Loving Without a License By Peggy R. Hoyt and Candace M. Pollock
Transcription
Loving Without a License By Peggy R. Hoyt and Candace M. Pollock
Loving Without a License © 2007 P.R. Hoyt and C.M. Pollock By Peggy R. Hoyt and Candace M. Pollock This article addresses areas of estate planning vulnerability faced by committed, unmarried couples who either cannot marry or choose not to, whether they are of the same or opposite gender. It also addresses risks faced by married same-gender couples. The authors’ intent is to show how standard estate planning tools can have undesirable outcomes or provide useful solutions for unmarried couples and married same-gender couples. The Times, They Are A-Changin’ The last four decades have seen tremendous changes in how we define families. Today, the so-called traditional family consisting of husband, wife and children Peggy R. Hoyt, Esq., and Candace M. Pollock, Esq., are estate planning attorneys and authors of LOVING WITHOUT A LICENSE—AN ESTATE PLANNING SURVIVAL GUIDE FOR UNMARRIED COUPLES AND SAME SEX PARTNERS (www.LovingWithoutALicense.com). Ms. Hoyt and Ms. Pollock are national and local speakers on planning for unmarried partners and other estate planning topics. Ms. Hoyt practices in the Central Florida area and Ms. Pollock has a practice in Cleveland, Ohio. You may reach Ms. Hoyt at [email protected] and Ms. Pollock at [email protected]. ©2007 of that union seems to be in the minority while families consisting of single parents, or unmarried but committed opposite or same-gender partners, with or without children, are in the majority. Some of these new family configurations are so prevalent that we refer to them by acronyms such as “DINK” (dual income-no kids) or “POSSLQ” (partner of opposite sex, same living quarters). The past five-plus years have also been witness to turmoil regarding the status of unmarried but committed couples of the opposite or same gender. A number of corporations now extend company benefits to an employees’ unmarried partner and laws in some jurisdictions authorize same-sex marriage or civil unions, pro- CCH. All Rights Reserved 23 Editor's Choice viding some legal standing and rights where none previously existed for same-gender couples. At the same time, federal and some state legislation has been passed to define “marriage” and limit the definition of “spouse” to a person of the opposite gender who is a husband or wife.1 These opposing forces underscore the fact that until the status of unmarried couples and married same-gender couples is settled, significant gaps will remain regarding the legal protections and opportunities available to these committed partners. Unmarried couples are particularly vulnerable in the area of estate planning, a subject transecting numerous areas of the law. Some particular areas of concern include the following: State default laws that determine preference for fiduciary or surrogacy roles such as personal representatives/executors and health care agents favor blood relatives, not partners. This can leave unmarried individuals vulnerable during periods of disability or after death if the partners have not executed written legal directives to authorize the partners to act on behalf of each other. The surviving partner’s income can be inadequate to cover household expenses when a partner dies due to limited survivor benefits for unmarried couples. The lack of the unlimited marital deduction can affect transfer of assets during one’s lifetime aff fect the t ttr and after death. Consequently, unmarried partan d af fter d dea onseq ently, u ners have fewer assets available to the ne rs may m h hav we net as surviving partner aas a result sur rviving p pa par su of the double bite from estate taxes. fro om gift g aand nd d ees te taxes Finally, Fin nally y, many ma couples fail to consider the need to protect assets in the event that hat one partner requires long-term care. Medicaid cai laws aws do not no offer unmarried couples as many optionss to keep y op ee and transfer assets as are available to married couples.2 The need to create a good sound foundation for planning is certainly not unique to unmarried partners. However, failure to take proper planning steps to protect unmarried clients can expose them to unnecessary emotional and financial hardship and prevent them from taking advantage of opportunities to maximize their assets and protections. The need to create special directives for the unique needs of unmarried partners requires the special attention of advisors in the estate planning community. Defining the Family It is important to emphasize that this discussion addresses both unmarried opposite-gender couples 24 ©2007 and same-gender couples, and, to a degree, married same-gender couples. There are a number of terms or phrases used to describe unmarried, committed couples. We have coined the term, “life alliance partner,” or life partner, as a neutral label to describe committed unmarried couples of the same or opposite-gender to make sure a distinction exists from commonly used labels with meanings we do not intend. Periodically, we will need to make distinctions between opposite-gender and same-gender couples, for a couple of reasons. In talking with a variety of advisors and clients, we often experience two things: 1. When the term “domestic partner” is used, many opposite-gender, unmarried partners tend to think it only refers to same-gender couples and fail to appreciate that they need to pay attention to the discussion for themselves. 2. While same-gender couples and opposite-gender couples have many needs and concerns in common, same-gender partners obviously have needs and concerns unique to them. Therefore, it is important to be able to distinguish between these groups so we can point out where samegender couples need to give extra attention to maximize their protections. The State of the Union According to the 2000 census data, there were 4.86 million unmarried couples in the United States, an increase from the 1990 census data.3 There was a nine-fold increase in opposite-gender couples since 1970.4 Of the unmarried couples, approximately 600,000 were same-gender couples with no prior data for comparative purposes.5 During the same time period, the number of married couples decreased by 52 percent.6 There has been a 73-percent increase in unmarried couples over age 65 with anecdotal information showing an increase in professionals in both groups as the social stigma associated with unmarried cohabitation has relaxed.7 Statisticians predict that the aging Baby Boomer generation will cause this percentage to increase as they turn 65.8 Many of these couples are widows and widowers or are divorced and choose to cohabitate rather than remarry to avoid losing the former spouse’s pension, Social Security or medical insurance. Despite the growing number of unmarried couples and other nontraditional families, most private com- CCH. All Rights Reserved August–September 2007 panies, courts and legislatures have been reluctant to recognize cohabiting unmarried adults as a family unit. And, just because some states recognize same-gender marriage, civil unions and domestic partnerships, such legal relationships do not give these couples the same rights and responsibilities as married opposite-gender persons. same-gender marriages validly performed in other states.10 Therefore, a same-gender couple’s marriage isn’t freely “portable” from state to state. Additionally, there can be unintended consequences of DOMA-like laws that can inadvertently place an unmarried couple in jeopardy. Ohio, for instance, passed a constitutional amendment that prohibits state or political subdivisions from creating or recognizing a legal status for relations of unmarried couples that The Automatic Wedding Gift approximates marriage.11 Ohio’s domestic violence statute covers assaults against “a person living as a A General Accounting Office memo regarding the spouse”12 and thus, it has been argued, cannot be Defense of Marriage Act of 1996 (DOMA) estimated that approximately 1,000 potential benefits are auenforced against an unmarried partner. tomatically available to a couple when they marry.9 The bottom line is that unmarried, committed couples must take active steps to Most of these benefits are create protections and optied to survivor rights, such The bottom line is that unmarried, portunities the law does not as assumption of penprovide for them. However, sions and Social Security committed couples must take without professional guidbenefits, and special tax active steps to create protections ance they are unlikely to elections and deferrals that and opportunities the law does not know when or why they maximize assets available are vulnerable and what to the surviving spouse. provide for them. remedies to use. The benefits include the following: Property rights such as dower and curtesy, tenLimited Experience, ancy by the entirety property ownership Understanding and Skill Within Inheritance rights like the spousal elective share to prevent intentional or unintentional disinherithe Advisor Community tance of a spouse Preferences under surrogacy and probate laws Unfortunately, the professional estate planning comRights to claim loss of consortium or wrongful munity will find little in the way of formal training death or material dealing with the unique needs of unmarSpousal privileges regarding communication and rieds. Most estate and financial planning reference a n testimony books do not hav have section specifi ve a se on sp ecificcally a y aaddressing ddre essing Adoptions the needs of “unmarried partners.” u ma r par ners ” Instead, nstead tthe he inn Common law marriage (still available in some dex will refer readers to the section for planning for states) “single” clients. Potential property settlement and support payAlthough unmarrieds are technically single in the ments via divorce eyes of the law, “single” does not represent their Currently, no laws automatically permit unmarried unique relationship or planning needs. Planning as if partners to achieve comparable protections and benunmarrieds were composed of two single persons will efits or standing in the eyes of the law. In fact, as long as not address areas where they are specifically vulnerDOMA and similar state laws exist, even same-gender able. Planning as if they were married is not possible partners who can marry under state law, for instance, due to techniques available only to married people. cannot count on having all of the benefits available to Planning for unmarrieds in committed relationships married, opposite-gender partners. Opposite-gender requires more than the standard approaches offer. partners can marry in any state while same-gender And, sadly, if clients do not raise certain issues or couples cannot. DOMA states with constitutional planners are unskilled at soliciting necessary informaamendments or laws that mimic DOMA limit the tion, the planner can make inappropriate assumptions definition of “married” to persons of opposite gender that may produce a plan that is not a good fit for the and provide that states are not required to recognize couple. Because estate planning decisions straddle JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL ESTATE PLANNING 25 Editor's Choice legal, financial and other advisor categories, expertise across planning disciplines is necessary to successfully advise the unmarried client market. Ethical and Practical Considerations All advisors, but especially attorneys, must address their ethical duties to each partner.13 Before an advisor can undertake to advise a client, the advisor needs to identify whether any conflicts of interest exist regarding the client’s interests and the advisor’s interests or those of the advisor’s other clients. If conflicts exist, the advisor is required to advise the potential client of the conflict and either withdraw from the relationship or give the potential client the option of making an informed waiver of the conflict. Some conflicts cannot be waived. These considerations also exist with married couples but, absent unusual circumstances, many advisors dispense with the conversation about the potential for conflicts of interests between spouses, and the “couple” becomes the client. Consideration of the advisor’s ethical obligations should include the following: Whose interests the advisor represents How the advisor will present options when these might mi ght give e an advantage to one partner at the expense the other exp pensse off th er Who the advisor W ho pays p th vis What happens conflict of interW hat happ h pe if an unresolved pen so occurs estt occ curs scope The sc ope and d manner of disclosure of information to other advisors and to the partners Whether the partnerss should represh d havee separate s sentation if the partners unequal positions ners are of u e in terms of financial status, sophistication or experience Also, implicit in the advisor’s relationship with unmarried couples is an understanding of the family dynamics for both partners and how those dynamics might affect the partners’ plan. Do children from prior relationships frown upon this unmarried relationship? Do family members of a gay or lesbian couple disapprove of the relationship to the degree that the partners are estranged from family members? Factors such as these can make some planning options impractical and may require extra precautions to withstand potential challenges by disgruntled blood relatives. Finally, if any area of planning requires resisting the impulse to provide strategies rather than solutions, it 26 ©2007 is planning for unmarried partners. This means that the “product approach” to planning will generally not produce good results. Planning for unmarried partners should involve a holistic approach with advisors from other planning disciplines so each can bring their unique planning perspective to the table. Alive and Well The unmarried but committed relationship can appeal to many couples because of its seeming lack of entanglements beyond the decision to live together. Some evolve without conscious thought about legal and financial consequences. Others involve conscious decisions and legal and financial directives to protect the partners’ commitment. Either way, few have professional input or understand the legal consequences of their decisions. Unlike marriage, living together as life alliance partners, in and of itself, does not create a legal contractual relationship. It does not entitle the partners to a property settlement if the relationship ends or a partner becomes disabled and can’t work or dies. If problems about money or property arise, the couple can reach an understanding, compromise or fight. If they resort to court, most courts will attempt to identify the couple’s original agreement about the property in dispute and will divide the property accordingly. A cohabitation, domestic partner ship agreement, or “life alliance agreement” can give a better alternative to resolving such issues. The Life Alliance Agreement™ g A “life alliance agreement” is a contract between unmarried partners designed to specifically set out the terms and conditions of the unmarried partnership—similar to a prenuptial agreement, sans nuptials. It identifies the couple’s intent regarding their rights to property both during the relationship and at its end. The agreement can be made any time during the relationship but it is advisable to create it at the beginning of cohabitation. A life alliance agreement should: list the assets, income and debt each partner is bringing to the relationship and the rights each will have regarding these items; identify how the partners will handle income, property and debts acquired before and during the relationship, including periods when a partner is disabled or unemployed; CCH. All Rights Reserved August–September 2007 describe how finances will be managed, distributed or divided if the relationship ends due to death or otherwise, and what constitutes termination of the relationship or grounds for the terms of the contract to be invoked; and ascertain whether special provisions should be considered for business interests and creative property such as art, writing, inventions and similar items that may not have realized their true market value until much later in the relationship. is a better strategy to memorialize the couple’s intent about division of property and other details involved in terminating a relationship. Marital Status and Taxes U.S. citizen married couples are considered an economic unit for transfer tax purposes, which means they can transfer unlimited amounts to each other during lifetime and at death without triggering gift or estate taxes. They can also “split” gifts when one spouse gives assets to a nonspouse, permitting them The Unmarried “Divorce” to treat a gift from one spouse as if one-half of the gift came from the other spouse. Gift-splitting permits When an unmarried relationship ends, there are no spouses to leverage tax-free gifts for estate tax planbuilt-in state domestic relations laws to assist the ning purposes. Unmarried couples do no have this couple in this process. A life alliance agreement unlimited gift or gift-splitting option. may be the only resource partners have to be clear Married couples are able about how they will disto avoid the recognition of entangle their fi nancial A “life alliance agreement” is capital gains up to $500,000 and legal commitments. on the sale of their personal However, an agreement a contract between unmarried residence whereas unmarmight not be valid if there partners designed to specifi cally set ried partners, treated as a was: out the terms and conditions of the single person in the eyes of no full disclosure of all material facts; unmarried partnership—similar to a the law, must recognize any gain over $250,000. These undue pressure to sign prenuptial agreement, sans nuptials. rules provide more flexit; or ibility for married couples unequal or unfair in transferring assets with fewer tax consequences. The bargaining positions of the parties (e.g., sophistinet result is more net assets available for the surviving cation, financial position or professional input). spouse as compared to a surviving, unmarried partner Therefore, both partners should get independent given transfers of the same monetary amounts. legal advice before signing and involve financial and Married couples have an exclusion tax advisors to ensure tax-efficient and wise decisions n from taxable income for employer-provided health forr a about co-mingling property. At a minimum, if court mplo oyer pr ided he alth iinsurance surance fo spouse and, until Pension Protection Act of 200 2006, action is required, the agreement can create some ti the P on Prot ect on Ac 06 the rollover of a retirement plan for a nonspouse evidence of the couple’s intent regarding their rights had less advantageous payout timeframes than for and obligations to each other. spouses.16 However, the ability to transfer a qualified Until the seminal case, Marvin v. Marvin, 14 (de)parting unmarried partners could not expect the plan interest upon the termination of a marital relaequivalent of alimony or a property settlement availtionship under a qualified domestic relations order able to divorcing married couples. The Marvin court (QDRO) is unique to married couples. No parallel relied on the doctrine of implied contract to infer a technique is available to unmarried couples. legally enforceable agreement from the parties’ daily Unmarried couples do have some advantages over dealings even though there was no written agreemarried couples in terms of income tax treatment, ment.15 It awarded Marvin’s partner compensation, however. For instance, there is no marriage penalty in income tax rates or earned income tax credits. Unmarcalled “palimony” instead of alimony, for having ried couples are single under IRS income tax rules, forfeited her career to support his. which means that their income is not combined to Such court decisions are not predictable, however, calculate the ceiling on the amount of losses a property and few people would find it practical to go to court owner can claim. There are potential additional advanto have their legal position endorsed when their untages regarding Social Security benefits due to taxable married relationship ends. A life alliance agreement JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL ESTATE PLANNING 27 Editor's Choice income thresholds for individuals and income is not consolidated for phase-outs of the child and dependent care credit. Unmarrieds may also have higher income thresholds for traditional and Roth IRA contributions. Asset Ownership and Unintended Consequences Joint Ownership of Property Property held as “joint tenants with rights of survivorship” (JTWROS or JTROS) provides a good example of how marital status can trigger different tax consequences for unmarried couples. If one partner owns a house and adds a partner’s name to the title without the second partner contributing to the cost of the property, the first partner has made a potentially taxable gift to the other partner in the eyes of the IRS. Gifts over the annual gift exclusion amount, currently $12,000 per year per grantee, must be reported on a gift tax return (Form 709) and reduce the donor’s lifetime gift exclusion (currently $1 million). If gifts exceed the lifetime gift exclusion amount, gift taxes will be due. If a nonspouse is more than 37.5 years younger than the donor, the gift may also have generation-skipping tax consequences. p Married U.S. M Marr ried U.S U S. citizens do not have to be concerned about annual exclusion ab out the ann nua gift exclus on or tthe lifetime gift exclusion, there iss n no limit ex clusion, as tthe it tto the amounts they can transfer each oth other. ca n tra ansfe er to o ea property produce other unintended JJTWROS TWROSS pro p operty rt can an pro uce oth consequences, nseq quen nces too. First, the property is an available resource to satisfy the creditors ors of all of the joint owners. Second, for real property ownership, state al p perty o w law may require the signature all jo joint owners to nat of al avoid a severance of the survivorship feature of the property. The disability of a joint owner may require a court-administered guardianship if the couple wishes to sell the property. A disagreement between joint owners might dictate a partition action requiring legal fees and court intervention. Upon the death of a JTWROS owner, ownership vests immediately in the surviving owner. The survivor is not required to take any additional steps, except providing proof of death. Some states or title companies may require an “affidavit of survivorship” to provide evidence of a clear chain of title where real property is concerned. If the surviving joint owner is under a disability (legal incompetence), subject to bad decisions or exploitation by others, facing large debts such as 28 ©2007 long-term care costs, there is no legal mechanism for the property to be held in trust for the benefit of the survivor. Similarly, JTWROS property does not have a built-in mechanism to satisfy a joint owner’s desire to direct the disposition of the property at death to anyone other than the other joint owner. By operation of law, the property automatically passes to the surviving joint owner. Promises between joint owners to honor the deceased owner’s wishes to provide for others are not legally enforceable. The survivor can choose to comply or fail, due to incompetence or other reasons, to honor the deceased owner’s wishes. Instructions in a will do not control the transfer of JTWROS property. Joint Credit and Debt Issues Joint credit and joint debt can also pose legal issues and consequences when the relationship ends, and it is important that credit accounts and other debts in the names of both partners be resolved at the termination of the relationship. Each partner should agree to a division of the partners’ property as well as the debts. As an added precaution, the partners should contact their creditors to ensure that after the debts are divided, only the indebted partner’s name remains on that account. Transfer on Death Designations and Deeds with a Retained Life Estate or Remainder Transfer on death designations (TOD) or deeds with a retained life estate permit a person to own property in their individual name during life while naming a beneficiary(s) at death. Legal remainder interests vest immediately in the name of the survivor upon the owner’s death. TOD assets have advantages over JTWROS property in terms of potential tax issues or being subject to the joint owners’ creditors or control. However, TOD ownership has some disadvantages of its own, as follows: The entire value of the asset is included in the deceased owner’s gross estate for purposes of calculating federal and state, if any, estate taxes. The asset is available to the owner’s creditors during life and may need to be liquidated to cover the cost if the owner requires long-term care. The surviving partner-beneficiary might be displaced or might not have sufficient liquid assets to pay obligations including the mortgage, CCH. All Rights Reserved August–September 2007 real property or other taxes, if any, associated with the property. There is no mechanism to hold the asset in trust for the benefit of a disabled partner. The survivor-beneficiary has full and unrestricted control over the asset at the owner’s death and can dispose of it or direct it to whomever he or she wants regardless of prior agreement with the original owner. The survivor-beneficiary might not have funds to pay capital gains taxes if the property is sold long after the original owner’s death. Alive and Not So Well Life partners can face serious difficulty if they have not prepared legal directives that identify their agents/ surrogates and instructions regarding healthcare and financial decisions. If no legal directives are in place, a partner may be required to seek legal authority from the probate court under the state’s guardianship laws, to act for his or her partner. However, probate laws give priority to blood relatives. This means that blood relatives could potentially challenge the life partner’s right to act on behalf of his or her partner. Therefore, if life partners want to minimize the likelihood that Contractual Property Rights family could intervene, they should make sure they have validly executed health care proxies and duContracts, in this context, meaning the ability to rable financial powers of name a beneficiary at attorneys. death, can entitle partners Unlike a will, the mechanism for The healthcare proxies to immediate benefits should include a Living when a partner dies. contesting trusts is more difficult, Will, Durable HealthThese can include insurreducing the ability of hostile care Power of Attorney ance policies, retirement family members to intervene. or Healthcare Surrogate, accounts, annuities, payAuthorization under the able-on-death accounts Health Information Portaand trusts. bility and Accountability Act (HIPAA), and instructions Some advantages of contracts follow: regarding visitation at healthcare facilities. No need to probate contract assets if beneficiaries The financial proxy should include a Durable Fiare properly designated nancial Power of Attorney. Decisions associated with No costs associated with the creation of a benthis directive should include: eficiary designation whether the agent will be allowed to “self-gift” The transfer process at the owner’s death is private assets belonging to the agent. This may be useful and not part of a court record in the context of conserving assets when facing Some benefits are not considered income to the nursing home costs orr reducing as assets or equalbeneficiary(s) izing estates purposes. Trusts can be named beneficiary for most contract es for f esta eestate tax pu po e . whether the effecassets to avoid issues associated with outright e agent’s gent power ower is immediately mm mediately effe ec tive upon the execution of the document or only distribution to surviving partners when the power-giver suffers a period of mental Disadvantages include the following: incapacity. Assets are available to the owner’s creditors An in-depth analysis of the arguments for and during life and may have been expended, against these features is beyond the scope of this leaving little to support survivors at owner’s article. However, it is important that the power of death attorney include broad powers to permit the agent Assets will be included in the owner’s gross taxsufficient legal authority to act for the disabled partner. able estate It is also recommended that a draft of the directive be No mechanism for holding the asset for a disabled submitted to the custodian of the partner’s retirement survivor’s benefit accounts and brokerage accounts to find out before Unmarried contract owners may change the the directive is needed whether such institutions rebeneficiary(s) at any time prior to death or inquire language not contained in the directive. capacity without the consent of the survivor; Partners can nominate a guardian for themselves in married couples cannot change the beneficiary advance of need, sometimes called a Pre-Need Guardian on retirement accounts without the other spouse’s Declaration. Although the probate court is not obligated consent17 JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL ESTATE PLANNING 29 Editor's Choice to honor nominations for guardian, most courts will honor the nomination absent evidence that the nominee is inappropriate or unqualified. The court can also insist that the guardian post bond to protect the financial assets from loss due to the guardian’s errors or misdeeds. The nomination form can specify the nominator’s concerns about appointment of specific blood relatives if he or she has concerns about interference by such family members at the expense of the partner. This can, arguably, provide a reviewing court some evidence upon which to determine the nominator’s intent and best interests. When Death Happens Whether married or unmarried, three things occur at death: (1) final arrangements for the deceased’s physical remains are made; (2) the estate is settled or administered; and (3) loved ones and friends carry on. A long-standing statistic reveals that more than half the population (married or unmarried) does not have even basic wills. More than half have college degrees. This means that even educated people fail to protect themselves with basic estate planning directives. Some statistics report that out of the people who do have wills, more than 40 percent of those wills are greater than 10 years old. An outdated will may not accurately ccuraately y refl flect e client wishes. The survivor of a married couple has many legal protec protections when the ma arrieed co ouple eh any leg spouse dies, even spouse failed to spo ousee die es, ev ven when en a deceased cea execute appropriate Unmarried indiexe ecutte ap pprop pri legal eg directives. ct viduals same protections. vid duals do o nott eenjoy njo jo the he sam e legal p topic of final arrangements does not receive The topi co much attention in most discussions ssions on estate planning. State law identifies who w o has legal eg priority to make these decisions if the deceased person has not ease p made his or her wishes known. Surviving spouses and next of kin have priority under state probate laws and unmarried partners are not on the list. It is even possible the law could support the next of kin’s decision to exclude a life partner from the deceased partner’s service. Therefore, life partners should make sure they have made their wishes known, either in writing or by making pre-need arrangements with a reputable funeral home. However, the partners must be mindful that most pre-paid funeral plans are not transferable should the partners move to another state. Estate Planning Options The basic rules about how assets are transferred at death are the same for married and unmarried couples. How- 30 ©2007 ever, state laws and other rules create legal safety nets for married couples to prevent a spouse from intentionally or unintentionally disinheriting the surviving spouse. Time will tell whether these legal safety nets can be invalidated via challenges to same-gender marriages under DOMA and state laws and amendments that prohibit samegender marriages. In the meantime, life partners should coordinate their legal directives that transfer assets at death, to achieve their estate planning goals. Wills A will can provide for the orderly administration of an estate so that all taxes, claims and expenses are properly paid, beneficiaries receive intended distributions and trusted persons are named to carry out these fiduciary responsibilities. In the absence of a will, state intestacy laws will dictate the process and procedure for the administration of a deceased’s estate. However, it is important for partners to understand the role a will might play or fail to play in their overall estate plan. In this age of “payable on death” accounts, “transfer on death” designations, and beneficiary provisions under contracts, owning property in an individual name, without a beneficiary designation component, is less and less common. Consequently, a will potentially controls less than it did historically. It remains an important “safety net” to direct assets when other designations are not enforceable. However, clients may have a misplaced sense of security that their wishes in a “last will and testament” will prevail. The couple is not in a position to know whether planning gaps and conflicts exist regarding their beneficiary designations and other legal directives. The advisor who fails to account for and coordinate the directives for every asset the couple owns to achieve their estate planning goals arguably commits malpractice. Married, opposite-gender couples have legal protections to help them avoid or minimize bad outcomes from planning gaps and conflicts. Such protections are not available to unmarried couples, or to married same-gender couples, if DOMA-type laws are held to be valid. Wills require probate. Probate involves filing fees, attorney and, possibly, accounting and other fees. A surviving spouse can receive limited funds to live on while probate is pending. There are no similar provisions for surviving partners. Therefore, it is important for life partners to plan for the support of the survivor while probate is pending. Disgruntled heirs can challenge a will in court if they can show the testator was under duress or undue CCH. All Rights Reserved August–September 2007 influence, lacked legal capacity or other factors. A judge finding grounds to support the challenge can invalidate portions or the entire will. If challenges by heirs are a concern, it is prudent to consider inclusion of an “anti-contest” clause where the challenger would forfeit a bequest under the will if they challenge the provisions of the will. The attorney-advisor should also take extra steps to ensure that claims of undue influence and duress will not be successful. For example, the partner can execute his or her directives on different days or over the course of several days. Trusts There are many basic and advanced trust-based planning techniques that can be used to address the unique planning challenges faced by unmarried couples and married, same-gender couples. The flexibility trusts provide regarding the “who,” “what,” “when” and “how” of managing or distributing a person’s assets during disability or at death makes them an attractive planning tool for these couples. Indeed, trusts are probably one of the best planning vehicles with the following advantages: Trust management is private during life and at the trustmaker’s death. Provisions can be included to manage assets during the trustmaker’s legal incapacity and for maintaining family members, including pets, during a partner’s disability and at death. Assets can be held for the beneficiary(s) without placing assets in the beneficiary’s direct name. Depending on the trust’s distribution standards, trust assets can be protected from the beneficiary’s bad decisions or exploitation and maintain eligibility for public assistance benefits. The trust can authorize creation of a “partner’s trust” for the surviving partner’s lifetime, with eventual disposition to other beneficiaries of the trustmaker’s choosing at the surviving partner’s death. Mimicking standard A-B, marital and family trust strategies used for married couples, a partner’s trust can keep assets outside of the partner’s taxable estate and protect the trustmaker’s assets from the partner’s creditors. It can also address the competing interests and needs of the partner and children from prior relationships and keep the trustmaker’s assets out of the hands of the partner’s later partners. Gift tax consequences can be minimized and estate tax exclusions maximized for assets remaining in trust rather than distributed outright. Assets in trust can provide a mechanism to man- JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL ESTATE PLANNING age assets while the survivor is coping with the grieving process and to avoid making the partner vulnerable to exploitation by later partners after the trustmaker’s death. Unlike a will, the mechanism for contesting trusts is more difficult, reducing the ability of hostile family members to intervene. Special Consideration for Life Alliance Partners Life alliance partners and their advisors must also consider the following in the planning process: How to provide for an unmarried survivor who does not work outside of the home and doesn’t have comparable retirement funds Whether partners want to equalize their assets and how this will be accomplished with minimum gift tax consequences How partners will provide for the competing interests of the surviving partner and contingent beneficiaries How estate taxes will be paid if there is a taxable estate at the federal or state levels Whether the survivor will have sufficient liquid assets to cover the cost of living, mortgage and other expenses if the household income is reduced when the other partner dies. Consideration should be given to whether mortgages include “due on sale” clauses and whether the partner can cover the cost of capital gains on the later sale of the home Whether the partners can establish insurable interests for purposes of p purchasing g life insurance. Are business legal good solution ess lega al sstructures uctures a go od so lution for or creating such uc interest inte t or other other mechanisms mechanisms of “relatedness”? How partners will, in life and in a business, provide for the surviving partner at the death of a partner, especially if both are actively employed by the business they own. The financial and logistical settlement of the business and personal holdings are inter-related and can be vulnerable if insufficient liquid assets are available to the survivor How to quantify and protect the value of a partner’s creative works that may increase in value over time The Paper Trail Unmarried couples need to maintain adequate records of their transactions for purposes of showing 31 Editor's Choice ownership, gifts made during the relationship and the tax basis of assets. The IRS has its own timetables for authority to challenge tax returns. Medicaid law changes now have a potential five year financial reporting period where financial transactions can be scrutinized before granting benefits.18 Both partners should be named on property and casualty insurance policies to make sure the partner’s property is covered should a property loss occur at a location owned and insured by one partner. Property insurance issues should be discussed with a knowledgeable professional to avoid exclusions of coverage. Plan Maintenance, Updating and Education All financial and estate planning should be reviewed periodically to ensure it remains a good fit as changes in personal circumstances, laws and advisor strategies occur over time. Unmarried couples must be particularly attentive to keeping their plans current or they risk being vulnerable and missing out on opportunities to maximize their protections. Conclusion Unmarried couples bring unique and interesting planning challenges for the estate planning community. Clearly, the issues presented here raise concerns that cannot be addressed by simply treating unmarrieds as singles. The law in this area is in a constant state of change requiring diligence on the part of the estate planner to stay current regarding how these changes affect the needs and concerns of their unmarried clients. ENDNOTES 1 2 USC §7 and 28 USC §1738C. For example, The Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) states, “In determining the meaning of any Act of Congress, or of any ruling, regulation, or interpretation of the various administrative bureaus and agencies of the United States, the word ‘marriage’ means only a legal union ion betw between ween one man and one woman as a hus h husband b d and band dw wi wife, and the word ‘spouse’ refers r only to a person pers of thee opposite p oppos sex who wh iss a hu h husband usband b do or a wife.” e.” T The bill is aan exercise e exerci ise off Congress’s Con ngre power ow underr the “Effect” “ “Effect t” cla clause ause o of A Article IV, section 1 of the the Constitution Co onstitu ution (the (t e Full FFu Faith aith and Credit edit Clause) lause e) to allow a each State (or other political jurisdiction) to decide for itself whether it wants to grant legal status to same-sex s e-sex “marriage.” See Title XIX of Social Security Act Act, 42 USC S §1396–1396s, 42 CFR §430, et seq., and 20 CFR §416, et seq., and state Medicaid regulations. Federal Medicaid laws allow married couples to retain between $1,500 to $2,200, depending on state figures, for the institutionalized spouse plus specified exempt assets and the “community spouse 3 4 5 6 resource allowance” of between $20,328 to $101,640 of financial and other assets (as of 2007). A Medicaid applicant who is an unmarried couple relationship is considered a “single” person Under Medicaid law. A single person may not possess more than $1,500 to $2,200, depending on state figures, plus exempt assets of personal possessions of reasonable value and an irrevocable burial contract. The community spouse resource allowance is not available to single Medicaid applicants. Therefore, assets in excess of the $1,500 to $2,200 must be expended before the applicant would be eligible for nursing home Medicaid coverage. These figures represent ranges since the Medicaid program is authorized under federal law but administered by the states. See www.census.gov. See American Community Survey Table B11009; Census 2000 Table PCT14 and Special Report, MarriedCouple and Unmarried Partner Households: 2000. Id. Id. Id. 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Linda Greider, Unmarried Together, AARP Bulletin, Oct. 2004. Paul Takayanagi, ELDER JOURNAL (2003), San Francisco State University, Gerontology Dept. and member, American Society on Aging. U.S. General Accounting Office report GAO/OGC-97-16 Defense of Marriage Act. As of 2007, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York and Rhode Island are the only states that do not have constitutional amendments or statutes prohibiting samegender marriage. Article XV, Section II of the Ohio Constitution. Ohio Revised Code 2919.25. Refer to the applicable rules of professional responsibility for area of planning licensure. 18 Cal. 3d 660 (Cal. 1976). Id. H.R. 4, P.L. 109-280. Dower & curtesy rights apply for married couples. Deficit Reduction Act of 2005, S.1932. This article is reprinted with the publisher’s permission from the JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL ESTATE PLANNING, a bi-monthly journal published by CCH, a Wolters Kluwer business. Copying or distribution without the publisher’s permission is prohibited. To subscribe to the JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL ESTATE PLANNING or other CCH Journals please call 800-449-8114 or visit www.CCHGroup.com. All views expressed in the articles and columns are those of the author and not necessarily those of CCH. 32 ©2007 CCH. All Rights Reserved