leaves without significant waiting. Payment is
made on the bus. Those who do not arrive for
their seat lose their small pre-paid booking fee.
If the number of commitments is not reached
by a set time, then the operator may send a
message to subscribers notifying them that the
journey has been cancelled and the small fee
returned to those who have reserved a seat.
Advantages
The advantages of this system are:
Disadvantages
• Little human resources or management are
committed by the state.
This system will require a certain level of
investment in research and infrastructure prior
to implementation including:
• Little or no new infrastructure is required
and uptake of the system is not compulsory
but optional to operators.
• Analytical research and data on passenger
usage and journey needs.
• The benefit to passengers is that it
encourages a set departure time and
minimizes keliling or long waiting at
terminals.
• Functional terminals.
58
Option 2: Simplified bus operator
driven mobile tools
• A greater amount of human resources in
terms of systems management, terminal
officers, and trained sales clerks.
• The benefit to drivers is similar in that it
could fill their bus without the need for
wasteful keliling.
• Possibilities for abuse exist through drivers
enticing passengers to buy informal fares
onboard that are not allocated for seating
and pocketing the amount. This would
be less likely to occur at terminals where
monitoring by terminal officers can occur,
but could occur enroute.
• It is possible that no negotiation with
telecommunication companies regarding
conversion of phone credit into monetary
payments would be required.
Disadvantages
In the absence of some sort of enforcement,
on-time departures are likely untenable to
some extent. Scheduling is still dictated by
the operator, and often does not align with
user needs. Furthermore, on routes with
minimal patronage, such a system may prove
untenable. The challenge is that there are few
disincentives for operators for late departure,
beyond customer dissatisfaction and attrition.
On routes with very few operators this
becomes problematic and terminals may not
be patronized. A similar system is already
somewhat utilized by those familiar with bus
operator numbers who call to confirm seats,
departure times, or to arrange pick-up.
• It is unlikely the system would ensure
on-time departures without some kind of
enforcement of schedules.
• The system would not necessarily
discourage excessive ticket fares or the
addition of passengers on route above safe
capacity.
• Information on this system would require a
dedicated socialization campaign to teach
potential users how to navigate the system.
• Like the first option, it discriminates against
those that are illiterate.
59
APPENDIX II – Public
Transportation Survey
Questions
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SURVEY – TIMOR-LESTE
Type
No.
Question
Answers
Constraints
begin group
text
What location did this vehicle
depart from?
text
What is the final destination of
this vehicle's leg?
begin group
Statement and permission
select_one
Hello, my name is _________. I
am a researcher affiliated with
the Office of the President
and The Asia Foundation
examining public transportation
in Timor-Leste. I would like
to ask you questions about
your opinions and experience
using public transport in order
to assist in a report that will
make recommendations for
better services and access to
transportation for Timorese
people. The survey will take
approximately 20 min. Do you
agree to be interviewed?
end group
begin group
Personal Data
text
What is your name?
select_one
Sex
integer
What is your age?
text
What is your main occupation?
Male
Female
end group
begin group
Transportation Use
Education
Selling at the market
Buying at the market
Tourist
Visiting Family
select_one
A1
What is the main reason you
are going to your destination
today?
Work
Church
Wedding or Funeral
Customary practice or ritual
Connection to international
transport
Moving long term
Other
None
text
60
A1a
If other please specify
A1 = 'other'
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SURVEY – TIMOR-LESTE
Type
No.
Question
Answers
Constraints
Daily
3-5/week
1/week
1/fortnight
select_one
A2
How often do you ride this
route?
1/month
1/3 months
1/6 months
1/year
First time riding this route
Don't Know
Education
Selling at the market
Buying at the market
Tourist
Visiting Family
select_
multiple
A3
What else do you use bus or
microlet transport for? (Can
select multiple)
Work
Church
Wedding or Funeral
Customary practice or ritual
Connection to international
transport
Moving long term
Other
None
text
A3a
If other please specify
selected(A3, 'other')
No
Motorbike
Car
Anguna
Truck
select_
multiple
A4
Do you or your family have
access to private transport?
Boat
Boat with engine
Bus
Bicycle
Horse
Other
Don't Know
text
A4a
Please specify
selected(A4, 'other')
Someone else is using it
Broken
Distance is too far for this
transport
select_one
A5
Why are you not using this?
I can not drive it
More expensive
I prefer public transportation
Other
text
decimal
A5a
Please specify
A6
How much did/will you pay to
board this bus?
selected(A4, 'motorbike')
or selected(A4, 'car') or
selected(A4, 'anguna')
or selected(A4, 'truck')
or selected(A4, 'boat') or
selected(A4, 'boatengine')
or selected(A4, 'bus') or
selected(A4, 'bike') or
selected(A4, 'horse') or
selected(A4, 'other')
A5 = 'other'
61
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SURVEY – TIMOR-LESTE
Type
select_one
No.
A7
Question
Have you brought anything with
you apart from a small personal
bag?
Answers
Constraints
Yes
No
Don't Know
Vegetables or harvest crops
Animals
Motorbike or bicycle
General goods for sale
select_
multiple
A7a
What have you brought?
Household goods
Firewood
A7 = 'yes'
Clothes
Fish
Building materials
Other
decimal
A7c
How much extra did this cost?
select_one
A7d
Have you in the past carried
goods for other people?
select_one
A7e
Have you ever in the past sent
money with other people on a
bus?
end group
begin group
B0
Access to Services
integer
B1
How many times in the last 3
months have you travelled by
public transport to a clinic or
hospital
integer
B1a
Estimate the time it would take
you to reach a hospital using
public transport from where
you live
integer
B2
How many times in the last 3
months have you travelled by
public transport to the district
or Dili market?
integer
B2a
Estimate the time it would take
to reach a district (or if closer,
Dili) market from your house
using public transport
integer
B3
How many times in the last 3
month have you or your family
travelled by public transport to a
jnr or snr high school
integer
B3a
Estimate the time it would
take you to reach a high school
from your house using public
transport
begin group
C
DESTINATIONS
text
C1a
Where did your journey
originate?
text
C1b
Where did/will you board this
vehicle?
end group
62
A7 = 'yes'
Yes
No
Don't Know
Yes
No
Don't Know
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SURVEY – TIMOR-LESTE
Type
No.
Question
Answers
Constraints
car
motorbike
taxi
horse
boat
select_
multiple
C1c
How did you get from the place
where the journey began to the
place where you boarded this
bus
microlet
bus (other bus)
plane
walk
This vehicle came to me and
I didn't need to travel/move
Other
Don't know
integer
C1d
How long did this part of the
journey take?
integer
C1e
How long were/are you waiting
for the bus at the place you got
on it?
text
C2a
What is your final destination?
text
C2b
Where will you get off this
transport?
car
motorbike
taxi
horse
boat
select_
multiple
C2c
How will you get to your final
destination from your place of
departure from the bus?
microlet
bus (other bus)
plane
walk
This vehicle came to me and
I didn't need to travel/move
Other
Don't know
integer
C2d
How long will this part of the
journey take?
begin group
D0
SAFETY
Very Safe
Safe
select_one
D1
How safe do you feel while
riding this transport sector?
Somewhat Safe
Not Safe
Very Unsafe
Don't Know
text
D1a
D1 = 'n_safe' or D1 = 'v_
unsafe'
Why do you feel unsafe?
Very Safe
Safe
select_one
D2
How safe do you feel while
waiting for this transport to
arrive
Somewhat Safe
Not Safe
Very Unsafe
Don't Know
63
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SURVEY – TIMOR-LESTE
Type
No.
Question
text
D2a
Why do you feel unsafe?
Answers
Constraints
D2} = 'n_safe' or D2 = 'v_
unsafe'
Lighting at waiting areas
Security at waiting areas
Driver registration and/or
driver ID
Leaving at scheduled time
Dropping me at my house
Not doing kelli
Arrive before dark
Dropping all passengers at a
terminal
Police checks on bus driving
select_
multiple
D3
In your opinion how could
safety waiting or using the bus
be made improved?
Regular vehicle maintence
checks
Not allowing riding on the
roof
Not overcrowding the bus
More people assisting the
driver/operation
Safer speeds enforced
Only picking up at a terminal
Physical tickets
Able to buy in advance
Clear windshield
Better escape
Fire extinguisher
Other
Don't know
select_one
D4
Have you or have you seen
anyone experience theft on this
bus route?
text
D4a
What was stolen?
D5
Have you or have you seen
anyone experience violence on
this bus route
select_one
Yes
No
Don't Know
D4 = 'yes'
Yes
No
Don't Know
Passenger- Passenger
Driver/conductor - Passenger
select_
multiple
D5a
Who was involved in the
violence?
Outside Person - Passenger
Outside Person - Driver/
Conductor
D5 = 'yes'
Other
Don't know
64
date
D5b
When was the last time this
occurred
select_one
D6
Do you feel comfortable when
travelling on your own on the
bus?
month-year
Yes
Somewhat Comfortable
Not at all
D5 = 'yes'
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SURVEY – TIMOR-LESTE
Type
No.
Question
Answers
Constraints
Too many people on the bus
Driver goes too fast or drives
dangerously
Too slow
Too many stops
Too much Kellining (looking
for passengers)
Sitting next to someone of
the opposite sex
I feel unsafe
select_
multiple
D6a
Why don't you feel
comfortable?
Seats are too small / not
enough room
Bumpy road/ poor
suspension
D6 = 'somewhat' or D6 =
'notatall'
Standing / I often have to
stand
Transportation is dirty or
unclean
Noisy
People smoking in the bus
Other passengers' animals
Other
Don't know
text
D6b
Please Specify
E0
Service and Times
E1
In the last year do you think the
service on this leg is getting
better, staying the same or
getting worse?
selected D6a, 'other'
end group
begin group
select_one
select_one
E2
Better
Same
Worse
Don't Know
More
Are there more, less or the
same number of vehicles/buses Same
on this route compared to last
Less
year?
Don't Know
Asked friends or family
Waited at terminal or on
route
select_one
E3
How did you know the time,
date and place to get this bus
Rang driver / conductor
Asked shop owners at
terminal
Other
Don't Know
text
E3a
Please specify
text
E4
How would you improve this
public transport service
select_one
yndk_list
E5
Would you prefer buses to have
a schedule?
select_one
yndk_list
E6
Would you prefer there to be
tickets you can buy in advance?
geopoint
E7
Collect the GPS coordinates
E3 = 'other'
Yes
No
Don't Know
Yes
No
Don't Know
65
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SURVEY – TIMOR-LESTE
Type
No.
Question
note
F
That is the end of the Survey.
Thank you for your time.
end group
66
Answers
Constraints
PREPARED BY
THE ASIA FOUNDATION
DILI, TIMOR-LESTE
SEPTEMBER 2015