Crespo, BG, FG Figueiras, and S. Groom. Role of across
Transcription
Crespo, BG, FG Figueiras, and S. Groom. Role of across
Limnol. Oceanogr., 52(6), 2007, 2668–2678 2007, by the American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, Inc. E Role of across-shelf currents in the dynamics of harmful dinoflagellate blooms in the northwestern Iberian upwelling B. G. Crespo1 and F. G. Figueiras Instituto de Investigacións Mariñas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientı́ficas (CSIC), Eduardo Cabello 6, 36208 Vigo, Spain S. Groom Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Prospect Place, Plymouth PL1 3DH, United Kingdom Abstract Harmful dinoflagellate blooms are frequent in the Rı́as Baixas, which are made up of four open bays on the northwest part of the Iberian Peninsula. The relationship between surface currents resulting from wind forcing and the microplankton composition on the shelf offshore of the Rı́as Baixas was studied from May 2001 to April 2002. The aim was to assess the role of shelf currents in the dynamics of harmful dinoflagellate blooms in the Rı́as Baixas shelf system. In summer, upwelling-favorable northerly winds forced a variable but persistent southwestward flow on the shelf, which reverted to an onshore flow following the change to downwellingfavorable southwesterly winds in autumn. During winter and spring, there was an intense alongshore flow to the north. Diatoms and dinoflagellates were common components of the microplankton community in summer. Although diatoms increased their abundance during summer upwelling events, a dinoflagellate assemblage was also present on the shelf. This dinoflagellate assemblage acquired higher importance during the intermediate periods of upwelling relaxation and during the autumn downwelling in particular, when satellite images revealed the accumulation of phytoplankton in a narrow band close to the coast. A dinoflagellate bloom of Prorocentrum minimum (10,564 cells mL21) and Karenia cf. mikimotoi (3,022 cells mL21) developed in the interior section of the Rı́a de Vigo coincident with the onshore flow imposed by the autumn downwelling. As these two species were components of the dinoflagellate assemblage present on the shelf in summer, it is inferred that downwelling caused their accumulation in the interior section of the Rı́a de Vigo. Coastal upwelling systems, like many other coastal regions of the world’s oceans, suffer from the occurrence of harmful algal blooms (HABs), which impact the structure and functioning of pelagic food webs and may also cause important economic losses as well as problems of public health (GEOHAB 2005). Research on HAB dynamics in coastal zones has been motivated for many years by the need to forecast blooms and mitigate the impacts. Consequently, it is possible now to draw a common picture for HAB dynamics in regions where across-shelf and alongshore currents play a fundamental role (Franks and Anderson 1992; Raine and McMahon 1 Corresponding author ([email protected]). Acknowledgments We thank the captain and crew of the RV Mytilus, the members of the Oceanography team at the Instituto de Investigacións Mariñas, and the Physical Oceanography Group at the Universidade de Vigo for their help. We are also grateful to the Área de Clima Marı́timo of the Spanish Agency Puertos del Estado for providing meteorological and current data from the Silleiro buoy. Special thanks are due to J. L. Cortijo, M. Gil-Coto, and S. Piedracoba for their assistance. We acknowledge two anonymous reviewers for their comments. This work was funded by the Spanish DYBAGA project (MAR99-1039-C02-01) and the EU HABILE project (EVK3-CT2001-00063). B.G.C. was supported by a CSIC-ESF I3P fellowship. This is a contribution to the GEOHAB Core Research ProjectHABs in upwelling systems. 1998; Anderson et al. 2005). Frequently, HABs have an impact on the coast following advection from offshore (Tester and Steidinger 1997; Sackmann and Perry 2006). Conversely, the impact normally vanishes when HABs are removed from the coast by offshore currents (Tester et al. 1991). Alongshore currents, which essentially contribute to the spread of HABs along the coast (Tester et al. 1991), may also interact with across-shelf currents to intensify or diminish their impact (Tester et al. 1991; Trainer et al. 2002; Pitcher and Nelson 2006). Despite this general role played by across-shelf and alongshore currents in HAB dynamics, there are considerable differences between regions, not only due to the specific environmental conditions and the different species that cause HABs within each region, but also from the interaction between coastal currents and physical singularities. Coastline features and permanent or transient mesoscale physical structures, such as eddies, fronts, filaments, and buoyant plumes, induce instabilities in the general current pattern at diverse scales that can contribute to an increase or reduction in the impact of HABs (Trainer et al. 2002; Keafer et al. 2005; Pitcher and Nelson 2006). Coastal embayments are especially relevant in this respect because they are places with reduced exchange potential where blooms and their effects can be intensified (Figueiras et al. 1994; Keafer et al. 2005; Pitcher and Nelson 2006). Therefore, understanding of the interactions between coastal currents and HAB dynamics within each affected region is important in order to develop or adapt existing models and so improve forecasting. 2668 Harmful dinoflagellates and downwelling 2669 2002; Piedracoba et al. 2005) because of their almost perpendicular orientation to the main coastline. Thus, during upwelling, the circulation of the Rı́as Baixas consists of a surface outflow that is compensated by the inflow of coastal upwelling water at the bottom. During downwelling, the circulation reverses—shelf water enters the Rı́as Baixas at the surface, and outflow occurs at the bottom. Therefore, the Rı́as Baixas and the adjacent shelf exchange properties and plankton populations continuously (Tilstone et al. 1994). The Rı́as Baixas are especially prone to harmful dinoflagellate blooms at the end of summer to beginning of autumn, during the seasonal upwelling–downwelling transition, when dinoflagellates are important components of the local microplankton community (Margalef 1958; Figueiras and Rı́os 1993; Crespo et al. 2006). Although previous research has revealed a strong relationship between downwelling and harmful dinoflagellate blooms in the Rı́as Baixas (e.g., Fraga et al. 1988; Figueiras et al. 1994), the connection between HABs in the Rı́as Baixas and the physical and biological processes that occur on the shelf is still poorly understood. Here, we present the results obtained from weekly sampling on the shelf offshore of the Rı́a de Vigo and in the Rı́a de Vigo itself over a yearlong period. Microplankton abundance and composition on the shelf were studied in combination with surface currents induced by upwelling–downwelling with the aim of establishing the role of across-shelf currents and microplankton succession on HAB dynamics in the Rı́as Baixas. Methods Fig. 1. Map of the NW Iberian margin showing (A) the location of the four Rı́as Baixas and the position of the Silleiro buoy (black diamond) where winds and surface currents were recorded, and (B) the positions of the sampled stations at the shelf and in the Rı́a de Vigo (black circles). On the NW Iberian Peninsula, there are four bays, the Rı́as Baixas of Galicia (Fig. 1A), where harmful dinoflagellate blooms are recurrent (Fraga et al. 1988; Figueiras et al. 1994). The coastal circulation in this region is determined by seasonal upwelling–downwelling cycles (Wooster et al. 1976). Between spring and autumn, northeasterly winds induce upwelling on the shelf and force a surface circulation characterized by an equatorward offshore flow (Wooster et al. 1976). The seasonal transition to downwelling occurs at the beginning of autumn and coincides with the rapid change to southwesterly winds (Figueiras et al. 2002). During winter, the coastal circulation is dominated by the presence of the Iberian Poleward Current (IPC) on the shelf (Frouin et al. 1990; Peliz et al. 2005); this current is a northward surface stream that also induces a shoreward flow and, hence, causes downwelling near the coast (Álvarez-Salgado et al. 2003). Across-shelf transport imposed by coastal upwelling and downwelling is extremely intensified in the Rı́as Baixas (Figueiras et al. Sampling—Two stations (Fig. 1B), one on the shelf offshore of the Rı́a de Vigo and the other inside the Rı́as, were sampled weekly between 15 May 2001 and 24 April 2002 on board the RV Mytilus. The maximum depth at the station on the shelf was 150 m, while the depth at the station in the Rı́a de Vigo, located in the middle channel, was 40 m at low tide. Sampling was made with a conductivity–temperature–depth (CTD) probe (SBE 9/11) that was fitted with a fluorometer and attached to a rosette equipped with 12 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Niskin bottles. Water samples for nitrate, chlorophyll a (Chl a), and microplankton determinations were taken from the CTD upcasts. Meteorology and surface currents—Winds on the shelf were recorded hourly by the meteorological SeaWatch buoy deployed by the Spanish Agency Puertos del Estado at 42u07.29N, 9u24.09W (the Silleiro buoy, Fig. 1A). These polyvingl wind data were used to calculate the Ekman transport components (m2 s21) perpendicular (Qx) and parallel (Qy) to the coast following Wooster et al. (1976): Qx,y ~ ra Cd jV jVy,x , f rw where ra is the air density (1.22 kg m23), Cd is an empirical drag coefficient (1.3 3 1023, dimensionless), |V | is the wind speed (m s21) at the sea surface with components Vx,y, rw is the density of seawater (,1,025 kg m23), and f is the 2670 Crespo et al. were filtered under low-vacuum pressure through 25-mm Whatman GF/F filters. The filters were stored frozen at 220uC until pigment extraction, which was done in 90% acetone during 24 h in the dark at 4uC. Fig. 2. (A) Cross-shore and (B) alongshore Ekman transport components deduced from the winds recorded by the Silleiro buoy on the NW Iberian shelf. The seven identified phases, designated 1 to 7 (see text for details), are given on the top. Coriolis parameter (9.946 3 1025 s21). Qx and Qy are related to north–south and east–west winds, respectively. The sign of Qx was changed to associate positive values with offshore transport (upwelling) of surface waters (Fig. 2A). The Silleiro buoy also measured currents at 3-m depth with a UCM60 acoustic current meter from 15 June 2001 to the end of the sampling period. The current data, which were recorded hourly, were processed using a movingaverage filter A242A25 (Godin 1972) and a cutoff period of 30 h to remove the tidal signal. Satellite images—Advanced very high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR) and sea-viewing wide field-of-view sensor (SeaWiFS) data were received by the United Kingdom Natural Environment Research Council (UK NERC) Satellite Receiving Station at the University of Dundee and processed at the Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK, following the methods described in Álvarez-Salgado et al. (2003). Briefly, sea-surface temperature (SST) was produced from the AVHRR data, and estimates for Chl a concentration were produced from SeaWiFS data using the latest version of the OC4v4 algorithm (O’Reilly et al. 1998). Nutrients and chlorophyll—Nitrate and Chl a were determined at several depths from the surface to bottom of the shelf (7–8 depths) and in the Rı́a de Vigo (4–5 depths). Nitrate concentrations (mmol kg21) were analyzed by segmented flow analysis with Alpkem autoanalyzers according to Hansen and Grasshoff (1983). Chl a (mg m23) was determined by fluorometry using a Turner Designs fluorometer calibrated with pure Chl a (Sigma Chemical). Seawater volumes of 100–250 mL Microplankton—Samples for microplankton counts and identification were collected from four depths within the photic layer at the shelf station. The depths were selected after the inspection of the fluorescence profiles. Microplankton samples from the station in the Rı́a de Vigo were only taken from the surface layer and from 25 September onward, when a sudden increase in Chl a concentrations (.20 mg m23) in the surface waters pointed to the occurrence of a dinoflagellate bloom. Samples of 100 mL were preserved in Lugol’s iodine and sedimented in composite sedimentation chambers. The organisms were counted and identified to the species level when possible using an inverted microscope. Two transects scanned at 3400 and 3250 were used to enumerate the small species. The larger species were counted from scanning the whole slide at 3100. Principal component analysis (PCA) was employed to evaluate the structure of the microplankton community at the shelf station. Starting from the original data matrix of microplankton abundances, the species or groups of species present in at least 30% of the samples were extracted and combined into a new matrix (54 species, 161 samples) to perform the analysis. This reduction was used to eliminate the double zero values, which can distort the analysis results. Abundances were transformed to log(x + 1), where x 5 cells 100 mL21, to reduce and homogenize the variance. Results Meteorological forcing and water-column responses— Based on the Ekman transport components (Fig. 2) and the evolution of thermohaline properties, nitrate, and Chl a concentrations on the shelf (Fig. 3) and in the Rı́a de Vigo (Fig. 4), seven phases (1–7) could be distinguished in the responses of the water column to meteorological forcing. Phase 1, which lasted from the beginning of the sampling to the end of August, was characterized by highly variable northerly winds (2Qx 5 0.34 6 0.47 m2 s21; Fig. 2A) and weak east–west winds (Qy 5 20.04 6 0.22 m2 s21; Fig. 2B) that persisted until 13 August. These northerly, upwellingfavorable winds were, however, not strong enough to cause upwelling on the shelf, where the water column appeared to be stratified (Fig. 3A,B), with low nitrate concentrations (,1 mmol kg21) in the surface layer (Fig. 3C). Nonetheless, the nitracline and the associated subsurface chlorophyll maximum (Fig. 3C,D) showed a progressive uplift during this period. The water column in the Rı́a de Vigo was also stratified (Fig. 4A,B) and manifested a more pronounced uplift of the nitracline, which led to a weak upwelling at the end of July to beginning of August (Fig. 4C). Phase 1 ended with a relaxation during the second half of August characterized by extremely low winds, across-shelf Ekman transport (Qx 5 0.07 6 0.3 m2 s21; Fig. 2A), and, particularly, alongshore transport (Qy 5 0.008 6 0.07 m2 s21; Fig. 2B). The wind relaxation induced a downwelling event on the shelf and in the Rı́a de Vigo that was clearly Harmful dinoflagellates and downwelling 2671 Fig. 4. Evolution of (A) temperature (uC), (B) salinity, (C) nitrate concentration (mmol kg21), and (D) chlorophyll a concentration (mg m23) at the station in the Rı́a de Vigo. The seven hydrographic phases (1 to 7) are shown on the top. Fig. 3. Evolution of (A) temperature (uC), (B) salinity, (C) nitrate concentration (mmol kg21), and (D) chlorophyll a concentration (mg m23) at the station on the shelf. The seven hydrographic phases (1 to 7) are shown on the top. traceable by the downward orientation of temperature and nitrate isolines on the shelf (Fig. 3A,C) and temperature, salinity, and nitrate isolines in the Rı́a de Vigo (Fig. 4A,B,C). This downwelling, however, had contrasting effects on the Chl a concentrations at the shelf and in the Rı́a de Vigo. Whereas Chl a concentration decreased to ,1 mg m23 in shelf waters (Fig. 3D), in the Rı́a de Vigo, concentrations were .25 mg m23 at ,20-m depth at the start of downwelling (14 August; Fig. 4D). Later, Chl a values also decreased noticeably in the Rı́a de Vigo (Fig. 4D). Between 30 August and 24 September (phase 2; Fig. 2A,B), northeasterly winds defined an upwelling event (Qx 5 0.55 6 0.43 m2 s21; Qy 5 0.30 6 0.25 m2 s21) that supplied nutrients to the surface layer of the water column on the shelf (Fig. 3C) and in the Rı́a de Vigo (Fig. 4C) and promoted the increase in Chl a concentrations in both domains (Figs. 3D, 4D). This upwelling event was followed by a month (25 September–30 October) of dominance by southwesterly winds (phase 3; Fig. 2A,B) that caused downwelling (Qx 5 20.42 6 0.49 m2 s21; Qy 5 20.16 6 0.35 m2 s21). This downwelling event, which was longer and more intense than the previous one at the end of phase 1, left the shelf waters with low Chl a concentrations (,1 mg m23; Fig. 3D), while Chl a values of ,23 mg m23 were measured in the Rı́a de Vigo (Fig. 4D). In contrast to the preceding downwelling at the end of August, when the highest Chl a concentrations in the Rı́a de Vigo were recorded at ,20 m, now the highest values were found at the surface (Fig. 4D). A new strong upwelling event (Qx 5 0.60 6 0.48 m2 s21; Qy 5 0.66 6 0.54 m2 s21) occurred in November (phase 4) due to northeasterly winds (Fig. 2). This upwelling caused a conspicuous increase in Chl a concentration on the shelf (Fig. 3D), but it had little impact in the Rı́a de Vigo, where Chl a values (,3 mg m23) were lower than those attained during the previous upwelling of phase 2 (.10 mg m23; Fig. 4D). Phase 5 (29 November–12 February) was characterized by highly variable downwelling-favorable winds (Qx 5 2672 Crespo et al. 20.31 6 0.70 m2 s21; Qy 5 0.02 6 0.49 m2 s21; Fig. 2A,B) that favored the presence of the Iberian Poleward Current (IPC) on the shelf. The IPC was defined by a homogeneous water body at 14uC and salinity .35.8 (Fig. 3A,B) with relatively low nitrate (,3 mmol kg21) and Chl a (,0.5 mg m23) concentrations (Fig. 3C,D). Salinity (,35.5) and temperature (,13uC) were slightly lower in the Rı́a de Vigo (Fig. 4A, B), while nitrate (,5 mmol kg21) and Chl a (,1 mg m23) concentrations were higher (Fig. 4 C,D). Phase 6 (13 February–21 March; Fig. 2A), which roughly coincided with the maximum vertical homogenization of the water column on the shelf (Fig. 3), began with a month (12 February–10 March) of upwelling-favorable winds (2Qx 5 0.68 6 0.70 m2 s21; Qy 5 0.32 6 0.70 m2 s21) but ended with 10 d (11–21 March) of downwelling (2Qx 5 20.81 6 0.55 m2 s21; Qy 5 20.16 6 0.46 m2 s21). During this downwelling event, Chl a concentration was higher on the shelf (Fig. 3D) than in the Rı́a de Vigo (Fig. 4D). Finally, the spring transition from winter homogenization to stratification occurred during phase 7, when upwelling (2Qx 5 0.42 6 0.61 m2 s21) coincided with a slight increase in surface temperature (Figs. 3A, 4A). Surface currents on the shelf and satellite imagery— Surface currents on the shelf (Fig. 5) were roughly consistent with the Ekman transport components. Thus, there was a southwestward flow from June to August (phase 1), which was in agreement with the sustained upwelling-favorable winds during this period (Fig. 2A). The upwelling relaxation that occurred at the end of this phase is depicted as a loop in the surface flow at the end of August. The upwelling of September (phase 2) induced the westward flow of surface waters, whereas the downwelling of October (phase 3) had the opposite effect of forcing eastward flow. Surface waters flowed to the northwest during the upwelling of November (phase 4). The differences in the flow direction during these three upwelling phases might have been due to variations in the intensity of the alongshore transport caused by east–west winds. Northward transport was stronger in November (Qy 5 0.66 6 0.54 m2 s21) than in September (Qy 5 0.30 6 0.25 m2 s21), while alongshore transport due to winds was virtually nonexistent during phase 1 (Qy 5 20.04 6 0.22 m2 s21). The flow was intense and to the north during phase 5, when the IPC was present on the shelf (Fig. 5B). Except for the first half of phase 6, when northerly winds forced the surface flow to the south, less intense northward flow persisted until the end of the sampling period (Fig. 5C). According to this current pattern, shelf surface waters were advected to the open ocean (during upwelling) or to the north (in winter), and they could only enter the Rı́as Baixas during the downwelling of October (Fig. 5A inset). This effect of downwelling on advection of shelf surface waters to the Rı́as Baixas is illustrated by the satellite images recorded on 25 September and 03 October (Fig. 6). The relatively high Chl a concentrations (.5 mg m23) observed on the western shelf of Galicia at the end of upwelling phase 2 (25 September; Fig. 6A,B) were confined to a very narrow band close to the Rı́as Baixas a week later, on 03 October (Fig. 6D), when the downwelling of phase 3 brought warm water to the coast (Fig. 6C). This transport of shelf waters to Fig. 5. Progressive vector diagrams of the surface currents recorded by the Silleiro buoy on the NW Iberian shelf during (A) upwelling–downwelling (phases 1 to 4), (B) the winter IPC (phase 5), and (C) winter mixing and spring transition (phases 6 and 7). Inset in (A) is the downwelling of October (phase 3). More details are given in the text. Note that progressive vector diagrams depict the virtual trajectory of a particle for an ideal homogeneous current field on the shelf similar to that at the point where currents were recorded. They do not denote the actual current field over the entire region on the figure. Black diamonds show the position of the Silleiro buoy, and black circles indicate the first day of the following months. the coast coincided with the sudden increase in Chl a concentration (,23 mg m23) recorded in the surface waters of the interior of Rı́a de Vigo (Fig. 4D). The IPC, shown as northerly flow on Fig. 5B, can be clearly seen on a satellite SST image for 15 December (Fig. 6E) as a warmer band over the outer shelf and continental slope. The IPC also is apparent as a slightly lower chlorophyll band on a SeaWiFS composite image for 06–08 January 2002 (Fig. 6F) offshore of the 200-m bathymetry contour north of 42.5uN and around the northwestern Galician coast. The IPC is less commonly observed with a satellite color signature since chlorophyll is usually relatively uniform offshore in winter (Álvarez-Salgado et al. 2003). Microplankton abundance in shelf waters—The total microplankton abundance and Chl a concentration on Harmful dinoflagellates and downwelling 2673 Fig. 6. AVHRR sea-surface temperature for (A) 25 September 2001, (C) 03 October 2001, and (E) 15 December 2001 (note different color palettes). Chlorophyll values derived from SeaWiFS for (B) 25 September 2001, (D) 03 October 2001, and (F) a composite of images from 06–08 January 2002. The sequence represents the end of an upwelling event (25 September; phase 2) that was followed by a strong downwelling (03 October; phase 3) event a week later and snapshots of the temperature (15 December) and color signature (06–08 January) of the IPC during phase 5. Clouds and land are masked black. The 200-m and 2000-m isobaths are included. the shelf were positively correlated (r 5 0.72, p , 0.001, n 5 161), and the two variables showed a similar evolution (Figs. 7A, 3D). The total cell abundance increased from ,1,000 cells mL21 in the subsurface chlorophyll maximum (,30 m) at the beginning of the sampling period to maximum abundances .5,000 cells mL21 at the surface during the upwelling of September (phase 2) and the first days of the downwelling of October (phase 3). Somewhat 2674 Crespo et al. (20% 6 10%) during the whole sampling period, also showed higher abundances in summer and at the beginning of autumn (Fig. 7C). Their highest abundances (.200 cells mL21) coincided with those recorded for diatoms, and, hence, they were found in surface waters during the upwelling of September (phase 2) and the first days of the October downwelling (phase 3). The lowest abundances (,20 cells mL21) occurred during the IPC (phase 5). Ciliates (data not shown) only accounted for 2% 6 4% of the total microplankton abundance. Fig. 7. Evolution of abundance (cells mL21) of (A) total microplankton, (B) diatoms, (C) dinoflagellates, and (D) flagellates other than dinoflagellates at the shelf station. The seven hydrographic phases (1 to 7) are given on the top. lower abundances (,3,000 cells mL21) were recorded during the relaxation at the end of phase 1. While diatoms dominated in the three surface maxima (Fig. 7B), where they accounted for 70–83% of total cell abundance, small flagellates (Fig. 7D), representing 89% of the total microplankton abundance, were responsible for the subsurface maximum at the beginning of phase 1. Cell abundance dropped to values of ,200 cell mL21 during the rest of the downwelling of October (phase 3), and it did not increase appreciably during the upwelling of November (phase 4). The lowest abundance (,80 cells mL21) was recorded during phase 5, when the IPC was present on the shelf. Microplankton abundance increased again during the winter mixing period (phase 6; ,200 cells mL21) and during the spring transition (phase 7; ,400 cells mL21). Although diatoms represented 24% of total cell abundance during the upwelling of phase 4, microplankton was dominated by small flagellates (,70%) during all these phases. Dinoflagellates, which accounted for a relatively small and variable fraction of the total microplankton abundance Microplankton assemblages in shelf waters—Principal component analysis (PCA) performed with the original data set of microplankton abundance extracted three principal components (Table 1) that explained 35% of the total variance. The first principal component (PC1) explained 18%, the second (PC2) explained 11%, and the third (PC3) accounted for 6%. Only four species (Dictyocha fibula, Solenicola setigera, Gymnodinium nanum, and a small Torodinium robustum) showed low negative loads with PC1 (Table 1), while the other 50 species had positive loads. This load arrangement, where almost all species had positive loads, and the positive correlation (r 5 0.73) between the scores of this component and the logarithm of total cell abundance, illustrates that PC1 explained the variability due to changes in microplankton abundance. Thus, the distribution of the PC1 scores (Fig. 8A) shows the highest positive values during phases 1 and 2 and the beginning of phase 3. The highest negative scores occur during phase 5, when the total microplankton abundance was the lowest (Fig. 7A). Cryptophyceae, diatoms (Pseudo-nitzschia cf. seriata, Asteromphalus sarcophagus, Guinardia delicatula, Nitzschia longuissima, and Proboscia alata), large heterotrophic dinoflagellates (Torodinium robustum, Gyrodinium fusiforme, and Cochlodinium helix), and two medium-sized heterotrophic dinoflagellates (Amphidinium flagellans and Amphidinium sphenoides) showed the highest positive loads with PC2 (Table 1). Several small- and medium-sized naked and armored dinoflagellates and Leucocryptos spp. were the organisms with the highest negative loads (Table 1). The evolution of PC2 scores (Fig. 8B) indicates that this component differentiated between a spring–summer assemblage composed of diatoms and large dinoflagellates (positive values) and an assemblage composed of small species (negative values) that dominated in autumn and winter. The change from positive to negative scores occurred during the upwelling of September (phase 2). The PC3 component differentiated between an assemblage (positive loads, Table 1) containing several harmful dinoflagellates (Heterocapsa niei, Prorocentrum minimum, Prorocentrum micans, and Karenia cf. mikimotoi), and another assemblage (negative loads, Table 1) primarily composed of diatoms (Thalassionema nitzschioides, Navicula ostrearia, medium-sized centric diatoms, and Pseudonitzschia cf. seriata). Positive and negative scores of PC3 alternated in the water column (Fig. 8C), and the highest negative scores (diatoms) occurred during the upwelling phases. The highest positive scores (harmful dinoflagellates) were found during the downwelling of phase 3 in October. Harmful dinoflagellates and downwelling 2675 Table 1. Correlation coefficients (loads) of the species and taxa selected for principal component analysis (PCA) with the first three principal components. Species and taxa are ordered according to PC1. The highest positive and negative loads for PC2 and PC3 are in bold type. The species were grouped into diatoms (Diat), dinoflagellates (Dinof), flagellates other than dinoflagellates (Flag), and ciliates (Cil). Group Cil Dinof Dinof Diat Diat Cil Dinof Diat Dinof Flag Dinof Diat Diat Cil Dinof Dinof Dinof Dinof Dinof Flag Dinof Cil Dinof Diat Cil Diat Diat Dinof Diat Dinof Cil Dinof Dinof Cil Dinof Dinof Flag Dinof Dinof Dinof Diat Dinof Flag Dinof Diat Dinof Dinof Dinof Dinof Diat Dinof Dinof Flag Flag Taxon Choreotrich ciliates (medium, 30–60 mm) Gyrodinium fusiforme Cochlodinium helix Pseudo-nitzschia cf. seriata Thalassionema nitzschioides Strombilidium spiralis Protoperidinium spp. (medium, ,30 mm) Nitzschia longissima Protoperidinium steinii Unidentified small flagellates (,10 mm) Gymnodinium spp. A (small, ,20 mm) Centric diatom spp. (medium, 20–30 mm) Navicula ostrearia Choreotrich ciliates (small, ,30 mm) Naked dinoflagellate spp. (large, .60 mm) Gymnodinium simplex Gymnodinium cf. hamulus Karenia cf. mikimotoi Gymnodinium spp. A (medium, 20–40 mm) Euglenophyceae spp. Heterocapsa niei Mesodinium rubrum Gymnodinium spp. B (small, ,20 mm) Centric diatom spp. (small, ,20 mm) Ciliates other than choreotric (medium, 30–60 mm) Pseudo-nitzschia cf. delicatissima Proboscia alata Prorocentrum micans Pennate diatom sp. (medium, ,30 mm) Armored dinoflagellate spp. (medium, 20–40 mm) Choreotrich ciliates (large, .60 mm) Naked dinoflagellate spp. (medium, 20–40 mm) Gyrodinium cf. fusiforme (medium, ,40 mm) Ciliates other than choreotrich (small, ,20 mm) Amphidinium flagellans Prorocentrum minimum Leucocryptos spp. Gyrodinium spp. A (medium, 20–40 mm) Amphidinium sphenoides Torodinium robustum Guinardia delicatula Naked dinoflagellate spp. (small, ,20 mm) Cryptophyceae spp. Gyrodinium spp. B (medium, 20–40 mm) Asteromphalus sarcophagus Armored dinoflagellate spp. (small, ,20 mm) Gymnodinium spp. B (medium, 20–40 mm) Amphidinium cf. flagellans (small, ,20 mm) Oxytoxum variabile Pennate diatom spp. (small, ,20 mm) Torodinium robustum (small, ,30 mm) Gymnodinium nanum Solenicola setigera Dictyocha fibula PC1 PC2 PC3 0.68 0.67 0.66 0.62 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.46 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.42 0.40 0.40 0.39 0.39 0.36 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.32 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.19 0.18 0.14 0.13 0.04 0.02 0.01 20.01 20.07 20.12 20.23 20.07 0.44 0.39 0.47 0.06 0.15 0.35 0.38 20.26 0.27 20.53 20.21 20.10 20.18 20.28 0.08 0.02 20.05 20.28 0.08 0.20 20.09 20.64 20.20 20.26 0.06 0.30 0.25 20.30 20.11 20.26 20.71 20.41 0.07 0.32 0.20 20.56 20.29 0.31 0.45 0.42 20.40 0.49 20.46 0.45 20.41 0.01 20.37 20.46 0.25 20.61 0.21 0.11 20.37 0.32 20.12 20.09 20.38 20.41 20.15 20.08 20.18 20.26 0.24 0.23 20.46 20.41 0.23 20.24 0.32 0.24 0.31 0.18 0.01 0.58 20.25 0.19 20.34 20.27 0.04 20.12 0.36 0.12 20.15 0.13 0.04 20.21 0.11 0.02 0.42 0.25 0.00 20.39 0.31 20.07 0.02 0.50 20.02 0.16 0.02 0.30 0.10 0.31 20.14 20.06 0.27 20.41 0.07 2676 Crespo et al. Fig. 9. Evolution of the abundance (cells mL21) of (A) Prorocentrum minimum and (B) Karenia cf. mikimotoi in surface waters in the Rı́a de Vigo from 25 September 2001 until the end of the sampling period on 24 April 2002. The seven hydrographic phases (1 to 7) are given on the top. Fig. 8. Evolution of (A) PC1, (B) PC2, and (C) PC3 scores extracted by the principal component analysis of microplankton species abundance. Shaded areas correspond to positive scores. The seven hydrographic phases (1 to 7) are given on the top. Downwelling and dinoflagellate dominance in the Rı́a de Vigo—The sudden increase in Chl a concentration recorded in surface waters of the Rı́a de Vigo during the downwelling of October (phase 3; Fig. 4D) prompted examination of the species composition of this bloom. Dinoflagellates, representing 80–90% of the total cell abundance, dominated the microplankton community for most of the duration of the bloom. The microplankton composition switched to the dominance of small flagellates (50–70%) only on the last days of the downwelling, when Chl a concentration fell to values ,6 mg m23 (Fig. 4D). Diatoms were never important during this bloom, since they only accounted for 4% of the microplankton abundance. Prorocentrum minimum, representing 74% of the total dinoflagellate abundance, and Karenia cf. mikimotoi, accounting for 20% of the total dinoflagellate abundance, were the major components of the bloom. Although P. minimum and K. cf. mikimotoi were present in the Rı́a de Vigo at high abundances at the beginning of downwelling (25 September), their maxima abundances (10,564 and 3,022 cells mL21, respectively) occurred a week later, on 04 October (Fig. 9A,B). These abundances were two orders of magnitude higher than the maximum abundances recorded on the shelf (data not shown). Unfortunately, microplankton samples were not collected at the Rı́a de Vigo before 25 September, but if these species were present in the Rı́a de Vigo, they would have been in very low abundances because Chl a concentration during the previous sampling was ,2 mg m23 (Fig. 4D). Discussion The results obtained during these observations indicate that the water column on the shelf and in the Rı́a de Vigo responded to upwelling, but with different intensity. Weak upwelling events (phase 1) that were unable to induce an obvious signal in the surface layer on the shelf were, however, strong enough to cause clear responses in the Rı́a de Vigo. The bathymetry of the Rı́a de Vigo, which is shallower in the inner part (Fig. 1B), favors the intrusion and the progressive uplift of the subsurface upwelled water on the shelf (Figueiras et al. 2002). Therefore, upwelling was enhanced in the Rı́a de Vigo, where nutrient concentrations were always higher than on the shelf during upwelling events (Figs. 3C, 4C). Chl a was also usually higher in the Rı́a de Vigo (Figs. 3D, 4D); the exception was the upwelling of November (phase 4), when the homogeneous water column (Fig. 4A) with high nutrient concentrations (Fig. 4C) points to the occurrence of a strong upwelling event in the Rı́a de Vigo that did not allow phytoplankton accumulation. The intense surface outflow imposed by the upwelling on the positive estuarine circulation of the Rı́a de Vigo (Figueiras et al. 2002; Piedracoba et al. 2005) probably led to the rapid export of phytoplankton toward the shelf (Tilstone et al. 2000). Upwelling relaxation (end of phase 1) and downwelling (phase 3) events provoked different effects on the shelf and in the Rı́a de Vigo. Both processes removed phytoplankton from Harmful dinoflagellates and downwelling the shelf (Fig. 3D) but caused its accumulation in the Rı́a de Vigo (Fig. 4D). This resulted in large differences (.30 times) in Chl a concentration between the Rı́a de Vigo and shelf. High Chl a concentrations in the interior of the Rı́a de Vigo that coincide with upwelling relaxation and downwelling have been previously reported (Figueiras et al. 1994; Fermı́n et al. 1996; Tilstone et al. 2000) and attributed to the reduced positive estuarine circulation under upwelling relaxation and the reversal circulation imposed by downwelling. Upwelling relaxation blocks the export of phytoplankton to the shelf (Tilstone et al. 2000), while transport of phytoplankton from the shelf to the interior of the Rı́a de Vigo can occur under downwelling conditions (Figueiras et al. 1994; Fermı́n et al. 1996). This interpretation is also supported by the surface currents recorded on the shelf (Fig. 5A), which clearly show that shelf surface waters could enter the Rı́a de Vigo only during the downwelling of October. The satellite data obtained for 03 October (Fig. 6C,D) reinforce this interpretation. The upwelling relaxation at the end of August probably did not induce such advection of shelf waters to the Rı́a de Vigo because current records indicate that surface circulation on the shelf had ceased. The Rı́a de Vigo and the adjacent shelf were relatively isolated during phase 5, when the IPC was an offshore feature. High-saline and nutrient-poor waters (Fig. 3B,C) typical of the IPC (Álvarez-Salgado et al. 2003) did not enter the Rı́a de Vigo, where lower-saline and nutrient-rich water (Fig. 4B,C) pointed to continental influence. At these times, when the IPC is present on the shelf, a buoyant plume due to runoff that extends as a narrow coastal band offshore of the Rı́as Baixas is frequently observed (Peliz et al. 2005). The front separating the IPC and the buoyant plume is rarely found in the interior of the Rı́a de Vigo, and when this occurs, it coincides with strong southwesterly winds and low runoff (Álvarez-Salgado et al. 2003). The shelf and the Rı́a de Vigo were connected again after the IPC vanished, and the continental influence in the Rı́a de Vigo was less important (Figs. 3, 4). Like in the Rı́as, where biomass of diatoms and upwelling intensity are positively correlated (Figueiras and Rı́os 1993), microplankton on the shelf responded to upwelling through increasing diatom abundance. Nevertheless, part of this increase might also have been due to transport from the Rı́as, since the positive estuarine circulation of the Rı́as Baixas during upwelling continuously exports diatoms to the shelf (Tilstone et al. 2000). Once on the shelf, the surface flow (Fig. 5A) could transport these populations to the south and to the open ocean. On the contrary, the low cell abundance and the dominance of small species recorded after the first moments of the strong downwelling of October suggest advection of oligotrophic waters from the ocean. Downwelling also confined shelf populations to a narrow band near the coast (Fig. 6D), from where they could eventually enter the Rı́as. Low cell abundance in the IPC waters, with dominance of small species and the absence of large diatoms and dinoflagellates, has also been reported for the IPC in other years (Castro et al. 1997), and it has been related to the subtropical origin of oceanic waters in which piconanoplankton dominate (Rodrı́guez et al. 2006). Therefore, 2677 if the IPC enters the Rı́a de Vigo, it should cause a rapid change from large to small plankton species. Although the main factors explaining the microplankton variability on the shelf were the increase in cell abundance (Fig. 8A, PC1) in response to upwelling events and the switch from spring–summer to autumn–winter microplankton assemblages (Fig. 8B, PC2), PCA also identified a third source of variability (PC3) relevant for understanding HAB dynamics in the region. According to the evolution of PC3 (Fig. 8C), harmful dinoflagellates, though in low abundance (Fig. 7C), were habitual components of the spring– summer microplankton community on the shelf, where they alternated their presence with a diatom assemblage. The replacement of these two assemblages can be attributed to the interaction between microplankton distribution and across-shelf circulation imposed by upwelling–downwelling. In this respect, Tilstone et al. (1994) showed that diatoms dominate in the interior of the Rı́as Baixas under upwelling conditions, whereas dinoflagellates are more important at the outer part of the Rı́as Baixas and the adjacent shelf. However, this distribution contracts when upwelling relaxes, allowing dinoflagellates to invade the interior of the Rı́as Baixas (Tilstone et al. 1994). Consequently, the intense onshore currents caused by the downwelling of phase 3 in October (Fig. 5A) could accumulate harmful dinoflagellates in the interior of the Rı́a de Vigo (Fig. 9A, B). Diatoms, which were also necessarily accumulated, probably were not able to counteract the intense downward velocities generated by downwelling in the Rı́a, and, as suggested by other observations (Figueiras et al. 1994; Fermı́n et al. 1996; Crespo et al. 2006), they would be rapidly removed from the water column before dinoflagellates accumulated. Dinoflagellates, owing to their vertical swimming capability, can in part neutralize these downward velocities (Figueiras et al. 1995), but under strong downwelling, they can also be removed from the water column (Crespo et al. 2006), as apparently was the case on this occasion (Fig. 9A,B). The strong and rapid decrease observed in the abundances of Prorocentrum minimum and Karenia cf. mikimotoi in the Rı́a de Vigo after the first days of downwelling (Fig. 9A,B) points to this possibility. Certainly, P. minimum and K. cf. mikimotoi could be accumulated at the inner parts of the Rı́a de Vigo, but if this were the case, they would reappear at the surface during the following upwelling of phase 4 in November. In contrast to other coastal upwelling systems where alongshore currents play a decisive role in HAB dynamics (Trainer et al. 2002; Pitcher and Nelson 2006; Sackmann and Perry 2006), the dynamics of harmful dinoflagellates in the Rı́as Baixas and the adjacent shelf in the NW Iberian upwelling system is virtually dependent on across-shelf currents. For this, the orientation of the Rı́as, which is nearly perpendicular to the main coastline, is determinant because it implies a rapid response to coastal upwelling– downwelling. 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