njse nigerian journal of sociology of education

NJSE
NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF
SOCIOLOGY OF
EDUCATION
NJSE 2012
ISSN: 1118-1784
VOLUME VI NUMBER 1,OCTOBER, 2012
1
Copyright, October, 2012 NJSE
All rights reserved, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopy, recording, or otherwise without the written permission
of the Editors of NJSE.
ISSN: 1118-1784
DAN-SiL Press,
No. 49 Murtala Mohammed Way,
Jos, Plateau State,
Nigeria.
+234 (803) 4515 296
2
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-chief:
Dr. K.O. A. Noah
Department of Educational Foundations,
Faculty of Education,
Lagos State University, Ojo.
Managing Editor:
Dr. M.N. Sule
Department of Educational Foundations,
Faculty of Education,
University of Jos.
Editors:
J.O. Balogun
Dr. Adesoji Oni
Dr. G.M. Mahuta
Dr. S.A. Dosunmu
Consulting Editors:
Prof. (Mrs) Uche Azikiwe
Prof. C.O Daramola
Prof. M.I. Junaid
Prof. Emma Obasi
Prof. C. C. Anadi
Prof. (Mrs) Julia, Oti Omokhodion
Prof. (Mrs) Oledinma P. Nwanna Nzewunwa
3
EDITORIAL NOTE
Nigeran Journal of Sociology of Education(NJSE) is published by the Association of
Sociologists of Education of Nigeria (ASEN) with the policy to produce at least one
issue in a year. All articles are published basically for the promotion of scholarship
while critique positions to any of them shall be welcomed and possibly published in
subsequent editions of the journal.
4
NOTES TO CONTRIBUTORS
1. Manuscripts should be submitted in triplicate to the Managing Editor.
2. Manuscripts must be typewritten, double spaced on quarto sheets, and typed on one
side only.
3. They should be accompanied by abstracts of not more than 200 words in length.
4. Manuscripts, typewritten as indicated above should be between 10 and 15 pages in
length excluding the abstract.
5. Details of reference to each work cited (including sources of tables and diagrams)
must be given.
6. The journal has adopted the following referencing description of the APA style:
a) Books
I. Author’s surname first, then initials, followed by a bracket containing the year of
publication.
II. A full stop after the bracket.
III. Title of the book to be italized and followed by a full stop.
IV. If applicable, name of editors or translator, indicated as (“Ed”).
V. Number of edition used (if not first) followed by a semi-colon(:).
VI. Place of publication, followed by a colon and then name of publishers.
b)
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
7.
8.
9.
Periodicals
Author’s name first, followed by the initial(s) and a comma.
Title of the article in double quotation mark.
Title of the periodical italized and followed by a comma.
The volume in Arabic figures.
The date of the issue or volume to which reference is made and followed by a comma.
The number of the page(s) to which reference is made followed by full stop.
Tables and figures should be kept to the barest minimum.
Footnotes are not allowed.
References should be arranged in alphabetical order according to the surnames of the
authors.
10. Citations should be made in brackets within the text giving the name of the author, the
year the work was published and the page number(s) where it is an indentation.
11. All correspondences should be addressed to:
The Managing Editor,
Nigerian Journal of sociology of Education,
Department of Educational Foundatons,
Faculty of Education,
University of Jos, Jos- Nigeria.
5
NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
Magnus, C. A.: Department of Educational Administration, Abia State University, Uturu
Azikiwe U. : National Universities Commission, Abuja
Daramola, C.O. : Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education, University of Ilorin,
Ilorin.
&
Daramola, F.O. : Department of Science Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
Obasi e. : Faculty of Education, Imo State University, Owerri
Olugbenga, A. : Department of Educational Foundations and Counselling, Adeyemi College of
Education, Ondo
Mahuta M. G. : Department of Educational Foundations, Usmanu Danfodiyo University,
Sokoto.
Soji, O. : Department of Educational Foundations, University of Lagos, Akoka -Yaba, Lagos.
Sule M. N. : Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of
Jos.
Alexander O. I. : Arts & Social Sciences Education Department ,Faculty of Education,
University
of Ilorin.
Okafor, I. P. L. : Arts & Social Sciences Education Department, Faculty of Education, University
of Ilorin
Ahmed, Saliu: Kwara State Universal Education Board
Ahmed, S. : Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.
&
Balogun, A. O. : National Institute for Hospitality and Tourism, Osogbo Campus, Osun State.
Njoku C. : Department of Curriculum Studies & Educational Technology, Faculty of
Education, University of Port Harcourt.
Bello, M. B. & Amali, I.O.O. : Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education, Faculty
of Education University of Ilorin, Nigeria
Dienye, V. U.: Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt
&
Morrison, U. I. : Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt
Osaat, D. S. : Institute of Education, University of Port Harcourt
Okafor, G. O. : Department of Sociology & Anthropology, University of Maiduguri
&
Ohia, N.: Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Jerome A., Ikiroma, B. & Amaechi L. N. : Department of Curriculum Studies and
Educational
Technology University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State University of Education
Rumuolumeni Port Harcourt
Igwesi, B. N. : Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, Niger Delta
University,
Bayelsa State.
Alufohai, E. A. : Faculty of Education, University of Lagos
&
Ezeana, P. C.: Faculty of Education, University of Lagos
Mujil, D. J. : Department of Educational Foundation, College of Education, Gindiri,
6
Plateau State.
Okoh, C. : Federal College of Education, Technical Omoku, Rivers State.
Oyeyemi, S.O. : Department of Educational Foundations & Administration, Adeniran
Ogunsanya
College of Education, Otto/ Ijanikin, Lagos.
&
Noah, A.O. : Department of Fine & Applied Arts, Adeniran Ogunsanya College of
Education, Otto/ Ijanikin, Lagos.
Olajide, M.S. : Department of Computer Science, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo
Afolabi, F.O. : Department of Educational Administration & Planning, Adeyemi College of
Education, Ondo
Abidoye, J.A. : Department of Educational Technology, Adeyemi College of Education,
Ondo
Olojo, J.O.: Department of Computer Science, College of Education, Ikere Ekiti
Collins A. E. : Department of Educational Foundations, Federal College of Education, Kano
Bot J. I. C.: College of Education, , Gindiri, Plateau State
Yusuf M. : Foundations Department, School of Education, Sa’adatu Rimi College of
Education, Kumbotso, Kano.
Danjuma M.: Division of General Studies, Kebbi State University of Science and
Technology, Aliero
Walu R. W. : Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of
Jos.
Rimfat S.A. : Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, Universty of
Jos.
Dahiru, I. M. : Department of Education, Bayero University, Kano
Olokede, N. O.: School of Education, Osun State College of Education, Ila-Orangun. Osun
State
Sarkinfada, H. : Educational Foundations Department, Faculty of Education and Extension
Services,
Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto
Umar M. R.: Department of Educational Foundations, Usmanu Danfodiyo University,
Sokoto
7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title of page..........................................................................................................
Copy right page......................................................................................................
Editorial Board.......................................................................................................
Editorial Note……………………………………………………………………
Note to Contributors..............................................................................................
Notes on Contributors...........................................................................................
Table of Contents.................................................................................................
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi-vii
viii-x
Education and the Quality of Leadership
Magnus, C. A. ...................................................................................................
1-10
Mainstreaming Gender in Entrepreneurship: A Way to Achieve the Millennium
Development Goals.
Azikiwe U. .........................................................................................................
11-20
Teacher Education: A Pathway to the Acquisition of Positive Societal Values
and Skills in Nigeria
Daramola, C.O. & Daramola, F.O...................................................................
21-27
Gender Access to University Education and Participation in Governance in Nigeria
Obasi E................................................................................................................ 28-35
A Critical Analysis of Boko Haram Perspective on Western Education
in the Nigerian Society
Olugbenga, A…........................................................................................
36-42
Education and Nation Building in Nigeria: Basic Considerations
Mahuta M. G.....................................................................................................
43-50
Of Unlearned Graduates and Dysfunctional Society Members: The Challenges
of Education and Development in Nigeria
Soji, O.................................................................................................................
51-59
Curbing Global Unrest Through Education
Sule M. N…........................................................................................................
60-70
Attitude of Teachers Towards Women Leadership of Secondary Schools in
Ilorin, Kwara State
Alexander O. I….............................................................................
71-77
Description of Strategies for Achieving National Stability in Nigerian Society
as Expressed by Youths and Professionals in North-Central Nigeria
Okafor, I. P. L....................................................................................................
78-85
8
Parents’ and School Heads’ Perception of Effective School Security Strategies
in Universal Basic Education Schools in Ilorin, Kwara State.
Ahmed Saliu, Ahmed, S. & Balogun, A. O..............................................
86-93
Values Re- orientation Among Primary/Secondary School Students in Nigeria:
The Role of Social Studies Education
Njoku C…………..............................................................................................
94-99
Character Education: A Solution to Developing Good Citizens in the Nigeria
Society
Bello, M. B. & Amali, I.O.O. ..........................................................................
100-106
Education for Value Orientation: A Strategy for Social Stability in Nigeria
Dienye, V. U. & Morrison, U. I....................................................................
107-112
Large Class Size and the Challenges for Quality of Instructional Process
in Certificate Programme in Education in University of Portharcourt:
Implication on the Society
Osaat, D. S. ......................................................................................................
113-119
Quality Assurance at the Primary Education Level
Okafor, G. O. & Ohia, N. ...........................................................................
120-127
The Effects of Factors Militating Against the Education of Girls in
Emohua LGA of Rivers State
Jerome A., Ikiroma, B. & Amaechi L. N. ..................................................
128-139
Privatization and Commercialization of Education and Equal Educational
Opportunity: The Role of a Democratic Government
Igwesi, B. N. .................................................................................................
140-148
The Relevance of Education for Social Change and Good Governance in Nigeria
Alufohai, E. A. & Ezeana, P. C. ......................................................
149-158
Citizenship Education for Nation BuildingNigerian Experience
Mujil, D. J. .................................................................................................
159-163
Assessing Teachers Awareness and Use of Communicative Language
Teaching Approach in Primary Schools of Rivers State
Okoh, C. ……...............................................................................................
164-17 1
Efficacy of Mobile Device Assisted Learning: A Flexible Instructional Tool.
Oyeyemi, S.O. & Noah, A.O. ..................................................................
172-181
9
The Impact of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
on The Teaching and Learning of Computer Appreciation Courses
in Some Selected Tertiary Institutions in Ondo State.
Olajide, M.S. , Afolabi, F.O., Abidoye, J.A., & Olojo, J.O. .....................
182-188
Achieving the Goals of Secondary School Education in Contemporary
Nigerian Society: The Place of Mobile Learning
Collins A. E. .................................................................................................
189-194
The Role Of Drama/Theatre In Enhancing Good Governance In The
Nigerian Society.
Bot J. I. C. ....................................................................................................
195-201
Re-Branding the Nigerian Society Through Moral Education
Yusuf M. ......................................................................................................
202-211
Ensuring Leadership Through Positive Student-Teacher Relationship in
Schools: A Sociological View
Danjuma M. ...............................................................................................
212-218
Achieving National Development Through Universal Basic Education
Walu R. W. ...............................................................................................
219-224
The School as an Effective Instrument for Dispensing the Social Functions
of Education in a Democratic Setting
Rimfat S.A. ……............................................................................................
225-230
Education and Societal Development: Challenges of Education for
Sustainable Development (ESD) and the Way Forward
Dahiru, I. M. ................................................................................................
231-238
Tertiary Education ss Practical Measure of Enhancing Societal
Development in Nigeria
Olokede, N. O. ….......................................................................................
239-246
Prospects of Leadership and Good Governance in Teacher Education
Sarkinfada, H. ............................................................................................
247-251
Leadership for Sustainable Development
Umar M. R. ..............................................................................................
252-259
10
EDUCATION AND THE QUALITY
OF LEADERSHIP
MAGNUS, C. A.
Department of Educational Administration,
Abia State University, Uturu
Introduction
Education is the bedrock of development; hence leadership in every nation must utilize it
effectively to achieve its goals. It is the quality of leadership that is transformational in nature
in Nigeria that could aim to produce globally relevant graduates that have entrepreneurial and
international competitive spirit. The graduates from our tertiary institutions must make
impact in the society and compete in the world labour market.
The Asian first generation industrialized nations – South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore,
and Hong Kong- achieved higher buoyant economies that are at par with. Britain, United
States of America, France, and Japan through educational policies formulated by visionary
high quality leaders. The leaders of Asian Tigers emphasized the importance of science and
technology, free and compulsory primary education. The second generation newly
industrialized economies (NIES) – Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia- are able to compete
with the industrialized nations like United States of America, European Union ,(E.U), Japan,
Canada, and Russia in the world market. This was as a result of emphasis laid on information
communication technology (ICT), virtual library and life-long education and producing
graduates that are relevant in the global economy by the visionary leaders. Reforms and
innovations in the education sector were implemented with zeal and enthusiasm.
In Nigeria, most educational policies were always jettisoned by the new minister of
education because of lack of a blue print to work with. For example as minister of education,
Aja Nwachukwu reversed reforms like private-public partnership in the management of unity
schools, converted colleges of education and polytechnics to degree awarding institutions,
initiated by his predecessor Oby Ezekwesili. The lack of continuity in educational policies
and lack of the political will to implement them continue to militate against utilizing
education to transform the nation. A visionary leader in the education sector must be
consistent in the implementation of policies. Quality leadership must implement educational
policies to its logical conclusion. Nigeria recently wants to abandon the 6-3-3-4 system of
education. It must be stressed that it was the same 6-3-3-4 system that has sustained United
States of America and Japan as the industrial giants of the entire world.
The Concept: Education
Education is the process through which individuals specifically the young members of
the society acquire vital skills and knowledge necessary for effective living. Educational
system is a vital mechanism for the selection of individuals for their future roles in the
society. It acts to assign human resources within the role structure of the adult society. These
schools, by examining and evaluating students, match their talents, skills and capacity to the
jobs for which they are best suited. The school and education are the fundamental mechanism
for role allocation. (Parson, 1965; Haralambos, 1980; Etuk, 2006). In the words of Mead
(1965), education is the development of unity within the self and the ever expanding
development of the self through social interaction. Furthermore to buttress this definition of
the concept, education is the systematic socialization of the younger generation by which the
11
latter learn religious and moral beliefs, feelings of nationalism and collective opinion of all
kinds (Durkheim, 1956; Blakermore and Cooksey, 1980).
Hence education is the most powerful tool for the political, social and economic
transformation of any nation. National development cannot take place in any nation devoid of
Education. Consequently, leaders in Nigeria and every country in the world, have interest in
the educational system. To buttress the strategic functions of education in the political and
economic development, John Lock, Dewey, Rousseau, Hegel, Karl Marx, and others have
treated Education as important part of their political philosophy. Also university education is
a highly politicized issue because of its significance in determining access to society’s most
strategic positions in Nigeria. (Becknett & O’ Connel 1977; Anuna; 2008). UNESCO (1975)
defined education as organized and sustained communication designed to bring about change.
In communication, there must be a relationship between two individuals – the teacher and the
pupils. It is imperative that only quality leaders should be put in place to sustain education.
Theories of Leadership
Leadership is the most peculiar feature of human beings. Whenever and wherever a
group of individuals come together, obviously a leader will emerge. Hence leadership is a
function of group association and interaction. It is clear that the existence of followers is a
prerequisite for leadership. There can be no leaders without followers. Leadership studies has
shifted focus from leaders to leadership, that is, from individuals as leaders to the relationship
between leaders and followers (Subordinates, Colleagues, Friends and Collaborators) (Ukeje,
1986; Anuna; 2003, Crosby, 2008; Pisapia, 2009). Study of leadership has shifted from the
concept that has few exceptional individual leadership potentials to the idea that everyone
might become a leader, depending on preparation and opportunity. If this is the assumption,
the duty of leadership educators are to identify potential leaders.
The emergence of a leader in every organization, particularly the education system is
often caused by the need to work towards a general goal and a unified, coordinated and
directed action to achieve the purpose. In line with the view, Ukeje (1986) said that
leadership is the fundamental determinant of success in any group, enterprise or organization.
It is what makes a difference in any organization between success and failure: in industry
between profit and loss; in politics between stability; and instability, among nations between
develop and undeveloped; in education acting as a catalyst for national development. It is
leadership that makes or mar an organization. It is what determines and ensures effective
harnessing of teachers, instructional materials and plant facilities in other to achieve the
purpose of the educational system. Successful mobilization of human and material resources
to enhance the effectiveness of education is hinged on quality of leadership, whether as
minister of education, permanent secretary, commissioner of education, director of schools
and principal.
Most leadership studies focus on individuals, teams and the organization. For
example, Kouzes and Posner (2003) stressed the importance of leaders being honest, future
focused, competent and inspirational. Furthermore, attention has been focused also on the
teams. In this aspect, the researches carried out by (Wheelan, 1999; Johnson & Johnson,
2003) indicate that interest is no more on a single in-charge leader to leader that share his
roles with team members. This type of leadership is vital in Nigerian universities for
organizational efficiency and effectiveness.
12
Strategic Leadership and Education in Nigeria
For effective and successful management of education in Nigeria, the minister of
education, commissioner of education, Vice-Chancellor, principal and headmaster as leaders
must abandon over-reliance on the command and control (hierarchical) skills of the twentieth
century, that have become obsolete in a globalised world. They should emphasize
coordination and collaboration, as well as skills vital for effective management of educational
institutions in contemporary times. Strategic leadership is now stressed for the effective
management of firms and educational institutions.
According to Pisapia (2009) strategic leadership is the ability as well as the wisdom to
make consequential decisions about ends, actions and tactics in ambiguous environments.
Strategic leadership integrates management with leadership, politics, with ethics and strategic
intent with tactics and actions. In this aspect, the leaders role is directly tied to formal
position in the organization. He further states that the strategic leaders achieve much by:
a) Using a holistic learning approach;
b) Managing and leading simultaneously;
c) Understanding the omnipresent nature of politics and ethics in organization;
d) Seeing as their primary goal the development of a high performing organization.
It is obvious that even strategic leadership style is important for even a classroom teacher
who perform the role of a leader and manager of teaching and learning in the classroom. One
of the important features of strategic leadership must emanate at the micro-level, the
classroom.
Transformational Leadership and Education
It is obvious that the successful transformation of the Nigerian education system
depends on the role and decisions taken by the leaders. Transformational, visionary or
strategic leadership entails specific leadership behaviours, decisions, actions, strategies and
plans needed for radical transformation of the system – both primary secondary and tertiary
levels (Luthan 1998; Kretchner & Kinicki, 1998; and Hersey, Blanchard, and Johnson; 1998.
The theory of strategic or transformational leadership does not derive from the conventional
earlier leadership theories of influencing a group of individuals to achieve specified goals in a
specific situation. Rather, the transformational theory of leadership tends to highlight the
specific actions the leaders should undertake in order to transform the organization. The basic
characteristics of transformation leadership as discussed by Hersey, Blanchard and Johnson
(1998); Kapur,( 2007) are:
i) Personal commitment to the transformation. The leadership of the Nigerian education
system must be committed to the transformation and the commitment must be visible to other
organizational members – teachers, lecturers and students, and external stakeholders like
parents, Nigerian Union of Teachers and Manpower Planning unit.
ii) Firm, relentless and indisputable communication of the impossibility of maintaining the
status quo.
The leadership of our education in Nigeria must forcefully communicate the failure of the
status quo. This must be implemented in such a manner that the bulk of the members will
desire a change. Allowing all tertiary institutions to award degrees is imperative in other to
enhance access to university education. Merger of tertiary institutions is the trend in every
part of the world.
iii) Clear and Enthusiastic communication of an inspiring vision of what the organization
could become
13
The leadership of the Nigerian education, the minister of education must
communicate a clear picture of the future of education in the country in a way that this vision
is shared and upheld by parastatals – like NUC, NECO, Teachers Registration Council, and
the Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council under her supervision
iv) Timely establishment of a critical mass of support for the transformation. The leadership
must identify the major players and stakeholders in the education system and in its operating
environment, solict and obtain their support for the change. It is necessary to acknowledge
their powers and the need to put away the status quo. The introduction of post-JAMB
examination test was a decision taken by a minister of education with the consent of the
committee of Vice Chancellors. The consent of Joint Admission and Matriculation Board,
parents, lecturers and prospective candidate were never sought. This is the spirit of
tranformational leadership.
v) Acknowledging, and dealing with resistance to transformation: The leadership must
acknowledge the resistance to the change and deal with it as a necessary stage in the process
of abandoning the status quo and embracing the new vision with its beliefs and values. He
must be willing to listen, tolerate others and exercise patience. This is applicable to the
introduction of the new curriculum for senior secondary schools.
vi) Defining and setting up an organization that can implement the vision: The leadership
must design and put into action an organization that must be congruent with the new beliefs
and values. Leadership must be willing to risk the introduction of structural changes and the
acquisition and allocation of resources that will secure the competence and the commitment
to the transformation work and will put into place appropriate system of organization for the
transformation. The CEO of NERDC, Prof. G. Obioma introduced the new secondary school
curriculum and alerted the nation on the favourable impact it will give to the students. Also,
the NECO Registrar Prof. Okpala, initiated the concept of using University lecturers as
exams monitors to achieve zero tolerance level for examination malpractice during senior
secondary school examinations.
vii) Regular communication of information: about progress and giving recognition and
reward for achievement, the leadership must communicate to the organization how the
transformation is progressing, announce and celebrate achievement, openly share setbacks
and encourage the risk taking behaviour required to implement the decision. The NUC
initiated the idea of giving awards to outstanding lecturers who supervised the best postgraduate students.
Visionary Leadership and Education in Nigeria
Vision is the ability to initiate ideas for the future, create a vision, visualize and
realize it. Visionary leaders always have a strong sense of purpose and able to get their
subordinates committed to that vision. Followers always share the vision of their leaders
which is already embedded in their hearts. In Nigeria and any part of the world, the visionary
leader must create goals, initiate activities, actions and enlist the participation of his followers
in implementing the actions necessary for achieving the goals and projects. Also inspired by
the pictures of what he desires the organization (education system) to become, the leaders
must articulate the vision so that the subordinates would see the possibility of actualizing
their own hopes, dreams, potentials and aspirations. (Bennis & Nanus, 1992; McLaughlin,
2001; Kapur, 2007).
Visionary leaders do not adhere to tradition. They strongly believe in change, inspired
with great passion to achieve result. They are known for self efficacy, perseverance and
14
commitment to their vision of what they want the education system to be. Most of the time in
the words of Collins (2001) and Mclughlin (2001), they are reflective, follow their inner
sense of direction and use themselves to initiate change.
Furthermore they are incorruptible with power Visionary leadership are not corrupted
by power, instead they exhibit moral leadership and commitment to humanity. Most of the
times, visionary leaders are humble and unpretentious, expressing enthusiasm to accept
change and ready to make sacrifices to achieve great results.
Professors Adeniran and PAI Obayan as minister of education and pioneer director of
Universal Basic Education respectively possessed these visionary attributes of moving the
Nigerian education system to lofty heights. The visionary current minister of education is
committed to implementation of the national education vision (FME 2008). She has
expressed enthusiasm to tackle the three pillars of the inclusive education reform process,
namely: access, equity and quality. She has tried to monitor the task team report on
education, economy and competitiveness; curriculum instruction and teacher quality; reform
of the federal ministry of education and its parastals; Information and communication
technology (ICT) physical infrastructure; politics and finance Development of education.
(National Report, 2008).
The reforms she has expressed enthusiasm to implement include challenges in early
childhood/pre-school, basic, post-basic and secondary education, tertiary, open and distance
learning, special needs, like nomadic and migrant fishermen education, the gifted and the
physically challenged youths. Visionary leaders must anticipate the needs of the society and
citizens and make adequate provision to instill hope in them. In this aspect the minister of
education, Ruqayyatu Ahmed Rufai’i and the executive secretary of Nigerian Educational
Research and Development Council (NERDC) will introduce a new curriculum from
September 2011, that emphasize subject matter, content and standards. The new curriculum
will cater for local neads of the Nigerian economy and at the same time prepare the student to
participate in the global competitive economy. In the words of Professor Obioma, the new
Secondary School Education Curriculum (SSCEC) would prepare the graduate for higher
education and the same time impart in them the vital technical, vocational and
entrepreneurship skills for their world of work (Alaneme, 2011).
Visionary leaders need to know that reform in the Nigerian education new senior
secondary school curriculum is feasible when the human capital (the teachers) are effective,
not efficient. Effective teacher is feasible when there is general improvement in teacher’s
condition of service in terms of higher remuneration and advances, more favourable working
environment, greater chance to take part in decision making and opportunity for upward
mobility in terms of promotion prospects (Anuna; 2002).
Establishment of universities in Nigeria should not be politicized by any visionary
leader. The University of Ife was a product of political maneuver, taking cognizance of the
fact that it had to be established because of the government acceptance of the Ashby minority
report; This was the beginning of establishing universities in Nigeria on mere political
expedience and consideration, instead of the manpower needs of the nation. (Kosemani,
1982; Anuna, 2008). This trend has continued from 1960 to 2010 – 2011, when the president
Goodluck Jonathan established universities in states without federal universities like Bayelsa,
Ebonyi, Ekiti and Kogi.
The most appropriate decision is for merger of federal universities with polytechnics
and colleges of education in those existing area and providing excellent academic facilities. It
is necessary to attract foreign renowned scholars and provide facilities for research. This
15
decision is appropriate because no Nigerian university is among the best five thousand
universities in the world and the best fifty universities in Africa.
Relationship between Education and Quality Leaders
Quality leadership always stresses the significance of education for national
development and achieving the goals of national development. Obafemi Awolowo and
Nnamdi Azikiwe offered quality leadership through their various educational programmes in
the first Republic. They strongly believed that quality leadership effectiveness is hinged on
education and that qualitative education would enable the leadership to achieve development
of Nigeria. Hence there is a symbiotic relationship between education and quality leadership.
Visionary and transformational leaders like the governors Akpabio of Akwa Ibom, Amaechi
of Rivers and Fashola of Lagos envisaged development through education. As visionary and
transformational leaders, the governors highlighted above envisage education as a tool to
tackle the task of development and eradicate poverty and under development. Hence in the
words of Gardner (1990), Walker (2006); and Hean and Tin (2008); both foresight and
conceptualization are intertwined with the idea of vision. Furthermore, they idealized
fostering hope as a leader’s first and last task. In order to instill hope in their government and
exhibit quality leadership the governors’ mentioned above have made allowing the citizens to
have access to education their priority.
Quality leadership which has affinity with authetic leadership as emphasized by
Duignan, (1997) build, interpret and sustain vital national vision. The vision always emanates
from the citizens beliefs, values aspirations and way of life. For example, Governor Amaechi
Rotimi demonstrated quality leadership when he sent teachers in collaboration with British
Council to Britain to acquire innovative, creative methods of teaching and impacting
knowledge to pupils. Public primary and secondary schools were equipped to standards that
were in existence in the 80’s and scholarships were offered to the citizens for studies in
foreign universities. Academic courses like petroleum engineering, marine engineering and
biotechnology were stressed. Godswill Akpabio demonstrated political will by rigidly
implementing free and compulsory universal basic education. To Fashola, teachers welfare
and maintenance of schools were the fundamental hallmark of his administration. These
governors envisioned education as is the most strategic tool for development.
Harnessing human resource for development is inevitable in Nigeria. The greatness of
the Asian Tigers, Malaysia, South Korea Singapore, Hong Kong and Indonesia lie in
visionary leaders utilizing education to achieve economic, social and political break through.
As aptly illustrated by Hean and Tin (2008), in envisioning there was adoption of the practice
of looking beyond short-term prospects towards having a long term view in charting
direction. This government has the clarity of vision of what roles education would play in
Nigeria.
In every part of the world, quality leadership always stresses the importance of
education in strategic development. The president of Nigeria Goodluck Ebele Jonathan has
demonstrated transformational leadership by inaugurating the books project in the country.
The essence of the programme was to bring back the reading culture in Nigeria. The only
way a leader could demonstrate quality leadership is the level of his commitment to
education. In United States of America, Bill Clinton, his state of the union address,
committed himself to three goals: every eight-year old must be able to read; every 12 yearold must be able to log on to the internet; every 18 years-old must be able to go to college;
16
and every adult American must be able to keep on learning for a life-time. It implied that
quality leaders always see education as the ultimate of human development.
It was quality leadership in the Asian Tigers of Singapore, Malaysia, South Korea and
Indonesia’s that emphasized education as the only vital key for economic, social and political
development. The success in the education sector is therefore hinged on effective visionary
leadership. In the words of Majasan (1998), the success of South Korea as an early industrial
nation was as a result of education. While others were interested in industrialization, it
emphasized investing in human capital through education which produced visionary
transformational leadership, equality of income, domestic entrepreneurship and export
development to West Africa markets by the arrival of Daewoo and Kia cars. It was the
quality of leadership in South Korean that supervised the educational system, reorganized and
revised the curriculum, textbooks were rewritten in the local South Korea language and the
new curriculum stressed scientific and technical training for the growth of the economy. The
visionary leadership rigidly implemented compulsory elementary school education in the
1950’s.
Nigeria as a nation needs quality leaders that have vision of greatness of the vital
strategic roles education should play in national development. Only transformational leaders
can formulate and implement laudable educational policies.
Oby Ezekwesili as minister of education tinkered with the idea of converting
polytechnics and colleges of education into affiliates of proximate universities. In her words
Ezekwesili (2007, p.35):
The average number of candidates about 1.2 million seeking admission to enter
universities, only 140,000 would ultimately be given admission. And inversely you have the
combination of polytechnics and colleges of education and only 189,000 would seek to enter
them. And when you take the exam only 132,000 would show up. So you have a serious
dysfunctionality. 860 candidates are denied university admission.
It is clear that only merger of all tertiary institutions would ensure admission for 80
per cent of candidates who apply for university admission instead of 18% admitted. What is
necessary is consolidation of platform for admission and emphasizing specialization.
Hence for minister of education, commissioners, governors and directors of schools to
achieve their goals of making education relevant and functional, they must become agents of
change and turn their followers, teachers and students into leaders. This has become
necessary as in their various roles as transformation leaders, they must build commitment to
the ministry of education’s objectives and empower the teachers to achieve these objectives
(Yukl, 2002).
Conclusion
Education is necessary for the economic, political and social transformation of Nigeria. The
Asian Tigers, South Korea, Japan, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore owed their position as
economic giants to qualitative education. Education development have been their priority.
However, for education to achieve its purpose of accelerating economic development,
depends on the quality of leadership. The leadership in control of managing the affairs of the
state must be visionary leaders, who will not only turn the teachers and students into leaders
but constitute agents of change themselves. The leadership which will see their ultimate goal
as their followers sharing their vision of greatness and instill hope in the teachers. In some
aspects, certain governors like Amaechi of Rivers State, Babatunde Fashola of lagos,
17
Akpabio of Akwa Ibom have demonstrated the political will to utilize education as tool for
economic, political and social transformation.
The most important aspect of transformational visionary leaders in Nigeria is to
accept creative innovation, adopt new ideas and concepts that will position the nation
effectively for the 21 st century.
The leadership quality that will accept merger of tertiary institutions, stress life long
education and technical education, retraining of teachers and motivate them to be effective
not efficient is what the nation needs.
Also, the transformation leaders in Nigeria need to accept the universities request for
transfer of landed property. This is the trend globally. In the United States of America acres
of land were given to colleges and universities. This was how land grant colleges like Texas
Agricultural and Technical University, Southern Carolina Agricultural and Technical
University and Southern University, Baton Rouge, Louisana came into existence.
Rufai’i, the minister of education explained that the government has not approved the
conversion of Yaba College of Technology (YABA TECH) and Kaduna Polytechnic
(KADPOLY) to universities because of the establishment of the new federal universities. The
nation urgently needs the technological and scientific skills from conversion of the two
polytechnics to universities desperately. It is the conversion that will produce the scientific
knowledge that will turn Nigeria into an industrial giant like Japan, Britain, China and United
Stats of America, and at the same time enhance access to university education.
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20
MAINSTREAMING GENDER IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP: A WAY TO ACHIEVE
THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS.
AZIKIWE U.
National Universities Commission,
Abuja.
Abstract
This paper hinges on the premise that he Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
underscore the problems of gender inequality. It draws attention to the fact that gender
inequality, that causes exclusion of women from entrepreneurial ventures and activities, an
obstacle to the achievement of the MDGs; and to raise the consciousness of the public and the
government that women entrepreneurs abound but are not recognized and their potentials
untapped. The paper also seeks to reveal that women’s non-involvement in business
enterprises and their economic dependency on men impact negatively on job creation, basic
literacy, healthcare, social cohesion, economic growth and national development, all of which
are aspects of the millennium development goals. Also briefly discussed in this paper are:
barriers to women’s involvement in entrepreneurship and the way forward; some areas in
which to build entrepreneurial capacity of woman for their empowerment; and benefits of
women in entrepreneurial ventures. Finally, the bottomline for this presentation is that
effective involvement of women in entrepreneurship ventures is one of the ways that Nigeria
could achieve some of the Milennium Development Goals in 2015.
Introduction
The concept ‘gender’ is as old as man. It is one social concept that has generated
heated controversy whose end is not in sight. Gender is a social construct or socially given
attributes. It is culture specific, and differentiated roles, responsibilities and obligations.
Gender is defined by societal beliefs, norms, customs and practices, and hence may vary
between and within cultures. Gender roles, norms and expectations also vary over the life
cycle of men and women. Gender is also defined as a socio-cultural and psychological
dimensions of maleness and femaleness and is more than biological differences between men
and women. It includes the ways in which those differences, whether real or perceived, have
been valued, used and relied upon to classify men and women, boys and girls, and to assign
roles and expectations to them, (Azikiwe, 2001 and 2002). Gender from the foregoing cannot
be a consequence of sex. Gender roles for women include: reproductive, productive,
subordinate, weak, vulnerable, passive, to be lead, dependent, voiceless and caregiver, among
others. While on the other hand, the roles for men include: provider, dominant, active,
aggressive, invulnerable, strong, superior, leader, independent, and vocal, to mention but a
few.
Indeed, gender is not a consequence of sex and should not be equated as such.
Gender and sex therefore, differ markedly and should not be used interchangeably. Sex is the
biological differences between men and women. These sex differences are the same across
the world. Sex is a fact of human biology and it does not change. On the other hand, gender
is not a fact of human biology because it changes (Ansre, 2009). Arising there from is that
there is no empirically established finding that goes to prove that the ability to lead is linked
to a male chromosome. Neither is there any that proves that there is an intrinsic gene in a
woman’s body that commands her to obey, to be seen and not heard, to avoid innovation and
21
risks. Rather a woman’s life is all about risks, and is full of risks which is a quality possessed
by every successful entrepreneur. Indeed, there is no gene in a woman which hinders her
from becoming a leader, a politician, a nuclear scientist or an entrepreneur. But rather a
‘bug’ which she contacted right from birth through the socialization process branded her a
weaker sex, passive and dependent sex.
Gender Inequality
There is no society where men and women have equal basic rights which in sociological
parlance is termed gender inequality. Inequality of gender has been entrenched in every
aspect of human endeavour, as a result of patriarchy, which is transmitted from generation to
generation through socialization. Consequently, gender disparity has become an established
and also acceptable “fact and law” in society with its attendant problems in socio-economic
development. Gender inequality has been identified as one of the root causes of underdevelopment such as poverty, infant mortality, maternal mortality, illiteracy, HIV/AIDS, and
a host of others. World Bank (2001) reports that gender inequalities in developing countries
inhabit economic growth; and hat there is a correlation between gender discrimination and
greater poverty, slower economic growth, weaker governance, and a lower standard of living
of people. Similarly, UNDP reports that there is a strong correlation between gender
empowerment measures/gender-related development indices, and its Human development
Index. Solutions to these societal problems hinge on gender equality. It is noteworthy to
explain at this juncture that gender equality ahs been misconstrued by some people due to
ignorance, bias and prejudices. It does not mean changing a woman to become a man or vice
versa. It does not also mean that men and women should change their biological instincts.
With gender equality, the woman is still the nurturing and caring mother and wife.
Equality simply implies that she is enabled to better perform her roles of reproduction
and production for social, economic and political development. It means that the woman is
recognized as a normal human being with great potentials. The issue of gender inequality
and its negative impact on development was brought to the front-burner in global discourse
since the United Nation’s Decade for Women – 1975 to 1985.
The world has been grappling with this developmental problem with many resolutions
and the current one being the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which underscores
the problems of gender inequality in development. The MDGs, eight in number, were
adopted by 189 world leaders as part of Millennium Declaration which was signed in 2000.
These leaders agreed to achieve the following goals by 2015:
 Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger;
 Achieve universal primary education;
 Promote gender equality and empower women;
 Reduce child mortality;
 Improve maternal health;
 Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases;
 Ensure environmental sustainability; and
 Develop a global partnership to development.
These eight goals, each of which wears a woman’s face, cannot be achieved when women,
who constitute about 50 percent of the population, die at childbirth, when they cannot read
and write, when they are excluded from development programmes, when they are povertystriken, when they cannot contribute to decisions, even in matters affecting their live, when
22
they are voiceless and their potentials untapped. Gender inequality, which translates to
women being placed in subordinate position, according to Ansre (2009), has negative impacts
on development agenda. They have limited participation and recognition in formal
development roles and politics, they are the poorest of the poor and have limited or no access
to social services and resource. They are not adequately rewarded for goods and services
produced. Their reproductive, nurturing and care-giving roles are not appreciated and
remunerated, they are ill-equipped to perform their reproductive and productive roles.
Women are indeed handicapped and this is crippling development.
Entrepreneurship
Okpara (2005) defines entrepreneurship as the willingness and ability of an individual
to seek out investment opportunities, establish and run an enterprise successfully. The
concept, he continues, has been associated with activities concerned with the establishment
and operations of business enterprises. Furthermore, entrepreneurship is the ability to create
and build something from practically nothing. It is risk-taking, and also the process of adding
value to existing products or services in a bid to exploit an opportunity. Another view of
entrepreneurship from Nwoye (2007) is that it refers to training and other support services
incorporated within a structured program designed to assist individual and groups interested
in becoming entrepreneurs and starting small businesses. Entrepreneurship also means the
qualities and characteristics expected from successful entrepreneur (Nwoye, 2007). It refers
to perception of new economic opportunities, taking initiatives, creativity and innovation,
turning resources and situation into practical account and acknowledging the possibility of
failure. Entrepreneurship and innovation can be linked to the two sides of a coin because it is
used in connection with innovative and creative business leaders (Okpara, 2000). The two
concept cannot be separated.
There is no gainsaying the fact that sustainable development, in any country, can only
be achieved with the full participation of the female population. Since entrepreneurship has
been identified as an agent of development, the question is how far do women, who constitute
approximately 50% of Nigeria’s population, participate in it? We do not need any empirical
data to conclude that women participation in development process has been rated as low.
This low participation has been blamed for the high poverty level, and slow development in
many third world countries, including Nigeria. Indeed, there is apparent feminization of
poverty calling for policies and measures such as the Eight Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs), which specifically address the dire needs of women and girls.
In Nigeria, lack of data is a major constraint to research, planning and development.
Thus, there are no accurate data on women in entrepreneurial ventures, especially in the rural
areas. However, IFC (2009) reports that women, in Nigeria, are estimated to own or manage
25-30% of registered businesses; and also that only an estimated 10-15% of tem have access
to appropriate bank credit, thereby limiting their ability to develop and expand their
businesses. Similarly, Oputu (2008) observed that most of the trades carried out on the west
coast of Africa are handled by women, there are artificial obstacles placed on their part,
which hamper their growth and development in entrepreneurship.
Factors Militating Against Women Entrepreneurs
Every woman has a hidden or God-given talent that needs to be utilized. Hence,
Nigerian women have a great economic importance that should not b allowed to waste.
Unfortunately, that is the bitter truth due to man-made constraints. Put differently, it has not
23
been scientifically proved that no one sex is more qualified than the other in enterprises.
Rather he societal sex stereotyping associating men with entrepreneurship has influenced
women to shy away from it, or made men exclude women from entrepreneurial activities.
Moreover, many channels or programmes of economic production open their gates to men
and limit theirs access to women. Many factors are responsible for the exclusion of women
from entrepreneurship programmes. The barriers that hinder women’s involvement in
entrepreneurial ventures, in the opinion of IIRR (2009) are gender biases, both explicit and
implicit and actual or potential, which continue to limit women’s access to capital, training,
skills and education. Furthermore, lack of entrepreneurial information, basic literacy and
numeracy skills and other challenges restrict women’s capacities to participate effectively in
entrepreneurial activities.
In addition to the above factors, child bearing, child care and domestic work, are all
socio-cultural issues that women have to contend with in the field of entrepreneurship. The
point being made is that though women possess innate entrepreneurial potentials, they are
constrained by many factors summarized into: lack of awareness; negative socio-cultural
practices; religious restrictions/prohibitions; lack of self-esteem and confidence; multiple
roles of women-reproduction, production, domestic, family-health; lack of resources and
poverty; lack of knowledge, skills and illiteracy; unfriendly social institutions; negative
media; lack of day-care facilities crèche; and malnutrition and ill-health.
Furthermore, women are unable to engage in micro, small and medium enterprises
because they: have limited access to education and training; earn less than men in the labour
market even when they have the same qualification and work experiences; are grossly underrepresented at the policy and decision-making level; are the poorest of the poor; have limited
access to credits, loans and facilities; are unable to control financial resource; and are
constrained by traditional practices, which upon recently prevent them from taking part in
some income generating activities such as auto mechanic, welding, cab/bus driving. Having
identified these problems, what then is the way forward? To get women fully involved in
entrepreneurial venture, International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR, 2009) suggests
removing gender barriers, beefing up women’s capacities, and enabling men to support
women in entrepreneurship the Institute believes that if the above are done, the community
will reap the benefits of an improved and robust local economy. In addition, IIRR reveals that
in order to increase women’s important to understand gender issues in micro-enterprise, that
it is important to understand gender issues and their effects on women’s work, activities and
their potential abilities. In their own submission, Marcone and Chavez (2008) believe that
the way forward will be by creating adequate enabling environment for women
entrepreneurship which addresses the gender gap and promotes women empowerment. To
create the enabling environment will require strong public policies on: equal opportunities at
the centre of economic policy; business and financial training for women; provision of free
resources to support female entrepreneurship with dedicated financial programmes; enact
gender sensitive legislation to break the cultural bias and make equal rights and equal
opportunities for women and men real; promote access of women to innovative business
sectors; and promote pro-women financial tools.
Besides the above listed gender-friendly policies, a multi-stakeholders approach is
required to ensure support to women entrepreneurship by NGOs, CBO’s, FBOs, economic
actors, financial houses/banks, corporate bodies, cooperative organizations, donor agencies
and international institutions. Mainstreaming gender equality in entrepreneurship
development and approaches, and providing targeted approaches to women’s starting,
24
formalizing and growing their businesses is one way forward by ILO (2009). The
organization in addition recommends: empowering women with knowledge of and skills in
entrepreneurship; creating awareness on the benefits of entrepreneurial ventures by women;
creating awareness on the need for values orientation to overcome social and cultural
practices that inhibits women from participating in enterprise such as welding, mechanic, etc
for those with basic education; using media campaigns, workshops and seminars and other
promotional events to provide the few women entrepreneurs with a platform through which
their voices will be heard, and thus use them as role models; improving ways for women to
easily access micro-credit and facilities for their small scale businesses; and promoting
policies and strategies to assist women in starting their business ventures.
Furthermore, the government, individuals, non-governmental, faith-based and
community-based organizations (NGOs, FBOs, CBOs) have also some roles to play in order
to help women to overcome the barriers that constitute a set-back for women to be successful
entrepreneurs. They are enjoined to do among others: counseling, networking and mentoring
of women; gathering of gender-sensitive data which is needed to analyze the influence of
national policies on both genders; and supporting, financial, morally, psychological and
otherwise, the few women entrepreneurs to succeed, as motivation to others.
Gender Mainstreaming
Women entrepreneurs abound in every nook and cranny of the federation and they
constitute large neglected and untapped potentials for socio-economic growth, job creation
eradication of poverty and sustainable development. The realization of the impact of this
neglect led to the agitation by international organizations and agencies for gender
mainstreaming.
The Federal Ministry of Women Affairs and Chief Development
(FMWA/CD, 2006), explains that gender mainstreaming is a process that recognizes that
most institutions consciously and unconsciously serve the interests of men, and hence the
advocacy to encourage institutions to adopt a positive-gender perspective in order to
transform those institutions for the good of both men and women in the society. The process
of gender mainstreaming is goal-oriented and it promotes the full participation of women in
decision-making so that their needs move from the margins to the centre of development,
planning, and resource allocation. FMWA/CD further states that mainstreaming gender is the
integration of gender equality principles at all level of planning development programmes,
implementing them as well as their evaluation.
Nwoye (2007), defines gender mainstreaming, in an entrepreneurial economy, as the
activities specifically designed to promote access by women and men to economically valued
goods, opportunities, resources and rewards, including those that address access to loans,
credits, raw material, information and technology. Mainstreaming gender, according to
Azikiwe (2002), is the simultaneous mobilization of the capacities and abilities of males and
females when planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating developmental policies and
programmes. It is the systematic consideration of the differences of women’s and men’s
conditions, situations, needs, and interests in every national programme. Furthermore,
mainstreaming gender means the process of assessing the implications for women and men of
any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes in any areas and at all
levels. It is a developmental strategy for making the experiences and concerns of the women
as well as men an integral part of the designing, budgeting, implementing, monitoring and
evaluating policies and programmes, in all social, economic and political spheres, so that men
and men benefit equally, and inequality is not perpetuated, ECOSOC in Nwoye (2007).
25
In the process of mainstreaming, from the foregoing, the focus is not women issues as
it is being wrongly perceived, rather it is on the social, economic and political issues
constraining development. Policies and institutional practices where gender is mainstreamed
promote optimum utilization of the potentials and abilities of every stakeholder. Women are
adequately empowered through mainstreaming strategy to participate in development
process. Gender mainstreaming therefore targets the entire society and should not be seen as
women affairs. It ensures that both men and women have equal access to skills, training,
resources and services needed for individual and national growth and development. Indeed,
gender mainstreaming specifically promotes and encourages equal access by every member
of the society, irrespective of sex, to resources, services, opportunities, and rewards for equal
participation in and contribution to development.
Capacity Building in Entrepreneurial Ventures to Empower Women
Studies have revealed that women entrepreneurs are ‘invisible’ as men dominate the
entrepreneur field, and anything that deviates from this norm is seen as strange and
unbecoming. It is also established that the underlying societal stereotypes associating
entrepreneurship with masculine characteristics do have negative influence on women’s
intention to pursue entrepreneurial ventures (Ferry, 2008; OECD, 2008). Little wonder the
World Bank (2007) survey reports that women own less than 10 percent of enterprises in
Nigeria. The survey also reveals that gender equality is a potent force for poverty alleviation
and economic growth. Hence it becomes imperative that any responsible government, and
the general public, put in place policies and programmes that should promote greater
participation of women in entrepreneurship.
Okpara (2005), categorized areas of entrepreneurial activities into Agro-Based,
Service Industry, Agro-Allied, and Chemical and Allied Ventures. Some of the areas
capacities of women can be built from the four categories are listed below. However, this list
does not claim to be exhaustive.
Agro-Based
Poultry
Service Industry
Cleaning/Laundry
Piggery
Waste disposal
Goat rearing
Snail farming
Day care/crèche
Beauty salon
hair dressing
Cellphone repairs
Dressmaking/Knitting
Newspaper vendoring
Food vendoring
Outdoor catering
Event management
Vegetable garden
Fish pond
Rabbit breeding
Agro-Allied
Food processing and
packaging
Cold room for fish,
meat storage
Butcher shop
Tooth pick making
Chemical-Allied Ventures
School chalk
Palmoil mill
Palm kernel crushing
Vegetable oil
Packaging spices
Cassava, yamflour
Corn, maize and
other grains flour
Toilet soap/ bar soap
Polish remover
Type-due
Hair shampoo/ conditioner
Body cream
Polythene
Shoe polish
Scourying powder
Detergent
Interior décor
Video covering
Advantages of Mainstreaming Women into Entrepreneurship
Women are by nature inventors and risk-takers for they create something out of
nothing to take care of their children and families. By extension, therefore, women are
natural entrepreneurs and should therefore be very active in the informal sector of the
26
economy. These abilities of women have to be recognized, appreciated and supported for
greater participation and higher productivity that will grow local economy. Unfortunately,
women are excluded at the decision making, planning, implementation monitoring and
evaluation levels of any economic programmes. Consequently, their entrepreneurial
potentials are untapped and their families, communities and society, at large, are the loosers.
On the other hand, there are many advantages when entrepreneurial programmes target
women. Their productivity and standard of living are enhanced, and they become empowered
to accelerate development at both local and national levels. In view of what this paper is
advocating for, making entrepreneurship programmes gender-sensitive and friendly, it aligns
itself to the conclusions of the OECD (2008) reports. The studies find that if better use were
made of the world’s female human capital; economic growth would increase in all countries;
the number of people living with poverty would decline in all countries, fertility rates would
decline in non-OECD countries, business performance and innovation would be enhanced,
the cost-effectiveness of healthcare and social programmes would be raised; government
policies would better respond to the needs of all citizens; and environmental damage from
unsustainable activities would decrease.
From the foregoing, the advantages arising from empowering women cannot be overemphasized since no development interventions can be effective, if again for emphasis, about
half of the population is not fully engaged. It is an established fact that women are the driving
force behind small businesses and local economies. This by implication means that for a
nation to be seen as developed, its women population must be mainstreamed into policies and
programmes (World Bank, 2007). In view of the foot-dragging by the society, there is
therefore an urgent need to invoke affirmative action in entrepreneurship. This gender
concept means measures targeted at a particular group and intended to eliminate and prevent
discrimination or offset disadvantages arising from existing attitudes, behaviours and
structures. There is also the need for professional associations such as NASE to serve as
pressure groups that advocate for gender mainstreaming and thereby create the awareness of
gender issues, and willingness to effect the necessary changes that will have positive impacts
on issues and concerns of men and women in entrepreneurship.
The benefits of empowering women through entrepreneurship are far-reaching.
Nwoye (2007) opines that empowering women as economic actors in small and medium
enterprises (SMEs) is a powerful mechanism for economic development and consolidation of
democracy. In his own contribution, Annan (2003) states categorically that the problem of
under-development in Africa is as a result of women exclusion in policies and programmes.
He confirms that study after study has shown that women do not play a central role, but adds
that when they are fully involved, the benefits can be seen immediately. The benefits are:
families are healthier and better fed, their income, savings and investment go up. The
improvements in their families have ripple effects. Annan continued, because of the fact that
what is true of families is also true of communities and, in the long run, of the whole country.
In effect, this means that if women are involve in the economy of a nation, it will trigger off
development in the society as a whole.
Building the capacity of women in entrepreneurship will also yield positive results in
the form of job creation and poverty alleviation or reduction. Indeed, women in
entrepreneurship is a viable way out of poverty as well as a tool for women to gain increasing
levels of rights, empowerment, and to occupy their rightful position in the development
programmes.
27
In their own contribution, Marcone and Chavez (2008) are of the view that women
entrepreneurs are becoming an increasingly important component of the world economy, its
productivity growth, and its struggle against poverty. Hence, by investing in women,
government at all levels have an opportunity to tap into the underutilized potentials of
women. The authors further state that understanding and supporting the entrepreneurial
behaviour of women will have positive repercussions on a country’s well-being and social
equity. In the end, Marcone and Chavez reiterate that entrepreneurship empowers women
and brings them into mainstream development thereby improving their economic status. This
by implication means that enabling women to participate in entrepreneurial programmes will
empower them to set up productive activities, increase their technical knowledge and skills
and raise their income.
The grand-norm of the MDGs is gender equality and each of the MDGs wears a
woman’s face, consequently it might not be off the mark to believe that if women are fully
mainstreamed into entrepreneurial programmes and other aspects of social institutionseducation, agriculture, commerce, politics, health, and technology in Nigeria, the country
might be on the road to achieving some, if not all of the eight MDGs in 2015. Imagine the
scenario where about 50% of the population, (i.e. women) is empowered, there is no doubt
that through such aggressive women empowerment: Extreme poverty and hunger will be
eradicated. Universal primary education, especially education of girls, will be achieved.
Gender equality will be promoted. Rate of child mortality will go down. Maternal health
will improve. Prevalence of HIV/AIDs, malaria and other diseases will be reduced.
Environmental sustainability will be ensured. And partnerships for development will also be
ensured.
International Organisation of Employers (2008) reported that women entrepreneurs
are increasingly becoming the driving force of many economies particularly in Africa. This
revelation, by implication, means that any nation where women are not carried along in
entrepreneurship will experience a snail-speed economic development. For rapid
development in Nigeria, therefore, private and public policies and programmes should
support women entrepreneurs. Supporting them will enhance the potentials to create
employment, increase productivity, improve family health, reduce poverty, and promote
development from the community level. These are worthwhile benefits and more the society
will reap if women are availed of entrepreneurship education as well as encouraged to
recognize and utilize their entrepreneurial potentials.
It is an established fact that women are the driving force behind small
businesses and local economies. This by implication means that for a nation to be seen as
developed, its women population must be mainstreamed into every developmental policy,
project, and programme (World Bank, 2007). In view of the neglect of the female population
in Nigeria, there is therefore the need to invoke the implementation of the United Nations
affirmative action in entrepreneurship. This gender concept interprets into employing
measures targeted at a particular group, and in this case, girls and women, as well as intended
to eliminate and prevent discrimination, or offset disadvantages arising from existing
attitudes, behaviours and structures.
Mainstreaming gender is a change agent for the entire society to ensure that every
member of the society, irrespective of sex, has equal access to services and resources. It
guarantees every individual equal participation in and contribution to the development
process. Finally, mainstreaming enables everybody to benefit from the outcomes of
development programmes and projects.
Why this call to mainstream gender in
28
entrepreneurship education? The answer is: simple to empower women, which means
appreciating their potentials and abilities, and building their capacity in order for them to
make meaningful and effective contributions to development, to make purposeful decisions
about their future, and also to derive benefits from common resources and opportunities that
abound in the society. Women empowerment, therefore, aims at raising the voices and status
of women to ensure gender equity. It also involves targeting women to achieve specific
outcomes aimed at adequately equipping them to participate in the development process. The
exclusion of women, with opportunities equal to those of men, in entrepreneurship education,
seminars and workshops is in effect a deliberate exclusion of half of the population and a
potential ingredient for development. It is not just the women that loose out, but rather their
communities, their families and the entire nation.
There is no gainsaying the fact that if men will join women, without any bias, to fight
the battle for women empowerment and for practices, then gender inequality will become a
thing of the past. Women cannot be left out in any development agenda; rather they should
be targeted and carried along if Nigeria is to achieve the MDGs, EFA and Vision 202020 (i.e.
being one of the twenty largest economies in the year 2020). Special programmes to target
women should be organized governments, international agencies, NGOs, FBOs, CBOs and
individuals. The call being made is for every hand to be on deck in Nigeria to mainstream
gender and to also implement affirmative action which translates to setting aside 30 percent
of places or positions for women in every aspect of life; education, politics, economic, labour
force, entrepreneurship, business etc.
Mainstreaming gender in development policies and programmes will guarantee
gender equality and its benefits. Now is the time for us all to double our efforts to promote
women’s economic self sufficiency, social empowerment and security. Gender has got to be
mainstreamed into entrepreneurship education which Azikiwe (2008) has rightly branded a
polyvalent agent of development, and for the achievement of the MDGs in 2015.
References
Annan, K. (2003). Address: International Women’s Day Celebration. New York: United Nations.
Ansre, A. (2009). Gender on the agenda of West Africa Development. Paper presented at he
Regional Training series, RTS-02, for Women Development and Gender Management
held in Accra, Ghana, 24-26 June, 2009.
Azikiwe, U. (2001). Mainstreaming gender in the curriculum for sustainable educational
development. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies, 9 (2), 106-115.
Azikiwe, U. (2002). Gender ssues and the Universal Basic Education Programme. The
Nigerian Universal Basic Education Journal, 1(2), 371-379.
Azikiwe, U. (2008). Entrepreneurship: Key to Development. An Opening Address delivered
on the 1st
Youth Entrepreneurship Awards by Withworth Consultancy, London, held at Owerri, Imo
State, Nov. 21, 2008.
Federal Ministry of Women Affairs/Child Development (2006). National Gender
29
Policy: Situation Analysis and Framework, Vol. 1, Abuja: FMWA/CD.
Feery, A.P. (2008) Study: Gender sterotypes persist. http://www.inc.com/news/articles
/2008/05/gender.html. (6/6/2009)
IFC (2009). IFC and Nigeria’s Access Bank Open Credit Line for Women Entrepreneurs.
Reducing Poverty Improving Lives. http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainablity (14/8/2009).
ILO (2009). Skill and entrepreneurship: Bridging the technology and gender divide. Gender
equality at the heart of decent work. Geneva: ILO.
International institute of rural reconstruction (2009). International course on gender and
entrepreneurship www.iirr.org (6/62009)
Marcone, S. & Charez, M.E. (2008). Women entrepreneurship development for economic
growth. 5th ICA regional women forum. www.ica.coop/gender/activities/2008-apwomen-forum.pdf (6/62009).
Nwoye, M. (2007). Gender responsive entrepreneurial economy of Nigeria: Enabling women
in a disabling environment. Journal of International women’s Studies, 9(1), 1-2.
http://www.bridgew.us/SOAS/JIWS/NOV07/MayNwoye.pdf.
Okpara, E.O. (2005). The practice of entrepreneurship. Enugu, Nigeria: Precision Publishers Ltd.
Okpara, F. O. (2000). Entrepreneurship: Text and case. Enugu, Nigeria: Precision Printers
and Publishers.
Oputu, H. (2008). Bank of industry and women in business. http://www.com/stories/
20082080176/html (24/8/2009.
Organisation of economic co-operation and development (OECD, 2008). Gender and
sustainable development. OECD.
The international organisation of employer (2008): Women entrepreneurs http://www.ioeemp.org/en/policy-areas/employment/women-entrepreneurship/index.htmt.
World Bank (2007). Global monitoring report 2007:Millennium development goa
Confron
ting the challenges of gender equality and fragile state: Washing Yan, DC: World Bank.
30
TEACHER EDUCATION: A PATHWAY TO THE ACQUISITION OF POSITIVE
SOCIETAL VALUES AND SKILLS IN NIGERIA
DARAMOLA, C.O.
Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education
University of Ilorin, Ilorin.
&
DARAMOLA, F.O.
Department of Science Education
University of Ilorin, Ilorin.
Abstract
This paper examined the importance of teacher education in the transmission and acquisition
of positive societal values and skills in Nigeria. Every society, whether primitive, developing
or developed has her system of cultural transmission. Education, being a major factor in this
process should inculcate in the teacher- trainees those societal values which will enable them
to contribute meaningfully to the development of the society. The paper suggested that the
curriculum of the Colleges of Education and Faculties of Education, where teachers are
trained, should include courses like Citizenship Education, Civics etc. The paper concluded
that preparing student-teachers to be effective citizens is explicitly recognized as an
important part of the teacher- training institutions’ mission and not just citizenship as or
general course.
Introduction
There are multitudes of theories on positive moral values, and there are equally many
views on the role of education in moulding character of an individual. Some scholars believe
that sc hools have appropriate settings for developing positive moral values in individuals
because the main “goal of schools is to promote students’ cognitive, affective and
psychomotor development, so that they can be functional members of the society (Bagudo,
2004). Also DeRoche and Williams (1998, p.96),echoed similar views thus:
Two major purposes of schooling are cognitive-academic development and
character formation….Cognitive-academic development contributes towards
enhancing children’s and youth’s knowledge and intellectual skills. [While]
Character formation helps shape their attitudes and behaviours reflected in such
values as honesty, integrity, respect, responsibility, self-discipline, and
reliability, ‘cognitive-academic’ and ‘character development’ prepare students
for work.
The development of any nation rests heavily on the education of its citizenry. This is because
the purpose of education is to transmit the culture of the people, to initiate the young into
their way of life, and to mould their character for the well-being of their immediate and entire
community. Adiele in Bagudo (2004) defines education as a process that brings about
desirable change in human behaviour, which goes beyond academics. It also involves the
development of positive moral values in the pupils for their proper functioning in the society.
In the education industry, teachers play a very significant role in the teaching / learning
process.
31
For the overall development of the entire society, the importance of teachers cannot
be over-emphasized, because it has been established that there is no society that can rise
above her teachers. If teachers are so significant in the development of a nation, then the
questions are, who are these teachers? how are they trained to be able to produce students
who would be sound intellectually, acquire skills and develop socially desirable behaviour in
the society? The answers to these questions constitute the main trust of this paper.
Conceptual Clarification
Teacher education
Teacher education is an educational programme designed to prepare and equip
teachers with academic training and professional skills required in the teaching-learning
situation. It is a component part of an educational system, charged with training and
production of teachers for all the levels of education. It helps to acquire skills and
competencies of teaching for the improvement in the quality of teachers for the school
system. In consonance with the above meaning, Ipaye (2000) in Adedeji and Bello (2008)
defines teacher education as the process whereby the prospective teacher, pre-service teacher
or intending teacher or aspirant teacher, is provided with the opportunity to develop
cognitive perspectives, affective dispositions and psychomotor competencies which will
endow him or her with the qualities, capacities and capabilities for teaching. Also Denga
(2001) opines that teacher education is the process of preparing or developing individuals
with the necessary knowledge and skills that will enable them to effectively direct learning
situations.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2004) has emphasized the aims and objectives of
teacher education as contained in the National Policy on Education as follows:
a. to produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers for all
levels of education system;
b. to encourage further, the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers;
c. to help teachers to fit into the social life of the community and society at large and to
enhance their commitment to national objectives;
d. to provide teachers with the intellectual and professional background adequate for
their assignment and to make them adaptable to any change situation not only in the
life of their country but in the wider world;
e. to enhance teachers’ commitment to the teaching profession.
Furthermore, Ukeje (1986) has also stressed that in addition to the objectives of
teacher education stated in the National Policy on Education, the teacher education
programme should aim at producing teachers who are able to:
i. inspire the youth to develop national consciousness and sense of national unity;
ii. inculcate in the youth the right type of values and attitudes for their individual progress
and for the survival of the nation; and.
iii. lead the youth to the development of their minds to the proper understanding of the world
around them.
If the above objectives of teacher education as stated in the National Policy on
Education are to be achieved, then there is need to examine the vital role of teacher education
programme in the production of teachers who are to impart positive social and moral values
into the learners.
32
The concepts of positive values
DeRoche and Williams (1998) see positive values as the ethical dimensions of the
individual and society which examines how the standard of right and wrong are developed.
Positive values is all about core moral values, such as honesty, responsibility, care, etc, and
helps to raise morally responsible and self-disciplined citizens. Bello (2006) states that
positive moral values, like moral education involves teaching children and youths basic
human values including honesty, kindness, generosity, courage, freedom, equality, and
respect. It aims at creating schools that foster ethical, responsible values, and caring for
young people. Development of positive values is what the school teaches to help the youths
to become ethnically mature adults, capable of moral thought and action. Hurn,(1987)
defines positive values as moral character that creates justification for a person’s beliefs,
decisions, and actions, including getting involved in corrupt activities.
Teacher Education a Pathway to the acquisition of positive societal values and skills
Adedeji and Bello (2000) observe that teacher education is specifically designed for
individuals who are willing to become teachers to acquire skills, dispositions, knowledge,
habits, attitudes, values , norms, ethics and professional competencies that prepare them to
effectively influence the learning situation. It aims at producing efficient teachers for all
levels of the Nigerian educational system. They went further to say that developing nations
like Nigeria are confronted with the challenges of national integration/ nation building,
economic development, and other related problems. They believe that through education, the
sense of national unity, patriotism and loyalty can be transmitted from the older members of
the society to the younger ones.
The Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) and Bachelor Degree in Education (B.Ed,
B.Sc. Ed & B.A. Ed.) programmes are designed for the training of teachers in various
disciplines, dedicated teachers who have appropriate knowledge , skills and attitudes that
would facilitate easy achievement of the national goals as spelt out in the National Policy on
Education (FRN, 2004).
By implication, teacher education, like any aspect of education, is expected to be an
instrument for attaining these goals through teaching of positive moral values to its studentteachers who would also teach it to the end users, (i.e the learners). Positive values are good
moral principles, standards that a society considers important. Teacher education, which is a
structure or basis for equipping teachers and teacher educators, should be the centre for
value-orientation and re-orientation on every aspect of societal life be it social, political,
economic, personal etc. The environment in teacher education is discussed as a major mode
for the development of values needed in the society. For any change to take place in the
society , it starts from the school as the play ground and the teacher as the coach. If the
teacher is well equipped and sound in positive values of due process, justice, patriotism,
honesty, trustworthiness, loyalty etc, teacher educators can then transmit same into the
learners. These could be achieved by:
1. Developing student- teachers in the three educational domains- cognitive, affective and
the psycho-motor with special emphasis on the affective domain, which deals with feelings,
desires, aspirations, attitudes, values, character/ behaviour, interest, moral disposition,
passion and aesthetic sensibilities and appreciations. The affective domain is classified into
five levels as: receiving, responding, valuing, organization, and characterization by value or
value complex. In developing student teachers in the affective domain for transformation of
attitudes; citizenship education is offered as a compulsory course in Nigerian Colleges of
33
Education, where teacher-trainees are taught the values of honesty, respect, hardwork,
tolerance, national integration, integrity, patriotism, loyalty etc. It is believed that when the
affective domain of learners are emphasized, the learner will respond positively to what is
being taught, value it, and organize it through conceptualization and develop value concept
system according to priority. This is the fifth level of the affective domain which involves
value system that represents one’s philosophy of life. This influences the character of the
student teachers. Behaviours at this stage are consistent and the student teachers’ lives are in
harmony with the value system (Piwuna, in Bello 2006). It is therefore advocated that
Nigerian Colleges of Education and Faculties of Education in the Universities teach relevant
courses that would make learning of values reach the highest levels of affective domain, so
that the values can be part of the student teachers who will, in turn, transmit same to learners
in primary and secondary schools. On the other hand, if these courses are not properly
handled or taught, they will end up at the 1 st and 2 nd levels of receiving and responding
respectively which can only be taken for granted and will not be internalized for change in
attitudes and values that would enhance the attainment of teacher education objectives of
development of positive character or behaviours needed for value change.
2. Effective evaluation of learning outcome in the affective domain: For proper assessment
of what the student teachers have learnt in their various institutions of learning, effective
evaluation process must be put in place to ensure that those values taught are understood and
internalized. These can be done by using observation, rating scales, anecdotal records,
sociometric system etc. Unfortunately, most assessments are done only on the cognitive
domain.
3. Citizenship education: Citizenship education equips students with knowledge, norms,
skills, values orientation, attitudes that would enable them become effective citizens and
function in the society as effective members; it prepares them for democratic processes. As
citizens, they are meant to learn the constitution of the country, to know their rights and
obligations and that of other citizens of the country; and the restrictions on those rights. They
also study the systems of government and leadership styles as well as the symbols for
national unity. The NCCE (2002) minimum standard highlights some themes in citizenship
education as follows: the constitution, federation, citizenship, constituted authority,
government, arms of government , historical perspectives of Nigeria’s political and economic
development, rights and obligations, national ethics and discipline in national life, Nigerian
environment, and national identity. These themes are carefully broken down into sub-themes
or topics and student teachers are all expected to study them under general studies education
as a compulsory course through application of appropriate methods and instructional
materials on these themes. The acquisition of positive moral values by the student teachers
will not be limited as this will equip them as teachers with skills which will enhance national
development.
4. Leadership style built into the curriculum of the teacher training institutions: Positive
values can also be taught through the curriculum of the teacher trainees. Leadership is an
important aspect of a teacher’s roles. The society depends on the teacher education to train
and produce teachers who will train and produce leaders of tomorrow in the society. Hikimi,
(2006) opines that it is in the school that the society can produce qualified business managers,
teachers, doctors, lawyers, and other professionals that would handle leadership roles in the
society. The importance of effective leadership in the education sector therefore cannot be
over-emphasized. However, for positive values to be acquired in teacher education, the
provosts, rectors, vice chancellors and staff should adopt democratic leadership style in their
34
management and administration. In the theory of democratic leadership style, power and
responsibilities are shared (between the school leaders and the staff and between the lecturers
and student-teachers). The teacher’s managerial role in the classroom creates way for an
effective working environment which is stimulating, supportive, unthreatening and effective
for all members. Leadership values of justice, rule of law, efficiency, discipline, transparency,
integrity and honesty should be demonstrated by the administrators, academics and nonacademic staff. When all these are available in the various institutions of learning, the
environment will be friendly, loving, motivating and inspiring for teaching/ learning
activities. The student teachers have a lot to learn from their various Colleges and
Universities. Among these variables is the leadership which they are going to assume when
they get to the larger society. Thus, democratic leadership in teacher training colleges breeds
people with democratic principles for the society (Ibrahim, 2000).
5. Staff as Role Models of Emulation: It is pertinent to note that the personal qualities of
academic staff in Nigerian Colleges of Education and Faculties of Education in the
Universities can go a long way in influencing the teacher trainees. It shapes their behaviours
or develops the philosophy of decency in them. The ethics of teaching profession as a
yardstick for good conduct can influence student teachers’ lifestyles which invariably can be
transferred to the larger society. Ryan in Bello (2008) stated that moral values are “caught not
taught” and classroom life is saturated with moral meanings that shape students’ character
and moral development. When student teachers are provided with good role models such as
virtues of patriotism, hardwork, honesty, self-control, respect for superior, loyalty, integrity,
justice, democratic behaviour, decency in speech and dressing, due-process etc. Then teacher
education will be able to produce teachers who are not only qualified in knowledge of subject
matter, skills of imparting knowledge but also upright in character. This means that the
institutions will be able to produce individuals who have received all round education. When
this is attained, the society will be better for it.
Challenges hindering the acquisition of positive values in the provision of teachers:
1. Difficulty in the teaching of citizenship education: The teaching of citizenship education
in teacher training institutions poses a lot of challenges, prominent among them is that there
are many topics and not all of them can be taught within the stipulated semester. Also there is
the problem of evaluating learning outcome in citizenship education since it deals with
values, norms and attitude transformation. This is coupled with large class size experienced
in most Education Faculties and Colleges of Education. The introduction of Computer Based
Test (CBT) poses serious challenge to evaluation; this method has limited the evaluation of
learners understanding to purely the cognitive domain to the detriment of affective and
psychomotor domains.
2. Less involvement of student-teachers in school administration: Student teachers are not
much involved in the school administration, this does not give room for the student teachers
to acquire the needed skills and knowledge that will enable them function adequately in their
various schools.
3. Bad Personality traits of teacher educators: The classroom and indeed the school
community is directed by student teachers’ educators. The environment from where the
teaching / learning process takes place must be conductive. The lecturers must prepare for
their lectures as nobody can give what he/she does not have. Therefore, they must serve as
role models for their students. The lectures’ attitudes to their work and their students will tell
much about them outside their campuses. Therefore, bad personal traits on the part of the
35
lecturers must be curbed and reduced to the minimal by the college or the university
authorities.
4. Bad Leadership style: if the leadership of any organization is weak or bad, the out-put of
that organization will be minimal. The student teachers should imbibe the culture of good
leadership right away from their various institutions of learning. Lecturers in the Nigerian
Colleges of Education and Faculties of Education where teachers are produced should make
the development of positive moral values their watch-word in their day to day activities in
their various institutions of learning.
Conclusion
Nigeria, like any country in the world, has her cultural values which are transmitted
from one generation to the other. Education has been seen as a means of transmitting these
values, but because Nigerian society, like any other in the world is not static but dynamic.
Therefore, her education system should be able to keep pace with all the changes that are
occurring in all the sectors of the economy.
For the effective teaching / learning of positive societal values and skills, the
curriculum of the teacher- trainees should include courses like citizenship education, civics,
skills and values, and they should be explicitly and systematically taught in the teacher
training institutions and schools. It is important to note that preparing student teachers to be
effective citizens is explicitly recognized as an important part of the teacher training
institutions’ mission and not just citizenship education as a general course.
References
Adedeji, I.O. and Bello, M,B.(2008). An introduction to teacher education for NCE students
and university undergraduates. Kaduna. Ultimate Printer.
Bagudo, .A .A (2004). Philosophical analysis of educational concepts. Ibadan: Sam
Bookman Publishers.
Bello, M. B. (2006). An appraisal of school as a custodian of moral values: A case study of
selected secondary schools in Sokoto Metropolis. Sokoto Educational Review. 8(2),
192-203.
Bello, M.B. (2008). Tackling corruption through moral education for nation building.A paper
presented at the 1 st National Conference of School Sciences Isa Kaita College
of Education, Dutsin- ma, Katsina State at Education Room from 28th April – 2nd May.
Denga, N.B. (2001). Introduction to teacher education. Kano: Jafe Associates Ltd.
DeRoche. E. F & Williams, M. M. (1998). Educating hearts and minds: A comprehensive
character education framework. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press, Inc.
Federal Government of Nigeria National Commission on Colleges of Education (2002).
Minimum standards for NCE Teachers. 3rd edition. Abuja. NCCE Press.
36
Federal Republic of Nigeria, (2004). National policy on education. (4rth ed.) Lagos;
NERDC Press.
Hikim, M.W. (2006). Theories of leadership and their implication in school administration.
Farfaru Journal of Multi-Disciplinary Studies: Special Conference edition. 1
( I ), 88-93.
Hurn, C. (1987). The limits and possibilities of schooling: An introduction to sociology of
education .London: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
Ibrahim, N. (2000). Patriotism in national service. Kaduna: Baraka Press and publishers Ltd.
Tukur, M. (1999). Leadership and governance in Nigeria. Great Britain. Hodder Head line. Plc.
Ukeje, B.O. (1986). Teacher education in Nigeria: Problems and Issues. In L.O. Ocho: &
E.O. Fagbamiye (Eds). Issues and concerns in educational administration: The
Nigerian case in international perspectives. Lagos: Macmillan Nig. Pub.Ltd.
37
GENDER ACCESS TO UNIVERSITY EDUCATION AND PARTICIPATION IN
GOVERNANCE IN NIGERIA
OBASI E.
Faculty of Education, Imo State University, Owerri
Abstract
This article examines the data on graduate output in Nigeria’s universities and participation in
governance in Nigeria by gender to see how the global and national aspirations for gender
parity in access to education and governance are being realized. The indication from the
findings is that in spite of the fact that the population of Nigeria is evenly distributed between
males and females, huge gender imbalances exist in access to university education and
participation in governance in Nigeria. It is concluded that adopting a laissez-faire approach
to gender development issues could hardly yield the desired global and national aspirations
for the equalization of the participation rates for women and men both in university education
and in governance. The pragmatic approach to adopt is to enunciate and enforce affirmative
action plans that strictly guarantee equal gender quota in university admission and in the
allocation of seats in the legislative and judicial chambers and in the appointments to
executive offices in government.
Introduction
The place of education in role allocation in society is a recurring theme in
Functionalist sociological analysis of the nexus between education and society (Karabel &
Halsey, 1977, Haralambos & Holborn, 2004). Haralambos and Holborn (2004) contend that
Functionalist sociologists see the educational system as a vital mechanism for the selection of
individuals for their future roles in society. Schools, from the Functionalist stand point,
accomplish the role allocation function by selecting, teaching and examining students to
separate them for different occupational roles in society. Schools, according to the
Functionalist school of thought, operate as meritocratic institutions where the same standards
are applied to all students irrespective of ascribed characteristics like social class of origin,
family background, race or gender. Hence, schools in admitting, testing and evaluating
students, ascertain their different abilities measured by their academic performance and use
that to channel them into different fields of study and subsequently into the occupations/
professions irrespective of gender.
Going by the functionalist theory, one should expect that any observable proportions
in the males and females access to university education should be somewhat reflected in the
representation of men and women in governance. The expectation is predicated on the fact
that governance recruits preponderantly from the class of educated elite. This should be more
so since males and females are proportionately represented in the national population matrix,
with females accounting for some 50 per cent of the country’s population of 140 million (see
Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2008). Besides, one should also expect a correspondence
between access to University education and participation in governance since the United
Nations (1948) in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and the Constitution
of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 endorsed every individuals right to participate both
in education and governance irrespective of ethnicity, religion or gender.
This article examines the available data on gender access to university education
reflected in the university graduate output from Nigerian universities between 2000/200138
2004/2005 academic session for which disaggregated data by gender is available and
compares it with data on gender participation in governance. The purpose is to see whether
there is some correspondence between women’s access to university education and women’s
participation in governance. The data used in the study is sourced principally from Federal
Republic of Nigeria (1999).
Discussion of Findings
Table 1 presents the data on gender distribution of graduate output (Bachelor Degree,
Postgraduate Diploma, Masters Degree and Doctorate Degree) in Nigeria’s Universities for
the period 2000/2001 academic session up to the 2004/2005 academic session. We observe
from the table that females account for 34.3 percent of the 69,390 total graduates output in
Nigerian universities in 2000/2001. The proportion increased marginally to 35 percent of 80,
944 graduates in 2001/2002 and peaked at 38.2 percent of 90,579 graduates in 2002/2003. It
stood at 38 percent of 69, 300 in 2003/2004 and dropped sharply to 36.3 percent of 39,506
graduates in 2004/2005.
Table 1: Graduate Output (Bachelor Degree, Postgraduate Diploma, Masters Degree
and Doctorate Degree) in Nigeria’s Universities 2000/2001 – 2004/2005 Academic
Session) by Gender
Disciplines
2000/2001
Engineering/Tech
Env. Sci.
Law
Medicine
Pharmacy
Science
Social Science
Dentistry
Vet. Medicine
Others
Total
2002/2003
2003/2004
Total
%
female
Total
%
female
Total
%
female
14078
2966
7645
10358
6497
1811
4398
2665
494
9060
18909
68
205
1790
35.5
30.6
44.5
46.8
12.8
25.6
44.1
29.1
31.2
36.2
32.8
32.4
34.9
28.6
19513
41
119
1255
%
female
31
22.5
41.6
49
10.9
24.9
38.6
31.5
24.2
34.4
34.7
29.3
17.7
33.7
97
254
1649
35.1
35.6
49.3
47
14.2
32
47.4
37.1
41.3
40.6
38.4
30.9
25.2
30.1
12893
2869
6692
8363
5808
1822
3877
2644
710
8353
14122
79
118
950
39.7
34.4
47.1
52.7
14.1
26.7
42.4
32.8
39
35.7
37.3
27.9
27.1
28.3
69390
34.3
80944
35
90579
38.2
69300
38
Tota
l
Administration
Agriculture
Arts
Education
2001/2002
14847
2247
6656
10520
5852
1787
2927
1921
355
9174
11689
3012
8743
10026
7227
2187
5896
2895
417
11308
17355
2004/2005
Tota
%
l
female
8530
37.7
974
29.2
3829
45.1
5665
46.5
2012
09.3
1502
26.4
1681
38
732
38.8
42
40.5
6702
24
7283
42.7
Not Available
61
21.3
491
43
39506
2000/20012004/2005
Average (%
female)
35.8
30.5
45.5
48.4
12.3
27.1
42.1
33.9
35.2
34.2
37.2
30.1
25.2
32.7
36.3
36.4
Source: Based on Federal Republic of Nigeria National Bureau of Statistics, 2009.
The remarkable finding from the data is that females seriously lagged behind males in access
to university education in Nigeria over the years. The female gender is lagging behind the
males with a deficit of 11.8 percent at its best documented period (2002/2003) and a deficit of
15.7 percent at its worst documented period (2000/2001). The data when considered across
the various fields of study at the university, shows that the under representation of females is
pronounced in virtually all the professions, being highest in Engineering/Technology where
females account for only 12.3 percent on the average during the period 2000/2001-2004/2005
and least in education where females accounted, on the average, for 48 percent of the
graduate out put during the period. The overall under representation of the female gender in
access to university education becomes disturbingly worrisome in view of the fact that
females account for 50 percent share of the national population.
39
The continued under representation of females in university education in Nigeria
should be unacceptable since education is fully recognized both globally and nationally not
only as a fundamental human right but also as a veritable instrument for inculcating
knowledge and competences which are critical to human development and improvements in
standard of living. Besides, the situation should not be allowed to persist in view of the
provisions in both the Beijing platform for action and the requirements in the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) 3 for achieving gender parity in all levels of the education
system and empower women no later than the year 2015( United Nations, 2005 ).
To see if there is any visible relationship between gender access to university
education and participation in governance in Nigeria the data on gender participation rates in
university education denoted by graduate out put presented in Table 1 is compared with the
data on gender participation in governance presented in Table 2. The stark startling finding
which is evident from Table 2 is that females are not just underrepresented in governance but
are completely marginalized to the extent that their representation in governance can be
described as being largely insignificant. The female participation rates in governance which
is extremely low stood at an average of 4.2 percent; 12.5 percent, 8.7 percent and 3.8 percent
for elected legislators at the senate, House of Representatives, state House of Assembly and
Local Government council, respectively, during the unbroken period of democratic
governance in Nigeria stretching from 1999 up to 2011 when the last national election were
conducted. The situation is not too different in the judiciary where females account for only
11.8 percent and 31.8 percent of the justices in the supreme and Appeal courts, respectively,
and 21.6 percent of High court judges.
40
Table 2: Gender Participation in Governance in Nigeria 1999-2011
Level of
1999
2003
2007
2011
1999-2011
Senate
Senate
Senate
Senate
Average
Governme nt
Federal
%
Female
%
female
Male
Female
%
female
Male
Female
%
female
4
106
3
2.8
105
109
109
House of Representatives
348
12
33.3
338
22
360
360
State House of Assembly
22.9
895
21
877
39
916
916
Local Government Chairpersons
3.7
101
8
7.3
106
3
2.8
4.2
587
7
1.2
693
12
594
705
Local Government Councilors
1.7
Male
Total
Total
State
Total
Local
Government
Total
6532
Total
Type of
Court
Federal
High Court
Total
80
6612
%
Female
Male
1.2
8454
12.3
8724
Female
270
109
334
6.1
109
26
35.8
348
360
12
3.3
12.5
56
6.2
978
990
12
1.2
8.7
226
237
11
4.6
765
774
9
1.2
2.2
3.1
1576
164
9.4
8667
143
1.6
3.8
3.8
1740
12.7
8810
2.0
6.3
360
853
4.3
909
Justices and Judges in Federal Courts 2000
Justices
Male
Supreme
Total
Appeal
Total
Female
Female
15
2
17
44
14
58
Judges
40
11
%
female
11.8
31.8
21.6
51
Source: Based on Federal Republic of Nigeria National Bureau of Statistics, 2009
*Data for 2011 is based on enquiries from different sources.
The most disturbing aspect of the findings is that the hiatus between the females
participation rate in university education which averaged 36.4 percent in the era 2000/20012004/2005 and the female participation rate in governance at all levels combined which
averaged 6.3 percent during the period 1999-2011 is huge at 30.1 percentage difference.
Much as virtually all the women in governance are university graduates, the findings would
suggest that access to university education is not significantly reflected in the access to
governance positions. The obvious indication is that the role allocation function of the
education system in relation to sphere of governance is very weak. Otherwise, one would
have expected that much as the female gender is underrepresented in university education
that at the worst the extent of the proportion of female under representation in governance
will be akin to what obtained in the proportion of female under representation in access to
university education. But the situation, one feels saddened to note, is not just mere under
representation in governance but is grave as to be deserving to be described as outright
marginalization of females in governance in Nigeria. Worse still, rather than abate the
situation is exacerbating. For instance, whereas in 1999 females accounted for 12.3 percent of
41
all elected positions at all levels of governance combined, the proportion dropped steeply to
3.8 percent in 2003. It rose to 12.7 percent in 2007 and dropped steeply to 2.0 percent in
2011.
The gigantean difference, in proportions, between gender access to university
education and gender access to governance could be explained by the operation of certain
potent factors like cultural and religious restrictions, cash and carry politics, electioneering
violence, politics of god fatherism and vote manipulation which work against women
participation in governance. I shall briefly show how these factors operate to drastically limit
women’s participation in governance.
Cultural and Religious Restrictions.
In the patriarchal culture that is widely prevalent in Nigeria, custom and tradition
relegates women to lower positions in the social and political organization of society relative
to the men. For instance, in the public arena a woman may by seen but not heard, as vital
decisions on matters affecting the community are usually taken by men. Custom and tradition
prescribes that a woman be subject to the authority of the husband, required to cook his
meals, rear his children and keep his home and compound, irrespective of whether the woman
is educated or not. Failure to conform to the cultural prescriptions could lead to the woman
being looked down upon and possibly being returned back to her parents for lack of home
training, insubordination and waywardness. The desire to avoid the humiliation of being
bundled back to a women’s parents’ home, which for instance, in Igbo culture, amounts to a
divorce, has worked to seriously limit women’s aspirations for governance.
The women who feel so liberated and bold to compromise the domestic cultural roles
in the pursuit of public governance roles or who strive to strike a balance may be taunted or
even seen as morally loose thereby discouraging many women from venturing into politics
and aspiring to positions of governance. The cultural restrictions is reinforced by both Islamic
and Christian religions. Just as a woman in Islam is not expected to lead men in prayers in the
mosque and usually required to be confined in purdah, Islam does not permit her to govern or
assume authority over men. Christianity strictly forbids women exercising authority over men
in the following words: “11.Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection. 12. But I
suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence, 13. For
Adam was first formed, then Eve” (Holy Bible, I Timothy chapter 2 verses 11-13).
Cash And Carry Politics and God Fatherism
In Nigeria, there is the prevalence of zero accountability, lack of transparency and
pervasive corruption in governance (Obasi, 2000). Hence, participation in governance has
been the surest and easiest route to quick wealth. This has turned politics into a huge
investment where governance aspirants and their patrons/godfathers spend hugely to buy
their way into governance in anticipation of the fast recouping of the money spent with
enormous gains as soon as they are installed in office. This has meant that politics in Nigeria
is a very expensive venture requiring a huge financial out lay need to open, maintain and run
campaign offices and outfits as well as provide financial inducements to the preponderantly
poor voters itching to grab their own share of the national loot from politician and other key
players in the electoral process who seek favourable electoral outcome. The fact that women,
generally, including the university graduates lack the huge financial resource outlay needed
to carry through electioneering campaigns in the vote for the highest bidder syndrome
characteristic of politics in Nigeria, drastically limits the scope for women’s participation in
42
politics is drastically reduced. This hugely constrains women’s ascendancy to governance
positions.
Electoral Violence
The fast and enormous wealth which easily accrue to participants in governance
through corrupt enrichment and the outrageously stupendous remunerations and other
perquisites of office which they garner, has turned politics in Nigeria into a “do or die affair”
occasioning multiplicity of horrendous electioneering violence which keeps of virtually all
decent women of substance from aspiring into governance position thus limiting the number
of women in governance.
Vote Manipulation
Part of the pervasive corruption in Nigeria is the manipulation of votes and election
results through many devices including ballot box stuffing and ballot box snatching, vote
rigging and falsification of election results through the connivance or collusion of some
election officials, party agents and security personnel who easily succumb to the huge
financial inducements that desperate politicians are willing to make to enable them ascend to
the lucrative governance positions in Nigeria. The antics, intrigues, scheming and dare devil
ruthlessness entailed in vote manipulations are such that most decent women could scarcely
boast of.
Sexual Discrimination and Harassment
The fact that aspiration into governance positions and engaging in politics usually
occasion several travels, late night and nocturnal meetings usually in hotels and secluded
arenas in distant places and the fears of sexual discrimination and harassment by lecherous
men, would scare most decent married women from participation. This is because,
participation will not only create a serious conflict between their domestic private roles and
political public roles which could prove difficult to resolve, but could also engender
suspicions of infidelity by the husband of the women politicians. In a deeply religious society
like Nigeria where the violation of the sanctity of the marriage relationship is viewed
seriously, most women would prefer to stay out of politics and governance to keep their
marriage.
Implications of Findings and Recommendation
The findings of this study are two fold. Firstly, it shows that females are grossly
underrepresented in access to university education in Nigeria both in overall access to
university education as well as in access to the different fields of study at the university with
the females lagging far behind the males, except in education and the arts subjects where the
gaps are narrowest. There are both the practical and theoretical implications of the situation.
Since investment in education helps in poverty alleviation and in the advancement of
economic and social development ( Schultz 1981; King and Hill, 1993 ) the huge gap in
females and males participation in university education would suggest that a huge number of
females in Nigeria left out of university education when compared with the male population
will suffer huge disadvantages in the battle to reduce poverty and secure improvements in
their wellbeing through the social, political and economic empowerment engendered by
university education. The under representation, also works against the actualization of the
MDG 3 which is the achievement of gender parity in all levels of education by 2015. At the
43
theoretical level it would suggest that adopting a laissez-fair approach to gender development
issues which relies solely on the functionalist role allocation function of the educational
system predicated on merit to produce correspondence between access to schooling and ,say ,
participation in governance could hardly yield the desired equalization of opportunities for
males and females.
Secondly, it shows that females are not only grossly underrepresented governance but
are also grossly and gravely marginalized.
The grave marginalization of the female segment of the population in Nigeria in
governance when they account 50 percent of the national population does not augur well for
the women in particular as women’s rights and issues have hardly received the desired
attention in the patriarchal Nigerian society and women have scarcely complemented the
males in setting the national development agenda including the prioritization of issues,
policies and programmes in a balanced way that adequately protects the interest of females. It
is an this note that it is imperative to equalize females participation rates in governance to not
only broaden the democratization of society to promote good governance since females on
the average are less likely to be involved in large scale corruption associated with the male
directed polity but also to secure increased sensitivity and responsiveness to female related
issues in legislation, policy and programme formulation and implementation which are very
imperative in the deepening of democracy in Nigeria. Although human rights advocacy
groups have consistently requested for some concessional female percentage share in
governance ranging from 20 percent to 35 percent , the issues in achieving equality in
access/participation transcends mere concessional arrangements. The way to reach the
desired gender parity, it is recommended, is to adopt a legislation based on affirmative action
plan which guarantees equal gender quota (50:50) in the allocation of seats in the legislative
chambers and in the judicial and executive positions in governance to overcome the
numerous hindrances which work against women’s competitiveness in society and limits
women’s proportionate allocation to governance roles in spite of their attainments in
education and share in the national population.
References
Ake, C. (2001). Democracy and development in Africa. Ibadan: Spectrum Books, Ltd.
Constitution of Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). Lagos: Federal Government Press.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2009). Social statistics in Nigeria. Abuja: National Bureau of
Statistics
Haralambos, M. & Holborn, M (2004). Sociology themes and perspectives. London:
HarperCollins Publishers Limited.
Holy Bible, King James Version.
Karabel, J. & Halsey, A. H. (1977). Power and ideology in education. New York: Oxford
University Press Inc.
44
King, E. M & Hill, M. A. (Eds) (1993). Women’s education in developing countries.
Baltimore & London: The John Hopkins Press.
Nwabueze, B. O. (1993). Democratization. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.
Obasi, E. (1987). Understanding education and society in Nigeria. Owerri: KayBeeCee
Publications Limited.
Obasi, E. (2000). Social pathology and control in Nigeria. Mbaise: New Vision Publishers.
Schutz, T. W. (1981). Investing in people: The economics of population quality.
Berkely/London: University of California Press.
United Nations (1948). Universal declaration of human rights. New York: United Nations.
United Nations (2005). Towards development, security and human rights for all. New York:
United Nations Department of Public Information.
45
A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF BOKO HARAM PERSPECTIVE ON WESTERN
EDUCATION IN THE NIGERIAN SOCIETY
OLUGBENGA, A.
Department of Educational Foundations and Counselling
Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo
Abstract
This paper examined the perspective of Boko Haram insurgence on Western education in line
with conflict theory on education. It examined the historical background of Boko Haram on
Western Education in Nigeria and the security threat the perspective poses on the corporate
existence of Nigeria as a nation through series of bombings which has claimed the lives of
several innocent citizens and destruction of valuable property in Nigeria. The paper also
examined the agitations of Boko Haram through the condemnation of Western Education as
sinful and misleading to the adherents of Islam and the Islamic education. The analysis
reveals that, the provisions and policy thrust in the National Policy on Education is
discriminatory, bias and non-integrative because Islamic education is seen as appendage of
Western education and culture. It is recommended that the provisions in the National Policy
need review to pave way for the acquisition of knowledge and skills in Northern schools in
line with Islamic injunctions and doctrines to create sense of belonging amongst the
Northerners who value Islamic culture to reduce social inequality in the Nigeria educational
system. It is also recommended that the Islalamiyah schools in the Northern part of Nigeria
should be grant aided and made to function as specialized schools with adequate regulation,
control and monitoring to ensure the objective and effective transmission of knowledge and
skills in line with the provisions in the Islamic written liturgy to prevent radical approach
attitudes and undue influence of fundamentalism and extremism. It is also recommended
that Islamiyah schools should be free and compulsory to get rid of almajiris from the street
with adequate welfare and care for the learners to enable them live meaningful life as citizens
of the country.
Introduction
The Nigerian society has been experiencing a lot of agitations and destructions of
lives and property as a result of the insurgences of Islamic fundamentalists and extremists
who claimed that Western Education is evil, sinful and harmful. The threat to security
situation in Nigeria has become worrisome and mind-burgling to President Goodluck’s
administration to the extent that most of the progressive plans of the political class in Nigeria
are at the verge of collapse due to non-implementation of the budget and the action plans of
the transformation agenda of the present administration in Nigeria. The insecurity situation in
Nigeria has also attracted the international community, most especially, the United States of
America who has started proposing holistic plans to assist Nigeria in resolving the deadly
sectarian crises in Nigeria. The labour unions championed by the Academic Staff Union of
Nigerian Universities, had also issued a threat warning to embark on indefinite strike if the
government refuses to find solutions to the lingering religious crises. It is the expectation of
Nigerians that proactive and pragmatic strides are going to be taken to prevent the incessant
loss of innocent souls, most especially children, students and corpers who are the hope and
future of Nigeria.
46
Adegbite (2011) declared that Boko Haram’s war declaration against Nigeria could be
resolved through security agents. The government should track them down, but at the end of
the day, the whole thing has to end somewhere as every war ends with dialogue. For instance,
in Afghanistan, for 11 years they avoided talking to the Taliban, now they are talking to
them. Dialogue is not expected to be a precondition, the perpetrators need to be tracked down
first before peace talks. For those of them who are peace loving, you draw them nearer; for
those who are violent and continue to attack Nigeria, you are to deal with them.
Okei-Odumakin (2011) opined that if care is not taken, the insurgence of
Boko Haram could cause religious war. The insurgence of’ Boko Haram has given rise to the
emergence of other religious groups; for instance, in Kaduna State, ‘Akhwat Akwop’ has
emerged with the intention of retaliating in case Boko Haram carries out any attack on
Christians. This development could cause attacks and counter-attacks. This is why it is
essential for government to face the security challenge head long. It is essential that security
agencies should be alive to their responsibilities so as to curb the bombing and killings that
are being perpetrated by Boko Haram. It is a1so certain that some prominent Nigerians are
behind the activities of the re1igious sect and the government must be ready to unveil these
people and ensure that they are brought to book.
Amone (2011) said in line with the signing of the Terrorism Prevention Act 2011 by
Nigeria’s President on 6th June, 2011 that the police have become proactive about the
situation of security in Nigeria. It was further explained that the Intelligence Unit of the
Nigeria Police has gathered data on all the religious sects in Nigeria in order to forestall
breakdown of law and order. It was gathered that the Shitte Movement based in Zaria has an
estimated membership of 2 million to confront any military Junta. Similarly, Taliban based in
Maiduguri had estimated membership of 200,000, which later metamorphosed into Boko
Haram. Its members spread across some major Northern states and recruits into these sects
are mainly university undergraduates between the ages of 20 and 30. Other sects include the
Kano Jalawa, with an estimated membership of 50,000, the Darul Salam in Niger State, with
an estimated membership of 3,000; the Karangiya in Kano State with an estimated members
of 2,000; the Kala Kato, with an unknown membership; Jamartul Tajdidi, with an unknown
members; and the Almajiri, with about 8 million estimated members. With the rise of Islamic
fundamentalists in the Northern Nigeria, especially since 1999, one group that has become a
tool for perpetrating non- state terrorism and violence is the Almajiri (Street Urchins). Even
though it cannot be described as a sect, security agents believe that the Almajiri systems
possess a growing potential for terrorism.
Obasanjo in Ademiluyi (2011) commented that the nation requires adequate
information on the action of Boro Haram sect, the motive behind their actions and the
sponsors before the problem can be effectively addressed. The nation must not take this for
granted as the lives of Nigerians are on the risk. The nation needs information to tackle the
Boko Haram sect. Ademiluyi (2011) reported that the father of the late founder of the sect,
Mallam Yusuf Muhammed sowed the seeds for the formation of the radical group. He
espoused that, “Islam teaching says anyone who seeks Western Education would end in hell
fire”. This teaching continued unhindered until the Maitasine riot broke out until its leader
lost his life in a crossfire in the seventies. Muhammed Yusuf formed the Jamaatu Allis Sunna
Lidda awaiti wal-jihu (people committed to the propagation of the prophets’ teachings and
Jihad) as a staunch opponent of Western culture. The concept of the earth as a “sphere” is
contrary to Islam and should be roundly rejected (Yusuf, 2004). A radical school and a
mosque were set up in Maiduguri, which attracted many poor Muslims who enrolled their
47
children and wards. The political goal of the school was to establish an Islamic state, the
school community to take their dastardly activities to the next level. In 2009, they had a
deadly clash with policemen, which left about 200 people dead, including the founder of the
school and sect. The instigator was killed under a rather questionable circumstance after
being allegedly denied the opportunity to make a phone calls to some influential persons in
Abuja.
The death of Boko Haram leader heightened the violent acts of the group who started
demanding for the resignation of the Governor of Borno State and the Inspector General of
Police. This led to the bombing of the Police Headquarters Office (Olamilekan & Adepegba,
2011). The agenda of the Irish Republican Army, Mau Mau of Kenya, Fidel Castro of Cuba,
Vladimir Illyich Ulyanov a.k.a Lenin, Leon Irotsky, etc. were known. In the Boko Haram
case, what is the agenda, apart from the claim that Western Education is sinful and the fight
for Jihad?
Adepegba (2011) reported that the State Security Service arraigned eight Boko
Haram members on two count charges of criminal felony and conspiracy. The subjects aged
between 20 and 35 were accused of planting a bomb that killed 16 people at the Independent
National Electoral Commission (INEC) office in Suleja, Niger State. They were also alleged
to have planted another bomb that killed three persons at the All Christian Fellowship
Church, also in Suleja. The suspect could not speak English, but could speak Hausa fluently.
The eight suspects were also accused of’ conspiring to wit; planting and detonating
explosives at different places which caused grievous bodily harm and killed 22 people at
different places. One of the subjects is the supplier of cortex wire used in the detonation of
explosive devices. The accused claimed that Boko Haram members were being recruited and
trained under oath to revenge the killing of their ex-sect leader (Muhammed Yusuf).
Tishua (2011) declared that Boko Haram was ready for negotiation with the Federal
Government. In the interview granted the African Independent Television, the co-founder of
Boko Haram sect declared that their aim is to spread Islam all over Nigeria. It was also
revealed that the correct name of Boko Haram is Jama’atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda’awati walJihad. It was also declared that those who called the sect Boko Haram do so to discredit the
group and its ideas.
It all started in 2004 when the government of Mauritania fell. It is similar to what
happened in Libya, although it is slightly different. Some individuals from Mauritania come
to Nigeria through some political leaders to recruit some youths as members of Joint Forces
to overthrow the government in power. The then leader of Boko Haram assisted in recruiting
youths to continue the struggle in Mauritania on the grounds that they were going for further
Islamic Studies. Thereafter, there was disagreement between the sect and the political leaders
on knowing that the youths were recruited on political grounds as mercenaries in Mauritania.
The security agents started arresting the militants and not the leaders who recruited them for
selfish interests. This led to the fracas between security agents and members of the groups
who are fighting for the injustice in the activities of the security agents. In 2009, the
disagreement developed into a crisis in areas where Boko Haram group was spreading
Islamic ideals. Tishau (2011) further declared that politicians are the root cause of the
political unrest in Nigeria. For instance, in Borno State the Governor sponsors a group of
armed youths known as ECOMOG; in Gombe State, the Governor sponsors Kalari; in Bauchi
State, there is the Tarafuka to fight political opponents. This led to the hijack of the
circumstance by top politician in Nigeria to disregard the leadership and authorities of the
present administration to execute their own agenda. However, the group claimed the bombing
48
of Police headquarters and army barracks because of loose statement of Inspector General of
Police and indiscriminate killing of their members by the soldiers. Part of the demand of’
Boko Haram was that there should be a declaration of Sharia in those stales who desire Sharia
and not throughout the country since Nigeria is a multi-religious state.
Causes of Boko Haram Actions
The core Northern parts of Nigeria hosts Hausa-Fulani people who are mainly
Muslims with their belief-system solidly rooted in Islamic religion. This might be the major
reason why there is strong agitation for Sharia Law to guide their way of life. The Western
form of education is regarded as a way of christianizing them and also an utter strategy to
erode their belief system through Western culture. Niamir (1990) explained that formal
schools provide the literacy needed for modern times but their contents are too foreign to the
needs and aspirations of the core Northerners. In most cases, Western education conflicts
with the values of Islamic adherents in the core-Northern part of Nigeria. Umar (1990) also
observed the lack of adequate social amenities in the communities of the Hausa-Fulani,
thereby giving rise to hostilities and tension in most communities in the core-Northern part of
Nigeria. The situation does not give room for their participation in most educational and
political programmes in Nigeria. It was observed that most Hausa-Fulanis do not have a sense
of belonging in the mainstream of national life. Tahir (2001) lamented inadequate
enlightenment programmes to sensitize the populace in the core-Northern part of Nigeria to
embrace formal education and the benefits that are derivable through Western education.
Tahir (1991) also decried utter neglect of Islamic education in the national education policy,
which paves way for the dominance of the educational system in Nigeria with Western
ideology, which could be regarded as discrimination against Islamic education in the coreNorthern part of Nigeria. The volatile Islamic groups in the Core-Northern part of Nigeria
regard, the educational structure in Nigeria as a way of undermining the rights and privileges
of people in the core-Northern part of Nigeria which could he regarded as lack of fair deal to
the Muslim faithfuls. Aminu (1991) claimed that educational planners have neglected the
lifestyle, needs and aspirations, the religion and rich cultural heritage of the core-Northerners,
which are serious impediments to the realization of the educational objectives of coreNortherners.
The United Nations (2004) estimated the population of street-children worldwide at
150 million, with an estimated population of 98 million from the region of Africa and over 8
million from Nigeria. The children regarded as street children are of the age range from three
to thirteen years without adequate care and control by their parents and the government. This
situation sets them loose to become instruments for the politicians and religious
fundamentalists to pursue their personal ambitions. UNICEF (2001) also observed that
millions of Nigerian children face devastating challenges of disadvantage, discrimination,
abuse and exploitation. These children are often exposed to appalling circumstances. These
challenges do not only violate their rights of survival and create obstacles to the development
of children but are also threats to their rights for survival, protection and meaningful
existence.
Theoretical Analysis of Boko Haram’s Perspective on Western Education
The educational arrangements in the Nigerian society, which tend to favour Western
system of education, to the detriment of other interest groups must have informed the
condemnation of Western education as sinful. The policy thrust as regards education in
49
Nigeria is basically one-sided because the Western ideology dominates it without due
consideration of the needs and aspirations of other interest groups in the Nigerian society.
The other interest groups in the Nigeria society are deprived severely in the acquisition of
relevant reading and writing skills which must have informed the agitations of several Islamic
sects to secure their rights and privileges. An in-depth study and diagnosis of the provision
and specifications in the National Policy on Education can attest to this fact. For instance, in
the core-Northern part of Nigeria, where their culture is strongly rooted in Islamic doctrines
and injunctions, the Islamiyah schools are gradually fading away and replaced by Universal
Basic Education (UBE) schools where Western ideologies are being imparted, the certificates
that were acquired in the Islamiyah schools are gradually losing recognition because it is now
difficult to enter into the labour market with them. Whereas, in the time past, those
certificates were of high value because most of the Islamiyah schools products used the
certificates to occupy distinguished and honourable positions in the civil service and politics.
All these and others create agitations in the minds of Muslims in the core-Northern part of
Nigeria, which has given rise to the insurgence of several Islamic sects including the Boko
Haram, causing very serious insecurity in Nigeria. There is need to address the perceived
relative-deprivation and acute neglect of educational requirements in Norther Nigeria and this
calls for urgent attention by stakeholders in the national economy.
Hurn (1985) in Schaefer (2005) sees Western form of education as the source of
conflict in the society through the promotion and establishment of hidden curriculum in
schools to regulate learners’ standard of behaviour through obedience to bell and areas of
activities in the school in line with Western culture. Credentialism, which is an increase in the
lowest level of education needed to enter into labour market and professional fields, also
favours Western education thereby creating social inequality in the society. The certificates
obtained from Islamiyah schools nowadays in Nigeria no longer have desirable values as
impetus to secure employment opportunities, which negate the principle of fairness and
justice. The certificates from Islamiyah schools ought to have relevance in the Nigeria labour
market through the creation of employment opportunities that favours Islamic education as it
is done in Arab world.
The Bestowal of Status, which is an increasing proportion of people obtaining high
degrees and professional certificates to occupy high status in the society favours Western
form of education, which also promotes conflict because there are no educational
opportunities to widen the scope of Islamic form of education, except through the
conventional school which is also a source of agitation by the Muslims. Moore (1945), in
Schaefer (2005) declared that the society must distribute its members among a variety of
social positions. It is through education that people are sorted into appropriate levels and
courses of study that will prepare them for positions within the labour market. In the Nigerian
society, the main source of sorting out people into social positions in the labour market, is
through English language and certificates acquired through Western education which could
be part of the worry of the Boko Haram.
Another area of conflict is the tracking in the Nigerian educational system. Tracking
is the practice of placing students in specific curriculum groups on the basis of their test
scores and other criteria. Tracking in the Nigerian educational system is done on the basis of
test scores in line with the knowledge and skills that are acquired through Western culture. As
a matter of fact, the inability to write and communicate in English serves as serious and
thorough threat to children from disadvantaged homes. The affluent who have the cultural
capital advantage are seriously favoured through tracking. The core-Northerners value Arabic
50
as a medium of instruction in their schools not English. This development places them at
disadvantaged group because their culture is rooted in Eastern (Islamic) form of education.
Another area of con hid is treatment of women to education in the Nigerian society. There are
several agitations by the female-folk in Nigeria that women are marginalized in the scheme of
things. Fletcher (1943) and Flexner (1972) in Schaefer (2005) believed that the idea of
women becoming wives and mothers in the home and not lawyers and intellectuals who
could assist in the development of the society is discriminatory. This development favours
Western education and Western culture. The teaming Muslims in the core-north do not want
their wives to work in government establishments because of the inherent dangers it poses to
family stability and morality. The agitation for Sharia to preserve the women culture in
accordance with Islamic injunctions and the agitations of the Boko Haram who are fighting
for the Muslim majority in the core-Northern part of Nigeria.
Resolution of Boko Haram Conflict
The Boko Haram, no doubt, has justification to demand for their rights in the Nigerian
society but not through violence and criminal acts. This might be why majority of Nigerians,
including many Muslims in the North, disassociate themselves from their approach.
However, this conflict could be resolved through the following strategies:
1. Establishment of Islamiyah schools in the core-northern part of Nigeria with adequate
provision of basic requirements for learning in line with what is obtainable in the Arab
world.
2. Review of the National Policy on Education (NPE) to accommodate Islamiyah schools
as specialized institutions from primary to tertiary levels with optional integration of part
of western education culture to make products relevant in the contemporary world.
3. Ensure mandatory and compulsory Islamiyah education for the Almajiris (not Universal
Basic Education (UBE) schools), with adequate provision for their social needs.
4. Creation of an enabling environment and job opportunities for the products of Islamiyah
schools to secure their lives.
5. Support of the practice and full implementation of Sharia Law in the core-northern part
of Nigeria to give them sense of belonging and integration into the Nigerian society.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The Boko Haram perspective on Western education as sinful may not be regarded as a
reality if it could not be backed-up with the Islamic written liturgy (Holy Qur’an) which the
members of the sect lay claim to be their guiding principles. It is also beyond human
comprehension, knowledge and insight to measure the standard of God in determining who is
a sinner, considering the ample opportunities God gave mankind to worship through several
religious leaders in the world. There are many races in the world with divergent doctrines and
injunctions apart from Islam, and the adherents could not be regarded as sinners. There are
also several benefits derivable through Western form of education to make life comfortable
and meaningful for human existence. The products of science, which were invented through
Western education, may not be regarded as sinful because it has assisted in the survival of
almost all social beings across societies of the world. This means, technology has become a
necessary evil to human existence including the Boko Haram members and it could not be
reasoned out that those technological inventions are part of what God will use to determine
who is a sinner.
51
However, there are many social inequalities in the Nigeria society, which are being
promoted through Western education ideologies. The argument of the Boko Haram Islamic
religious sect is expected to be tailored towards addressing the social inequalities that are
rampant in Northern Nigeria. There is benign neglect of the Islamic culture and promotion of
Western culture as a result of structural assimilation, which is inevitable due to human
interaction across the globe. The idea of addressing social inequality though violence is no
longer fashionable because members of the society will resist the inherent dangers in it. That
is why the political class is using force to curb the menace of Boko Haram, which can be
regarded as wrong approach because it cannot generate enduring structure. It is highly
recommended that intelligential approach through academic papers by scholars has the
potential to bring about lasting solution to the sectarian crises rocking Nigeria.
References
Adegbite, A. (2011, August 23). Our Constitution is Fake. Sunday Punch.
Ademiluyi, T. (2011, August 10). The boko haram imbroglio The Punch.
Adepegba, A. (2011, September 14). Eight suspected boko haram bombers arraigned The
Punch, p.8.
Aminu, I. (1991). The evolution of nomadic education policy in Nigeria: Education and
Pastoralism in Nigeria, Ibadan: De Ayo Publications.
Amore, S. (2011, August 14). Judges scared to try Boko Haram: Security Agencies place 10
Fundamentalist Sect under watch Sunday Punch.
Okei-Odumakin, J. (2011, July 31). Nigeria is showing symptoms of a Failed State. Sunday
Tribune.
Olamilekan, L. & Adepegba, A. (2011, August 28). UN Office Bombing: Concern over
Jonathan’s Safety Sunday Punch.
Shaefer, R.T. (2005). Sociology (9th ed) United States: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.
Tahir, G. (1991). Education and pastoralism in Nigeria. Ibadan: Agoro Publicity Company.
Tishau, A. (2011, September 21). Boko haram’s co-founder opens up. The Punch.
Umar, A. (1998). Readings in distance education for the pastoral nomads in Nigeria Open
Broadcasting for Nomadic Pastoralists. Zaria: ABU Press Ltd.
UNICEF (2001). The state of the world children 2000. New York: Authur.
United Nations (2004). Conventions on the rights of the child United Nations General
Assembly, 20th November 2004, New York: Authur.
52
EDUCATION AND NATION BUILDING IN NIGERIA:
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
MAHUTA M. G.
Department of Educational Foundations,
Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto.
Abstract
The fundamental aim of education is to serve as an instrument for attaining sustainable
development which includes nation building. An educated and enlightened citizenry is an
important factor for social, economic and political development in any society. And unless
everyone is developed to his full potential, the economy and even the society cannot be
effective. Thus, this paper examines the role of education in promoting national integration in
Nigeria. The theoretical framework upon which the paper is based is the functionalist
approach. The paper recommends, among others that, a type of education should be evolved
which will inculcate in the learners the ideals of national consciousness and awareness. This
implies that the teaching of citizenship education in our schools and colleges should be made
more functional and relevant at all levels of our educational system.
Introduction
Education is the bedrock of the development of any nation. In Nigeria it is not only a
private enterprise, but a huge government venture since it has been adopted by the Federal
Government of Nigeria as an instrument for effecting national development (FRN, 2004).
Besides, education is regarded as a vital instrument for socialization and as a means of laying
a solid and formidable foundation for a strong and virile nation, leading to nation building
and development. Since education has been recognized as playing a sensitive and vital role in
national development, Nigeria cannot afford to toy with the education of its citizens. This is
because the wealth of a nation is a function of the available human resources and not the
abundance of natural resources therein. This is why education has been accepted by all levels
of government in Nigeria as an instrument for achieving social, economic, political, scientific
technological development and national integration. The fundamental aim of education is
therefore, to produce good citizens in the society. It is also an instrument with which a nation
can develop. It is indeed, an inevitable tool for national sustainable development and social
cohesion.
Education comprises all efforts that are conscious and otherwise, incidental and
indirect, which are made by a given society to accomplish certain aims and objectives
considered desirable in terms of the individual’s needs as well as the needs of the society. It is
also an instrument or tool for socio-cultural integration, economic emancipation, nation
building and social cohesion. The role of education in nation building or national integration
could be seen from two levels; namely, unity and cohesion of the citizens in the society as
well as the development of the society in terms of the economy, polity, education and so on.
A good system of education is fundamental to building any nation, the world over. It is the
means by which young people are prepared to accept responsibilities for governing their
country as citizens in the future. Therefore, education should be a priority in any society and
should be aimed at providing the younger generations the necessary knowledge and skills that
will make them valuable members of the community. Nations who lack a strong and vibrant
educational system or have one that is of poor quality will inevitably suffer, as their citizens
53
will experience hardship due to lack of stability, expertise, and unity. It is therefore, against
this background, that this paper examines the role of education and the extent to which it
performs a vital role in nation building in Nigeria. It also highlights the challenges that an
educational system can face in its attempt to fulfil its role of nation building.
Theoretical Framework
There are different sociological theories that are used to explain and interpret society.
These theories are viewpoints or angles from which sociologists view, understand or interpret
social issues. The functionalists approach view society as a living organism. An organism has
its own identity, but it is composed of such mutually dependent parts such as the head, eyes,
legs and so on. This means that each of these parts performs a separate function. Just as a
body can die, so also can a society, and just as a body can not do without some of its parts, so
does society.
The functionalist approach to sociology is often identified with the consensus theory.
This theory assumes that each part of society shares common values and that there is
consensus or agreement between the parts. The approach may be contrasted with the conflict
theory which examines society from a different angle. Consensus and conflict theorists both
view society as a system of interrelated parts, but the difference is the point or extent to
which each member of society benefits equally or unequally. The conflict theorists feel that
the functionalists’ paid too much attention to the beneficial aspects of social organization,
thereby neglecting the extent to which established social arrangement operate to the
disadvantage of some groups. Education plays a role in this process. Education is an agent of
social stratification; it assigns social roles to different groups and distributes greater rewards
to some groups than others. To this end, according to functionalist theorists, education is an
institution in society without which society cannot effectively function. In addition, it plays a
fundamental and pivotal role in bringing about national unity and integration in society. It is
upon this theoretical framework that this paper is based; it examines the role of education in
nation building and national integration and cohesion.
Role of Education in Nation Building
The greatest challenge facing Nigeria today is the threat to its national unity. Such challenges
as centrifugal tension, resource control and self determination are seeking to undermine
national unity and cohesion. Besides, varying political and religious interests have constantly
posed a number of challenges and have enveloped national consciousness. Since
independence in 1960, national integration has been a top priority in Nigeria. The National
Youth Service Corps (NYSC) scheme, the unity schools, the federal character principles, and
state creation are examples of state policies intended to achieve this goal. It is becoming
obvious that the outcomes of integration policies and programmes in Nigeria have fallen far
below expectation, as far as the promotion of national unity is concerned since ethnic
loyalties are still deep seated among Nigerians (Ibaba, 2009).
However, Bray, Clarke and Stephens (1986) posit that the principal goal of nation
building is to promote the evolution from simpler and more localized forms of social
organization to wider and more complex ones. Mechanical societies of the hunting type are
being threatened by a wider process of economic development and social change, and
ultimately will be replaced by organic societies. In this regard, the issues of horizontal and
vertical integration come into play. Horizontal integration describes the unification of ethnic,
racial, religious and linguistic groups, many of which inhabit distinct geographical areas.
54
While on the other hand, vertical integration describes the relationship between rulers and the
ruled in a common network of communication, so that ideas and demands can flow upward
and downward.
Furthermore, Bray, Clarke and Stephens (1986) maintain that, education promotes
horizontal integration in four main ways, namely:
i. The curriculum in which the importance of language is emphasized. Nations which
composed of many ethnic groups have a corresponding multiplicity of languages. Thus,
formal education usually promotes a common language, which permits communication
between members of different ethnic groups. Most African countries have chosen to use a
European language for official purposes. This is because internal rivalries may prevent the
use of an indigenous language, while the European languages are considered neutral.
ii. African countries have educational institutions in which pupils are selected by equal
quota from different parts of the country. This policy is based on the idea that if pupils grow
up together, they may become acquainted on a personal basis with people from other ethnic,
racial, religious, and linguistic groups, and the fears and ignorance which underlies much
discrimination will be avoided. This is the principle on which Nigeria’s Federal Government
Colleges or unity schools are based.
iii. Several African countries, including Nigeria operate national service schemes for school
leavers. These schemes may be either voluntary or compulsory, but strong emphasis is
always placed on national identification. In the case of Nigeria, the National Youths Service
Scheme (NYSC) is compulsory for all University graduates. Participants usually perform
activities such as community service, often outside their home areas, in order to foster the
sprit of national unity and integration. These schemes have a strong educational bearing and
function.
iv. Educational projects often attempt to reduce regional imbalances, which frequently
correspond to imbalances between ethnic and religious groups. This policy is often
manifested in the universalization of education. For example, the Universal Primary
Education of 1976 and the Universal Basic Education of 1999 in Nigeria. All these are meant
to provide greater educational opportunities for all and sundry, thereby providing greater
educational life chances without prejudices to sex, ethnicity, social, economics and cultural
backgrounds
However in the context of vertical integration, it is pertinent to consider two major
ways in which education can promote national unity and integration. These ways are, as put
forward by Bray, Clarke and Stephens (1986) thus;
i. Extension of literacy to all and sundry makes it possible for more citizens to read
newspapers, books and reports. This may mean that the population becomes better informed
and sensitised about local and national issues.
ii. As education becomes more widespread, employment becomes more equal. Thus, where
education reaches only a small group, it may encourage elitism. But if it is expanded, and
more or all groups receive some education; then a greater proportion of the population can be
placed on a more equal footing. Thus, as the functionalist view of the role of education in
creating a more unified society becomes evident and clear.
Nigeria’s population in 2007 was 148 million, having risen sharply from 30 million in
1950 (World Bank, 2008) UN Population Division (2001) maintains that Nigeria is now
Africa’s most populous country. Furthermore, Bray, Clarke and Stephens (1986), posit that:
Today with over 140 million citizens, Nigeria is considered the most populous
country in Africa. It has also within over 250 ethnic groups, and though no
55
precise figure known (which is itself indicative of Nigeria’s problems), nearly
400 languages are spoken. Nigeria is a multi-religious society, with followers of
religions such as Islam, Christianity as well as a wide diversity of indigenous or
traditional religions. During the last three decades, Nigerian politics have been
characterized more by division than by unity. The political parties of the 1950s
developed along ethnic and religious lines and as recognized even in an official
publication, the only common factor that united them was the struggle for
independence. Once independence had been achieved in 1960, this common
objective no longer existed (p. 31).
However during the subsequent years, regional and ethnic disputes became increasingly
serious and in 1967, the country was plunged into civil war following the secession of the
self-styled Republic of Biafra. The war was won by the federal forces, and the military
continued to form the government until 1979 (Bray, Clarke and Stephens, 1986). Thus, the
memory of the civil war has made the Nigerian government to be conscious of the need for
horizontal integration, and have placed considerable efforts in the institution of education to
promote the much needed unity and integration in Nigeria.
Nigeria as a nation is currently at cross roads. There is widespread inter religious
crises, as well as inter and intra ethnic violence in the country. Among these crises are the
Niger-Delta crisis, religious riots in the North, suspicion and distrust among the various
ethnic groups (Omare, 1999). In addition, Nigeria has witnessed a number of crises such as
the post-election violence in some Northern States and the recent ongoing “Boko-Haram”
crisis. Quite a number of conscious efforts have been made by government to maintain peace,
stability and unity in Nigeria, yet, not much has been achieved by way of security, the peace
and stability of the nation. It is estimated that approximately 800,000 Nigerians were
internally displaced as a result of “localized conflicts between 1999 and 2003 (Commission
for Africa, 2005), while approximately 53,000 were killed from September, 2001 to May,
2004 in communal clashes (John, et al 2007). However, such clashes are attributed to
numerous and overlapping factors related to political, religious, ethnic, or regional discord.
Furthermore, the extent of religious and ethnic tensions is often attributed to lack of a strong
national identity. Those who hold this view believe that individuals and groups may be more
likely to assign blame for ineffective policies to ethnic or regional biases, regardless of the
true reason for their failure. However, it can be stated that this situation is worsened and
exacerbated by widespread corruption, frequent policy reversals and poor policy
implementation, all of which make it difficult for Nigerians to trust governments and their
capacity to implement good and consistent policies and programmes.
In the light of this therefore, the role of education to ensure that Nigeria remains an
indivisible entity becomes enormous, where every Nigerian will consider himself a Nigerian
first, before seeing himself as Hausa, Igbo or Yoruba and so on. Thus, the idea of building a
stable and united Nigeria through education is doubtless an enormous task. As mentioned
elsewhere in this paper, Nigeria is a country that has found itself engulfed in different kinds
of crises. In spite of this, there is more hope in getting Nigeria out of its present situation.
Education remains one of the best means or tools for social reconstruction and integration; it
is perhaps the most veritable means for social integration and nation building.
Education has been the most effective instrument that has fostered national unity and
integration in Nigeria over the years. In recent times, much attention has been devoted to the
roles which the school is expected to play in the training of good citizens in Nigeria. The
emphasis placed on education is borne out of the fact, as stated by the Federal Republic of
56
Nigeria (2004), that education is considered a potent instrument for change and development
In spite of this, in recent times, national unity, social integration and democracy have come
under threat and various kinds of tensions. It is therefore, timely to reconsider how education
can be used to foster the much needed unity and social integration for the survival of the
nation. Furthermore, Omare (1999) posits that there is need to introduce citizenship education
as it relates to national consciousness, unity and social integration in Nigeria. This is capable
of addressing the unfortunate inter-ethnic and religious clashes including political crises that
have become common in Nigeria in the 21 st Century.
In an attempt to foster national unity and integration through education, the Federal
Government in the past has introduced the Universal Primary Education scheme in 1976.
This was because government was conscious of the fact that much strife has been caused by
unbalanced development in which there exists wide variations in school enrolment in
different parts of the country. In the light of this, government has launched a number of
educational projects and programmes, which seek to reduce imbalances. The UPE of 1976
was one of such programmes. In addition, the establishment of unity secondary schools or
Federal Government Colleges, the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board and the like are
aimed at reducing educational imbalances and thus, create unity and cohesion in Nigeria.
Further to these, the widespread acceptance of a common language (English language), which
is taught in schools, is also considered as a major factor in horizontal integration. English
language is considered politically neutral and has been made the official language in Nigeria
and it is used for instruction in schools and colleges in Nigeria. In addition, the National
Youth Service Corp (NYSC) scheme has contributed immensely in fostering National Unity.
It is crucial to note that the integration process in Nigeria anchors on the mobilization of
citizens of the country to achieve set goals and this is enhanced by education. This is because
education develops the mental capacity of individuals and as we all know; it is easier to
mobilise a population whose individuals have an averagely enhanced mental capacity than
otherwise. Education also makes man moral and productive, and thus endows him with the
capacity to enhance the achievement of collective interest (Ibaba 2009). Education enhances
the development of values and also defines the level of development for individual attitudes
and enables progress. It is therefore evident that, unequal access to education creates unequal
opportunities and uneven development, which in turn may, undermine the stability and
development of a nation (Okowa, 2003).
The education of a society is expected to inculcate in its people its societal values,
cultural virtues, sound ideology, nationalistic pride and a feeling of common destiny. The
philosophy of Nigerian education as contained in the NPE (2004) has five objectives and
these were articulated towards building of a:
free and democratic society just and egalitarian society. united,
strong and self-reliant nation great and dynamic economic nation
land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens (p. 7).
The issue of national unity is the concern of this paper and a number of issues have been
noted that are lacking in this regard. First, there is the lack of ideological orientation that is
capable of indoctrinating citizens. Secondly, there is the dearth of educational background
that was widespread in the past. These rob the citizens of the knowledge that would have
enabled them to understand each other in spite of the differences in ethnic groups and help to
eliminate ethnic prejudices. Separate ethnic identities are also strengthened and depended by
a number of other interrelated factors as identified by Okoly (2008):
i. Religious based schools owned by Muslims and Christians established all over the country,
57
ii. The policy of indigenization of state in appointment of heads of tertiary institutions, staff
recruitment, and students’ admissions.
iii. Discrimination of individuals based on indigeneship by heads of tertiary institutions.
iv. The quota system of admission into tertiary and unity schools that tend to regard
ethnicity and undermine the spirit of academic excellence; this creates a feeling of rejection
and deprivation.
However, the point to note from the above is the curriculum content and educational
administration in Nigeria that block the development of National consciousness, which is a
fundamental requirement for national integration and nation building. Nigerian education is
an obstacle to integration, and this is not because education cannot enhance integration, but
simply because Nigeria’s education has not been adequately focussed to promote the
integration of the different ethnic groups in the country.
Relevance of Education in Nation Building
As mentioned earlier in this paper, education generally involves or entails the
acquisition of knowledge as well as skills that are deemed acceptable and useful to the
society. Nation building means the implementation of processes that are geared towards
recomposing the nation’s institutions, so that they can reflect the wishes, needs and
aspirations of the wider society. This means that, since education is a pathway to national
integration, it is capable of providing a good quantum of benefits to nation-building and these
are examined below:
i. The Creation of an Enlightened and Socialized Society: Education creates an
enlightened as well as socialized society. This is a crucial prerequisite to nation building
because the more a people became enlightened, the more they would refrain from doing
practices that will endanger efforts towards nation building. For example, educated elites will
always tend to be responsive and responsible citizens towards state laws and protection of
public property (Kamara 2010).
ii. Establishment of a Vibrant Democratic Society: Nation-building requires a
“meritocratic” bureaucracy in order to make the state’s institution effective. It is only through
education, that the country will have the best human resources that are competent enough to
carry out the day-to-day affairs of the state. Most states collapse as a result of low level of
education of its citizens. If human resource is weak, it becomes incapable of sustaining state
institutions. But with education, this problem can be averted (Kamara, 2000).
iii. It Helps to Provide the Required Manpower: The production of required manpower for
running the political system of a society is also one major contribution of education in nation
building. The institution of education through the school helps to provide people who would
serve in the different political structures of the society. Education also provides the
opportunity for the bureaucratisation process of the state. In addition, education is capable of
providing an efficient and effective bureaucracy and the governance of the country.
iv. It Helps to Provide National Unity and Cohesion: Education, through schooling, helps
to create unity and cohesion amongst the citizens of a nation. In school, students or learners
come into contact with each others from various socio-cultural, religious, and economic
backgrounds. Through interactions at various levels, they will be able to love and appreciate
the worth of one another. This helps in no small measure towards bringing harmony and
understanding among the citizens of the country. The National Youths Service Corp (NYSC)
in Nigeria is another agent of unity amongst the Nigerian youths. It is a scheme where
graduates are posted to areas other than their areas of origin. This is with a view to provide
58
youths with the opportunity to learn and appreciate the different cultures of Nigeria. This is
capable of paving ways for national integration, solidarity and consensus. Nigeria, which is a
multi-cultural and multi-religious country, requires peaceful co-existence for a formidable
economic and political development.
 National sustainable development – the provision of education can provide national
sustainable development in two faces, namely, education to provide unity and cohesion in the
context of the personal development of the individual and unity and cohesion in the context
of general development of the society, in terms of political, education, banking and also
improvement of health delivery, housing and food.
 Unity and cohesion through the establishment of unity schools and colleges. This helps to
bring students from different socio-cultural backgrounds to interact in school, thereby paving
the way for a significant degree of cooperation and understanding among people of diverse
origins and cultures.
Constraints against Functional National Integration through Education
When we view the present educational set up in Nigeria, we are bound to ask; does it
portray national character? If we take the census of students in all federal institutions, will it
really portray national character? The criteria we use in admission of students in unity
schools have destroyed national character in the sense that many qualified candidates are
denied admission because they are not from catchment areas. Even when it boils down on
merit, people are still denied.
Now, if education can integrate this nation, why should the appointments of chief
executives into tertiary institutions be localised? Real unity and integration through education
can be meaningful when we embrace national character at all levels. If federal institutions are
headed by people from outside ethnic groups where those institutions are sited, then
children/students will see the reality of integration. All these need to be touched as
constraints against the functional national integration of this nation through education.
Recommendations
1. Education is made up of components that include the curriculum, the philosophy and the
methods of teaching. The curriculum deals with what to teach. It is based on the philosophy
of an educational system that the growth, development and objective realties of societies are
captured. This means that curriculum reforms are based on established philosophies. In the
context of National integration in Nigeria, the curriculum should be tailored towards creating
an educated and morally sound individual.
2. Equal educational opportunities in education require making education accessible to all;
irrespective of class, ethnic affiliation or other discriminatory factors. The need for national
unity and stability is greater now in Nigeria than ever before, especially in view of the
rampant ethnic violence and political crises. Education is a potent instrument that can be
used to foster peace and unity. Based on this it is recommended that:
i. A type of education should be evolved, that will inculcate in the learners the ideals of
national consciousness and awareness. Essentially, Citizenship Education should be
introduced at all levels of our educational system.
ii. There should be proper monitoring of education by Federal, States and Local Government
in the country. If this is intensified, it will promote the spirit of competition among Nigerians
in the areas of education and to further enable them to have something to contribute to the
development of the nation.
59
Conclusion
Every country needs stability before any meaningful economic and political
development can take place. It is when there is stability that we can talk of national
development and integration. The role of education in providing political, social and
economic stability that is necessary for nation building cannot be overemphasized. Even as
illiteracy is widespread in most African countries and this has left detrimental effects on the
infrastructure of most of these African states, education or a well educated citizenry can
restore a sense of purpose and the confidence to pursue national development. This paper has
demonstrated that education can serve as vehicle for national integration, and that Nigeria
needs to adequately exploit education to promote national integration and achieve national
development through the provision of equal opportunities and access to education by
individuals through a curriculum, educational system and practices that are deeply rooted in
national cohesion. Lastly, the paper emphatically concludes that until people see themselves
as Nigerians first before being Igbo, Yoruba, Hausa, the issue of national integration will still
be a need in Nigeria.
References
Bray, M.; Clarke, P. B.; Stephens, D. (1986). Education and society in Africa. London:
Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.
Ibaba, S. I. (2009). Education and national integration in Nigeria. Journal of Research in
National Development, 7 (2), 20 - 32.
Kamara, A. T., (2010). Education for nation Building. Retrieved on July, 2011 from
http://www.google.com/educationandnationbuilding
Federal Government of Nigeria (2004), National Policy on Education. Lagos: Federal
Government Press.
Okoly, J. D. (2008). The Nigerian World view and it’s implication in education. Journal of
Modern African Studies, 5 (3): 323 - 334. Retrieved from http//www goggle
com/education and National Integration in Nigeria.
Okowa, W. J. (2003). Education and mobilisation in the struggle for self-determination and
resource control. Nigerian form of educational philosophy, 6 (1): 65 – 75. Retrieved
from http goggle com/ education and national integration.
Omare, A. (1999). Enhancing democracy in Nigeria through citizenship education. Nigeria
Journal of Social Studies review, 8 (1), 33 - 39. Retrieved from http://www.google.
com/edcuationand nationbuilding.
Yusuf, A. (2009). Citizenship Education: An instrument for unity and stability in Nigeria.
Nigerian Journal of Social Studies, 8 (1), 23 - 36. Retrieved from
http://www.google.com/educationand nationbuildinginnigeria.
60
OF UNLEARNED GRADUATES AND DYSFUNCTIONAL SOCIETY MEMBERS:
THE CHALLENGES OF EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
SOJI, O.
Department of Educational Foundations
University of Lagos, Akoka -Yaba, Lagos.
Abstract
This paper analyzes the concepts of education and development and the role they play in the
"development" or "non-development" of Nigeria. The paper argued that due to imperialist
tendencies that insist on conditioning Nigerians to think of "development" as the process of
shedding off any traces of their traditions and cultural practices, most Nigerians have become
schizophrenic members of a nation-state, which tries to nurture citizens who need to be Western
but yet remain Nigerian. It also argued that Nigeria’s education system is more about
schooling than learning and it is set to produce people who are incapable of fitting within their
own social environments. These are people whose degrees and diplomas alienate them from the
very societies that education should train them to be part of. Many receive an education devoid of
the central ingredients that are crucial in making them active participants in their own sociocultural existence. The paper provided solutions on how education in Africa can be made
more relevant to the socio-economic realities of Africa.
Introduction
Education is an important instrument in the development of a nation. It is a valued
social artifact that has significant impact on the life chances of beneficiaries and thereby leads
to consequential social advancement. This is sequel to the fact that education is an experience
that brings about the transformation or permanent change in the behavior of individual who is
the end product of education. According to Dasgupta (1993) “few would query the assertion
that the output of education (knowledge, skills, acquired dispositions and others), unless
under-utilized, is a durable capital asset.” The individual is expected to improve himself and
the society. That is why the fundamental purpose of investment in education is to empower
people with the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to improve their quality of life,
enhance their productivity and their capacity to learn new skills, and enable them to
participate more fully in development process.
The foregoing, shows why education and development have often been seen as
essential working partners in the modernization of the so-called developing countries. It is
assumed that when people are undeveloped and backward they are lacking in many modern
qualities, one of them being education. Thus, part of the remedy for their predicament is to be
educated. There are different ways of defining education, but there seems to be a consensus
that to be "educated" is to be "modern" and that to be "modern" is to be "developed"
(Aghenta, 2002). Even our children articulate these issues in their everyday discourses in
school, at home, and with their peers. Everybody is trying to acquire education because the
main thing in Nigeria is "development". Politicians are even busy telling their people how
they will bring development to them once elected to office.
Here is an interesting case of how education and development can be mind-racking
for our youth: Shola (not real name) received his Bachelor of Science degree in Chemical
Engineering from one of Nigeria’s public universities in 2009. It is almost 2 years since his
61
graduation and he has not found a job. He started looking for job that could match his
training. While his colleagues in the arts had started working as sales representatives for
emerging companies in town, earning what they initially considered high school salaries
because they had few alternatives. Who would then think that all those years of college would
end up like this?
Shola has now moved back to his rural home, where his parents live, following their
retirement. He resorted to this after life in the city living with his uncle turned sour when it
became difficult to feed another mouth that was not making any contribution towards the
high city expenses. Shola has never stayed in their rural home for more than a week because
his parents had been living in the city all his life. He is, thus, finding it hard to adjust to the
social and geographical environment in his "new home". His age mates who dropped out at
primary school now have families and are finding means of livelihood tending their small
gardens in the village. They even have permanent housing and their kids are going to the
local primary school. Shola is unable to walk into the local shopping centre where he is
bound to meet some of his peers, who have previously offered to buy him a drink. He refused
not because he does not drink but because with a university degree he felt he is above them
and should be the one offering to buy them drinks.
With this illustration we could see that Shola is a product of a system of education
that trains for the sake of training with no tangible employment prospects for its graduates.
And since he was never enculturated to regard his rural home as a place where he could
actually find employment, he has fallen into self-pity and hopelessness. Ironically, a
"developing" society does need the services of a Chemical Engineer but the socio-economic
structures that would enable the country to absorb this kind of talent are lacking. Our
education and economic systems have never been developed to cater for these needs. They
are, however, modelled after Western models that have little, if any, relevance for our
cultural, economic, political and other realities.
This is the problem with our Western-oriented education that avoids teaching us about
our cultures and their importance in our daily lives. It, indeed, teaches us to hate our cultures
and consequently to hate ourselves. For instance, some of us had to wait until we were in the
University before we started revisiting the crux and relevance of our own cultural heritage.
Most of our schooling before then was geared towards making Western culture the central
point of understanding our world. We learned more about the Mississippi river and the River
Rhine than we did about Ogun River, Osun River and River Niger that are critical in the
development of our country. And since all education is value-based, we were constantly
taking in Western values that gradually replaced the few cultural values that we had learned
at home from our parents and neighbours before joining formal school. As a result of this,
many of us, indeed, regarded our own cultural practices as backward and inferior, and always
clamouring to be Western. We were never taught to understand ourselves first and then
appreciate other; cultures; we were taught that our cultural practices were backward and we
had to do everything possible to dissociate ourselves from them. We were products of a
system that was not relevant to our cultural orientation.
I once watched a primary school programme on local Nigerian television where two
schools debated on whether it was right for a woman to be a housewife. One student said that
being a housewife was like staying in caves and wearing skins, which was a very backward
thing to do. Two things are emergent in this observation; one, that the student realises that
one can no longer be content with being a housewife and should be employed and
independent; two, that being a housewife is living a life of the past comparable to that of
62
being in caves and wearing skins. Apparently, this student has been socialized and/or trained
to think that living in a cave and wearing skins is backward. Indeed, this was part of the
mission that Christian Missionaries were mandated to deal with in Africa. It was a mission to
demonize all traditional African practices and sell Western ones through Christianity,
education and colonialism. This legacy has lingered on many years after independence and
our children are quick to identify with Western values rather than their own African values.
Hence, this student was not taught to see that the lifestyle she calls "backward" is also a
lifestyle like any other; a lifestyle where one can fend for self and family. She epitomizes
what many of us have become; people who are quick to embrace an empty sense of
modernity that deprives us of the basic ability to be human. We do not question this "modern"
worldview and its values, but rather take it up in its entirety.
This is what Moita and Gardner challenged in their preamble of a report on the
Osotua Education Programme in Endulen Maasai village in Northern Tanzania as cited in
Peterson (1999):
Throughout the world, much of indigenous / traditional / local knowledge is seen us
backward or outdated and no longer relevant for today’s society. Thus, the current
(Tanzanian) education system is focused on teaching a new way of learning with its own
values, norms, and language with which to interpret the world. Unfortunately, this language
or interpretive framework has not been very successful in helping individuals from
indigenous groups meet the needs of their communities and often alienates "educated" people
from the rest of the society. We believe that it is important to broaden the concept of
education to include all system of knowledge, with recognition of the value of indigenous or
local knowledge within the education process (p.6).
Indeed, not much has been done to challenge current conceptualizations of
"modernity" and the ways in which such concepts as "education" and "development", which
are constantly used in our social and national policies, are constructed. Some of our leaders
have made some strides in defending indigenous knowledge, but have themselves fallen into
the trap of ossifying that knowledge as if it were fixed and bounded.
This paper is construed, therefore, to critically analyse, with examples from Nigeria,
what the concepts of education and development mean and the role those meanings play in
the "development" or "non-development" of Nigeria. The paper will argue how the
imperialist tendencies conditioning Nigerians to think of "development" as the process of
shedding off any traces of their traditions and cultural practices. How most Nigerians have
become schizophrenic members of a nation-state, which tries to nurture citizens who need to
be Western but yet remain Nigerian. It will also showcase how our education system is more
about schooling than learning and it has produced people who are incapable of fitting within
their own social environments that have not been developed to meet with the demands of the
values learnt in school. The paper, specifically, describes these people whose degrees and
diplomas have alienated from the very societies that education should train to be part of. And
how many receive an education devoid of the central ingredients that are crucial in making
them active participants in their own socio-cultural existence.
Education and Development
Education is an experience, event, process and system meant to give an all round
development to an individual. The interaction of all stakeholders in the education industry is
expected to lead to the attainment of the lofty aims and objectives of building mentally,
physically, emotionally, and psychologically stable individuals. That is why, a lot of time
63
and other resources have been channeled into education despite die realization by many that
the system needs a serious review.
Several scholars have posited that education is the key to development, but it has
never been explained what kind of education will unlock that mystical door to development
nor the key to what kind of development defined by whom? Hence, one is left to wonder why
with such a high level of education and a great many educated people in the country, we are
still at the periphery of development. The most plausible explanation is that the kind of
education our students received does not equip them with the necessary tools that would
enhance development. This means that our education is not relevant to our developmental
needs or that education is not a necessary ingredient for development. Thus, we may question
our own perception of development: What is it to us? How do we perceive ourselves
developing?
In its regular usage, development describes a process through which the potentialities of an
object or organism are released, until it reaches its natural, complete, fully-fledged form.
Thus, as a human being, to be developed is to be able to go through a process that enables
one to reach a complete and fully-fledged form that enables the attainment of human full
potential. This has to do with one's ability to use one's environment successfully to reach that
potential. It also has to do with meeting one's most basic needs of shelter, food, clothing and
reproduction. Thus, the concept of development represents the application of the general idea
of progress in the socio-economic and political spheres of the nation
However, in the Nineteenth Century, following works by scientists particularly;
Charles Darwin, development as a concept changed form denoting the transformation that
moves toward the appropriate form, to denoting movement towards an ever more perfect
form. It is during this period when evolution and development began to be used as
interchangeable terms by scientists. This is the time when human communities were deemed
as going through an inevitable process of evolution from low to high and when translated to
development, there were those communities that were developed, while others were
underdeveloped. Indeed, the West became developed, while the rest of the world was
developing, undeveloped or undeveloped. It is this differential rate of development that
brought forth colonialism that then went ahead to establish that kind of differentiation,
propelled it, and also tried to remedy it. Thus, in 1932, for instance, the British government
developed what it called the Law of Development and Welfare of the Colonies that sought to
guarantee the natives minimum levels of nutrition, health, and education. Such a law was
based on two assumptions: first, that the natives' nutrition, health, and education were lacking
or undeveloped, and, second, that the colonial government had the mandate to change that
condition.
It was in 1949 that the fate of the concepts of "developed" and "undeveloped" was
sealed following US President Harry Truman's inauguration speech, when he declared the
Southern Hemisphere as underdeveloped. This declaration was not made in innocence but
was made in order to provide a comforting vision of the world order where the US would
naturally rank first.
However, ever since the word "development" entered the world's vocabulary, it was
loaded with eurocentric connotations that put the world in a hierarchy with the West ranking
first. The West was considered to be the admirable example of people who have made it
(developed) and thus, who need to be emulated. Indeed, the West through colonialism,
Christianity, and imperialism became the dominant cultural practitioners whose values were
emulated and embraced. Colonial governments thus sought to "assist" other countries to
64
achieve that state of development. The colonialists conquered and decimated local political
systems and injected their own; the missionaries captured the souls and value systems of the
colonized and made them Western or approximations of Western ones; and the social
scientists provided in-depth accounts of how they worked or why they did not work so as to
make colonization and evangelizing easier. Once colonialism and missionary work had made
their breakthroughs, it was possible to let the colonies have political independence since they
were already destined for economic and cultural dependence. However, our new democratic
dispensation that ought to move Nigeria to greater heights of development appeared to
worsen our efforts to development. In supporting this view, Ake, (1995) posited that:
Most of Africa is not developing. Three decades of effort have yielded largely
stagnation, regression, or worse. The tragic consequences of this are increasingly clear: a
rising tide of poverty, decaying public utilities and collapsing infrastructure, social tensions
and political turmoil, and now premonitions of inevitable drift into conflict and violence
(p.1).
It is clear that despite many years of attempts to develop Nigeria, the livelihood of
Nigeria's population has become worse economically, culturally and politically. Why? This is
as a result of development prescribed by the West and based on a Western diagnosis that does
not reflect Nigeria's realities. Africa does not have the cultural framework necessary for
adopting Western development concepts and processes. Until Africa develops a frame of
economic, cultural and political institutions or systems that incorporate its own cultural
framework, it will consistently remain a sorry shadow of the West because its own cultural
orientation is African, not Western. The first step along this road to recovery is a review of
the processes of self-reflection and how its youth are trained and equipped for the future. This
all falls under the rubric of education. Much of Africa's education can be described as a
process of westernization, developing a people who are keener on aping the West than
learning from their own heritage and histories.
Education, Schooling and Development
A casual glance at Nigeria's education reveals that our school system is one that is
more about "schooling" than "education" with very little positive influence on development.
A clear understanding of the limitations of such a system begins with definitions of the three
concepts of "schooling", "education", and "development" as used in this paper. 'Schooling' as
a concept is used here to refer to the intended process of perpetuating and maintaining a
society's existing power relations and the institutional structures that support those
arrangements (Oni, 2003). While “Education" is the process through which values, aesthetics,
spiritual beliefs, and all parts of a people's unique cultural orientation are transmitted from
generation to the next (Nyerere, 1968; Bagudo, 2003). 'Development' as a concept, is taken to
refer to a process through which a community, by using its knowledge and other resources, is
able to confront and contain its world and environment for its own existence (Ayandele,
1998), How then can we integrate the seemingly related concepts into a cohesive framework
that would be useful for us and our communities? One way is to realize that education and
school are, indeed, compatible and that if positively blended they can make a good
contribution to a community's or country's positive development. Indeed, they can be used
positively to serve both the interests of diverse communities as well as those of a nation-state.
Thus, our school and education systems should be able to do the following:
1. Foster the development of adequate skills in literacy, numeracy, the humanities, and
technologies that are necessary to negotiate economic self-sufficiency in the country;
65
2. Instill citizenship skills based on realistic and thorough understanding of the political
system, and support such citizenship skills by promoting questioning and critical thinking
skills and teaching democratic values;
3. Provide historical overviews of the nation, the continent, and the world which accurately
represent the contributions of all ethnic groups to the storehouse at knowledge (Babarinde
:110).
If all our school and education systems were based upon such principles, all our
citizens would have full and equal participation in their respective communities, the nation,
and the world at large. This kind of system would decentralize the basis of disseminating
knowledge and the power of knowing in order to instil in our learners the fact that they and
their own cultures did and do contribute to our being and existence. That way no culture
would claim supremacy over the other and consequently no culture would negate the
importance of its own existence in order to embrace another that is construed as better or
"modern". This would be good education and each culture would equally contribute to both
local and national development.
Indeed, it is quite refreshing that this kind of thinking has started taking root in Africa
through the concept of African renaissance where some of our leaders and thinkers according
to Ayandele (1998) are going back to their local cultural practices to seek answers to current
problems. It should be noted that some of these cultural practices were once sneered at in the
quest to embrace Western ones. Thus, traditional methods of healing, ways of resolving
conflicts, and farming strategies devoid of harmful inputs are once again being consulted in
other to make sense of current social, economic and political problems. This should also be
seen as a cue for invigorating our education system that would enable our children to
cultivate skills that would give them an all-rounded sense of self and their daily contexts of
livelihood. Until we do that, our education will remain just a process of schooling that
dissociates our students form their own communities and hence making them dysfunctional
members.
It is no wonder, therefore, that some university students in Nigeria were not in a hurry
to finish school as there were no jobs out there for them after graduating. This is because we
have developed a culture that teaches our students that education is a means to an end, a
passport to a job. Thus, rote learning and mechanized studying to pass examinations has
replaced the all-necessary ethic of studying to get a deep understanding and mastery of one's
life and environment. True education should give its practitioners life-giving and lifesustaining understanding that lead them to self-reliance. What we currently have is too much
schooling and very little education.
On Education and Relevance to Community Needs
Sometimes I heard a primary school student from a community in Osun State telling
her father that she spent the day learning Yoruba, English and Agriculture. English is the
official language, Yoruba the national language and Agriculture the backbone of the country's
economy; thus all are very crucial for a young person being trained to be a useful citizen.
However, a perusal of the content or gist of the Agriculture course reveals a bias towards a
farming culture. How then will this pastoral girl gain from learning Agriculture that does not
allow her to understand her mode of life? If anything, this education will cause her to look
down upon her own community's lifestyle. It is Nyerere who clearly shows the need for
education to be relevant to the community involved when he says:
66
The educational system in different kinds of societies in the world have been, and are,
very different in organisation and in content. They are different because the societies
providing the education are different, and because education whether it be formal or informal,
has a purpose. That purpose is to transmit from one generation to the next the accumulated
wisdom and knowledge of the society, and to prepare the young people for their future
membership of the society and their active participation in its maintenance or development
(1968:44).
There are two crucial issues raised here by Nyerere. First, that education should
transmit a society's accumulated wisdom and knowledge to its children, and, second, that
education is a preparation for their future membership in their society. This seems impossible
in our countries today because we are torn between providing education to create national
citizens and teaching an inappropriate curriculum designed by a few who have had Western
formal training that tends to alienate students form their own culture. Inevitably, this system
disregards the views and needs of local communities in its efforts to develop national citizens
who are biased towards a lifestyle that is not necessarily relevant to their local living
conditions. Students of such a system must be transformed in order to fully use their acquired
education for practical living. There is nothing wrong with having an education that projects
a national outlook, one that aspires to harmonize the population into a community of shared
values. The problem is rather that the products of this schizophrenic system receive an
education that encompasses little, if any, valuable tenets of cultural practices from the many
communities that form the country's population and hence a weak foundation for building a
national identity. This problem is clearly reflected in the calibre of graduates coming out of
our educational institutions. With the increase in the numbers of Nigerians who have school
certificates, diplomas and degrees, and the decrease in employment opportunities, the country
is faced with a great challenge of dealing with a large population of a people who are illequipped to deal with a world that calls for life skills, not just academic credentials.
Conclusion
This paper addresses the relevance of our education to the cultural and socioeconomic realities of Nigeria today. Although many of us encounter school at different points
in our lives, there is a tendency to enroll in formal school at the ages of six and seven. Prior to
that we have been learning through watching, listening, and imitating our care-givers, be they
parents, house helps, aunts, uncles, grand parents, or any other people with whom we
associate in our daily activities as we grow up. During this time we are forming cultural
orientations that are very crucial in our overall existence as humans. These orientations will
introduce us to cognition, affection, and the road to understanding ourselves, our
environment, and how we relate to it and to others around us. Our traditional orientations
help in placing us within a local and historical context where peoples’ experiences and ways
of solving problems are inculcated in us through day-to-day activities, taboos, songs, riddles,
stories, etc. As Ayeni (2001) says, all societies must provide a means for their members to
learn, develop, and maintain throughout their life cycles for participation in socially valued
and controlled patterns of action. Although Ayeni makes these remarks in reference to
African-American's education in society, its ramifications apply to much of the education
offered in Africa. Thus, although the nation-state in Nigeria, for instance, did not
aggressively structure the content and structure of education to reflect and support existing
power relations created by colonialism, it did nothing to change them soon after
independence. Indeed, the elite soon replaced the colonial administrators and fitted well in
67
their shoes. Thus, instead of transforming our education to reflect our own cultural realities,
we continued to support an education system that was created to serve the colonial structure,
hence giving us cultural orientations that compelled us to constantly strive to catch up with
the West. Unfortunately, we have never been able to catch up and there is no such chance that
we may meet up.
Summary
As earlier established in Oni (2003), is that Africa should be committed to building a
society that is united, conscious of its heritage and proud of its culture, education and
institutions. That is why there is the need to overhaul African educational system. Education
must have all the ingredients for making every African a worthy citizen. The above can only
be achieved if there are major innovations in the syllabuses, methodologies and learning
situations, as well as more open and wide-ranging policies for teaching and using African
languages as media of instructions and the use of indigenous technologies in our school
laboratories for promotion of indigenous science and technology. What this means is that
education remains a source of hope to the development and an instrument that can make
Africa cope with change. This prescribed education will bring out areas of ignorance in the
minds of Africans and at the same time makes us to be more conscious of our environment
and more appreciative, and propagate our own cultures and heritage.
References
Aghenta, J.A. (2002). Educational management as a strategy for national development and
integration in Nigeria. In R.C Ebenebe, & L. Akudolu (Eds.) Education for national
development and integration. NAU Awka: Faculty of education. 7-20.
Ayandele, E.A (1974). The educated elite in the Nigerian society. Nigeria. Ibadan University Press
Ayandele, E.A. (1998). African renaissance: The cultural dimension. A paper presented at
the symposium on the African renaissance to celebrate the 80th birthday of President
Nelson Mandela.
Ayeni, M.A (2003). Moral education and globalization. Nigerian Journal of Educational
Philosophy. 1.(1),28-35
Ake, C. (1995). Socio-political approaches and policies for sustainable development in Afric.
Paper presented at the Annual Meetings Symposium of the Africa development 5m.
23 May 1995. Abuja, Nigeria.
Arendt, H.W. (1981). Economic development: A Semantic history in economic development
and cultural change, Vol.26.
Babarinde, Kola. (2001). Globalization and its challenges for educational theorizing in
Africa. Nigerian Journal of Educational Philosophy. (Vol. VIII),( 1) 103
Bagudo, A.A. (2003). Technologies for global education and the challenges of enhanced
educational Delivery in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Educational Philosophy. Vol.10.
No1. 79-87.
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Esteva, G. (1992). Development in Wolfgang Sachs (Ed.) The Development dictionary: Zed
Books.
Nyerere, J.K. (1968). Freedom and socialism: A selection from writings and speeches (1965,
p.6) Dares Salaam: Oxford University Press.
Omolewa, M. (2001). The challenge of education in Nigeria. Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press
Oni, A. Adesoji (2003). Globalization: A menace to African values and education.
Zimbabwe Journal of Educational Research. 15(1),52-61.
Rodney.W. (1972). How Europe underdeveloped Africa. Bogle- L’Ouverture Publications,
London.
Snujaa, M.J. (1994). Education and schooling: You can have one without the other. In too much
schooling tool little education: A Paradox of Black Life in White Societies (Ed.) Shujaa.
Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.
69
CURBING GLOBAL UNREST THROUGH EDUCATION
SULE M. N.
Department of Educational Foundations,
Faculty of Education, University of Jos.
Abstract
The paper is an exposition on the incidents of social unrest in the society. It articulated the
concept of unrest at a global perspective and chronicled the events that are assumed to be
unrest. Education was discussed as an instrument for the amelioration of social discontent.
Some suggestions and recommendations were made for enhancing education to serve this
purpose.
Introduction
The key component of this conference theme is “Global Unrest”. It is, therefore,
expedient to provide an understanding of its meaning quite very early in the course of this
discussion. To do so, an exposition on the concept of “Social Movement” that usually
preludes it, will most apparently assist in illuminating the meaning and nature of “Global
Unrest”.
Hughes, Kroehler and Zanden (2002) stated that:
Social Movement is a more or less persistent and organized effort on the part of
a relatively large number of people to bring about or resist change (p.453).
For instance, civil rights movement mobilized 200,000 people to march in
Washington DC, in 1963 and also to demonstrate across the country. These demonstrations
led to an end in the segregation of schools as well as other public facilities. Similarly, in the
present day Nigeria society, women’s agitations have led to the formation of movements that
have resulted in a transformed society where they work alongside men in all types of careers.
Today in Nigeria, a woman, Justice Aloma Muktar has emerged as head of the judicial arm of
the Federal Government. Obviously, persistent agitations have brought this honour to the
women folk.
Social movements usually emerge in times of rapid social change. Normally what
gives rise to social change is mostly derived from external forces and processes but,
essentially, internally triggered. Thus, social movement possesses a considerable measure of
internal order and purposeful orientation. This organizational potential of a social system
allows social movements to challenge established institutions. The act of challenging an
established institution is usually depended on whether the institution is reflective of the
current aspirations or demands of the social group. Usually, a social system is largely
predicated on its value system and a social movement can either move to alter it or resist a
change to alter it. Since every social system makes effort to maintain order based on its value
system, the need to alter or not to alter its structure can also be seen as an effort to maintain
orderliness.
Thus, a social change can be effected in an orderly fashion without discontent,
bordering on riotousness. Infact, the educational institution of society is charged with the
responsibility of initiating social change through the ambience of the school curriculum. This
is done through subtle means where character change as a result of learning is gradually
achieved.
70
However, certain desires for change may be too sudden and abrupt while not
conforming to a gradual process or wait for a curriculum output. These social changes may
arise from social misery and, more particularly, in social and economic deprivation. This can
be further explained through the theory of ‘relative deprivation’; which states that a social
movement can emerge where a discontent associated with the gap between what people
actually have and what they do expect and, indeed, feel to be due to them. This accounts for
several cases of abrupt social changes following severe deprivations in rewards delivery.
Another dimension of the ‘relative deprivation’ theory is that, it can be fostered under
the characteristics of Davies’ (1974), “rise-and-drop” or “J-curve” hypothesis. He contended
that revolutions are most likely to take place when a prolonged period of social and economic
betterment is followed by a period of sharp reversal such as a salary cut in an austered
economy. Thus, members of society fear that the gains they have achieved with great effort
will be lost, and their mood becomes revolutionary.
Social unrest is thus, a condition where disorderliness, disquiet or discontent is
applied by a social movement to bring about or resist change. It usually disrupts the social
organization or structure of society. An example is the upturn of a state and class structures
of society. The above example carries the feature of a social revolution. This can be further
explained and, of course, understood in the concept of terrorism which is the use of force or
violence against persons or properties to intimidate or coerce a government or formal
institution to achieve political, religious or social objectives.
Without doubt, all forms of unrest in society are basically motivated by the desire to
attract personal or collective gains. These may not always be necessarily based on absolute
but relative objectivity when considered on the scale of rationality. For instance, an unrest
may pursue objectives that aim to change society by challenging fundamental values while
another may seek modifications within the framework of the existing value scheme. Thus,
issues that pertain to unrest in society are those that challenge the existing values and
requiring sudden changes. Quite a number of the cases have assumed a global dimension and
are apparently predicated on similar causes.
A Chronicle of Global Unrest
Moments of social unrest are occurrences that have plagued the entire global community and
thus, cannot be perceived within the horizon of a particular nation. Expectedly, the nature of
these unrest have been similar in methods and procedures. This can be adduced to the state of
globalization as well as the remarkable improvement in communication technology.
Most global unrest are often predicated on the variables of polity, economy and social justice.
Koba (2011), reported that economic uncertainty led to global unrest in London, where three
nights of rioting poured hundreds of people into the streets, leaving several local
neighbourhoods in shambles. In this, one man died, dozens were injured and arrested. The
protest spread to other cities, with violence reported in parts of Birmingham, Liverpool and
Bristol. The cause was basically due to global economic uncertainty and stock market
volatility, although Police said the violence began during a vigil for a man, Mark Duggan,
who had been killed. However, those on the streets said what happened went beyond one
man’s death. The death was just an opportunity to press for issues that were economyoriented.
Koba equally reported that in late June of the same year, half of the public schools in
Britain were closed by a massive protest over public pension cuts. This mass movement
comprised of some 750,000 people including three major teacher unions, customs and
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immigration officers as well as air traffic controllers. Before the protest, it was perceived that
discontent had simmered among Britain’s urban poor for years in neighbourhoods like
Tottenham where the protests started. However, in response to the violence, Prime Minister
David Cameron announced his government’s decision to maintain law and order by doubling
the number of police officers on the streets and the institution of curfew for young adults.
Generally, Cameron’s conservative government was accused of spending pension cuts meant
for social welfare programmes to help reduce the country’s debt.
CNBC (2011), while reporting of a major unrest in Israel, stated that some 250,000
people took to the streets of Tel Aviv on Saturday, 6th August to protest over the rising cost
of living. Demonstrations actually started earlier when a few people set up tents in an
expensive part of Tel Aviv to protest the rising property prices. Eventually, the protests
moved to other cities in Israel where some 50,000 people rallied. The demonstrations turned
into a major challenge for the government of Prime Minister Benjamin Natenyahu. Thus, the
government announced a series of reforms including freeing up land for construction and
offering tax breaks. This indeed is a sharp contrast to the response by David Cameron who
instead doubled the number of police and imposed a curfew period. Instead of appeasing the
people, the reforms rather generated further anger. Quite clearly, the protesters placed the
following demands:
- Increase personal tax brackets for top earners;
- Enshrine the right to housing in the law; introduce rent controls; boost mortgage relief;
- Stop further privatization of things such as health facilities;
- Provide free education for all from the age of three months; and
- Raise the minimum wage to 50 per cent of the average wage.
Social unrests have equally featured in some European nations. Spain, Greece and
Portugal have experienced protests and rioting in reaction to government austerity
programmes and bad economic conditions. Koba (2011) reported that, in late June, riots
broke out in Athens and other parts of Greece as the country’s parliament voted to approve
severe cutbacks in government spending. This meant a drastic slash in welfare packages that
would affect ordinary people. Dozens of people were hurt and businesses destroyed as police
battled rioters with tear gas and night sticks. In an explanation, Greek lawmakers stated that
the cuts were to enable the government receive more bailout money from the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) and European Union (EU) or rather run the risk of defaulting on their
debts.
In Spain, thousands of people, according to CNBC (2011), turned out in late May
2011, to protest the country’s 21% unemployment rate. They also demonstrated against
corruption in government activities and austerity measures to reign in the country’s debt.
Hundreds of people set up tents in a Madrid square and spent a week there in protest.
Equally, Portugal saw massive strikes and protests in March, 2011 in response to government
spending cuts where at least 200,000 people gathered in Lisbon.
Information collected, analyzed and presented by CNBC indicated that thousands of
workers took to the streets throughout the Philippines in May, 2011 to press for higher pay.
They demanded for better wages in the light of rising inflation which included higher oil
prices. President Benigno Aquino III was urged to do more to help protect jobs. In reaction,
the government held job fairs as hundreds of workers were earlier laid off as the economy
slumped. Inspite of this, the workers insisted that the effort had fallen far short of what they
wanted.
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The situation in Eastern China was quite similar, where nearly 1000 cab drivers
blocked traffic and protested on August 1 st 2011 over fuel costs. It was indeed the latest
signal of discontent about the country’s surging inflation. Inflation is hitting China hard with
food prices recently increasing by 12%. Many Chinese officials are reported to be quite
concerned that inflation, along with rising property prices, could lead to even more unrest.
This is most worrisome as China is practicing communism and political as well as economic
conditions should have been relatively stable.
One classical example of unrest is to be found in the “Arab Spring” which literally
means the Arab rebellion or the Arab Revolution. It is a revolutionary wave of
demonstrations and protests occurring in the Arab world that began on the 18th of December,
2010. To date, rulers have been forced out of power in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and Yemen.
Civil uprisings have erupted in Bahrain, Algeria, Jordan and Kuwait. The protests have
similar techniques of mostly civil resistance in sustained campaigns involving strikes,
demonstrations, marches and rallies, as well as the effective use of social media to organize,
communicate and raise awareness in the face of state attempts at repression. Many
demonstrations have met violent responses from authorities, as well as from pro-government
militias and counter-demonstrators. Nevertheless, these attacks have been answered with
violence from protesters in some cases.
Some observers and commentators have drawn comparisons between the ‘Arab
Spring’ movements and the pro-democratic, anti-communist revolutions of 1989 that swept
through Eastern Europe and the communist world in terms of their scale and significance.
The ‘Arab spring’ was sparked by the story of Mohammed Bouazizi, the street trader whose
self-immolation on the morning of 18th January, 2011 ignited the revolution in Tunisia in
protest of police corruption and ill-treatment. He could not get a job because, in a corrupt
dictatorship, he lacked the right connection. As a street vendor, he earned 140 dollars a month
from which he paid for his sister’s education. This unemployed graduate, who felt molested
by the police, got himself burnt, consequently hospitalized and died. This led to massive
unrest in Tunisia that eventually saw to the exit of President Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali who
fled to Saudi Arabia. Similar protests led to the falls of Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak,
Libyan President Muammar Gaddafi, and Yemen President Ali Abdullah Saleh. During this
period of the Arab regional unrest, several leaders announced their intentions to step down at
the end of their current terms. Sudanese President Omar al Bashir announced that he would
not seek re-election in 2015, as did Iraqi Prime Minister, Nouri al-Maliki whose term ends in
2014.
In another legacy from the ‘Arab spring’, protests and riots in Syria against the rule of
President Bashar al-Assad have been going on for over five months now. It is estimated that
at least 1,600 people have been killed by government forces in this unrest. These
demonstrations are a combination of calls for economic as well as political changes. In
response, Assad’s government has promised a package of reforms including higher wages,
letting political parties exist, easing restrictions on the media, and a new anti-corruption
drive. Surprisingly, these new measures have not been concretely placed to achieve the welldesired economic and political reforms. The tendency is that, the unrest may not only
continue but may assume a complex dimension.
Turning the search light of social unrest towards home, it is not difficult to illuminate
also on issues that are hanging on polity, economy and social justice. Just after the
attainment of political independence by the founding fathers of Nigeria, it went through a
dark period of unrest that eventually culminated into the civil war that lasted for about three
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years. This unrest was more or less triggered by ethnic suspicion based on presumed
domination of one by another. It was obviously an unfortunate situation for a country that
just emerged from the doldrums of colonialism to so experience socio-political uncertainty.
Another post-independence discontent situation in Nigeria was the Niger Delta Militancy.
This started as a protest against environmental degradation occasioned by oil exploration and
the lopsided derivation principle. From historical antecedents, when substantial amount of oil
was first pumped in Southern Nigeria in late 1960s, 50% of revenues from the oil were
remitted back to the states where the oil installations were located. However, successive
governments gradually decreased the derivation percentage until it fell to about 2% of the
initial 50%.
With the emergence of democratic government in 1999, sequel to very frantic
agitations for improvement in the derivation percentage for oil producing states, it received
an upward review of 13%. Those who notedably championed these agitations included Adaka
Boro, leader of the Niger-Delta Volunteer Force, and Ken Saro-Wiwa who headed the
Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP). These were social movements
but initially had no revolutionary tendencies. The movements and those that evolved along
the line became violent in the pursuit of these demands. As a result of these crises, The News
Magazine of the 9 th of July, 2012 reported that the Federal Government of Nigeria lost over
N3trillion between 2008 and 2010. That when the hostilities in the Niger-Delta was on, crude
oil exploration for export dropped from 2.3 million to 700,000 barrels per day.
Recent developments have shown that, civil unrests associated with crude oil
exploration and trading are still being recorded in Nigeria. From the Wires (2012) reported
that unrest in the country is affecting the global oil market negatively. Series of unrest in the
country ranging from fuel subsidy removal protests, bombings and oil spillage have reflected
in the price of crude in the world market. According to the report, Brent’s Premium to
United States crude reflected unrest in Nigeria, which is Africa’s top oil producer. Shell, the
world’s largest energy company by market value, has suffered major losses due to incessant
unrest in the oil rich regions of Nigeria. For instance, early this year (2012), an offshore oil
spill in the Niger-Delta led to the shutting down of the Bonga field. This oil spill was
considered the nation’s worst in more than a decade since Bonga field has the capacity to
produce more than 200,000 barrels a day of crude oil and 150 million cubic feet of gas a day.
Economic deprivations have led to discontentment accounting for widespread unrest in
Nigerian oil rich region.
Another major social unrest in Nigeria has been the “Boko Haram” insurgence. The
sect has remained faceless and very little is known of its demands. It has been responsible for
the death of over one thousand people since its emergence. With very sophisticated methods
of attack, its grievances seem to be based on economic, political and religious dimensions.
Since it has remained a faceless and inaccessible social movement, quite little is known of its
concrete aspirations, not to talk of meeting them. A lot of efforts need to be made to unravel
the mystery behind this continued unrest because its negative signal is fastly permeating and
weakening the existing structures of the nation’s political and economic institutions.
Pathogeneses of Global Unrest
To understand the pathogeneses of social unrest, it is most beneficial to consider the factors
below:
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i) Political Factors:
Politics means the science of government or its business. It entails moves or maneuvers that
are concerned with the acquisition of power by an individual or group.
The British sociologist Ralph Miliband (1969) sees power as being derived from wealth. This
contention thus, rejects the pluralist view that in “democracies’ equal political rights give
each member of the population equal power. Political equality is, therefore, a myth and even
more difficult to realize in conditions of advanced capitalism because of the power of those
who own and control the means of production.
The Marxist perspectives similarly see power as concentrated in the hands of a
minority in society. They stress that the powerful and the powerless have different interests
and that these differences may lead to conflict in society which can degenerate to unrest.
Unrest could be centered on a controversy between a powerful governmental force and a
relatively powerless followership. For instance, Smith-Spark and Busari (2012) reported that
Nigeria’s main trade union groups early this year (2012) called for a general strike and mass
rallies over a controversial government decision to take away fuel subsidies. Union leaders
said Nigerian workers were already experiencing unnecessary hardship as a result of the
decision which they argued was affecting the cost of transportation, food, medication, rent
and school fees.
In response, government stated that, the removal of fuel subsidies would have a
positive impact on the country’s economy. It explained that money saved would be used to
invest elsewhere, such as, in the refurbishing of ailing refineries. Presently, Nigeria has no
functioning refineries and has to import fuel. Despite these explanations by government to
justify its political decisions, the mega unions in Nigeria embarked on strike to protect
workers’ conditions by asking government to revert to the earlier pump price of 65 naira per
litre. The unrest was settled through a concession by government in bringing the raised price
down to 97 naira per litre.
At the moment, monies accruing into the fuel subsidy accounts seem not to be
properly accounted for. For instance, the Federal Government had budgeted N245billion for
fuel subsidy last year (2011) but suddenly raised it to N2.19trillion without concrete
explanations. All that is more heard of is the “sting operation” involving Hon. Farouk Lawan
and Chief Femi Odetola of the alleged $620,000 USD bribe.
It may not be too long before Nigerians who suspended the strike begin to ask
questions on the agreed palliatives meant to address the pains created by the subsidy removal.
This situation may just be another “time-bomb” to herald yet a major unrest in Nigeria.
Thus, the political society, according to Antonio Gramsc (1891-1973), often represses the
civil society. While the political society comprises of what is normally thought of as state,
the civil society consists of those institutions normally thought of as private, particularly the
church, trade unions, the mass media, and political parties. The political society often has its
interests above those of the civil society, which often results in conflict that usually lead to
social unrest.
Those who constitute the political society are usually of the elitist group that belong to the
privileged class. They, therefore, enjoy both political and economic advantages over those
that belong to the civil society. Basically, the political society is vested with the responsibility
of ensuring equitable distribution of our scarce material resources. This position can be
further buttressed by the provision of the Nigerian Constitution in Section 17 sub-section 3(a)
as follows:
The state shall direct its policy towards ensuring that, all citizens without
75
discrimination on any group whatsoever, have the opportunity for securing
adequate means of livelihood as well as adequate opportunity to secure
suitable employment.
It, however, appears that, this is only a political statement that means very little to the
political society itself. Rather, poverty, irregularity and injustices are highly prevalent in
mostly developing societies like Nigeria. These have led to wealth gaps between individuals
and groups, thus creating imbalances resulting into tensions and subsequently, unrest.
ii) Economic Factors
Economy is seen as the manner in which resources and money within a community or nation
are organized. It also involves the method of the distribution of scarce material resources to
members of society. Therefore, the production of goods and services holds the key to human
happiness and fulfillment. However, not all members of society remain ever happy and
fulfilled on the basis of the production of goods and services. In a capitalist economy, a
small minority owns the means of production, while a majority that constitutes the work force
remains largely alienated even from the goods it produces. Thus, happiness and fulfillment
often remain with the minority than with the majority.
No wonder, Haralambos, Holborn and Heald (2000), stated that capitalism is based on
self-interest, avarice and greed. It is a system of cut-throat competition concerned with the
maximization of profit rather than the satisfaction of real human needs. By these, capitalists
and workers are often engaged in a struggle for survival and personal gains, a foundation for
conflict.
These gains are often the indices that confer political power on individuals or groups
in society. Thus, Hughes, Khroehler and Zanden (2002) agreed that economic capacity
renders political power on an individual or groups in society. Individuals or groups that
control critical resources such as those pertaining to rewards, are able to dictate the way
social life is ordered.
The ordering of social life is by all means characterized by bias and lopsided considerations.
These can be seen in the employment prospects of members of society where the least
qualified are often considered over the more qualified.
The bases of these are usually in terms of ethnicity, religion, and other primordial
considerations. The concept of ‘godfatherism’ has been the most enterprising phenomenon
for the consideration of leaders in Nigeria’s political process. Elections are in most cases
rigged to give victories to favoured candidates by political “godfathers”. These can clearly
be justified by the many up-turned so-called victory cases that were challenged at election
tribunals and even at the Supreme Court.
A major violent unrest in Nigeria was the post-election violence of 2011 where a
colossal damage was done to properties and many lives lost. This followed the rejection of
the outcome of the presidential election by some political parties and individuals which
moved their supporters to go on rampage.
Unfortunately, the many unemployed and out of school young individuals saw it as an
opportunity to show their disenchantment with a government that has failed to offer them
better livelihood. Economic poverty due to unemployment and ignorance created by
illiteracy were certainly very crucial factors that generated the social unrest.
76
iii) Religious Factors
One way to understanding religion is to see it in terms of the functions it performs for
individuals or society. That is why Sherkat and Ellison (1999) stated that, essentially religion
should be seen in its effects on health, the family and politics. Religion is often viewed as a
major source of social solidarity. It provides believers with a common set of norms and
values which constitutes an important source of social solidarity. Wuthnow (1988), asserted
that, religious beliefs, rituals and bonds help to create a ‘moral community’ in which all
members know how to behave towards one another.
In recent years, the entire global religious society has embarked upon a
fundamentalist revival. Religious fundamentalism has remained a major challenge to the
global society. For instance, the Christian Protestant Movement opposes “modernist”,
theology and seeks to conserve the basic principles underlying traditional Christianity.
Equally, an example could be drawn from the Iranian revolution of 1979 when Ayatollah
Khomeini, an Islamic religious leader overthrew the Shah, Mohammed Riza Phalavi. His
monarchy was replaced with a theocratic regime rooted in Islamic traditions.
This revolution ushered in nationalist and political expressions that were beyond
religion. Islamic fundamentalists challenged several secular-oriented governments in NorthAfrica and the Middle East. This was targeted at dismantling western domination for the
enshrinement of Islamic principles and ideas in government.
The insurgencies in the Arab world and the spillover effects in some sub-saharan
African countries including Nigeria are indeed clear examples for the realization of this
ambition. However, underneath this agitation are the desires for economic emancipation and
political power improvement. The ‘Arab Spring’ is an example of the need for social and
economic betterments rather than religious demands. Religious crises or social unrest are
often fueled and perpetrated by the unemployed and out of school who are always on the
‘wings’ to be used. Idleness and ignorance being the key elements that serve as drives.
These obviously explain the menace of the “Boko Haram” insurgence in Nigeria. A
high percentage of the perpetrators are teenagers who ought to be in school. Many are
without worthwhile skills to be considered for paid jobs or have dropped out of school due to
financial constraints. These are “frustrated teenagers” that are usually vulnerable and could
easily be recruited for violence.
iv) Leadership Factors:
The global society has not experienced enough good leaders with sound dispositions for
using the indices of economy, politics and religion for a stable global environment. There has
been a significant ‘Leadership want” being the bane of social unrest globally. Most of those
in leadership positions are covered in injustices based on ethnicity, religious and political
biases.
Applying Education for Curbing Global Unrest
Education remains the most veritable tool for the actualization of social betterment,
economic viability and political growth in all human societies. No wonder, the constitution
of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, in Section (18) subsection (1) says that government shall
direct its policy towards ensuring that there are equal and adequate educational opportunities
at all levels. Subsection (3) states that government shall strive to eradicate illiteracy by
providing education freely to all categories of Nigerians without any bias. Government’s
commitment has been further enunciated in the National Policy on Education (NPE) with
77
very laudable statements of objectives. These statements of objectives, where well pursued
can foster the values for betterment, viability and growth of society. The values therefore
have important functions in society as a whole. Education can be utilized as an instrument for
social cohesion and for the amelioration of social discontent as follows:
i) Access to Education
Access to schooling by all society’s school aged individuals is not just a privilege but
certainly a right. Wiley (2012) stated that, democratizing access to educational opportunity is
a crucial step toward curbing global crises like, poverty, hunger, political turmoil and
economic unrest. The idea of a totally tuition-free education is quite necessary for all people
to have the chance to reach their intellectual potential.
Currently in Nigeria, the Basic Education Programme of the Federal Government
cannot be said to be totally free. Though, it is tuition-free, some basic necessities are still
being paid for. The children still pay for or purchase school uniforms, writing materials,
practical work materials and a host of others whose costs are enough to deny some categories
of children full access to school.
ii) Qualitative Education
High educational standard is a prerequisite for a sound society premised on orderliness,
justice and equity. Consequently, a sound society can guarantee a society devoid of incessant
conflicts and unrest. Educational standard is a measure of the levels of skills acquisition,
knowledge, competencies, ideas and principles endowed by the products of an educational
system. Obviously, most products of our school system are highly bereft of the virtues
outlined above. Many factors can be adduced to this phenomenon and which are teacher –
quality dimension, funding, facilities and infrastructures. For instance, inspite of
government’s huge investments in education, much is still desired. Many children in primary
schools still sit on bare floor to be taught. Teachers more often than not go on strike to press
home demands for unpaid salaries. Presently, primary school teachers in Plateau State are
being owed three months of their salaries while those in tertiary institutions in the state are
equally owed four months. This year, primary school teachers in the state have only taught
for one and half months (1½ months), yet the children are expected to transit into the next
classes and some into JS1 by September.
Social unrest can be an indicator of the prevalence of high rate of school drop-out and
poor school performance. The case of the fifteen years (15 years) old teenager who planted
explosives in his body and detonated it at the palace of the Shehu of Bornu is quite
worrisome. Probably, he was a school drop-out that had experienced severe frustration.
Quality education is a basic requirement for job creation and placement without which a
recipient of education is rendered idle. The need therefore is stressed for more proactive
roles by government and stakeholders in education to exhibit more commitment to enhance
its quality to its recipients.
iii) Global Education
Since social unrest has assumed a global dimension, it is also necessary to pursue education
within a global focus. This idea can afford for a shared-valued-education within the entire
global community. Education can assume a cross-cultural dimension while permeating all
social values and norms. This will apparently and gradually moderate obnoxious cultures in
different societies. The world will then reason commonly and perceive issues and situations
78
collectively. This might herald and then strengthen the need for inter-nation collaboration for
better understanding.
iv) Education for the reduction of illiteracy and ignorance
Education must be seen as a mechanism to eradicate illiteracy and remedy the high level of
ignorance, particularly in developing or emerging societies. Currently, Nigeria’s literacy rate
is just above fifty percent (50%). This calls for an aggressive effort to ensure that it is raised
to an appreciable level, otherwise many will continue to wallow in deep ignorance and be
manipulated for social unrest.
v) Education for the balancing of fundamental human rights
Since most social unrest stem from human rights abuses and injustices in society, it is
necessary that education systems and school curricular structures be substantially based on
skills that can promote the basis for democratic living, and adherence to social justice
principles. Currently, the rate of corruption in Nigeria seems to be alarming and exposes the
nation to the preponderance of injustice. Corruption is considered by most Nigerians to be a
way of life and indeed part of our acceptable norm. Thus, an individual is considered to be
corrupt only where he decides not to either directly or indirectly engage in corrupt practices.
The case of the Police Pension Fund official who hid two billion naira in his house while the
pensioners in their numbers slumped and died could not have been a fair judgment. He
lacked what it takes to be educated and accountable. Just an education which provides a
balance of fundamental human rights is required.
vi) Education Beyond Graduation
The system of education in society should provide a compelling mechanism for continuous
training and retraining. This is necessary because of the continuous rapid changes in society
which at times are sophisticated and complex that require more recent ideas and principles.
Ideally, education is meant to be a life-long process given the need to update knowledge and
refine skills. Education should re-awaken and prepare us for complex challenges in society
on a continuous basis.
Conclusion
That global social unrest is assuming a more complex and sophisticated dimension is
the basic truth and a realistic statement. Man seems to be evolving more violent strategies to
settle disputes and social discontent. The patterns of these unrest are apparently similar in
nature and procedures. This can only be explained by the great improvement in
communication technology as the world has fast become a “global village”. The only most
veritable way to stem the tide of social unrest is by using the instrument of education.
Education can change the value system of a group of people by inculcating in it new ones.
The school curriculum is often the best tool to be used to achieve this.
79
References
CNBC (2012). Employment/Europeanunion/recession/inflation/Portugal/Britain/Economy.
http://www.cnbc.com
Davies J (1974). Toward a theory of revolution. American Sociology Review, 53(1), 5-19.
Federal Government of Nigeria (1999). Constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria.
Lagos: Federal Government Press.
From the wires (Feb, 2, 2012). Nigeria Unrest affects world crude oil trading.
Giddens, A. (2006). Sociology. Manchester: Polity Press.
Haralambos, M. Holborn, M. & Heald, R. (2000). Sociology: Themes and perspectives.
London: Harper Collins.
Hughes, M, Kroehler, C.J. & Zanden, M.W. (2002). Sociology: The core. New York:
McGraw Hill.
Koba, M. (2011). Economic uncertainty leading to global unrest.
http://www.cnbc.com/id/44073673
Milliband, R. (1969). The state in capitalist society. London: Weidenfield & Nicolson.
The News Magazine, vol 39 No. 01 9th, July, 2012.
Wiley, D. (2012). http://wwwuopeople.org.
80
ATTITUDE OF TEACHERS TOWARDS WOMEN LEADERSHIP OF SECONDARY
SCHOOLS IN ILORIN, KWARA STATE
ALEXANDER O. I.
Arts & Social Sciences Education Department,
Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin.
Abstract
The study was a survey of secondary school teachers’ attitude towards women leadership of
secondary schools in Ilorin Metropolis. The study population comprises of every public
secondary school teacher in Ilorin Metropolis. From the population, random sampling
technique was used to sample a total of 500 secondary school teachers across 20 randomly
selected public secondary schools from the 56 located in the metropolis. The samples were
further stratified on the basis of gender and year of experience. Data were collected using a
researcher-made questionnaire titled Women School Leadership Questionnaire (WSLQ) and
collected data were analyzed using percentages and the t-test statistic. Findings revealed that
35.4% secondary school teachers preferred women as Principals, 37.4% as Vice-Principals
and just 9.8% never wanted women as school leaders. On the other hand, 81% of sampled
respondents believed that women school leadership is characterized by financial prudence.
29.8% agreed women school leadership encouraged collaborative approach to school
governance, 12% believed it led to domination of school activities by the women and 40.2%
believed having women as principals made schools well organized. At the level of hypotheses
testing, it was found out that secondary school teachers preference of women as principals
did not differ on the basis of the gender of the teachers but differed on the length of teachers’
teaching experience. It was, therefore, concluded that appointing women as school principals
may not be rejected by male and female subordinates as such appointment may even bring
about financial prudence and organized school environment at secondary school level. Thus,
it was recommended that more women should be encouraged and appointed to become
principals in Nigerian secondary schools.
Introduction
School leadership is an integral part of school development. It is one of the factors
that determines the progress of achieving educational goals. This is because, school
leadership anchors policy formulation, implementation and assessment in educational
institutions. In confirmation of the importance of school leadership in school achievement, a
study revealed that many school staff believed that it is the leader of the school and not the
subordinates that determine and guide the culture of school progress. Subordinates often
believe that it is the responsibility of the school leaders to create the required kind of
atmosphere where school staff and students can be happy and successful in the achievement
of school goals (Luthan, 2005). No doubt, school leaders form the pedestal on which the
school effectiveness is laid. Without good school leadership, the available school resources
may not be adequately utilized for school development.
Scholars have defined leadership in terms of group processes, personality,
compliance, particular behaviours, persuasions, power, goal achievement, interaction, and
role differentiation, initiation of structure, and combination of two or more of these (Edward,
2000; Deross, 2009). In their series of definitions, leadership and leadership effectiveness are
not tied to gender quality or attributes nor are they seen as what is solely in the terrain of the
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male. School leadership, in particular, is said to be attainable on the basis of structured
organizational job promotion, years of service and qualification. The process of becoming a
school leader, mostly in public schools, is open to all teachers. Thus, as teachers grow in
years of experience and qualification in line with the stipulation of the nation’s Civil Service
Law, so they move close to becoming school heads. However, in private secondary schools,
school leadership often depends on ownership. Owners of private secondary schools, in most
cases, transform to become the principals or in most cases exercise veto power to determine
who becomes the school head.
Many have asked whether women get a chance of becoming school heads in Nigerian
primary and secondary schools. In a study conducted by Rayo (2010) in Nigeria, it was
discovered that many primary and secondary schools in Nigeria are under the leadership of
women. Rayo emphatically gave the percentage of primary schools where women are the
Headmistress as 53%. This implies that women out numbered men in the leadership of
Nigerian primary schools. A close observation, however, reveals that it is in the lower level
of education that women are adequately represented as staff and leaders of educational
institutions in Nigeria. For example, as indicated by Ayinla, Muhammed & Adeoye (2006),
employment into and leadership of tertiary education in Nigerian universities is dominated by
masculine folks. They indicated that only 13% of academic staff in Nigerian universities are
women as compared to 33% in the United Kingdom. In addition to this, only 5% of all
academic staff that occupy professorial posts are women in contrast to 7% in the United
Kingdom.
Societal view of women leadership may be influenced by people's perception of
women in the cultural society. In most cases, women are not as favoured as men in social
activities. The world itself is dominated by men and so many often see women as second
fiddle irrespective of experience and qualification. Dauda, (2000) pointed out that women are
often expected to be mere assistants to men and are not expected to take leadership roles. But
in situations where women become leaders by virtue of official placement, what is likely to
be the attitude of men and women subordinates towards them?
Women leadership of educational institutions can be viewed in three ways. One way is
to consider the numerical representation of women in leadership cadre, another is to
consider their effectiveness, and yet another is to consider the attitude of staff under them
(women school leaders) to their leadership principles and styles. In this study, the researcher
finds out secondary school teachers' attitude towards women leadership of their schools.
Specifically, the study was structured to identify preference of secondary school teachers for
women school heads among male and female subordinates. The study also finds out
teachers’ perceived effectiveness and features of women leaders of secondary schools in
Ilorin metropolis.
Theoretical Framework
For the purpose of clarification and scope specification, researches are often anchored on
theories. Having a theoretical framework helps shape researches and goes a long way in
providing base for possible findings of the research. This study is therefore anchored on
Social Identity Theory. The theory formed by, Tajfel (1982) assumes that human beings are
motivated to positively evaluate their own groups and value them over other groups in order
to maintain and enhance self-esteem when it comes to access to human and non-human
resources and leadership opportunities. Horowitz & Bordens (1995) further explained that,
fundamental to social identity theory is the notion of categorizing the other groups,
82
pigeonholing them by the use of stereotypes and specifying where and what authority they
can claim in the society. In traditional African societies, women are already categorized to be
incapable of positions that are privy of male members of the society (Luthan, 2005). In
leadership for example, women are stereotyped to possess specific leadership attributes that
may not make them fit for taking charge of some traditional and formal institutions. The
stereotype often determines societal expectation of women in leadership and may even
determine the attitude of people serving under women leaders towards their leadership.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the conduct of this study:
1. Do secondary school teachers in Ilorin metropolis prefer women as school leaders?
2. What are the perceived attributes of women leadership among secondary school teachers in
Ilorin metropolis?
Resear ch H ypotheses
The following null hypotheses were raised and tested in the process of conducting this
study:
H01: There is no significant difference in male and female teachers’ preference of leadership
of women school heads in Ilorin metropolis.
H02: There is no significant difference in experience and less experience teachers’
preference of leadership of women school heads in Ilorin metropolis.
R es ea rch Methodo lo g y
The study was a survey of secondary school teachers’ attitude towards women
leadership of educational institutions in Nigeria. The population for the study comprises
every public secondary school teacher in Ilorin Metropolis. From the population, random
sampling technique was used to sample a total of 500 secondary school teachers (250 male
teachers and 250 female teachers) across 20 randomly selected public secondary schools
from the 56 located in the metropolis. The 500 sampled were further stratified on the basis
of gender and length of experience. Data were collected using a researcher-made
questionnaire titled Women School Leadership Questionnaire (WSLQ). The questionnaire
had two sections. Section ‘A’ elicited respondents’ biographical data while Section `B'
had two parts. Part I contained items testing teachers’ preference and perceived attributes
of women school heads. The Part II of the Section ‘B’ contained items testing teachers’
general attitude towards women leadership of a school where they work. This part tested
respondents’ readiness to obey, collaborate and reference women school leaders if they
find themselves serving under such women.
The validity of the instrument was determined using content and face validity
approaches. On the other hand, test-re-test technique was used to determine the reliability
of the instrument. Collected data were analyzed using percentages and the t-test statistic.
Data Analysis and Result
Research Question 1: Do secondary school teachers in Ilorin Metropolis prefer women
as school leaders?
83
Table 1: Preference of women school leaders in secondary school
Male Teachers
1
2
3
4
Prefer women as Principals
Prefer women only as Vice-Principals
Prefer women only as Head of Department
Never want a woman as School Heads
Female Teachers
Total
n
%
n
%
n
%
98
103
33
16
39.2
41.2
13.2
6.4
79
84
56
31
31.6
33.6
22.4
12.4
177
187
89
47
35.4
37.4
17.8
9.8
Data on Table 1 indicate that out of the sampled 250 male teachers, 39.2%
of them preferred women as principals, while out of the 250 sampled female teachers,
31.6% preferred women principals. Also, 41.2% of male teachers sample preferred
women as only Vice-Principals and not as principals, while 33.6% of sampled female
teachers would want women only as Vice Principals. Also, while 13.2% male
respondents wanted women only as Heads of Department, 6.4% of them never even wanted
women as school heads. However, 22.4% of sampled female respondents wanted women
only as Heads of Department in schools and 12.4% never wanted women to head any
aspect of school.
Research Question 2: What are the perceived attributes of women leadership among
secondary school teachers in Ilorin metropolis?
Table 2: Perceived attribute of women school leadership
1
2
3
4
5
Financial Prudence
Collaborative approach to school governance
Domination of school activities
Organized school (physical & policy)
School indiscipline
Male Teachers
n
%
199
79.6
87
34.8
26
10.4
103
41.2
17
6.8
Female Teachers
n
%
206
82.4
62
24.8
34
13.6
98
39.2
23
40
Total
n
405
149
60
201
57
%
81
29.8
12
40.2
11.4
As shown on Table 2 above, 81 % of sampled male and female secondary school teachers
agreed that whenever women are principals, there is always financial prudence in handling of
school fund, 29.8% believed such women school leaders always adopt collaborative approach
to school governance, 12% agreed that women school leaders dominate school activities,
40.2% agreed that when women lead school, the school is well organized physically and in
term of school policy, and 11.4% agreed that women leadership of school is often
characterized by school indiscipline.
Research Testing
H01: There is no significant difference in male and female teachers’ preference of
leadership of women school heads
Table 3: T-test Analysis of preference of women leadership of secondary schools on the
basis of gender.
X2
Teacher
Male
N
250
43.7
Sd
12.31
Female
250
44.2
13.11
Df
t-cal
t-crit
498
1.96
1.58
Data on Table 3 show that the calculated t-test value, 1.96 was higher than the t-test
84
critical value, 1.58 Therefore it was concluded that there was significant difference in male and
female secondary school teachers’ preference of women school principals.
H02: There is no significant difference in experience and less experience teachers’ preference
of leadership of women school heads
Table 4: T-test Analysis of preference of women leadership of secondary schools on the
basis of experience.
X2
Experience
Long Term
n
259
53.6
Sd
11.42
Short Term
241
51.4
12.51
df
t.cal
t.crit
498
2.11
1.96
Data on Table 4 show that the calculated t-test value, 2.11 is higher than the critical value,
1.96. Therefore, hypothesis 2 was rejected and it was concluded that there was no
significant difference in experienced and less experienced secondary school teachers’
preference of women school principals.
Discussion
Secondary school education is an important level of education in Nigeria. It is a
level of education that requires adequate and effective administrative efforts form
Ministry of Education and stationed school leaders. Being a level of education that bridges
students’ educational endeavour from elementary to tertiary stages of schooling, secondary
schools remain the most vital aspect of Nigerian system of education, where school
personnel are expected to display administrative principles and practices that can ensure
productive utilization of human and non-human resources. Series of researches already
revealed that this level of education is under the control of male and female school heads. It
was however, revealed in Rayos (2000) that substantial percentage (48.4%) of secondary
schools in Nigeria is under the headship of women in Nigeria. This implies that women are
not segregated in terms of appointment as principals in Nigeria.
Unfortunately, in Nigerian traditional societies, there are socio-cultural practices
that often predetermined what people expect from women who are appointed as leaders,
even outside the educational sector. As explained by Ageola (2003), Nigerians often
believe that women are inferior to men and are incapable of making sound decisions or
present a logical leadership attributes and strategies. Thus, there may be negative or
unsupportive disposition towards women leadership. On this premise, it may be
presumed that secondary school teachers may prefer men as principals to women.
However, as shown in the findings of this study, many secondary school
teachers preferred women to men as principals. Specifically, 39.2% of sampled male
teachers within Ilorin metropolis preferred women as principals, while 31.6% of the sampled
female teachers also preferred women as their principals. The findings also indicated that
41.2% of male sampled preferred male and 33.6% of male teachers wanted women only as
Vice-Principals. In fact, only 9.8% of the total sampled 500 male and female teachers
never wanted women as secondary school principals in the metropolis. These findings are
significant as they point to the fact that male teachers, even prefer women principals more
than the way female teachers wanted women principals.
Many reasons for preference of women as principals may be deduced from the second
85
stage of the analysis of the findings of this study. At this stage, respondents were asked to
indicate attributes of women school headship. Fortunately, 81% of male and female
sampled teachers were of the opinion that where women serve as principals, there was
always financial prudence. This implies that women leadership of secondary schools lead to
careful decision making in the management of school fund. This is important as it will
ensure adequate utilization of school funds for school growth than for personal
aggrandizement. These findings may even point to the possibility of appointing women to
correct financial anomalies in schools. In addition to this finding, 40.2% of sampled
teachers agreed that secondary schools women govern are always well organized in term of
physical and policy structuring.
However, 11.4% of sampled respondents were of the opinion that women
governance of secondary schools may lead to increase in school indiscipline. This is negative.
The perception of the sampled teachers may be based on the cultural belief that women are
soft in implementing and or sanctioning misapplication of rules and regulations
(Faderera, 2002). Faderera asserts that in traditional society, people already assume
women can not take firm decision that can prevent illogicalities and administrative errors.
This may be what informed the sampled teachers to assume having women as school heads
will lead to school indiscipline.
In whatever form, the finding’s extol women as possible better leaders for
Nigerian secondary schools. This fact is more pronounced with the fact that even sampled
men were in support of the effective capacity of women as school leaders.
Conclu sion
Women can be effective leaders/heads of secondary schools in Nigeria. Their
appointment will not be restricted by both male and female teachers. Many teachers in Ilorin
metropolis will even promote appointment of women as principals as they believe such
appointment could bring financial prudence, organized environment and collaborative
approach to school governance in Nigerian schools.
R eco mmen d atio n s
Based on the findings of this study, the following are recommended for the Nigerian
system of education.
1. Government and other stakeholders in education industry should be encouraged to
promote policies and practices that will lead to the appointment of women as school principals in
Nigerian secondary schools.
2. Women appointed as school heads should be conscious of indiscipline among staff and
students. They are to come up with clear rules, regulations and school management strategies
that will help them step down cases of indiscipline that can undermine their authorities in
school.
R efer en c e
Ageola, W.I. (2003). Cultural beliefs and gender authorities in Nigerian traditional societies:
Journal of Cultural Studies in Africa. 3(4), 34-51
Ayinla, S.A; Muhammed, A.Y. & Adeoye, M.N. (2006). Education and regeneration of
traditional values in Nigeria. Lagos: University of Lagos Press
86
Dauda, B.G. (2000). Value, roles and gender orientation in Nigerian communities. Abeokuta:
Franco Media
Deross, L. M. (2009). Organizational behaviour. Philadelphia: Westminister Press
Edward, K. P. (2000). Social diversities and globalization. New York: Stage Publication Inc.
Faderera, S.S. (2002). Women and leadership. Lagos: Olorogun. Publication and Art
Impressions
Luthan, F. (2005). Organizational behaviour. New York: McGraw Hill
Rayo, D.E. (2010). Assessment of gender representation in Nigerian secondary and primary
school leadership. Journal of National Association of Educational Administrators in
Nigeria, 2(3).
Tajfel, H. (1982). Social identity and group relations. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press
Horowitz, LA. & Bordens, K.S. (1995). Social psychology. Tokyo: Mayfield
87
DESCRIPTION OF STRATEGIES FOR ACHIEVING NATIONAL STABILITY IN
NIGERIAN SOCIETY AS EXPRESSED BY YOUTHS AND PROFESSIONALS IN
NORTH-CENTRAL NIGERIA
OKAFOR, I. P. L.
Arts & Social Sciences Education Department,
Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin
Abstract
The research adopted the Survey Descriptive Research type to find out what Nigerian youths
and professionals identified as effective strategies that will ensure Nigerian national stability.
These data was taken from the population of youths, teachers and security personnel in the
country. Purposive Sampling Technique was used to sample a total number of 600 youths and
professionals across the North-Central States of Nigeria. A researcher-made questionnaire
titled Strategies for National Stability Questionnaire” (SNSQ) was used for data collection.
The instrument’s validity and reliability co-efficient; 0.68, was determined using face/content
validity approach and test-re-test approach. Collected data- were analyzed using percentages.
Findings revealed that a high percentage of sampled youths and tertiary institution lecturers
were in support of provision of employment opportunities as the major strategy Nigeria can
use to achieve national stability. On the other hand, most of the sampled security personnel
believed provision of infrastructure will be more effective than any other strategy.
Fortunately, no category of sampled respondents saw the need to split Nigeria on ethnic line
before national stability can be achieved. Based on these findings, it was recommended that
Nigeria should intensify its employment generation efforts and make good its bid to provide
adequate and functioning infrastructure.
Introduction
Nigeria is a developing nation created in 1898 through the Colonial Authority
exercised by Lord Fredrick Lugard. The country was under the British Government until 1st
October, 1960 when it got her independence and became a sovereign nation. The country
Nigeria, officially known as the Federal Republic of Nigeria, borders the Gulf of Guinea on
the South, Cameron on the East, Niger on the North and Benin on the West. Nigeria operates
the Presidential System of Government with distinct but complementary arms of government.
These arms of government are classified as the Executive, the Legislature and the Judiciary.
Having passed through series of military and democratic governance, the country has
experienced some socioeconomic advancements and obstacles. At different point in her
development, Nigeria witnessed several political and economic crises, many of which
manifested in the claims and counter claims of her diverse ethnic groups. With 774 Local
Government Areas in 36 states, the country had had to face upheavals from several ethnic
groups that felt marginalized and thereby strived for political, economic and educational
relevance in the affairs of the state. The Nigerian Civil War broke out on 6th July 1967. The
war was the culmination of an uneasy peace and stability that had plagued the nation from
independence in 1960. The situation had its genesis in the geography, history, culture and
demography of Nigeria. The ethnic strives became a major civil war that threatened the
country’s fragile unity and plunged the nation into an era of killing and economic woes until
15th January 1970 when the civil war was brought to an end.
Till today, the country still faces several threats to her national stability. Series of
88
ethno- religious and economic crises shake the foundation of the country making her scamper
for enduring solutions. National stability as used in this study means state of unity, peace and
security in the co-ordination of the affairs of the state. It connotes ability of the country to
remain united, peaceful and progressive.
For several years now, the country has witnessed various threats to its survival. These
threats often start as ethnic and religious crises. In July 1999, for example, many Nigerians
were killed and property worth millions of naira was destroyed during ethno-religious crises
involving Yoruba Traditional Religious worshipers and Hausas in Sagamu, Ogun State. Like
what obtains in most communal crises, the traditional worshipers in the town unleashed terror
on the non-worshipers mostly the Hausas. Also in February 2001, over 3,000 people lost their
lives to deadly religious crises that erupted between Christians and Muslims in Kaduna,
(Olukorede, 2002). Similarly, in September 2001, over 1,000 lives were lost and several
property destroyed in another religious crisis in Jos (Ayinla, 2004). While several of these
types of crises continue to be Nigeria in recent times has been witnessing a large scale
terrorism, which has been described as being religiously and/or politically motivated
(Woleosho, 2011).
The new threat to the nation’s stability started during the last 2011 General Election.
Immediately after the announcement of the result of the election by the Independent National
Electoral Commission (INEC), the Northern part of the country was engulfed in crises, which
Mr. Hafiz Ringim, the Inspector-General of Police, said claimed the life of 520 persons in
Kaduna and Niger States and also resulted in the wanton destruction of not less than 165
churches, 53 Mosques and 1442 houses (The Punch, June, 12th, 2012).
After the post-general election crisis, came the Boko Harram terrorism, which is
characterized with indiscriminate killings and bombing of important units of Nigeria. Boko
Harram is a war insignia of a religious sect established in Northern Nigeria. Boko Haram is a
religious sect that initially started by condemning western knowledge in Nigeria and
blossomed into a terrorist group that had unleashed mayhem on unsuspecting victims. Boko
Haram has killed over 1,200 people in Nigeria, including Christians and Muslims, and most
internationally remembered was the bombing of the United Nations House in Abuja that
killed about 23 people. These are people with no clear-cut ideology. The sect, founded by
Mohammed Yusuf in 2002, set out seeking to impose a more strict form of Islamic law in
Northern Nigeria and end corruption but became fully violent after the five days clashes in
July 2009 between it and members of security forces in Borno, Yobe, Bauchi, and Kano
States that left more than 800 people dead, including at least 30 Police Officers. During that
unrest, the police captured and allegedly killed the Boko Haram leader Mohamamed Yusuf
along with many of his followers in Maiduguri. Since then, the sect has been relentless in
killings and destruction of churches and mosques. Property worth millions of naira was lost
and lives were equally lost. With the resultant effect of loss of peace, tranquility, and business
activities in most part of Northern Nigeria. This has further compounded the woes of the
region hitherto regarded as home of poverty. This sect, who disdainfully condemned Western
Education, laid claim to bombing of the Nigerian Police Force Headquarters and The United
Nation Office, both in Abuja. Apart from these two places, the sect waged war against
individuals and institutions through assassinations, selective kidnapping, suicide bombing,
and emotional threats. Their activities have resulted to the death of thousands of people in the
Northern states such as Gombe, Yobe, Bauchi, Niger and the country has lost quite a number
of economic investment interest, of foreigners (The Punch, 2012).
Aside these security threats, the country have also witnessed series of set backs in its
89
bid to advance its educational activities and achieve national stability. As at independence,
Nigeria spends an average of 40% of her annual budget on Education; precisely to take care
of her 15,703 Primary Schools, 883 Secondary Schools, 102 Federal Government Colleges,
315 Teacher Training Colleges and 29 Technical/Vocational Schools, 4 Polytechnics and 5
Universities (Olorogun, 2003). But unfortunately today, Nigeria spends an average of 8% of
her annual budget to cater for its ever increasing number of schools which include 117
Universities, 2,300,034 3 junior and Senior Secondary Schools, and several Polytechnics and
Colleges of Education across the country (Edward, 2010).
There has been a drop in Nigeria’s financial commitment to educational sector and
this has brought a total setback in the Education Sector. The sector has witnessed several
cases of students’ poor academic performance and upsurge in indiscipline. In October 2006,
Mrs. Oby Ezekwesili, the then Minister of Education alerted the nation on the need for
concerted efforts to rescue the nation’s educational sector. She claimed that only 20% of
students that sat for final examination conducted by the West African Examination Council
(WAEC) and National Examination Council (NECO) that year passed, and in another report,
only two percent (2%) of students that sat for WAEC and NECO in 2009 was able to make
five credits (Thisday, 2011). And according to the British Council Survey of Nigerian
Education Sector in 2008, while 16 million students supposed to enroll in the nation’s
secondary schools, only 5.8 million enrolled. At the tertiary level, the universities are said to
be short of 33,000 Doctorate Degree Holders as lecturers and the teaching equipment are said
to be obsolete.
Unfortunately, these series of security and educational problems affect the Nations
economic development. It is said that the graduates employed are no longer functioning
adequately in the economic sector because of the quality of job training they were exposed to
while in school (Wesley, 2009). The nation is threatened in terms of socio-economic
development so much that, concerted efforts are needed to rescue it from collapse. Among
what is needed to be done to ensure the national stability of the country is to research into the
public opinions on the strategies that can be employed in making the nation overcome its
many socio-economic problems. Finding out this will require asking the right persons.
This study was therefore conducted to find out what Nigerian youths, teachers, and
security agencies perceived as effective strategies with which to achieve Nigerian national
stability. This study draws it samples from the North-Central states of Nigeria. The opinions
of the youths were sourced because they form the crop of people that will take positions of
leadership in leading the country to advancement in the future. The professionals were also
sampled and as used in this study, the term means, teachers and security agents.
Theoretical Framework
This study is anchored on the Conflict Theory. The Conflict Theory posits that society
is prone to tension and social instability which often result from fundamental differences of
interest among contending social groups. The Conflict Theory sees society as consisting
different social groups contesting for limited resources and that because of limited available
resources and inequality in the acquisition power of the social group members to lay claim to
the available resources, there is bound to be conflict and tension (Haralambos & Holborm,
2008). Conflict Theory goes further to uphold that tension and instability are common
persistent features of the society, and not a temporary aberration in societal development.
Thus, tension would always be part of societal development if appropriate strategies are not
employed to prevent its escalation.
90
Research Questions
The following research questions were raised to guide the study towards identifying
the various strategies for ensuring national stability in Nigeria.
1. What did male and female Nigerian youths identify as effective strategies that will
ensure Nigerian national stability?
2. What did younger and older members of teaching profession identify as effective
strategies that will ensure Nigerian national stability?
3. What did younger and older members of security institutions identify as effective
strategies that will ensure Nigerian national stability?
Methodology
The research adopted the Survey Descriptive Research type to find out what Nigerian
youths and professionals identified as effective strategies that will ensure Nigerian national
stability. Specifically, the population for the study consisted of Nigerian youths below the age
of thirty (30) years and professionals in the field of teaching and security. From the
population, Purposive Sampling Technique was used to sample a total number of 600 youths
and professionals across the North-Central States, Nigeria. The samples were drawn from
clusters of youths in higher institutions, teachers in tertiary institutions, and from cluster of
security personnel in barracks. The samples were stratified on the basis of age, except the
sampled youths that were stratified on the basis of gender. Detail of the distribution of the
samples on the basis of the variables of stratification is presented below:
Table 1; Description of Sampled Respondents on Variables of Stratification.
Youths
Teachers
Security Personnel
Male
Female
Male
Female
Younger
Older
N
%
n
%
n
%
N
%
n
%
n
%
110
18.3 90
15
100 16.6 100 16.6 105
17.5 95 15.83
As shown on the table, male youths formed the 18.3% of the total sample while
female youths formed 15%. On the other hand, 100 male teachers and another 100 female
teachers were sampled, each being 16.6% of the total sample. Also, among the total
sample, 17.5% were young security personnel and 15.83% were older security
personnel.
A researcher-made questionnaire titled Strategies for National Stability Questionnaire
(SNSQ) was used for data collection. The questionnaire has two sections. The Section ‘A’
has items that collected respondents biographical data and the Section B has items asking
respondents to rank-order the provided possible strategies that can ensure Nigerian national
stability based on their perceived -effectiveness. To determine the validity of the instrument,
face and content validity approaches were used. The researcher gave the instrument to two
Measurement and Evaluation experts in the University of llorin, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria.
They were asked to assess the adequacy of the items in the questionnaire for the purpose of
data collection in the area of study. Also, test-re-test approach was used in determining the
reliability of the instrument. Through this approach, a reliability co-efficient of 0.68 was
derived and this was adjudged as adequate to make the instrument reliable for data collection.
Collected data were analyzed using percentages.
91
Data Analysis and Result
Research Question 1: What did male and female Nigerian youths identify as effective
strategies that will ensure Nigerian national stability?
Table 2: Description of Youths’ Identified Strategies for National Stability
National Stability Strategies
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Youth
Male
N
Intensify provision of security 19
and criminal justice
Provision of infrastructural
27
facilities
Employment opportunities
39
Provision of educational
20
opportunities
Splitting Nigeria on ethnic line
-Military government takeover
1
Electoral reforms
4
%
17.2
Female
N
22
%
24.44
Total
n
41
%
20.5
24.5
24
26.6
51
25.5
32.7
18.5
30
11
33.3
12.2
69
31
34.5
15.5
0
0.9
3.6
5
---
5.5
0
0
5
1
4
2.5
0.5
2
As shown on Table 2 above, 20.5% of the sampled Nigerian youths ranked provision
of security and criminal justice as the most effective strategy for achieving national stability
in Nigeria. On the other hand, 25.5% ranked provision of infrastructural facilities as most
effective, 34.5% of the youths ranked employment opportunities as most effective strategy
for national stability, and 15.5% ranked provision of educational opportunities as the most
effective. However, only 2.5% ranked splitting Nigeria on ethnic line as most effective
strategy for achieving Nigerian national stability, 0.5% believed military takeover will ensure
national stability while 2% of the sampled youths ranked electoral reform as the most
effective strategy.
Research Question 2: What did younger and older members of teaching profession
identify as effective strategies that will ensure Nigerian national stability?
Table 3: Description of Teachers’ Identified Strategies for National Stability
National Stability Strategies Teachers
Younger
Older
Total
N
% n
%
n
1 Intensify provision of security 10
10 21
21
31
and criminal justice
2 Provision of infrastructural 17
17 21
26.6 38
facilities
3 Employment opportunities
42
42 36
36
78
4 Provision of educational 19
19 20
20
39
opportunities
5 Splitting Nigeria on ethnic 1
1
0
10
1
line
6 Military government takeover -0
-0
0
7 Electoral reforms
11
11 2
2
13
92
%
15.5
19
39
19.5
0.5
0
6.5
The data on Table 3 indicate that 15.5% of sampled lecturers believed that provision of
security and criminal justice is the most effective means of ensuring national stability in
Nigeria. On the other hand, 19% of them ranked provision of infrastructural facilities as the
most effective strategy for national stability, 39% ranked employment opportunities as the
effective strategy, 19.5% believed the first thing to be done is providing educational
opportunities for all. However, only 0.5% of sampled teachers believed in splitting Nigeria on
ethnic line can ensure national stability. While none support the idea of military takeover of
government, 6.5% believed there is need for electoral reform.
Research Question 3: What did younger and older members of security institutions identify
as effective strategies that will ensure Nigerian national stability?
93
Table 4: Description of Teachers’ Identified
National
Stability Security
Strategies
Younger
N
1 Intensify
provision
of 25
security and criminal justice
2 Provision of infrastructural 41
facilities
3 Employment opportunities
20
4 Provision of educational 11
opportunities
5 Splitting Nigeria on ethnic 1
line
6 Military
government 7
takeover
7 Electoral reforms
0
Strategies for National Stability
Agent:
Older
Total
%
n
%
n
%
23.8
15
15.7 40
20
39.4
24
25.2 65
32.5
19.4
10.5
33
19
34.7 53
20
30
26.5
15
0.9
0
0
1
0.5
0.9
3
3.1
10
5
0
1
1.0
1
0.5
As shown on the Table 4 above, out of the sampled security personnel, 20% ranked
intensified security effort as most effective strategy of achieving national stability in Nigeria,
32.5% ranked provision of infrastructure as the most effective strategy, while 26.5% said it is
provision of employment opportunities. On the other hand, while 15% supported provision of
educational opportunities, only 0.5% of the sampled security personnel believed in splitting
the country in parts. However, only 5% of the sampled security personnel believed in military
takeover, and only 0.5% saw electoral reform as the most effective strategy for achieving
national stability.
Discussion
National stability is required in national development. Without peace, security and
unity among diverse members of a society, nothing can be achieved in utilizing human and
non-human resources for socio-economic development. Achieving this national stability has
however been difficult in Nigeria. The country has been plagued with series of crises and
economic woes. Yet, there are efforts at making the country compete in the world body
politics and economy. The need to achieve this require finding out what strategies can be
employed to ensure national stability in the country.
Nigeria needs to be stabilized. The state of insecurity in the country is alarming.
Without concerted efforts, the country may be in doom. Rescuing it from this dead end will
also require that infrastructures are provided in the country. Many youths take to crime
because there are no infrastructures they can utilize to become self-employed (Dauda, 2003).
As suggested by the substantial percentage of sampled security personnel in this study, there
is need to have policies geared towards making infrastructures available and functioning.
Conclusion
National stability is an inevitable attainment in Nigeria if there is need to advance
and become respected in the committee of nations. Fortunately, national stability can be
achieved most especially if the right strategies are used.
94
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following are recommended;
1. Government and other stakeholders should make employment opportunities abundant
in the country, particularly for the youths.
2. There should be functioning infrastructures that can motivate self-employment and
peaceful co-existence.
3. Concerted efforts should be made at the national levels to assess the applicability of
the strategies identified in this study as effective in achieving national stability.
References
Akinroju, R. U. (2000). The nation Nigeria: A geo-science description of the development of
Nigeria. Lagos: Rojas Publication
Ayinla, S. A. (2004). Managing religious intolerance and violence in nigeria: problem and
solutions. A paper presented at the national conference on social problems, development
and challenges of globalization. Organized by the Department of Sociology and
Anthropology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife.
Dauda, T. H. (2003). Nigeria as a cooperate entity. Lagos: Bold Text Publishing Company.
Edward, S. H. (2009). Higher education in Nigeria: A review of progress and problems in
Nigerian tertiary education. Lagos: Trinity Publication Nigeria Limited.
Haralambos, M, & Holborn, M. (2008). Sociology: Theories and perspectives. London: Collins.
Ocholi, D. (2012 June,). Boko haram, Time to give peace a chance. The Punch. p.17.
Olorogun, E.Y. (2003). A historical analysis of educational development in Nigeria between
1960 and 2000. Journal of Reviews in Educational Development. 3(1), 46-54.
Olukorede, A. J. (2002). Security and nation building in the 20th Century. Kaduna: Rando
Books.
The Nation (2011). Wither the Nigerian economic plans? Lagos: The Nation Publishing Press
Limited.
Wesley, S. S. (2009). Employment prospects among Nigerian graduates. Journal of Social
Works and Administration. Vol.2(4),58-67.
Woleosho, R. P. (2011). Insecurity in Nigeria: Beyond religious strive and ethnic
chauvinism. A Paper presented at the national conference of association of
behavioural studies, held at the university of Benin, 22-25th.
95
PARENTS’ AND SCHOOL HEADS’ PERCEPTION OF EFFECTIVE SCHOOL
SECURITY STRATEGIES IN UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION SCHOOLS IN
ILORIN, KWARA STATE
AHMED, SALIU
Kwara State Universal Education Board
AHMED, S.
Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.
&
BALOGUN, A. O.
National Institute for Hospitality and Tourism,
Osogbo Campus, Osun State.
Abstract
The study adopted the survey method of research to find out effective school security
strategies as identified by parents and school heads. Two hundred (200) parents and 200
school heads were sampled using cluster sampling technique and random sampling technique
respectively. Also, a researcher-made questionnaire titled School Security Questionnaire
(SSQ) was used for data collection. The validity of the instrument was determined using
content and face validity approaches and its reliability coefficient of 0.68 was obtained using
test-re-test approach. Collected data were analyzed using frequency count, percentages and ttest statistics tools. Findings revealed that 92.5% of sampled parents and school heads
identified parental surveillance as most effective school security strategies for UBE schools
followed by safety education, which 84.75% of respondents identified as also effective. On
the other hand, 19.5% identified using human and animal security personnel as effective,
thus, making this strategy as the least effective. However, significant difference was found in
parents and school heads’ perception of effective school security strategies. It was therefore
concluded that while choices of school security strategy in school may differ based on
parental and school leadership perception, it is important that parents are urged to be more
vigilant in ensuring the safety of their children and wards to and from school. Apart from this,
however, there is the need to provide adequate safety education to students, school staff,
school security personnel and parents so as to keep them abreast of means of securing school
life and property.
Introduction
Around the world today, parents, policy makers, and school officials have paid
increasing attention to the issue of school crime. Many are getting worried about the safety of
life and property on school premises. Particularly, concerned stakeholders are beginning to
think of ways of making pupils of basic education safe because of their age and proneness to
crime and violence. Because of extreme incidents of school violence, the problem of school
crime has assumed national importance. In Nigeria today, barely is there a day that some
major or minor school crime incidents are not reported in the mass media or the subject of a
government report or investigation.
School crime is however a complex issue. It is a broad phenomenon whose definition
depends on the perception of the definer. According to Grossger (2000), there are different
96
ways to define school crime. Schools appear to be safe or dangerous, depending on what one
counts as school crime. Definitions of school crime range from considering any threat or theft
as a crime to considering only violent attacks that are reported to police as crimes. They
differ, too, depending on whether or not crimes committed against children on their way to
school or on school playgrounds as well as in school buildings are counted. They also differ
in whether crimes are counted only during school hours or also before and after school. In
what ever way, school crimes are becoming many and threatening.
Many Nigerian schools are no longer safe. On daily basis, many experience series of
threats to life of school staff, students and property. In October, 2010, at Ekeakpara in Aba,
some kidnapers ambushed and kidnapped 15 school children of Abayi International School,
Aba, while the pupils were being taken to school in their school bus. After the driver was
pushed out of the bus, the pupils, some as young as 2 years old, were whisked into the bush
and made to stay in the den of the kidnappers for 4 days until they were rescued by the Joint
Task Force of Police and State Security Service on Thursday, September 30th 2010 (Saturday
Punch, October 2, 2010). Similarly, it was reported that on 28th November, 2010, armed
robbers invaded Owerri Girls Secondary School, Owerri, Imo State. The armed robbers
consisted of 10 hoodlums. They attacked the girl’s hostel around 1.30 am in the night and for
hours successfully assaulted the students (Nigerian Compass, November 30, 2010).
In most cases, the crimes are perpetrated by students against students. In 2007, Adeola
Adeosun, a female student of Government Secondary School, Garki, Abuja in 2007, was shot
by two of her school mates, Audu Sanusi and Shokolo Sabo, with a pistol which the duo
claimed they found along with one AK47 and 22 life ammunitions on their way to school
(Sunday Punch, September 16, 2007). Similarly, in 2006 at Ajao Estate Grammar School,
Isolo, Lagos State, seven male students were caught raping an 18 year old SS1 student inside
one of the unused classrooms (The Punch, Monday, 31, 2006).
These series of school insecurity give parents and school heads a lot of worries in
Nigeria. However, unlike in advanced countries, much has not been done in conducting
researches that will yield positive impact on the intensity of reducing school crimes in
Nigeria. In advanced countries, such researches help them to project on cases of school
security and come up with preventive policies. America, for example, has helped itself in the
area of school safety policy formulation with the findings of a 1993 National Crime
Victimization Survey, which indicated that about half the students in grade 6 through 12,
witnessed victimization at school and about an eight had personally been victimized (Nolan
et al., 1996). Another of such survey, conducted by the American School Health Association
in 1989 helped the nation discover that among the sampled 11,000 students in grades eight
through ten, 40 percent had been in a physical fight at school or on the school bus; 34 percent
reported having been threatened; and 22 percent reported carrying a knife, gun, or other
weapons.
The intensity of crimes in schools have made parents and school heads come up with
ideas on how to ensure secured school environment. For example, experts have argued for
installation of electronic security devices that can place every human and non-human parts of
the school premises under surveillance round the clock. Many have also advised schools to
make security personnels available within school premises. Conklin, (2007) for example
called for what he termed target hardening approach. This involves all efforts put in place to
discourage students and staff chances of carrying out crimes. This may include putting all
unused doors under lock and key. Target hardening also include making sure that all school
97
members obey the school rules and regulations. The idea behind Target Hardening is that if
every school member is disciplined, incidence of crime will reduce. .
Having this kind of research in Nigeria in the present age of high incidence of
insecurity is necessary. It is important that the nation embarks on studies that will help detect
insecurity and workable security strategies at the Universal Basic Education level of school.
No doubt, ever since the Nigerian government enacted the Universal Basic Education Act
2004, and aimed at enforcing compulsory enrolment of all children of Primary and Junior
Secondary School age in the country in Universal Basic Education school, there is the need to
find means of securing the schools so as to attract enrolment and assure parents of the safety
of their children and wards.
One way of finding the means of securing schools for effective basic education is to
ask parents and school heads. Asking these sets of people will provide adequate and rich
information because they are the first stakeholders in child care. It is based on this
background that this research was carried out to find out what parents and school heads in
Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State identify as effective strategies for sustaining school security in
Universal Basic Education schools.
Theoretical Framework
This study is theoretically framed on the Situational Crime Prevention Theory
(Conklin, 2007). This theory posits that crime can be controlled or out rightly eradicated if
situations or environmental factors that encourage perpetration of crimes are prevented. The
theory promotes security strategies that involve the management, design, or manipulation of
the immediate environment to make it impossible for criminals to succeed in carrying out
crimes. Situational Crime Prevention Theory (SCPT) posits that crime will become
impossible through using techniques that increase the offenders’ efforts at committing crime,
increase the offenders’ risk of committing crime and reduction in the offenders’ rewards from
committing crime. Thus, adapting this theory suggest that school security can be improved
through strategies that make crime difficult, risky and non profitable in and around school
environment.
Research Questions
The following research questions were raised and answered to guide this study:
1. What are the identified effective school security strategies for Universal Basic Education
schools by parents and school heads in Ilorin metropolis?
2. Is there significant difference in identified school security strategies by parents and school
heads in Ilorin metropolis?
3. Do school security strategies identified by parents in Ilorin metropolis vary on the basis of
gender?
4. Do school security strategies identified by school heads in Ilorin metropolis vary on the
basis of years of school leadership experience?
Research Hypotheses
The following research hypotheses were raised and tested in the study:
H01 There is no significant difference in the school security strategies identified by parents
and school heads to be effective in UBE schools in Ilorin metropolis
H02 There is no significant difference in the school security strategies identified by parents to
be effective in UBE schools in Ilorin metropolis, on the basis of gender
98
H03 There is no significant difference in the school security strategies identified by school
heads to be effective in UBE schools in Ilorin metropolis on the basis of year of school
leadership experience
Methodology
The study adopted the survey method of research. Cluster sampling technique was
used to draw 200 samples from the accessible population of parents who were residents of
Ilorin metropolis. Using random sampling technique, a total of 200 school heads consisted of
Headmasters/Headmistress of Primary schools and Principals/Vice Principals of Junior
Secondary Schools were sampled. In all, a total of 400 respondents were sampled for the
study.
To elicit the needed data from these samples, a researcher-made questionnaire titled School
Security Questionnaire (SSQ) was used. The instrument has three (3) sections. Section ‘A’
elicited respondents’ biographical data such as gender and year of school leadership
experience. The Section ‘B’ asked respondents to pick among the five (5) provided possible
school security strategies those they believe will be effective if adopted to secure Universal
Basic Education schools in Ilorin metropolis. The Section ‘C’ has 20 items eliciting
respondents’ perceptions on the means of securing schools. The items were sub-divided
under four categories namely: Adequate School Security Devices (ASSD), Involvement of
Security Personnel (ISP), Parental Surveillance (PS) and Students’ Surveillance-Effort (SSE).
Each of the sub-division has five items and each item has response options as following:
Always Effective (AE), Sometime Effective (SE), Hardly Effective (HE) and Never Effective
(NE).
The validity of the instrument was determined using content and face validity
approaches and its reliability coefficient of 0.68 was derived using test-re-test approach.
Collected data were analyzed using percentages and t-test statistics.
Analysis and Results
Research Question 1:
What are the identified effective school security strategies in Universal Basic Education
schools by parents and school heads in Ilorin metropolis?
Table 1: Identified Effective School Security Strategies
School Security Strategies
Parents
n
1 Installation of electronic security
devices in school
2 Using human and animal security
personnel
3 Parental surveillance
98
4 Students’ surveillance-efforts
110
5 Safety education for UBE
stakeholders
162
46
186
99
School Heads
n
%
%
49
111
55.5
52.25
23
32
16
19.5
93
184
92
92.5
55
76
38
46.5
81
177
88.5
84.75
%
Total
n
209
78
370
186
339
As shown on Table 1, out of the sampled parents and school heads, 92.5% believed
parental surveillance is an effective school security strategy at Universal Basic Education
schools. 84.75% parents and school heads believed giving safety education to stakeholders
will ensure UBE school security, 52.25% said the schools need to install electronic security
devices to ensure security and only 19.5% was of the opinion that using human and animal
security personnel will be effective in ensuring UBE school security.
Hypothesis Testing
H01 There is no significant difference in the school security strategies identified by parents
and school heads to be effective in UBE schools in Ilorin metropolis
Table 2: T-test Analysis of Identified Effective School Security Strategies in UBE
Schools
X
n
Sd
df
t.cal
t.crit
Parents
200
51.3
14.22
398
2.13
1.96
Sch. Heads
200
58.6
13.11
As shown on Table 2, the t-test calculated 2.13 is higher than the t-test critical value, 1.96.
Thus, hypothesis 1 was rejected and it was concluded that significant difference existed in
what parents and school heads identified as effective school security strategies in UBE school
located in Ilorin metropolis.
H02
There is no significant difference in the school security strategies identified by parents
to be effective in UBE schools in Ilorin metropolis, on the basis of gender
Table 3: T-test Analysis of Identified Effective School Security Strategies in UBE
Schools
X
Parents
n
Sd
df
t.cal
t.crit
Male
110
62.4
11.61
198
1.87
1.96
Female
90
60.8
13.12
Data on Table 3 indicate that the t-test calculated value, 1.87 is less than the t-test critical
value. Therefore, hypothesis 2 was accepted and it was concluded that there was no
significant difference in the school security strategies identified by parents as effective in
UBE School within Ilorin metropolis.
H03
There is no significant difference in the school security strategies identified by school
heads to be effective in UBE schools in Ilorin metropolis on the basis of year of school
leadership experience
100
Table 3: T-test Analysis of Identified Effective School Security Strategies in UBE
Schools
X
School Heads:n
Sd
df
t.cal
t.crit
S.Experience 104
54.22
13.21
198
1.52
1.96
L.Experience 96
56.27
14.33
Key: S.Experience= Short years of teaching experience
L.Experience= Long years of teaching experience
The hypothesis 3 was also accepted because the t-test calculated value, 1.52 was less than the
t-test critical value, 1.96. Invariably, it was concluded that there was no significant difference
in the school security strategies identified by school heads as effective in UBE schools on the
basis of their years of school leadership experience.
Discussion
Insecurity is an anti-educational development. It is a phenomenon that can step down
the progress of education, threaten peaceful coexistence of school staff and students and
render school management efforts ineffective. Situations of insecurity in school often start as
upsurge in incidence of indiscipline. Conklin, (2007) writes that in situation of indiscipline,
schools cannot maintain safety of life and property. This is because indiscipline often comes
with break in school tranquility and infiltration of school physical and social boundaries.
There is increase in cases of school insecurity in Nigeria. Recently, there are reports
of kidnapping, theft, arson and sexual molestations involving staff and students. These
incidences are becoming so rampant that parents and school staff are now concerned and
geared towards finding lasting solution. This study, for example, sought parents and school
heads’ perceived effective school security strategies for maintaining safety in Universal Basic
Education (UBE) schools in Ilorin metropolis.
Findings of the study revealed that parents and school heads’ identified effective
school security strategies, as indicated on Table 1 above, 92.5% of sampled parents and
school heads identified parental surveillance as the most effective school security strategy.
By parental surveillance they mean that parents should be more vigilant in handling their
children to and from school. Such vigilance includes making arrangement for safe
transportation of their children and wards to and from school. In addition to this, 84.75%
parents and school heads believed that giving adequate safety education to UBE stakeholders
is another effective means of achieving secured school environment. Such education to
stakeholders such as parents, students and school staff can go a long way to guide illogical
involvements that can make UBE students prone to insecurity.
Many of these strategies can help avert kidnapping of students, violence against
school staff and destruction of school property. More also, the findings revealed that
installation of electronic security devices in school can help in making school secure for
teaching and learning activities; 52.25% of samled respondents were of this opinion. Using
this strategy falls under what Ayorinde (2011) referred to as Formal strategies. Formal
strategies according to him are official and registered crime control efforts activities of the
police, the court and correctional institutions towards eradicating crime in the larger society.
Informal Strategies are the reactions and efforts of individuals and non-governmental groups
towards preventing occurrence of crime and towards taking proactive action to rescue
101
situations of crime directly or indirectly e.g. confronting criminals or calling for formal
security help in situations of crime.
Among the school security strategies that were not adjudged as effective by sampled
parents and school heads is the use of human and animal security personnel. Only 19.55 of
sampled parents and students were in support of this strategy. The reason for the unpopularity
of this means of school security may be because of human error of distrust and abuse of
closeness. Human beings have been found to be in guide of facilities and still become the link
or source of information for organized criminals that would attack the facilities they guide.
Thus, parents and school heads do not trust having security men at the school gate for
example.
As written by Ayorinde (2011), school crime can be controlled through having
school-based institutionalized group, associations, and neighborhood and club efforts at
making school and its environment safe. A school can maintain security of life and property
within its environment by encouraging and empowering student groups such as: Man-OWar, Road Safety Club, Girls’ Guide, Boys Brigade, Boys Scout etc to provide security
within school premises and surroundings. These school groups can as well complement the
efforts of other institutions such as the police and neighborhood vigilante groups.
Many formal school-based vigilance groups can help in traffic control at the school
gate, can monitor and provide direction to school visitors, serve as school security
intelligence group for school authority and can educate school staff and students on means of
maintaining secured learning environment. Horowitz and Boardens (1995) write that joining
associations such as Man-O-War, Road Safety Club, Girls’ Guide, Boys Brigade and Boys
Scout can reduce youth restlessness and recklessness and can develop in youths the spirit of
altruism in situation of crisis or disaster.
As also revealed in this study, significant difference was found between what parents and
school heads identified as effective school security strategies. However, such identified
strategies did not significantly differ among male and female parents and not among school
heads of short and long years of school leadership experience. The reason for the initial
difference among parents and school heads’ perception may be as a result of background
experiences of parents and school heads in child management. Parents are quite different
from school heads in handling children while parents will act informally, school heads will
act formally in child administration. Thus, their approaches are likely to differ.
Conclusion
School security is an integral aspect of school administration. It is one effort that can
ensure productive school activities. As revealed in this study, school security require both
formal and informal efforts that will make sure parents, staff and students are engaged in
ensuring safe learning environment and movement from home to school. Also, it is been
observed that the presence of security in the school could go in long way to curb students’
immoral behaviours to the barest minimal which could enhance effective school functioning.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following are recommended:
1. Adequate parental surveillance should be encouraged in other to promote safe school
environment and encourage safety culture among students to and from school.
2. In addition to this, stakeholders in Universal Basic Education should be given safety
education. Stakeholders such as parents, school staff and students and even security personnel
102
in the larger society need to be educated on issues of security that can make them security
conscious.
3. Using human and animal security personnel should not be the major security plan of
schools since such strategy may not be effective enough for achieving safe environment for
teaching and learning activities.
References
Ayorinde, A.S. (2011). School crime and culture of academics in Nigerian tertiary
Institutions. International Journal of School Criminologists. 4 (2), 32-46.
Conklin, J.E. (2007). Criminology. New York: Pearson.
Grossger, N.I. (2000). School development in a troubled society. Atlanta: GreenSave Paper
Innovators.
Horowits, I.A., & Borden, K.S. (1995). Social psychology. London: May Field Publishing
Company. Nolen, T.H. et.al (1996) Social psychology. New York: Mayfield.
Nigerian Compass, (November 30, 2010). Robbers invade Girls’ School. 3 (917).
Abuja: Nigerian Compass Publication Ltd.
Sunday Punch, (September 16, 2007). Shooting of school girl: Police file missing. 12
(896). Abuja: Punch Newspaper Nigerian Limited.
103
VALUES RE ORIENTATION AMONG PRIMARY/SECONDARY SCHOOL
STUDENTS IN NIGERIA: THE ROLE OF SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION
NJOKU C.
Department of Curriculum Studies & Educational Technology,
Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt.
Abstract
It is obvious that more effort is needed in value reorientation for our country to achieve a
meaningful development. The Nigerian society is sometimes referred to as a permissive
society which implies that something is ‘wrong’ in almost all the sectors of the society. Our
children can no longer differentiate between the right and the wrong. This paper focused on
how the Nigerian value reorientation can be instilled in the Nigerian child through social
studies curriculum. Explored were the meaning of values, value system, and how we can
achieve value reorientation through education. The paper also examined the role of Social
Studies in the inculcation of good values. As recommendation the paper suggested that there
is the need to overhaul the system in other to achieve total value reorientation.
Introduction:
No society is healthy, creative or strong unless that society has a set of common
values that gives meaning and purpose to group life. In the civilized world, moral values and
beliefs are generally accorded high importance. In Nigeria today, it is obvious that there is a
gap between the aspirations and dreams of the founding fathers of the nation and the present
situation. In a keynote address to the Nigerian Academy of Education, Nduka (2004)
observed that Nigerians exhibit deplorable ethical attitudes in virtually every aspect of life.
The basic institutions of the society which include the family, education and religion
are established to lead children, adolescents and youths towards the values of the society.
However, education is the major instrument for individual and societal development and also
the major instrument to effect change in the society. The purpose of education should be to
provide students with value system, a standard and a set of ideas. Education has always
played a key role in any society’s progress. It is true that the purpose of education is to ensure
that students are well prepared and are all well educated; this can be achieved when the
educational system is designed to provide the students with a value system. Education is
concerned with building the student’s character and preparing them for real life.
The objective of education in a country like Nigeria which has a glorious heritage and
can boast of diversity in geography, culture, values and beliefs, should be to educate a
students and instil in them the right kind of a values which is indispensable for success in life.
There have been lapses in the way we teach our value system. Our educational institutions
have not been doing well in this area, that is why there is an increase in the area of students’
prostitution, indiscipline, lack of respect for law and order, attitude to work, stealing and
fraud.
Citizenship education which is taught through Social Studies, according to Ajose
(2001), is one subject that is specifically designed in content and function to provide healthy,
good and active citizens. Social Studies is a child of necessity, aimed at fulfilling certain
missions for any society. By its peculiar nature and characteristics, it is taught in schools in
line with the prevailing social values. It is value oriented in content. In Nigeria educational
school system, it is a core subject at the pre-primary, primary and junior secondary education
104
levels. At these levels we believe that it is easier to guide and inculcate acceptable patterns of
behaviour of the state rather than when their minds have already been made up. Besides, at
the stage of adolescence, children are in a better position to understand the need for sociopersonal relationship, which is a very important skill for developing adequate value system.
To provide a social studies program of excellence, one ingredient that is most often ignored
yet important, is public commitment. This requires that the public receives all information
that clearly shows the importance of Social Studies programs for the education of children. It
also requires that the public recognize all that it takes to support excellence in Social Studies
programs. Also Social Studies teachers must be committed to making use of variety of
interactive Social Studies teaching methods which make students active participants and
more importantly must embrace good values of life.
Values/ Value System
Values are the fabrics of any society. They influence the beliefs and morals of the
people. Oxford dictionary online defined value as, the regard that something is held to
deserve; the importance, worth and usefulness of something. It went further to define values
as principles or standards of behaviour; ones judgement of what is important in life. On the
other hand, business dictionary.com define values as important and enduring beliefs or ideals
shared by the members of a culture about what is good or desired and what is not. Values can
be defined simply as important beliefs of an individual or culture. Types of values include;
ethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological (Political, Religious) values, social values and
aesthetic values.
The values of any nation determine what is important to the people. They influence
thoughts, words, actions and aspirations. Values give us a sense of community and a sense of
identity as a nation. One’s values define ones character; they impact every aspect of one’s life
including personal behaviours, interactions with family and friends, decision making process
and the direction one takes in life. No matter the tradition one is brought up in, there are
characteristics we value or cherish, these are: integrity, respect, loyalty, and responsibility.
Integrity: This means trustworthiness, honesty and uprightness of character. We respect
people of integrity because we know that they will always act honourably and will always do
what is right.
Respect: Respect means honouring the worth and dignity of all people. Those who respect
others treat them with courtesy and also treat them the way they will be liked to be treated.
Loyalty: Refers to faithfulness and commitment to a person or course. Those who are loyal to
their country stand behind, support and defend it.
Responsibility: Those who accept responsibility are dependable and reliable. They take
responsibility for what they do and who they are.
Value systems naturally guide us as a people. Without a value system, there is no
right or wrong, people are justified to act in any manner they want. In the words of Nduka,
(2001) no society has been able to live without rules and regulations and apparently the more
complex the society, the greater is the need for a detailed description of behaviour which are
permitted and those which are prescribed.
Value Reorientation in the National Policy on Education
Nigeria as a nation has a number of value reorientation statements in the National
Policy on Education (NPE). Some of these statements are clearly stated in the first section of
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the NPE which deals with nation’s philosophy. Education sector is geared towards the
attainment of our national objectives, therefore we have to strive towards realizing the goals,
hence the need to make concrete efforts in inculcating the national ideals which form the
bedrock of our education system.
The Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004), in the National Policy on Education, stressed
that the system of education would be geared towards making the individual an integral
member of the society he belongs, so much so that he gives the maximum contribution
expected of him towards the development of the society. Section 5 (b), of the NPE states:
“Nigeria’s philosophy of education therefore, is based on… the full integration of the
individual into the community.”
In section 7 (b) of the NPE, the issue of value reorientation was elaborated. It states
that the national education goals contained in the philosophy of Nigerian education can be
achieved through “the inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of
individual and the Nigerian society.” Section 8 of the NPE explains the type of values needed
for Nigerian society as inculcating the following values:
(a) respect for the worth and dignity of the individual;
(b) faith in man’s ability to make rational decisions;
(c) moral and spiritual principle in inter personal and human relations;
(d) shared responsibility for the common good of society;
(e) promotion of the physical, emotional and psychological development of all children; and
(f) acquisition of competencies necessary for self reliance.
Reassessing the Nigeria Value System
Attempts have been made by government in several ways to redirect the Nigerian
value system. This includes the conception and lunching of a number of policies, agencies
and commissions such as: War Against Indiscipline (WAI) in 1984; National Orientation
Agency (NOA) 1999; Ethical Revolution (ER) in 1983. Economic and Financial Crime
Commission (EFCC) in 2002; and the Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related
Offences Commission (ICPC). Also one observes the intensity of religious activities in the
country, but still the value system is in a state of decay. The kind of value cherished by a
nation greatly determines its level of development. Every Nigerian family will like to
inculcate in their children the good virtues of hard work, honesty and patriotic zeal to defend
the integrity of the family as well as the society at large. Sadly, the inordinate ambition to
acquire wealth is gradually eroding these values.
In Nigeria today, individuals are celebrated if they are smart enough to divert public
funds to their private accounts. In fact, if you are a public office holder and after your service
you do not own properties across the country, you will be mocked and looked down upon,
even by members of your family. Those who are supposed to serve terms in jail are being
respected and bestowed with chieftaincy titles, honorary degrees and even in Churches, with
knighthood and ladyhood titles. Appointments into public offices are now seen as
opportunities to share in the national cake.
Despite the proliferation of Churches and Mosques, the extent of corruption and
moral decadence is on the rise. The disparity between the ruling class and the governed is far
apart. In spite of the efforts of National Agency for Food and Drug Administration Control
(NAFDAC) and that of Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON), fake drugs are continuously
brought and sold to the public, and marketing sub-standard products are a thriving business in
Nigeria.
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Despite the abundant mineral resources in Nigeria, poverty rate is still high and the
gap between the poor and the rich widen day by day. Quite a number of professionals leave
the country by every means. Often when visas are secured to leave this country, it is
celebrated
The present political and economic situation has a multiplier effect on the value
system. It is obvious that the younger generation is watching and copying. Corrupt society
breeds corrupt citizens. The entire system needs to be overhauled through total reorientation
of our value system.
Social Studies Education and Value Inculcation
Citizenship Education is one of the school subjects specifically aimed at inculcating
national consciousness and unity as well as the right type of values and attitudes in the
Nigerian child. To this extent, a core status was accorded the programme, through Social
Studies, at the pre-primary, primary and junior secondary basic education levels.
The Nigerian Education Research and Development Council (NERDC), in 1991, identify the
objectives of Citizenship Education in Nigeria as follows:
i. To create an awareness of the provisions of the Nigerian constitution and the need for
democracy in Nigeria.
ii. To create adequate and functional literacy amongst Nigerians;
iii. To sensitize Nigerians to the functions and obligations of the government;
iv. To make Nigerians fully aware of their rights and duties and to respect the rights of others;
v. To assist in the production (raising) of responsible, well informed and self reliant Nigerian
citizens; and
vi. To inculcate the right values and attitudes for the development of the individual and the
Nigerian society.
Two main characteristics distinguish Social Studies as a field of study; it is designed
to promote civic competence; and it is integrative, incorporating many fields of endeavour.
According to National Council for Social Studies (NCSS), Social Studies program has as a
major purpose; the promotion of civic competence, which is the knowledge, skills, and
attitudes required of students to be able to assume “the office of citizen”. Civic competence is
not the only responsibility of Social Studies and also not exclusive to Social Studies but it is
more central to Social Studies than any other subject in the schools. The question here is, how
do we achieve excellence in Social Studies? How do we achieve this major vision of Social
Studies, the vision of producing a citizen with the right values and attitudes that support the
common good, that is, the general welfare of all individuals and groups within the community
and the society at large?
We know that each person experiences life in an individual way, responding to the
world from a very personal perspective. People also share common perspectives as members
of groups, communities, societies and nations. A well designed Social Studies curriculum
will:
1. Help each learner construct a blend of personal, academic, pluralistic and global views of
the human condition. Students will be helped to construct an academic perspective through
study and application of Social Studies learning experiences. Concepts in Social Studies such
as “democratic republic”, “citizen”, “common good” etc help learners to construct the
meaning of ideals Nigerian citizens hold in common, while such concepts like “class”,
“race”, “ethnicity”,” equal access” “diversity” etc help learners to know how to live in a
society like Nigeria characterized by diversity.
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2. Students will be helped to construct a pluralistic perspective based on diversity. This
involves respect for difference of opinion and preference of; religion, gender, class and
ethnicity and of culture in general. This should be based on the realisation that differences
exist among individuals and to be convinced that the diversity can be positive and socially
enriching. Students need to learn that the existences of cultural and philosophical differences
are not “problems” to be solved but rather they are healthy and good qualities of democratic
society life.
3. They will also be helped to construct a global perspective that includes knowledge, skills
and commitments needed to live in a world that has limited resources and that is also
characterised by cultural diversity. This will develop a sense of responsibility for the needs of
all people and a commitment to finding just and peaceful solutions to global problems.
Conclusion
Education is made up of three components, these are: the curriculum, the philosophy
and the methods of teaching. The curriculum deals with what to teach while the philosophy
deals with why it should be taught (Joof & Mezieobi 1998). It is deducible that the
curriculum is based on the philosophy and thus changes in the growth, development and
objective realities of societies must be captured in the curriculum in form of reforms. This
means that curriculum reforms are based on established philosophies (Alapini, 1984).
Much emphasis has been placed on the collapse of economic systems while little is
being done to revive the collapsed value system, which had largely precipitated the economic
crises in Nigeria. We worship ‘money bags’ in Nigeria irrespective of the source of their
wealth. Corruption and other economic crimes have thrived in Nigeria because of the collapse
of the value system of old, when people of questionable sources of wealth were treated with
contempt and disdain. What we must understand are the elements that would make any nation
great. Economic reforms are good but not good enough to change a nation. Any nation that
would be great must be established upon enduring national values that bind every individual
in the society. National culture must be revisited as it influences national character and
image. We always lament that corruption is the bane of development in Nigeria but we forget
that it does not exist by itself. What we lack as a nation is a system of values
No matter the amount of reforms undertaken by government, Nigeria will never be
great until value reorientation is pursued vigorously. Our value system today is faulty and
there can be no meaningful progress until it is revisited. We place little value on the life of
fellow citizens and that informs our choices as a nation. Since money is valued more than
every other thing, we embezzle public funds, we steal, we kill and assassinate easily because
we place little value to life. To restore Nigeria, our youths must be taught how to value hard
work, honesty, integrity and accountability over financial gains.
Recommendations
The objective of Nigerian Citizenship Education is the inculcation of the right type of
values and attitudes for the survival of the individual and the Nigerian society; thus the
curriculum reform should capture this.
Some values are obviously very central to our way of life and view of the common
good; we need to develop student commitment to them through systematic social studies
experiences. These values include: fundamental rights like, rights to life, liberty, individual
dignity, justice, security, privacy, freedom of worship, thought, conscience etc. Most times
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social studies focuses on how values are formed and how they influence human behaviour
rather than building commitments to specific values.
In conflict situations between or among desirable values, Social Studies should help
students to weigh priorities. They can be helped to search for situations similar to the issues
in both contemporary and historical settings. By learning ways others have responded to such
dilemmas, students will begin to understand that the challenges they or the society face have
been confronted by others in different times and places. Social Studies curriculum must be
refurbished in other to achieve these objectives.
References
Alapini, O. (1994). Secondary school curriculum reforms in Nigeria system of education. In
S. Adesina & S. Ogunsaju (Eds) Secondary Education in Nigeria. Ile-Ife: University
of Ife press.
Ajose, W. (2001). Challenges of citizenship education under a democratic government in
Nigeria. A journal of school of part-time studies ACOED 4(1).
Business dictionary .com. www.businessdictionary.com/definition/value.html
Federal Republic of Nigeria, (2004). National policy on education. Abuja, Nigeria:NERDC.
Joof, G.W. & Mezieobi, K.A (1995) Democracy and education: The Nigerian experience.
Nigerian journal of educational philosophy, 6 (1), 76-92.
Nduka, O. (2004). Value education. A keynote address proceeding of the 19th annual
conference of academy of education.
Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) Abuja Nigeria.
www.nerdc.org
National Council for Social Studies (NCSS): An information resource for Social Studies
teachers. www.socialstudies.org
Oxford Dictionary online. www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/value
109
CHARACTER EDUCATION: A SOLUTION TO DEVELOPING GOOD CITIZENS
IN THE NIGERIA SOCIETY
BELLO, M. B. & AMALI, I.O.O.
Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education
Faculty of Educati
on University of Ilorin, Nigeria
Abstract
This paper examines the place of character education in Nigeria education. Its objective is to
highlight its values to the Nigerian society; its place in Nigeria education system and its
contribution in the development of the individual and the society at large. Further it makes
suggestions on how schools in Nigeria could provide the teaching and learning programme of
character education. The paper recommends quality assurance through character education on
the teacher training through which Nigerian teachers would learn and acquire good morals
and ethical standard necessary to influence the lives of the learners in our schools and the
society. The paper gives impetus to the entrenchment of ethical and moral values badly
needed in the present Nigeria society.
Introduction
Moral education is not a new idea. It is, in fact, as old as education itself. Down
through history, in countries all over the world, education has had as its goals: “help young
people become academically sound and to help them become good citizen”. Good character
is not automatic; it is developed over time through a sustained process of teaching, example,
learning, and practice. It is developed through character education. The deliberate teaching
of good character is particularly important in today’s society, since our youth face many life
difficulties and problems unknown to earlier generations. Today, there are many negative
influences that pose a great challenge to the character of our children. Also, the consequences
of the day-to-day pressures infringing on the time that parents and children have together.
Studies show that children spend only 38.5 minutes a week (33.4 hours a year) in meaningful
conversation with their parents, while they spend 1,500 hours watching television (American
family Research Council, 1990 & Harper’s November, 1999). Since children spend about 900
hours a year in school, it is essential that schools play a proactive role in assisting families
and communities by developing caring and respectful environments where students learn core
ethical values.
In order to create a better society through schooling, schools should have their
mission deeply embedded and rooted in the moral dimensions of teaching and learning. This
paper suggests that teaching character should be just as important as any teaching academic
subject. School education can be used as a way to significantly decrease moral decadence in
the society.
To do this, character education must use the school curriculum and include the school
community which must reflect the culture of the people. It must be designed to promote core
values in all phases of human life and would require proactive strategies and practices that
would help children, not only to understand core ethical values, but to care about and act
upon them. Ryan (1997, p.14) stated guidelines for the elements needed for effective,
comprehensive character education as follows:
 Promotion of core ethical values;
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Teaching of students to understand, care about and act upon these core ethical values;
Encompassing all aspects of the school culture;
Fostering a caring school community;
Offering opportunities for moral action;
Supporting academic achievement;
Developing intrinsic motivation;
Whole-staff involvement;
Positive leadership of staff and students;
Involving parents and community members;
Assessing results and striving to improve on them.
Abraham Lincoln, United State of America president, once stated that “a child is a
person who is going to carry on what you have started. He is going to sit where you are
sitting and, when you are gone, he would attend to those things which you think are
important. You may adopt all the policies you please, but how they are carried out depends
on him. He will assume control your cities, states and nations. He is going to move in and
take over your churches, schools, universities, corporations. The fate of humanity is in his
hands ”(Lickona, 2004). This quote adequately expresses the strong impact that teachers have
on their students because they are entrusted with the development of their students. Given
this information, should education exist without values?
Conceptual Clarification
Character Education: character is one of those concepts that are the subject of many
disciplines from philosophy to theology and from psychology to sociology. It has many
competing and conflicting theories. Character, as it relates to character education, is most
often used to refer to how “good” a person is. In other words, a person who exhibits personal
qualities which fit with those considered desirable by a society might be considered to have
good character; developing such personal qualities is seen as a purpose of education
(www.freewikipedia).
According to Kolade (2011), character education is an umbrella term loosely used to
describe the teaching of children in a manner that will help them develop towards good moral
conduct, civic responsibilities, good manner, healthy behaviours, non-bullying life style,
healthy development, critical thinking, successful living and to be a socially acceptable
beings. Education has always emphasised these values.
Character education is integral to the educational enterprise. Chang (1994) described
teaching as “moral by nature” and Sockett (1993) purported that “moral character matters in
teaching.” Goodlad, Soder and Sirotnik (1990) contended that, “Teaching is a fundamentally
moral enterprise in which adults ask and require children to change in directions chosen by
adults.” The historic mission of education is emphasized by Doyle (1997) who noted that,
“To abandon education’s historic mission to shape character… flies in the face of history and
reason.” This was while Ginott wrote that “Reading, writing and arithmetic are important
only if they serve to make our children more humane.”
In the school setting, character education is an act of creating schools that foster
ethical responsibility and providing the young good models and teaching them good character
through emphasis on universal values that are designable for every member of the society to
share. It should be the proactive effort of the schools to instill in their students, important
core ethical values such as honesty, fair play, responsibility and respect for self and others.
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Character education should not be a “quick fix.” Education provides long-term solutions that
address moral, ethical and academic issues of growing concern to human society and adopted
through the use of school curriculum (Kohn, 1997). This is why Ryan (1997) opines that
character education is not only the cultivation of the minds, but should nurture the heart of
the recipients. This implies that it should be a learning process of distinguishing between
virtues and vices (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). This, in essence, would promote good
customs (virtues), but also condemn bad customs (vices).
Citizenship: Being a good citizen means going beyond our own interests and demonstrating a
concern for the needs of others. Good citizens recognize their obligations to make their
homes, schools, neighborhoods, communities, and country the best they can be. Good
citizens learn that they can make a difference when they follow rules, voice opinions, vote,
and work and play cooperatively with one another. They stay informed, listen, do their part
for community endeavors, respect authority, and volunteer. Being a good citizen according to
Ryan (2010) means:
• Fulfilling your civic duties
• Doing your share
• Playing by the rules
• Respecting authority and law
• Attempting to pursue civic virtues
Character education and production of good citizens needed for good leadership
Character education, according to Ryan (2010) is aimed at developing students
socially, ethically and academically by infusing character development into every aspect of
the school culture and curriculum. To help students develop good character, it would require
good teachers that are caring and acting upon core ethical values such as respect,
responsibility, honesty, fairness and compassion needed for good and effective leadership.
Importantly, the social, ethical and emotional development of young people is just as
important as their academic development. As Roosevelt in Kolade (2011) stated: “To educate
a man in mind and not in morals is to educate a menace to society.” After all, we know that
good workers, citizens, parents and neighbours have their roots in good character. Therefore,
it is critical to create schools that simultaneously foster character development and promote
learning. In fact, character education promotes academic excellence for quality life because it
lays a foundation for all learning that takes place in school. Research shows that character
education should be in classrooms where students are ready to learn and where teachers are
freer to teach (DeRoche & Williams, 1998). That is a formalized character education, which
begins when the school, along with the broad involvement of community members, come
together to determine the core ethical values needed to be shared as the basis for good
education of the particular school. The values then become the foundation for all that the
school does, such as the school curriculum, teaching strategies, school culture, extracurricular
activities. Presides, character education is infused into the broader community objectives of
the school.
Ryan (1997) described character education as not an “add-on” but is instead a
different way of teaching; it is a comprehensive approach that promotes core values in all
phases of school life and permeates the entire school culture. It is not an imposition on
already overburdened schools; rather, it helps educators fulfill their fundamental
responsibility to prepare young children for the future by laying a foundation for learning
through the creation of caring, respectful school environments. This was testified to by the
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findings of Fraenkel in Ryan (1996) on the perception of the introduction of character
education in the U.S, where it was discovered that more than 1/3 of the sampled school
teachers affirmed to the fact that their jobs become easier with the implementation of
character education as there are fewer disciplines and behavioral problems to detract from
teaching time.
It was on this premise that Kolade (2011) suggested that character education should
take place throughout the entire school period in Nigeria and in schools at all levels. He
further stressed that, administrators, teachers and other staff are presented with opportunities
to model and teach positive character traits. And that character education should not be
relegated to a “character education class” but should be infused throughout the structures and
processes of the entire school curriculum and culture (Kolade, 2011).
Although character education has always been of vital importance, schools often stray
from proactive efforts to incorporate character development into their teaching programme.
Ironically, this neglect came at a time when the need became greater, due to increased
challenges in raising children, with moral ethical conduct. Arising from a number of factors,
such as a weakening in guidance by some families and communities toward the end of the
21st century, the need for character education becomes obvious.
This is why Lickona (2004) highlighted six core values defining character called, The
Six Pillars of Character, which he maintained had resulted from a search for enduring moral
truths that allow individuals to distinguish right from wrong and define the essence of ethics
and good character. It makes sense that our communities benefit when people understand the
importance of being involved and caring citizens and “doing the right thing.” An effective
character education program encourages individuals to do the right thing by incorporating the
following core ethical values in their daily lives:
trustworthiness ,respect, responsibility, Fairness, caring citizenship
These six pillars describe character and ethical behavior in ways an individual can understand
how a person of character thinks and behaves.
How school should promote the teaching of character education in Nigeria
It is believed that character education will be an effective tool to tackle social
problems in Nigerian today. This is because character education, if taught in schools, will
help to educate the children and the youth and bring them up with positive thinking and
skills. This is in line with Covey in Ryan, (1997) who asserted that, for development to take
place in any human society, the people require “a new mind set, a new set of skills, a new set
of tools and a new habit”. It thus requires that character education should be made
compulsory in Nigerian schools.
For effective war against societal problems in Nigeria, the proper strategy is to target
the young and instill good character and morality in them while in school. Through good
character education, the society would help the young develop good judgment, integrity,
trustworthiness, and other essential virtues (Lickona, 2004). If the young ones are properly
educated and if their minds and hearts are disabused from corruption, they will grow up
knowing what is right and wrong, and become aware of their social responsibilities and
limitations. The absence of good character education could be the cause of greed, selfishness
and bad leadership.
Although character education has always been an essential part of our schools’
mission in Nigeria education, since the introduction of western education by the missionaries,
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it has continued to be an integral part of schooling and existed side by side with academics.
The best way it can be taught successfully in Nigerian schools is when:
a. The school sees the parents as primary educators: This is because development of good
character is, first and foremost, a parental responsibility, but the task must also be shared with
schools and the broader member of the community. As today’s society are faced with more
and tougher challenges to raising ethical, responsible children, parents and communities are
increasingly looking unto schools for assistance. Thus, the school may be the only place
where some children are taught virtuous behavior because they live in homes where their
families are not serving as positive role models and are not providing adequate character
training.
b. The school identifies all adult members of school as those involved in the teaching of
character education. It is inherent that each and every adult in a school is a character educator
by virtue of their exposure to students. Regardless of whether a school has formalized
character education or not, all adults should serve as role models. Students constantly watch
adults life and conduct in the school; such as teachers, administrators, counsellors, coaches,
secretaries, cleaners, bus drivers and so on and their character is likely to be influenced by
these people. They serve as models for character development. Beyond modeling, no matter
what the academic subject or extracurricular activity, educators are afforded the opportunity
of developing good character in their students on a daily basis by intentionally selecting
character-based lessons and activities, either using, academic subjects or extra-curriculum
activities of the school. Ryan (2010) has advocated the five Es as the best method teachers
can adopt in the teaching of character to students in schools. These are Example, Explanation,
Exhortation, Environment, and Experience.
i. Example: this has to do with the good moral or character examples the teacher provides for
their students in the classroom, as well as outside the classroom.
ii. Explanation for definite meaning and purpose for the learners to understand the meaning of
concepts. In this respect, Durkheim in Hurn (1987) maintained that, “to teach morality, is
neither to preach nor to indoctrinate, it is to explain”. This shows that character education
needs to be explained to children and youths and not simply to stuff student’s heads with the
rules and regulations of society. This simply means Exhortation.
iii. Environment has to do with good as well as students –teacher friendly and conducive school
surrounding.
iv. Also problem solving, discussion, and role play methods can also be adopted in developing
good character in the youths. Good role modeling in and outside the classroom is important in
moral education. Through role playing and discussions, students could see how their actions
and decisions affect others in the society. Thus, it has been noted that morals are “caught, not
taught,” and “classroom life is saturated with morals that shape students' character
development ” Ryan (1997). In many developed societies, character education is introduced
into the classroom through the study of heroes and heroines and special teachers are hired for
the purpose. Those identified by the community as good role models are often invited by
school authorities to visit local schools to address students. And the students would use the
opportunity to examine the character traits personified in the speakers and aspire to emulate
their good character and life.
c. The government should formulate Legislation and policies to encourage the teaching of
character education, such as including it in the education curriculum. DeRoche and Williams
(1998) sees character education as being the best approach, local schools and communities
could use to work together to identify the core values needed in the society. The school
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would then provide particular approaches to teaching those values. States should encourage
comprehensive approaches to develop character education that involve all aspects of societal
culture required in the curriculum.
d. Assessment of character education should not be based on cognitive format, rather, it
should be on affective domain of education.
e. Teacher education programmes need to be re-defined and re-focused on the training of
character education in pre-service or students teacher training. This can result in the
production of effective and well cultured teachers who would be able to serve as role models
for the learners. Nigeria requires quality assurance and teacher can provide this with
emphasis on character education.
Conclusion
If character education is taught in Nigeria schools, it will give the young good moral
compass, set clear standards of behavior and enable them to acquire ethical values, such as
honesty, integrity, respect, responsibility, self-discipline and reliability. Character and moral
education will also provide the young and adults with ‘other essential virtues’ to enable them
become good citizens and be successful in the rapidly changing and highly competitive
global economy.
Recommendations
It is on this premise that this paper recommends that character education should to be
taught in Nigeria schools. It is being used in developed countries like America to solve social
problems and the training of their children into becoming functional and responsible citizens
in the society.
References
Chang, F. Y. (1994). School teachers’ moral reasoning. In J.R. Rest & D. Narvaez (Eds),
Moral development in the professions (pp.71- 83). Psychology and applied ethics.
Hillsadale, NJ:Erlbaum.
DeRoche. E. F & Williams, M.M (1998). Educating hearts and minds: A comprehensive
character education framework. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press, Inc.
Gandhi (2003) Corruption in developing countries. Retrieved from
http://www.africaeconomicanalysis.org/articles/gen/corruptiondikehtm.htm
Hurn, C (1987). The limits and possibilities of schooling: An introduction to sociology of
education London : Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
Kohn, A. (1997). Caring kids: The role of the schools. Cooperative learning in the
classroom. PhiDelta Kappa Educational Foundation.
Kolade, (2011).Character education a solution to societal problems. Retrieved from
www.character-training%edu.htm .
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Lickona ,W. L(2004). The ethics challenge in public service: A problem solving guide;
retrieved 2/4/08 from www.LawrenceKohlberg's
Ryan.K (1997). New moral. from http://wwweduAmerican andMorality.htm
Ryan, K. (2010). The moral education of teachers. retrieved from
www.moraleducation-teacher.education-htm.
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EDUCATION FOR VALUE ORIENTATION: A STRATEGY FOR SOCIAL
STABILITY IN NIGERIA
DIENYE, V. U.
Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt
&
MORRISON, U. I.
Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt
Abstract
The multicultural nature of the Nigerian society and the prevailing political and social unrest
characterized by anti-social behaviour of different kinds and magnitude are indicators of
misappropriation of values in our society. The unity and progress of our society is threatened
because, core values that promote respect for law and order, respect for elders, sanctity of
human lives, brotherliness, honesty and tolerance are disoriented. The situation calls for
urgent need for values orientation through our education system. Considering the place of
education in societal development, it could be used to transform the society through values
orientation to the teachers – the architects of the national development, leaders and the
masses. This can be achieved through well articulated policies on values and education; and
the incorporation of values education in the school curricula at all levels of education.
Consequently, national and universal values emphasized against individual and ethnic values
if progress must be made.
Introduction
The development of science and technology has turned the world to a global village.
It therefore demands adequate knowledge of the basics of science in other to live and
function well in human society. To this end, scientific literacy is much emphasized in
virtually all societies the world over. In the developing countries, Nigeria in particular,
education is directed towards a desirable level of scientific and technological literacy and
competence without a matching emphasis on cultural values that would promote security of
lives and property, peaceful co-existence, positive inter-personal relationship and social
integration of diverse cultural groups in the society. Ironically, students are graduated from
any institution of learning when found worthy in character and in learning.
In recent years, the relative political unrest in many countries, including Nigeria, in
particular, resulting in insecurity of lives and property, inter-ethnic clashes and in severe
cases, records of civil wars, are pointers to a missing link between education and societal
values. The Niger Delta militants, the South Eastern kidnappers and the nascent insurgency
of the Boko Haram sect in the Northern part of the country help to widen the gap between
education and society. The missing link is values education for peaceful co-existence. This
paper explores the types of values that should be transmitted in the school/education system
in a multicultural society and the dire need for adequate orientation to be given to learners
who would transcend the school life into the larger society.
Education and Society
The essence of society is solidarity through cohesion of ideas (values) and mutual
understanding. This ensures order, stability, peaceful relationship, continuity, development
and sustainability. These can only be achieved by using education as an essential tool. It is in
117
the light of the above that the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2004) acknowledges
education as an instrument per excellence for the actualization of her lofty goals.
Kosemani (2003,1) sees education as “a universal practice or phenomenon engaged in
by societies at all stages of development. It describes the total process of human learning by
which knowledge is imparted, valuable skills developed and faculties trained.” In the view of
Okoh (2003,13), education is “the activity of preserving, developing and transmitting the
culture of a people from one generation to another.” From whichever angel one may view
education, certain features are common. Such features are, man, society, behavior, values and
transmission. It is in the light of this that Dosunmu (2006) posits that: whatever the case may
be, the main goal of education is to prepare the right type of environment for the individual,
to allow him grow physically, mentally and spiritually in order that he can develop
harmoniously within himself and at the same time together with his fellow human beings.
Education and society are inseparable. Society equips education with the values to be
transmitted while education exposes each generation of young people to the existing beliefs,
norms and values of their culture (Schafer, 2000). This demands a careful selection of the
values that would help to integrate the society and promote mutual relationship between man
and man and his environment.
Education and Values
Modern education systems are made up of people from different social classes, groups
and cultural backgrounds. They are held together as a community by laid down rules and
beliefs that guide, shape and direct the conduct of every member. The essence is to ensure
harmonious relationships and peaceful coexistence among members in spite of their relative
differences in social and cultural backgrounds. These cords of relationships are called values.
According to Aggarwal (2006), values stand for ideas that men live by. In other words, values
stand for the philosophy of life of a society. By extension. Values are simply beliefs or ideas
which individuals consider dear and acceptable. They are part of life right from period of
infancy to adulthood. To Kalusi (2006), values are essence of society.
Education is a value laden enterprise directed to positively impact on the society
practicing it. It is the heart of society. It prepares and feeds every facet of human endeavour
with the needed personnel with appropriate skills and infrastructure needed (Dienye, 2004). It
is necessary to note that education in itself is lifeless. It is the society that makes it lively.
Thus, Maduagwu (1998) posits that society puts into education all that it (education) needs
for effective transmission of the culture or values of the people. To him, whatever society
puts into education, education gives back to society.
Nigeria, conscious of its multicultural nature, postulates lofty goals and objectives and
makes polices aimed at national unity and development. The same country cannot at the same
time put into her education system bad values that would wreck the progress and effort of its
founding fathers. Ironically, the civil unrest in the society, the rate of corruption, particularly
by our leaders and public office holders, the insecurity of lives and properties, and the
relative decay in moral discipline are indicators of values misappropriation. Religious,
ethnic/tribal and personal interest seem to over shadow national interest. The situation begs
the question: Why? A possible answer to such intriguing question is lack of value orientation
for national unity and progress.
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Education and Values Orientation
Orientation, according to the New Webster Dictionary of the English Language, is to
“adjust someone or something to the surrounding or situation… to turn or guide in a specified
direction.” Roa (2003) sees values orientation as the process of directing the interest and
passion of individuals to the desired socio-cultural values that promote societal development
and good human relations. From the above, value orientation therefore is to influence people
to adjust, turn to, or conform to specified values needed by the society.
Every school curriculum contains set values expected to be transmitted to the younger
generation: it is education system that does the transmission. Paradoxically, some of the
values that promote honesty, transparency, tolerance and peaceful coexistence have no proper
methods of transmission. This does not mean that such values should not be transmitted to the
learners. A better way of disseminating the knowledge of such desired values is by creating
awareness through enlightenment and interpretation of what the values stand for. That is
orientation. There is yet to be formulated methods of teaching such values as peace, security,
tolerance, sanctity of lives and peaceful coexistence. Orientation is the answer. There are a lot
of jingles on radio, television and other media systems on the above but not much has been
achieved.
In the context of this work, considering the prevailing political atmosphere, value
orientation has to do with the process of disabusing the hearts of people; particularly the
youths, from seeing violence, fraud, corruption and other anti-social vices as the best ways of
resolving issues and creating wealth for oneself.
Education can be used as an instrument for the orientation of values that foster
national unity, obedience to lay down rules, tolerance and development in Nigeria. These can
be achieved through the following ways:
(i) Values orientation through the school curriculum
Gbamanja (1997) sees curriculum as the totality of the experiences the child (learner)
acquires within the outside the school premises. Experiences acquired over time form solid
knowledge. When knowledge is not passed on to the younger generation, each generation
would be compelled to begin the life of man all over (Sulemen, 2009). The FRN (2004)
emphasized the need for the inculcation of the right values for national development in the
child. It is a policy statement that cannot be realized if not well incorporated in the school
curricular - the bench-mark for the actualization of the above. Consequently, the school
curricular should reflect the values needed for national transformation and development, and
should be taught at all levels. To attain this, values education should be introduced and
implemented in schools.
(ii) Values orientation through leadership training
Leadership in the context of this work refers to anyone who influences the activities of
others; be it in politics, religion, family, school, etc. The principal problem of Nigeria as a
society as acknowledged by Achebe (1983), is leadership. Many leaders have no proper
understanding of their roles as leaders. Some have no proper knowledge of the right values
needed for the advancement of society. Because of their ignorance of the position and role of
leadership, such statement as ‘this is my turn’ and ‘lets share the national cake’ became their
over ruling philosophy. Enu and Esu (2004) advocated for the reorientation of leaders for
purposeful leadership. Leaders in our society should be given leadership education through
119
which, the right values expected and accepted by the society will be taught through
enlightenment (orientation). This is necessary because one can only give what one has.
(iii)Values orientation through educating the masses
The introduction of Adult and Non-formal Education in our school system highlights the rate
of illiteracy in our society. In fact, Okorosaye-Orubite (2008) notes the illiteracy rate of
Nigeria to stand at 65%. That is, more than half the entire populations are illiterates. The
problem is how many of these adult illiterates are willing to abandon their businesses and go
to school? By implication, these set of people remain ignorant of the values needed for
national development. What they expect from their leaders is self-driven needs that are
ephemeral and inimical to the national policy on leadership. To reduce this level of
ignorance, government should create room for educators to organize town hall meetings with
the masses in their homes where they could be oriented on the right values needed for
development and what they should expect from their leaders.
(iv) Values orientation through retraining of teachers
There is no doubt that non-professionals are in the teaching field. This probably informed the
government on the need for the professionalization of the job which gave birth to the
Teachers Registration Council (TRC). Gbamanja (1997) posits that an excellent teacher
inspires, a good teacher teaches, a bad teacher cheats, while a non-teacher kills. Non teachers
are not well informed on the values to be transmitted. Even when they know, they lack the
integrity needed for the success of the job.
Teachers prepare today the leaders of tomorrow. When teachers compromise the right
values for leadership training for material gains, our future will be at stake. For instance, the
monster of examination malpractice could not have come to stay without the support of
teachers who trade the lofty values for selfish gains. There is therefore the dire need for
teachers to be retrained in values education to enable them have a relative command and
authority of the right values needed for national integration and development.
Conclusion
Nigeria as a society is noted for lofty developmental policies that ordinarily would have
transformed the society to a developed nation. Regrettably, Nigeria is yet to find her way on
this path of greatness. This is largely due to value disorientation. Good values that promote
social integration, mutual understanding, sanctity of lives and security of lives and property
are not adequately emphasized in our education system; even when it is emphasized, it is not
practical. Theories on values cannot solve the social and insecurity problems in Nigeria.
Leaders and public office holders project self interest rather than public interest. This
is largely due to misappropriation of values. The resultant effect of this on the society is
corruption. Corruption breads tribal sentiments, group conflict, religious conflict and outright
moral decadence. If our leaders are not given values orientation on why they are where they
are as leaders, the future of the nation would be at risk.
No nation rises above the quality of its teachers. Teachers are the architects of any
society. It is the teacher that prepares the child for the larger society. When the teacher lacks
the knowledge of the right values necessary for the integration of the society, the unity of the
society would be threatened. To get out of the woods, values that promote national unity and
progress should be oriented to the masses. This can only be achieved through education.
120
Recommendations
To ensure proper orientation of values through education, the following
recommendations were made:
1. Educational institutions should be engaged in enlightenment campaign on the right values
for national peace and progress, outside the school setting. If this is done, it will promote
national peace and progress.
2. Values education should be introduced in our school system at all levels. When values
that keep the society together are emphasized in the formal school system from the primary to
the tertiary institution, the values would be part of the children when they grow older.
3. Compulsory leadership training should be given to prospective leaders before assuming
any leadership role. This will help to disabuse the mindset of the prospective leader from
seeing leadership role as an avenue for self aggradizement.
4. Citizenship and leadership training centres should be established along side educational
institutions. This will adequately prepare the child for leadership role alongside academic
achievement.
References
Achebe, C. (1983). The problem with Nigeria. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Co.
Dienye, V. U. (2004). Sociology of education for education students. Port Harcourt:
Amethyst and colleagues publishers.
Dosunmu, S. (2006). Education and development: A conceptual anchorage. In A. O. K
Noah. & Dosunmu Education and development. Georgia: Atricot Publishers.
Enu D. B. an Esu A. E. O. (2004). Re-Engineering values education in Nigerian schools as a
catalyst for national development.
www.ccsenet.or/journal/index.php/article/download. Retrieved on 05/08/11.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC Press.
Gbamanja, S. P. T. (1997). Curriculum development and implementation: New strategies for
the years 2000 plus. Port Harcourt: Paragraphics.
Kalusi (2000). Education as a fundamental human right, the case of Nigeria. In J. M.
Kosemani. (Ed) Nigeria education: Matters arising, (Vol 1) Port Harcourt. Abe
Publishers Corporation.
Kosemani, J. M. (2002). Federal character principle and education in Nigeria in Kosemani J.
M. (Ed.) Education in Nigeria: Matters arising. Port Harcourt: Abe Publishers.
Maoduagwu, S. N. (1998). Education management in Nigeria: Concepts and issues. Nigeria:
Fredsbary printers and publishers.
Okoh, J. D. (2003). Philosophy of education (The basics). Port Harcourt: Port Harcourt
Printing Press.
121
Okorosaye-Orubite (2008). From Universal Primary Education (UPE) to Universal Basic
Education (UBE) what hope for Nigeria. School of Graduate Studies Seminar Series;
Monograph No.1.
Roa, B. B. (2003). Values in higher education. In B. G. T. Jandhyala (Ed). Education and
development. National and international perspectives. New Delhi: APA Publishing
Corporation.
Schacfer, R. L. (2000). Sociology: A brief introduction. New York: McGraw Hill Company
Inc.
Suleman, I. (2009). Values orientation in the rebranding project in Nigeria. A paper
presented at the 27th Annual Conference of Philosophy of Education of Nigeria on 6th9th October.
122
LARGE CLASS SIZE AND THE CHALLENGES FOR QUALITY OF
INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS IN CERTIFICATE PROGRAMME IN EDUCATION
IN UNIVERSITY OF PORTHARCOURT: IMPLICATION ON THE SOCIETY
OSAAT, D. S.
Institute of Education
University of Port Harcourt
Abstract
The study examines the influence of large class size on quality instructional process of
Certificate Programmes in Education in University of Port Harcourt. Two research questions
and one hypothesis were posed for the study. The research design was descriptive survey.
The population of the study comprised all the Certificate Programmes in Education in the
University of Port Harcourt which has a total 1140 students. A sample of 285 students, which
constitutes 25% of the total number of students, was drawn using proportionately stratified
sampling. A 15-item structured questionnaire tagged Large Class Size and the Challenges for
Quality of Instructional Process Student Questionnaire (LCSCQIPSQ) was designed by the
researcher and used for data collection. It was based on the modified Likert Type scale
weighted strongly agreed (4points), agreed (3points), disagreed (2points), and strongly
disagreed (1point).To ensure its validity, the instrument was given to some experts for
evaluation. To establish the reliability of the instrument, a test was carried on 10 students
who were part of the population of the study but not part of the study sample. The Cronbach’s
Alpha correlation coefficient was carried out and the result was highly positive with a
correlation coefficient of 0.82. Mean was used to give answers to research questions while
ANOVA, was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 significant level. Findings showed that large
class size influenced quality instructional process in many ways, among which are, poor
sitting accommodation, students standing outside the classroom during lectures, poor
communication from teachers to students, and students not hearing the teachers well. The
study therefore concluded that these challenges of quality instructional process could affect
students’ academic performance. The study recommended among others that efforts should
be made to provide public address system to help teachers speak to the hearing of all
students.
Introduction
The ultimate goal of any teaching-learning process is to achieve effectiveness on the
part of the teacher and academic achievement on the part of the students. This can be done
through quality instructional process. Onyeamachi in Okoro (2011) defines instruction as the
activity engaged in by the teacher and the learner to facilitate changes in the behavior of the
learners. As rightly pointed out by the UNESCO (2003), teaching and learning is the vital
arena, of human development and change, where the impacts of the curricular, time available
for teaching and learning, teachers motivation to teach, teachers method/technology of
teaching and learning, as well as learners motivation to learn are felt. In fact, according to
Babalola (2011), once the process is right, the product is most likely to be right.
Unfortunately most instructional processes of Certificate Programmes in Education in the
University of Port Harcourt lack such vitality for quality teaching-learning to hold.
As rightly stated in the Brochure for Certificate Programme and Post Graduate
Diploma in Education the Federal Government has interest in making the Universal Basic
123
Education (UBE) scheme a success by the adoption of strategies that would yield rapid
education and training of teachers at all levels through the active institutions in the country.
As a result the University of Port Harcourt, as part of her interest, focuses on the attainment
of professional education for teachers through the Faculties of Education. Unfortunately, the
current trends in admission through JAMB for Teacher Education show a decline. Urgent
measures therefore need to be taken to encourage prospective education students outside the
JAMB framework. Thus, the need for Certificate Programmes in Education, whose
objectives, among others, is to provide a one year programme for candidates who will take up
a four year degree programme in education on the successful completion for the preparatory
year. On the completion of the preparatory year, successful candidates with an average of
60% will be admitted into the Bachelors’ degree programme in education. This, one would
think, is the right step in the right direction.
The programmes not only attract the potential education students, but also those that
cannot be admitted into other areas due to not meeting the JAMB cut off points. There is no
doubt that the population of students in the programme increases every year and continuous
increase in students’ enrolment over the years. This could result from the welfare aspect of
education which Nigeria adopts the social demand approach as the overall network of
educational planning (Enaohwo 1990). This led to the introduction of UPE and now the UBE.
The introduction of this Universal Primary Education (UPE) in 1976 and the Universal Basic
Education (UBE) in 2004 led to the enormous growth in students’ population in primary and
secondary schools, which also influences the number of candidates looking for admission
into tertiary institutions. This increase has continued to lead to overcrowded classrooms. In
fact, in the words of Nwogu (2006), this explosive increase is overcrowded classes to the
extent that teachers are made to teach between 50-100 students in a class. In tertiary
institutions and in certificate programmes in particular, the number of students in a class is
alarming. A lecturer handles more than 200-300 students in a particular class.
The researcher therefore is of the view that these large and overcrowded classrooms
could affect the quality of instructions and teaching-learning process. Based on this backdrop,
the researcher sets out to investigate into the effects of large class size on the teachinglearning process in Certificate Programmes in Education at the University of Port Harcourt.
Problem of the study
For the learners to have quality learning that would lead to good academic
performance, what happens in the classroom must be considered. The classroom is like a
clinic where the problems of the students are diagnosed and treated. A moderate class size
would definitely have possible effect on the learner but in most cases, especially in the
Certificate Programmes, the class is so large that it is difficult to accept that quality teachinglearning process really exists.
The past Certificate programme results, it is glaring, are characterized with mass
failures. The numbers of those that emerge with fail results are often greater than those with
good passes. Most students lament for not being able to pass and achieve the purpose for
which they are in the programme. The researcher therefore holds the assumption that large
classes could be a contributory factor to this poor quality performance of Certificate Students
in University of Port Harcourt. As a result of lack of adequate classroom to accommodate the
students most of them are found standing outside the class during lectures. Some of them do
not hear the lecture well. Faulty teaching-learning process cannot lead to quality products.
This researches therefore seeks to investigate the following areas of problem: ways large
124
classrooms affect quality instructional process and the ways to enhance quality instruction in
Certificate Programmes at the University of Port Harcourt.
Purpose of the Study
The Study aims at achieving the following objectives:
1. Examine the ways large class size affect quality instructional process in Certificate
Programmes in University of Port Harcourt.
2. Examine the strategies of enhancing quality instructional process in Certificate
Programmes in Education in University of Port Harcourt.
Research Questions
The following research questions were posed for the study:
1. In what ways does large class size affect quality instructional process in Certificate
Programme in Education in University of Port Harcourt?
2. What are the strategies for achieving quality instructional process in the face of large
class size of Certificate Programme in Education in University of Port Harcourt?
Hypothesis
There is no significant difference between/ among the mean scores of the opinion of students
of the six groups of Certificate Programme in Education.
Methodology
The research design for the study was descriptive survey, while the population is
made up of all 1140 registered students of Certificate Programmes in Education in University
of Port Harcourt. The sample is made up of 285 students which is 25% of the population
selected using proportionate stratified random sampling from various groups of certificate
students which are EDM (206), EDF (24), EDP (20), EDC (16), Adult and non formal (11)
and Human Kinectics (5). The instrument used for the study was a15-point item structured
questionnaires named Large Class Size and Challenges for Quality of Instructional Process
Student Questionnaire (LCSCQIPSQ). It was based on a modified likert type scale set against
each of the items. The response options were weighted as strongly agreed (4 points), agreed
(3 points), disagreed (2 points) and strongly disagreed (1 point). To ensure its validity the
instrument was given to some experts for evaluation. To establish the reliability of the
instrument, a test was carried on 10 students who were part of the population of the study but
not part of the study sample. The Cronbach’s Alpha correlation coefficient was carried out
and the result was highly positive with a correlation coefficient of 0.82.The data was analysed
using means in giving answers to the research questions while ANOVA was used to test the
hypothesis at 0.05 significant level.
Result
Research question 1
In what ways does large class size affect quality instructional process in Certificate
Programmes in Education in University of Port Harcourt?
125
Table 1: Mean Analysis of Students Scores on the Influence of Large Class Size on
Quality Instruction in Certificate Programmes in University of Port Harcourt.
S/N
Items
1. Teachers are not audible enough
to be heard clearly
2. The students are many and larger
than normal classroom
3. Most students stand outside
the class during lectures
4. Most students sit more
than required in a seat
5. Most students cannot easily take
down note during lectures
6. Most students do not hear
the lecture well
7. Students do not sit comfortably
on a seat
8. There is distraction due to poor
sitting accommodation
9. Students do not hear themselves
well during class interaction
10. Students are not often tested
due to large class size
SA
192
A
48
D
32
SD
x
13 3.47
178
56
40
11
3.37
184
50
43
8
3.44
169
70
31
15
3.38
172
53
41
19
3.32
180
53
44
8
3.42
177
62
20
26
3.36
141
82
50
12
3.32
120
86
9
3.11
34
2.93
110
79
70
62
Results in table 1 show that all the items have mean scores of 3.47, 3.37, 3.44, 3.38,
3.32, 3.42, 3.36, 3.32, 3.11 and 2.93 which are above the criterion mean of 2.50. This
indicates that the certificate students agreed that all the items as shown in the responses are
the effects of large class size on quality teaching-learning process.
The study revealed that all the ten components stated in the instrument are the ways
large class size affects quality instructional process in Certificate Programme in University of
Port Harcourt. The result confirmed that teachers not being audible enough to be heard
clearly, poor sitting accommodation, standing outside the classroom to receive lectures,
students not able to take note down well during lectures, distractions due to poor sitting
accommodation, not hearing each other well during class interaction and students not often
tested due to large class size are all influences of large class size on quality teaching in
certificate programmes in University of Port Harcourt. This implies that, in the face of these
challenges the teacher might find it difficult to implement effectively what he/she has for the
students. This could also affect students’ learning. This agrees with Mkpa (2005) who
laments that one of the challenges of implementing the curriculum is large class size which
does not conform to the dearth of teachers. It also agrees with Arogundade (2009) who lists
the factors that hinder teachers from managing the classroom effectively among which is
large class size.
Research question 2
What are the strategies for achieving quality instructional process in Certificate
Programme in Education in University of Port Harcourt?
126
Table 2: Strategies to ensure Quality of Instructional Process in Certificate Programme
in Education in the face of Large Class size
S/N
Items
SA
1.
Breaking each of the groups
193
Into more manageable groups
2.
Employing more lecturers to handle
176
Each of the groups
3.
Provision of public
187
Address system to enhance effective
communication
4.
Provision of more moderate
190
classrooms
5.
Curtail the yearly intake in certificate 85
Programmes
A
45
74
41
38
60
D
40
SD
5
x
3.48
30
5
3.47
32
25
32
25
3.38
100
2.49
45
3.36
Table 2 indicates that all the items have mean scores of 3.48, 3.47, 3.36, 3.38, and 2.49. All
the means fell above the criterion mean of 2.50 except one. This shows that the certificate
students agreed with all items as ways to enhance quality instructional process in the face of
large class size except one, which is to curtail the yearly intake in Certificate Programme.
From the study it was also found out that the following strategies should be employed to
enhance quality instructional process in Certificate programme in Education in University of
Education, in the face of large class size. These are breaking each of the groups into smaller
groups, employing more teachers to handle each of the smaller groups, provision of public
address system to enhance communication and the provision of more moderate classroom.
On the issue of breaking the class into smaller groups, the implication is that teachers will be
able to manage the class while the students perform academically well. The finding agrees
with Arogundade (2009), who states that the class size should not be too large for teachers to
manage so that they can teach effectively. It also agrees with studies such as Glass, Calen
Smith and Filby (1982), Hedges and Stock (1983) and Obemeata (1995), which reveal that
the smaller the class size, the better the students’ academic achievement.
Test of Hypothesis
There is no significant difference between/among the mean scores of the opinion of
students of the six groups of Certificate Programme in Education on the influence of large
class size on instructional process.
Table 3: ANOVA Analysis on the Influence of Large Class Size on Instructional Process
Source of variations
Sum of
Df
mean
F-ratio
F-crit. Alpha
Squares SS
square
Between groups
146.4424
5 29.28848
Within groups
498840.35
279 1787.9582 0.0163 2.259 0.05
Total
498986.79
284
127
Table 3, shows the analysis of variance on the responses of all the students of various groups
of Certificate Programme in Education, to the questionnaire items on the ways large class
size affects quality instructional process in University of Port Harcourt. The table shows the
calculated f-ratio of 0.0163 which is less than the critical f-ratio of 2.259 at 0.05 significant
level. The null hypothesis of no significant difference was therefore accepted. This implies
that there is no significant difference between/among the various groups of students on the
effect of large class size on instructional process.
Summary of Findings
1. Large class size affects quality instructional process in Certificate Programme in
University of Port Harcourt in the following ways; that teachers not audible enough to be
heard clearly, poor sitting accommodation, standing outside the classroom to receive lectures,
students not able to take note down well during lectures, distractions due to poor sitting
accommodation, not hearing each other well during class interaction and students not often
tested due to large class size.
2. The strategies for achieving quality of instructional process in Certificate Programme in
Education in University of Port Harcourt are; breaking each of the groups into smaller
groups, employing more teachers to handle each of the smaller groups, provision of public
address system to enhance communication and the provision of more moderate classrooms.
3. There is no significant difference between/among the various groups of students of
certificate Programme in University of Port Harcourt on the effect of large class size on
instructional process.
Implications, Conclusions and Recommendations
The findings of this study have a lot of implications on the society. Certificate
Programmes in University of Port Harcourt is a preparatory programme for students who are
willing to gain admission into the main stream of the University. In an attempt to do that,
students are expected to meet up with every requirement including a good pass in the
programme. Any attempt to deny them this opportunity would mean turning them back into
the society to become nuisance not only to themselves, but to the society.
If the students who have come to the university in the name of being taught and
examined to enable them gain admission into the university, are not properly taken care of in
terms of exposure to quality instructional process, and they tend to fail out of the programme,
when they have already tasted being in university, would mean going back into the society to
become more frustrated than never. The end result is becoming problems to themselves and
to the society, especially turning to become armed robbers or prostitutes, when they have no
choice. In the words of Madumere-Obike and Ukala (2010) they remark:
Education enables people to develop their capacities to live a fulfilling and
dignified life. Quality education helps people give meaning to their lives, placing
them in the context of human and natural history and creating in them an
awareness which should protect them from prostitution or from being victims and
perpetrators of terrorism (p. 144).
However, if they are empowered by exposing these students to quality teaching-learning
process that will enable them to achieve and move forward, they would hardly be brain
washed into such enumerated acts. The society therefore may be a better place free of society
ills to a high extent.
128
Based on these, the following recommendations are made:
1. More class room blocks should be provided to accommodate smaller classes.
2. The large class should be broken into smaller units for easy management by lecturers
3. More lecturers should be employed and allocated to these small groups for students to
learn better.
4. Management should make efforts to provide a public address system to enhance
effective communication during lectures.
5. As a matter of fact the management should curtail the total yearly intake into
Certificate Programmes to give room for manageable groups.
References
Arogundade , B. B. (2009). Classroom management in education. In J. B Babalola, & A
Ayeni, A. (Eds).Educational management, theorists and tasks. Lagos.
Babalola J. B. (2010). Quality assurance in education: Input, process and output. A lead
paper presentation at the 2nd Annual Conference of the National Association for
Educational Administration and Planning (NAEAP), University of Port Harcourt.
Enaohwo, J. O (1990). Economics of education and the planning challenge. New Delhi:
Anmol Publication.
Glass, G. V. , Calen, L. S. , Smith, M. L., & Filby, N. N. (1992). School class sizes, research
and policy. California: Sage Beverly Hills
Hedges, L. V., and Stock, w. (1983). The effects of class size. An examination of rival
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QUALITY ASSURANCE AT THE PRIMARY EDUCATION LEVEL
OKAFOR, G. O.
Department of Sociology & Anthropology
University of Maiduguri
&
OHIA, N.
Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka
Abstract
Education is a means to an end, on which all other developments depend. It is one of the most
important institutions in the society because it is the springboard for socio-political, economic
and cultural development. Infact, any government (military, civilian) that tries to halt or slow
down the development of education will face national crisis. Therefore, there is need to be
aware of the problems militating against qualitative education so that they can search out
possible solution to these problems. For any education system to survive in its effort to serve
the needs of the society, it must anchor on its ability to reflect on the aspiration of the
society.The quality of education by all providers of education has become a matter of great
concern to stakeholders in the education enterprise. This paper examines the concept and the
strategies and mechanisms adapted by Nigeria for its sustenance. It also tries to determine the
common elements affecting quality assurance strategy. Recommendations were made
regarding how the Nigerian Primary Education could benefit from the experiences of other
countries in the quality assurance policies and practices.
Introduction and the Problem
For more than five decades now, great concern has been shown by the government
and the Nigerian populace on the quality of education in the country. Even the component
states have equally shown some concern in education in order to make it more accessible to
the Nigerian citizenry. The spate of criticisms and utterances in the media on the falling
standard of education leaves one in no doubt that there is a problem with the country’s
education system. Considering the heavy investments made in education by the government,
individuals, and communities, the need for achieving high quality basic education becomes
imperative.
According to Webster’s New International Dictionary of the English language (1986)
the word “quality” could be defined as: the peculiar and essential character of a thing; the
degree of excellence;the degree of conformity to standards (as a product of workmanship);
merit or superiority because of a combination of good characteristics, and finally, enduring
good traits that make one same with superiors. From the above definition, it could be seen
that quality deals with the good characteristics or traits of a thing that enhance excellence.
Many educationists have noted that quality and quantity in education are not mutually
exclusive (Thomas 1971; Yoloye, 1986; Nwagwu, 1983). According to Thomas,(1972)
educational system is a function of the quantity and quality of inputs.He asserts that space,
equipment, books, teaching materials, teachers, and administrative personnel should be
significant inputs in achieving quality in the educational system. In the same vien, Yoloye
(1976) is of the view that the factors that should be taken into consideration include quality of
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the teachers, quality of facilities, quality of instruction, quality of evaluation, and quality of
administration and management.
Commenting on quality in the educational system, Nwagwu (1983) is of the opinion
that the crisis of how to balance the quantitative and qualitative growth of the educational
system simply is a management issue. It is basically an issue of how to make optimal use of
the available human and material resources for education in order to ensure that children
benefit from school attendance by engaging in rewarding and worth while learning activities.
He listed four important factors in an attempt to balance the qualitative and quantitative
growth of any basic educational system.These include the following:
- the quality and numbers of students involved;
- the quality, dedication and the number of teacher available;
- the quality of the available infrastructure in the form of buildings, facilities and
equipment;
- the quality and number of managerial personnel such as school administrators, inspectors
and supervisors.
Another educationist, Fagbulu (1980), asserts that every form of education that is based on
planned curriculum has quality built into it. What to be examined should be the education
practices and the results of the particular system. Carnegic Foundation for the Advancement
of Teaching in 1983, identified clearly stated goals,skill in written and oral use of
English,staff development,educational technology,and school size as priority on which UBE
schools must focus in order to achieve excellence in basic education.Reviewing the views of
the Carnegic study, Awobcoga (1983), listed the following tasks that improve the qualitative
merits of education which constitute the main pillars of qualitative development policies in
education.These include
1. Measurement and standardization of academic attainments.
2. Evaluation of quality work during supervision.
3. Use of competent teachers and administrative/ supervisory personnel.
4. Dissemination of information to teachers and students.
5. Use of educational technology with a view of increasing the efficiency of teaching etc.
From the above review, it is clear that quality in education deals with issues of
relevance, validity, excellence and efficiency in the achievement of educational goals and
priorities. Education input, often regarded as the indicator of educational quality, determines
educational output and outcome. Recent studies that focus on the importance of education
input in determining output led to the conclusions that both out-of-school variables –
education of parents, socio-economic status, child-rearing patterns, nutrition, pre-school
education and school variables such as teachers, number of pupils in the class and textbooks
influence learning. Improving efficiency in learning therefore, implies improving quality of
school input – curriculum, style and methods of teaching, qualification, materials and
upgrading background factors such as health, nutrition and pre-school education.
Qualitative Education
Quality education is the extent to which learners are able to acquire knowledge and
skills and use them to accomplish their developmental task. Education is thus deemed
qualitative if learners exhibit the expected competence to solve relevant problems and carry
out tasks that are designed for their educational and age levels.Quality education is also
evident in the teaching- learning resources available in the right quantity, at the right time, for
the right calibre of students, and are used correctly by teachers. Quality education is evident
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when teachers are qualified to teach and are competent and efficient in the delivery system
generally. Education is also deemed qualitative if the societal problems are effectively
addressed and tackled by the education system.
Finally, quality education manifests itself when the students perform efficiently in
continuous and final assessments, with little or no recourse on the part of both pupils and
teachers to some form of cheating behaviour or examination malpractice, to make up for
deficiencies in learning and teaching.
The Concept of Quality Assurance
Quality assurance was developed in the 1950s and 1960s as a business methodology
(ESIB, 2005).It was first used in industries in the Western world as a proof that a product met
certain acclaimed standards. The purpose was to build consumer confidence on the products.
The term quality is a guarantee which implies that all necessary precautions have been taken
to manufacture a certain product to meet the needs, expectations and satisfaction of
consumers. Quality as a judgmental concept helps the consumer to differentiate one product
from another. Such judgment helps him to determine whether to continue to use a particular
product or not. A major reason adduced for this is that improved teacher quality will promote
quality assurance and better pupils’ performance in the school system. Therefore, there is
need to match programmes with individual requirement for manpower. As primary education
has been affected by globalization,quality assurance has become a yardstick by which the
standard of programme run by primary schools are determined. The quality of global
education and the need to compare the standard of one country’s education against another’s
has brought to primary education a new emphasis on quality assurance.
Quality assurance concerns itself with certain accepted criteria of minimum standard
of quality that should be achieved in the production of goods and services. This means that
certain procedures and techniques that ensure the quality of products are put in place
(Lankard, 1992). Every product or outcome of an industry is a function of a variety of
activities of inputs assumed to have a value input into the process. Education as a productive
enterprise is also subject to those same assumptions. Quality assurance includes the provision
and maintenance of the conditions determined to guarantee a standard of the outcomes and
products of education. According to ESIB (2005), quality assurance is the guarantee of
confidence and certainty by a programme of study given by an institution that “standards and
quality are being maintained and enhanced”. By this understanding, it could be said that
emphasis on quality assurance is the training of personnel (teachers) to enhance their
performance in work places.
Policy Thrust for Quality Assurance in Nigeria
Education system in Nigeria has undergone series of metamorphosis in the
educational programmes and policies of which the most recent is the Universal Basic
Education (UBE). For instance, the Universal Primary Education (UPE) has metamorphised
to be Universal Besic Education (UBE). This is seen as a policy measure aimed at curbing the
fall-out of the Universal Primary Education (UPE) towards realizing its objectives in terms of
providing suitable educational system for the Nigerian child. It also seeks to reinvigorate the
educational system so as to improve equity and relevance, improve returns to education,
produce adequate demand for schooling which jointly produce higher educational attainment
in line with the demand of society. The principal goal of UBE is to bring education within the
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reach of as many children as possible in order to produce enlightened citizens and a literate
labour force that can learn new skills with ease.
The Policy of Quality
The overall responsibility of the Federal Ministry of Education is to ensure quality
within the system, to encourage and initiate innovations, and to ensure that the schools
maintain minimum standards of acceptable educational practice. The public perception is that
the quality of education offered is low and that standards have dropped. These perceptions
are based on lack of adherence to acceptable educational practice. Teacher qualifications are
low, the learning environment does not promote effective learning, basic facilities- teaching
and learning resources-are generally not available, teacher-pupil ratios are high, and general
performance in examinations is poor. A detailed survey commissioned in partnership with
UNICEF and UNESCO in 1997 also confirmed that the quality of education offered at the
primary school level was low.
Teacher qualification:
Teacher qualifications also impacts directly on quality. There have been attempts to
improve the level of qualification amongst teachers. The Grade II qualification is gradually
been phased out as a minimum requirement for teaching. The number of teachers with
Nigeria Certificate of Education has increased and the country seems to be moving towards
achieving a goal of having the NCE as a minimum qualification for teaching in the primary
schools.
Curriculum Transformation
The curriculum is centrally determined. It is based on the National Policy on
Education guideline of 1981, and tends to be outdated in outlook. There is need for
curriculum transformation that will have to take into consideration the availability of teaching
and learning resources as well as the support facilities such as libraries, laboratories, and
computer facilities. The essence of the policy is to achieve development of a sustainable
economy and human development. The level of education acquired by the citizens of any
nation determines the level of its development and the quality of life. This assertion is
confirmed in one of the national objectives of education as documented in the National Policy
on Education- “the acquisition of appropriate skills and the development of mental, physical
and social abilities and competencies as equipment for the individual to live and contribute to
the development of the society (FRN 2004,p.8).
The Federal Government of Nigeria, in order to ensure an effective programme,
established the following bodies like Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC), State
Universal Basic Education Board (SUBEB) and Local Government Education Authority
(LGEA). These bodies are saddled with the responsibility of coordinating and harmonizing
human (teachers, students) and material (learning facilities) resources to achieve the stated
goals.Another major role player is the National Primary Education Commission. Two major
programmes have been identified and prioritized for implementation by the commission’s
special project unit. The first is a short-term project – The “Catchment Area Based
Planning,Management and Monitoring of Primary Schools Project”. The objective is to build
capacity and empower people at the community level to initiate projects that would
contribute to the improvement of the quality of primary education and to ensure access of all
school age children to the schools. The second project Development of Skills Acquisition
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Centres in Primary Schools, is a long term project. The primary objective is to encourage the
craft production skills and a culture of entrepreneurship amongst the primary school children,
in a schooling environment that is more interesting and functional. It is hoped that acquisition
of skill in the early stages of development will address other social issues such as street
begging, child street hawking, child prostitution, early marriage, child labour, and child
abuse.
The principal objective behind quality assurance is the decision of educational
institution to train individuals to achieve competency in a given area of individual production
function. The focus,therefore, is on the side of industry in the training of employees to
prevent problems affecting organizational systems, and continually improving performances
(ESIB, 2005). The recent concept of quality assurance is the ability of educational institutions
to meet the needs of the user of manpower, in relation to the quality of skills acquired by
products (students). The quality of an academic programme becomes a universal concern
because the product of one school invariably becomes an employee in another school. Quality
assurance has become an internalized concept. The first of such attempts at universalization
of quality assurance in the primary education across the globe was published in 2004 based
on the qualities of the teacher and teacher education. The National Philosophy (five cardinal
principles) was fashioned to foster national growth and development. However, these cannot
be achieved without giant steps taken towards teacher qualities. Hence the teacher is seen as
the pivot on which any meaningful national development hangs. On this premise, there is the
need for well trained, qualified, efficient, effective and dedicated teachers to perform this
noble task.
The Main Point for Quality Assurance in Nigeria
The main point of quality assurance focuses on education for competence.It is seen as
value added to the individual to acquire wealth and enhance the utilization of resources
available to the society.This is so because education and competence are regarded as the
capital on which we can expect returns in the form of economic growth.Since all the afore
mentioned national values are to be taught within the four walls of the classroom by the
teacher,it therefore becomes necessary for teachers to possess additional qualities apart from
their academic qualifications.Therefore,Ukeje(2000, p.5) outlined the following qualities that
a teacher must possesss:
- He/she must be adaptable to change;
- He/she must be flexible and dependable;
- He/she must be honest,forceful,and enthusiastic;
- He/she must be industrious and open minded.
In Ukeje’s view,the teacher should not only be able to transmit knowledge and skills
effectively and efficiently, but he/she should also be able to inspire his/her pupils or students
to greater heights of achievement.
In pursuance of the above,the government has made primary education free and
universal by implementing UPE scheme in September 1976 and also prescribed the
inculcation of literacy and numeracy, the study of science, the study of social norms and
values of the local community and the country as a whole in the primary school. The
implication of Ukeje’s view is that education is the only known instrument of social change.
Therefore, both government and all the educational practitioners should maximize teacher
quality for national development. In doing so, attention must be given to the following
considerations:
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Teaching practice: Teacher qualities receive lip service in many of our universities and
colleges of Education. It is indeed a point of concern that teaching practice that forms the
basis of teacher education has been bastardized or reduced to nothing by Universities and
Colleges of Education because of their failure to provide satisfactory funds to the lecturers to
carry out this noble exercise.
In some of the Universities and Colleges of Education, the student teachers hardly
spend more than three weeks of serious teaching practice and within this period, they hardly
receive the critically necessary clinical supervision by their lecturers (Ukeje 2000, p.12). In
addition, Maduabum (1991) cited in Ogbole (1999, p.49) observes that Teaching Practice
(TP) which constitutes the programme of internship and one of the hallmarks of professional
preparation for teaching is generally poorly supervised. This poses a lot of threat to the
quality of teacher education in Nigeria.
Proper training of Teachers
Prior to the present dispensation, many people had engaged in the teaching enterprise
without any formal training from the outset. Therefore, one year teaching programme is
organized as “Post Graduate Diploma in Education”. This is not the best in the opinion of this
paper. Its stand is based on the premise that one has to spend three solid years to obtain
Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) and another three years for the same person to
acquire a degree programme in order to maintain quality. One year programme cannot be
sufficient enough to prepare the candidates of this category for teaching service.
Admission process
A major area of concern in our effort to produce qualified teachers for our school
systems is the admission of unqualified candidates into our colleges of education to be trained
as teachers. Although some colleges run pre-NCE Programme, Ogoble (1999) opines that it is
doubtful if the programme that is run for one year can be sufficient to prepare these
candidates for the rigorous three years NCE programme. Thus Maduabum (1991) cited in
Ogbole (1999) declares that:
It is indeed unfortunate to note that it is only in education that “failures” are given
official candidacy among those who are to be prepared for teacher training programme.
This pattern of thought has been endorsed by Ozoji (2006, p.152) when he declared that “the
criterion of standards of admission for teachers in training raises problem of quality. It
appears that teaching does not attract the best entrants in training”.
Conclusion
Quality assurance is a matter of global concern in primary education. It is the
mechanism through which institutions can establish that their products are competitive and
meet internationally accepted standards of quality and excellence. The increasingly global
trend towards quality assurance seems to have shaped educational policy throughout the
world.
There are many diverse interpretations and use of quality assurance. It is a tool for
accountability to stakeholders about value added to educational inputs. It has to do with
institutional effectiveness. It is about enhancing the quality of the processes of teaching and
learning. Being a complex issue, it should be seen as part of all the activities of an institution.
The objective indices of quality assurance as set out in the scheme is a common feature of
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most quality assurance efforts but the awareness of quality issues in teaching and learning
amongst teachers is one of the benefits of the ongoing discourse on quality assurance.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are made in order to attain more qualitative
education in the primary institutions in Nigeria.
A more appropriate criteria should be adopted for the selection of teachers.
The Total Quality Management (TQM) philosophy which is very effective in
resolving many problems like teachers morale and low student performance should be
adopted. The TQM begins with a quality policy statement and the establishment of
framework in the system comprising of highly skilled, moderately and unskilled teachers.
They all have quality as a target to reach as they teach within the system, other relevant
players in the process of the system institutional delivery within the school also have same
target.
A consistent examination of their individual and collective input is a very good
mechanism of assuring continued quality of the programme.
Refrences
ESIB (2005). Europe student hardbook on quality in higher education. Sponsored by ESIP
hp://www.esib.org/project
Fagbulu, A M (1980). Variability of the quality of education with significant qualitative
expansion of schools. A paper presented at a national conference on quality education
organized by Nigeria Education Research Council in Kano.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education (4th ed.) Lagos: NERDC
Press.
Maduabum, M. (1991). In Search of a feasible strategy for professionalizing teaching in
Nigeria. A paper presented at the National seminar on philosophy of teacher
education in Nigeria. University of Jos, Jos December, 7th-12 th”.
Nwagwu, N.A. (1983). Trend in priorities in Nigeria education system:The case of Nigeria.In
S. Adesina, I.K. Akenyemi, A. Ajayi, (Eds) (1983) Nigeria education: Trends and
issues. (pp 198-214
Ogbole, D.M (1999). The teacher factor as it affects the quality of education. Pankshim
Journal of Education 5 (2.)
Ozoji, F.D. (2006). Professionalizing the teaching profession. In Akinmade, Nwoke &
Charity (Eds). Innovation in the teaching profession. A Resource Manual for
Today’s Teachers. Jos: Phoefivang Nig. Fender press.
Thomas, J.A. (1971). The productive school: A system analysis approach to educational
administration. New York: John Wiley.
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Ukeje, B.O (2000). Teacher education in Nigeria. 21 st century challenges and strategies for
improvement in T.O Akinmade, T.O Oyetunde, G. Akpa, O. Enoh & D. Ozoji (Eds).
Improving Teachers Education in 21 st century Nigeria: challenges and strategies. Jos:
Rohefwang Nig. Enterprises.
UNESCO, (1997). Monitoring of learning achievement in Nigeria. Lagos. UNICEF.
Webster New International Dictionary
Yoloye, E.A (1976). Secondary education today and tomorrow.The Nigeria Principal Journal
of ANCOPSS 1957-80, 10-15
137
THE EFFECTS OF FACTORS MILITATING AGAINST THE EDUCATION OF
GIRLS IN EMOHUA LGA OF RIVERS STATE
JEROME A., IKIROMA, B. & AMAECHI L. N.
Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology,
University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State University of Education Rumuolumeni Port
Harcourt
Abstract
This research attempted to find out the effects of factors militating against the education of
girls in Emohua LGA of Rivers State. The main purpose of the research was to establish the
magnitude of the effects of the factors that are known to militate against the education of
girls. By simple random sampling technique, 565 senior secondary school students were
drawn for the study. The instrument employed for the collection of data was an open and
close ended questionnaire administered to all the participants. The instrument was face and
content validated by two experts in educational measurement and evaluation and it had a
reliability coefficient of 0.72 via test-retest method of estimating reliability. Five research
questions were posed and answered in the study. The data collected were analyzed using
descriptive statistics such as frequency count and simple percentages. The open responses
were subjected to content analysis. The significant results of this research have shown that
girls have low educational and occupational aspirations and that the greatest hindrance to
their educational advancement is alleged to be pregnancy, followed by peer pressure, lack of
school fees, lack of parental guidance and counselling, drug addiction and intimate boys/girls
relationships. The study recommended the need to carry out awareness campaigns to sensitize
all stakeholders on the importance of education, especially of the girl child. It is important to
create well-maintained single gender boarding schools. Girls should be targeted in terms of
sponsorship.
Introduction
It has been acknowledged that female education is one of the most important forces of
development. King (1991) observes that an educated mother raises a smaller, healthier and
better-educated family, and is herself more productive at home and at the work place. The
researchers noted that there is a correlation between the narrowness of the gap of female
education in countries worldwide and the level of development in such countries.
However, more boys than girls, particularly in less industrialized countries of Africa,
Nigeria included, continue to go to school and work their way up the educational ladder
(Mueller, 1990). Female enrolment has been lower than that of males at all levels of
education in Nigeria, and especially, at secondary and university levels. For instance, in 2008
girls at pre-primary level constituted 48.5%, primary 49.4% and at public secondary schools
30.5% (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2008). These overall enrolment figures seem to mask
regional disparities. According to Federal Republic of Nigeria (2008), girls in Southern
Nigeria constituted 52.2%, Northern region 40.1%, Eastern region 42.4%, Western 44%. This
state of affairs is explained by the higher rate of dropout for girls resulting from sociocultural factors that underplay the importance of educating girls, biological factors that make
girls vulnerable to unplanned motherhood, and economic constraints. Some respondents
indicated that families who cannot afford to send both sons and daughters to school reckon
that financial returns on expenditure for girls are less than those of boys meaning educating a
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girl is not more profitable than educating a boy. The argument is that girls are transient since
they will eventually leave their parents when they get married, thus their education is only a
financial asset to the inlaws and not to blood relatives. In some cases, girls withdraw from
school to join the labour market or to be married in order to raise money for school fees for
their brothers. Since most of the general contributing factors leading to low participation of
girls at all levels of education are known and fairly well researched on, this study focuses on
the variables that impinge on the educational and occupational aspirations of girls, who
survive in primary school and manage to embark on the secondary level of education.
Researchers such as Pavalko (2001), Chivore (2009) and Kibera (2003) have supported the
proposition that girls have lower educational and occupational aspirations than boys.
Secondary school girls are targeted in this study. This is because the secondary cycle of
education forms an important turning point in an individual’s educational and occupational
options. As a minimum, it forms a foundation for higher education, which is closely linked
with occupational choice. Bruce (2006) asserted that higher education, especially, university
education, gives an individual a variety of occupational choices, and in particular white
colour and professional fields.
Statement of the problem
It is important to find out why girls appear to be “unconcerned” about the glaring
benefits of education. As long as the majority of girls fail to proceed with formal education
beyond secondary level and as long as university level of education is used as a major
criterion in the distribution of well-remunerated jobs and leadership positions, they will
continue to be marginalized. In fact, lack of education or acquisition of limited education
among women, who in Nigeria and most other countries, constitute over 50 per cent of the
total population, leads to their unequal representation in all facets of the society including
employment, politics, and inevitably in decision making organs like legislators. Several
researches have been carried out about factors militating against the education of girls but
these studies do not address directly the problem being investigated (Bruce, 2006). Therefore,
this study was designed to find out the factors militating against the education of girls in
Emohua LGA of Rivers State.
Objectives of the study
The following objectives guided the study:
1. To establish secondary school girls’ occupational aspirations.
2. To determine the relative effects of different variables that are associated with lower
educational aspirations of girls.
3. To find out whether career aspirations of girls change as they move from SS 1 to SS 3.
4. To determine the factors behind the educational aspirations of girls at secondary school
level of education.
5. To examine what occupational aspirations of males and female at secondary School level
hold for their potential spouses.
Research questions
The following research questions were formulated to guide the study:
1. What are the occupational aspirations of secondary school girls’ in Emohua LGA?
2. What are the relative effects of different variables that are associated with lower
educational aspirations of girls?
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3. To what extent does career aspiration of girls change as they move from SS 1 to SS 3?
4. What are the factors behind the educational aspirations of girls at secondary school level
of education?
5. What occupational aspirations of males and females at secondary School level hold for
their potential spouses?
Significance of the study
The findings will help interventionists in the education of girls to locate where help is
required most. The findings will help in emphasizing the need for equality, bearing in mind
socio-cultural factors such as gender stereotypes, negative traditional beliefs, attitudes and
practices, patriarchal system and religious beliefs militating against the education of girls. It
is also hoped that, the findings of this study will facilitate more researches in similar
institutions in different set-ups.
Methodology
Research design
The research design used in this study was descriptive survey. The study aimed at
collecting information from respondents on their opinions in relation to the various factors
impacting on the education of girls. The tool that was employed in the initial identification
process was door-to -door survey in the purposely sampled schools. In an effort to establish
the relative impact of the various factors impacting on the education of girls, the researchers
used both qualitative and quantitative methods of research.
Study location
The study was carried out in Emohua LGA of Rivers State. The LGA was purposely
selected because it is one of the largest LGA in the State and the factors investigated were
perceived to be prevalent in the Local Government Area (LGA) of the state. Convenience
Sampling was used to select the communities/villages/towns that participated in the study.
The communities/villages/towns whose secondary school students were represented in the
study included: Obelle, Oduaha, Ibaa, Emohua and Ndele.
Target population
The target population was all SS 1 and SS 3 students in government owned senior
secondary schools in Emohua LGA of Rivers state. The students were drawn from the senior
secondary schools located in the selected communities/villages/towns. SS 1 and SS 3 students
were considered because the study intended to establish whether educational aspirations of
the students will change as they move from SS 1 to SS 3.
Sample size and sampling procedures
A sample 565 students was used for the study. This consisted of 260 girls and 305
boys. Using simple random sampling technique which provides equal chance to every
member in the population to be included in the study, the lottery system was used in which
names of subjects were written on pieces of paper and placed in a container. The lottery was
then drawn. This method helped to reduce biases or prejudices in selecting the samples. The
respondents were sampled from SS 1 and SS 3 in order to establish whether educational
aspirations of SS 1 were similar to those of SS 3. Towards enhancement of comparative
dimension, boys in similar classes as girls were included in the study. 52 girls were selected
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from each of the five schools, 26 from SS 1 and 26 from SS 3 similarly, 61 boys were
selected from each of the five schools also, 30 SS 1 class and 31 SS 3 class. Thus, the sample
had 260 girls and 305 boys which gave a total sample of 565 respondents.
Instrumentation
The questionnaire titled “Factors Militating against the Education of Girls
Questionnaire” (FMEGQ) which was the main instrument used in this research, had questions
that were both close and open ended. The questionnaires were used as tools for collecting
data from the subjects. For these questionnaires there was an introductory letter for the study,
the importance of the respondent’s contribution to it and the assurance that the information
would be handled ethically. Filling in the name was left optional so as not to make any
respondent shy off. The questionnaire administered to secondary school students, sought
information about their demographic background, their ratings on the factors listed by the
researchers militated against their educational advancement, or their educational and
occupational aspirations. They also supplied data pertaining to their desire to attain a
particular level of education.
Validity of the Instrument
The face-and-content validity of the instrument was established by two experts in
educational measurement and evaluation of the Department of Educational Psychology,
Guidance and Counselling, University of Port Harcourt. The instrument (FMEGQ) was
presented to them (experts) with the objectives and research questions for the study.
Comments and observations from the experts were considered and used to modify and correct
the final copy of the instrument that was used for the collection of data.
Reliability of the Instrument
The reliability coefficient obtained using test-retest method was 0.72, which is high
enough to guarantee the use of the instrument. The procedure involved the administration of
the instrument (FMEGQ) to 50 respondents that are in SS 1 and SS 3 but who were not used
as part of the sample for the study. After, three weeks the same instruments were
administered to the same 50 respondents used initially for the pilot study. Then after, the
scores from the first administration and that of the second administration were correlated
using Pearson Product Moment correlation as statistical tool via SPSS package. The value of
r (0.72) which is an indication of the reliability coefficient obtained is a measure of the
stability of the instrument over time. Consequently, the reliability coefficient so obtained was
high enough to guarantee the use of the instrument for the study.
Data collection procedures
The questionnaires were administered and collected by the researchers with two other
research assistants who had been recruited by the researchers to assist in the collection of
data.
Table 1: Sample of Student Respondents by Gender and Class
Class
Male
%
Female
%
Total
%
SS 1
150
49.2
130
50.0
280
49.6
SS 3
155
50.8
130
50.0
285
50.4
Total
305
100
260
100
565
100
Source: Researchers computation.
141
Direct contact with schools allowed instructions on how to complete the questionnaires and
assure the respondents the confidentiality of their responses. This personal involvement was
an important factor in motivating the participating schools to respond more readily than if the
questionnaires had been mailed to them. Secondary data were found from journals and books.
Data analysis in table 1 contains the sample of students by gender and class.
Data analysis procedures
Descriptive Statistics were used in data analysis. All answers collected from the field were
coded. The data was coded by categorization, quantification, and processing. It was tabulated
using both quantitative and qualitative methods. Tables of frequency distribution were used
to show the different patterns of data categories.
Presentation of The Research Findings
Student’s demographical information and location of the school
The sample comprised 565 students, 305 of whom were males (54%) and 260 females
(46%). Data analysis of the demographic information in the questionnaire showed that the
students’ age range was between 15 and 19 years. Slightly over 21% attended all girls’
schools, 26% all-boys schools, and the rest 53% were in co-educational secondary schools.
The marital status of the students’ parents was as follows: 88.9% were married, 4.4%
divorced, and 7.7% were single parents. The majority of students (95.1 and 1.3%) were of
Christian and Muslim faiths, the rest (3.6%) belonged to other faiths. The data of the schools
attended by the respondent by towns and gender, geographical region is contained in Table 2
for more information. Data analysis regarding students’ social-economic status as indicated
by their fathers’ and mothers’ level of education is presented below. It is evident that they
generally come from low socio- economic status. In this study parents with post secondary
diploma and university degree are few as indicated in the Table 3.
Table 2: Respondent by District and Gender
Town
Male
%
Emohua
108
19.1
Obelle
58
10.3
Oduaha
62
11.0
Ibaa
38
6.7
Ndele
39
6.9
Total
305
46.0
Source: Researchers computation.
Female
64
45
61
39
51
54.0
%
11.4
7.9
10.8
6.9
9.0
260
Table 3: Level of Education of Parents
Educational level
None
Primary level
Secondary
Post secondary
University
Total
Source: (Field work, 2011)
Fathers
42
89
179
167
93
570
%
7.3
15.6
31.4
29.3
16.4
100
142
Mothers
52
158
210
124
26
570
%
9.1
27.7
36.8
21.8
4.6
100
Parents with post-secondary diploma and University degree correspond to middle and
high socio-economic status. Those with secondary education and below are put in low socioeconomic category. Table 3 presents the educational levels of the students’ parents. Data
analyzed in Table 3 have shown that fathers of the students targeted in this study were more
educated than mothers at post-secondary and university level. Thus 7.3% of fathers have no
formal schooling compared to 9.1% of the mothers. At primary, post secondary and
university levels, fathers constituted 15.6, 31.4, 29.3, and 16.4% respectively. The
corresponding percentages of mothers were 27.7, 36.8, 21.8, and 4.6%. These results are not
surprising because women form over 60 per cent of the illiterates in Nigeria (Federal
Republic of Nigeria, 2008).
Determinants of girls’ educational advancement at secondary cycle of education: After
analyzing and examining students’ demographic and socio-economic characteristics,
attention was focused on the factors that negatively on the educational career of both girls
and boys. With respect to the factors militating against the education of girls, pregnancy was
rated first with 96.2%, followed by peer pressure with 85.8%, lack of school fees 79.2%, lack
of parental guidance (77%), drug addiction (74.5%), intimate boy/girls relationship (73.4%),
forced early marriages (68.9%), lack of interest and laziness in school work (65.8%), too
much pocket money from parents (49.1%), cultural beliefs that do not value education of girls
(42.3%), discouragement from teachers (31.6%), and fear of being in the same class with
boys (9.2%).These results clearly show that pregnancy is one of the greatest impediments to
girls’ educational career at secondary level of education. Indeed some 100 girls get pregnant
each year (government of Nigeria and UNICEF, 2002). Most of these girls do not have
opportunities to go back to school partly because they are bogged down by motherhood
responsibilities and partly because their parents do not have resources to take care of the
newly born children and also pay school fees for their other children. In fact, lack of school
fees also interferes greatly with the advancement of girls’ education. In addition, when girls
who have been pregnant go back to school, they are laughed at by peers and the public at
large. This also discourages girls not to want to return to school after giving birth. The
findings that pregnancy is considered to be a big threat to girls’ education mean that they
need to be educated about management of their sexuality. Girls should also be empowered to
resist peer pressure and drug addiction, for girls who succumb to drugs are more likely to
become pregnant due to the fact that their judgment, not to engage in early sexual
relationships, is easily impaired. With regards to the factors that impact unfavourably on the
education aspirations of boys, peer pressure (with 87.5%) had the highest rating, followed by
lack of school fees (77.3%),laziness and apathy (76.7%), lack of parental guidance (75.2%),
drug addiction (62.9%), intimate boys and girls relationships (54.4%), forced marriages as a
result of impregnating girls (50%), too much pocket money from parents (48.3%), and
discouragement from teacher (30.3%). A comparison of the significance of various factors
that impinge on educational career across gender lines such as peer pressure, laziness, apathy,
lack of school fees, lack of parental guidance, drug addiction, intimate boy/girl relationship,
forced early marriages, and too much pocket money from parents has revealed that girls’
education is likely to be more seriously affected than that of boys by all the above mentioned
variables with an exception of peer pressure, laziness, and apathy. The next analysis centred
on students’ educational aspiration. Students who indicated that they are contented with
attaining SS 3 level of education were considered to have low aspirations, post secondary
143
diploma were considered to have moderate aspirations, and those who desired university
education were associated with high educational aspirations. Data in Table 4 presents levels
of education aspired by secondary school students.
Table 4: Level of Education Preferred by Secondary School Students by Gender and
Class
Level of education
Male
Female
SS 1
%
SS 3
Post secondary diploma
University
Total
Source: (Field work, 2011)
1
15
134
150
%
0.2
2.7
23.9
26.8
SS 3
1
17
135
153
0.2
3.0
24.1
27.3
%
SS 1
1
8
111
120
% SS 3
0.2
1
0.2
1.4
33 5.9
19.8 103 18.4
21.4 137 24.5
According to results in Table 4 the same number of males (0.2%) and female (0.2%)
in SS 1 and SS 3 said they were contented with obtaining SS 3 level of education. Notice,
however, that a larger proportion of males in SS 1 (2.7%) and SS 3 (3.0%) than females in
similar classes (1.4%) and (5.9%) respectively, wished to obtain post-secondary diploma
qualification. The rest of the students (23.9%) of males in SS 1 and (24.1%) in SS 3 desired
university education. According to the findings it would appear that aspirations for male
students (SS 3) to achieve university education are slightly higher than those of their
colleagues in SS 1. On the other hand, educational aspiration of girls in SS 1 is slightly higher
than those of their fellow students in SS 3. Thus 19.8% of girls in SS 1 desired university
education compared to 18.4% of girls in SS 3. Overall it is evident that male students have
higher educational aspirations compared to female students.
The findings are consistent with earlier ones of Chivore (2009); Kibera (2003) and
Palvalko (2001). The results also show that Emohua (Rivers State) secondary school students
have very high educational aspirations. This result is congruent with the Somerset (2004) and
Kibera (2003). To get an insight into motives for students” desires to attain a particular level
of education; they were required to provide reasons. Table 5 carries the results.
Factors militating against educational advancement of secondary school students: Data
analysis as illustrated in Table 5 shows that students and especially males aspired for a
particular levels of education because they felt it would help them to build the nation. Thus
20.7% of males cited this reason. In contrast only 10.7% of the females gave the same reason.
This finding is congruent with that of Kibera (2003). However, acquisition of a good job is
mentioned as the next most important reason for aspiring to a particular level of education. It
can be argued that an individual who is unemployed or one who does not get a well-paying
job would find it difficult to have resources to contribute to nation building. By implication
therefore, there is a relationship between receiving education in order to acquire a good job
and the notion of nation building.
The next factor cited is the desire to acquire knowledge. Around 25% of the sample
14.3% males and 10.2% females singled out this reason as motivating their educational
endeavours. Other reasons that may impact on students’ educational goals are support for the
family and success and prestige do not seem to be among them.
144
Table 5: Students’ Reasons for Aspiring for a particular Level of Education by Gender
Reason
Male
%
Females
%
Success and prestige
28
5.0
23
4.1
Obtain good job
80
14.3
57
10.2
Acquire knowledge
75
13.4
56
10.0
Support family
47
8.4
18
3.2
Build nation
116
20.7
60
10.7
Total
346
61.8
214
38.2
Source: (Field work, 2011)
Table 6: Educational Aspirations
Reasons for liking certain school subjects
Male
Contribute to my career
Easy to understand
Fascinating subject
Does not require a lot of reading
I like the subject teacher
Total
Source: (Field work, 2011)
252
23
14
6
5
300
%
84.0
7.7
4.7
2.0
1.6
100
Female
199
28
24
7
5
255
%
74.9
11.0
9.4
2.7
2.0
100
Overall only 11.6 and 9.1% of the students respectively mentioned support for the
family and success and prestige as motives for desiring attainment of a particular level of
education. In eliciting more information about educational aspirations, of the subject studied,
the students were asked to state their favourite subject and to explain why they prefer them.
The reason for having interest in certain school subjects are presented in Table 6. Data
analysis in Table 6 clearly shows that students preferred one subject to another because of its
perceived contribution to their career. Thus 84% males and 74.9% female students stated that
their favourite subject would contribute towards their future careers. Other reasons such as
my favourite subject is “easy to understand”, “it is a fascinating subject”, “it does not require
a lot of reading”, and “I like the teacher of the subject”, were viewed as less important. Male
and female students were also asked to indicate the specific occupation they desired most.
Results of the analyses are contained in Table 7.
145
Table 7: Occupation Aspired to by Gender
Occupation
Male
Doctor
Engineer
Accountant
Lawyer
Nurse
Teacher
Pilot
Business person
Journalist
Air hostess
Police
Politician
Farmer
Secretary
Manager
Preacher
Architect
Surveyor
Musician
Tourists guide
Salesperson
Meteorologist
Total
Source: (Field work, 2011)
69
70
37
17
4
8
20
15
3
1
9
6
1
1
4
3
2
2
3
2
2
0
284
%
14.4
14.5
7.7
3.5
0.8
1.7
4.2
3.1
0.6
0.2
1.9
1.3
0.2
0.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.0
59.0
Female
57
18
27
17
26
12
0
3
8
9
1
2
0
5
2
2
3
2
1
1
0
1
197
%
11.9
3.7
5.6
3.5
5.4
2.5
0.0
0.6
1.7
1.9
0.2
0.4
0.0
1.0
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.2
41.0
The data analysis in Table 7 shows that the most preferred occupations by male
students are those of an engineer (with 14.6%), followed by doctor (14.3%), an accountant
(7.7%), pilot (4.2%), and lawyer (3.5%). On the other hand, the most aspired occupations by
female students are that of a doctor (with 11.7%), an accountant (5.6%), nurse (5.4%), an
engineer (3.7%), and lawyer (3.5%).
These results reveal that girls have lower occupational aspirations compared to their
male counterparts. However, it is noted that although a good proportion of females still prefer
traditional female designated occupations such as nursing, teaching, and air hostess, some
females have substantial interest in male-dominated occupations such as engineering,
medicine, and law. Further results in Table 7 reveal that both male and female students prefer
white-collar occupations.
None of the students wishes to enter manual technical oriented occupations such as
carpentry, motor-mechanic, metal work, farming, and domestic work. These jobs are poorly
remunerated and as a result they are disliked. In addition, girls on the whole require the use of
the “hands” rather than the “brain”. By and large, Emohua students and the public at large
distaste manual/ technical oriented occupations (Sifuna, 2006). It is noted that even though
Emohua LGA is mainly an agriarian economy, only 1.3% of the students wish to be farmers.
Indeed, none of the females wanted to be farmers. This is an interesting finding; women in
Nigeria especially in the Northern and Eastern regions of the country perform over 80% of
146
the work on the farms (Ahmed, 2009).The non-preference of farming by female students may
be attributed to the fact that they do not, as a rule, inherit land from their parents (Bola, 2003;
Mba, 2004). In other words, women are not “farmers”; rather they provide labour on the
farms owned either by their husbands or their brothers. Further, students were requested to
indicate the type of occupations they preferred if they will be partners. Analysis of this
information is presented in Table 8.
Table 8: Occupations Preferred by Male and Female Students for their Future Spouses
Occupation
Male
%
Female
%
Doctor
51
11.0
52
11.2
Engineer
54
11.6
8
1.8
Accountant
54
11.6
1
0.2
Lawyer
27
5.8
18
3.9
Nursing
13
2.8
29
6.2
Secretary
4
0.9
37
8.0
Pilot
26
5.6
1
0.2
Business person
1
0.2
19
4.1
Air hostess
14
3.0
4
0.9
Manager
8
1.7
3
0.6
Farmer
1
0.2
10
2.2
Housewife person
6
1.3
0
0.0
Politician
5
1.2
0
0.0
Musician
0
0.0
4
0.9
Salesperson
3
0.6
0
0.0
Matron
1
0.2
1
0.2
Police
2
0.4
1
0.2
Cateress
0
0.0
0
0.0
Architect
1
0.2
0
0.2
Preacher
1
0.2
1
0.2
Driver
0
0.0
1
0.2
Designer
1
0.2
0
0.0
Total
274
58.0
191
41.1
Source: (Field work, 2011)
The analysis in Table 8 has revealed that the majority of male respondents preferred
their prospective spouses to enter “traditionally preserved” occupations for women. These
occupations include those of a teacher, nurse, secretary, businesswoman, air hostess, farmer,
and housewife. These results further show that male respondents” career choices for female
students are similar to those aspired to by female students themselves. A closer look at data
analysis in Table 8 also revealed that none of the male respondents wanted their spouse to be
a politician or a policewoman, and a driver. In addition very few wished their female
counterparts to become pilots, managers, saleswomen, architects, designers, and cateresses.
Nonetheless, a substantial proportion of them wanted their female colleagues to be doctors,
accountants, and lawyers. Similarly, data analysis in Table 8 shows that female respondents
desired their potential spouse to join “male designated” careers. These careers comprise those
of engineers, lawyers, pilots, accountants, and managers. It is important also to note that
career aspirations for their male counterparts are congruent with those male respondents have
147
for themselves. From this finding, it can be inferred that females expect to gain the outcomes
of good occupations in terms of remuneration and social status indirectly via their spouses
and not directly through themselves. In an attempt to achieve gender parity in the
occupational arena, it would be interesting to establish why girls shun male-dominated
careers considering that they are better remunerated in addition to commanding high prestige
and social status.
Summary
The findings of the study have reaffirmed that girls have lower educational aspirations
as compared to the boys. It has also emerged that educational aspirations of females tend to
decline compared to those of their male counterparts as they move up the educational ladder.
As far as occupations are concerned, by and large girls prefer to join occupations traditionally
preserved for women such as those of teachers, nurses, secretaries, business women, air
hostesses, farmers, and housewives. Male respondents too desire these occupations for their
female counterparts. Indeed they prefer females in such occupations to be their future
spouses. In contrast, females manifest higher occupational aspirations for their male
counterparts than for themselves. They desire men to be doctors, engineers, lawyers, pilots,
and managers. These occupations are male-dominated and are associated with good
remuneration and high social prestige. Finally, the major impediments against educational
advancement of girls are identified as pregnancy, peer pressure, lack of school fees, and lack
of parental guidance, drug addiction, intimate boy/girl relationships and forced early
marriages. On the other hand boys’ educational career is affected mostly by peer pressure,
followed by lack of school fees, laziness, apathy, lack of parental guidance, and drug
addiction.
Conclusions
Given that the greatest danger to girls’ education at secondary level is perceived to
emanate from pregnancy, every effort must be made by parents, teachers, mentors, and
school counsellors to teach them about their sexuality and its management right from the age
of reason. Indeed, this study has shown that lack of school fees is relatively less important in
hampering girls’ education compared to pregnancy and peer pressure.
General recommendations on girl child education
The findings of the study show that generally there is need to carry out awareness
campaigns to sensitize all stakeholders on the importance of education, especially the girl
child. It is important to create well-maintained single-gender boarding schools. Girls should
be targeted in terms of family life and sex education. There is need to create projects and
programmes that will increase the family income hence result in material empowerment. This
will help parents to generate more income. The fund may help in financing to get rid of the
laws that prohibit negative practices such as early marriages, female genital mutilation and
sexual harassment, leading to early and unplanned pregnancies. Equality should be
emphasized bearing in mind socio-cultural factors such as gender stereotypes as gender roles,
negative traditional beliefs, attitudes and practices, patriarchal descent system, and religious
beliefs. Further research in other institutions should be done.
148
Reference
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Bruce, K. (2006, 30th October). Academic ability higher education and occupation mobility.
American Sociology Review, 735-746.
Chivore, B. (2009) SSS I pupils’ perception and attitudes towards the teaching profession in
Zamfara. Comparative education, 1(22), 252-258.
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Analysis. Abuja: UNICEF, Nigeria Country Office.
Kibera, W.L. (2003). Career aspirations and expectations of secondary school students of
8-4-4 system of education in Kiambu and Kajiado and Machakos Districts, Kenya:
(Unpublished) Ph.D Thesis, Kenyatta University.
King, E. (1991). Wide benefits seen from improved education for women. Washington
economic reports. Nairobi: United States Information Agency No 4.
Mba, P. (2004). Rural sociology and rural development; its application in Nigeria. Enugu:
East African Literature Bureau
Mueller, J. (1990). Literacy- human right not a privilege in development and cooperation.
Berlin: German Foundation for International Development.
Palvalko, R.M. (2001). Sociology of occupations and professions. Hossea Lions: F.E
Peakcock Publishers, Inc.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2008). Literacy survey. Abuja: Government Printing Press.
Sifuna, D.N. (2006). Vocational education in schools, a historical survey of Nigeria. Abuja:
East African Bureau.
Somerset, H.C.A. (2004). A Survey on fourth form pupils on educational and occupational
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Perspectives from Kenya. Nairobi: Oxford University Press.
149
PRIVATIZATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION OF EDUCATION AND EQUAL
EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY: THE ROLE OF A DEMOCRATIC
GOVERNMENT
IGWESI, B. N.
Department of Educational Foundations,
Faculty of Education, Niger Delta University,
Bayelsa State .
Abstract
The main focus of this paper is privatization and commercialization of education and its
implications for equal educational opportunities. The concepts of privatization and
commercialization were explored in the paper, distinguishing between full and partial
privatization and commercialization. The conflict perspective of society was used to explain
the relationship between privatization of education and equal educational opportunities.
Private schools serve the purpose of the rich because it is only they that have the economic
power to establish private schools and also to send their children to such schools. The
government plays a role in the privatization and commercialization of schools because they
fail to carry out their responsibilities toward the public schools. Hence, people lose interest in
these schools and resort to private ones. This gives the private sectors the opportunity to
exploit members of the society. A democratic government, therefore, has the responsibility of
ensuring that all citizens have access to equal educational opportunity in terms of both the
quality and quantity of education provided. The paper recommended, among others, that a
democratic government should provide adequate funds for the maintenance of public schools
and also ensure that quality is not sacrificed for gain.
Introduction
Education performs a very important role of equipping an individual with skills and
knowledge, which will help to transform the individual’s life and subsequently his society. It
is also a global consensus that education is a viable tool to enhance the sustainable
development of any country. It is in view of this that Enaibe and Imonivwerha (2007) stated
the education is a necessary weapon that can be used to surmount ignorance, poverty and
disease and to produce functional citizens with positive attitudes towards loving what they
ought to love and hating what they ought to hate. Elucidating more on the importance of
education, Amini-Philips and Victor-Ochonma (2009) succinctly stated that:
Education enhances the capacity for the participation of people in economic, social,
political and cultural activities in rapidly changing world. As a versatile tool,
education can contribute to a wide range of areas, including conflict resolution,
nutrition, healthcare, employment and livelihood, cultural expression and improved
quality of life. It is also an instrument for social justice, especially for promoting
gender equality discrimination and exclusion (p.145).
From the foregoing submissions, it could be asserted that no individual or nation can
achieve any sustainable development without going through the process of education, be it
formal, informal or non-formal. In the study of the link between education and society,
Parsons (1961) cited in Haralambos and Holborn (2008) stated that the school acts as a bridge
between the family and the society as a whole, preparing children for their adult role. He also
saw the educational system as an important mechanism for selection of individuals for their
150
future role in society. In other words, education “ functions to allocate these human resources
within the role-structure of adult society” (p. 601). Talcott Parson’s submission implies
therefore that when people are not educated, they will not be able to find their proper place in
the society. This will also lead to misplacement of roles in the society and subsequently
hinder development. Education is therefore the key to developing individuals and in doing so,
making social progress possible. Education had been and is still one of the social
responsibilities of the government of any society. This is because every government
recognizes the place and importance of education in national development. Reddy, Manchala
and Amareswaran (2008) opined that education not only dispels ignorance, it is also the only
wealth that cannot be robbed. Education is therefore needed by every member of the society
because it equips individuals with knowledge and skill that will enable them to be useful both
to themselves and to their society.
Although education is needed by all, not all members of the society can afford the
cost of education. This is because no society is egalitarian and since there are members of the
society who may not be able to afford the high cost of education, the government takes it
upon herself to provide it as a social product for all her citizens. In recent years, however,
there has been an intense shift from government’s sole responsibility for the provision of
education to the privatization and commercialization of education. Kishan & Balaramulu
(2008) stressed that:
Globalization, compulsion and paradigm shift in education are the main concepts in
the system of education in the 21st century. Money rather than merit are the measure
of available educational opportunity. Education under globalization is no more a
social product for social consumption, rather it is a private product for private
consumption (p.89).
This shift in the provision of education is, therefore, a global problem ,which is not
limited to Nigeria as a country. Moreover, there has been an intense debate on the issue of
privatization globally, internationally and nationally. Both the privatization and
commercialization of public enterprises generally, and education in particular, has not been
accepted as a popular reform in Nigeria. For instance, the academic and labour unions non
governmental organizations and individuals have constantly criticized governments move to
privatize public enterprises. It appears, however, that the privatization and commercialization
of education has attracted the most intense global debate. This paper therefore draws from the
work of Kishan (2008) on privatization of education to consider the implications of
privatization and commercialization of education in Nigeria on the one hand and equality of
educational opportunities on the other. It will also consider the role of a democratic
government in ensuring that equal educational opportunities are given to all members of the
society. The paper does not, in any way, intend to take sides with any opinion, rather to
consider how privatization and commercialization of schools may have implication for equal
educational opportunities.
Meaning of Privatization and Commercialization
Privatization has to do with private ownership of businesses and industries in the
society. The term privatization as defined by Sujatha, Reddy and Reddy (2008, p.63) means,
“... shifting the delivery of services performed by public employees to private business”. This
implies that privatization is the process of transferring the ownership of an organization or
enterprise from the public sector to the private sector. For the purposes of education,
privatization implies the withdrawal of the state intervention from this sector. Dayan and
151
Sambaiah (2008) also submitted that privatization in education means having lesser control
and regulations of government. Kishan and Giridhar (2008) also defined privatization as a
process of moving from less public ownership, financing and /or control to more private
ownership, financing and /or control. They further stated that privatization is a complex and
an ambiguous concept because three dimensions of change can be identified. These are
ownership, financing and control. Citing Laitsch (2002), they emphasized that privatization
encompasses three elements which are:
1. contracting out of services;
2. bringing in private companies to run schools; and
3. privatization of governance and funding.
The aforementioned definitions or explanations of privatization show that when any
of the dimensions of change in privatization which are ownership, financing and control are
seen in any service, sector or company, privatization has taken place. The privatization and
commercialization Act of 1988 and the Bureau of Public Enterprises Act 1993 also defined
privatization as the relinquishment of part or all of the equity and other interests held by the
Federal Government or any of its agencies to private enterprises, whether wholly or partly.
The transfer of the ownership of those public enterprises owned and managed by Federal or
State Governments to private individuals is therefore called privatization.
Broadly defined, it is an umbrella term to describe a variety of policies, which
encourage competition and emphasize the role of market forces in place of statutory
restrictions and monopoly powers (Zayyad, n.d.).Commercialization as defined by Zayyad
(n.d) is the re-organization of enterprises, wholly or partially owned by the government in
which such commercial enterprises shall operate as profit-making commercial ventures
without subvention from the government. The Oxford Dictionary, however, defined it as
“manage or exploit in a way defined to make a profit”. Public enterprises can either be fully
or partially privatized or commercialized. Zayyad (n.d.) noted that fully privatized or
commercialized public enterprises are those which are already incorporated and which
produce goods and those which are more “private” (consumptive) than public (essential) in
nature. They would be owned 100% by the private sector. Examples of such public
enterprises are insurance companies, foods and beverages companies, Nigeria Ports
Authority, and National Insurance Corporation of Nigeria.
Partially privatized or commercialized public enterprises on the other hand, are those
which the government considers strategic because of the greater public nature of their goods.
In this case, government would still exercise some influence over them to the extent of its
representation on the board. In terms of accountability, management, profit, they would
operate as the fully privatized enterprises. Examples of these are Cement companies,
Development Banks, Ajaokuta steel Company Limited and Nigerian National Petroleum
Corporation. Kalyani and Venkateswarlu (2008), therefore, opined that commercialization of
education refers to the process of private ownership and management of educational
institutions whereby investment takes place with a view to earn profit. Privatization therefore
leads to commercialization.
Privatization and Commercialization of Education: The Conflict Perspective.
Karl Marx (1818-1883) is the proponent of the conflict theory of the society and
social change. He regarded change as a much more explosive process resulting from inherent
conflict within societies. In Marx’s Manifesto of the Communist Party, he stated that “the
history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggle”. This struggle,
152
according to Marx, is between the haves and the have nots or rather between the oppressors
and the oppressed (O’Donnel, 1978; Salawu, 2003). Marx maintained that the fact that only a
certain amount of wealth, power and other desired factors are available within the society
makes conflict almost inevitable. Broom and Selznick (1977) stated that Marx believes that
the most important aspect of social order is the domination of some groups by others, and that
society is best understood as an arena of actual and potential conflict. Human societies
(either in its primitive or relatively undifferentiated stage) has therefore remained
fundamentally divided between classes (Coser, 1977). The privatization of schools in Nigeria
presents a conflict of interests between groups in the Nigeria society. The poverty level of
parents in Nigeria also constitutes one of the reasons for this conflict. This is because Marx
identified scarcity of wealth as one of the reasons for conflict in societies.
Similarly, Adebisi (2003) opined that conflict theorists believe that there are
fundamental differences of interest between social groups and that those differences result in
conflict being a common and persistent feature of society and not a temporary aberration.
Max Weber’s view is that the interest groups, classes or status groups in the society may
usually have political, economic, educational and religious interests that they want to promote
and protect. Conflict perspectives are therefore based on the view that there is a conflict of
interest between groups in society. The powerful are seen to gain at the expense of the less
powerful. Thus, in a capitalist society, education largely serves the interest of the powerful,
maintains their power, justifies their privilege and legitimizes their wealth (Haralambos &
Holbon, 2008).
Karl Marx, the proponent of the capitalist perspective of society also claimed that a
constant expansion of the market is necessary for the development of capitalism. Rikowski
(2002) cited in Haralambos and Holborn (2008) also argues that today’s globalization is
essentially capitalist globalization and he sees education as part of this process. As a global
commodity therefore, the driving force behind private educational institutions is the
generation of profit. Most private schools at all levels of education in Nigeria are, therefore,
driven by this desire. Thus, money rather than merit, are the measure of availing educational
opportunity. Education under globalization is, therefore, no more a social product for social
consumption, rather, it has become a private product for private consumption (Kishan &
Balaramulu, 2008). The less privileged in the society are, therefore, denied access to quality
education, which in recent times, can mostly be found among graduates of private institutions
of learning, especially, at the primary and secondary school levels.
Privatization and Equal Educational Opportunity
Nigeria places a high premium on education. This is why her philosophy of education
is based on the provision of equal access to educational opportunities for all her citizens at all
levels of education, both inside and outside the formal system of education (F.R.N, 2004).
Similarly, the objectives of the Education For All (EFA), an international commitment to
education, which was first launched in Jomtien, Thailand in 1990 are to:
- Expand and improve comprehensive childhood care and education, especially for the
most vulnerable and disadvantaged children.
- Ensure that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, those in difficult circumstances and
those belonging to ethnic minorities have access to and complete free and compulsory
primary education of good quality.
- Ensure that learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable
access to appropriate learning and life-skill programmes.
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- Achieve a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for
women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults.
- Eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2015, and achieve
gender equality in 2015 with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and
achievement in basic education of good quality.
- Improve all aspects of the quality of education and ensure excellence of all so that
recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy,
numeracy and essential life skills.
One of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGS) as stated by Enuku (2006) was
also to achieve universal basic education, and to ensure that all boys and girls complete a full
course of primary education and junior secondary education. These reviews are both national
and international commitments to equality of educational opportunities and demonstrate that
education is a right of every member of the society. It also goes to show that it is the
responsibility of the government, not only to ensure that equal educational opportunities are
provided to all citizens, but also, to be responsible for the education of her citizens. This is
because education is the primary need for all in the society. Nwoye (n.d) noted that the need
to harness, rationally, the scarce resources to produce goods and services for economic
improvement as well as the promotion of the welfare of the citizens led to the emergence of
the public sector in Nigeria. Thus, the government became solely responsible for certain
facilities in the society. These facilities include education, which cannot be left at the mercy
of private individuals. She further stated, however, that privatization in Nigeria was formally
introduced by the Privatization and Commercialization Act of 1988 with a mandate to
privatize 111 public enterprises and commercialize34 others. This has led the privatization of
some parastatals in Nigeria which had been solely managed and funded by the Government.
Some of these parastatals had earlier been mentioned. Privatization and commercialization of
public enterprises has not been a popular reform in that several arguments had risen against it.
Some of them are that it will result in:
- exploitation of consumer by the private sector;
- perpetration of poverty, especially among the poor and vulnerable workforce; and
- exploitation by capitalist countries.
The education industry had also been privatized either directly or indirectly by the
government. Poor infrastructure, poor learning environment and other related problems in
public schools caused by inadequate funding by the government has contributed to the
proliferation of private schools in Nigeria. The government is therefore subtly withdrawing
from her social responsibility of providing her citizens with education by allowing private
individuals to take over this responsibility.
Kishan (2008) argued that the liberalization policy of government has led to the
privatization of the education system. This has made education to become a private product
for private consumption, rather than remaining a social product for social consumption.
Kumar and Marreddy (2008, p.107) also stated some effects of privatization on education in
Nigeria as:
1. Unplanned expansion
2. Discrepancy between the rich and the poor, and thus, likely to increase the gap between
the rich and poor.
There is a contradiction between the ideal of equal educational opportunity and the
existence of the present education system in Nigeria. Privatization of some schools can limit
the chances for those who have the interest and ability, but do not have the finance or socio154
economic chances of acquiring education. One of the pronounced direct attempt by the
government of Nigeria to privatize schools was the contemplated privatization of unity
schools in 2007. Abdullahi (2003) stated that the dire need to use education to develop in the
Nigerian youths a sense of unity, patriotism and love of the nation, especially after the
Nigerian independence, gave birth to the concept of Federal Government Colleges, otherwise
called Unity Schools. He further stated that:
The objective was to foster in the youths a sense of nation building. In this way, young
pupils in their formative and impressionable years from all parts of the federation with
different languages, ethnic and cultural backgrounds are given the opportunity to
work, play and grow together learn to understand and tolerate one another and therefore
develop a horizon of one strong Nigeria (p.101).
Despite this laudable goal of establishing the unity schools in Nigeria, the Federal
Government proposed in 2007 a Unity Schools Public-private Partnership initiative (PPP) as
a solution to the problems of corruption and poor management of the schools. Abdullahi
(2003) noted that if this initiative was carried out, it would change the government’s role
from that of a school manager to that of:
- enabler and facilitator of the system;
- standard-setter through law, regulations and guidelines regarding policies, minimum
standards, etc;
- primary fund provider;
- regulator and inspector to ensure maintenance of minimum standards; and
- asset owner of land and physical infrastructure.
The role of non-governmental partners is also expected to be that of:
- Operator and manager of schools;
- Mobilizer of non-government funding to augment resources provided by the Federal
Government; and
- Responsible for achievement of standards and goals.
Though the Federal Government claimed that the PPP initiative is not an attempt to
privatize the unity schools, Abdullahi (2006) saw it as Federal Government’s first essential
step in the privatization of ownership of unity schools. The National Executive Council of the
Academic Staff Union of Nigerian Universities (ASUU), through its president opposed the
contemplated privatization of unity schools for some reasons, such as:
1. it will extend to tertiary education, if the experiment in unity schools succeeds;
2. it is an abdication of the Federal Government primary social responsibility; and
3. Parents cannot pay for the education of their children because over 100 million Nigerians
are living on less than one United States Dollar a day.
The intended privatization of unity schools in Nigeria was discussed to show that the
general public is not well disposed towards the initiative in particular and the privatization
and commercialization of education in general. Private schools (at different levels) are
springing up in Nigeria because both Federal and State Governments, by their actions or
attitudes towards issues concerning the education sector, have lost their commitment to
providing this essential commodity and making it available and accessible to all citizens.
Privatization and commercialization of schools is, therefore, contrary to the policy of
equal educational opportunities because it will:
1.
2.
3.
4.
affect access of the poor to education;
lead to unhealthy competition among private school owners;
make our education system to be at the mercy of profit making individuals or organizations; and
affect job security of the teaching and non-teaching staff.
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The role of a democratic government in the privatization and commercialization of
schools and in ensuring equal educational opportunities.
Education is the social responsibility of every democratic government. This is why
the Federal Government recognized the importance of education in national development and
thus stated in section 1, sub-section 9(a) of the National Policy on Education that:
Education shall continue to be highly rated in the national development plans because
education is the most important instrument of change; any fundamental change in the
intellectual and social outlook of any society has to be preceded by an educational revolution
(F.R.N. 2004,p. 8).
However, the attitude of both Federal and State Governments towards the funding and
general maintenance of educational institutions calls to question their commitment towards
the provision of equal educational opportunities to the citizens. Chukwuneke (2009) has
noted that in democracy, one of the cardinal principles is equality before the law. It is,
therefore, the responsibility of the government to ensure equality in the provision of
education. Bad governance, inept leadership, mismanagement of resources, and misplaced
priorities have, however, been impeding development in most African countries, including
Nigeria. It has been established that the effects of privatization on education in Nigeria
includes unplanned expansion and more importantly, discrepancy between the rich and the
poor. This is because most private schools charge exorbitant fees, which the poor masses in
the society cannot afford. Some individuals might argue that education has not been
privatized in Nigeria, but what happens when the government neglects her responsibilities
towards the public schools? There will be dilapidation of structures, lack of adequate
infrastructures, delay in payment of teachers’ salaries, poor funding and so on. These will
impact negatively on the quality of education in public schools.
Subsequently, this will lead to the emergence of more private schools, which will be
funded by private individuals in Nigeria. As profit oriented organizations, the fees will be
outside the reach of the lower class members of the society. If the rich have access to quality
education and the poor to substandard education as result of differences in economic power,
how then shall Nigerians in general or the government, lay claim to the provision of equal
educational opportunities?
Democracy has been defined as the government of the people, by the people and for
the people, and before every election, aspirants make so many promises to the citizens, which
they often fail to fulfill after they are voted into office. These promises include that of
ensuring that education is accessible to all Nigerians, and also revamping the education
sectors. However, “How many governments live up to these promises?”, is a question to be
answered. Zayyad (n.d) noted that “ as government could no longer continue to support the
monumental waste and inefficiency of the public enterprise, the programme of privatization
and commercialization was developed to address the peculiar socio-economic and political
conditions in Nigeria …” (p.2). This so called problem, which could be handled in a different
way, had led to full or partial privatization and commercialization of many public enterprises
in Nigeria, and though the government has not fully declared the privatization of the
education sector, her activities towards it show that the sector had also been either fully or
partially privatized and commercialized. What is our democratic government doing to ensure
that the public primary schools, secondary schools and universities, which though cost less
than the private schools, have the same quality as their counter parts?
156
It could, therefore, be argued that in terms of affordability (especially in the area of
cost), there is equal educational opportunity. This is because the poor masses may afford to
send their children and wards to the public schools, especially, with the introduction of free
and compulsory education up to Basic 9. In the same vein, the rich can afford the high fees
charged by private schools. However, when the quality of education is considered, the
inequality between these classes becomes prominent. It should be remembered that private
schools began to flourish as a result of parents’ dissatisfaction with the attitude of the
government to the public schools and with the standard of education being given to their
children. The government is highly responsible for the proliferation of private schools in
Nigeria and the unequal educational opportunities being provided to the citizens of this
country. It is the responsibility of Nigeria’s democratic government, therefore, to ensure that
equal educational opportunity is provided to the citizens.
Conclusion
This paper has explored the concept of privatization and commercialization,
distinguishing between full and partial privatization and commercialization. The main focus
of the paper is privatization and commercialization of education. It was shown that
privatization denies citizens equal educational opportunities, especially, when the quality of
education provided is considered. The conflict perspective of society was used to explain the
relationship between privatization of education and equal educational opportunities. Private
schools serve the purpose of the rich because it is only the rich that have the economic power
to establish private schools and also to send their children to such schools.
The government plays a role in the privatization and commercialization of schools
because they carry out their responsibilities towards the public schools. Hence, people lose
interest in these schools and resort to private ones. This gives the private sector the
opportunity to exploit the citizens. In view of these discourse, a democratic government has
the responsibility of ensuring that all citizens have access to equal educational opportunity in
terms of both the equality and the quantity of education provided.
Recommendations:
Deriving from the fore-going conclusion, it is hereby recommended that both the
Federal and State government should:
1. Provide adequate funds for the maintenance of public schools.
2. Ensure adequate and prompt payment of teachers salaries.
3. Ensure that other conditions of service are favourable to the teachers
4. Set up machineries for the adequate supervision of public schools to ensure quality education.
5. Rehabilitate classrooms and other damaged structures in the schools.
6. Build classrooms, staff rooms, libraries, laboratories where they are either not existing or
are insufficient.
7. Provide amenities such as electricity, pipe borne water, and health facilities in public schools.
8. Regulate the fees charged by private schools to make it accessible to all citizens.
9. Ensure adequate supervision of private schools to ensure that quality is not sacrificed for gain.
157
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158
THE RELEVANCE OF EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL CHANGE AND GOOD
GOVERNANCE IN NIGERIA
ALUFOHAI, E. A.
Faculty of Educational Foundations,
University of Lagos
&
EZEANA, P. C.
Faculty of Educational Foundations,
University of Lagos
Abstract
The emphasis for all people all over the world to have access to basic education is founded on
the belief that education has been established to be the main key for social change both for
the individual and the society. Education remains the foundation of growth and development
of any nation as well as a major tool for bringing about desirable changes. Pointing out
the role of literacy and education in overall human development, Patil (2009) held that
literacy and education confer a wide set of benefits not only on individuals and families, but
also on communities as a whole. Consequently, the need to utilize education as an authentic
tool for social change and good governance in the Nigerian educational system cannot be
overemphasized. To this end, this paper, examined the importance of education for social
change and as a tool for good governance in Nigeria. The challenges of education in Nigeria
alongside the trend of changes in the Nigerian educational system were also discussed. The
paper concluded with the recommendation that education be made accessible to all, and
citizenship education should be introduced and taught at all levels of our educational system
for social change and good governance to be achieved.
Introduction
The importance of education to human development cannot be over emphasized.
Education is recognized as a process by which individuals are perceived to assume their
respective responsibilities within a social setting, thus, making it a tool for social
reconstruction and national development (Sofolahan, 2000). Consequently, in every society
today, education is seen as the main key to the social change of the individual and the society.
This accounts for the emphasis, particularly in recent times, for all people all over the world
to have access to basic education. The above is borne out of the fact that education performs
functions both for the individual and the society.
It is important to reiterate that one basic goal of Education for All (EFA) is ensuring
that by 2015, all children have access to a complete, free and compulsory primary education
of good quality (United Nations, 2008). However, the conservative estimate of UNICEF
(2002) was that some 45% of primary school age children were out of school in Nigeria. The
literacy situation in Nigeria as analyzed by UNICEF indicated that the overall literacy rate
declined from 57% in 1990 to 49% in 2001, and this compares very unfavourably with
African countries such as South Africa (84%), Kenya (79%), Cameroon (72%) and Ghana
(68%). Also, findings from educational sector analysis by Civil Society Action Coalition on
Education for All (CSACEFA) (2008) confirmed the poor state of education in Nigeria. The
national literacy rate according to the finding was 57 percent. Some 49 percent of the
teaching force was not qualified. There were acute shortages of infrastructure and facilities at
159
all levels. Access to basic education was inhibited by gender issues and socio-cultural beliefs
and practices among other factors. From the findings, it was very glaring that wide
disparities persisted in educational standards and learning achievements, despite the
irrefutable substantiation that education is fundamental to the improvement of the people and
the nation. Consequently, Nigerian educational system leaves much to be desired in the
mission to utilize education as an authentic tool for social change and good governance.
Conceptual Framework
This study draws from Charles Horton Cooley’s (1864-1929) Symbolic interactionism
which focuses on how individuals influence and are influenced by society (Hobbs & Blank,
1975). It guides investigations into how the rules of society are re-created everyday through
our interactions with one another. Socialization of members of any society is a crucial factor
in attaining the ideals and goals of any society and is necessary for the maintenance of order
in the society. With the process of socialization, members of the society are taught the
benefits of conforming to acceptable standards of behaviour (Smah, 2000). The overall result
of this conformity brings about social order. This makes the development of human society to
hinge on values, norms, laws and methods of acquiring and transferring skills generally
through socializations – a process by which we learn to become members of a society both by
internalizing the norms and values of society, and by learning to perform our social roles in a
group or in a society (Marshall, 1996).
Group life having brought about so many new things among which was how people
started possessing some accepted ways of behaviour, later culminated in the development of
group culture. According to Adisa (2000) group period is a living period when man entered
into a “social contract”. In his view, each person now has to sacrifice or surrender certain
individual freedom in order to ensure collective security. This shows the origin and
universality of social institutions through preoccupation with economic survival, government,
sex and procreation (family), religion, legal/jurisprudence as well as education. Education as
one of the social institutions stands out as an agent for deliberate and organized transmission
of values and skills. For this to be made possible, schools are established to give formal
learning to people. Formal learning complements the informal education received at home.
Little wonder education is seen by some as the total experience of what happens to us from
birth to death (Moore, 1982).
Nduka (1964) viewed education as the formal process of transmitting culture from
one generation to the next while socialization could be seen as the informal process of
transmitting culture to the younger generation. Education as a social institution is therefore
universally acknowledged as a vital instrument in the development process of any nation and
is vital to liberating the people from ignorance alongside stimulating development. It also
plays a significant role in transforming the lives of individuals, and consequently of the
society in which they live. Thus, educational enterprise is a vehicle of social stability/order
as well as an agent of social change (Aluko, 2000). As a result, the value attached to
education becomes high. It could therefore be explained that involvement of education in the
process of turning children into useful and responsible adults means that it is not concerned
solely with knowledge as preparation for occupation, but to ensure that each generation
shares a common set of values which dictates the ideas of right and wrong.
The purpose of education must be to develop in every individual their full potential
while giving them a chance to achieve as much in life as their natural abilities allow. This
promising vision, however, does not unfold into reality. The reality, according to many
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sociologists is that education works towards a larger goal than that of the individual and its
purpose is to maintain social stability, through the social reproduction of inequality. What the
goal of this stability is differs depending on which sociological perspective one uses. To this
end, the formulation of ideas, their integration for national development, and the interaction
of persons and ideas as aspects of education, must be well articulated to foster the worth and
development of the individual, for each individual’s sake, and for the general development of
the society.
Education for Social Change
Education remains the bedrock of growth and development of any nation and a major
tool for bringing about desirable changes. Education provides individuals in a country
the opportunity to be exposed to the cultures of other tribes in the country. When people learn
about the cultures of others within the country, they develop appreciation and tolerance for
one another. This exposure contributes a lot to the improvement of the individual as well as
promoting peaceful co-existence which is linked to national integration. This is quite crucial
as integration has been the problem of most developing countries. Given that education plays
important roles by being an agent of integration and/or enabling the country to adopt a
uniform way of life, the problem of integration can effectively be tackled through it. For
instance, through education, a country with diverse cultures and languages like Nigeria can
have a common language taught to all and a similar curriculum given to the growing children,
who will through such shaped experiences develop a higher tendency to think more like
members of the same country than of the various tribes which they come from.
Education has contributed to changing the social structure of societies hence it is
globally seen and accepted as the bed rock of the society. This is because of its intrinsic and
extrinsic values, which make it instrumental in the development of persons for attainment of
the good life and overall development of the society (Omolewa, 2001). In the same vein, once
the individual is developed, he/she can access political education which is crucial for the
sustenance of democracy.
A direct way in which education serves as an instrument of social change is by
enabling individuals to critically assess old values and where these no longer meet their
aspirations, discard them and take on more appropriate ones. It is through education that
individuals are able to know what is expected of them. They are able to engage in important
discussions and contribute meaningfully to the growth of their society. They are able to
critically examine policies put forward by their representatives in government. With
education it is easy for positive change to be adopted.
Literacy leads to good employment opportunities. Dukku (2009) opined that literacy
empowers people economically and politically and that if the education system is not right at
the basic level, it will affect the secondary and tertiary levels. If a country’s workforce is
educated, skilled, organized as well as competitive and prepared to go ahead, no one can stop
such an economy from being prosperous. Concisely, economic development depends on
qualitative workforce and this qualitative workforce can be acquired by developing
professional, social and communication skills through literacy and education. If the people of
a country are educated, they will work much better to satisfy their needs. Simultaneously, the
country’s economy will grow and develop.
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Education for Good Governance
Good governance has been defined by UNESCO (2006) as a form of governance that
embodies eight specific characteristics, and can be seen as an ideal of governance. Good
governance embodies processes that are participatory, consensus oriented, accountable,
transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follow the rule of
law.
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The Eight Characteristics of Good Governance
CHARACTERISTIC
Accountability
DEFINITION
Accountability is a key requirement of good governance. Not only government
institutions but also the private sector and civil society organisations must be
accountable to the public and to their institutional stakeholders. Who is
accountable to whom varies, depending on whether decisions or actions taken are
internal or external to an organisation or institution. In general, an organisation or
an institution is accountable to those who will be affected by its decisions or
actions. Accountability cannot be enforced without transparency and the rule of
law.
Consensus-oriented
There are several actors and as many viewpoints in a given society. Good
governance requires mediation of the different interests in society to reach a
broad consensus on what is in the best interest of the whole community and how
this can be achieved. It also requires a broad and long-term perspective on what
is needed for sustainable human development and how to achieve such
development. This can only result from an understanding of the historical,
cultural and social contexts of a given society or community.
Effectiveness and
Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet
efficiency
the needs of society while making the best use of the resources at their disposal.
The concept of efficiency in the context of good governance also covers the
sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment.
Equity and inclusiveness A society’s well being depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they
have a stake in it and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of society. This
requires that all groups, but particularly the most vulnerable, have opportunities
to improve or maintain their well being.
Participation
Participation by both men and women is a cornerstone of good governance.
Participation could be either direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions
or representatives. Representative democracy does not necessarily mean that the
concerns of the most vulnerable in society would be taken into consideration in
decision-making. Participation needs to be informed and organised, which
requires freedom of association and expression and an organised civil society.
Responsiveness
Good governance requires that institutions and processes try to serve all
stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe.
Rule of law
Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially. It
also requires full protection of human rights, particularly those of minorities.
Impartial enforcement of laws requires an independent judiciary and an impartial
and incorruptible police force.
Transparency
Transparency means that decisions made and their enforcement are achieved in a
manner that follows rules and regulations. It also means that information is freely
available and directly accessible to those who will be affected by such decisions
and their enforcement. It also means that enough information is provided and that
it is provided in easily understandable forms and media.
Source: United Nations (2006)
Good governance “assures that corruption is minimised, the views of minorities are
taken into account, and that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decisionmaking. It is also responsive to the present and future needs of society”. Clearly, there is a
close relation between good governance and respect for human rights.
163
In lieu of the above, there is need for functional education for the promotion of a
progressive, united Nigeria. To achieve this, school programmes need to be relevant, practical
and comprehensive, while interest and ability should be used to determine individuals’
direction in education. If literacy is high in a nation, it will not only increase the number of
entrepreneurs and the flow of money, it will bring about positive social changes. If people are
literate, then there will be minimum violence in the country. This scenario surely creates
room for good governance. An educated country is a developed country. It is a country that is
set for social change and good governance. If the issue of illiteracy must be addressed, the
policy on education as an instrument par excellence for national development has to be
properly implemented. This brings us to the challenges facing education in Nigeria.
Challenges of Education in Nigeria
Observing the importance of education for social change and national development,
the United Nations (UN) advocates 26 percent of annual budgets to education. Similarly, the
federal government of Nigeria recognizes the importance of education as a tool for
development in the National Policy on Education (NPE, 2004). Regrettably, so many years
after the formulation of the National Policy, education in Nigeria has not been able to meet
the stated aims. Education was commissioned to improve and widen access to primary
education. But the budgetary allocation to education fell seriously short of the UNESCO
prescribed 26 percent of the entire budgetary allocation. It only improved slightly when
democracy came in 1999 as shown in the table on the next page.
Table 1: Education Sector Share of Federal Budget 1989-2003 in millions.
Year
Annual Budget
Allocation to % Total
Education
1989
30,107,000
1,941.7
6.45
1990
40,660.7
2,204.7
5.45
1991
38,665.9
1,787.6
4.62
1992
52,036.4
2,392.9
4.00
1993
111,616.5
7,999.1
7.20
1994
69,200.0
10,283.4
14.86
1995
111,457.5
12,816.4
11.50
1996
121,221.9
15,351.7
10.81
1997
118,089.3
16,841.2
11.53
1998
246,342.4
23,668.1
9.61
1999
249,000.00
827,713.5
11.13
2000
No data
No data
No data
2001
894,200
62,600.0
7.0
2002
765,000
13,500
1.81
Sources: Education Sector Status Report (2003), Effective Funding & Quality Assurance in
Nigerian Education System.
Table 1 shows that the allocation to education in the federal budget fluctuated
between 1989 and 2003. The percentage allocation was most ridiculous in 2003 when
government budgeted 1.81% to education which is terribly far from the UNESCO
recommendation of 26% for developing countries. The decreased sector allocation to
education in the national budget also implied decreased funding for education in general, the
164
result of this decreased funding is that facilities and infrastructure declined in quality and
quantity, thereby, contributing to the system’s inefficiency (Obanyan, 2006)..
Table 2: Proportion of Federal Government Budget Allocated to
Education (1990 – 2003)
Year
% of total budget allocated
Year
% of total budget
to education
allocated to education
1990
5.3
1997
11.5
1991
4.1
1998
9.6
1992
6.3
1999
11.1
1993
7.3
2000
10.1
1994
14.9
2001
12.2
1995
13.0
2002
10.5
1996
10.8
2003
11.0
Source: Okoli (2006:6)
From the table, it is obviously clear that at no time has the allocation to the sector
come near the 26% minimum recommended by UNESCO. The rationale for public spending
on education is to equip people with the knowledge, skills and attitudes which will enhance
the quality of lives of the citizens of the country.
Trend of Changes in Nigerian Educational System
Amidst the fact that the education system in Nigeria is supposed to be guided by the
broad National objectives which are articulated in the National Policy on Education (NPE,
2004), the state of education in Nigeria still leaves much to be desired. According to Soyinka
(2007), in a recent study by the Federal Ministry of Education which is contained in a report
titled ‘State of Nigeria public schools’, out of 140 million Nigerians 45% (63 million) are
children from 0 to 15 years. Out of these 63 million, 42.1 million were eligible for primary
school education but only 22.3 million were in primary schools with the public school system
catering for 85%. So, 47% (19.8 million) Nigerian children that should have been in primary
school were out of school and the major reason for this state of affairs was the inability of
most parents to bear the cost of sending their children to school.
Nevertheless, of all the levels of education, the primary education level remains the
most important since it aims among other things at inculcating permanent literacy, numeracy
and the laying of a sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking. As a signatory in 2000
to the World Education Conference and the six Dakar Goals towards achieving Education for
All (EFA), Government has also established a National EFA Coordination unit under the
Federal Ministry of Education, mandated to prepare a National Action Plan for the delivery
of EFA in Nigeria.
However, the Nigerian educational system is witnessing difficulty in the context of
declining resource inputs particularly from the government. This is because enrolments in
schools are increasing and the needed resources to meet infrastructural and other
requirements are dwindling. An example is the rapid expansion witnessed by the Nigerian
formal education sector between 1975/76 section and 2005/2006 academic session.
According to the National University Commission Report (NUC, 2005), growth and
expansion in the tertiary sector has defied all projections. NUC reports that, Nigerian’s
Federal University system grew by 12% annually and during the 1990s, it totalled 325,299
165
number of students (Okebukola, 2002). As at 2005 computing from NUC records, the total
number of students in twenty five federally funded universities (excluding National Open
University) had risen to 442,864 while that of the state university system totalled 265,166
(NUC, 2005). The primary and secondary schools were not left out. The World Bank report
2007 reveals an increase of 95.5 million enrolment in primary schools in 2000, and
102.9million in 2005. The secondary school enrolment in 2005 was 34.2 million (World
Bank, 2009). With the uncontrolled expansion, the cost of running the schools totalled over
$210 million in 1999. Recurrent allocation to education generally has been very low. The
table below reveals the share of federal government budget to the educational sector between
1999 and 2010.
Federal Government Budgetary Allocation to Education 1999 – 2010.
Year
Amount (n)billion
Percentage (%)
1999
23.047
11.2%
2000
44.225
8.3%
2001
39.885
7.0%
2002
10.2
5.09%
2003
64.76
11.83%
2004
72.22
7.8%
2005
92.59
8.3%
2006
166.6
8.7%
2007
137.48
6.06%
2008
210
10%
2009
168.44
13%
2010
3.49
Source: Education Sector Status Report (2009).
Apart from 2008 and 2009, when the budgetary allocation rose to 13 percent (N210
billion), the highest ever given to education, the government has not been forthcoming in
improving the financial status of the sector. Although the 26 percent (26%) of the nation’s
yearly fiscal budget recommended by UNESCO is a far cry in meeting the funding exigencies
of the sector, yet the Federal Government has not been able to make it available in the past
ten years.
Recommendation
Based on the above discussions, the following recommendations are hereby made:
1. Education should be made accessible to all if good governance must be achieved
2. For social change and good governance to take place in the Nigerian society, the
curriculum should be geared towards producing educated and morally sound individuals.
3. Citizenship Education should be introduced and taught at all levels of our educational
system for social change and good governance to be achieved.
Conclusion
Education is a very powerful, vehicle of social change and development. Social
development is that force moving society from the simple, rural and agrarian form to a more
sophisticated, urban, industrialized and technologically advanced form. For social change and
good governance to be in place in Nigeria, teachers have great tasks to perform. Teachers
166
must not be contented with the socialization of the younger generation for the present culture
alone, they should realize the need for them to make their own education functional to keep
them abreast of future changes and developments. They need also to continue to review the
school curriculum so that our education will develop to the point of specializing in
mechanical and scientific discoveries which can bring useful changes to the lives of the
individuals and the society. If education is to be of any use in social transformation, it
obviously has to include both facts and values, both knowledge of the empirical and the
essentials to foster the critical and the constructive mind.
References
Adisa, A.L. (2000). Social institutions. In Ogunbameru, Kunle & Rotimi, Wale (Eds.), Man
and his social environment. (p. 99-112.) . Lagos: Cardinal Crest Limited.
Aluko, M.A.O. (2000). Social organizations. In Ogunbameru, Kunle & Rotimi, Wale (Eds.),
Man and his social environment (113-122.). Lagos: Cardinal Crest Limited
Dukku, A. (2009). Federal government blames self for mass failure in unity schools.
Retrieved June 20, 2011, from http://tribunengrworld.com /_FG_Blames_Self_For
_Mass_Failure_In_Unity_ Schools-2516259.htm
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Lagos:
Government Press.
Hobbs, D. A. & Blank, S. J. (1975). Sciology and the human experience. New York:
John Wiley & Son Inc.
Marshal, G. (1996). The concise oxford dictionary of sociology. New York: Oxford
Moore, S.Y. (1982). Youth AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases. London: Routledge.
Nduka, O. (2007). Western education and the Nigerian cultural background. Nigeria:
Oxford University Press.
NUC (2005). Institutional resource management, control and protection in Nigeria
universities. A document released from the NUC Directorate of Academic Planning
and Research to all Vice-chancellors of Nigerian Universities
Obanyan, F. O. B. (2006). Educational financing: Principles, trends and strategies.
Ilorin: Goslen Print.
Okebukola, P. (2002). Issues in funding university education in Nigeria. Paper
presented at the forum on cost and financing of education in Nigeria. Education
Sector Analysis (ESA) September 17-19, Nigeria.
167
Okoli, J. C. (2006). Funding tertiary education in Nigeria: The perspective of national
emergency. A paper presented at the 2006 conference of the National Association of
Education Administration and Planning. Enugu: Enugu State University.
Omolewa, M. (2001). The challenge of education in Nigeria. Ibadan: University of Ibadan
Press.
Patil, P. (2009). Literacy boosts economic development. Retrieved on 10thJuly,
2011 from http//www.merinews.com/calful.jsp? article ID = 140894
Smah, S. (2000). Social deviance on a Nigerian university campus: The University of Jos,
Nigeria. In Lebeau, Yann and Ogunsanya, Mobolaji. (Eds.). The dilemma of postcolonial
universities. (p.123143). Ibadan: IFRA/AFRICAN Book Builders.
Sofolahan, J. O. (2000). National policy issues in the state of education III.
Nigeria. Abuja: UNESCO OFFICE
Soyinka, A. (2007). One in every two Nigerian classrooms is bad. The Punch, Tuesday, 20, 3.
UNESCO (2006). What is good governance? Retrieved on 17th October, 2011 from
www.unescap.org/huset/gg/governance.htm
UNESCO and ICQAHEA. (2008, September 1). UNICEF (2002). Humanitarian Action
Burundi. Retrieved on 3rd July, 2011
from www.reliefweb.int/iw/rwbcnsf/db900SID/OCHA-64094? Open Document
United Nations (2006). What is good governance? Retrieved on 15th February, 2012 from
www.unescap.org/huset/gg/governance.htm (24 December 2006).
World Bank (2009). Global monitoring report. Washington DC: World Bank.
168
CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION FOR NATION BUILDING
NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE
MUJIL, D. J.
Department of Educational Foundation,
College of Education, Gindiri,
Plateau State.
Abstract
This paper examined the imperative of citizenship education specifically in Nigeria. It is
observed that within Nigeria as a nation, the issue of who is a citizen has always prompted
problems, most especially, when a position is to be accorded to an individual. It is argued that
in spite of the varied measures taken by past government to ensure unity and integration of
the Nigerian citizens, no much positive impact has been reached. Since education is looked at
as a tool for solving society's problems, the paper considered the need for the Nigerian
citizenry to be properly informed about the role of the Nigerian citizens through citizenship
education. Problems were identified through this process and solutions proferred.
Introduction
Citizenship means the totality of all rights and privileges accorded to all members of a
given state (Okoli, 2003). Membership of any state carries some rights, duties and
obligations. A citizen is an individual member of a given political society or state, and by
extension, one who owes allegiance too may lawfully demand protection from the
government of that state. Citizenship is commonly associated with the domestic or municipal
law defining and guiding the relationship between the state and the individual. Citizenship
refers to the legal right to belong to a particular country, society or a member of a state
having a full status bestowed on him by being a full member of the community (Enejo, 2000).
Citizenship education is that education meant to inculcate into the learners right values,
attitudes, skills and knowledge that will make them socially, politically and economically
relevant to themselves and society (Udoukpong, 1994). It is education given to the children in
order to create' awareness of who they are, their relationship to the state, their rights, duties
and obligations to the state and how these rights can be addressed through constitutional
procedures (Waziri, 1999).
It can, therefore, be deduced that citizenship education is that education which is
centered on the state’s affairs and the individual in the state. It implies the teaching and
training of the citizens towards the acquisition of rights and values which are essentially for
the development of the state.
Citizenship education, according to Uche (1980), is a process of preparing the child
for social responsibility as well as being patriotic. It can also be looked at as the conscious
effort being made to educate the youth on certain subject areas mostly with strong value
emphasis on the issue of value, the society should be conscious of the type of value that can
be inculcated into the youth. It is in relationship to this that (Mokunye, 1991) is of the view
that, citizenship education should be a conscious process of inculcating certain values, habits,
skills and attitudes which the society consider desirable and essential for its survival as a unit
and for its development. Furthermore, Citizenship education is a process of educating the
citizen towards developing the socially acceptable attitudes, values and feelings towards the
society and other people and to appreciate the society's problem so as to form a value system
169
that is in keeping with the norms of the society (Mitchell, 1975). Agbenta (1987) contends
that citizenship education is a civil course that empahsises the study of political institutions
and progress as well as the development of good citizenship and that good citizenship implies
among other things citizen's respect for law and order, loyalty, honesty, hard work and
cooperation so that they will grow up to be active and politically effective.
This means that citizenship education aims at improving .and equipping the citizens
toward becoming politically, economically, morally and scientifically viable. It is against this
backdrop that this paper discusses the historical perspective of citizenship education in
Nigeria, the need for citizenship Education in Nigeria Educational system, functional
citizenship and nation building identified problems, and how to promote citizenship
Education in Nigeria.
Historical Perspective of Citizenship Education in Nigeria
At the global level, the advocation and introduction of citizenship education dates
back to the 1930s in Britain, where there was a growing awareness for the need· to re-educate
the society following the rise of totalitarian regime in Europe. There was the need to inculcate
in the youth the values of democratic ideals which were among the hallmarks of Western
civilization. The Philosophy of education at that time was geared toward education for world
citizenship.
In Nigeria, citizenship education was taught in the early 1940s and 1950s under
various titles that were used interchangeably with emphasis on the combination of the
traditional school subjects like Government, Civil History, Geography and Economics. With
increase in political agitation for self-government in the 1950s, it become necessary to give
this course a new dimension, with emphasis on mass literacy.
Nigeria as a nation has passed through a lot of experiences, pleasant and unpleasant
ones. In 1960, Nigeria became independent after years of colonial domination. The value
system and the education system of the colonial masters still lingered on long after
independence. Hence, the need for citizenship education to help redefine and orient the
citizens. As pointed out by Iyamu (1992) who stated that the education inherited from the
colonial master, instead of developing positive values in the society and the Nigerian child,
tends to alienate him from the cultural environment.
Due to criticism against the colonial system of education, the need for a new system
that would take care of the short coming of the colonial type arose. That, the people may be
aware of the change and be ready to accept, it requires citizenship education.
As from 1960s, citizenship education has assumed a synonymous position with social
studies, which was then gaining popularity and acceptance of citizenship education as part of
social studies during that period, was in line with the tremendous social, economic and
political transformation of the country.
The Need for Citizenship Education in Nigerian Educational System
The importance of citizenship education cannot be over-emphasis as it is a panacea
for solving the societal problems. The idea of citizenship education .is geared toward creating
awareness among the citizens on how to solve socio-political and socio-economic problems
of their society and to contribute meaningfully to the development of their society. (Federal
Republic of Nigeria, 2004).
170
Citizenship education helps in promoting all-round development of the individual.
This must have been the reason for its inclusion in the National Certificate of Education
(NCE) programmes by the NCCE in 1996.
Through citizenship education, national unity can be achieved. This is because, this
educational programme would produce citizens devoid of tribal sentiment, sectionalism,
dishonesty and disobedience that have crippled the nation more than 50 years after
independence.
Citizenship education will produce dynamic, transparent and visionary leaders that
will make this nation turn a new leaf. As a character moulder, citizenship education will train
citizens in the direction that will make this nation a model.
Through citizenship education, indiscipline, corruption and other social vices will
highly be minimized if not eradicated. In this process citizens will highly be informed and
educated to see the evil of these vices and what they have done to the present administration.
It will charge the citizens to take their civic responsibilities more serious.
Political stability can equally be attained through citizenship education. This system
of education will usher in new ideas into our political system whereby politicians will' be
educated to see the danger and evil of indiscriminate rigging that takes place during election;
politician will be educated on how to avoid taking politics as a “do or die” affairs, as this will
change their attitude toward politics thereby bringing about political stability in the country.
Functional Citizenship Education and Nation Building
Citizenship education in Nigeria is all about developing desirable attitudes and values
such as honesty, patriotism, tolerance and obedience to constituted authorities. For effective
nation building citizens of Nigeria must be ready to practicalize these desired values. These
can be possible through the knowledge and skills acquire from citizenship education which
are relevant in ensuring peace and unity.
Functional citizenship education is required for nation building. It is important
because it promotes national unity, inculcates the spirit of self-reliance, develops common
ties among Nigerians and prepare the citizenry for social responsibility (Uche, 1980).
Functional citizenship education is geared towards conscious process of inculcating certain
values, habits, skills and attitudes which the society considers desirable and essential for its
survival as a unit and for its development (Mokunye, 1991).
Politically, citizenship education is inevitable in a democratic dispensation like
Nigeria’s. It has the ability to educate the electorate and those who are interested in
contesting for political offices, method of voting and the calibre of people to be voted for. It
is important for the populace to be enlightened on how to cast their votes, shun money
politics, avoid politians with questionable characters and to vote for the right people,
(National Orientation Agency (1993)). Through functional citizenship education, Nigerians
irrespective of their religious affiliations, interests, and beliefs learn to get along with each
other. This helps in enhancing peace and harmony which allows for effective nation building.
Functional citizenship education makes the citizens to be more alive to their responsibilities
and obligation to themselves, fellow human being and the society at large. It also promotes
value orientation as it inculcates good sense of judgment, moral and social responsibility. All
these values are needed for nation building, especially in Nigeria of our time.
171
Problems of Citizenship Education in Nigeria
In spite of the vital role of citizenship education in nation building, there are so many
hindrances towards achieving desired objectives embedded in it. These hindrance are
discussed below:
Considering the heterogeneous nature of the Nigerian society with different cultural,
social and political affiliation and lifestyle. Due to these facts, it becomes difficult to teach
citizenship education successfully.
Another major problem is that of ethnicity. There are diverse ethnic groups in Nigeria
who would want to maintain their ethnic groups’ ideology, not wanting to depart from it; they
adhere to their cultures instead of that of the nation. In a situation like that; it becomes
difficult to teach citizenship education.
This field of education lacks qualified personnel to properly handle this programme
since it is, relatively, a new area. This makes it difficult for the programme to properly train
the citizens adequately. The few teachers who are qualified/experts in this field have now
become consultants in the area of politics.
Towards Promoting Citizenship Education in Nigeria
For the citizens of this country to be well educated and informed on their roles in
promoting values that can bring about national unity and progress, necessary measures should
be taken in order to solve the identified problems. This paper hereby offers the following
recommendations:
1. Citizenship education should be properly integrated into the educational curriculum and
taught as a compulsory course in both secondary and tertiary institutions. When it is properly
incorporated in the educational curriculum and properly taught, they will be disposed to
making more meaningful contributions to the nation, especially, now that there is more
emphasis on self-reliance. Citizens must be well mobilized towards nation - building.
2. In order to create more awareness, more textbooks in this field should be published,
institutions of learning in the country should be supplied with adequate textbooks in such
areas. Publication of other related materials such as journals, magazines and periodicals on
citizenship education should be encouraged, as this will create more awareness on the
importance of citizenship- education to the citizens.
3. Regular workshops, conferences, seminars and campaigns should always be organized
for citizens to meet and discuss issues, exchange ideas on how citizenship education can be
promoted and be of importance to the citizens. These activities will help the citizens to be
more patriotic towards the desired values of the society and inculcate into them good qualities
of citizenship.
4. Materials that can aid in facilitating the understanding and application of citizenship
education should be made available. Such materials include audio-visuals, computer sets and
other related materials. These should be provided in schools in order to enhance the teaching
and learning of citizenship education.
5. Citizenship education needs qualified personnel to properly handle this programme. More
people should be trained in this field so that enough personnel can be made available to
properly impart the required knowledge which can lead to a positive change in attitude of the
citizens.
6. A laudable programme of citizenship education requires adequate government financial
support. This is needed in order to facilitate activities and provide materials and personnel to
carry out the programme toward the desired goals.
172
Conclusion
Citizenship education is a good alternative for inculcating the desired values and
attitudes needed for national integration and unity. Having examined its conceptual role in
nation building, its problems and prospects, the Paper asserts that unless the citizens are
properly educated against the evils of the social-vices of corruption, indiscipline, examination
malpractice and a host of others, it will not succeed in its effort towards promoting
development. Government should ensure that perpetrators of such vices are properly
punished. This paper emphasises that, citizenship education should be properly incorporated
in the educational curriculum and it should be made compulsory at all levels.
References
Aghenta, J. (1987). Education for citizenship. A paper presented at a conference of
Social Studies Association of Nig. University of Benin.
Enejo, M. (2000). The theory and practice of social problem.Makurdi: Ogneikwu
Printing Division.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education.Lagos: Federal
Government Press.
Iyamu, E. (1992). Themes in citizenship education. Benin City: Iden Publication,
Nigeria.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1996). Minimum standard for Nigeria certificate in
education (Review Ed) Kaduna: NCCE.
Mokwunye, U. (1991). Citizenship education: Reading in social studies Vol. 1
Benin City.
National Orientation Agency (1993). Handbook on national orientation agency.
Abuja: Author
Waziri, A. (1999). Functional citizenship education. A tool for national building.
(unpublished) Conference paper.
Okoli, E. (2003). Foundation of government and politics. Onisha. Nigeria:
Africana-Feb.
Uche, U. (1980). The nature, objectives and teaching of social studies. Benin City:
Ethiopia Publisher.
Udoukpony, A. (1994). Citizenship education and nation building lecture note on
citizenship education.Uyo: Department of social studies, university of Uyo.
173
ASSESSING TEACHERS AWARENESS AND USE OF COMMUNICATIVE
LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACH IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF RIVERS
STATE
OKOH, C.
Federal College of Education, Technical Omoku, Rivers State.
Abstract
This study examined teachers’ awareness and use of the Communicative Language Teaching
Approach methodology in teaching English language in primary schools. The research
design adopted was the descriptive survey design; the population of the study was all primary
school teachers in Rivers State. Two thousand teachers in Rivers State attended the 2011
TKT training at Iriebe, organized by Rivers State Government. Out of this number, a sample
of 500 teachers representing the teachers was drawn using purposive sampling technique.
Two research questions guided the study. The instrument was a 16 item structured
questionnaire titled Teachers Awareness/use of CLT Approach (TAOCLTA).
The
instrument was validated by two experts in measurement and evaluation, the reliability index
was 0.86. Data obtained were analyzed using Mean (X) scores. The response were strongly
agreed, agreed, disagreed and strongly disagreed. 2.50 was used as the criterion mean value.
The result showed that most teachers were introduced to CLT at the training. In terms of
using the method in the classroom, most of them have not. Based on the findings; it was
recommended that primary school teachers should use this method in language teaching
because it is an effective method in addressing language problems in Primary Schools.
Introduction
The importance of the teacher to the teaching and learning situation is expressed in
the adage “No educational policy in its totality can ever expect to rise above the quality of its
teachers”. Again, the teacher is central in the teaching-learning process. Emenanjo (1998)
buttressed this fact in explaining that the role model teacher is expected to be many things
rolled into one: an instructor, a facilitator, a motivator, an innovator, an experimenter, a
guide, a researcher, a therapist, an effective communicator, an exemplary role model, a true
humane being and a patriot. In addition to that, a teacher is a parent, a friend, an involver and
a resource provider.
In line with the multidimensional role of the teacher, the NPE (2004) enunciated the
goals of teacher education as the production of highly motivated, conscientious and efficient
classroom teachers for all levels of educational system. Accordingly, it aims to:
 encourage the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers
 provide teachers with intellectual and professional backgrounds adequate for their
assignment and make them adaptable to changing situations.
To achieve the goals stated above, teachers should be exposed to different teaching
methodologies from which to adopt and use for effective teaching and learning in the
classroom. Again, Primary School teachers are expected to always update their knowledge in
teaching English language, change their methods and techniques of teaching in line with the
modern methods.
Language teaching method has had a checkered history. It has witnessed the rise and
fall of a variety of them, starting with the Grammar Translation Method, which emphasized
the “chalk and talk” (Scrivener, 2005). From the 1970s, psycholinguistics studies in applied
174
linguistics attracted attention to the act of communication and its role in the acquisition of a
second language. The traditional method, as the Grammar translation method is known,
considered learning as an “accumulation of discrete elements in associative chains”
(Igbokwe, 2008). Language experts criticized this method. According to them, this method
lacked the use of dialogue in a language classroom, which requires interactive learning.
According to Lightbrown and Spada (1993) the frequent failure of traditional grammar-based
methods to produce fluency and accuracy in second language learners led to the development
of communicative approach to teaching. Supporters of this CLT argue that language is not
learned by the gradual accumulation of one item after another. Offorma (2005) notes that
grammar-translation method is boring and demotivating.
The modern method considers language not just as a system of human
conceptualization and perception but also, as a means of communication in society. With this
idea, the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emerged. The CLT like the traditional
method has several varieties. It is a combination of some principles of behaviourists’ theory,
the innatist and the interactionsist theories. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) was
designed in line with psycholinguistic principles of language acquisition.
The behaviourists theory for instance, believes that language is acquired by constant
exposure and repetition of language items until language habits are developed. Also,
according to them, language can be acquired step by step and that errors (i.e. bad habits) must
be corrected immediately. This is a theory of First Language acquisition that has influenced
thinking about how people learn foreign languages.
The innatists claim that children are biologically programmed for language
acquisition and that language develops in the children in just the same way that other
biological functions develop (like learning how to walk) and that language acquisition
inevitably takes place provided children are exposed to language rich environment where
opportunity is given for interaction. Chomsky developed this theory in reaction to the
behaviourists’ theory of learning which was based on imitation and habit formation.
The interactionists’ theory is based on the belief that learners learn language through
communicating with others when the main focus is on meaning rather than form. Their
position is that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the uniquely
human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops.
The Communicative Language approach draws certain principles from the three
learning theories. Johnson (1987) sees this approach as one which recognizes the teaching of
communicative competence as its aim. It is on this level of aim that such language teaching
distinguishes itself from more traditional approaches where the emphasis is heavily on the
teaching of structural competence. The communicative approach therefore, is language
teaching with emphasis on communicative competence. Three types of knowledge are
involved in communicative competence; these are grammar, signification and use. In
communicative approach, the teaching of use is the most important aim of language teaching.
Some studies have been carried out to illustrate the effectiveness of communicative approach
(Lightbrown and Spada 1993).
Methods of language teaching play a vital role in language teaching and learning.
Quite often, the success of learning outcomes is influenced by teaching strategies used by the
teacher. To achieve success in classroom teaching and learning of English language in
Primary Schools, learner centered approach is required. Learner centered approach considers
the interest of the learners, it is activity oriented where learners will not only be fed with facts
but will also have the opportunity to interact with the language in a language rich classroom.
175
Thus, the learner gains from such experiences because learning strategies which encourage
learners to work on their language, think more about what it means to learn a language and to
know how to use it will improve learner’s performance.
The approach where learners can find out for themselves that they can act in a specific
way by combining ideas with facts is recommended. A teacher’s job is to help the learner
acquire needed skills, attitude, knowledge and values. Furthermore, the preparations,
strategies and medium through which learning experiences are communicated must also be
compatible with the needs of the learners (Awotua-Efebo 1999).
In communicative approach, the learner participates actively in the learning
experiences. This, according to Offorma, is one of the principles of effective learning. It
brings the language home to the learners. Grammatical items can be taught through activities
such as songs, drama and dialogue using situations experienced by the learners in their own
environment. This method provides the opportunity for the pupils to be proficient in the
language since they will learn both the oral and writing skills. They will also gain confidence
in the use of the language.
The role of the teacher is dynamic in CLT classes. He acts as a facilitator and a
motivator in the learning process and by so doing challenges the intellect, personality and
emotions of the learners. He provides materials, which encourage, motivate students, and at
the same time manage both predictable and unpredictable situations.
Some of the practices of communicative language teaching are;
 focus on language as a medium of communication
 use of classroom activities
 rehearsing real life situations in the classroom
 use of pair and group work
 collaborative learning
 use of teaching materials that relate to students lives
 use of authentic resources that are interesting and motivating
 use of visual stimuli
 encouragement of L1 – L2 transfer.
Communicative Language teaching is used in language teaching all over the world.
Statement of the Problem
The state of language teaching and learning in Nigeria reveals the poor linguistic
standard of pupils and students. It is probably against this backdrop that Rivers State
Government initiated a training course to train all the Primary School teachers in Rivers State
in the TKT (Teaching Knowledge Test) course. At the end of this course all the teachers
should have acquired knowledge in teaching English language using the Communicative
Language Approach, which is the basis of the TKT course.
English language occupies a central place in the Nigerian education system. It is the
language of instruction and is compulsory from primary school to the University levels. It is
the determinant factor in academic achievement of students. Few studies have studied the
teachers’ awareness and use of communicative language teaching in Primary Schools.
Offorma (2005) stated that Communicative Approach and learner autonomy was not
effectively used in teaching model in foreign language in Nigeria. This study therefore is to
find out the level of awareness and use of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach
by Rivers State Primary School teachers.
176
Research Questions
Two research questions guided the study and they are:
(1) To what extent are primary school teachers in Rivers State aware of the communicative
language teaching practices?
(2) To what extent do primary school teachers in Rivers State use communicative language
teaching activities in classroom teaching?
Research Method: A descriptive survey design was used to elicit information on Teachers’
Awareness and Use of Communicative Language Teaching activities.
The population of this study consists of two thousand primary school teachers who
attended the workshop at Iriebe in Rivers State. Out of this number 500 teachers were
studied.
Purposive sampling technique was used because they are typical sample of the population
which satisfies the specific need of this research. Data was collected using a 16 item
questionnaire designed by the researcher. It was a 4 point scale questionnaire of strongly
agreed, agreed, disagreed and strongly disagreed with scores of 4, 3, 2, 1 respectively.
The first part of the questionnaire elicited information on primary school teachers’
awareness of the Communicative Language Approach. The second part elicited information
on primary school teachers use of the Communicative Language Activities in classroom
teaching. The benchmark for the accepted value is 2.50 or above. So items with mean rating
of 2.50 or above were regarded as relevant. The researcher with the help of four resource
persons administered the questionnaire which was face validated by two experts in
measurement and evaluation. Cronbach alpha was used to establish the reliability of the
instrument. The positive value of 0.86 was recorded and so the instrument was suitable to be
used for the study. Data collected were analysed using mean scores.
177
Result:
Table 1: Mean score of Primary School Teachers’ Responses on awareness of CLT Approach.
_
S/No.
Item
1. Language rich environment is not provided in the
classroom for teaching and learning.
2. Game and role play are not used during teaching
3. Use of pair and small group activity is not
possible in Classroom teaching
4. Learners error are always corrected
as soon as soon as it is noticed
5. Use of drills and repetition do not contribute to
languages learning.
6. Discussion and brainstorming activities are not
used in class.
7. Giving and receiving feedback during teaching
does not enhance learning.
8. Peer assessment is not used in my class.
9. Monitoring learners’ progress is not
important during teaching.
10. Giving information to the learners about their
progress does not motivate learners to learn.
11. Learners are not motivated to learn.
12. Teachers should not encourage student
interdependence.
13. Pupils’ needs and interest are the primary
consideration in planning teaching activities.
14. Use of different teaching materials including ICT
facilities facilitate learning
15. Fluency and accuracy are important in CLT
approach
16. The four language skills should be
emphasized
Key: SA – Strongly Agree, D – Disagree. A – Agree.
SD - Strongly Disagree.
X
Remarks
3.38
2.59
A
A
2.57
A
3.73
SA
2.57
A
3.63
A
2.55
3.31
D
A
2.75
D
2.40
2.53
D
D
3.36
A
2.40
D
2.32
D
3.88
A
2.68
A
Table 1 indicates the views of primary school teachers in CLT activities. Data in table I
reveal the main scores of the various responses.
The acceptance level is 2.5. Since the items are negative, it implies that not all
primary school teachers are aware of some of the CLT Approach in the English language
classroom. These activities are CLT activities.
Research Question 2: To what extent do Primary School Teachers in Rivers State use
Communicative Language Teaching Activities in the Classroom?
178
_
Table II Mean (X) scores of Teachers Responses on the use of Communicative
Language Teaching.
_______________________________________________
S/No.
Questionnaire Items
Mean
Remarks
_______________________________________________________
1. Language rich environment is provided
in the classroom for teaching
and learning.
2.40
A
2. Game and role play are used during
teaching
2.39
A
3. Use of pair and small group activity in
Classroom teaching
2.45
A
4. Learners error are always corrected
as soon as soon as it is noticed
3.73
SA
5. Use of drills and repetition contribute to
language learning.
2.57
A
6. Discussion and brainstorming activities are
used in class.
2.42
A
7. Giving and receiving feedback during teaching
enhance learning.
2.53
A
8. Peer assessment is used in my class.
2.46
A
9. Monitoring learners’ progress is not
important during teaching.
2.52
A
10. Giving information to the learners about their
progress does not motivate learners to learn.
2.56
A
11. Learners are motivated to learn.
2. 50
A
12. Teachers should encourage student
interdependence.
2.48
A
13. Pupils’ needs and interest are the primary
consideration in planning teaching activities.
2.55
D
14. Use of different teaching materials including ICT
facilities facilitate learning
2.72
D
15. Fluency and accuracy are important in CLT approach
3.88
A
16. The four language skills should be
emphasized
2.68
A
Key: SA – Strongly Agree, D – Disagree. A – Agree.
SD - Strongly Disagree.
Data presented in table 2 indicate that Primary School teachers use the traditional
method of language teaching in the classroom as shown by their responses. The items that
scored 2.50 or above are the traditional activities though some of these activities are also
activities used in the CLT Approach.
Discussion
The tables show teachers’ responses to the items. The data show that some teachers
are aware of the CLT activities but have not used them. This agrees with the verbal
interaction the researcher had with the teachers. This finding is in line with Offorma (2005)
179
and Igbokwe & Eze (2008). In table I items 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16 are some of the
activities in CLT method. The teachers indicate that they were not aware of the CLT before
the training and so may not have been using some of the activities.
However, items 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13 and 14 are the activities teachers are conversant
with and sometimes use. These activities are also used in CLT approach. Drills and
repetitions are in line with behaviourist theory and are used to teach learners some language
items such as pronunciation and language structures even in the traditional method. The use
of drills, games/role plays and dialogue is to ensure that learners practice language use.
Learner interdependence is a technique in CLT that promotes learner-centered
approach. Chambers (1999) sees it as an approach that meets the various needs of different
pupils in the language classroom but primary school Teachers do not use this method.
Though some teachers claim to use some of the activities. Most of the teachers admit
that they are not conversant with some of the activities which are CLT activities that enhance
language learning in the classroom as shown by the mean scores in table II.
The findings of this study reveal that some Rivers State primary school teachers have
not started using Communicative Language teaching in the classroom as at the time of the
study. They are still using the traditional method that has been found inadequate in language
teaching. (Igbokwe and Eze 2008). It is expected that after the training mounted by the
Rivers State Government for primary school teachers, the CLT approach in language
teaching will be used in all the Primary Schools in Rivers State.
Conclusion
This study indicates that Primary School Teachers in Rivers State use the traditional
teaching method with some activities in modern method in the Classroom teaching of English
language. Though, some of the teachers are aware of the CLT Approach, they are not used to
the activities involved in CLT and so rarely use them. It is expected with the training they
have undergone, they have acquired the knowledge and so can apply CLT Approach in
classroom teaching. This is expected to improve the linguistic performance of pupils in
Primary School.
Recommendations
1. Supervisor should always monitor teachers to ensure that teachers use CLT Approach in
teaching.
2. Teachers should be encouraged to improvise materials for teaching in addition to the ones
that the government will provide for them.
3. Teachers should be motivated from time to time by giving them allowance for training
materials.
180
References
Awtoua-Efebo, E. B. (1999). Effective teaching principles and practice. Port Harcourt:
Paragraphics.
Emenanjo, N. Training the Nigeria language teacher: An integrated approach, Vision and
mission of education in Nigeria. In Isyaku, K. Akale M.D.G. and Maiyanga and
Olokun, M. (ed) Vision and mission of education in Nigeria. Kaduna: NCCE.
Igbokwe, U. L., & Eze, U. N. (2008). Innovative practices for effective teaching of english
language for quality assurance in secondary Schools. In Nworgu (ed). Education in
the information age. Global challenges and enhancement strategies. Proceedings of
first international conference of the Faculty of Education, UNN.
Lightbrown, P. & Spada, N. (1993). How languages are learned. Oxford: Oxford University
Press
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. 4th edition. Yaba,
Lagos: NERDC Press.
Offorma, G. (2005). Techniques employed in modern foreign language teaching. Journal of
Curriculum Organization of Nigeria 12 (2), 10-15
Scrivener, J. (2005). Learning and college teaching. Oxford: Macmillan Publishers.
181
EFFICACY OF MOBILE DEVICE ASSISTED LEARNING: A FLEXIBLE
INSTRUCTIONAL TOOL.
OYEYEMI, S.O.
Department of Educational Foundations & Administration,
Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education, Otto/ Ijanikin, Lagos.
&
NOAH, A.O.
Department of Fine & Applied Arts,
Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education, Otto/ Ijanikin, Lagos.
Abstract
This study sought to establish the efficacy of mobile device assisted learning, using cell
phone features like mobile internet and text message (SMS). Questionnaire was administered
on 100 students randomly selected, from four secondary schools in Ojo Local Education
District of Lagos State. The data analysed revealed that mobile internet search engines, for
instance Google, Teoma, Zworks, Mamma and so on can help to facilitate flexible learning in
and outside the classroom environment . This would promote collaborative, discovery,
interactive and innovative learning. Moreso, text message (SMS) is capable of helping
students correct spelling mistakes through the use of mobile dictionary, improve their
vocabulary, which enhance good communication skills. The research finally concluded that,
Nigeria being a developing country, plagued with inadequate funding of the educational
system and frequent power (electricity) outage, which possess a threat to the proper
implementation of information and communication technology (ICT) in schools, should
adopt cell phone as a considerable alternative, as regards information technology to promote
effective teaching and learning.
Background to the study
Use of technology in education represents new opportunities for students to gain prior
knowledge ahead of the classroom situation, which aids teaching and learning. Students prior
knowledge about topics is always very vital to better comprehension and teaching
effectiveness in an outside classroom situation (Samuel, 2005).Researchers have argued that
prior knowledge is better facilitated by mobile assisted learning which is enhanced by
wireless portable devices, like palmtops/handhelds, smartphones and mobile (Tangney,
2006). Mobile assisted learning is described as an approach to learning that is enhanced
through the use of mobile devices such as mobile phones, MP3/MP4 players palmtops
computers to support students learning. With mobile assisted learning, students are able to
access content and communicate content with their teachers and peers at anytime, anywhere
(Kukusha-Hulme, 2006).
182
Source: (www.wolverhamton.engage.net)
Mobile assisted learning approach is flexible, as reflected in the diagram above shows that its
usage is not limited to time and location, thus it promotes interactive, collaborative discovery
and differentiation learning. Currently, mobile assisted learning through the use of cell phone
provides the utilization and retention of newly acquired knowledge as a primary source of
effective learning. (Klopfer 2002) identifies five properties of mobile assisted learning, which
can provide effective classroom teaching and learning these are:
i. Portability
ii. Social interactivity
iii. Content sensitivity
iv. Connectivity
v. Individuality
Cell Phone as an Instructional Tool
With the increase in the number of mobile subscribers in Nigeria today, cell phone
has become powerful tools for communication across the country for both young and adult.
As at October 2008, Nigeria tele-density was 42%, while with 61 million subscribers as at
2009, Nigeria was African’s largest telecommunication market (Babatobi, 2009). Today
students adopt the use of cell phone for text messages (SMS), browsing via internet, chatting
(facebook, Mocospace, Myspace, 2go, Nimbuz), playing video games, and occasionally,
doing academic research using search engines like Google; Devil Finder, Mamma, Zworks
and so on, (Chiluwa, 2008; Taiwo 2008). The acceptance of cell phone throughout the world
as an instrument of sociability is obvious, but the pedagogical potentials has been neglected.
Wang (2008) asserts that, like other communicating and computing devices, cell phone can
be used to learn. With the great development of cell phones functions and features, learners
and teachers can utilized the academic instructional potential of cell phones for effective
learning within or outside the classroom. Some of these strategies to use cell phone in the
classroom for effective teaching and learning are enumerated below:
i. Downloading requires e-books, soft wares and dictionaries from mobile internet for
reading that can help in solving the problem of aliteracy.
183
ii. Use of dictionary checking words meaning, spelling errors and improve vocabulary.
iii. Capturing class notes by the means of mobile camera
iv. Use of Opera-mini device via mobile internet to support, discover and acquire more
knowledge on classroom topic and content after school hours
v. Praticising word pronunciation by recoding audio-materials
vi. Receiving text message from teachers with class content homework, assignment project
and so on.
vii. Using mobile games to develop problem solving and critical thinking skills.
viii. Using word match games as a means of spelling practices
If Nigeria is a developing country, indeed with the strategies enumerated above, the cost
of affording a cell phone is significantly below the running cost of procuring a new or
second-hand computer. Currently , most students in Nigeria have access to cell phones
having the capacities like SMS, voice mail, recorders, still cameras, video games, audio and
radio play back, colour screen that are capable of accessing the internet and e-mail (Olayinka,
2008). Thus, this study focuses on the efficacy and feasibility of cell phones in classroom
teaching and learning, so as to acquaint, students with the academic potential of cell phone in
learning, as opposed to immoral and non-academic inclined activities in the usage of cell
phones. For instance playing video games, chatting, and watching of immoral pornographic
sites via mobile internet all at the expense of their academics. If this uneducative activity is
shun by students, it will improve the learning habit of learners which is opposed to aliteracy.
Statement of the Problem
Nigerian schools over the years have been plagued by the wrong notion attached to
the use of cell phone within and outside the school system. Olayinka (2008) reported that,
students are so much addicted to the use of phone, nowadays this has led to abuse and misuse
of cell phone among students reflecting in these areas.
i. Cell phone is a distraction, in class as ring tones may divert students’ attention from class.
ii. Students misuse cell phones or cheat if they are allowed to use cell phones in the
classroom during examination.
iii. Students waste valuable and precious time on chatting on Facebook and playing video
games on their cell phones instead of reading their books.
iv. Students are bored reading printed materials but find it more convenient, to spend several
hours reading from the screens of their cellphones.
Thus, this study seeks to re-direct the drive of the students from unproductive and
unacademic usage of cell phones, to educative usage and avail students of the academic
potential of cell phones as regards learning. This would promote effective teaching and
learning in and outside the classroom, using cell phone features like internet and text message
(SMS). Moreso, learning due to the convenient and comfortable atmosphere created by the
use of cell phone promote discovery, collaborative and differentiation learning among
students.
Purpose of the study
This study seeks to examine the following aims as regards mobile device assisted
learning and effective teaching and learnin:
1. The efficacy of cell phone usage in enhancing effective teaching and learning.
2. Create an awareness of the educational potential of cell phone usage as opposed to the
184
immoral and uneducational usage of among students.
3. To encourage students use of mobile web browser (mobile internet) to support classroom
instruction in and outside the school.
4. Encourage student’s frequent use of SMS in order to enhance their communication skills
and improve teaching and learning.
Research Questions
The following questions would be focused upon as the research questions for this study:
1 To what extent do the students use their cell phones for learning?
2 Are students aware of the enormous educational potentials of the cell phones?
3 Does the use of features like the cell phone web browser (opera-mini) facilitate effective
teaching and learning?
4 Can the use of SMS through the cell phones enhance communication skills and improve
effective teaching and learning?
Research Hypotheses
H1 : There will be no significant relationship between the use of mobile internet and effective
teaching and learning.
H2 : There will be no significant relationship between student usage of text messages (SMS)
and improved communication skills.
Methodology
The research design is a descriptive survey. The instrument adopted for this study was
a questionnaire called Mobile Assisted Questionnaire for learning effectiveness (MAQLE).
The questionnaire contains 15 items drawn from the stated hypotheses. Respondents were
requested to respond, by ticking either agreed, disagreed and undecided based on their
feelings.
The population of this study was made up of secondary school students in Ojo Local
Education District of Lagos State. A sample of 100 students was drawn from four selected
secondary schools, which were Adeniran Ogunsanya International School Ijanikin Lagos;
Government Secondary School, Ijanikin Lagos; Lagos State Model College, Ojo and Adeniyi
Goodwill Ijanikin. A test re-test method was used to determine the co-efficient of reliability
of the instrument. The correlation co-efficient was computed and it gave reliability coefficient of 0.87 which was considered high enough to be used. The questionnaire was
personally administered by the researcher. In order to test the formulated hypotheses for the
study, the statistical tool used in data analysis was Chi-Square showing frequently counts and
percentage of respondents
185
Academic Potential of Mobile Web Browser
S/N
ITEMS
1.
Do i find reading printed books more boring compared to
reading from the screen of your cell phone
2.
I learn better when I read from my cell phone than books.
3.
I enjoy checking my e-mail and chatting on face book via
mobile internet
4.
I rarely use my mobile internet study before and after
classroom teaching
5
I enjoy learning from the internet through my cell phone,
than the traditional chalk and talk method
6
I always use my phone web-browser to check for additional
fact after classroom teaching.
7
Learning from web browser e.g. opera-mini leads to
discovery learning
A%
45%
D% U%
35% 5%
60%
72%
25% 15%
20% 8%
62%
24% 14%
52%
35% 13%
24%
39% 37%
64%
25% 11%
Hypothesis. H1: There will be no significant relationship between the use of mobile internet
and effective teaching and learning.
Table 1
Variable
Frequency
Mobile web browse Agreed
academic potential
Disagreed
DF
3
Calculated
value X2
138.15
Critical
Value
7.013
Decision
Rejected
Results
Using the Chi-square statistical model to analyze the data collected which were categorized
on the basis of mobile internet academic usage and relevance of SMS towards improving
communication skills. Statistically, the table above table revealed that, the calculated value x2
is 138.15, while the value is 7.013, based on this analysis the calculated value is greater than
the critical value. The hypothesis is hereby rejected, which concludes that there is a
significant relationship between the educational potential of mobile internet and effective
teaching and learning.
186
SMS and improved communication skill
S/N
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14
15.
ITEMS
Collaborative learning is also facilitated by mobile devices
Learning can be meaningful through the use of cell phones
to support teaching and learning
Answering SMS questions is more comfortable than face
to face answer in the class
I use SMS to send vital academic information on class
assignment, group projects and home-works to my friends.
SMS helps in improving my communication skills
I easily detect spelling mistakes through SMS than writing
on notebooks.
SMS has helped in improving my vocabulary and
grammatical efficiency.
The use of SMS through cell phone is a supportive tool to
teaching and learning
A%
72%
71%
D%
20%
24%
U%
8%
5%
52%
30%
18%
45%
32%
23%
68%
56%
29%
20%
3%
24%
68%
29%
3%
52%
32%
16%
Hypothesis H2: There will be no significant relationship between student usage of text
messages (SMS) and improved communication skills.
Table II
Variable
SMS
academic
potential
Frequency
Agreed
DF
Disagreed
Calculated
value X2
69.059
3
Critical
Value
0.1376
Decision
Rejected
The data above revealed that the calculated value is 69.056, while the critical value is
0.1376. Therefore the stated hypothesis is rejected, which implies that there is a relationship
between SMS usage and improved communication skills.
Discussion of Findings
A run through of the respondents’ views with regards the efficacy of mobile phones
as an effective instructional tool reveals that in item one (1) based on the respondents views,
students find reading printed materials like books, boring and cumbersome, this was
indicated by 45% of the respondents supporting the notion, while 35% and 50% disagreed
and were undecided. Respondents in item two (2) supports that they learn better while
reading from the screen of their cell phones than printed materials, this was reflected in 60%
agreed responses, 25% disagreeing while 15% remained undecided.
However, the student rarely use mobile internet to study before and after classroom
teaching, rather they prefer checking e-mails chatting and playing video games on their cell
phones as indicated in item three (3) of which 60% agreed, 25% disagreed while 15% were
undecided. The benefit of cell phone internet as regards discovery learning, differentiation
learning and collaborative learning is stressed by item seven (7) and eight (8) of which most
of the respondents agreed with the item, for instance in item eight, 72 agreed with the item,
20 disagreed and 8% were undecided. Thereby, justifying that mobile internet can facilitate
effective teaching and learning.
187
In item nine (9), respondents commented that they feel more comfortable reading text
messages from the screen of their cell phones, this was reflected in their responses of which
58% agreed with the assertion that 22% disagreed while 20% were undecided. Using SMS or
text messages to send vital information on school works and other class assignments,
revealed that, 45% agreed, 32% disagreed while 23% remained undecided. To justify that
frequent use of SMS cell phone helps in improving students vocabulary and grammatical
competence, 68% of the respondents agreed, disagreed responses were 29% while undecided
were 3%. The efficacy of mobile phones as an effective instructional tool, for teaching and
learning was reflected by the views of the respondents in item fifteen (15) of which 52% of
the total; respondents agreed, while 32% and 16% disagreed and undecided respectively.
However, cell phone is gradually becoming a tool in the Nigerian school system that
possess pedagogical arsenal to assist students in effective teaching and learning by using cell
phone features like mobile internet and SMS. Therefore, in order to solve the lingering
educational problem of aliteracy, poor learning habit, spending valuable time on chatting,
browsing the internet, playing video games watching of pornographic scenes on-line that has
resulted in the slow and gradual decline in the nation’s educational standard. This research
attempt to re-orientate the students about the academic potentials available in mobile internet
search engine.
The World Wide Web (www)
This is the largest and fastest growing activities on the internet, over 75% of all
information searching on the internet are handled through the means. The www incorporates
almost every protocol available on the internet (e-mail, telnet). Today most chatting on
Facebook, Myspace, Mocospace, Nimbuzz are done through this page. This internet facility
also facilitates the downloadings of educational facts and all other materials be it social,
cultural, economic, political and so on as long as the correct web address is known.
Search Strategies for Educational Material on the Internet
Given the vast resources available on the mobile internet and its non-central nature,
searching or surfing for information can be tasking and frustrating. Accessing information is
an important and essential skill in the use of mobile internet. Mobile internets offer several
search tools/application that can assist a user to look for particular document or particular
information on a given topic (Monero 2000). There are several tools/applications usually
classified differently for mobile internet users convenience.
Mobile Search Engines
These are systems that can search the web using software robots/programmes for
sites, read entire texts, of the site on the web, index them on the occurrence of the key word
for each site and enter them on the data base. This research attempt to collect some of these
search engines and they are presented below:
i. Google (http://www.googlecom)
ii. Teoma (http://www.teoma.com)
iii. All the web (http://www.alltheweb.com)
iv. Altavista (http://www.laltavista.com)
v. Lycos (http://www.lycos.com)
vi. Mamma (http://www.mamma.com)
vii. Infoseek (http://www.infoseek.com)
188
viii.
Excite (http://www.ask.com)
ix. Northern Light (http://www.northern.com)
Source: ( UCB Library, 2004)
Mobile Meta Search Engines
They are search engines that submit queries to several search engines and directories and
then compile the result in a convenient display. Since it operates through multi search
engines, they are usually slower example of Meta search engines are:
i. Vivisimo (http://www.vivisimo.com)
ii. Surf wax (http://www.surfwax.com)
iii. Copernic agent (http://www.copernic.com)
iv. Ixquick (http://www.ixquick.com)
v. Hotpot (http://www.hotpot.com)
vi. Dog pile (http://www.dogpile.com)
Source:
( UCB Library 2004)
Recommendations
The following are recommended by this study as measures to enhance the efficacy of
cell phones as effective instructional tools for teaching and learning, most especially its
pedagogical values. Since cell phones are ubiquitous and easily portable, students and
teachers are expected to maximize its educational potential. Thus it is recommended that the
usage of cell phones on both internet and SMS based learning should be utilized to facilitate
the following:
1. To provide opportunities for students to follow their own progress and promote learning
in and outside the classroom environment.
2. Promote a condusive, relaxed and convenient learning environment that is more
academically productive.
3. Create enjoyable classroom learning as opposed to the traditional classroom learning that
generates boredom.
4. Cell phone should be used to facilitate differentiation, collaborative and discovery
learning, of which all learner are fully involved in learning thereby learners can learn at their
own pace
5. Moreso, teaching and learning through internet and SMS- based should be directed to
promote interactive classroom, that foster innovative teaching, that is passive teacher activity
and active students activity in the teaching and learning process.
6. Students would benefit immensely in verbal learning being provided from uniform access
medium that prevent distorted facts.
7. A virtual classroom should also be facilitated without panic for electricity supply, since
cell phone is wireless .
8. To cater for the shy and academically back ward students so as to help them remedy their
academic deficiencies.
9. Finally the numerical and grammatical competence of the students would be improved
which would improve their learning habit and facilitate educational development.
Conclusion
The aim of this study is to investigate the efficacy of cell phone as an instructional
tool using features like mobile internet and SMS as indicators. It is obvious that if the nation
189
is to realise one of the cardinal goals of the National Policy on Education and the Millennium
Development Goal of which information technology (ICT) is stated as one of the means,
there is the need to tap the potential of wireless learning, facilitated by mobile assisted
learning, enhanced by the use of cell phones, most especially considering the erratic power
supply, and lack of funds to adequately provide computers and internet facilities to all
schools. Thus cell phones now stand as a considerable alternative.
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Technology at the Bangladesh Open University (BOU).Retrieved from
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Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication
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Businesses and the State. Review of African Political Economy, 33 (107), 93 – 111.
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191
THE IMPACT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
(ICT) ON THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF COMPUTER APPRECIATION
COURSES IN SOME SELECTED TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS IN ONDO STATE.
OLAJIDE, M.S.
Department of Computer Science, Adeyemi
College of Education, Ondo
AFOLABI, F.O.,
Department of Educational Administration & Planning,
Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo
ABIDOYE, J.A.,
Department of Educational Technology,
Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo
&
OLOJO, J.O.
Department of Computer Science,
College of Education, Ikere Ekiti
Abstract
Poor infrastructure, maintenance culture and lack of the political will on the part of leaders in
the developing countries have led to the poor development of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) infrastructures and opportunities for overall well-being of
their citizenry. These, no doubt, have impacted negatively on the education sector, through
defective and obsolete teaching and learning methods adopted in the schools. The
conventional mode of instructional delivery has been replaced by the contemporary
knowledge driven technology (ICT). Therefore, the need for computer appreciation courses
in various institutions of higher learning. This paper takes a critical look at teaching and
learning of computer appreciation courses in selected tertiary institutions in Ondo State. It
examines the various factors contributing to the poor performances of the students in
computer appreciation courses with a view to offering useful suggestions for his
improvement.Keywords: ICT, instructional delivery, computer appreciation, teaching and
learning methods.
Introduction
In the contemporary Nigerian society, Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) has proven to be the propelling force for which virtually all known human activities are
driven. This technology affects the way the entire global population reasons, associates,
learns and communicates. The Computer provides easy, convenient and speedy means of
getting myriads of tasks done with little or without human intervention. Akinyokun (1996)
sees computer as any machine which can accept data in a prescribed form, store and process
the instruction in a specified format as information or as signals to control automatically
some other machines or processes. Computer literacy according to Ogunbanjo (2008) is fast
becoming a requirement for living in the modern societies. As a matter of fact, it assumes a
veritable pedestal upon which developing countries of the world would realize the
Millennium Development Goals as prescribed by United Nations’ Charter. Computer
192
Appreciation is a good starting point of introducing computer science to beginners in any
discipline. Essentially, computer appreciation is a beginners’ course where various
rudimentary aspects of computer science as critically appraised to acquaint the students with
basic knowledge required of them to remain active players in the emerging ICT driven world.
In any educational set up, the stakeholders, notably parents, governments at various levels
and even the students are very important as they require a measure of computer appreciation
knowledge. The conventional practice where policy planning and formulation of educational
matters are being organized in the developing countries has been dethroned by the adoption
of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). In other words, educational sector in
the past was managed exclusively with manual or analog technology. Most activities in
teaching, methodology, assessment, evaluation and presentation of results were executed
using available manual or analog devices. This method made learning rigid and cumbersome,
most of the time, compared to the new trend.
A new culture of learning has evolved from the use of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) gadgets. This trend presents the minimum knowledge of
computer appreciation courses for acquiring appropriate skills that learners require to
effectively cope with the new learning approach (Olajide et al, 2009).
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is defined by Falaki, (2000) as the
fusion of computer technology and telecommunication technology aimed at solving wide
spectra of human problems. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) driven
learning pedagogies make the teaching-learning process motivating, easy and captivating for
enduring and lasting experiences. Indeed, it is a novel approach to learning in Nigeria.
Teaching and learning have established robust relationship with computer technology
in the new millennium more than ever before, both in size and in structure. Teachers and
learners now depend on the scalability, reliability and applicability of the technology to
enhance their traditional function. Lessons or Lectures are now being prepared using
computer technology, via software packages that are well prepared for the purpose and also
for evaluations (examinations), registration of courses, checking of results, allocation of
dormitories and other educational services. Thus, a measure of educational programme is
directly managed by computer appreciation and application knowledge.
Consequently, a measure of skills in computer application that is computer
appreciation is a sine qua non in meeting one of the cardinal objectives in education in the
new millennium (Ogunbanjo, 2003). The curricula designed and implemented nowadays,
have placed great emphasis on computer appreciation at all levels of education to impart the
necessary computer skills in learners.
However, there are a number of associated challenges facing the implementation of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) policies. These include poor
infrastructure, poor funding, epileptic power supply and lack of the political will on the part
of the leaders. All these hindrances have impacted negatively on the teaching and learning of
computer appreciation courses in most institutions in Nigeria.
Moreover, there are several tertiary institution in Nigeria with inadequate number of
qualified personnel teaching computer appreciation courses. Most often, Mathematicians are
allocated computer appreciation courses because of the perceived affinity, which exists
between computer and mathematics (Ogunbanjo, 2003). The few hands available in most
cases are not enough for effective teaching delivery; rather, they concentrate on completing
the syllabi placed before them. This, no doubt, is a major factor in the dwindling
performances in these courses by students of tertiary institutions in Nigeria. The population
193
of students is usually on the high side compared to the available lecturers based on the U.N.
prescribed ratio.
Ojo (2005) explains that apart from the content achievement and cognitive
development, laboratory activities help to develop skills in scientific thinking, computer are
better appreciated when taught in the lecture rooms and supported with practical
demonstration of skills acquired.
The study therefore, sets out to critically examine the effects of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) on the teaching and learning of computer appreciation
courses in selected tertiary institutions in Ondo State using gender as a moderating variable.
Research Questions
The following three research questions were raised to guide the investigation:
1. Is inadequate supply of computer experts responsible for students’ poor academic
performance in computer appreciation courses?
2. Is inadequate supply of appropriate hardware and software responsible for students’ poor
academic performance in computer appreciation courses?
3. Are the poor infrastructure facilities, required for effective functioning of hardware and
software, responsible for the students’ poor performances in computer appreciation courses?
Methodology Population
There are five tertiary institutions in Ondo State, out of which three were purposively
selected for the study using the requisite conditions of the research.
The population of the study consists of all students and lecturers in the three selected
tertiary institutions in Ondo State. The respondents were selected to ascertain the effects of
ICT on teaching and learning of computer appreciation course in tertiary institutions on them.
Sixty students and eleven lecturers were randomly selected as samples in each of the three
selected institutions making a total of 213 respondents for the study.
Research Instrument
The researcher used a structured questionnaire named, ICT Impact on Teaching and
Learning Process (IITLP) which is divided into two sections. Section A consists of the
personal data of the respondents while section B consists of ten structured questions to elicit
responses on the effect of ICT on the teaching and learning of the computer appreciation
courses.
Basically, there are two sets of questionnaires. The first one was designed for the
lecturers and the second one was designed for students. The respondents were assured of the
confidentiality of their information supplied and also encouraged to express their genuine and
independent opinions while responding to the questionnaire.
Data Collection and Analysis
The two sets of questionnaires were administered personally to the lecturers and
students through the assistance of computer lecturers in three institutions. The collection of
data lasted for twelve days. Analysis of data collected from the field centred on the
determination of the effects of Information and Communication Technology on the teaching
and learning of computer appreciation courses.
194
Results
The results are presented and discussed in the order of presentation of the Hypotheses as follows:
Hypothesis One:
There is no significant difference in the appreciation levels of students who are male and
female students that were exposed to computer appreciation training in (ICT) .
Table I: A table of t-test level of significance showing the Differences in the Appreciation
levels of students
Group
N
Mean
SD
T-Critical
F
– DF
Decision
(0.05)
Calculated
Male
102
38.12
4.37
2.145
1.712
62
Accepted
Female
111
41.31
6.538
Since the t-calculated 1.712 is less than the table value of 2.145 which was observed at a 0.05
level of significance, the null hypothesis was accepted. Thus, there is a difference of
significant level between male and female students in computer appreciation.
Hypothesis Two:
There is no significant difference in the level of computer appreciation between science and
non-science based students in computer appreciation training of the (ICT) programme.
Table II: T-test comparing science based and non-science based students in computer
appreciation courses with the use of ICT facilities
Group
N
Mean SD
T-Critical F – Calculated
DF Remarks
(0.05)
Science
based 120
30
1.154
No
students
2.1009
0.9258
18
significant
Non-Science
80
20
1.825
based students
Based on the study, it was noted that inadequate number of computer system for
usage affected the academic achievement of the students. Also, epileptic power supply, poor
management culture and poor infrastructure that is Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) facilities are also causes in poor achievement performance of the students.
According to some respondents, the operation of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) facilities is a big problem amongst the students. To worsen the situation,
inadequate provision of finance to address Information and Communication Technology
facilities needs in the school visited has caused poor academic performance of students in
computer appreciation courses. As a result of this, most respondents require extra training in
other to make a maximum utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
facilities in their teaching/learning of computer appreciation courses. In fact, about 77% of
the respondents believed that providing adequate finance and enabling environment for
academic achievement of students in computer appreciation courses will improve
tremendously while 21% did not.
Since the t-calculated (0.92580 is less than t-critical at (0.05), (2.1009) the null
hypothesis was accepted which says that there is no significant difference in the science
195
based students in computer appreciation courses with the use of ICT facilities. This is in
contrast to Akinlade (2009), that there is significant difference between the performance of
science based and non-science based students.
Hypothesis Three:
There is no significant difference in the level of academic achievement of 100 level and 200
level students with the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) facilities.
196
Table III: T-Test Comparing Academic Achievement of 100 Level and 200
Students in Computer Appreciation Courses.
Level
N
Mean SD
T-Critical F – Calculated
DF
(0.05)
100
72
49.8
17.62
200
88
30.2
17.67
1.9901
1.7491
18
Level
Remarks
No
significant
Since the t-calculated (1.7491) is less than t-critical at (0.05), (1.7491) the null
hypothesis was accepted the hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference
100 level and 200 level students. This view is supported by Ogunsiji (2008) that there is no
significant difference in the academic achievement of 100 and 200 levels students.
Discussion of Findings
The findings revealed that female have flair and high proficiency on the usage of
computer in computer appreciation courses and younger students have good skills in handling
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) facilities in computer appreciation
courses.
The computer appreciation courses in tertiary institutions can be made more
interesting, captivating and easy to pass by making ICT facilities available with enough
qualified training personnel for effective utilization.
Conclusion
In this study, it was found out that there were some problems hindering academic
performance of computer appreciation courses in the nation’s tertiary institutions. The
contemporary world that we live require a measure of skills in computer appreciation courses
in order to be able to manipulate Information and Communication (ICT) facilities. This
position is premised by the fact that ICT now dictate a new direction to almost all human
activities. However, the problem of grave concern here is the poor implementation of ICT
policy where institutional barriers were not well addressed. The assumption made is that by
providing few functional computers and other ICT facilities a better society is guaranteed for
the future of our students. This has adversely affected the teaching and learning of computer
appreciation courses.
Recommendations
In view of the problems of computer appreciation courses in education, it is therefore
recommended that adequate fund be made available to procure Information and Information
(ICT) facilities and other allied infrastructure. Enabling environments with highly skilled
personnel are also required to improve the quality of teaching and practical training. These
will also encourage the students to adopt new learning approaches to computer appreciation
courses. Robust ICT policy must be developed and implemented by the government. Efforts
should be geared toward periodic review and sustenance of continuity as evidenced in the
developed world unlike the instability in government polices by the successive governments
here in Nigeria. More so, government educational agencies should be created to support the
existing ones. Funds must be made available to develop, promote and implement ICT policies
in the educational sector to bring a concomitant improvement to ICT through computer
appreciation courses taught in tertiary institutions in Nigeria.
197
References
Akinlade, A.D.(2009). A study of effects of information communication technology in the
teaching and learning of Physics (PGD Thesis) at the National Teachers’ Institute
(NTI), Kaduna
Akinyokun, O.C.(1999). Principles and practice of computing technology. International
Publishers Ltd. Ibadan
Elias, O.G., Olaleke, J.O., Olajide, M.S. and Olojo, O.J. (2009). Information and
communication technology and learning in the contemporary world. ”The use of
English Undergraduates”. Ojo & Ogunsiji(Eds. Ibadan: Alafa)
Falaki, S.O. (2002). Information technology in Nigeria. Now or Never. Inaugural Lecture
Series 29. Federal University of Technology, Akure
Ogunbanjo, S.A.(2003). Essentials of computer studies, 2 nd edidtion. NIEPA(Nigeria)
Printing Press, Ondo
Ogunbanjo, S.A. (2008). Computer appreciation, 1st edition. Tomol Publishers, Ado Ekiti
Ogunsiji, J.O. (2008). Gender as a factor of academic performance in computer science
courses. PGDE project work, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife
Ojo, M.O. (2005). Essentials of Physics techniques, 1 st edition. All Gold Publishers, Ibadan
198
ACHIEVING THE GOALS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL EDUCATION IN
CONTEMPORARY NIGERIAN SOCIETY: THE PLACE OF MOBILE LEARNING
COLLINS A. E.
Department of Educational Foundations
Federal College of Education, Kano
Abstract
Mobile technology is becoming popular in the Nigerian society. The mobile cell is used in
many sectors of the society. Its application to learning and the educational process has
however remained untapped. This paper discusses the role of education in effecting personal
as well as national progress. While narrowing its emphasis on secondary education, the paper
examines the need for every child to be availed of the opportunity to quality education in the
constantly changing contemporary society. The paper further discusses the meaning,
segments, values, limitations and implications of mobile learning. On the basis of this, the
paper finally recommended among others that educational theories that allow the
incorporation of mobile learning in the educational process should be developed in order to
realise the goals of secondary school education.
Introduction
Education is a philosophical as well as a sociological concept (Scott and Marshall,
2009). As a sociological concept, education is seen as the basic institution that provides
members of society with knowledge about the basic facts of life, occupational skills, cultural
norms and the necessary values that would equip them properly for their roles as members of
society (Macionis, 2006). It is obvious that education is essential for human survival and
societal progress. Hence, many nations recognize education as a potent instrument necessary
for achieving progress as well as human and material development. A country that is unable
to develop the skills and knowledge base of its citizenry would be lacking the necessary
human resources (i.e., medical doctors, teachers, lawyers, engineers, clergy, etc). There is no
doubting the fact that, education equips a country's labour force with the skills, attitude,
behaviour and competencies that would enable it have the capacity to plan, organize and
carry out activities that would lead to national progress and development.
The United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) views education as a fundamental
human right and a key factor in reducing poverty as well as in promoting sustainable
development (Daramola, 2010). It is obvious that in most developing countries, education .is
seen as public good. To this end, it is strongly believed that expanding educational
opportunities for the benefit of a large proportion of the population would quicken the pace of
national development (Ernest & Irekhaefe, 2011).
As highlighted in the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) education is adopted
in Nigeria as "an instrument par excellence for effecting national development". The policy
also states that educational opportunities shall be given to all Nigerian children irrespective of
any real or imagined disabilities, each according to his or her ability. In demonstration of its
commitment in ensuring adequate education for all its citizen, the government of Nigeria
initiated a number of reforms in the education sector, some of which are:
1. Launching of the UBE in 1999.
2. Initiation of the Strategy for Accelerating Girls Education in Nigeria (SAGEN) in 2003.
3. Passing into law the Child's Rights Act in 2003
199
4. Enactment of the UBE law in 2004
5. Introduction of the Education Management Information Services and Education Data
Bank (FMIS/Educ/DATA/BANK)
6. Introduction of Home Grown School Feeding Programme (HGSFP).
As fantastic as these reforms may seem, our education experience has not been one that calls
for celebration, particularly in the area of enrolment and participation of students in postprimary levels of education. The academic need of the number of students that enrol in many
of our secondary schools cannot be met because of the existence of problems such as poor
funding, shortage of qualified teachers, and infrastructural inadequacies.
With the above in mind, it is succinct to state that, efforts should be made to avail
every Nigerian child the opportunity to get quality formal education that would prepare
him/her to face the complex needs associated with the fast changing world of today. It is on
this basis that this paper focuses on examining the role that mobile learning should play in
ensuring the achievement of the goals of secondary education in Nigeria.
Objectives of Secondary Education in Nigeria
The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) sees secondary education as the form
of education children receive after primary school and before tertiary education. The
objectives of secondary education are as follows:
a) provide all primary school leavers with the opportunity for education of a higher level,
irrespective of sex, social status, religious or ethnic background;
b) offer diversified curriculum to cater for the differences in talents, opportunities and future
roles;
c) provide trained manpower in the applied science, technology and commerce at subprofessional grades;
d) develop and promote Nigerian languages, art and culture in the context of world's
cultural heritage;
e) inspire students with a desire for self improvement, and achievement of excellence;
f) foster national unity with an emphasis on the common ties that unite us in our diversity;
g) raise a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views and feelings
of others, respect the dignity of labour, appreciate those values specified under our broad
national goals and live as good citizens; and
h) provide technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, industrial,
commercial and economic development (FGN, 2004:13-14).
From the above stated objectives, it is pertinent that secondary school leavers should
be creative, entrepreneurially developed, skillful and be able to embrace the learning
opportunities that the changing technology of today offers. It is expected that the secondary
school leaver should be resourceful and be able to carry out goal oriented activities,
particularly those that ensures his/her personal as well as national wellbeing. It can be stated
without any contradiction, that all things being equal, the Nigerian child has elements of
creativity in him/her that is comparable to other children found in other parts of the world
(Oduolowa, 2004).
However, because the secondary school student is exposed to a limited amount of
instructional opportunities caused by scarcity of learning materials, shortage of qualified
teachers, dilapidated classrooms and poor learning environment, it is doubtful whether the
Nigerian secondary school learner is capable of meeting the challenges and opportunities of
200
today's technologically driven world. We need to address these limitations urgently if
secondary schools are to meet the challenges of producing students who are equipped with
the latest knowledge that a changing world offers. One way of doing this is by incorporating
mobile learning into the educational system particularly at the secondary school level.
Understanding Mobile Learning
That we are now in the mobile age is stating the .obvious. Mobile phones are carried
every where by virtually everyone at almost every time of the day. Banks are accessed from
holes in the wall, cars are becoming travelling offices, airplane seats are entertainment
centres and computer games are handheld (Sharples, 2007).
Although related to e-learning and distance education, mobile learning is distinct in its
focus on learning across contexts and learning with mobile devices. Conceptually, the term
'mobile learning' or 'm-learning' has different meanings depending on the experiences, uses
and backgrounds of those giving the definitions. This has led to a fertile proliferation of
views and perspectives (Winters, 2007). Polsari (2003) sees mobile learning as a form of
learning which has the network as its site of production, circulation and consumption.
Another definition of m-learning is "any sort of learning that happens when the
learner is not at a fixed, predetermined location, or learning that happens when the learner
takes advantage of the learning opportunities offered by mobile technologies" (O'Malley et al,
2003). The term covers learning with mobile technologies including but not limited to mobile
phones, MP3 players and handheld computers. M-learning focuses on the mobility of the
learner interacting with portable technologies, and learning that reflects a focus on how
society and its institutions can accommodate and support an increasingly mobile population.
Key Segments of Mobile Phones Related to Learning
The cell phone provides the easiest and most accessible means of m-learning among
the mobile technologies presently existing. Ofie (2011) highlighted some of the key segments
of the cell phone that provide mobile learning. These include:
i. Voice-Only. These are radios that pick up and send signals on certain predetermined
frequencies. Through such a device, students can learn public speaking, writing languages,
literature and even mathematics
ii. Short Text Messages (SMS). The SMS is a common feature of the mobile phone that is
been utilized by many users of mobile phones. As a learning device, SMS can be used for
informational quizzes in practically all subjects. It can also provide timely reminders on key
concepts to students so that they can become much more understandable to them.
iii. Graphic Display. Through this device, meaningful amounts of educative texts can be
displayed. Such displayed texts can also be accompanied with pictures and animation.
iv. Internet Browsers. Most of the cell-phones presently produced have internet browsers
built in them. Through such devices, students have access to a lot of information on key
concepts related to the subjects they are studying. Many mobile phones also have cameras
and video clips built in them. It is obvious that such devices are capable of helping students to
document learning materials both within and outside the classroom.
v. Downloadable Programmes. Cell phones also give students opportunity to download
important learning materials which they got as they utilize the internet browsers built in them.
This function is made possible because cell phones have memories that store information
which can be easily down loaded whenever the need arises.
201
Values of M-Learning
Ofie (2011) listed the values of m-learning to include:
1) Convenience and flexibility: Mobile learning can take place anywhere, at any time. This
means that the learner can utilize it at the exact moment he/she requires to learn.
2) Learner control and freedom: The relationship between the use of mobile devices and
learning especially informal learning is quite beneficial and motivating to the learners
because they have the freedom to define tasks and relate activities to their own goals and
control over their own goals.
3) Offers variety of learning styles: Through mobile technologies, learners have access to
reading (text and graphics), listening to broadcasts, contributing to discussions (forms or
SMS), researching on internet, working through decision trees and making use of animated
materials.
4) Improves social learning: Mobile devices offer opportunities for learners to
communicate easily with peers and teachers through SMS texts, knowledge showing forums
and telephony. Such interaction is always done with fun and as such motivates learners to
learn at their own pace.
5) Easily digestible learning: Given the fact that most mobile devices have small screens,
this minimizes the amount of information that can be offered to a learner at any time. Such bit
by bit information allows learners to learn gradually.
6) Useful to students with special needs: Depending on the learners' specific disabilities or
difficulties, mobile learning can be a useful add-on tool for students with special needs
(Savill, 2008).
7) Useful to disaffected students: Since handling mobile devices is fun, it can be used as a
'hook' or 'bait' to re-engage students who have lost interest in learning (Savill, 2008).
8) The mobile handset offers itself as an ideal conduit between school and home: This
shift in sites of education means that, the responsibility of transferring knowledge and skills
to learners is now a combined effort of both the school and the home (Dourish, 2004).
Limitations of Mobile Learning
Ofie (2011), notes the following limitations:
1. The small screens of mobile cells limit the amount of information that can be displayed
on them.
2. Data can be lost if batteries are not charged regularly and properly.
3. Mobile devices are attractive to thieves.
4. Frequent changes in mobile models /functionality could be painful.
5. Hand cells and PDAs have limited memory storage capacities.
6. Security or piracy are challenging issues when accessing networks.
7. Existing applications are not easily integrated to the mobile technology.
8. Transmitting across different browsers and platforms is literally impossible.
9. Mobile cells are less robust than desktops.
Implications of Mobile Learning by Secondary School Students
In consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of mobile learning, some
implications of this form of learning have been noted by Winters (2007) to include:
i. Mobile learning applications are best viewed as mediating tools in the learning process.
They are not ends in themselves. Therefore secondary school students should not be left with
these applications alone but should be related to other learning tools that students and
202
teachers are already using, and/or other tools that have arisen as a result of technical
developments.
ii. Designing a mobile learning activity can be supported by addressing the following factors:
a. learners and their relationships (i.e. peer groups, teachers, etc).
b. what the learner is learning (topic, relationship to prior experience, etc).
c. where and when are learners learning (i.e., the culture of the place, its ethics, access to
information, etc).
Conclusion and Recommendations
Although the Nigerian society has increasingly become a mobile one, it is however
obvious that many people lack the confidence in the efficacy of mobile technologies in
ensuring meaningful teaching and learning activities. This is not peculiar to Nigeria alone.
For example, Masters and Ng'ambi (2007) notes that, allowing students undue access to
mobile cells especially in formal school learning environment can lead to the disruption of
students' personal and academic lives. Also Sharples (2007) observes that, the belief of many
is that allowing students access to mobile devices can lead to the loss of control by traditional
classroom education/teachers over students learning activities. Thus, most schools and
colleges forbid students to bring phones and personal computers into the classroom.
Nevertheless, due to the fact that m-learning is gradually becoming popular in enhancing
students’ learning capabilities in many schools in the developed countries, this paper
recommends the following:
i. Our secondary schools should also incorporate elements of m-learning. However, this
should be done in a manner that considers our peculiarities, cultural and religious differences.
ii. Considering the fact that allowing secondary school students undue access to mobile
phones can lead to the disruption of their personal and academic lives, schools should adopt
appropriate strategies that would help them to not only checkmate the adverse effects, but to
also harness the benefits of teaching/learning through mobile technologies.
iii. The burden of ensuring the success of m-learning should not be borne by the government
and or schools alone. Thus, private individuals, non-governmental agencies and community
leaders should be encouraged to participate in creating awareness of the benefits of mlearning.
iv M-learning should be incorporated as a course of study in both pre-service and in-service
teacher training programmes. Such a move would equip teachers with the much needed
knowledge about the usefulness of m-learning in the provision of quality and equitable
education to the generality of Nigerian secondary school students.
v. Finally, in order to effectively incorporate m-learning into our educational experiences,
we need to redefine our educational theories since they are amenable to changes. This view is
in line with Papert’s (1994) assertion that:
I believe that if we are to have new forms of learning, we need a very different kind of
theory of learning. The theories that have been developed by educational
psychologists and by academic psychologists in general, are matched to specific kind
of learning. As long as these ways of thinking about learning remain dominant, it will
be very hard to make a serious shift from the traditional form of school (p. 21).
203
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sustainable national development in Nigeria. Journal of Teacher Perspective, III, 458-459.
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Nigeria (APAETIN) held at F.C.E. Kano.
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psychology and education. Vienna: Passagen Verlay.
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University Press.
Sharples, M. (2007). How can we address the conflict between personal informal learning
and traditional classroom education? In Sharples, M. (Ed.). Big issues in mobile
learning: Reports of a workshop by the Kaleidosecope Network of Excellence Mobile
Learning Initiative, P.23.
Sharples, M. (Ed.) (2007). Big issues in mobile learning: Reports of a workshop by the
Kaleidosecope Network of Excellence Mobile Learning Initiative, P.4.
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learning: Reports of a workshop by the Kaleidosecope Network of Excellence Mobile
Learning Initiative, pp. 7-11
204
THE ROLE OF DRAMA/THEATRE IN ENHANCING GOOD GOVERNANCE IN
THE NIGERIAN SOCIETY.
BOT J. I. C.
College of Education, Gindiri
Plateau State
Abstract
This paper attempts to examine the role of dramatic/theatre arts in the society towards making
good governance. Democratic leadership role(s) of dramatic/theatrical arts are given, and
how they are used to function in a society with special consideration to the nation Nigeria.
Different forms of performances that dramatists get involved in people-oriented programmes
which are aimed at carrying along in the unity of the government and governed are discussed.
Also, it shows drama/theatre as a means of ensuring good governance, as well as enlisting
some expectations of the society to the performing artists. It gives recommendations for use
and further researches.
Introduction
Putting aside the notion(s) that some people have of dramatic/theatrical arts products
as being mundane, or not, drama/theatre is one of those ways endowed with some special
techniques or skills of communicating ‘thoughts’ in a performative manner to and within the
society, in form of educating, informing, involving and entertaining an ‘audience’, aimed at
sensitizing, conscientizing and or, reawakening them on governmental issues and
programmes, and vice versa. Drama/theatre has served humanity as an active intermediation
within and outside the ‘societies’ right from the ancient era to the present and would go
beyond into the future. It would not be an under or over statement to say that once an African
child is born, to the time he /she takes a journey to the grave is in constant romance with
drama. It goes further to mean the life crisis or rites of passage and the activities therein
which are imitative, ritualized, and repetitive, at most times practically acted with
demonstrations. These demonstrable imitations are either done with the child within a
household, or within a neighborhood, but certainly within the child’s immediate environment.
So, drama/theatre possesses those virtues for use in transmitting the needed messages
intended for a targeted society in Nigeria.
Drama /theatre is traced back to the activities of the Greeks, although it seemed to
have started in Africa (Egypt) as far back as 3000 BC, materials in proof were scare and those
found appeared unclear. As a result of this, Greece went ahead. According to Brockett (1969)
For several centuries Greek drama was presented only in connection with this festivals
honoring Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility. Dionysus was killed, dismembered, and then
resurrected. The myths which grew up around him were closely related to the life cycle and
to seasonal changes: birth, growth, decay, death and rebirth; spring summer fall and winter .
. . also represented many of the worlds irrational forces . . . the inclusion of such irrational
forces within the sphere of religion illustrates well the Greek belief that the failure to give
due honor to any part of nature might lead to destruction(p.56).
However, drama was yet to emerge since all these activities did not portray it. The same
author Brockett (1969) says that human’s efforts were to control these unknown and feared
forces / powers, thus:
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Those measures which appeared to bring the desired results were then retained and
repeated until they hardened into fixed rituals. Eventually stories arose which explained or
veiled the rites mysteries. As man Progressed in knowledge, some rituals, such as those
involving human sacrifice, were abandoned, but the stories later called myths, persisted and
provided materials for drama.(p.55).
Drama as it started during the ancient and primitive era was a communal activity in
the Dionysian worship: a sacred duty, team spirit and involving philosophy of purpose.
Consequent upon these, leadership was holy, democratic, goal targeted and creatively
innovative. Through these their society was cleansed, progressed, free and friendly. Should
drama in Nigeria take its past and purposeful roles, the proceeds of efficient and prudent
governance for the benefit of all electorates or the down trodden masses would be enormous.
Any society that the masses enjoy freedom, the top and upper classes stabilize. A crisis free
leadership produce well mannered successors, while progress and prosperity become
eminent, succulent and sumptuous.
Definition of Operational Terms
According to Akinwale (2001) Nigerian theatre has come of age. Its operations from
1945 to 1997 show that it has become an integral part of our society’s existence. Hence, it is
not a part of our social life that can be ignored. From this, one could understand that theatre
must have permeated nooks and crannies of both our society and individual minds.
No wonder then that Zulu Sofola in Akinwale (2001) had to give in her defining what theatre
is, gave a holistic perspective of it, thus:
Theatre is a medium of artistic expression mirrored in a dynamic living form. A metaphorical image of reality. It reflects the total cosmic, moral and metaphysical order of
life of the people. It is an arena where human beings are presented in a cosmic totality,
acting and reacting to forces around them and within them, perceiving and being
perceived by those inter acting with them, and by these in the audience who experience
with them the enigma that is the common lot of humanity(p.24).
While according to Adedokun (2001) that Phyllis Hartnoll having used and enjoyed the
theatre, observed the theatre thus:
But for the theatre as we understand it today three things are necessary: actors
speaking or singing independently of the original unison chorus; an element of conflict
conveyed in dialogue; and an audience emotionally involved in the action but not
taking part in it (p.32).
Theatre is used as a pedagogical tool, its exponents, as Augusto Boal (1972:4) and
Paulo Freire (1972) used theatre to teach the audience what the societal life is. According to
Boal (1972: 4) theatre is the production of ordered images of a world in perpetual change and
transition, an aesthetic form through which we can perceive reality in the make-believe
actions that actors present to an audience directly from stage.
In an on going performance, many perceptions are tagged, as acquired influence to the
human mind for a change in behavior by audience in form of the presented culture, religion,
style, language etc. that is put on stage. However, it is the storyline or theme through the
directorial concept that guides the actions, makeup, language for a specified thought of the
playwright to the spectators for a supposed character change.
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Drama /Theatre Leadership Roles And Good (Democratic) Governance
The word theatre is used by several professions; in medicine, theatre is a surgical
room, in education, it refers to a hall where lectures are received; in Drama, it refers to a
place where audience see performance. This paper is based on the later concept, and it shall
be our operational word. Theatre comes from a Greek word ‘theatron’, which means ‘a seeing
place’ or ‘place of seeing’. Naturally the questions that may arise are what spectacles are
being seen there? How is the seeing place? Who could be the seers? What lessons are learnt
there? etc. Responses to these questions cannot get too far from performance; and teaching
the audience about their conduct within and outside their society. To justify the usage of this
word, Adedokun (2001) sees,
Performance as a finished theatrical product manufactured from creative raw
materials such as drama, music, dance, poetry, mime, pantomime etc by theatre artists
and presented before a gathering of people (consumers) called audience at a given
price and at a given location(p.30).
To ethnicities, races, cultures and traditions, nations, religions etc drama had sources
of inspiration as varied as these variables are. The Greeks playmaking was from the
honouring of their god of harvest fertility and wine-Dionysus. From there came an outshoot
of movements, speeches / dialogues, imitation, some kind of philosophy, team spirit and so
on that were imbibed and carried to the stage or theatre as a way of enforcing, or by extension
on a religious worship in a mild way for a more generalized audience / public. According to
Brocket (1969: 56) Dionysian worship, as the god of wine and fertility, represented many of
the world’s irrational forces . . . The inclusion of such irrational forces within the sphere of
religion illustrates well the Greek belief that the failure to give due honor to any part of
nature might lead to destruction. The Greeks constantly sought to achieve harmony among all
the conflicting forces both within and outside themselves.
This renowned dramatist O.G. Brockett captured this dramatic role amidst the
Dionysian festival/worship to the society looking at what harmony/peace or otherwise
conflict can do. For good (democratic) governance in any nation, inclusion of all irrational
forces would create room for everyone to have a feeling or sense of belonging. The absence
of peace paves ways to conflicts, crisis, intolerance, disunity etc and it ends in destructive
tendencies, underdevelopment and poor governance. Dramatic actions in plays have roles of
conveying to the audience of all sorts of thoughts/messages for harmonious co-existence as a
nation.
It does not start and end on dramas /plays, but the African uses his stories, to teach,
tell of the exploits of the elders and draw moral lessons in every story so that the listener can
learn some basic lessons of life from it. This concept is utilized effectively these days in what
is loosely called intervention drama. There are dramas usually created as teaching pieces by
writers using the format of the African story style. In some places, and at most times, they are
referred to as enter-educate drama. Such plays were telecasted on air and were used to
explain government programmes and policies. Among others we had the Hausa play the
People’s court, “Magana jari ce” and the comedy of ‘masquerade’, which are used to
entertain, as well as, educate. The late Hubert Ogunde’s television plays with his political
satires and songs, while in the early sixties, were widely popular drama and served as a
vehicle of change. Similarly, the “village Headmaster “concept was simple and effective,
mirroring the societal attitude clearly seeking for positive social change.
Enna (2004:96) on theatre and politics in pre-colonial Eggon society, drew from the
role of Andakopo Ashum (priest) whose role doubles as director and actor in any
207
performance .He ensures that the person directly responsible for the accuracy of all the codes
and performance aesthetics of the particular theatrical piece. Theatre in this community is
considered a very serious business, hence the seriousness of Andakopo Ashum to zero
tolerance on any inaccuracy. As a leader, for good and democratic governance the spirit of
seriousness in governmental activities is eminent. Emphasizing further the role of Andakopo
Ashum in council, Enna(2004:100) said, “the cult listen carefully to complaints emanating
from all source …” Again, this theatrical tradition also reflects, refracts and mediates the
ethos and pathos of the society. It also expresses, through its power of physicalization and
dramatization, the corresponding exclusive social relations and values of the determinant
mode of production(Enna 2004:30).
In his own approach with the TIV Kwagh-hir, Hagher (1990:197) gave two sides of
its operation: first, Nigeria, as well as other nations, who are in a similar situation can employ
the theatre for conscientization and development drama as pedagogy, has been used to resist
the oppressive neo-colonial situation, corrupt and irresponsible leadership. Secondly, on the
other hand, a progressive government, that genuinely desires to uplift the poor condition of
the deprived rural populace, can also use the theatre (Theatre for Community Development)
for raising of popular government programmes.
Every government, political party, or agency that is saddled with the responsibilities
of governance has particular targets and goals to achieve. The overall good of the democratic
governance for development project in Nigeria is to help develop the capacity of national and
sub-national institutions, networks and processes, whether governmental or nongovernmental, as a contribution to the further entrenchment of democratic governance in
Nigeria. In addition, a candid opinion given on how a civil society can benefit and get
involved in working towards making good governance identified some responsible
democratic institutions like the media, political parties and national and state parliaments,
also the engagement of youths to help them maximize public participation and confidence in
the outcome of government policies and programmes such as employing the use of
community base theatre.
Out of these institutions, to the performing artistes, the media seems to be the largest
and most efficient as far as acting and viewing is concern. According to Head (1972) the
media is usually undetached from mass, so mass-media or mass communication is
approximately a simultaneous delivery of identical messages by high-speed reproduction and
distribution to relatively large and undifferentiated numbers of people. Because of its quality
of reproducing of dramatic show-casing using motion-pictures to audience on a still-warm
seat, it serves as an effective tool for good governance being one of the main ways that quite
a number of audience receive information and entertainment .Both drama\Theatre and massmedia play complimentary roles to each other. As drama produces direct motion-movements
(stage actions) while the mass-media captures those movements into motion-pictures to
reproduce and propagate in form of information and entertainment. In the process of making
drama, the stage, media, youth, message(s), etc are needed to make it real. Out of these,
actions become the most propelling force in facilitating and processing of raw data
information into operational consumable products of change, followership, integration,
socialization, man-power and so on. All that is desired of the youth for a purposeful service to
the society is to have interest, be eager, and acquire relevant skills.
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Expectations of the Society to the Performing Artistes
Hornby (2000) defines society as a particular community of a people who share the
same custom, laws etc; who are living together and having a common purpose. In a society
there exists different professionals, experts, class status, varied activities, celebration, patterns
of behaviors and the like. Still, within the society, there can be means, methods, techniques or
systems of communication in every society. It is aimed at reaching all nooks and crannies of
any society with ideas, information, education, principle etc towards improving and remodernizing, or even keeping and maintaining standards of the values or custom of such a
community as possible. As dramatist, is also doubling as priest, as Brockett(1969) opines:
priests usually assumed the task of the tribe. Wearing masks and costumes, they often
impersonated men, animals or supernatural beings and mimed the desired effect-success in
hunt or battle, the coming of rain, the revival of the sun as an actor might” (p.55).
The task of a dramatist \performer did neither start today nor to be in future. It was a
responsibility even during the ancient times, shouldering much yearnings of the society,
especially the aspect of keeping the populace well- informed. To communicate with the aim
of touching or causing a change in the society,drama serves as a channel of conveyance.
According to Udoakah (1998:1) in Dandaura (2005), drama:
Is a process through which needs, emotions, desires, goals, and sentiments are
expressed among human beings using codes, symbols and language understood by the parties
involved in the process. Drama as a channel used for communication utilizes most of these
variables (1).
Udoakah enlisted. As a matter for discourse, words could be summed up as: drama needs
entails a face-to-face interaction between the participants in the communication situation
(Dandaura 2005:1).As such theatre should:
i. Adequately inform the society to enable them realize and uphold their civic rights and
responsibilities.
ii. Ensure adequate entertainment and proper education towards transforming the society
into peace makers and ambassadors in their communities for the promotion of a conflict free
environment.
iii. Help in facilitating any technical difficulties related to any duty, programme or plan that
would have a direct bearing on the society.
iv. Discourage and adopt zero tolerance for the use of any member of the society for violence
or any negative vices by any pressure group.
v. Help in addressing negative peer pressure and fear of violence and intimidation, rather, it
should promote good virtues especially on the youths who are tomorrow’s leaders.
dgd [email protected] Web.ng.undp.org/procurement/2011_youth-4-youth.dox
Theatre (Dramas) as a Means of Ensuring Good Governance
Theatre is a form of democratic area or field of study, which stands for the people, by the
people and to the same people. Having this, it relates with the roles of good (democratic)
governance, particularly that both deal with the people by coming physically and directly in
contact with their audience(s). Phyllis Hartnoll (1985) in Adedokun (2001) observes this: But
for the theatre as we
understand it today three things are necessary; actors speaking or singing independently
of the original unison chorus; an element of conflict conveyed in dialogue; an audience
emotionally involved in the action but not taking part in it(32).
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Drama ensures effective communication through the use of different pedagogical
processes. Theatre for development: is a complex social process that is dependent on man’s
efforts to understand and take total control of his environment . . . economic, social, political
and cultural realities within which man finds himself (Dandaura (2005:3). Foremost among
advocates to human development perspective to development are Paulo Freire, Augusto Boal,
J.S Illah, Iyorwuese Hagher, Ross Kidd, Walter Rodney and Ngugi Wa Thiong’o. As for
Abah (1992:3) listed the types of theatres for development. He believes that the focus on the
human person in the development process; and the need for him / her to participate in shaping
his own reality lie at the base of the ethics and aesthetics of TIDE. These types of Theatre
include: Theatre for Integrated Development (TIDE), Theatre for Development (TFD),
Theatre for Integrated Rural Development (THIRD), and Community Theatre for Integrated
Rural Development (CTHIRD). All these are referred in broad terms popular/ people theatre
and function as the service of the disadvantaged rural and urban poor for the purpose of
discussing and working out strategies for dealing with their socio-economic conditions.
It is a well known fact that perpetrators of poor governance hate critics for the fear of
exposing their unpopular activities. Drama or theatre, whose role is, to remind the audience,
is seen as undue criticism and incitement against those in authority. Drama/ theatre can be
used as vanguard that exhumes corrupt and bad tendencies. It showcases leaders as
scavengers and exposes hidden practices and makes the stage intolerable arena / colosseum
for social justice. A nation cannot have peace and good governance in the absence of justice.
Leaders need drama / theatre for development among others. In one way, it propagates
government programmes to the society while on the other hand, it gives a feed-back of
policies and implementations reaching the society
Conclusion
Through dramas or plays actors come in contact with the audience on a stage. Theatre
productions give a higher feeling and more lasting emotions that tend to have influence on
human behavior. It can be achieved by the direct rendition, vibration of drums and
movements, smelling of cosmetics and make-up on their bodies, emittance of physical light
rays of lamps from the stage to the eyes. This contact holds and touches the desired thought.
In such performance attention and retention of teachable concepts seem firmer in the minds
of many.
Furthermore, since drama/theatre is a form of skills adopted into the Nigerian culture, it
becomes invariably an operational dimension that drama/theatre becomes a good and familiar
tool to be used in projecting good societal virtues to correct abnormalies. Good
characterization fashions out good people for good governance in Nigeria.
To develop a society for good governance using drama would be a matter of
organization of a suitable plot. Plays are to be used in publicity, maintenance of a culture,
entertainment, creativity, education and information when adequately adopted.
Recommendations
In this context, this paper recommends the following:
i. Theatre industry should be harnessed more in order to give publicity and education to the
society.
ii. Youths are to be involved in theatre performances in order to experience the feelings of
reality as an actor/actress for the sake of on-coming generation and the ones yet unborn.
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iii. The need for philanthropic organization to assist the industry to come up further should
be without limits with particular reference to community based theatre.
References
Abah, O.S. (1992). Participatory theatre: Issues and cases. In, Hagher, I. H.(1990). Ed.The
practice of community theatre in Nigeria.Lagos: Lobi Consortium Ltd.
Akinwale, R.A. (2001). The Nigerian theater and economic viability; in Adedokun
Adedokun,R.A. (2001). Theatre administration and management procedure; in, Adedokun,
(Ed.) Arts administration in contemporary Nigeria. Lagos: Centre for Black and
African Arts and Civilization. Ibadan:Stirling-Horden Publishers(Nig.) Ltd.
Boal, A. (1972). Theatre of the oppressed. London. Pluyo
Brockett, O.G. (1969). The theater: An introduction, 2 nd, ed. New York:
Winston. Inc.
Holt. Rinehart and
Dandaura, E.S. (2005). Development communication through theatre: Conceptual issues and
strategies for effective utilization, in, communicator: A Journal of culture and media
Arts, Abuja: Department of Theatre Arts, university of Abuja.
(C) dgdprojects. Ng@ undp. Org web. Ng. undp. Org/procurement/2011-Grant-Youth-4Youth. Doc
(A) El Teatro campesimo and the merry pranksters. Theatre and performance Art An
Instrument of Social Charge
Enna, M.D. (2004). Theatre and polities in pre-colonial Nigeria: The Case of Eggon Society.
Ibadan : Oputoru Books.
Ferire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Harmonds Worth: Penguin.
(B)Quazen. Com/arts/theatre/using-drama-as-vehide-for-Charge.
Hagher, I.H. (1990). The Tiv Kwagh-Hir, Lagos: Centre for black and African Arts and
Civilization, National theatre. Ibadan: Shaneson C. I. Ltd
Head, S.W. (1972). Broadcasting in America: A Surrey of Television and Radio, 2nd. ed, New
York: Honghton Mifflin Company.
Hornby, A.S. (2001). Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. 6 th ed., New York: Oxford
university press.
Udoakah, N. (1998). Development communication. Ibadan. Stirling Hordan.
211
RE-BRANDING THE NIGERIAN SOCIETY THROUGH MORAL EDUCATION
YUSUF M.
Foundations Department, School of Education,
Sa’adatu Rimi College of Education, Kumbotso, Kano.
Abstract
The paper starts by explaining the current negative trends in almost every aspect of our lives
as manifested in immoral behaviours such as corruption, violent crime (including armed
robbery, kidnapping etc), decadence in our educational institutions, business, politics and
unpatriotic attitudes of many Nigerians. The paper agrees that there is an urgent need to rebrand Nigeria even though similar attempts to change Nigeria and Nigerians for better have
failed. The paper argues that if Nigerians agree and believe that there is a need for change
then that change can come through moral education. Moral education is basic to human
survival at whatever level because what differentiates animals from humans is the ability to
reason and do what is right and shun what is evil. If everything else fails moral education
taught separate from religion and through religion is capable of transforming human souls to
think about their life in eternity and change for better. Recommendations were made, for
example that government should include moral education in the school curriculum and in the
re-branding programme.
Introduction
The Nigerian society faces the danger of moral bankruptcy if indiscipline continues at
the rate we are witnessing it today. Not a day passes without some media report of cases of
immoral behaviours and other negative vices reflecting on the unsatisfactory state of our
institutions and society at large. The Nigerian society is going through a very difficult time
and incidences of immoral behaviour permeates our entire social, economic and political life
as a nation. The perpetrators of such negative behaviour include: parents, teachers, lecturers,
principals, the press, officials in the ministries, employers of labour, labour unions,
professional organizations, business men and women, police, the armed forces and even
pupils and students. These as we know are representatives of the educated and the half
educated elements in our society. Also there are so many dangerous and conflicting values
that compete with sound moral training that most often attract the youth more.
The issue of re-branding the Nigerian society therefore is not only timely but
extremely necessary. This is because the current situation needs urgent solution, and the
solution which we all agree is re-branding which should go beyond slogans because the ills of
the nation cannot be eradicated or waved off through campaigns alone, but through
articulated moral education. For the fact that the challenge of re-branding is a difficult one, it
requires a sound and intense moral education, in which the Nigerian youth are given the right
orientation in schools where they can evolve a character of service and sacrifice. We all know
that getting a positive image that has been badly battered over the years at home and abroad
transcends campaign alone. It must start from the home to the school where the youth in their
impressionable age would have imprinted in their minds and personalities positive values and
attitudes that would earn the nation the needed respect in the world. The adults also need a
change in attitude to bring about a re-branded Nigeria where our individual and collective
concept of right and wrong matters and where we will no longer believe in and accept such
212
statements as “the end justifies the means” or “if you can’t beat them join them.” These
should be exceptions rather than rules.
The paper discusses the way forward in the re-branding process by clarifying some
concepts, rationale for re-branding Nigeria, the need for moral education and how moral
education can play a vital role in re-branding the Nigerian society among others.
Clarification of Terms
The key terms that need clarification include: Re-Branding, Moral, Education, and Moral
Education.
Re-branding
Several meanings have been given to the word ‘brand’ some of which are “a type of
product made by a particular company;” “to describe someone or something as a very bad
type of person or thing, often unfairly” (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English,
2001). Nigeria has been Branded as “the third (3rd), most corrupt country in the world”
(Transparency International Information), a nation of drug pushers, fraudsters, electoral
malpractice, religious and ethnic crisis, corrupt educational system etc. Re-branding
therefore, has to do with changing perception; it is about de-stigmatization; or what is called
image substitution (Saraki, 2009).
Re-branding in the context of this paper involves an activity geared towards making
alternations in the state of something already existing with the intention of giving it a
different and better image. To re-brand Nigeria means to change the world’s perception about
our nation from negative to positive perception. It is about re-defining the concept of our
nationhood and engaging wholly in the process of national renewal to attain a height where
national interest and the domestic and international image of the nation matters to all (Daniel,
2009). It aims at improving the quality of services in the country.
Moral/Morality
The word moral/morality originally comes from the Latin word “Mores’ meaning
customs and usages of a people. Subsequently, it came to mean precept or law. Morality in its
present usage has come to mean one of two things; either the theory of what is right or wrong
in human conduct or objectively, the body or system of what is right or wrong in human
action, and especially what is wrong (Okere, 1983).
Nduka (1983), also shares the same view on the concept of morality when he says
“Morality deals with what has been accepted by the society as being right or wrong, good or
bad in conduct and interpersonal relations.” This paper is of the view however, that not
everything accepted by society as being right or wrong, good or bad is necessarily moral. For
example, the Nigerian society seems to accept the fact that the rich are always right, or that
the majority opinion carries the vote especially in our context. Reason being that what the
majority accepts may actually be based on selfish interest.
Education
The word education is also derived from a Latin word ‘educare” – which means to
bring up a child physically or mentally, to rear. It also means to draw out, to assist at birth as
in midwifery, to hatch as from an egg, to bring up (Okere, 1983: 53). Drawing from a theory
of learning by Socrates, Okere stated that “education is a midwifery; it is helping the student
to bring forth that which he is already pregnant with.” He further stated that man as a
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complex being full of possibilities and potentials could be more accomplished and truly
educated if he develops these potentials. Being educated, he cautioned is not synonymous
with being moral in that an intellectual giant who is a moral dwarf could hardly be regarded
as an educated man. Education according to Ocho (2002:12), is “normative and implies
worth-while and desirability.” Education in the context of this paper is seen as a critical factor
in re-branding Nigeria. It is a dynamic agent of information, change and development in any
society, it is essential for development both at macro and micro levels. It is identified as a
principal element for the individual’s intellectual, social and economic progress (Bakaro,
Girei and Kaibo, 2000).
Moral Education
Nduka (1983:19), stated that, “Moral education involves not only the teaching and
learning and other processes whereby values, rules, principles, ideal; habits and attitudes are
inculcated but also the taking of adequate educational steps to supplement with appropriate
institutional arrangements to promote moral growth along the developmental continuum.”
Brown (1970), also sees moral education as inculcating in people “behaviour that is governed
by a sense of obligation and duty.” Moral education in this context is believed to or capable
of re-branding Nigeria.
Rationale for Re-branding Nigeria
Re-branding in Nigeria dates back to General Gowon’s regime which initiated an
internal re-branding programme of reconciliation, rehabilitation and reconstruction to heal the
wounds of the Nigeria – Biafra war. This achieved a measure of success in the area of reintegration of fellow Nigerians from the Biafran side. Next was that of General Murtala’s
regime of Zero Tolerance for Corruption. The re-branding programme of this regime led to
the removal of many bad-eggs from the service of both public and private sectors. General
Murtala would have made Nigeria the respectable country we desire if he had not been killed
in the 1976 bloody coup. In spite of the regime’s short lived plan, Nigeria as a brand played
prominent role in Africa in the independence struggles of countries such as Zimbabwe,
Angola and even South Africa. Though Buhari’s War against indiscipline was not sustained
after its ouster, it did however re-waken in individuals the essence of self-discipline. The rebranding programme of General Babangida, the Movement for Self-Reliance, Social Justice
and Economic Recovery (MAMSER) was not sustained either after he left the seat of power.
Similarly, Obasanjo’s “Heart of Africa” project failed despite its lofty objective due to poor
planning and because it was not domesticated. The current Re-branding Programme imitated
by Prof. Dora Akunyili is geared towards repositioning Nigeria such that all forms of
corruption would be eradicated. For this current initiative to succeed what we need is
sustainable Moral Education.
At this juncture, it is appropriate to ask why successive governments from General
Murtala to the present regime engaged in trying to redeem Nigeria’s image without success,
and why the government which initiates the reforms is accused of being the culprit in some
instances. To answer these questions, a look at some of the happenings in our national life
will give us an idea as to why Nigeria needs to be re-branded, since previous attempts have
failed.
Nworah (2006), summarized why Nigeria needs re-branding as follows:
- To remove dichotomies militating against national interest and sustainable nation building;
- To sanitize the political scene that reeks of electioneering abuse, display of economic arrogance and
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the use of youths and political thugs to level political scores on real and imagined enemies.;
- To rid the nation of all forms of corruption;
- To replace individuals and self-interest with national interest;
- To sensitize youths on the need to initiate, promote and maintaining peace while eschewing
militancy, restiveness and irrational behaviours; and
- To redeem the badly battered Nigerian image.
Other reasons include poor work ethics, corporate and large scale organizational
irresponsibility, fake and substandard goods and services, tribal, ethnic and religious
squabbles, poor planning, lack of security and disregard for human life and property, armed
robbery, kidnapping etc. Akinpelu (1983), summarized the need for change because he
claimed Nigeria then was in a state of moral crisis. A catalogue of such crisis include:
exhibition of unhealthy attitudes which are the reflections of an even deeper malaise, namely,
the lack of commitment to a viable moral base and the consequent lack of moral integrity. This
lack of moral integrity is reflected in forms of rampant fraud, stealing, robbery, nepotism,
forgery, examination malpractices and above all, in the prevalence of bribery and corruption
which has become entrenched in Nigerian public life.
Additionally, there was lack of discipline in virtually every sphere of life exemplified,
for instance, by the tendencies to recklessness and general lack of courtesy on our highways,
scrabbling or even riotous behaviour at the airports and other public places, lack of respect
for law and order, etc.
Similarly get rick quick syndrome was said to be the order of the day where fellow
citizens were defrauded, cheated and exploited. Nigerians exhibited unhealthy attitude to
work as few were willing to exert themselves to perform their duties promptly and efficiently.
In fact some civil servants often assumed a haughty and insolent manner in the performance
of their statutory duties even expect ex-gratis payments for doing their duties. Sexual
immorality was said to have dug deep into the moral fabric of the Nigerian society as a result
of the flood of pornographic materials.
These catalogue of vices were observed and recorded almost thirty years ago and
were then a common knowledge. It was observed then that few leaders showed enough
concern and indignation over the situation with the aim of improving life. What then can we
expect today, if the situation was that bad many years back?
Chiroma in Baikie (2010), stated that “for us to deny unpleasant images of us that are
true would compound the situation and permanently confirm our inability to alter the
undesirable images and replace them with more favourable ones.”
Baikie, supported this view by saying “the comments by Chiroma (1995) are as true
today as they were then; but the conditions that prompted the observations/ comments may
have grown worse today with the increase in crime, corruption, examination malpractice,
money laundering etc” Akunyili (2009), stated:
in the eye of the world; every Nigerian is perceived as a potential mongster;
Nigerians are regarded as unruly, most difficult people to lead or govern, Nigeria is
also perceived as a country where nothing works and where chaos is a daily staple.
But we know all this is a misrepresentation of the average Nigerian who is Godfearing, peace loving and law abiding.
The position of this paper is that in trying to solve the problems of Nigeria, rather than
continually point fingers at our faulty inherited legacy from our colonial masters; we should
look inwards to our own failures from national to home level and start from there. If as a
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people we recognize and accept that we have a problem, then we should all be willing to be
part of the solution – contribute towards re-branding Nigeria.
The Need for Moral Education
The need for moral education in the up-bringing of the young children especially
today cannot be overemphasized. This is because as future hope of our nation, we must
inculcate in them good morals so that we will have well behaved Nigerians tomorrow. While
moral education can be a deliberate organized formal system of instruction, it could also be
informal but equally deliberate in form of socialization if we are to have better behaved
future Nigerian adults.
As earlier established, the Nigerian society shows glaring signs of moral decadence.
Iwe (1993), added his voice to the already clouded scene when he stated that “one needs not
go far to see instabilities in homes, sexual laxity among the old and the young, senseless and
selfish use of power by those in authority, conscienceless political victimization, repression
and discrimination, electoral malpractices at all levels even among students and trade
unionists; senseless craving and pursuit of wealth by both big and small – the religious and
the irreligious, shameless and bold misappropriation of public funds by our ‘messianic’
public officers, our pious – looking religious leaders, our corporate and executive looking
bankers, our image-salvaging teachers in the classroom etc.” To re-brand Nigeria, there’s
need for moral education in our society.
The National Policy on Education (2004), recognizes this when it wants Moral
education to be inculcated in the Nigerian child before he gets to the age of thirteen (13).
West African Examination Council (WAEC 2004:147, 296), also stated that among the aims
and of objectives of teaching religious studies are to make students ‘worthy ambassadors of
God in the home, the nation, and the world at large’ and to inculcate in them “the spiritual,
moral, social and intellectual role of their religion” Unfortunately, no systematic attempt has
been made by the government to map out these right types of values and the means of
inculcating them.
Problems of Moral Education in Nigeria
It is appropriate at this point to pose the question “why has the government and other
stake holders in position to make decisions (who have all recognized the need for moral
education in our society) not done anything to improve the situation all these while?” In as
attempt to give answers to these questions, Onwuka (2006), enumerated some practical
problems confronting moral education in Nigeria as follows:
i. Policy makers and policy implementers are not sincere with themselves and with the
programme. They are not truly committed to the moral ideals, and those who want to be
committed lack the moral courage to do the right thing. They therefore only pay lip services
to these laudable programmes.
ii. Moral education faces problems of materialism and craze for title and names.
Nigeria society worships money, it does not matter how one gets his money so long as they
throw it around in form of “donations” or buy chieftaincy tittles with it. It is like the end
justifies the means.
iii. The family system is fast breaking down. Children from broken and absentee parent
families are not adequately taken care of in most cases. For the craze of getting rich quick
both parents in some cases abdicate their God-given responsibility of caring for the children
to teachers in the formal school system or paid care givers who are mostly not competent to
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play that role. Such parents simply do not have time to take care of the moral upbringing of
their children. Children of such parents may be intellectually good but could be morally
bankrupt.
iv. Harsh economic situation has led civil servants to engage in all manner of unethical
attitudes to make ends meet. No wonder they ask for “kola” while discharging their duties.
Lecturers force students to buy substandard handouts, parents no more care where and how
money comes in to the family e.g there are cases where full-time female students engage in
prostitution to support their families and pay for their education but their parents do not
question the source of the money.
v. Lack of qualified resource persons and materials to teach moral education in our
society. Some parents lack good morals, so are some teachers and religious leaders. Since
one cannot give what he does not have it becomes impossible for such category of persons to
influence others for good. Equally true is that the type of programmes we watch and the types
of novels and magazines we read are not morally sound. These influence people negatively.
Who should be responsible for Moral Education?
Moral education, the type proposed by Nduka (1983), in our definition is not a one
man’s job. In the re-branding process that aims at leading Nigeria to a morally sound nation,
all hands must be on deck as such the home, the school and the religious organizations and
the society must all contribute their quota.
 Firstly, the family is a major agent of moral education. The child is a member of a family.
It is here the child get his first training (socialization). It is the only agent of socialization
where an individual relate with on a continuous basis throughout his life. The child picks up
most of his sentiments, values and morals from the family, Ilori in Onwuka (2006).
 The school/teacher is a crucial factor in the moral education of a child. The child spends
most of his time during the day in custody of the teacher. The teacher contributes
significantly in character formation of the child from the pre-nursery to primary, to the
secondary and tertiary institutions. To the child, the teacher is a role model and embodiment
of knowledge. He learns so many things from his teacher positive or negative ones. For these
reasons, “teachers must accept that they are moral educators, whether this influence operates
subtly through the ethos of the school, or overtly in the moral education system” (Kay, 1975;
298).
 Religious organizations are other means of moral education. Every “religion has what it
accepts as right or wrong, and children from various religious persuasions pick up some
things they do from what these religions teach. The place of religion in moral education
cannot be overemphasized as seen in the influence of religion in every aspect of our
interaction in Nigeria.
 The society is another agent that affects the morals of a child. The child learns a lot from
the society in the process of growth where his character and opinions are formed from what
he sees. This explains why what happens in the school is a true reflection of what is
happening in the larger society. A society that is morally bankrupt should expect indiscipline
among its youth.
The Role of Religion in Moral Education
Religion can play a significant role in teaching morals/morality, however it is
important to clarify that religious education is not the same thing as moral education. Nduka
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(1983:12), distinguished the two when he stated that morality is logically independent of
religion and therefore, moral education is not synonymous with religious education”
Similarly, Woodhouse in Nduka and Iheoma (1983), noted that “religion and morality
are conceptually distinct in that one can teach morality without reference to religion.” This
paper is not advocating that moral education should in anyway substitute the teaching of
Christianity and Islam, doing so would create more serious problems for Nigeria. Lemu
(1983:81), summarized this is clear terms when he emphatically stated that teaching morality
without any reference to religion has some disadvantages such as:
i. Morality without God has no authority: If morality in left for each man to work out on his
own, it will be according to one’s own ideas, whims and prejudices, but in the religious
context, morality carries the supreme and unchanging authority of God;
ii. Morality without the concept of life after death has no sanctions: A philosophy which has no
concept of life after death implies that there is no accountability for one’s deeds on earth.
Morality without personal accountability lacks sanction and thus cannot be effective to check
immoral behaviour;
iii. Teaching of moral philosophy without reference to revelation leads to human reasoning; so
for a moral system to have a grip on people, it must be a part of a comprehensive set of
beliefs and;
iv. Detachment of morality from religious sanctions in Europe has for instance led to the
overthrow of the moral authority of the Church in matters of marriage and sexual morals
which in turn led to illegitimate births, venereal diseases, teenage pregnancies divorce etc
with their attendant social problems. We cannot in Nigeria afford to make similar mistakes.
Religious education has played a key role in teaching morals at the family, school,
community and national levels. If moral education is to be a tool for re-branding Nigeria, all
Nigerians must be carried along to ensure its success. While the focus of this paper is on
teaching of moral education in re-branding Nigeria, it should be noted that moral education is
not limited to children of schools, colleges and institutions of higher learning only nor is it a
purely academic exercise but it includes ‘behaviour in accordance with certain standards of
what is good and what is evil – striving for the good and rejecting evil for all.” (Nduka,
1983:18). Moral education could enable literate adults who no longer attend school learn
morals through religious teaching, illiterate adults can also improve on their morality through
religious education. Nigeria is a highly religious pluralistic society where everybody is said to
be intensely religious; full of religious zeal and energy, and when we use the positive aspects
of our religion we can once more be people of high moral values in a re-branded Nigeria.
The Role of Moral Education in Re-Branding Nigeria
Implicit in the concept of morality is the view that it involves acting for a reason or
reasons not on mere impulse. Such reasons it is argued must be based on moral rules and
principles such as justice, equality, consideration of the interests of others, etc. The ability to
reason morally is said to develop in accordance with the age of and the influences affecting
the child. If Nigeria will ever be re-branded, there is need for all Nigerians to begin to do
what is right through changes in our attitudes, which is possible through moral education.
Baikie (2010), suggested that for Nigeria to be re-branded, much more need to be done to
translate our well documented national intentions into teachable and attainable goals through
public enlightenment and education (moral education in the context of this paper). At school
and college levels, the curriculum should cover among others the under-listed topics:
 Public History of Nigeria from 1940
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





Comparative religion
Unity in diversity
The states of Nigeria
Evils of corruption
Civic duties and responsibilities
Patriotism.
He further opined that the factors responsible for the call for re-branding of Nigeria
are directly or indirectly related to the vacuum in our upbringing caused by failure to
ingratiate important factors which are capable of promoting understanding, patriotism,
national unity, religious harmony, discipline and national pride in us.
Tahir in Baikie (2010), also suggested practical steps that can move forward and
transform Nigeria’s social and moral values such as:
i. Adapting procedures that would elevate the Nigerian State to its rightful place. That we must
agree and be made to agree that the Nigerian state is sacred, Supreme and above any other
loyalty except that owed to God;
ii. That a catechism emphasizing the virtues of loyalty, duty, obligations and obedience to the
state
must be developed and all citizens must be made to know and believe in them;
iii. That compulsory course in Nigerian civics which highlight the classical and conventional
virtues
and vices (like the so-called deadly sins etc) and set in the Nigerian context must be
developed and a compulsory part of the syllabus at all levels of the education system;
iv. That the education system must impart knowledge of our diverse cultures to students and the
electronic media must be made to mount programmes of inter-ethnic education as a regular
feature of their out-put.
All these suggestions have to do with doing what is morally right and avoiding doing
anything that would mar the reputation and good name of Nigeria. Who would accuse us of
misbehaviour if we do what is morally right; and how can we know what is morally right if
not through moral education?
Conclusion
Re-orientation of the Nigerian public through moral education is both necessary and
urgent if Nigeria is to be re-branded. As earlier explained, moral education is a joint
responsibility of four main agencies: the home, the community and the school and religious
organizations. Each of these has a special role to play with a mutual interaction among them
in the complex process of moral development. The home however remains the most powerful
formative factor in the moral development of a child. All agencies of moral education must
therefore be mutually supportive such that the Nigeria society is able to produce morally
upright adults who could project a better image of Nigeria at home and abroad.
Moral education can help reverse the negative trends in the Nigerian society if the
policy makers, policy implementers and the general public are sincere with themselves and
with the re-branding programme. If as a people we come to sincerely believe that Nigeria is
re-brandable and we are willing to be part of the solution, then there should be a change in
attitude. No one needs to tell us that the already cloudy scene could get worse if we do not do
something urgent and now.
Furthermore, for the re-branding project to succeed, everyone, (literate, illiterate,
adult and young) must be carried along. This could be achieved through vigorous
219
enlightenment campaign in addition to teaching it in our schools where everyone is made to
understand, appreciate and contribute towards re-branding our nation. There is no restriction
to the teaching of morals at whatever level, what is lacking is being committed to doing what
is morally right.
Recommendations
To re-brand Nigeria the following suggestions are proposed:
 All policy statements by government should be backed by action e.g the National Policy
on Education (2004), as it concerns the inculcation of moral education in the Nigerian child
before he gets to the age of thirteen (13) be translated in practical terms. There is need to
have trained moral educators in our schools. The moral educators need not necessarily be
religious studies teachers. Moral education should form part of the school curriculum. In the
same vein, deliberate efforts should be made to train moral educators separate from religious
studies teachers.
 Religious organizations should properly play the socialization function of religion in
which people of all ages are taught the fear of God, respect for parents and elderly, humility,
truth, honesty, justice, kindness and shunning all forms of evil. Religious education reenforces the moral teaching that is acquired at home and other social agents of moral
education. If fear of God cannot change our attitude, then nothing can. Proper teaching and
exemplary life of leaders can help in the re-branding process.
 Moral educators at whatever level should exhibit behaviours of emulation. It is no
exaggeration to say Nigeria’s bad image is as a direct result of low moral values among the
generality of the people. We must stop paying lip service to issues of morality.
 There is an urgent need for change in attitude where money is not everything. Character
makes man, our leaders must be sincere, honest hardworking, dedicated and disciplined.
 There must be accountability with no sacred cows where anybody found wanting should
be dealt with according to the rule of law.
 Enlightenment campaign on morality should form part of re-branding programme. It
should not be just an academic exercise or political slogan. Other attempts failed because
they were not taken seriously and most Nigerians did not understand what they entailed.
References
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Baikie, A. (2010). Quality education and re-branding Nigeria. Reynote aAddress, delivered
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Kay, W. (1975). Moral education. London; George Allen and Unwin.
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Nworah, U (2006). Critical Perspectives on the Heart of Africa Image Project,
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ENSURING LEADERSHIP THROUGH POSITIVE STUDENT-TEACHER
RELATIONSHIP IN SCHOOLS: A SOCIOLOGICAL VIEW
DANJUMA M.
Division of General Studies
Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aliero
Abstract
If Nigeria craves for leaders that will bring abut the much talked about positive changes in the
Nigeria system of government, the educational institutions must be given the task.
Consequently the teachers should be given their right position in providing worthwhile
experiences and opportunities for learners at all levels of education. Using the interactionist
perspective, this paper examines the effectiveness of positive student-teacher relationship in
ensuring leadership among youths with regard to positive student teacher relationship the
teacher and the teaching profession and career counseling in schools. The paper also shows
the relevance of cordiality in schools getting in order to boost teaching-learning activities.
Among other things the paper recommends that ethical relationships be encouraged among
teachers and students as well as submits that a conductive atmosphere in school promotes
learning.
Introduction
Immoral acts, insensitivity to the right of others, disparities of wealth among
Nigerians, economic and political instability are evidences of the education process
(Odionye. 2009) Odionye further adds that, nothing informs man about his environment and
issues of life and the lives of others like education. Oyemi (2009) posits that, education from
pre-school to tertiary, is expected to mould the character and conduct of those benefiting
from it in such a way that they provide good leadership in whatever position they find
themselves in life. In essence, contemporary educational institutions in Nigeria have
unlimited resources, manpower possibilities, if utilized properly for developing leadership
qualities in .Nigerian youths who comprise future leaders’, as children are usually tagged by
politicians, policy makers, educationist and the like.
Leadership exists within social relationships and serves social ends. This however,
implies one's relationship with others, especially when in a position to lead. A leader,
according to Hornby (in Olusegun, 2009) is a person who leads a group of people, especially
a head of a country or an organization. Although this definition offers a considerable insight
into what leadership is at a macro-level, it does not take cognizance of leaders in a microlevel relationship, as the act of leadership can be found to exist among two people or a small
group as would between a teacher and a student or students.
Leadership simply means being in charge (Macmillan English, 2007)
Leadership then can be defined as ones’ ability to get others to follow willingly-and in
broader terms, it entails the exercise of influence over the beliefs, values and action of others,
in (Brown, 2007). Leadership is defined as the process of moving people in a planned
decision by motivating them to action through various means (Kazeem, 2009).
Positive student-teacher relationships have been described as relationships that are
mutually respectful and supportive (Pendergast and Bahr, 2006), while open communication
as well as emotional and academic support that exist between teachers and students serve as
another way to describe a positive relationship between the two parties. Motshing-Pitrick.
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Cornelins White Honey, and Cornelins White, (2004) see these relationships as having
empathy, warmth and genuineness. Positive student-teacher relationships have also been
characterized by mutual acceptance, understanding, warmth, closeness, trust, respect, care
and cooperation (Leitoa and Wangh, 2007 as cited in WikEd, 2011).
Existing cordial relationships in a school set-up are encouraging when guided by the
ethics of the teaching profession with education playing the role of promoting good
leadership where teachers are saddled with the responsibility of inculcating in Nigerian
youths the spirit of honesty, accountability, truthfulness, integrity and devotion to duty.
Teaches therefore, .must lead by example, while the students should be ever ready to assume
their social duties as leaders of tomorrow.
Interactionist Perspective
The paper adopts the integrationists perspective as it relates to everyday forms of
social interaction in order to explain society as a whole. Interactionism is a sociological
framework for viewing human beings as living in a world of meaningful objects which may
include material things, actions, other people, relationships and even symbols (Schaefer,
2005). Mead (1863-1931) is widely regarded as the founder of the integrationist perspective.
Integrationists consider groups at their micro levels and the intimate relationships that exist
between them. They are interested in how individuals interact with one another and how their
interaction patterns affect or influence socialization as well as education (Mahuta, 2007).He
further stated that the emphasis in this perspective is about relationship among individuals.
This paper is rooted on this perspective as it considers the relationship between teachers -and
students as a laudable method in shaping students and teacher's ideals, beliefs value and
social nature. Because it is more or less micro-level study, teachers who interact closely with
students, tend to understand both their weaknesses and strengths in both their academic and
social "lives. These enable them (teachers) proffer solutions where necessary and motivate
the students as well, especially in their educational pursuits.
Positive Student-Teacher Relationship
Educational institutions, particularly public schools, are rapidly becoming second
class institutions despite the fact that majority of Nigerian youths are enrolled into these
schools. Considering the rising falling standard of education, especially in secondary
schools, it is common to find graduates who lack academic competence, especially in
communication skills, which is one of the key factors or quality to become a leader.
Students’ inability to perform or even defend their academic certificates has become
a major source of concern to most stakeholders. The labour market finds it relatively difficult
to contend with the influx of unqualified graduates, especially from our Universities, and
other institutions of learning. Students' rebellious attitude to proper educational attainment
could be linked to many factors ranging from economic, political, social, or social
relationships which exists between a teacher and a student.
However, student-teacher relationships can influence, either positively or
otherwise, the educational expectations of the former. Schaefer (2005), stresses that
continued attendance in the formal school setting inevitably exposes an individual to general
development. This is to say that teachers must encourage students to remain in school till
completion time in order to acquire the necessary training for onward movement into the
larger society. This could be achieved through positive student-teacher relationships.
223
Consequently, the relationship between teachers and students if maximally productive
should reflect certain attitudes and commitments of each to the other. For instance, the
Kabbala (2011) approach to education stresses three elements of student-teacher relationship
as follows:
- The student must trust the teachers concern. ..
- The student must respect his or her teacher and hold him or her in the highest esteem...
- The student must commit himself/herself to following the instructions with utmost
discipline... (p1)
In line with the above, there is no doubt that discipline can be enshrined in a student,
if he/ she abides by the directives of the teacher. Teachers on the other hand, should display
positive attitudes that are worthy of emulation by the students. This will go a long way in
giving the students a sense of belonging and the feeling of care.
One study on adolescents and extracurricular activities found that adolescents who
participated in extracurricular activities reported higher grades, more positive attitudes
towards school and higher academic aspirations (Darling. Cardwell and Smith, 2005). In Ali,
Jusoff. Ali. Mokktar and Salamat, (2009). Broh (2002), in Ali et al states that participation in
extracurricular activities is associated with an improved grade point average, higher
educational aspirations, increased college attendance and reduced absentism. This indicates
that teachers must find healthy ways of interacting with students to achieve the
aforementioned. Avenues for relaxation when provided will yield positive relationships
among them.
Positive student-teacher relationship is an important component of creating conducive
classroom, and school climate. Meehan. Hughes and Cavell. In WikEd (2011) state that
positive students-teacher relationships encourage students to respond effectively when
academic tasks cause emotional and behavioural dysregulation. In a related development.
Carventes (2007) in WikEd (2011) posit that a positive student-teacher relationship has an
even greater impact on students in low-performing schools. A Therefore, considering the
state of Nigerian public schools, improved and ethical student-teacher relationships will help
curb or possibly, eliminate problems associated with lack of performance in future life. In
relation to teachers confronting students, and as long as they are able to confront the students
in a positive manner, the student would be open to learning and trying harder. Hanushek.
(2007) adds that, "teachers do indeed matter when assessed in terms of students'
performance”. This serves as a motivational measure for the students with an increased desire
to want to go to school. The teacher and the student are considered the two principal actors in
the educational process and so therefore need to work together.
The Teacher and the Teaching Profession
Teachers are nation builders. They as leaders are an embodiment of virtues like
tolerance, cooperation, truthfulness and integrity, accountability, devotion to duty and so on.
Teaching primarily, is a process of educating. Hyman (1974) refers to the general enterprise
of teaching as an overall cluster of activities, which are associated with a teacher; explaining,
questioning, advising etc. One of the challenges of the profession however, is that, it is
assumed anybody can teach.
Teachers are supposed to be at their disciplines in order to impart the desired
knowledge to students. UNESCO (2005). Indicate that teachers must be equipped with
ethical, intellectual and emotional know how to develop some range of equalities in their
pupils in various schools and as the society demands. Therefore, the influx of some
224
unqualified teachers, the compromising attitude of some teachers by form of preferential
treatments to some students at the expense of other students and the smooth running of the
school is unethical as it could go a long way in jeopardizing the intents in grooming them
(students) towards national unity, cohesion and above all development.
Amadi (1989) in Kazeem (2009), noted that teachers are to ensure that ones
educational preparation will have deliberate elements of leadership values groomed into the
recipients. Kazeam (2009) further adds that, teachers from Nursery to University levels
should identify leadership qualities in their subjects whether in Sciences or Arts and inculcate
them in the learners. Not minding at what level a teacher operates, he/she must imbibe the
habit of encouraging students socially, morally and spiritually. The teacher must learn to
facilitate and prepare them to be patriotic through cooperation and peaceful coexistence.
Ukeje (1991) posits that, without good teachers there cannot be good engineers, no good
medical doctors, no good lawyers.
Institutions of learning should be dynamic in recruiting their teachers and encourage
teachers to be able to face the challenges of the changing world. The demands of society are
dynamic, hence the need to reposition professionalism in teaching; teachers need to be
encouraged to be more interactive in discharging their duties rather than sticking to their
conventional methods of teaching. Professional training of teachers in Colleges of Education,
Faculties of Education and Institutes of Education should be taken much more seriously than
ever before. This is because teacher education is the foundation of quality in any educational
system. Chioma and Maduewesi (2008) observed that the teacher and the kind of education
he she receives are important for the quality of the overall education system. FGX (2004).
recognize teacher education as one of its objectives, where it states that, it is meant to help
teachers to put into social life of the community and the society at large and enhance their
commitment to national goals.
Career Counseling in Schools
Social movements grow out of social needs, and the growth of counseling is no
exception. Modern life is complex and full of problems. Professional counseling developed as
a response to strong social needs. Modern life is characterized by instability. People are now
moving more towards the "me and my family” way of life. The individual in the society has
been encouraged, and even forced to be independent of others. In doing so, he may have
gained an increased identify, but often at the expense of longstanding personal relationships,
which he could use constructively in time of trouble.
Counseling from the viewpoint of society, can be seen as a process by which one
person helps another to deal more effectively with himself and the stress imposed by his
environment (Salawu, 2000). He further adds that the outcome of counseling reflects in
change of behaviour of the client. Counseling serves as a tool by which to effect positive
change in persons who are dissatisfied with their present behaviour. A student may not
necessarily understand the effect of certain (bad) behaviour he may be exhibiting and its long
term effects on his future career. A teachers' position, no doubt, is to find out and study
students' behaviour and in turn counsel them where appropriate. This can be done through
positive student teacher relations and concern by the teacher for the teaching profession. So,
putting the required machinery into motion would not be difficult.
Thompson and Zimmeeman (1969) in Salawu (2000) see counseling as a person-toperson relationship in which one person (Counselor) helps another (counsellee) to resolve an
area of conflict that has not been hitherto resolved. Social relationships value is particularly
225
important in counseling because it may reflect the locus of the decision making (individual,
family, group) and it may relate to preferred communication style. Basso, (1990), kim. Slim
and Cai (1998) in Brown (2007), also state that, people with individual social values are quite
likely to make their own decisions. However, the diversity of students in our schools
increasingly reflects the diversity of our society, which calls for a participation of the stake
holder in decision making with respect to their own lives. Human beings yare social animals
and so sociologists scientifically examine their social relationships with others. Max Weber
(1864-1920) as cited in Schaefer (2006) point out that we cannot analyze our social behaviour
by the same type of objective criteria we use to measure weight and temperature. To fully
comprehend behaviour, he added, we must learn the subjective meanings people attach to
their action - how they themselves view and explain their behaviour. This should serve as a
guide to school counselors when dealing with students of diverse cultural backgrounds,
beliefs, norms and value and find ways of addressing issues that may affect their becoming
future leaders.
Leong (1993) in Brown (2007) suggest that both content and career counseling must
be altered to accommodate die interpersonal styles, cultural values, attitudes and beliefs of
students. While Griff (1987) in Brown (2007) indicate that groups of students share common
needs and the career development services available to students should include some if not all
the following:
- Career and self awareness activities
- Exploration of interests, values goals and decision.
- Realities of the job market and future trends
- Practical, accurate information about career (p327)
Students should however be made to understand the interaction of career and other
life roles, understand the changing roles of men and women in our society and the
interrelationships that exist between the needs of the society and the world of work,
especially leadership.
Recommendations
Considering the three (3) major sub headings used in this paper which are positivestudent teacher relationship, the teacher and the teaching profession and career counseling
in schools, it becomes evident that the paper is more or less concerned with the interaction
that partakes between a teacher and a student(s) in and outside the classroom. In the light of
these, the paper recommends that:- Ethical cordial relationship be encouraged among teachers and students
- Extracurricular activities be encouraged in schools which should serve as a stepping stone
for free interaction among teachers and students.
- Training and retraining of the staff and school career counseling staff on simple ethics of
interaction bearing in mind student's cultural diversity.
- Teachers should imbibe the habit of inculcating leadership traits in the students at the
very slightest opportunity.
- The students should be encourage to be fully equipped with the tools of research, be fact
finding on problems confronting the society, with the spirit of seeking positive and
lasting solutions.
- Teachers must encourage the students to be competent enough to lead others out of social
crisis in the interest of the entire society.
226
Conclusion
Education, as we have seen, is a process of socializing, which employs formal,
informal, and non-formal methods in transmitting knowledge, skills and dispositions that
make the learners more or less able members of the society. The socialization process in
education involves many different influences and agencies which to some extent have the
power to control, discipline, reward and punish and the ability to deliberately teach and
encourage learning. This paper however, examines some aspects of positive relationships that
exist between teachers and students with the intention to help boost conducive atmosphere in
our schools towards achieving greatly in the realm of education.
Positive student-teacher relationship, which calls for a cordial relationship between
the two parties, could be done through the inclusion of extracurricular activities in schools.
The teacher and the teaching profession are made better if the ethics of the profession and
teachers qualities are adhered to. Career counseling in schools is the combined effort of
teacher and students in their attempt to develop leaders of tomorrow.
References
Ali, N Yusoff, K. Ali, S. Mokhtar, N. & Salamat, A.S.N, (2009). The factors influencing
students performance at University of Technologi MARA Kedah, Malaysia.
Management Science and Engineering, Vol. 3 No.4. ISSN1913-0341
Brown, D. (2007). Career information, career counseling. And career development. Nineth Edition USA.
Chioma & Maduewesi (2008). Reforms in teacher education industry. Challenges and the
wax-forward. Journal of Teacher Education and Teaching Vol 4.No.2
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education, Lagos, NEROC Press
Hanushek E.A.. (2007). Education production functions. Palgrave Encyclopedia
Hyman. R.T.C.. (1974). Contemporary thought on teaching. Eaglewood Cliffs N.J Prentice Hill Inc.
Kabbala & Education: The element of student teachers relationship. Part 48 mhtml: file://f:/
Retrieved 7/21/2011.
Kazeem, F.A.. (2009). Philosophy of education and the Nigerian educational system: in
Owan, E.A. In Owan E.A Education and leadership in Nigeria: Annual Book of
Reading, philosophy of education association of Nigeria, Saniez Books.
Odionye, A.E., (2009). Education and democratic process; The Nigerian perspective: In
Owan E.A Education and leadership in Nigeria: Annual Book of Reading, Philosophy
of Education Association of Nigeria, Saniez Books
Olusegun, A. A., (2009). The teacher’s role as a leader in national development: In Owan
E.A Education and Leadership in Nigeria: Annual Book of Reading, Philosophy of
Education Association of Nigeria, Saniez Books.
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Oyemi F.T.. (2009). Pre-School education and preparation of the Nigerian child for
Leadership. In Owan E.A education and leadership in Nigeria: Annual Book of
Reading, Philosophy of Education Association of Nigeria, Saniez Books.
Salawu A.A.. (2000). Introduction to guidance and counseling. Reading in Education. Vol. 1
Bigs Educational Services.
Schafer, R.T., (2005). Sociology nineth edition, McGrawHill.
Schaefer, R.T.. (2006). Sociology a brief introduction, sixth edition. McGraw Hill.
UNESCO (2005). Managing primary education in Nigeria. A reform agenda/Abuja, VICL, Nigeria
Ukeje, B. (199l). The education of teachers for a new order of the Nigeria teachers today
(DNTT) Kaduna national commission for colleges of education.
WikEd.mht (2011). Positive student teacher relationships retrieved on 7/21/20 from~
http://wik.ed. \7iuc.edu/index.php/
Macmillan english dictionary (2007). For advanced learners.
228
ACHIEVING NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH UNIVERSAL BASIC
EDUCATION
WALU R. W.
Department of Educational Foundations,
Faculty of Education, University of Jos.
Abstract
This paper examines the role of the universal basic education as an effective strategy in
advancing national development. It highlights the various aspects of economic, political and
social levels of underdevelopment in the country and emphasizes that development or
progress will be circumscribed as long as the level of illiteracy that results from lack of basic
education prevails. It therefore recommends that the Universal Basic Education programme
should be adequately funded and made more accessible to the common man.
Introduction
According to Obanewa (2000) national development has often been misconceived in
economic terms, rather than as a process that encompasses all aspects of the community life
thereby drawing the specific contributions of all social groups to enable them reap the fruit of
national endeavor. National development therefore involves fundamental changes, which
embrace economic, political, cultural and social reforms.
The clamour for national development among scholars has been focused around two
key issues; firstly, the fight against poverty. The low standard of living in most
underdeveloped nations of the world is defined as a key concept of development The second
key area focused on economic and social development. This approach concentrates on
comparing development among countries and regions on the basis of social, economic,
technological and political transformation.
Given this concept, Nigeria has been identified as one among the underdeveloped
countries of the world as rating low in developmental indices. According to most recent
statistics on the progress of the Millennium Development Goals, MDGS (2005), Nigeria
ranks high on the poverty index. As a sixth largest exporter of oil, Nigeria is said to host the
largest number of poor people after china and India (Igbuzor, 2006). The poverty rate is said
to be severe and widespread especially in the rural areas. Dosunmu & Oni (2010) have
observed that an average Nigerian is faced with material deprivation to access basic services
like health education and drinking water. The literacy rate in the country uis also not without
challenges. Daily Trust Newspaper (2010) indicate that about 17 million Nigerian children
who are of eligible age, are out of school. Also reported is the highest rate of illiteracy
among females. The poverty and illiteracy rate has increased the burden of diseases such as
HIV/AIDS, child and maternal mortality among nursing mothers. Also, of more concern,
economic stagnation, political has characterized the economic and political landscape of the
country thereby rendering the achievement of meaningful and natural development a major
challenge.
However, as observed by Obanewa, (2000) national development remains a major
challenge as long as ignorance prevails as a result of inadequate education. He maintained
that without a level of compulsory education contained in the Universal Basic Education
(UBE) there can be no economic and socio-political transformation. The National Policy
Education (2004) states the need for functional education to be relevant, practical for
229
acquisition of appropriate skills and development of competences to enable individuals
contribute to the development competences to enable individuals contribute to the
development of the society. Therefore, the Universal Basic Education is an effective
instrument for breaking the cycle of underdevelopment by reversing the rate of poverty and
illiteracy. The Wikipedia Encyclopedia (2010) has shown the extensive benefits of the
Universal Basic Education on breaking the cycle of poverty, improving public health, such as
lowering the spread of disease like HIV/AIDS, economic growth in the economy through
productivity. Ekeocha (2007) maintains that a stable democratic society is achievable with a
minimum level of literacy on part of most of its citizens Basic Education has served as a vital
link in the categorization of a nation as a developing one or not and just as Adewale (2004)
has concluded that the virtuous circle of underdevelopment can be brought to life if they
relate literacy to development.
However, for the Universal Basic Education to achieve this noble objectives, the UBE
must be qualitative and functional. In spite of the prospects attached to the scheme, its
success in bringing about any meaningful development is threatened as a result of challenges
such as access or enrollment into the scheme, lack of adequate funding, lack of adequate and
qualified teaching staff and infrastructural facilities and quality assurance.
It is this vital concern on the effectiveness of UBE in promoting national development
that this paper seeks to address. The paper examines the concept of underdevelopment and
Universal Basic Education, the relationship between UBE and national development and
recommends the way forward.
The Concept of Development
Development is very important for the overall existence and sustenance of any
society. According to Webster’s Dictionary, Development is synonymous with growth and
progress. Development is manifested in man’s increased capacity to have control of material
assets, intellectual ideology and obtain the basic necessities of life like food clothing, shelter,
good governance and economic independence and peace (Igbuzor 2006). It encompasses all
aspects of community life and it is a process that draws contribution from members of the
community to enable them reap the fruit of national Endeavour. In the light of the above,
national development therefore resolves around economic, social, poltical administrative
reforms, attitudinal changes of people towards work, acceptance of discipline in private and
public life Obamewa (2000). Also according to Obanewa (2000), national development
affects society and individuals that live within it. It involves a change of life from old habits
age long customs; to modern ways and traditional technology to modern and more efficient
technology.
However, Obanewa (2006) maintains that National Development cannot take place
where ignorance prevails as a result of lack of education. Without a level of compulsory
education as contained in the Universal Basic Education, no society can become a knowledge
driven, information coucious, economically enhanced and globally competitive. The
Universal Basic Education is strategic to socio-political and economic transformation; hence
its relevance to national development cannot be overemphasized. Therefore, the use of Basic
Education as a pre-requisite for economic sustainability, social development and good
governance becomes imperative.
230
Universal Basic Education (UBE)
According to Tahir (2003), Universal Basic Education is the first and foundation level
education that serves as a pivot on which other levels of education are built. Goziem (2000),
also asserts that the success or failure of other levels of education depends on the strength or
weakness of its basic education. Basic Education brings about changes in the lives of families
and communities. Thus, Anukam (2005) maintains that the Universal Basic Education equips
individuals with knowledge, skills and attitudes that will enable them live meaningful and
fulfilled lives, contribute to the development of society and derived maximum social,
economic and cultural benefits from the society. Similarly, Okam (2002), concludes that by
mobilizing youths and learners to acquire basic education, the UBE shall transform them into
citizens with functional skills and values, which would develop and improve their living
generally in the community and the country as a whole. In this case, according to Ozo (2010),
basic education empowers the individual with full talents to realize their creative potential
and also empowers the citizens of a nation with skills to make democratic institutions to
function effectively.
It is in realization of its function in human development and society’s survival that
governments all over the globe have embrace education as a universal concept in eradicating
illiteracy, ignorance and poverty. It is also in recognition of its importance that Nigeria in
1990, along with other 155 countries, attended the World Conference on “Education for All”
held at Jomtien in Thailand to set the goals of providing Education to children in the
Developing countries of the world by year (2000). Using the Universal Basic Education as
the pivot of its policy, the Nigerian Government enacted policies to make it free, accessible
and compulsory to every citizen, irrespective of background.
2.6
Challenges to the Implementation of UBE
2.6.1 Poor Funding
One of the major challenges to the successful implementation of the UBE scheme is
funding. Funding of the UBE scheme is a joint responsibility of the federal, state and local
government. However, this issue is not properly addressed. Adepaju and Fabiyi (2006) report
from their findings that the cost of education has been on the increase yearly and in spite of
increase in budgetary allocation for implementation of the scheme, the funds are still
inadequate. The lack of adequate funding has resulted to the following:
2.6.2 Poor Infrastructural Facilities
Most of the UBE schools have poor and dilapidated buildings and poor equipment
with inadequate infrastructural materials. Most of the UBE schools took off from the ruins of
the former primary schools erected by colonial masters. Statistics conducted of recent reveal
that there are over 2,015 primary schools in Nigeria with no buildings of any type of classes
are still held under the trees (Dike, 2007). Most of the schools are not properly equipped with
libraries, laboratories workshop rather they have poor infrastructures, overcrowded
classrooms etc. (Dike, 2007).
2.6.3
Irregular payment of teacher and shortage of manpower
According to Dike (2007), not long after the launching of the scheme in Nigeria by
the Federal government, it was reported that the increased in enrollment figures did not
correspond with the increase in the provision of qualified human resources including the
availability of material resources in the schools. Also reported by the federal government was
231
that 23% of the over 400,000 teachers employed by the nations primary schools do not posses
that Grade II Teacher Certificate. This is in spite of minimum requirement for teaching in
Nigeria which is the National Certificate of Education (NCE). In addition to the irregular
payment of teachers and inadequate remuneration, the persistent strikes and closers of
schools in the county has worsened he situation. Presently, out of the 36 states in Nigeria,
only 17 states schools including UBE have been shut down due to the non implementation of
the New Teacher’s salary scale (NTA 9 O’clock news 5th Oct. 2010).
2.6.4
Lack of quality and Relevance in Education
The problem of quality and relevance is being lamented by government and public
over the UBE scheme: Nwagu (2005) reports that the quality of education offered in most
UBE schools leaves much to be desired as a result of the dearth of human and material
resources, overcrowded classrooms and incessant strike action by teachers which do not
correspond with increase in enrollment.
2.6.5
Enrollment
It is observed that despite considerate efforts made in the expansion of basic
education, its universally had been threatened due to lack of adequate funds to cater
adequately for the scheme, parents are forced to get involved in its funding. Most Nigerian
parents are poor and therefore the children remain poorly equipped to learn. Poverty has
retarded the enrolment of the poor into basic education. Despite the fact that it remains free in
principle, a lot of illegal fees are introduced by heads of such schools (Nwagu, 2005). Efforts,
therefore to universalize basic education remains a mirage. The rural areas are mostly
affected because a lot of Nigeria rural populations remain poor. In many schools pupils bring
their books at resumption, parents buy uniforms, books, transcript, pay PTA levy, provide
midday meals because the programme is not free and compulsion is not enforced (Ayorinde,
2007).
It has been observed that in spite, government’s efforts at providing logistics aids, a
lot of Nigerian children basically out of school. Ayorinde (2007), observed that the target of
2015 is still a mirage because the programme is beset with problems of enrolment (Dike
2007) reported that about 4 million Nigerian children had no access to basic education and
that majority of those that were likely to enter schools were given substandard education.
Despite massive efforts over the last eight years to promote access to education, millions of
Nigerian children of school age remain out of school.
Goziem (2000) noted that the major factor in enrolment is licked to gender issue, that
the sex differences affected the enrolment level of both sexes at the primary and post primary
level. He maintains that environmental impediments coupled with cultural practices are
hindrances to enrolment in school. He observed high enrolment rate at the primary school
level and a corresponding declining rate of transition from primary one to junior primary and
secondary levels.
In the same vein, Ayorinde (2007) maintained that other social disadvantages have
held back parents enrolling their children and wards into the UBE proramme and has
considered these factors as Hawking, street begging, early marriage, teenage pregnancy and
child trafficking. He concludes that these social disadvantages work against the realization of
the goals of the Universal Basic Education. It is the researchers opinion that these social
disadvantages, if not properly addressed shall serve as a set back against the attainment of the
goals of “Education For All” (EFA) and Vision 2020 of the President Yar Adua’a
232
administration which relies on education as one of its main target of achieving the goals of
the vision.
2.7.1 Poor Planning
According to Tahir (2003) one of the major challenges to the implementation of the
UBE scheme is the non-availability of accurate school based statistics, which is highly
essential for the proper implementation of the UBE programme. He further pointed out that
this had negative implications on the employment ratio of teachers, pupils, provision of
infrastructures and learning materials which were inadequately provided.
Recommendations
 The government of the country and political officers concept on development should not
be focused on economic aspect but educational policies should be enacted with utmost
concern to accelerate development.
 The Universal Basic Education should receive adequate attention towards quality
improvement.
 The Universal Basic Education Policies of accessibility to all children and illiterate adults
should be taken with serious concern by the government
 Adequate funding is a key issue in the provision of qualitative basic education.
Conclusion
From all indications, the developmental challenges facing the country is partly
attributed to lack of quality and functional basic education among its citizens. National
development cannot be feasible without a degree of literacy on the part of its populace.
Democracy cannot thrive if majority of it citizens do not have the required basic level of
literacy. This paper advocates that the Universal Basic Education should be qualitative and
functional and recommended pro-active measures from the government towards Basic
education.
233
References
Adewale, A. (2004). Towards effective implementation of universal basic education scheme:
Book of universal basic education conference proceedings.
Ayorinde, S. A. (2008). Achieving the goal of reforms by combating social disadvantage.
Nigerian Journal of Sociology of Education 2008. Vol. 11 No. 2, 105 – 109.
Daily Trust News Paper (2010). Education expenditures and school enrolment in africa.
Dike, V. (2000). The state of education in Nigeria and the Health of the Nation. Online at
www.africa.economicanalyst.org.
Ekeocha, P.C. (2007). An assessment of the progress and prospects of the MDGS in Nigeria.
A case study of the universal basic education. Nigeria and the MDGS 2007, 175 – 206.
Igbuzor, O. (2006). The Nigerian millennium development goals: Can Nigeria meet the goals
in 2015? Retrieved online at [email protected].
Nigerian millennium development goals report 2005.
Obonewa, O. (2000). Administration, non formal education and development. Literary
philosophy and practice. 2008, 20 – 26. Retrieved online.
Tahir, G. (2001). Federal government intervention in universal basic education forum. A
Journal of Basic Education in Nigeria. Vol. 1 No. 1, 1 – 12.
234
THE SCHOOL AS AN EFFECTIVE INSTRUMENT FOR DISPENSING THE
SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRATIC SETTING
RIMFAT S.A.
Department of Educational Foundations,
Faculty of Education, Universty of Jos.
Abstract
The paper maintains that for an educational system to be relevant, it has to relate with other
major social institutions of the society. It would be in this consideration that the paper tried to
highlight the mutual interdependence between the Nigerian educational system and the
family, economy and polity in meeting the needs of the Nigerian citizens. Furthermore,
emphasis is laid on the teacher’s role as an socialization agent in the school setting.
Suggestions for ensuring effective socialization in the school are made.
Introduction
All modern societies are known to have well established social institutions which
include the family, education, economy, religion and polity. These institutions are interrelated
and interdependent on one another in terms of their functions and they exist in harmony to
guarantee stability and survival of the overall society. Nigeria as a society is undergoing rapid
social change as a result of industrialization and urbanization, thereby altering, these social
institutions with it attendant problems of crimes and social vices and decline in the moral
values. Besides, there are issues of insecurity, political crisis, illiteracy, poverty and
unemployment and persistent corruption which all combine to threaten the corporate
existence of the Nigerian society. The discourse in this paper therefore focuses on the
educational system while its functional relationship with these institutions which would go
along way in addressing these challenges face the Nigerian society. Furthermore the paper
goes to maintain that in dispensing these functions, the educational system has to be well
articulated and effective.
Education and Family
The educational institution plays the role of a socializing agent for the society. The
socialization function was once the exclusive responsibility of parents in the home, but with
the rapid rate of urbanization, industrialization and modernization, this role is being shifted to
the school with the teacher as the dominant role figure. In fact, parents are expected to be the
chief custodians of the societal values and norms. It is in the home that the primary
socialization takes place because that is where the child first has intimate relationship for
character development and acquisition for local language and other desirable habits necessary
for proper interaction in later life. However experience has shown that most Nigerian parents
have no time to guide and protect the values of the society by effective primary socialization
(Gbenga A. 2006). Apart from that, the modernization process increase the number of
working class women. Hence, children start schooling very early, by attending day-care
centres, nursery, primary, secondary and stay long till they complete university education.
Thus, the industrial and oil economy require person with specialized skills of which the
family as a socializing agency is inadequate in training for this (Rimfat 1999). This explains
why the demand for school socialization is on the increase at all levels of the educational
system.
235
Thus, the school serves as a centre for individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds
who converge to be nurtured and developed to become responsible citizens who can conform
to cultural norms of the society. Besides, it is in the school that the individuals acquire skills
knowledge and attitude that enable them to contribute to societal development. It is in the
school that the dominant cultural values of the society are transmitted via the curriculum
offerings to the learners. By this, culture is being preserved and passed to the next generation
where the school also serves as instrument of change by preparing students for the future.
Swift 1969 in expressing this states, in rapidly changing societies, the school prepare children
for cultural changes which it cannot adequate foresee.
On the other hand, we must also appreciate the fact that the school is part and parcel
of the society or the community in which it is located. This goes to explain that the attitude
and values of the people in the school community also affect the school. For instance where
people value education, they would develop positive attitude to school hence there would be
high rate of enrolment and retention of both gender in the school. There would also be high
attendance of Parent Teachers Association meeting followed with massive support of the
school with finance and materials by the members of the community. In situation where the
value attached to school is negative this will now has negative effect on the school
community relationship resulting in low rate of enrolment and other educational wastages.
The picture becomes clearer if we compare the community relationship of schools located in
the southern states and those located in the Northern States in Nigeria. Similarly certain
values attitudes associated with home variables affect even, the academic performances for
the students in the class Brembeck (1969). That the value taught at home if conflict with
those taught in the school, students from such homes have academic problem and vice-vera.
Education and Economy:
Formal education through the school specialized in the selection and role allocation
function of individuals into various occupations and professions. This depends on the
complexity attained by every society, various positions are created and those who occupy
these positions perform their roles in a way to ensure the continuation and development of the
society.
In the traditional society, the school was less important than the family in assigning
roles and status to individuals. For instance, in most African societies of the pre-colonial
period, role allocation occurred at birth, as the family was the unit of production and
socialization. Thus, calabash carving, mat weaving, leather work, blacksmithing, drumming
and craft are occupations in which families used to specialized, hence selection for any of the
occupations was determined in the context of the family Fafunwa (1984).
In the modern Nigerian society where there has been increased industrialization and
urbanization, social organization are becoming a more complex, hence formal schooling has
assumed the role of determining one’s adult role in the society. Thus, the school apart from
acting as agency for socialization, it is also acting as a mechanism for selection, sorting of
children into a variety of academic route along which they will receive education of duration
and quality. This therefore implies that the type of institution one attended, the number of
years spent in the school and the course chosen determines one’s occupation and prestige in
the society (Broom 1955). In carrying out this section role, and allocation function, the school
serves as a vehicle for upward social mobility in society.
The educational system is responsible for the economic growth and development of
any nation. It is in this regard that economists and educationist have reached a consensus that
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education is an investment in human capital. Education is a long term investment by any
nation. It renders opportunities to an individual to live better and make a living Nigeria Police
Force society. It is through the school system that needed societal skilled manpower is
supplied for the economy. This view has been expressed by Nieto (1992) on the relationship
between education and the economic growth. That the supply of skilled manpower plays
critical role in the development of the economic sector. No wonder then the Ashby report on
education on the eve of independence in Nigeria in 1960 stressed the importance of
manpower forecast which led to the expansion of both secondary and high education 1960-70
to boost the supply of high level manpower as required by the economy.
On the other hand the implementation of any educational policy depends on the
economy. A lot of funds are required by the education system for provision of infrastructural
facilities, instructional materials, payment of staff and other running costs. No wonder,
UNESCO recommended that a developing country should allocate 26% of her annual budget
to education. However, the Federal government hardly allocates up to 10% of her annual
budget on education in the country is witnessing a population explosion leading to expansion
of the educational system at all levels. The under funding has led to crisis in education and
lowering of standards.
Having realized the mutual interdependence between education and the economy, all
Nigerian development plan and other economic agenda heavily depend on the educational
system for its realization.
Education and Polity:
Education as a process of all round development of young ones to fit into their
societies has some political functions. The function is being discharged through the process
of political socialization.
Coleman 1965 described the concepts of political socialization as “the process of
acquiring attitudes and feelings towards the political system by individuals as well as their
own perception of their role in it.” Thus the Nigerian government uses the school as the
agency for achieving this political socialization through the teaching of subjects like
citizenship civics, government, history and social studies which strive at producing good
citizens with positive feelings about their nation, state or even their institution. Besides, the
rituals of singing the national anthem and the national pledge is part of this process. The need
for the government to achieve political integration and stability after the political
independence is met through the establishment of Federal institutions and unity schools
where children from diverse cultural background, ethnic group and states have come to learn
to live together and to appreciate each other. In fact in several cases the school has served as
a centre of mater selection and making of life friends despite the differences.
Similarly education brings about literacy and awareness which allows for
participatory democracy. It would be recalled that before one is elected or appointed into any
political office, he or she must possess a minimum qualification obtained from the school
system.
The art of governance is also learned in the school through the prefect system and
students unionism. For instance house-captain, class prefects, and student leaders would have
imbibed the political values over the year. Their activities in student unionism help them to
acquire democratic ideas and experiences which are used as stepping stone into partisan
politics.
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Thus, the educational system produced enlightened and politically conscious citizens
and individuals who know their rights. Followership, leadership and democratic principles
are learned in the school.
Democracy therefore thrives on widespread education of the members of the society.
Education enables the citizens to read and write and to understand the constitution and
government policies. Rimfat (2000).
On the other hand, a political power has some significance impacts on the educational
system. Apparently the major decision on education is taken by the politicians either through
their executive or legislative powers. They decide how much is allocated to education, how
many institutions are to be established and where they are to be located. All the appointees to
serve in the educational industry are part of political patronage. To a large extent the decision
as to who to teach and what to teach are also influence by the political class.
The Role of the Teacher in Transmission of Culture and Knowledge in the School Setting
The forgone discussion clearly indicates that the educational system functions to meet
our social, economic and political needs of the Nigerian citizens. It is common knowledge
that the rate and extent of development of the society depends on the quality of its education
and how the individuals have been socialized. Thus, any educational system has its
curriculum of which teachers are the implementers.
Education as a process reflects the totality of the society’s culture as contained in the
objectives of the curriculum. Sociologists tend to see education to be synonymous with
socialization, which emphasizes the internationalization of the society’s cultural norms and
values.
The teacher as a member of the school organization is the dominant personality in the
school socialization process as he is expected to play the role of transmitting the dominant
cultural values, skills and knowledge to the students in the school setting. It is in
consideration that the school curriculum has been carefully selected to ensure that the culture
in its totality is transmitted to the students. For instance, such values as cleanliness, personal
hygiene, self reliance, patriotism are taught to the students at the basic education level.
Equally important is keeping to time or punctuality which is valued by the society is taught to
the learners in the school.
The child is taught the need to respect constituted authority as he or she is exposed to
hierarchy of authority which is found in the school as an organization.
In the school it is also the role of the teacher to teach languages both English and one
Nigerian Language for effective communication and national integration.
The teacher teaches the spirit of self-reliance, cooperation and competition which are also
necessary in the world of work.
Similarly values such as citizenship, education, character development and tolerance
are learned and are transmitted to the students at each stage of their educational advancement.
In support of this Edet and Anderson 1982 states that:
If Nigerian establishes certain goals as essentials for national development, the
school becomes an important vehicle for achieving the goals. A major example is
the goal for developing a literate society capable of responding to the technological
demands of the modern world.
The school as a socializing agency complements the role of the family in effecting
socialization of the children into a modern Nigerian society. This is becoming very crucial as
children go to school nowadays very early and stay longer. The parents are becoming too
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busy struggling to make ends meet, thus the influence of the family as socializing agency is
on the decline as the society becomes more complex. Enoh (1987) supports this view when
he said that “the diminishing degree of parental influence in the socialization of children
which results from the increasing complexity of our society places a demand on another agent
to continue with the socialization of the young.” The agent of course is the teacher in the
school. The teacher’s role in the classroom is not restricted to assessment. He is in addition a
mediator of knowledge, a parent substitute, a confidant, a disciplinarian and a representative
of moral values of the dominant group. Hence the teacher’s role is becoming more enormous,
demanding and challenging in this new millennium.
Issues Affecting Effective School Socialization:
The issues that affect school socialization are:
i. Large-class size
ii. Socio-linguistic problem
iii. Religious motives and general poverty
iv. Negative influence of the peers
v. Negative influence of the mass media
vi. Lack of political will on the part of the government
vii. Teachers’ motivation visa-vis commitment of their work.
viii. Frequent industrial action and closure of school as a result of violence and ethnoreligious crisis.
ix. Decline in moral values and corruption that pervade the Nigerian society.
x. Quality of teachers.
xi. Insufficient instructional materials including infrastructural facilities.
Suggestions: These include:
i. Improvement in funding of education to be in accordance with the recommendation of
UNESCO.
ii. Steps to make teaching a profession be hastened by registering all qualified teachers and
implementing the new salary structure.
iii. Supply of adequate teaching materials and that of infrastructures.
iv. Government should censure all films.
v. More teachers to be employed to cope with the rate of expansion so as to remedy the
problem of large class size.
vi. There should be effective of supervision of private schools to ensure that they operate
within the laid down policies.
vii. There should be emphasis also on the effective and psycho-motor domain for evaluation
of students.
Conclusion
The discussion has portrayed that with the twin sister of industrialization and
urbanization in the face of population explosion, the 21st century will likely witness many
young people as youth and young adults demanding for more functional education for
employment, basic services and other citizen rights in our emerging democracy.
However there are several challenges facing the school system in dispensing its social
functions, hence, suggestions have therefore been made to the stakeholders to ensure
effective school socialization.
239
References
Brembeck, C.S. (1969). Social foundation of education: Environmental influence on teaching
and Learning. New York: John Willey and Sons.
Broom, S. & Darroch, D.B. (1955). Sociology with adapted Reading. New York: Harper and
Row Publishers.
Coleman, J.S.(1965). Equality of educational opportunity. Washington: Office Publishers.
Edet A and Anderson L. (1982). The school and the Nigerian society. Ibadan: University Press.
Enoh, A.O. (1987). A handbook of education foundation. Jos: Challenge Press.
Fafunwa, A.B. (1974). History of education in Nigeria. Lagos: George Allen and Union.
Gbenga, A (2006). Sociology of education (Morality and ethics). Ilorin: Nathadex Publisher.
Nieto, S. (1992). Affirming diversity: The socio-political context of multicultural education.
New York: Longman.
Rimfat, S.A. (2000). Education and democracy in Nigeria in Enoh O. Elements of education
and society. Jos: Fab. Anieh.
Rimfat, S.A. (1999). Socialization process and the role of the Nigerian teacher. Jos: Midland Press.
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EDUCATION AND SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT: CHALLENGES OF EDUCATION
FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (ESD) AND THE WAY FORWARD
DAHIRU, I. M.
Department of Education
Bayero University, Kano
Abstract
This paper is geared towards stressing the likely (global) challenges of Education for
Sustainable Development (ESD) Programme, with a view to offer some possible suggestions
as the way forward. The paper comprises five (5) major sections. Section one serves as an
introductory aspects of the paper, section two contains the conceptual contents of ESD
programme, section three involves the possible challenges and barriers to global Education
for Sustainable Development (ESD) programme, section four covers the conclusion
statements and last but not the least section five comprises suggestions as the possible
strategies for overcoming the challenges.
Introduction
In modern, complicated societies, members perform very different tasks, resulting in a
strong interdependence circumstances. Based on the metaphor of an organism in which many
parts function together to sustain the whole, complicated societies are held together by
organic solidarity based on social bonds, based on specialization and interdependence, which
are strong among members of industrial societies. Education is humanity’s best hope and a
most effective means in the quest to achieve sustainable development. This powerful
statement was made in 1997 in the UNESCO report, Educating for a Sustainable Future.
Five years later, it was brought to the attention of the world leaders at the Johannesburg
World Summit on Sustainable Development, paving the way for the establishment of the
United Nations Decade for Education for Sustainable Development (2005-2014). Education
is an essential tool for achieving sustainability. People around the world recognize that
current economic development trends are not sustainable and that public awareness,
education, and training are keys to moving society towards sustainability. Beyond that, there
is little agreement, people argue about the meaning of sustainable development and whether
or not it is attainable. They have different visions of what sustainable societies will look like
and how they will function. These same people wonder why educators have not moved more
quickly to develop education for sustainability (EFS) programs. The lack of agreement and
definition has stymied efforts to move education for sustainable development (ESD) forward.
It is curious to note that while we have difficulty envisioning a sustainable world, we have no
difficulty identifying what is unsustainable in our societies. We can rapidly create a sundry
list of problems - inefficient use of energy, lack of water conservation, increased pollution,
abuses of human rights, overuse of personal transportation, consumerism, etc. Three terms
synonymously and interchangeably have been used here: education for sustainable
development (ESD), education for sustainability (EfS), and sustainability education
(SE).ESD is most often used because it is the terminology used frequently at the international
level and within UN documents. Locally or nationally, the ESD effort may be named or
described in many ways because of language and cultural differences. As with all works
related to sustainable development, the name and the content must be locally relevant and
culturally appropriate.
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MCKeown, Hopkins, Christalbridge and Rizzi (2002), were of the opinion that, an
important distinction is the difference between education about sustainable development and
education for sustainable development. The first is an awareness lesson or theoretical
discussion. The second is the use of education as a tool to achieve sustainability. In the
majority’s opinion, more than a theoretical discussion is needed at this critical juncture in
time. While some people argue that "for" indicates indoctrination, we think "for" indicates a
purpose. All education serves a purpose or society would not invest in it. Driver education,
for example, seeks to make our roads safer for travellers. Fire-safety education seeks to
prevent fires and tragic loss of lives and property. ESD promises to make the world more
liable for this and future generations. Of course, a few will abuse or distort ESD and turn it
into indoctrination. This would be antithetical to the nature of ESD, which, in fact, calls for
giving people knowledge and sky for lifelong learning to help them find new solutions to
their environmental, economic, and social issues.
Key Elements Of Education For Sustainable Development (ESD)
Under this segment, efforts were made to discuss the major key components or
elements of ESD, i.e. Education, Sustainability, Sustainable-Development as well as
Education for Sustainable Development with a view to comprehend the concept of the
presentation.
Education
As posited by Schofield (1999), education has often been seen as a fundamentally
optimistic human endeavour characterised by aspirations for progress and betterment. It is
understood by many to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality, and
acquiring wealth and social status. Education is perceived as a place where children can
develop according to their unique needs and potential. It is also perceived as one of the best
means of achieving greater social equality. Many would say that the purpose of education
should be to develop every individual to their full potential and give them a chance to achieve
as much in life as their natural abilities allow (meritocracy). Few would argue that any
education system accomplishes this goal perfectly. Some take a particularly negative view,
arguing that the education system is designed with the intention of causing the social
reproduction of inequality.
Sustainability
Hak (2007), posited that, the word sustainability is derived from the Latin sustainers
(tenere, to hold; sus, up). Dictionaries provide more than ten meanings for sustain, the main
ones being to “maintain", "support", or "endure”. However, since the 1980s sustainability has
been used more in the sense of human sustainability on planet Earth and this has resulted in
the most widely quoted definition of sustainability, as the capacity to endure. For humans,
sustainability is the long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental,
economic, and social dimensions, and encompasses the concept of stewardship, the
responsible management of resource use. In ecology, sustainability describes how biological
systems remain diverse and productive over time, a necessary pre- condition for human wellbeing. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological
systems. Ways of living more sustainably can take many forms from reorganising living
conditions (e.g., eco- villages, eco-municipalities and sustainable cities), to reappraising work
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practices (e.g., using perm culture, green building, sustainable agriculture), or developing
new technologies that reduce the consumption of resources.
Sustainable Development
According to Blewitt (2008), sustainable development is a difficult concept to be
defined; one of the original descriptions of sustainable development is credited to the
Bruntland Commission: "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs"
(World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987, p 43). Sustainable
development is generally thought to have three components: environment, society, and
economy. The well-being of these three areas is intertwined, not separate. For example, a
healthy, prosperous society relies on a healthy environment to provide food and resources,
safe drinking water, and clean air for its citizens. The sustainability paradigm rejects the
contention that casualties in the environmental and social realms are inevitable and
acceptable consequences of economic development. Thus, the authors consider sustainability
to be a paradigm for thinking about a future in which environmental, societal, and economic
considerations are balanced in the pursuit of development and improved quality of life.
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)
From the time sustainable development was first endorsed at the UN General
Assembly in 1987, the parallel concept of education to support sustainable development has
also been explored. From 1987 to 1992, the concept of sustainable development matured as
committees discussed, negotiated, and wrote the 40 chapters of Agenda 21. Initial thoughts
concerning ESD were captured in Chapter 36 of Agenda 21, "Promoting Education, Public
Awareness, and Training." Unlike most education movements, ESD was initiated by people
outside of the education community. In fact, one major push for ESD came from international
political and economic forums (e.g., United Nations, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Organization of American States). McKeon, (2002). As the
concept of sustainable development was discussed and formulated, it became apparent that
education is key to sustainability. In many countries, ESD is still being shaped by those
outside the education community. The concepts and content of ESD in these cases are
developed by ministries, such as those of environment and health, and then given to educators
to deliver. Conceptual development independent of educators input is a problem recognized
by international bodies as well as educators. Education is held to be central to sustainability.
Indeed, education and sustainability are inextricably linked, but the distinction between
education as we know it and education for sustainability is enigmatic for many. The
following sections describe the components of education for sustainability. ESD carries with
it the inherent idea of implementing programs that are locally relevant and culturally
appropriate. All sustainable development programs including ESD must take into
consideration the local environmental, economic, and societal conditions. Four major thrusts
will mark the beginning work of ESD: (1) improve basic education, (2) reorient existing
education to address sustainable development, (3) develop public understanding, awareness,
and (4) training.
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Challenges and Barriers to Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)
MC Keown (2002) reiterated that, many nations around the world have embraced the
need for education to achieve sustainability; but only limited progress has been made on any
level. This lack of progress stems from many sources. In some cases, a lack of vision or
awareness as impeded progress. In others, it is a lack of policy or funding. He further stated
that Charles Hopkinson who has spoken with people at many levels of involvement in
education (i.e., ministers of education, university professors, millennium teachers, and
students), opined that ten (10) major issues stymied the advance of ESD during the 1990s and
new millennium.
Educational Reform and Economic Viability
The effectiveness of the world’s educational systems is already critically debated in
light of the changing needs of society. The current widespread acknowledgment of the need
for educational reform may help advance ESD. If it can be linked to one or more priorities of
educational reform, ESD could have a good chance for success. However, if promoters try to
add another issue to an already over-burdened system, the chances of success are slim. One
current global concern that has the potential to drive educational reform in many countries is
economic security. Around the world, ministries of education and commerce are asking:
What changes will prepare a workforce that will make my country economically viable in the
changing economy of the new millennium? One educational effort that can boost the
economic potential of entire nations is educating females. During the last decade, some
national leaders have recognized that educating the entire workforce, both males and females,
is important for economic viability. In addition, Lawrence Summer of the World Bank says,
“Once all the benefits are recognized, investments in the education of girls may well be the
highest-return investment available in the developing world” (King and Hill, 1993, p vii, in
McKeown,2002). Accordingly, some nations are removing barriers to girls attending school
and have campaigns to actively enrol girls in school. Further, aligning education with future
economic conditions is difficult, because economic and technological forecasting is an art
based on imprecise science. Answers are elusive. To be successful, ESD will need to catch
the wave of educational reform. ESD proponents need to identify and illustrate the linkages
between the principles of sustainability and the long-term economic well-being of each
nation. If ESD can be linked to the current global educational reform movement, educating
for sustainability will be swept along with the energy of the reform effort.
Facing the Complexity of Sustainable Development Concept
Sustainable development is a complex and evolving concept. Many scholars and
practitioners have invested years in trying to define sustainable development and envisioning
how to achieve it at national and local levels. Because sustainable development is hard to
define and implement, it is also difficult to teach. Even more challenging is the task of totally
reorienting an entire education system to achieve sustainability. When we examine successful
national education campaigns, we find they often have simple messages. For example,
messages that encourage us to vaccinate our children and boil our water, or discourage us
from driving drunk and taking drugs, are simple concepts compared to the complex range of
environmental, economic, and social issues that sustainable development encompasses.
Success in ESD will take much longer and be more costly than single-message publiceducation campaigns.
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Developing an ESD Program with Community Participation
Perhaps the greatest obstacle to reorienting the world's educational systems is the lack
of clarity regarding goals. In simple terms, those who will be called upon to educate
differently (e.g., the world's 59,000,000 teachers or agricultural instructors or water treatment
trainers) eventually will ask, “What am I to do differently?” “What should I do or say now
that I didn't say before?” These simple questions leave most “experts” in a quandary and the
questioner without an adequate response. Education for sustainable development remains an
enigma to many governments and schools. Governments, ministries of education, school
districts, and educators have expressed a willingness to adopt ESD programs; however, no
successful working models currently exist. Without models to adapt and adopt, governments
and schools must create a process to define what education for sustainability is, with respect
to the local context. Such a process is challenging. It calls for a public participation process in
which all of the stakeholders in a community carefully examine what they want their children
to know, do, and value when they leave the formal education system. This means that the
community must try to predict the environmental, economic, and social conditions of the near
and distant future. Public participation processes whereby stakeholders examine the needs
and desires of a community and identify essential elements of basic and secondary education
can be adapted and implemented in many types of communities.
Engaging Traditional Disciplines in a Tran disciplinary Framework
Education for sustainable development (ESD), by nature is holistic and
interdisciplinary and depends on concepts and analytical tools from a variety of disciplines.
As a result, ESD is difficult to teach in traditional school settings where studies are divided
and taught in a disciplinary framework. In countries where national curriculums describe in
detail the content and sequence of study in each discipline, ESD will be challenging to
implement. In other countries where content is described generally, ESD will be more easily
implemented, although doing so will require creative teachers who are comfortable and
skilled at teaching across disciplines.
Sharing the Responsibility
Popular thinking promotes the myth that an informed society is solely the
responsibility of the ministry of education. In reality, however, the ministries of environment,
commerce, state, and health also have a stake in ESD, just as they have a stake in sustainable
development. By combining expertise, resources, and funding from many ministries, the
possibility of building a high-quality, successful education program increases. Every sector of
the government that is touched by sustainable development (i.e., every ministry and
department) can play a role in ESD and the reorienting process. At the UN meeting of the
Commission on Sustainable Development, ministries of the environment have taken the lead
in stating that education, awareness, and training are essential tools in bringing about
sustainable development. Ministries of the environment need to work with both formal and
non-formal sectors of the education community to implement ESD. In addition, it is
absolutely essential for teachers to be involved in the process of building consensus
concerning ESD.
Building Human Capacity
The successful implementation of a new educational trend will require responsible,
accountable leadership and expertise in both systemic educational change and sustainable
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development. We must develop realistic strategies to quickly create knowledgeable and
capable leadership. It is unrealistic to expect nations to retrain 59,000,000 teachers and
thousands of administrators in either - or both - ESD and educational change. We must find
ways, such as employing the strengths model, to use existing skills. Two models of human
resource development currently exist - in-service training and pre-service training. In the first,
experienced professionals are provided with additional training. Then, they reshape existing
programs by drawing on their new knowledge, previous expertise, understanding of national
and local systems, and network of contacts. In pre-service training, concepts, principles, and
methodologies are provided during initial training. The new professionals then step into their
jobs with ESD as part of their expertise. Pre-service training is more cost effective than
retraining educators and administrators later in their careers. For initial success in ESD, both
in-service and pre-service training are necessary.
Supply of adequate material Resources
Perhaps one of the greatest expenses of implementing ESD will come with providing
appropriate basic education. Basic goals, which were established at Jontien and reaffirmed at
Dakar, include educating more children and increasing the universal average minimum of
schooling to six years. Meeting these goals will require hiring many more teachers. These
new teachers must be trained, and current teachers must be retrained, to reorient their
curriculums to address sustainability. The good news is that many countries are spending a
larger percentage of their gross national product (GNP) on education. Two-thirds of the 123
countries listed in the UNESCO World Education Report 2000 that reported public
expenditures on education as a percentage of GNP in both 1990 and 1996, reported spending
more in 1996 than in 1990. Although governments are prioritizing education in terms of
funding, how much of this funding is going to reorient education to address sustainability? In
the opinion of this paper, simply providing more education does not reduce the threat high
resource consumption poses to sustainability. One of the reasons why many experts perceive
that little progress has been made regarding ESD since the Earth Summit in 1992 is that few
financial resources have been dedicated to reorienting education to address sustainability. In
fact, national and local governments have spent little on ESD beyond improving basic
education.
Developing Policy
To succeed, ESD must have an authoritative impetus from national or regional
governments that will drive policy development. The omission of such an impetus proved to
be the downfall of the 1970s global effort to infuse environmental education into the
elementary and secondary curriculums. This same fate could befall the ESD effort. The
reality of any educational reform is that success depends on both “top down” and “bottom
up” efforts. Administrators at the top echelons of ministries are in a position to create the
policies that will make reforms occur. Together, administrators, teachers, and community
leaders at the local level must interpret what the policy should “look like” locally.
Developing a Creative, Innovative, and Risk-Taking Climate
In order to bring about the major changes required by ESD, we need to nurture a
climate of safety. Policymakers, administrators, and teachers will need to make changes,
experiment, and take risks to accomplish new educational and sustainability goals. They need
to have the authority and support of the educational community to change the status quo.
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Teachers must feel that the administration will support their efforts if parents or vested
interest groups in the community question or criticize their initiatives. We need to develop
and implement policy to ensure administrators and educators at all levels have the right to
introduce new or controversial topics and pedagogical methods. Of course, an overzealous
few could abuse these rights; therefore, a system of checks and balances within professional
guidelines and cultural context should also be in place.
Promoting Sustainability in Popular Culture
Perhaps the most difficult obstacle to address in implementing ESD is that of
popularity. While many countries agreed that ESD is important, the themes of sustainability
are not prevalent in popular cultures or governmental policies. For example, one principle of
sustainable development is that the rates of use of renewable resources should not exceed
their rates of regeneration. Yet, many societies have developed or are developing a
“disposable culture.” Disposable beverage containers, food wrappers, plates, and eating
utensils pass through our lives daily. We use them once and then discard them to be buried,
burned, or dumped in the water. This disposable culture is using such resources as trees and
fossil fuels more rapidly than they can be replaced.
Conclusion
In summary, to successfully implement ESD, governments and school authorities
must plan ahead and develop strategies to address the 12 afore-mentioned issues. These
issues should be addressed at every level, especially, the national level, to ensure consistent
implementation of ESD across the country. Purposeful deliberation and planning around
these issues as well as issues particular to each region will increase the likelihood of
successfully implementing ESD programs and reorienting curriculum to achieve
sustainability. An educated citizenry is vital to implementing informed and sustainable
development. In fact, a national sustainability plan can be enhanced or limited by the level of
education attained by the nation's citizens. Nations with high illiteracy rates and unskilled
workforces have fewer development options. For the most part, these nations are forced to
buy energy and manufactured goods on the international market with hard currency. To
acquire hard currency, these countries need international trade; usually this leads to
exploitation of natural resources or conversion of lands from self-sufficient family-based
farming to cash-crop agriculture. An educated workforce is a key for moving beyond an
extractive and agricultural economy. Good community-based decisions - which will affect
social, economic, and environmental well-being - also depend on educated citizens.
Development options, especially "greener" development options, expand as education
increases. For example, a community with an abundance of skilled labour and technically
trained people can persuade a corporation to locate a new information-technology and
software-development facility nearby. Citizens can also act to protect their communities by
analyzing reports and data that address community issues and helping shape a community
response. For example, citizens who were concerned about water pollution reported in a
nearby watershed started monitoring the water quality of local streams. Based on their data
and information found on the World Wide Web, they fought against the development of a
new golf-course, which would have used large amounts of fertilizer and herbicide in
maintenance of the grounds. Education is also central to improving quality of life. Education
raises the economic status of families; it improves life conditions, lowers infant mortality,
and improves the educational attainment of the next generation, thereby raising the next
247
generation's chances for economic and social well-being. Improved education holds both individual
and national implications
Recommendations
The following recommendation or suggestions were offered to salvage the system from the
total waste of resources and the tendencies of building castle in the air towards the mission of
development.
1. People should be entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.
2. Development of today must not undermine the development and environmental needs of present
and future generations.
3. Nations have the sovereign right to exploit their own resources, but without causing environmental
damage beyond their borders.
4. Nations should develop international laws to provide compensation for damage that activities under
their control cause to areas beyond their borders.
5. Nations should use the precautionary approach to protect the environment.
6. Eradicating poverty and reducing disparity in living standards in different parts of the world are
essential to achieve sustainable development and meet the needs of the majority of people.
7. The developed countries must acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international
pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the global
environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command.
8. Enviromental issues should be handled with the participation of all concerned citizens.
9. Nations shall facilitate and encourage public awareness which may lead to economic growth and
sustainable development in all countries.
10. Environmental policies should not be used as an unjustifiable means of restricting international
trade; sustainable development requires better scientific understanding of the problems. So nations
should share knowledge and innovative technologies to achieve the goal of sustainability.
11. Full participation of women is essential to achieve sustainable development; the creativity, ideals
and courage of youth and the knowledge of indigenous people are needed too.
12. Nations should recognize and support the identity, culture and interests of indigenous people.
References
Adams, W. M. & Jeanrenaud, S. J., (2008). Transition to sustainability: Towards a humane
and diverse World. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 108 pp., ISBN 9782831710723.
Blewitt, J. (2008). Understanding sustainable development; London: Earths can.
ISBN9781844074549.
Brower, M. & Leon, W. (1999). The consumer's guide to effective environmental Choices:
Practical advice from the union of concerned scientists. New York, Three Rivers
Press. ISBN 060980281X.
Bruntland, G. (1987). Our common future: The World commission on environment
And development, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Daly, H. & Cobb, J. (1989). For the common good: Redirecting the economy
Toward community, the environment and a sustainable future: Boston Beacon Press.
Hak, T. Et- al, (2007). Sustainability indicators: SCOPE 67. London: Island Press. ISBN
1597261319.
McKeon, R., Hopkins, C. Christalbridge, M., and Rizzi, R., [2002].Education for Sustainable
Development. [email protected] downloaded free of charge at http://www.esdtoolkit.org.
Schofield, K. (1999). The purposes of education, queens land state education: 2010,
Accessed 2002, Oct 28.
248
TERTIARY EDUCATION AS PRACTICAL MEASURE OF ENHANCING
SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
OLOKEDE, N. O.
School of Education, Osun State College of Education,
Ila-Orangun. Osun State
Abstract
This paper looked at tertiary education as a practical measure towards enhancing societal
development in Nigeria. The study sought to provide answers to two research questions. The
sample of study was made up a total of 560 subjects consisting 180 parents, 200 students, 120
teachers and 60 members of the public. The instrument used for data collection was a
questionnaire: Perception of stakeholders on tertiary institutions (PSTI). PSTI has a face and
content validity with a test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.75. The data gathered were
analysed using frequency counts, and percentages. The findings revealed that there was sharp
rise in the private establishment of tertiary institutions than public and there is no support for
private proprietors by the government to establish private tertiary institutions. The study
however recommends, that there should be legislation about compliance with the due
procedure, as set out by the Nigerian Sector Development Plan, before private tertiary
institutions are established. There should also be government intervention to regulate on the
huge charges by the private tertiary institutions.
Introduction
The indispensable value of education to man’s holistic development in particular and
society in general cannot be overemphasized. Education is a major tool in transforming man
from being a beast. In a country like Nigeria, the role of tertiary education in meeting the
aspiration for good governance, reformation in value orientation, democratization, gender
equality, religious harmony and national unity, is obvious.
Tertiary education in Nigeria was not part of an early agitation by the natives. Its
demand seemed a slow or delayed scenario as. Abdulkareem (1990), observes that the
demand for tertiary education came after the world economic depression of the early 1930s.
The colonial government launched a giant stride with the establishment of Yaba Medical
School in 1930. Later in 1932, the Yaba Higher College was established and in his analysis,
Taiwo (1986) says that ninety one (91) men and nine (9) women were admitted to pursue
various disciplines in Medicine, teaching, engineering agriculture and surveying. He
concluded that, their admissions were through a competitive entrance examination of
standard London Matriculation and tied to the anticipated vacancies in the schools and in the
civil service.
The roles of Asquith and Elliot (1943) and Ashby (1959) commissions in the history
of tertiary education will remain evergreen as Nigeria exists. The Elliot Commission was
instrumental to the establishment of University College Ibadan. At the sixteenth year of the
establishment of Yaba College, it was transferred from Lagos to form the nucleus of
University College Ibadan in 1948 which was affiliated to the University of London until it
ultimately gained autonomy in 1962.
Guobadia (1983) maintains that University College Ibadan remained the only
university until 1960 when Nigeria gained independence. He further states that the 1954
Federal Constitution made higher education in Nigeria a concurrent legislative matter. This
249
gave the regional government impetus to initiate bold proposals for the establishment of
regional universities, which precipitated in the establishment of University of Nigeria, Usuka;
Ahmadu Bellow University Zaria and University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University)
in the Eastern, Northern and Western regions, respectively, in 1962. Also in 1962, the
University of Lagos was established. Later, the federal and state government and private
individuals have left no stone unturned in the establishment of universities.
In the aspect of polytechnic education, the missionaries relaxed and this seemed to be
responsible for its slow start. The missions dreaded its expensive nature. Fafunwa (1974)
observed that five technical centres agitated for, which saw the five post secondary technical
colleges in Lagos, Ibadan, Enugu, Kaduna and Auchi been established. And that, admission
into these technical colleges was based on passing the West African School Certificate
Examination or General Certificate of Education (GCE) of London. These technical colleges
were later upgraded into polytechnics and colleges of technology. They include the first ever,
Yaba College that formed the foundation for University College, Ibadan. It was reestablished as Yaba College of Technology. Other polytechnics established then were
Kaduna Polytechnic; Ibadan Polytechnic; Mid-West Polytechnic; College of Science and
Technology; Port Harcourt and Institution of Management and Technology, Enugu. These
polytechnics and colleges of technology are transformed to present polytechnic and
monotechnics.
However, the mission had shown keen interest in the development of teacher
education. The Christian Missionary Society (C.M.S.) established the first Teacher Training
School in 1859 in Abeokuta and later moved it to Oyo called Saint Andrew’s College, Oyo.
In 1930, the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society (WMMS) followed the pace setter that
is the C.M.S. when they opened a training school for catechists and teachers in Ibadan. In the
Eastern region, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, in 1892 established Hope Waddel
College and in the Northern region, Nassarawa School was established in 1909 by Hanns
Vischer. The trend in the establishment of teacher training institutions cut across almost all
provinces of Nigeria. The teacher training institutions were upgraded and new ones were
established. They include Advanced Teachers, College, Lagos (1962), Adeyemi College of
Education, Ondo (1962); Alvan Ikoku College of Education, Owerri (1963); Advanced
Teacher College, Zaria; Advanced Teacher College Kano (1964); Advanced Teachers
College, Uyo; National Technical Teachers’ Training College, Yaba and Advanced Teachers’
College, Sokoto. These Advanced Teacher College were later renamed as Colleges of
Education.
The trends and the development of tertiary education in Nigeria are impressive and
heart-arming when one considers the stipulated goals of tertiary education in enhancing
societal change in Nigeria. The Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) highlights the goals of
tertiary education thus;
a. contribute to national development through high level relevant manpower training;
b. develop and inculcate proper value for the survival of the individual land society;
c. develop the intellectual capacity of individuals to understand and appreciate their local and
external environment.
d. acquire both physical and intellectual skills which will enable individuals to be self-reliant
and useful members of the society;
e. promote and encourage scholarship and cement national unity and
f. promote national and international understanding and interaction p.36
250
Research Questions
These two questions are meant to guide this study;
1. What is the trend of growth in the establishment of tertiary institutions (Universities,
Polytechnics, Monotechnics and Colleges of Education) in the last four years?
2. What is the perception of the stake-holders (parents, students teachers and members of the
public) on the current status of the existing tertiary institutions?
Methodology
Descriptive survey is the research design used for the study. Thus, the survey as a
method was adopted. All the parents, students, teachers and members of the public in Osun
State constituted the population used for the study. The sample of this study was made up of
560 subjects (180 parents, who are civil servants drawn from various ministries in Osun
State, 120 teachers from 40 selected secondary schools who sat for 2011/2012 UTME in
Osun State, 60 members of the public (drawn from market women, religious leaders, human
right activists and artisans).
Instrumentation
Questionnaire on Perception of Stake-Holders on Tertiary Institutions (QPSHTI) is
the main instrument used to collect data from the parents, students, teachers and members of
the public.
In order to ensure the validity of the above instrument, the initially drawn ten (10)
items were taken to two experts in measurement and evaluation for advice. These culminated
into seven (7) items that were finally used for the study. Test-retest reliability was used to
determine the internal consistency of the instrument by selecting 30 parents, 40 students, 20
teachers and 10 members of public who are outside the respondents that participated in the
final study. The instrument was administered after two weeks on the same selected subjects.
The two scores were calculated using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Co-efficient and
yielded a value of 0.75.
Administration and Collection of the Data
The instrument used was personally administered to the respondents. The completed
questionnaire were collected immediately and this ensured that the copies were all returned at
one hundred percent (100%) rate.
Data Analysis Technique
The data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics involving percentages.
Research Question 1:n
What is the trend of growth in the establishment of the tertiary institutions in the four
academic sessions?
Number of Tertiary Institutions Between 2008/2009 and 2011/2012 Academic Sessions
Table 1: Number of Universities in Nigeria
Academic Session
Federal
State
Private
Total
No
%
No
%
No
%
2008/2009
25
32.47
24
31.17
28
36.36 77
2009/2010
25
29.07
30
34.88
31
36.05 86
2010/2011
25
28.09
32
35.96
32
35.96 89
2011/2012
25
25.77
34
35.05
38
39.18 97
251
NOTE: It should be noted that there are new nine (9) public Federal universities recently
approved by the Federal Government in 2011/2012 not included on the table because they are
not yet incorporated in the brochure.
Table II: Number of Polytechnics and Monotechnics in Nigeria
Key: Polytechnics (Poly) Monotechnics (Mono)
Academic Federal
State
Private
Session
Poly
Mono Poly
Mono Poly
Mono
2008/2009 20
17
29
13
11
06
37
42
17
38.54%
43.75%
17.71%
20
17
33
16
13
03
2009/2010
37
49
16
36.27%
48.04%
15.68%
2010/2011 20
19
33
15
15
03
39
48
18
37.14%
45.71%
17.15%
2011/2012 42
55
22
35.38%
45.83%
18.33%
Table III: Number of Colleges of Education in Nigeria
Academic Session Federal
State
Poly
Mono Poly
Mono
No
%
No
%
2008/2009
21
28.90
39
52.00
2009/2010
21
26.25
41
50.00
2010/2011
21
21.00
41
50.00
2011/2012
21
21.00
46
46.00
Sources of Table I, II and III
Private
Poly
No
15
18
20
33
Total
96
102
105
120
Total
Mono
%
20.00
22.50
24.39
33.00
75
80
89
100
1. UME/DE 2008/2009 and 2009/2010
2. MPCE 2008/2009 and 2010/2011
3. 2010/2011 UTME Brochure
4. 2011/2012 UTME Brochure
From table 1 above, the rate at which private universities are increasing is alarming.
This is because while the public universities are growing at arithmetic rate, the private
universities are growing geometrically. Jubril (2003) in his observation says that as at
August 2011, Nigeria had 45 universities (25 were Federal, 16 were State owned and 4 were
Private). It should be noted that between 2001 and 2011 out of 97 universities in Nigeria, 38
are privately owned, while the Federal 25 are static, states increased their own from 16 to 34
and private increased their own from 4 to 38 showing an increase 105%.
In the aspect of polytechnics and monotechnics (see table II), the Federal
Government, as at 2008/2009, established 20 Polytechnics and 17 monotechnics and has
managed to increase the number to 22 Polytechnics and 21 monotechnics as at 2011/2012.
The states as at 2008/2009 had 29 polytechnics and 13 monotechnics which they have
252
increased to 39 Polytechnics and 16 monotechnics at 2011/2012. The private proprietors have
not shown any significant response in the establishment of polytechnics and monotechnics
institution. For instance, in 2008/2009 there were 11 polytechnics and 6 monotechnics and
the figure has risen to 18 Polytechnics and 6 monotechnics. State governments have
demonstrated a leading role in this aspect of education (polytechnics and monotechnics)
between 2008/2009 when they have 42, which have been raised to 55 presently, indicating
about 76.30% increase.
The low level of both the Federal Government and private proprietors is a revelation
of the truth that polytechnic or monotechnic education is a suffering orphan that can not
claim rights. This level of education and its apex (Higher National Diploma) has become
controversial since it cannot size-up with university degree. This is a puzzling issue that is
unresolved till this present time.
In the Colleges of Education establishment, going by table III, as at 2008/2009, the
Federal Government established 21 colleges of education. The figure is static till 2011/2012
academic session. Whereas, states have made a little progress by increasing state colleges of
education from 39, as at 2008/2009 to 46 as at 2011/2012. The private proprietors have
launched a giant stride by increasing the 15 colleges of education as at 2008/2009 to 33 as at
2011/2012 about 45% increase.
From above, geometric progression the private tertiary institutions’ proprietors,
compared to the public (Federal or states) proprietors.
Research Questions Two
What is the perception of the stake-holder on the current status of the existing tertiary
institutions?
253
Table IV: Questionnaire on Perception of Tertiary Institution by Stakeholders.
S/N
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Items
Do you prefer private tertiary institution to
public ones?
Total
Do you support the policy that government
should cut down the charges levied by private
tertiary institution?
Total
Can
at
least
50%
of
Nigerian
parents/guardians afford private tertiary
institutions’ cost?
Total
Should government establish more (public)
tertiary institutions?
Total
Should
government
encourage
the
establishment of private tertiary institutions?
Total
Do you have confidence in the output of
private tertiary institutions than public?
Total
In your perception, do employers of labour
prefer recruitment of private tertiary
institutions graduates to public ones?
Respondents
Parents
Yes
31
%
17.22
No
149
%
82.78
Total
180
Students
Teachers
Members of public
47
13
09
23.50
10.83
15.00
153
107
51
76.50
89.17
85.00
Parents
161
89.44
19
10.56
200
120
60
560
180
Students
Teachers
Members of public
152
101
54
76.00
84.17
90.00
48
19
06
24.00
15.83
10.00
Parents
59
32.77
121
67.22
Students
Teachers
Members of public
37
45
13
18.50
37.50
21.67
163
15
47
8150
62.50
78.33
Parents
156
86.67
24
13.33
Students
Teachers
Members of public
171
110
50
85.50
91.67
83.33
29
10
10
14.50
8.33
16.67
Parents
42
23.33
138
76.67
Students
Teachers
Members of public
47
23
09
23.50
19.17
15.00
153
97
51
76.50
L80.83
85.00
Parents
33
18.33
147
81.67
Students
Teachers
Members of public
75
33
09
37.50
27.50
15.00
125
87
51
62.50
72.50
85.00
Parents
27
15.00
153
85.00
Students
Teachers
Members of public
23
19
13
11.50
15.83
21.67
177
101
47
88.50
84.17
78.33
Total
200
120
60
560
180
200
120
60
560
180
200
120
60
560
180
200
120
60
560
180
200
120
60
560
180
200
120
60
560
Perceptions of stake-holders are seen on Table IV.
Item 1 indicates that 82.78% of parents, 76.50% of students, 89.17% of teachers and
85.00% of the members of the public reject preference for private tertiary institutions.
On item 2, 89.44% parents, 76.00% students, 84.17% teachers and 90.00% members of
public support legislation that government should cut down the hike in charges by the private
tertiary institution.
Item 3 reveals that 67.22% parents, 81.50% students, 62.50% teachers and 78.33%
members of public opine that 50% of the parents/ guardians could afford private tertiary
institutions’ cost. Moreover, the pre-eminence of parents cannot be waved off. This agrees
with submission of Audu (2008) that parents hold the key to enrolment.
The fourth (4th) item indicates that 86.67% parents, 85.50% students, 91.67% teachers and
83.33% members of public agree that government should establish more tertiary institutions.
254
Item 5 indicates that 23.33% parents, 23.50% students, 19.17% teachers and 15.00%
members of the public support the view that government should encourage the private
proprietors in establishing private tertiary institutions.
On confidence in the graduates from private tertiary institutions, 81.67% parents,
62.50% students, 72.50% teachers, and 85.00% members of the public disagreed that they
have preference for output from private tertiary institutions.
Item 7 shows perception of employers of labour on recruitment of graduates from
private tertiary institutions. 15.00% parents, 11.50% students, 15.83% teachers and 21.67%
members of the public agree that employers of labour can prefer graduates from private
tertiary institutions for employment to the public tertiary graduates. This means that high
numbers of respondents do not agree that graduates from private tertiary institutions can be
preferred to graduates from public tertiary institutions when it comes to matter of
employment.
Recommendations
Based on the above findings and discussions, the following recommendations are
made:
There is no doubt that Nigeria needs more tertiary institutions to cater for the teeming
population graduating yearly from secondary schools. However, the government should
exercise caution to regulate the modus operands of tertiary institutions in the following
respects.
Government should enact strong policy guiding the establishment of tertiary
institutions so as not to erase the quality of tertiary institutions as producers of terminal or
middle level manpower.
Government should encourage private individuals found to have genuine interest in
education not profiteering or individuals with selfish interest behind establishing tertiary
institutions.
Government should wade in to reduce the exorbitant charges usually demanded by the
private tertiary institutions in order to enhance accessibility to more individuals who wish to
pursue their academic programmes at the private tertiary institutions.
The various tertiary institutions regulatory bodies such as the National University
Commission, National Board for Technical Education and the National Commission for
Colleges of Education should be alive to the tasks of sincere accreditation, clear cut
curriculum as against the present situation in which universities, polytechnics, monotechnics
and colleges of education curriculum are replicated or dovetailed into other segments. For
instance, why are technical courses like Woodwork, Building, Automobile, etc at colleges
education and polytechnics? Where should Secretarial Studies, Home Economics, Business
Studies and Shorthand belong? Polytechnics or colleges of education?
The dwindling glory of private tertiary institutions should be redeemed through the
frantic effort of the above-accredited bodies. Some people have lost confidence in some of
private tertiary institutions due to their operations by proprietors. This necessitates why the
accredited bodies should ensure standard in admission into private tertiary institutions to
disallow the lackadaisical students from turning private tertiary institution into hideouts.
The federal and state governments should wake up to their responsibility by
establishing more tertiary institutions to prevent the tertiary education from the mess like
what is confronting the present day public primary and secondary schools in which they seem
inferior to private primary and secondary schools.
255
Conclusion
Since there is need for more tertiary institutions in Nigeria, both the public and private
bodies should be alive to the challenges by establishing more tertiary institutions in order to
facilitate societal change and advancement. Therefore, all hands should be on deck by all
stakeholders to ensure that students are accessible to qualitative tertiary education at all times
and places.
References
Abdulkareem, A. Y. (1990). A guide on historical foundations of education in Nigeria. Ilorin:
Kewalerel press.
Audu, A. J. (2008). Reforms for the education of the girl-child in Nigeria. Nigeria Journal of
Sociology of Education. 2 (2), 40-40.
Fafunwa, A. B. (1974). History of education in Nigeria. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC Press.
Guobadia, A. I. (1983). The political enrolment of higher education co-ordination in
Nigerian Education: Trends and issues. In Adesina, S. Akinyemi, K. and Ajayi, K.
(Eds). Ile-Ife: University press.
Jubrill, M. (2003). Country higher education profiles. Teferra, D. & Albach, P. G.(Eds.)
Indiana: University press.
Monotechnics, polytechnics and colleges of education (MPCE) 2008/2009 Session Brochure.
Abuja: Joint Admission Matriculation Board.
Nigeria education sector analysis (2006). Sector diagnosis report framework for reengineering the education sector.
Taiwo. G. O. (1986). The Nigerian education system, past, present and future. Lagos: Nelson
Pitman Ltd.
UME/DE (University Matriculation Examination) 2008/2009 session brochure. Abuja: Joint
admission and matriculation board.
UME/DE 2009/2010 Session Brochure. Abuja: Joint Admission and Matriculation Board.
UTME (Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination) 2010/2011 Session Brochure. Abuja:
Joint Admission and Matriculation Board.
UTME 2011/2012 Session Brochure. Abuja: Joint admission and matriculation board.
256
PROSPECTS OF LEADERSHIP AND GOOD GOVERNANCE IN TEACHER
EDUCATION
SARKINFADA, H.
Educational Foundations Department, Faculty of Education and Extension Services,
Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto
Abstract
The paper viewed Teacher Education as hope for good governance in Nigeria. It asserts that
Teacher Education should be intellectually stimulated of for the prospective teacher to
become versatile with leadership qualities to enhance good governance. In order to meet the
challenges of effective educational leadership a number of innovations and changes have to
be put in place such as making every school to operate as a professional learning community
so that through partnership with parents and community members, it can continually strive to
improve the quality of students. The paper recommended further development of the
teacher’s capabilities to enhance rapid development of the teacher for the continuous
development of the nation.
Introduction
Education is an indispensable tool for national growth and development. Teacher
education distinguishes itself through its focus on pedagogy, epistemology and human
development. Here, the teacher as a leader awakens the joy of creative expression and
knowledge. Hubbard (1986) saw the teachers as those who could make two ideas grow where
only one grew before. While Olusegun (2009) believed that they could make hard things
easy. The impact of leadership tends to be greatest in schools where the learning needs of
students are most acute, because they are one-fourth preparation and three-fourth theatre.
Education, weather formal or informal, conveys certain knowledge, skills, honours and
responsibility to its beneficiary. It equips the teacher with the act of utilizing the knowledge
he has in school and constantly making it available in the society. As already noted, Teacher
Education prepares the teacher for their roles in the society and not only in the classroom. In
most cases, what makes the difference among civil servants is the amount and kind of
education acquired by each teacher. The teaching profession as one of the valuable
professions in the world, ensure that the future of any nation is premised on the vibrance of
her teachers and leadership philosophy, giving seal to Plato’s assertion that productivity of a
nation is the hinged on everyone’s ability and capacity to give back to the society. Thus,
teachers’ education should not only involve the theoretical knowledge about leadership
qualities, but should also the skills needed to effectively mobilize the individuals and entire
nation to set and realize realistic, meaningful and productive goals.
Conceptual Clarifications
Teacher Education is referred to as a planned and systematic process for the initial
preparation for further training and retraining of teachers. Teacher Education is the
professional training of teachers in colleges of education, Faculties of Education and Institute
of Education (FRN, 2004). Leadership is derived from the verb “to lead”. To lead means to
“guide” or cause to follow one” or to direct as by persuasion or influence, to a course of
action and thought. It also means to show the way to, to direct the course of conduct in a
certain direction, or to be a head (Kalausi, 2009).
257
At the core of most definitions of leadership are two functions, “providing direction”
and “exercising influences”. Each of these functions can be carried out in different ways and
such differences distinguish many models of leadership from one another. Leadership could
be defined as “the process of directing the behavior of another person or persons towards the
accomplishment of some objectives” (Kepana, 2000). From this definition, it can be seen that
leadership involves a process, a specific method, or procedure or approach which spans over
time, whether short or long. Leadership, therefore, involves everyone because someone must
lead another at one time or the other. Good governance is the ability to be dedicated to duty,
and ready to serve the people in order to achieve the stated goal or vision. According to
Alberta (2002), good governance includes strong leadership combined with responsible and
accountable governance and the ability to maintain critical stewardship of an educational
system.
Governance is defined by the World Bank (1994), as the manner in which power is
exercised in the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development.
Governance represents a concrete basis of providing leadership and harnessing a nations’s
economic resources for sustainable development. The enthronement of good governance
poses a formidable challenge and requires capability, commitment and appropriate value
orientation on the part of our leaders and the citizenry.
Teacher Education for Leadership
The Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) reaffirms that education is an instrument
“par excellence” for effecting national development for the benefit of all citizens with the
specific goals and relevance to individual and society needs in consonance with realities of
the Nigerian environment and the modern world. In order to make Teacher Education
effective there is the need for the inclusion of leadership skills and objective in the program.
Thus, teachers will not only see themselves as trained teachers but also as effective leaders in
the society. Teachers with leadership skills could help in the training of students to become
inspired leaders to assume leadership roles and ensure good governance.
According to Kepana (2000), teacher education implies the following:
Personal development of the teacher including intellectual and spiritual growth;
Vocational preparation of the teacher in terms of necessary practical skills and character
qualities; Social training of teacher in order to initiate the young people into the society.
It is important for a teacher as a leader to be a role model; he should also know his
objectives and have a plan on how to achieve these objectives in the school and the larger
society. The teachers should help each team member or members of a group, families,
communities and the students who are the leaders of tomorrow, to develop their potentials
and be ready to give their best.
Leadership Challenges in Teacher Education
The past years have witnessed a tremendous expansion in the educational programmes
in Nigeria. Schools have sprung up in many parts of the federation and teachers have been
produced, some qualitatively and some quantitatively. The Universal Primary Education
Scheme (U.P.E) has multiplied the schools products leading to further establishment of the
Colleges of Education, Colleges of Technology, the Polytechnics and the Universities. One
unifying factor in all these establishments is that they all require teachers, in the right quantity
and quality, in order to achieve the desired national objectives. Since the teacher is the hub
around which all educational objectives revolve, the picture becomes clearer that, if Nigeria
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is to become a dynamic and great nation, she has to depend on the effectiveness of her
teaching force that trains the much-needed work force (Taiwo, 1980). Teacher Education has
come a long way and has gone through various criticism and modification. In order to meet
the challenges of effective educational leadership a number of innovations and changes have
to be put in place. These may include:
Schools needs strong effective leaders, who encourage their teachers, help them plan,
implement researcher based practices and provide leadership for improving curricula and
instruction.
Why and how one emerges as a leader will advently have an effect on the process of
education, and how the teacher manages the following challenges: autonomy; inadequate
funding; poor state of infrastructural facilities; fallen standard of academic pursuits and poor
leadership. Teachers should therefore seek to develop certain leadership qualities that the
teachers know to be lacking. Not doing so amounts to planning for problems and failure as a
leader
According to Odigie (2009), teachers should strive to be leaders for justice, fairness
trustworthiness, prudence, vision etc. These and many other characteristics are needed in a
teacher to be a leader, irrespective of how many teacher training skills the teacher has
acguired. In a nutshell the teacher’s education should include the process of looking for new
ways of leadership and good governance among praticing teachers and prospective teachers.
Teacher’s Role in Good Governance
Teachers and school administrators continuously seek and share information and act
on what they have learned. All their efforts are concentrated on improving their practice so
that students can achieve the best possible results. In governing the schools, the teacher needs
to look at what the schools need so that students are well prepared with the knowledge, skills
and attributes they need to succeed. The hallmark of good governance therefore is the ability
to improve the quality of life and the ability to meet today’s need without compromising
those of posterity, but just having an excellent curriculum is not good enough. According to
Alberta (2009), the teacher’s role in good governance should include the following:
- Having an excellent curriculum, the school must be a place where excellence is the hall
mark, where teams of principals, teachers, school staff, parents and students work together
to ensure continuous improvement in students achievement and results.
- The teacher’s role include: operating the school within the communities, and
demonstrating his skill as leaders. Our schools should be places where teachers have
reasonable class size and are able to relate to each and every child and to govern
accordingly.
- Teachers are able to work effectively with teaching assistants and other professionals to
address the challenges of children with special needs.
- ensuring a variety of community supports and services are centered around and available
to students.
- Allow schools to function as cooperative community centers sharing expertise, facilities
and resources to meet the needs of their students.
The teacher, as epitome of good governance must be leaders with vision; he must be
one who is focused, result oriented, and one who can influence his followers (students). He
should also be a role model and one that does not coerce his followers. A teacher should have
goals and ambitions that will make the school an excellent school where high standards are
set and achieved. Such teachers make children to learn. The primary aim of leadership and
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good governance is accomplishing stated objectives or goals. Thus, the teacher as a leader
should map out goals that will prove to be better and successful. The goals should not be
targeted at self-perpetuation or the enrichment of self, but for excellent governance. The
teacher needs to spend much time to carefully and adequately work out realistic and
achievable goals, possibly in consultation with those knowledgeable about the subject matter.
According to Tajomavwo (2006), The teacher needs to develop broad goals that will
enhance good governance in school: Every school operates as a professional learning
community and, through partnership with parents and community members, it should
continually strive to improve the outcomes of students.
The Essence of Leadership in Teacher Education
According to Max (2001) “the essence of leadership is the ability to create vision,
inspiration and momentum in a group of people. People are not led by plans and analysis;
they are led by this trinity of other things. And the truly effective leader focuses nearly all his
actions on examining them- using different skills for each element of trinity”.
Let’s now examine the components of this trinity:-Vision: - The vision is the positive image of what the organization could become and the
path towards that destination. To create a shared vision, the teacher is always hungry for
ideas that fit with the organization’s strategy, and is smart enough to spot good ones. But
crucially, he should also be artistic enough to fashion those ideas into images, programmes,
projects that are intriguing, meaningful and realistic.
-Inspiration: - Within the individuals that comprise the organization, inspiration is what
moves people to action. The teacher uses his interpersonal skills to excite his students and
help them see how they themselves may benefit from both the journey and arrival. He helps
them to see the “word made flesh”.
-Momentum: - Momentum of the organization’s projects, programmes and initiatives is what
carries the organization to its destination. Using his own energy and problem solving-skills,
the teacher keeps the vision and mission on course
It is, of course, on these three dimensions that the true and effective leaders deliver
strongly. The visionary is not a leader if he cannot also inspire. Similarly, the momentum –
sustainer is not a leader if he cannot create a shared vision.
Conclusion
One of the most vital skills is the ability to work with people as a team. Without this
skill, the teacher’s knowledge of the subject matter or administrative and co-coordinating
abilities comes to nothing. Indeed, in order to get things done properly, or get members of the
schools think and act in a particular way the teacher needs to be highly skilled as a leader in
good human relationship. A leader who is aware of its importance and who genuinely desires
to guide his schools to achieve its goal and objectives, will do everything to improve on his
humanistic tendencies as a teacher-leader with good governance.
Recommendations
The paper presupposes that teachers are an emblem of societal change they should
therefore, be taught leadership skills in their training and the serving teachers should be
mentored towards being effective leaders with good governance for social change.
- Teacher should therefore seek to develop, planning for problems and failures in setting
objectives, planning work, assigning the work, and following up on the result of the work.
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Teachers should guide, monitor, and support necessary skills and knowledge and proffer
solutions to deficiencies.
- Every teacher must maintain congruency that is consistent with what he says and what he
teaches. Equally, he must be emphatic and develop new ideas that need to be more successful
in bringing about change in students at the classroom level which means to develop the
teacher’s ability to understand what his students experiences.
- Teachers should imbibe the ability to create vision, inspiration and momentum in a group of
people. The visionary is not a leader if he cannot also inspire. The momentum – sustainer is
not a leader if he cannot create a shared vision.
- Teachers should see themselves as carriers of corporate governance because it is having
essentially to do with leadership: for efficiency, for probity, with responsibility and
leadership which is transparent for the comprehension of the student and the society for
adequate social change.
References
Alberta, I. (2002). Alberta’s commission on learning. Report and recommendation. Turning
vision into reality good governance government of Alberta education.com.
http://Alberta.edu/html.com.retrievedn August 20,2011.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education (4th ed). Lagos.
Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC).
Hubbard, J. (1986). Improving leadership and leadership roles. New York: Match
Concept.
Kalausi. J. (2009). Youth education and leadership in Nigerian. Journal of Educational
Philosophy 21 ( 2), 17-23.
Kepana, S. (2000). How to be a wise leader. Principle that work. Nairobi: Painless
University Press.
Max, L. (2001). The fools of leadership. New York: Herper Collins Publishes.
Odigie, V.O. (2009). Education leadership challenges, and options, styles and skills. Annual
Book of Reading Philosophy of Education Association of Nigeria. 1(1), 122-125.
Olusegun, A. A. (2009). Teacher’s role as a leader in national development. Annual book of
reading philosophy of Education Association of Nigeria 1 (1), 33-42.
Taiwo, C.O. (1980). The Nigerian education system. Past, present and future. Lagos.
Thomas, Nelson.
Tajomavwo, G. A. (2006),Transpernacy and accountability in university governance. A
Centre for Management Development (CMD).Lagos. Ford Foundation 1 (1),3-5
World Bank (1994). Governance: The World Bank Experience. Washington DC.
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LEADERSHIP FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
UMAR M. R.
Department of Educational Foundations, Usmanu Danfodiyo University,
Sokoto
Abstract
The paper examines the concept of leadership and sustainable development in Nigeria. It also
looks at the need for effective leadership, and discusses education and leadership processes
which are based on the following objectives; the development of the individual into a sound
and effective citizens, and the full integration of individual into the community. It also looked
into the problem of leadership in Nigeria, which is not only political, but includes all aspects
of life such as the family, school, community and business. The paper also recommended
some possible solutions to the problem of leadership such as admonishing Nigerian leaders to
reason rightly and imbibe thecritical requirements sucf as Intelligence, inner creativity,
impulse, skills, capacity and vision to govern.
Introduction
Leadership in the mind of Emefu (2008) can be described as “sacrifice and
selflessness. What this indicates is that leadership is not for everybody and this is because it
is not everybody that can make sacrifices and show the selflessness that leader require.
Leadership is therefore for people who have such virtues as selflessness, sacrifice and have
the calling to do so. It is reserved for those who have been ordained for it.
Agwaranze (1997) described leadership as the “capacity or quality of an individual or
group to direct, organize and control the actions of the other people or groups towards the
attainment of the collective goal of the group or society”. Effective leadership is therefore
referred to as the ability of the individual to successfully direct the activities of the group to
the attainment of sustainable development. This effective leadership must go along with
effective followership for it to work
Concept of Leadership, Education and Sustainable Development
Leadership derives from the verb “to lead”. To lead means to “guide or cause to
follow one” or to direct, as by persuasion or influence to a course of action or thought. It also
means to show the way to , to direct the course of , to conduct a certain direction, or to be a
head. Thus, leadership involves or connotes providing guidance and / or direction to people
for achieving some specific goals people, and by the leader. Although it is possible for
humans to lead animals and perhaps, other living creatures, the focus here is on the leadership
of human beings by human beings. To led, may also imply the ability to manipulate the led
by the leader; this may be by persuasion, coercion or influence.
The need for leadership in any human society can not be over emphasized. Whether
they belong to institutions or organizations working together to pursue and achieve jointly
established goals and objectives that bring people together as members of the same family,
clan, state or nation. Human beings always demonstrate their need for leadership within a
group. There will be confusion, stagnation and anarchy if there is no leadership as each
person would be going on his own, pursuing his own goals and creating and running his own
world. Indeed, there would be some people who would be unable to pursue any discernible
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goal or achieve any tangible success in life, without leadership. There are, however, some
people who would crave for a free and relaxed environment and atmosphere to operate and
produce optimum positive results for themselves and for the organization to which they
belong. But, certainly, this set of people still need or look unto a few others to create that free
and relaxed atmosphere and to see the goals (corporate) that people will pursue. Thus, even
though they may not depend on coercion or persuasion to operate, they would, of necessity,
need and depend on leadership to achieve optimum results.
Sustainable development on the other hand is a difficult concept to define. It is also
continually evolving, which makes it more difficult to define. One of the original descriptions
of sustainable development is credited to the Brundtland commission which asserts thus;
“sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs” (World
commission on environment and Development (NCED 1987).
Sustainable development is generally thought to have three components; environment,
society and economy. The well-being of these areas are intertwined, and not separate; for
example, a healthy environment is necessary to provide food and resources, safe drinking
water and clean air for its citizens. The sustainability paradigm rejects the contention that
casualty in the environment and social realms are inevitable and acceptable consequences of
economic development. Therefore, sustainable development is considered as per the
contention of the paradigm for thinking about the future in which environmental, societal and
economic considerations are balanced in the pursuit of development and improved quality of
life.
Education can be seen as a universal phenomenon, which allows all human societies
to develop the requisite knowledge, experience and skills for their-self preservation and
growth. It should be borne in mind that the phenomenon of human development revolves
around how man applies his knowledge to control his environment. The lesson to be learnt
here is that civilization and centers of power and wealth have been shifting in the historical
process to which education is a paramount driving force.
Education and Sustainable Development
Two major issues in the international dialogue on sustainability are population and
resource consumption. Increases in population and resource use are thought to jeopardize
sustainable future, and education is linked to both fertility rate and resource consumption.
Educating females reduces fertility rate and can therefore lead to reduction in over
population. The challenge in educating the citizen is to raise the education levels without
creating an ever-growing demand for resources and consumer goods and the accompanying
production and pollutants. When education levels are low, economics are often limited to
resources extraction and agriculture. In many countries the current level of basic education is
so low that it severely hinders development options and plans for a more sustainable future. A
higher education level is necessary to create jobs and industries that are greener and more
sustainable.
The United Nations, in recognition of the importance of education for sustainable
development, declared 2005-2014 as a decade for education for sustainable development. It is
against this background that Okebukola (2007) stressed that the United Nations recognized
that there could be few more pressing and critical goals for the future of human kind to
ensure steady improvement in the quality of life for this future government in a way that
respects our common heritage, and the planet we live in. As human beings, we seek positive
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change for ourselves, our children and grand children, and we must do it in such a way that
we would respect the rights of all. This can be done through constantly learning about
ourselves, our potentials, our limitations, our relations, our environment and our world.
Education for sustainable development is a life wide and life long endeavor that
challenges individuals, institutions and societies to view tomorrow as a day that belongs to all
of us, or it will not belong to anyone. Okebukola (2007), emphasized that education is critical
for sustainable development and improving the capacity of the people to address
environmental and development issues. It has also been a common consensus that education
is a driving force for the change needed to be actualized through education, in this regard,
there is need for effective leadership in Nigeria.
Need for effective leadership for sustainable development
Olsen (2005), every organization, group, or country has its objectives to achieve. To
ensure the realization of the organizational goals, only persons with strong leadership
qualities need to be appointed. Such qualities that define good leadership among other things
include high intelligence, honesty, justice and fairness, exemplary living, resourcefulness,
firmness, tolerance, self confidence, democracy mindedness, charisma and hard work. Any
effective leader should be equipped with high intelligence so as to be able to understand and
analyze issues as they arise, and immediate solutions proffered without delay. The allocation
of an organizations resource requires a high sense of judgement and knowledge.
The Niger Delta issue is a case in point, one of the social ills in Nigeria today is that
of dishonesty. This state of affairs has generated public distrust of our leaders, thereby
bringing about political instability in the nation. Nigerian leaders should be transparently
honest to ensure a more certain future for the nation. Effective leadership should be based on
justice and fair play. One of the most potent causes of wars and political crisis in any country
is injustice. At all times a leader should be seen as fair and just in his dealings with the groups
or individuals good leader, as Oluleye (2002) posited, is one who realizes that he is the
mirror of the society. In Nigeria, our experience has shown that our leaders are those who
match their words with contrary action. Exemplary living in what defines a leader as one who
“creates and sets forth exceptional behaviour patterns in such a way that other persons
respond” Buttressing the above, Oputa (2006) in his submission adulated that Mohatma
Gandhi lived like, looked like and dressed like the average Indian, and so was able to lead
them having completely identified himself with them. The proper role of a leader should be a
model for the society. What his words teach, his actions ought to show, just as the diagrams
drawn by a geometry teacher illustrate his proofs. Every great leader should be able to give
others a sense of perspective and he should set the moral, social and motivational climate
among his followers. This takes wisdom and discipline, and with disciplined leadership, there
is bound to be an equally disciplined followership. In the claims of Anya (2003)), the world
historic crisis has naturally had its impact on the third world and the Nigerian society in
particular, these include economic inequality, the effect of consumer oriented society, the
growing influence of mass media, and lately an increase in violence and crime. As cultural
patterns become more complicated, a morality built on traditional systems tends to collapse,
and many of the second generation of Nigerian leaders are less able to discern what is right
and what is wrong. For instance, Nigeria which is a country with 150 million people, the
most populous country in Africa, has found itself torn apart in a morass of corruption, ethnic
violence, increasing poverty, epidemic of ethnic politics, and overtly bad leadership.
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In situations where there are followers that find it difficult to cope with the pace of
leadership as well as those who are deviant, an effective leader becomes one who is able to
cope with these short comings and yet able to put the organization together. He offers
necessary assistance by advising, teaching and persuading deviant followers to conform. This
could result from his intellectual capacity, clout and power of oratory. The effective leader
must be sure of his facts and figures so as not to do shameful or mean things that destabilize
his ego. Katumbay (2007), concluded in his study that Nigerians are lacking badly in such
men and women who are not enslaved by love of money but who know how to use it and its
power for the well being of all. Nigeria has not yet had its mother Theresa’s, Martiin Luther
Kings, Gandhis or Malulas. We are yet to have Men and women who are neither guerrillas
nor slave drivers who refuse to betray their own consciences because they are enlightened by
a desire for something greater. In Nigeria, leadership is the most wrongly conceived art. It is
not only seen as a “knock and drag out game”, but as an open link to wealth and fame. Such a
misconception of leadership could be as a result of leadership mis education.
Education and Leadership Process
In contempary Nigeria, the National Policy on Education (2004) reaffirms that
education is an instrument “per excellence” for effecting national development for the benefit
of all citizens with the specific goals and relevance to individual and society needs in
consonance with the realities of the Nigerian environment and the modern world.
For effective educational leadership to be, the leader should be aware of the broad based
philosophical objectives in education, which are based on the following;
a. The development of the individual into a sound effective citizen
b. The full integration of individual into the community and
c. The provision of equal access to educational opportunities for all citizens of the country at
primary, secondary and tertiary levels; both inside and outside of the formal school system.
In addition, for effective educational leadership, the aims and purpose of education should be
well mastered and integrated by the leader since the end of education is to develop in each
individual all the perfection of which he is capable. According to Kontian idealism and
philosophy, idealist education implies the holistic growth and development of all the faculties
and capabilities of man too all levels reachable. According to Farrant (1985), this implies the
following;
a. Personal development including intellectual and spiritual growth
b. Vocational preparation in terms of necessary practical skills and character qualities.
c. Social training in which young people are initiated into the society at local and national
level.
It is important as a leader that one should know his objectives and having a plan on
how to see them through. Building a team committed to achieving the objectives, helping
each team member of deputies, vice principals, to give their best. The process of leadership
can be influenced by the nature of challenges, options, the style used and skills possessed by
the leader.
Leadership Education for Sustainable Development
No country has ever found it easy after its independence to attain sustainable
development. When one closes ones eyes to the factors responsible for failure of leadership
and lets go rambling ideologies, then one would realize that it was due to leadership
miseducation. The so-called Nigerian leaders developed sore interest to share in the “booty”.
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They usurped the office of leadership out governing dexterity and genuine knowledge on how
to pilot, coalesce and improve the nation. In the assessment of clark (2002), they assume
responsibilities only to worsen the already useless output of their predecessors, creating on
aura of political confusion. The UN informed masses that are easily taken in by unreliable
pledges, prejudice, and ethnic sentiments are reimbursed with poverty, hunger, poor heath
care, lack of social amenities, insecurity and secret killings. What a disappointment! There is
need for Nigeria to embark on a new educational philosophy of leadership. Such an
educational philosophy will among other thing re-assess and reform the former leadership
education programme. This will aim at enabling Nigerian leaders to rise to their responsibility
and exhibit a good name, self-pride, honour, self-discipline, honesty and commitment as their
hallmarks. Achebe (1983) minced no words in his categorical assertion that “the trouble with
Nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership”. He stated that:
The Nigerian problem is the unwillingness or inability of its leaders to rise to the
responsibility, to the challenge of personal example, which are the hallmarks of true
leadership.
Critically speaking, Achebe’s supra stated quotation with the adjectival noun
“unwillingness” suggests not being ready to do what is needed, most probably on account of
ignorance. For Aristotle, ignorance is an antithesis of wisdom or lack of knowledge, which is
supposed to be there, but is not there. Brameld (1965) adulated knowledge as the greatest
weapon ever devised by man. It can be used for mans advancement as well as his downfall.
Education, hitherto remains the gateway to knowledge and ultimately to power. Every
industrialized nation of the world attained its sustainable development by tapping from the
tremendous power of education.
This paper, therefore suffices it to state that the Federal Government of Nigeria should
not know less that formal education is a source of power, initiative, and critical thinking for
leadership education. Education adequately nurtures the human mind and opens up horizons
for a creative or inventive spirit. Consequently, the way for the government to promote
frontier spirit or productive consciousness in the citizen and prospective leaders, is through
adequately financing the nations educational institutions. For instance, institutions of higher
learning, where individuals get mature in their thoughts and fully master techniques of
learning and doing should be adequately funded and equipped. Intellectuals must be
respected and recognized for what they truly are, namely, beacons of national progress and
greatness. They should be adequately encouraged and rewarded for their services to the
nation. Anti intellectual temper, on the part of the government or a nation, is a sure index of
the demise of leadership and sustainable development.
There is no denial of the fact that quality education is a backbone for genuine
leadership and attainment of sustainable development. In Nigeria, the educational system has
virtually collapsed. When the lecturers are not on strike for poor pay and unbearable
condition of service, the students will go on rampage to protest for lack of basic amenities or
against school fees increase. The net effect is that the psychologic attitudinal formation of the
students who are the leaders of tomorrow is greatly traumatized. This may well be to this
single purpose of ensuring sustainable development through leadership education that Plato
in his “Republic” (374 B.C) thought of selecting the leaders from those people capable of
pursuing true education. He proposed the division of the society into three classes;
a. The Guardians who will emerge as the philosopher kings, and are the only ones capable
of pursuing true education, because they are intellectually gifted.
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b. The solider class who are the military class, and must be fit for war through training in
logistics and regimentation.
c. The artisans, farmers, businesspersons and what have you. These sets of people provide
the economy of the state and its production.
Arguably, one may ask whether plato is proposing “education” or “training” for the
philosopher kings. The answer lies in the fact that the philosopher kings would emerge only
after a series of articulated educational metamorphosis, involving the elimination of the
second best. For Plato, the status of a philosopher king would only be attained at a latter age,
between 50 and 60 years. It is after then that these selected few would have been educated or
trained to rule the state. Education for Plato is for the acquisition of certain skills competence
and insight on how to be good rulers.
This is how they could be capable of true knowledge or education. In other words, the
philosopher kings would not only have competence for ruling, but must know why they are
meant to rule and who ought to rule. Indeed, they would be expected to rule justly, for the
attainment of “truth”, and “justice” which as the indices of stability, should be the purpose of
quest for knowledge and understanding according to Plato.
Should we believe Plato or yet argue that the philosopher kings are not trained but
educated? It is a known fact through concrete evidence that both training and education have
logical connections, but are not to be mistaken one for the other. Training is specific and
much less demanding as education. Training emphasizes the acquisition of skills and
competence, but education is for the overall development of man, morally, intellectually,
socially, physically, and emotionally. Education is umbrella like in nature, for it is involves
not only “knowledge” and “understanding” but also the “how” and the “why” as well as the
“where- for”, it has no narrow end as in training, and no straight jacket course.
Problems of Leadership In Nigeria
According to Agwaraze (1997), the problem of leadership in Nigeria has assumed the
unenviable position of being subjected to the ruler ship and not leadership of ill motivated
and selfish individuals since independence, be it civilian or military. In Nigeria, the problem
of leadership is not only political, it includes all aspects of life such as family, the school,
community and business. For instance, in many families in Nigeira today, parents whose
primary duties include proper socialization of the child have almost abandoned this duty to
the school which is not forth coming. This causes negative effects in the society in the end.
One of the outstanding social ills in Nigeria is dishonesty. This has generated public distrust
of our leaders thereby bringing about political instability in the country. One of the most
potent causes of war and political crisis in any country is injustice and that is the major
reason for a leader to be fair and just in his dealings with any groups. Our experience in this
country is that our leaders will say one thing and do the opposite, it is this type of behavior,
being manifested by our leaders, that probably made Oluleye (1985), to say that exemplary
living is what defines a leader as one who creates and sets forth exceptional behavior patterns
in such a way that others persons respond.
The type of leadership we have in Nigeria may not be compared with what is found in
other countries of the world. Emefu (2003), citing the Sunday Guardian of October 14, 2001
assessed Nigerian leaders from 1960 when we got political independence. According to him,
“was there any manifestation of leadership in those demagogic and despotic activities of
those tyrants?” This is because leadership failure still remains a common occurrence in a
country where there are renowned wise men and women who have made some positive
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global impact. This could be the reason for Okolo (1985), to say that “embezzlement of
public funds, excessive greed, irresponsibility, lack of public accountability, tribalism,
sectionalism, nepotism, absolute lack of concern for public good and welfare, lack of patriotic
spirit etc are all perpetrated by African political leaders and those highly placed in public
offices”. The consequence of this is backwardness and that could be the reason for the
absence of sustainable development in Nigeria and most African countries.
Emefu (2003), stated that “political instability which resulted in the most bloody and
wicked civil war was the price of zoological leadership which the Nigerian masses paid for
the recklessness of their political leaders”. The question then is; what lesson have we drawn
from that episode? It does not seem that we have learnt anything from that because ‘men of
no conscience’ still pilot the affairs of the country. For instance, Nigerian leaders can afford
to waste billions of Naira preparing for a democratic election,they know will never take
place. Even though they know very well that election did not take place, the same group of
people will still come on air to announce that the election was free and fair. In this regard,
Nwokora (1990), stated thus; “only a modest, non flamboyant, service oriented leadership
can salvage this country and above all selflessness is the ultimate ingredient”. From here we
can think of what may be the effect of a good leadership and education towards sustainable
development.
Conclusion
To conclude this paper, one may say that for any nation to be “healthy” there is need
to integrate the concepts that are involved here. The concepts in question are leadership,
education and sustainable development. For any nation to think of sustainable development
there must be healthy leadership and healthy education. For the Nigerian society to make
meaningful and sustainable progress, we need leaders with a capacity to transform the society
in which they exercise leadership. Conclusively, there is no society where a predator,
masquerades, as leaders ever develops. Nigeria, one may think, is not far from this, this is
because for over 40 years of independence, there is nothing like sustainable development.
Thus, Nigerians still cry in this 21 st century, about certain ills like high unemployment rate,
crumbling health facilities, horrible roads, deteriorating infrastructure, soaring crime,
dysfunctional educational system and helpless value system.
Recommendation
- Nigerian leaders should reason rightly that leadership is not a matter of the “turn” of a
certain senatorial or geo-political zone to lead, but a matter of the person with the leadership
intelligence, inner creative impulse, skills, capacity and vision to govern.
- A democratic leadership of any country should be ready to provide service to the people.
The toughness of the leader is not measured by the swiftness with which educational
institutions are closed down, or by the number of the innocent civil servants retrenched in a
bid to reduce overhead cost or to streamline the service; it is rather, assessed by the kind of
services provided for the benefit of the citizens.
- A leader should not give up himself to licentiousness and ignoble conduct. He should
exercise a positive impact on his people through action, education, policies and ideologies.
Any leader who is comfortable only in leading but fails as a paradigm is a wolf par
excellence.
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- Adequate resource centers and libraries should be built and equipped specifically to train
and induct the youths in proper ethics of leadership. This is to enable them acquire basic
leadership skills.
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