- Civil Aviation Safety Authority

Transcription

C I V I L AV I AT I O N S A F E T Y A U T H O R I T Y Q U A R T E R LY J O U R N A L
SPRING 1996
•The trouble with GPS
•Repair of ageing aircraft
•Pilot fade out – hypoxia, fatigue, CO, CO2
VOL 1 NO 4
STORM
WARNING
★
NEW AIRWORTHINESS SECTION
✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈
For
For $300
$300 worth
worth of
of charts
charts and
and publications,
publications, tell
tell us
us ...
...
What’s your story?
Share an experience you’ve had for publication in Flight Safety Australia’s What Went Wrong pages.
The best entry* wins a $300 gift voucher for charts and aviation publications, and will be published – along
with an analysis by CASA specialists – in the Summer issue of the magazine. The runner-up will receive a
$150 gift voucher.
Send entries by 9 December 1996 to the editor, Flight Safety Australia, GPO Box 2005, Canberra ACT 2601.
*Authors’ names may be withheld from publication by request. Civil Aviation Safety Authority staff and their families are ineligible for entry in this competition.
Entries will be assessed by a panel of CASA specialist staff; the panel’s decision is final, and no further correspondence will be entered into.
Aftera
Multi-engine
Endorsement?
NEW
CAAP 5.23–1(0)
Syllabus of Training
Initial issue of a multi-engine
aeroplane type endorsement (rating)
The syllabus gives the preferred method for complying with
the Civil Aviation Regulations.
Suggested titles for covering ground and flight elements of
the multi-engine course: Mechanics of Flight by AC Kermode
(10th Ed.) $42, The Jet Engine by Rolls Royce $69, Flying
Training Multi-engine Rating by RD Campbell and The Aircraft
Performance Requirements Manual by RV Davies $45.
Order Form
Name/Company _________________________________________________________
Address _________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________ Postcode _______________
Contact Tel. No. (b.h.)____________________________ (a.h.) __________________
Pilot Licence No. or ARN _________________________ Date of Birth ____________
Product
Qty
CAAP 5.23-1(0) Syllabus of training
$
3.15
Flying Training Multi–engine Rating by RD Campbell
37.25
The Jet Engine by Rolls Royce
69.00
Mechanics of Flight by AC Kermode
42.00
The Aircraft Performance Requirements Manual by RV Davies
45.00
Postage
$8.00
Total
Payment
.25
$37
$37.25
$49
$49
now
now
The recommended
reference:
Flying Training
Multi-engine Rating
by R D Campbell
Please tick payment option. If ordering from overseas, payment must be by credit card
or as a bank draft in Australian dollars.
Enclosed is my
■ Cheque
■ Money Order
Or charge my
■ Bankcard
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Send to: Airservices Australia Publications Centre. PO Box 1986 Carlton South VIC 3063 or
Call
1800 331 676
or Fax (03)
9347 4407
Flight Safety
PUBLISHER
Civil Aviation Safety Authority, Australia
EXECUTIVE EDITOR
Bob Dodd
EDITOR
Mark Wolff
DISTRIBUTION
Quarterly to 70,000 aviation licence
holders in Australia and its territories.
CONTRIBUTIONS
Contributions are welcome.Authors
should submit manuscripts typed double
spaced and retain a copy.
Correspondence to:
The Editor
Flight Safety Australia
GPO Box 2005
Canberra ACT 2601
Ph: (06) 268 4463, or 1800 676 063
Fax: (06) 268 4015
Internet address:
[email protected]
WARNING
This educational publication does not
replace ERSA,AIP or NOTAMs.
Operational information in this
publication should only be used in
conjunction with current operational
documents. The information contained
herein is subject to change.
The views expressed in this journal are
the views of the authors, and do not
necessarily represent the views of the
Civil Aviation Safety Authority.
A
AU
U SS T
TR
RA
A LL II A
A
e have had a gratifying response
to the reader sur vey and
competition in the Winter issue of Flight
Safety Australia.
Nearly 1500 readers filled out the
survey card.
Readers have made ver y useful
suggestions on how to improve the
magazine, some of which are reflected in
this issue.
We introduce a new airworthiness
section to reflect the interests of the
many maintenance engineers who
receive the magazine.There is also more
emphasis on analysing actual incidents to
highlight safety issues. Many of your
suggestions for stories will be followed
up over the next few issues.
There were dozens of entries to our
$300 “What Went Wrong” competition.
While we have only been able to publish
the winning entry this issue, in future
issues we will also be publishing the
runner-up.
The advertisement opposite gives
details of the next competition.
Your stories – and your feedback and
suggestions – are vital for the
development of Flight Safety Australia.
– Editor
W
COVER STORY
Storm warning
17
It’s thunderstorm season again Geoff Smith
FEATURES
What went wrong?
Outback rescue
10
Competition winner
Fade out
14
The effects of hypoxia, fatigue, CO and CO2 Rob Liddell
Trouble with GPS
20
Watch out for the traps Allister Polkinghorne
Low flying near power lines
22
All power lines are potential killers John Freeman
Damage tolerant repairs
New procedures to prevent “unzipping”
25
Steve Swift
• The drum on fuel, p. 21 • Maintenance management, p. 24
• Electrical system failure, p. 28 • Regulation p. 30
OUR COVER: It’s thunderstorm
season again. A Bureau of
meteorology photo of a
cumulonimbus cloud, phtographed
from above Point Lookout,
Queensland.
DEPARTMENTS
Follow up
• 4
Briefs
★
Airworthiness
• 24
• 4
Sport aviation
• 32
Trendlines
• 8
Airworthiness
Directives
• 33
Viewpoint
• 9
Safety Check
• 35
James Kimpton on CASA reviews
Four pages of safety quizzes
Colour separations and printing by Wilke Color, 37-39 Browns Road, Clayton,Victoria. © Copyright, Civil Aviation Safety Authority, Australia; unless copyright is
indicated, reproduction for educational purposes is permitted by the publisher, providing Flight Safety Australia is acknowledged as the source.
Registered printpost number: 381677-00644. ISSN 1325-5002.
FOLLOW-UP
Safety saves
money
I am in full agreement with
Mr Huntzinger’s ideas (Flight
Safety Australia, Winter
1996). But I was surprised
that he didn’t discuss the
role of flight data recorders
in improving safety (and
economy), especially since
Boeing strongly support
monitoring.
Besides speed, altitude etc.,
digital flight data recorders
(DFDR) can record such
things as when autopilot
changes algorithm, the angle
of attack, as well as the pitch
angle, engine vibration, and
even smoke in the toilet. The
DFDR is an excellent source
of information that can
improve safety and economy
at the same time.
Some pilots have a fear
of being watched by “big
brother”. However, experience has shown that after a
very short time, the pilots
become very involved, and
are pleased that their system
is there to safeguard them,
and to provide them with
useful feedback.
– C. Carter, London, UK.
Dismay over
regs rewrite
Those whose working lives
are governed by the current
Civil Aviation Regulations
must be dismayed to learn
(Flight Safety Australia,
Winter 1996) that instead
of correcting the errors and
anomalies of the rules we
operate under now, our
CASA legal resources have
been diverted into a rewrite.
Worse still, there will be
no time for proper industry
consultation, because we will
not see the fruits of these
labours until early 1997, a
few months before the new
rules become law.
Have we learned nothing
from the mistakes of the
BRIEFS
past? Because of a lack of
industry consultation last
time the rules were rewritten
(when the ANRs became
CARs) we are, eight years
later, still trying to get them
right.
Contrary to the article,
stage one will be more than
just a realignment of paragraphs. The temptation to
make changes in policy will
again be irresistible. We
should therefore follow the
example of the software
industry and release a beta
version of the proposals, and
delay the implementation of
stage one until this can be
completed.
This would give the
industry the maximum
opportunity to detect the
errors and the inevitable
“sleight of hand”, and give
CASA an opportunity to
prepare a proper industry
education program. To do
otherwise would be to invite
a rerun of the last debacle.
– Dick Gower, Vic.
With more industry involvement this
time around, we can look forward to
progress .
– Editor.
Errata: synthetic
trainers
The article on the use of
synthetic trainers for
instrument recency in the
Winter issue of Flight Safety
Australia applied to all synthetic trainers, not just
training for pilots with
single-engine instrument
ratings, as stated.
Omitted from the article
was the fact that “solo”
operations are specifically
excluded from meeting
recency requirements. This
is not widely understood.
For further information,
contact a flying operations
inspector at your nearest
CASA district office.
Letters to the editor of less
than 250 words are preferred
for publication.
4 Flight Safety Australia, Spring 1996
Current airspace classifications
Class B
FL200
Class C
Class G
MBZ
GAAP
An update on airspace
changes which occurred
on 20 June this year.
Note that the proposed
Class D airspace will not
be introduced.
Class B airspace
• IFR and VFR flights.
• Clearance required.
• VHF radio required.
• Transponder required in
radar coverage.
• All flights separated from
each other.
• VMC criteria – visibility
8km, clear of cloud.
Class C airspace
• Clearance required.
• VHF radio required.
• Transponder required in
radar coverage.
• IFR flights separated from
all other flights.
• Special VFR flights separated
from other Special VFR flights.
• VFR flights receive traffic
information on other VFR
flights.
• VMC criteria – visibility
8km above A100, 5000m
below A100, distance from
cloud 1500m horizontal,
1000ft vertical.
• Speed restriction for VFR
flights – 250kts below A100
(not applicable to military).
Class G airspace
• No clearance required.
• VFR radio required for IFR.
• VHF radio required for
VFR ≥ A050 or in MBZs or
when using reduced VMC
CTAF
criteria (see AIC RAC-28).
• IFR flights receive traffic
information on other IFR
flights.
• VFR flights can access flight
information on request.
• RAS in designated areas.
• VMC visibility 8kms above
A100, 5000m below A100;
distance from cloud 1500m
horizontally, 1000ft vertically.
• Speed restriction for
VFR flights – 250kts below
A100 (not applicable to
military).
GAAP airspace
• Clearance required – takeoff, circuit entry or transit
instruction.
• Radio required.
• Runway separation service
provided for all flights.
• In IMC IFR flights
separated from all other flights.
• In VMC IFR flights receive
services applicable to VFR
flights.
• VMC criteria – clear of
cloud, visibility 5000m.
• Speed restriction for VFR
flights – 250kts below A100
(not applicable to military).
GPS approaches
GPS endorsement for instrument ratings, which will
permit the holder to conduct
GPS non-precision approaches, is expected to be approved
by CASA by January 1997.
The endorsement will require
completion of the enroute
approval course and a flight
test.
BRIEFS
Hose maintenance ADs cancelled
A
A safety clearance of three metres between aircraft and
fuelling equipment is advisable.
Taxiing too close for comfort
I
ncreasing airport congestion
and tighter schedules have
led to 14 serious incidents
involving aircraft and fuelling
equipment over the past 18
months.
At one airport three near
misses were reported over two
days. Most of the incidents
were a result of lack of concentration while taxiing.
The incidents include:
• A King Air aeroplane which
collided with a fueller, severing
about one metre of the aircraft’s
port wing.
• A fueller in a parking area,
which was struck by the
starboard wing of an aircraft
taxiing past.
• An aircraft propeller hit a
fuelling hose, cutting it in two
places. The hose had been left
unwound, with an upstanding
loop.
• A Dash 8 started its engines,
and its prop wash blew directly
towards a dispenser fuelling
an aircraft.
• An aircraft taxied into the
electrical switch panel for a
hydrant pump, damaging the
aircraft and equipment.
• An aircraft started its
engines immediately after
fuelling, while the airport
operator was completing the
invoice only a few metres
away.
Fire, serious injury, and
death can result from hitting
a fueller or hydrant while
taxiing.
A safety clearance of three
metres between aircraft and
refuelling equipment is
advisable.
When in doubt, you should
go around, or wait until the
way is clear.
Aviation
information
lines
irworthiness Directives
AD/Hose/2 (airframe
hoses) and AD/Hose/3
(engine hoses) were cancelled
in October 1996.
This does not mean that
hoses no longer need to be
inspected and replaced. It
means that general ADs are
no longer seen as appropriate
for maintenance tasks which
are already specified by the
aircraft or aircraft component
manufacturer, including hose
manufacturers.
Under these two ADs,
many hoses were “hard lifed”
and were required to be
replaced regardless of
condition.
Hose life no longer needs to
be tracked, unless specified by
the aircraft or equipment
manufacturer.
The emphasis is now on
“on-condition” inspection.
The LAME will assess hose
condition during the
inspection.
LAMEs are not only
accountable under law for
their actions, but they have a
duty of care to exercise when
dealing with aircraft and
aircraft components.
CAR 2A sets out what is
approved maintenance data
for an aircraft. Maintenance
must be carried out in
accordance with the
applicable approved
maintenance data.
Aircraft and hose
manufacturers issue
comprehensive information
on hose inspection and
replacement.
These are the set of
approved maintenance data
for hose maintenance, and
should be used in conjunction
with the aircraft’s approved
system of maintenance (class
A aircraft) or maintenance
schedule (class B aircraft).
If the aircraft manufacturer
specifies different
maintenance data to the
equipment manufacturer,
then the aircraft
manufacturer’s data takes
precedence.
If there is insufficient
manufacturers’ information in
the Certficate of
Registration Holder’s
(C of R) approved
system of maintenance
or maintenance
schedule about hose
maintenance, then the
C of R holder must
ensure that suitable
data is incorporated
into the system or
schedule of maintenance (CAR 40 and
CAR 42 refer).
Recommended Reading: CAA
(UK) I&P Part 5 Leaflet 5-5.
Safety Education Products
Safety Seminars/Forums
GNSS/GPS/FANS
Carriers’ Liability Insurance
1800 676 063
1800 062 485
1800 679 910
1800 069 735
BRIEFS
Safety system
assessments
Twelve passenger carrying
operators and their support
organisations have been
assessed by a specialist CASA
team as part of a trial program
focussing on system safety.
The Safety System
Assessment of Commercial
Operators (SSAPCO) project
began in April of this year.
CASA staff worked with
industry representatives
nominated by the Australian
Aviation Industry Association
to design the assessment
process. Field assessments
started in June this year, and
lasted three months. They
concentrated on assessing
system safety, risk and safety
management and accident
prevention.
Concern about helicopter parts
T
he Civil Aviation Safety
Authority (CASA) has
expressed concern about the
possible use of suspected
unapproved and potentially
dangerous parts in helicopters.
In a letter to helicopter
Certificate of Registration
holders, CASA advised: “It is
possible that Australian
organisations may be dealing
in aircraft components that
have been misrepresented as
either having been overhauled
or having some life
remaining, when in fact their
service life has expired.”
The letter said the use of
such parts would represent “a
real and significant hazard to
all persons involved in the
operation of helicopters in
which such parts were
installed.”
Acting on advice from the
New Zealand Civil Aviation
Authority, CASA has issued
two Airworthiness Directives
dealing with main and tail
rotor blades on Robinson
R22 helicopters.
CASA recommends that
Certificate of Registration
holders arrange an audit of
all time-lifed components and
components with a specified
overhaul time.
Civil Aviation Regulation
42W sets out the requirements
for the installation and use of
aircraft components in maintenance, including requirements
for appropriate documentation.
Record in redesign of departure and approach plates ATPL study
both the procedure design and
materials
ver the past 12 months,
O
CASA’s terminal area
procedure design section
has amended or redesigned
over 1,560 procedures into
Australian aerodromes.
This record number of redesigns is due in part to the
decommissioning of DME-A,
the introduction of GPS
arrivals, the introduction of
Standard Arrival Routes (STARs)
into Sydney, Melbourne and
Perth, and the redesign of
procedures from the old
standard to the new PANSOPS standard.
Amendments occur because
of changes in information
related to aerodromes such as:
• Introduction of new procedures as a result of reviews of
airspace management practices.
• Changes in information
on plates, such as frequency
amendments, lighting changes
and alterations to obstacle data
and aerodrome information
such as apron and taxiway
changes.
Under the former Civil
Aviation Authority (CAA),
the Aeronautical Information
Service functions rested with
the CAA’s Directorate of
Aviation Safety.
After the split of CAA into
Airservices Australia and CASA,
terminal area procedure design
remained with CASA’s flying
operations branch, while the
Aeronautical Information
Service – responsible for
publishing charts – moved
to Airservices Australia.
Agreement has been reached
to transfer the procedure
design function from CASA
to Airservices Australia over
the next 18 months.
Ultimately CASA will only
be responsible for procedure
design standards and the monitoring of quality assurance
processes. Design and production will become the responsibility of Airservices Australia.
Over the past three years,
production has moved from
a manual system to an automated production system
using Computer Assisted
Design (CAD).
To ensure that no errors
appear in the plates, information is checked at all production stages by at least three
independent experts.
If pilots believe that any
element of a new plate is unclear or possibly in error, they
should immediately contact
the Aeronautical Information
Service.
The contact officer for further
information is Drew McDonald on
(06) 268 4069.
CASA is making available
relevant extracts from the
B767-300ER operations
manual for use as study
material for the Air Transport
Pilot (Aeroplane) Licence.
While ATPL exams generally
do not test to a particular book,
exceptions are made when a
generic book on a syllabus
subject is unavailable, inadequate or impractical.
The use of the B767-300ER
operations manual for aircraft
general knowledge is one
example.
To order relevant extracts
from the manual, contact
Diane Shelback, CASA, PO
Box 2005, Canberra City,
ACT 2601, ph: (06) 268 4114.
An Australian publishing
company is due to publish
an ATPL aircraft general
knowledge textbook by
January 1997.
Candidates are encouraged
to read this text in conjunction with the B767-300ER
operations manual extract.
BRIEFS
INTERNATIONAL
New requirements for
portable and fixed ELTs
• Single seat aircraft.
• Turbojet-powered aircraft.
• Flights associated with the
manufacture, preparation and
delivery of new aircraft.
• Flights that take place
within 50 miles of the
departure aerodrome.
• Balloons, airships and gliders.
• Aircraft flying
to a place where
“... approved
an ELT can be
Exemptions
fitted, repaired
portable
or
Exemptions
or
overhauled.
fixed ELTs are
include:
Aircraft that
• Aircraft engaged to be carried in
have had an
in agricultural
ELT removed for
flight
from
31
operations.
maintenance or
• Aircraft flying in July 1997.”
replacement
accordance with
have 90 days
CASA permission
to reinstall the unit.
under Civil Aviation
ELTs and beacons – and
Regulation 134.
lithium batteries, if these are
• High capacity charter and
used – must meet specified
Regular Public Transport
standards outlined in Civil
aircraft.
Aviation Regulation 252A.
An automatically activated
TSO C-91 ELT fitted
to an aircraft meets the
requirement only if it was
fitted before 5 December
1996.
These ELTs will meet the
regulatory requirements, and
will be acceptable until they
become unserviceable.
The new regulation only
prohibits beginning a flight
in an aircraft that does not
have a functioning ELT. It
does not require an aircraft to
land if its ELT stops
functioning during a flight.
O
perators will in future
have a choice of
carrying an approved
portable ELT or installing a
fixed ELT in their aircraft.
The revised Civil Aviation
Regulation 252A specifies
that approved portable or
fixed ELTs are to be carried
in flight from 31
July 1997.
1997 schedule for Air Transport Pilot Licence exams
Aeroplane
Helicopter
Closing date
11-12 February
13 February
15 January
15-16 April
17 April
15 April
10-11 June
12 June
15 May
12-13 August
14 August
15 July
14-15 October
16 October
15 September
9-10 December
11 December
15 November
Assessments of
regulators
Forty-seven countries have
requested International
Civil Aviation Organisation
(ICAO) assessments under
ICAO’s safety oversight
program.
The program audits regulatory authorities to ensure
international standards are
being met.
The audits identify deficiencies, and offer advice and
assistance in flight operations,
personnel licensing and
airworthiness.
Initial assessment of 33 States
will be completed by the end
of this year.
Single market
with NZ
The governments of Australia
and New Zealand have moved
quickly towards the establishment of a single aviation
market which will permit
Australian and New Zealand
carriers to operate in both
countries.
The Minister for Transport
and Regional Development,
the Hon. John Sharp, and his
New Zealand counterpart
have signed an arrangement
which became effective on
1 November 1996.
Discussions have been
held between officers of the
Australian Civil Aviation
Safety Authority and New
Zealand’s Civil Aviation
Authority to determine the
regulatory arrangements
which will apply under the
single aviation market regime.
Both Authorities are working closely to ensure a
smooth transition to the new
arrangements. A memorandum of cooperation has
been developed which sets
the framework for future cooperation. The memorandum
is expected to be signed
shortly.
While some of the details
are still being finalised in
relation to domestic operations
in Australia by New Zealand
carriers, and vice versa, international operations beyond
Australia and New Zealand
will remain the responsibility
of the operator’s State of
registry.
The ultimate objective is to
establish aviation standards in
Australia and New Zealand
that will be recognised by
both countries.
Regional
discussions
Aviation safety is expected
to be enhanced throughout
the Asia and Pacific Region
through ICAO sponsored
projects which are designed
to increase the capacity of
States to regulate operations
of their national carriers.
The projects for South
East Asia and the Pacific
were discussed during the
32nd meeting of the
Directors General of Civil
Aviation, Asia and Pacific,
held in Jakarta in June.
To help States meet their
obligations under the Convention on International Civil
Aviation, ICAO is proposing
a cooperative approach which
will enable participants to draw
on a central pool of resources
to meet their operational safety
and continuing airworthiness
surveillance needs.
The meeting was also
advised of CASA’s plans to
conduct inspections of
foreign aircraft in Australia.
— Jim Weber, Manager, Corporate
Relations, CASA.
Flight Safety Australia, Spring 1996 7
BRIEFS
Exam cheating
by proxy
Do you realise that there are
regulations regarding cheating
in examinations, and that they
apply to everyone, not just to
candidates?
The provisions which address
cheating can be found in Civil
Aviation Regulations 298A
through to 298E.
CASA is currently conducting an investigation into a
number of possible breaches
of these regulations by candidates, would-be-candidates
and theory lecturers.
If a person other than a
candidate is convicted of either
giving or receiving information
about the contents of an examination, that person may be
fined up to $5000.
The penalty for a candidate
is that any pass is declared
invalid, and the candidate
is barred from sitting the
examination for a period
of 12 months.
Multi-engine
training
package
• Description of training
sequences – aim, content,
standard etc.
• Sequence plan and minimum
number of hours per sequence.
• Minimum experience, training and standards for initial
multi-engine endorsements.
• Additional experience requirements where the trainee holds
a Night Visual Flight Rules
Rating and/or a Command
Instrument Rating.
• Type endorsement questionnaire.
• The opportunity to provide
feedback on the training
system.
While the prime aim of the
package is to enhance flight
safety by raising the standard
of multi-engine aeroplane
training, the flow-on effect will
be to provide a structured and
standardised system that is
readily available and easy to use.
For details on how to get
the training package, see the
advertisement and order form
on the inside cover.
A multi-engine aeroplane
training package has been
prepared as the syllabus of
training for the initial issue
of a multi-engine aeroplane
type endorsement.
The syllabus gives the preferred method for complying
with the Civil Aviation
Regulations.
The package has been
released in the form of a Civil
Aviation Advisory Publication
(CAAP 5.23-1(0)).
Complementing present legislation, the package provides
a comprehensive and structured
system to lead both the instructor and the student through
the process of multi-engine
training.
Features of the newly issued
CAAP include:
• Syllabus covering both
ground and air training.
The flight crew training
advisory panel, a group of
industry specialists who provide
flight crew training advice to
CASA, is seeking input from
industry on training issues.
The advisory panel meets
twice a year, with minutes
circulated within six weeks,
usually in a CASA mailout of
documents or publications.
Copies of minutes can be
obtained from Diane Shelback,
ph: (06) 268 4114.
Training issues can be raised
with the advisory panel by
contacting: John Chesterfield,
PO Box 765, Coolangatta,
Queensland 4225,
ph: (07) 5536 9322;
fax: (07) 5536 9334.
The establishment of the
advisory panel originated
out of concerns about the
introduction of the examfax
system ending review panels
that were held after each
examination.
The big
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
Training input
Details of accident trends in
Australia over the past eight
years, and their contributing
factors.
I
n 1994 there were a total of 212
accidents involving Australian civil
aircraft, giving an overall accident rate of
8.24 accidents per 100,000 hours flown.
The fact that this is the lowest accident
rate recorded during the 1986-1994
period is illustrated in the accompanying
figure.
The length of the bar represents the
hours flown and each symbol represents
10 accidents. It is clear that the density of
accidents within each bar is lowest for the
1994 period.
This figure however conceals the large
differences in safety between the various
sectors of the industry. The high capacity
Regular Public Transport (RPT) sector
consistently records the lowest accident
rate and in 1994 was only .32 accidents
VIEWPOINT
A chance to get things right
By James Kimpton
I
accepted the invitation from
the Transport Minister, John
Sharp, to chair the program
advisory panel which will oversee CASA review programs
because of the importance of
improving the levels of safety
achieved by the industry, and
the need for the relationship
between CASA and the
industry to improve.
The review programs are
designed to maximise industry
participation – alongside CASA
personnel – in reviewing how
the highest standards of safety
are to be achieved in an efficient
and effective manner.
There will also be representation from the consumer point
of view.
The aim is to relatively quickly review how CASA undertakes its regulatory functions,
a job that will be assisted by
an advisory committee
chaired by David Wiltshire.
A complementary review of
the regulatory framework, supported by an advisory committee chaired by Bill Hamilton,
aims to make sure the regulations are readily accessible,
clear and straightforward.
The review programs will
also seek to bring our regulatory framework into line with
that of major aviation nations,
unless there are sound reasons
for difference.
When inaugurating the
CASA review programs, the
Minister indicated that he was
looking for substantive recommendations which could be
implemented in 1998; although
this timetable should not prevent earlier introduction of
sound and reasonable change.
picture
per 100,000 hours flown. The low
capacity RPT sector has the second best
rate, with a figure of
1.67 accidents per 100,000 hours flown
recorded in 1994.
Although the general aviation (GA)
sector has a higher accident rate than RPT
operations, there are still large differences
between the GA groups. Private/business
flights and agricultural work typically have
the highest accident rates. In 1994 there
were around 18 accidents per 100,000
hours flown for both categories.
It should be noted, however, that very
few accidents result in fatalities. Over the
1986-1994 period, the proportion of fatal
crashes has averaged about 10 per cent.
Not surprisingly, this figure has also
varied between industry sectors.
About 6 per cent of accidents in the
low capacity RPT sector resulted in a
fatality over the 9-year period, and there
were no fatalities at all resulting from
high capacity RPT flights during these
years.
PROGRAM ADVISORY PANEL
The review process will
provide an unprecedented opportunity for industry to be
involved. Industry personnel
with experience or ideas to
offer should not hesitate to
come forward when requests
are made for participation in
technical committees or project
teams. Not only will such participation lead to a better outcome, but should also improve
relations between industry and
CASA.
That, of itself, will be important in ensuring that each of
us understands the other better,
and that together we can efficiently and effectively play our
part in obtaining the high
standards of safety which are
vital if the industry is to be
accorded the respect by government and the community to
which it is entitled.
James Kimpton is manager of aviation
policy, Ansett Australia, and chair of the
CASA review program advisory panel.
For GA over the 1986 to 1994 period
fatal accidents as a percentage of the total
were highest in the “other aerial work”
category (11.7 per cent) and lowest for
flying training (6.3 per cent).
The main types of accident occurrences according to a 1991 analysis by
the Bureau of Air Safety Investigation
have been:
• Collision with ground, trees, wires
(22 per cent).
• Engine failure, malfunction, incorrect
handling, fuel starvation/exhaustion
(19 per cent).
• Wheels-up landing (12 per cent).
• Gear collapsed (10 per cent).
• Ground/water loop (10 per cent).
• Hard landings (9 per cent).
• Loss of control (6 per cent).
• Other (12 per cent).
For fixed wing aircraft, most
occurrences happened during the landing
phase of flight. A total of 54 per cent of
occurrences were related to approach,
level off/touch down, roll or go around.
Twenty-four per cent occurred during
flight, while climbing, cruising, descending,
low flying or engaging in aerobatics or
agricultural work. Fifteen per cent
Chair
• James Kimpton, Manager,Aviation
policy,Ansett Australia.
Chair, regulatory role advisory
sub-committee
• David Wiltshire, Chairman,Aviation
Industry Council of Australia.
Chair, regulatory framework
advisory sub-committee
• Bill Hamilton,Technical Director,
Aircraft Owners and Pilots
Association.
Members
• Max Hazelton, Deputy Chairman,
Hazelton Airlines.
• John Laverick, consumer advocate.
• Rick Leeds, Federal Secretary,
Australian Licensed Aircraft Engineers’
Association.
• Ken Lewis, General Manager, Safety
and Environment, Qantas.
• Dafydd Llewellyn, Chairman,
Queensland Aircraft Manufacturers
Association.
• Bill Pike, President,Australian and
International Pilots Association.
• Frank Young, Managing Director,
Navair.
• Leroy A. Keith, Director of Aviation
Safety, Civil Aviation Safety Authority.
occurred during
take-off, with 5
per cent
occurring
while taxiing
(including to take-off and from landing).
Two per cent of occurrences were on
the ground, while engines were not
operating, while starting engines and
while engines were operating.
For accidents in fixed wing aircraft,
the pilots in command accounted for
the greatest percentage of fatal and
serious injuries (51 per cent), followed
by passengers (43 per cent) and flight
crew (6 per cent).
The picture for rotary wing aircraft
has been entirely different.
Most occurrences happened during
flight (52 per cent), followed by take-off
(24 per cent), landing (20 per cent),
ground (2 per cent) and while taxiing
(2 per cent).
Twenty-nine per cent of
fatal and serious injuries were experienced by the pilot in command,
compared to 71 per cent for passengers.
TRENDLINES
– Source: Bureau of Air Safety Investigation.
WHAT WENT WRONG?
OUTBACK RESCUE
T
he task was to go from
Orange to Charleville to
visit an engineering workshop to check some parts
and also to demonstrate the
aeroplane, which was for sale. The
aircraft was a Cessna 172M which I had
flown several times before. I have also
flown this particular trip a number of
times, but normally in my PA 34 Seneca
light twin.
I estimated that the flight would take
about four-and-a-half hours, and because
I wanted to return the same day, I
planned to depart at 5am. I completed
the flight plan the night before using the
computer flight planning system that I
have at home. The planned route was
Orange-Dubbo-Coonamble-WalgettBollan-Charleville and return. After a
good night’s sleep, I woke up at about
4.30am, left a copy of the flight plan on
the kitchen table, and left for the airport.
When I arrived there was a very thick
frost which covered the aeroplane, which
took at least an hour to clean off. I
checked the weather on Avfax – it was
suitable for the flight with a wind of
110/10kts.
I then moved some gear from my own
aeroplane into the Cessna 172. This
consisted of some tools, two large bottles
of water and a first aid kit. I thought that
the aircraft also had an ELT fitted as
10
Flight Safety Australia, Spring 1996
ER
M P $300
NN
ETIT
I
IO N W
CO
Suddenly the pilot
blacked out. He came
to just before his
Cessna 172M veered
towards the ground in
outback Queensland...
“All I can remember
then is suddenly
seeing the windscreen
full of an olive green
colour and I was
thinking it was a
range of hills.”
there was an external aerial fitted. I
normally don’t carry food on this trip,
but on this occasion I put some leftovers
and some bread into an esky for the day.
I also put my mobile phone in the flight
bag.
Prior to departure I ran the aircraft up
for about 15 minutes and called taxiing
on Orange CTAF. Departure time was
6.20am. After becoming airborne, I
changed to FIS frequency and maintained a cruising altitude of 6500ft. As I
was VFR I did not make a call but heard
the QNH from flight service talking to
bankrun aircraft arriving at Bathurst. The
weather was fine and sunny, but very
cold – so I pulled the heater control on
full.
The flight proceeded smoothly with the
weather remaining fine. I remember
changing frequency to Dubbo MBZ and
calling as I entered the zone. At about
10nm from Dubbo an RPT Dash 8 called
taxiing at Dubbo for Sydney and I gave
him my position. I also talked to another
RPT Saab when it was overhead. This
was the last transmission I can recall
making.
I remember then
changing frequency to
Sydney FIS 127.1
Mhz and hearing the
QNH being broadcast as there was quite
a bit of radio traffic. I
recall being two minutes
ahead of flight plan at
Coonamble and again at
Walgett.
I then recall passing abeam Lightning
Ridge and saw Goodooga over to the left.
I was feeling good, and although the
outside temperature was close to zero, it
was comfortable and warm inside. I then
passed over Bollon and was three minutes
early. Here I had to change track 17 degrees
to the left and switch to Brisbane frequency. I also tuned into Charleville NDB
and the needle immediately swung around
and pointed ahead. Everything seemed to
be progressing nicely.
I remember the Charleville VOR coming
in and getting a fix at Boatman Station
which is about 60nm from Charleville.
By now about 3/8ths of scattered low
cloud was starting to appear up ahead,
but this did not concern me. I also remember passing a good ALA some 25-30nm
from Charleville and making a mental
note that I could land there if the weather
deteriorated at Charleville. I then started
thinking about the descent. I felt warmer
now and recollect thinking about turning
the heat down. This is the last I can
positively remember before coming to.
All I can remember then is suddenly
seeing the windscreen full of an olive
green colour and I was thinking it was a
range of hills. I glanced at the VSI and it
WHAT WENT WRONG?
was showing around a 1000ft per minute
I still had a headache and reCharleville
rate of descent and the altimeter read membered I had some Codral
1000ft. Also the radio squelch was tablets in my coat pocket. I took
squealing and this was irritating me.
these, but they didn’t work. After a while,
My first reaction was to pull back on the I realised I had to find out where I was –
stick; then I saw the horizon coming into but I couldn’t recognise any of my
view. This must have jolted my instincts surroundings.
to take over. I put my left foot back on
I looked at the WAC map and tried to
the rudder pedals and instinctively banked identify the range of hills that was close
hard left. Then the engine coughed. My by. I noticed the ADF needle pointing to
immediate reaction
was to try and get
the aeroplane on
Estimated position
by Pilot from NDB’s
the ground. Then, as
if by a miracle,
GPS position
appearing ahead of
on rescue
me was what
looked like a very
long airstrip with
green marker lines
either side of it.
I must have been
low because I saw
trees out of the left
window just before
touching down. I
20
40
Kilometres
think I touched
Charleville
down fast, nosewheel first and rather
heavily. I remember rolling through almost the left and I thought it might still work.
to the end of the strip and steering off to I turned the power back on, but the
the right to avoid a small shrub on the needle didn’t move. After hitting the test
button, the needle swung and pointed in
strip.
My head was aching and I felt nau- the same direction. The radio was still
seous. I must have shut the engine down squealing, so I turned it off, and was able
and turned the master off. I was shaking to identify Charleville faintly on the
and feeling very cold. I just sat there ADF ident. From the bearing off this I
shivering for about 45 minutes with my realised that I was north-west of
Charleville.
head aching badly.
I then tried tuning into Blackall. This
At that stage I didn’t really know what
Orange
time
the ident came in very strongly and
had happened, and was trying to get my
the
needle
swung
positively
around.
bearings.
That’s when I noticed my folder bet- From the two position lines, I drew a fix
ween the seats. I looked at the flight plan on the map which placed me 154 nm
and realised I had been heading for north-west of Charleville. But this still
didn’t seem quite right in relation to the
Charleville. I worked out that my ETA
By now it was getting towards evening,
hills I could see. By now it was about
for Charleville had been 11.00am, and
three hours after landing, and I began to and I began to think about how I was going
this didn’t look like Charleville country.
to spend the night.
get concerned about the battery.
My watch showed it was 12.30pm.
I gathered up some wood and scouted
So I started to make MAYDAY calls
I then tried calling on the radio on FIS with a bearing and distance from around the area. In the region were emus,
frequency to Brisbane or any other aircraft, Charleville on the radio on 121.5 Mhz. kangaroos and about a mile away, a stockbut the radio was still squealing so I turned There was no response and the radio was yard and a full watering hole for stock.
the master switch off. I decided to use still making a noise. From then on I made
By this time the sun was going down,
the ELT, and got out of the aircraft and a call on the hour.
and I went back to the aeroplane and lit a
opened the luggage door to look for it.
I was now starting to think more clearly, fire with a newspaper from the aircraft,
The cover for the ELT was located on the and realised that I had to conserve battery some aircraft fuel and matches I always
upper right hand corner of the luggage power. The first thing I did was disconnect carry in the flight bag. Getting the fuel
compartment, but when I removed the the turn and balance power lead and turn prompted me to check the tanks and I
cover there was no ELT in there – just a off the rotating beacon. I tried using the found they were almost empty. A wind
had sprung up so I tied the aircraft down,
mobile phone, but it showed no signal.
loose aerial lead and a mounting bracket.
✈
✈
WHAT WENT WRONG?
pulled the seat out, and sat by the fire to
gather my thoughts. I started to think
about survival and went over what I had
done so far.
I then realised I hadn’t allowed for
variation when plotting out my position
from the ADF. I thought also that the
ADF signals may be better later at night,
so I took more bearings and re-plotted
my position. I also used two extra NDBs
– Windora and Longreach, which confirmed my position. This was also verified
by tuning into the Longreach ABC.
There was no mention on the news of me
being missing, and the penny dropped that
my wife hadn’t raised the alarm yet. I
thought that she would not do this until
later that night.
There would
not be any
search until
morning.
This time the
position fitted
the local terrain
and I noticed
that there was
a road nearby on
the map and a
station 20nm south
and one 30 nm to
the north. There
were water bores on
the map that could
help in any navigation by foot.
I started to bed
myself down for
the night in the
Exhaust
aircraft and read
from
the survival section
cylinders
in the ERSA. This
information made
me think more about
staying with the
aircraft and gave
me some better ideas.
I used a small transistor radio in the flight
bag to tune into the ABC at Longreach
and listen for any reports, but there were
none about me.
After a sleepless night, dawn eventually
broke. The first thing I thought about
was the battery power. Then I had some
breakfast and decided to try and start the
engine to charge the battery. The battery
wouldn’t even throw the starter. After
much deliberation I thought it might
start by hand swinging. The prospect
of injuring myself was worrying, but I
realised it may mean my only chance
of survival.
12
I gave a couple of pumps on the throttle,
set it to start, left the mags off and wound
the prop in reverse twice. Then I set it on
the compression position, gave it another
pump on the throttle, turned the mags
on and made sure the hand brake was on.
I swung the prop from the bottom and it
started first pull.
I ran the engine up until the fuel ran
out – about six minutes. It did put some
more charge back into the battery. After
this I made MAYDAY calls on all nearby
FIS frequencies and 121.5 Mhz with my
callsign and estimated position only.
After that I decided to try and find the
road I had seen on the map. So I took
the compass out of the aircraft, noting
followed it north to see if I could locate
one of the water bores I had noticed on
the map.
I must have walked for about another
hour at a brisk pace, and I was starting to
sweat. I followed the instructions in the
ERSA about keeping clothes on, but had
to drink more water than I expected.
Soon I began to pace myself better. I
began to have doubts about the track I
was following, and decided it was time to
get back to the aircraft.
On the way back I stopped at the stock
watering hole to cool off, and listen to
the midday news which reported that there
were 24 aeroplanes and two helicopters
looking for me in south-east Queensland
either side of my
How CO leaked into the cabin. Inset: detail track.
of the aircraft’s exhaust system.
They were looking in the wrong
place. When I got
Exhaust out
back to the aircraft, the first
thing I did was to
stoke up the fire to
try and make
some smoke. I
made
another
radio call but began
to ask myself why
there was no
Hot air around cylinder
response? This
extracted to cockpit
inspired me to
thoroughly check
the radio out.
I removed the
radio and discovered a loose wire
CO
inside near the
volume control.
With tweezers
Exhaust
from the first aid
Large hole
kit I was able to
inside flange
reconnect the wire
and carefully rethe compass heading on the ADF installed the set. This time the squelch was
indicator.
OK, but I did not get any answers to my
Next I assembled food, water, some call. After a while, I realised that there was
equipment and my transistor and set off no carrier wave and the mike wasn’t
after leaving a note in the aircraft saying working.
where I had gone. Before I left I laid out
I decided to walk out next day to
a distress signal with some rocks and rags Budgerigar Station, roughly 20nm west
and dustcoats from the aircraft. Soon of my estimated position. As I was
after leaving I came across some wheel thinking about this, I suddenly noticed
tracks which travelled in the same through the open aircraft door, a loose
direction I had planned. I started to white object on the floor behind the
follow them, and after walking for about rudder pedals – it was a microphone relay.
an hour, I saw some trees and a dry creek
I was able to refit the relay, and tried
and eventually came to the road I had the radio again. The first call I made was
expected – but it was just a track. I on 121.5 Mhz and to my surprise I got
ANALYSIS: WHAT WENT WRONG?
an answer from Malaysian 136 reading
back my position and telling me that he
would advise Brisbane.
After some conversation I lost radio
contact and began to wonder whether
the message had really got through. By
this stage it was 5.00pm and the battery
was very low. I decided to reserve power
“There were 24
aeroplanes and two
helicopters looking
for me in south-east
Queensland either
side of my track.
They were looking
in the wrong place.”
until I really needed it.
I was elated. After another hour, I was
about to make another call when I heard
a search plane calling me. After some
communication and with the assistance
of a relay from a QANTAS aircraft which
was flying overhead, I saw the search
aircraft lights at the same time he saw my
fire.
Some 40 minutes later the search
helicopter arrived and I was able to guide
him down with my small mag torch. An
hour and a half later I was in Charleville,
safe and sound.
I have learned a lot from this experience. For a start, next time I leave a plan,
I will make sure that my intentions are
clearly known by everyone. I will also be
better prepared for any contingency.
I cannot emphasise more the
importance of an ELT. Had I had an ELT
on board I am sure I would have been
found well before I was actually reported
missing.
As it was, I could easily have died. It
also would have saved a great deal of
effort on the search, and prevented a lot
of stress on my family and friends.
Lastly I am most grateful to the SAR
organisation, the Charleville police and
ambulance staff for their professional and
dedicated performance in effecting my
search and rescue.
✈
The author of this winning entry to the “What Went
Wrong?” competition will receive a $300 gift voucher
for charts and publications.
Outback rescue – an analysis
T
HERE IS LITTLE DOUBT THAT THIS
resourceful pilot suffered carbon
monoxide poisoning. Inspection of the
aircraft revealed a leak in the exhaust
system that would have allowed carbon
monoxide from the heater system into
the cockpit (see diagram opposite).
The long duration of the flight, combined with the fact all other air vents
were closed, would have caused the loss
of full consciousness and memory which
the pilot experienced for one-and-a-half
hours.
His sudden arousal just before he was
about to crash could have resulted from
the slight increase in oxygen from the
descent, and the noise of the radio
squelch.
Carbon monoxide can kill without
any warning. That’s why many pilots
carry a visual indicator in the cockpit
which turns black when carbon monoxide is present (see story, page 14).
The pilot was also demanding quite a
lot of himself by proceeding alone on a
business trip for what was to be at least
nine hours of flying without autopilot.
This trip might have been acceptable if
he had planned to overnight at Charleville
allowing for more sleep and a much later
start to the trip.
The pilot has stated
that in future he will
ensure that everyone
knows clearly what his
intentions are. Why not
put a plan into Flight
Service, and get them to
keep Sarwatch for your
arrival? This is a 24-hour
a day free service. The
Search and Rescue (SAR)
organisation has found
that partners are very
reluctant to call them for help, even if
they are extremely worried.
If you do leave a flight note with
someone, make sure that person
understands it, knows what their
responsibility is, and who to contact,
and when. The SAR freecall number is
1800 815257.
I agree with the pilot’s remarks about
Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT)
– if he had one he would have been
rescued earlier. Yes, he did effect his own
rescue without one, but he could also
very easily have died.
ELTs are essential equipment in the
Australian environment; with constant
satellite monitoring, ELTs make it so
much easier for the SAR organisation to
get to you quickly. Whether an approved
hand-held model, or a fixed ELT, the
main thing is that the ELT is serviceable
and carried.
Remember that it is your life that is
on the line, so it is important that you
check all life-saving equipment before
you depart.
The pilot had every right to go VFR
on this trip without calling flight service.
But this did make it very difficult for
the SAR organisation, leaving it with a
search area which virtually stretched
between Orange and Charleville.
Even if you do not want Flight
Service to keep SARWATCH, there is
nothing stopping you making periodic
calls. It doesn’t matter what you say. You
can update QNH or even give your
position. This call will go onto tape,
which can be used to narrow down any
subsequent search, as well as provide
information for any nearby traffic.
The pilot did do many things right.
He ensured he had equipment, food,
water and matches. Without these it is
doubtful he would have been rescued so
early, if at all. He landed the aircraft
safely.
He used the information provided in the
emergency section of
AIP. He worked out his
position, and plotted it
on maps he carried
which covered an area
way beyond his destination.
He used his knowledge and initiative to
repair his radio and keep
his battery charged.
He kept his head when it would have
been so easy to panic and give up.
This incident illustrates that the worst
can happen to you when you least expect
it.
It is a matter of being prepared all of
the time.
When you go flying, remember that
there is a huge support system to help
you – use that system, and help the
system to help you.
✈
John McQueen is a flying operations inspector at
CASA’s Bankstown district office.
MEDICAL MATTERS
T
he pilot in the story, “Outback
rescue” (page 10), appeared to be
affected by carbon monoxide. But
there are several other problems that can
lead to a pilot losing consciousness.
Consider this short description of the
experience of another pilot:
“The flight was conducted at 9,500ft,
and because of the relatively cool outside
air temperature, I did not open the remaining airvent.
“During the flight, both myself and my
accompanying passenger experienced difficulty breathing, and were overcome by
tiredness.
“The flight was terminated short of the
destination when I realised that my performance was below par. I was having
difficulty monitoring the progress of the
flight, and performing the necessary
navigation and control area clearance
requirements.”
The symptoms experienced by this
pilot could have been caused by hypoxia
from too little oxygen in the inspired air,
carbon monoxide poisoning, carbon
dioxide narcosis, or even from fatigue.
With some understanding, the pilot
with these or similar symptoms can
determine the possible cause.
H Y P OX I A
O
xygen comprises
one-fifth of the
total gas in the atmosphere. Because
atmospheric pressure decreases with
altitude, the concentration of oxygen in
the inspired air also drops. At 18,000ft,
the atmospheric pressure is half of that at
sea level. At 10,000ft the atmospheric
pressure is one-third less than sea level,
and so the partial pressure of oxygen is
also one-third less than sea level.
Above 8,000 or 9,000ft, problems of
hypoxia (oxygen starvation) begin to
appear. Individuals who have a medical
condition which may interfere with the
absorption, carriage and supply of oxygen
to the tissues may experience the effects
of hypoxia at altitudes as low as 5-6,000ft.
This could result in symptoms of tiredness, mental confusion, difficulty in focusing and a degree of air hunger.
14
When you feel yourself
fading out, it’s time to
take stock.
Rob Liddell looks at the
causes and effects of
hypoxia, carbon
monoxide poisoning,
carbon dioxide narcosis
and fatigue.
FADE -
At 10,000ft, the blood of a person who
is exposed to outside air can still carry
oxygen at 90 per cent of its capacity. At
this altitude, the performance of a healthy
pilot may be impaired. In smokers it will
be worse, and some may find themselves
a little less dextrous than usual at tuning
radios, slower at working navigational
problems, and less able to sustain concentration.
At 14,000ft, the pilot may become
appreciably handicapped – forgetting to
switch tanks, flying off course, or disregarding hazardous situations.
Upwards of 18,000ft, exposure to environmental air will cause collapse and
inability to control the aircraft.
The oxygen carrying capacity of the
blood deteriorates much more than one
would expect at heights above 14,000ft.
This is not a linear relationship, and
lowered levels of oxygen quickly become
dangerously low levels with only minor
increases in altitude.
If you choose to fly unpressurised at
high altitudes, you must use oxygen. You
have a choice, then, between pressurising
the cabin, or breathing a mixture with
more oxygen in it.
Unfortunately, the nature of hypoxia
makes you the poorest judge of when you
are its victim.
The first symptoms of oxygen deficiency
are misleadingly pleasant, resembling
mild intoxication from alcohol. Because
oxygen starvation strikes first at the brain,
your higher faculties are dulled. Normal
self-critical ability is lost. Your mind no
longer functions properly; your hands
and feet become clumsy without you
being aware of it; you may feel drowsy,
languid, and nonchalant; you may have a
false sense of security. The last thing in
the world you think you need is oxygen.
As the hypoxia gets worse, you may
become dizzy, or feel a tingling of the
skin. You might have a dull headache,
but you would be only half aware of it.
Oxygen starvation gets worse the longer
you remain at a given altitude, or if you
climb higher. Your heart races, your lips
and the skin under your fingernails begin
to turn blue, your field of vision narrows,
and the instruments start to look fuzzy.
But hypoxia, by its nature a grim
deceiver, makes you feel confident that
you are doing a better job of flying than
you have ever done before.
You are in about the same condition as
the person who insists on driving a car
home from a New Year’s Eve party when
hardly able to walk.
Regardless of acclimatisation, endurance
or other attributes, every pilot will suffer
the consequences of hypoxia when
exposed to inadequate oxygen pressure.
So if you intend to fly high, what can
you do about it? Firstly, carry oxygen –
and use it before you start to become
hypoxic. Secondly, don’t gauge your
“oxygen hunger” by how you feel. Gauge
it by the altimeter.
0UT
Here are some general suggestions
which apply to healthy pilots:
• Carry oxygen in your aircraft or don’t
fly above 10,000ft. If bad weather lies
ahead, go around it if you can’t get over it.
• Use oxygen on every flight above
10,000ft.
• Use oxygen on protracted flights near
10,000ft. It won’t hurt you and you’ll be
a lot sharper.
• Breathe normally when using oxygen.
Rapid or extra deep breathing can cause
its own problems.
CARBON MONOXIDE
C
arbon monoxide
is a product of
i n c o m p l e t e
combustion, and is present in the exhaust
gases of all internal combustion engines.
This gas is especially dangerous for two
reasons: firstly it is colourless and odourless; and secondly, its lethal effect on the
body can be insidious with confusion
and then unconsciousness occurring
before the victim realises that carbon
monoxide poisoning is responsible.
Because carbon monoxide has a
stronger affinity for the oxygen carrying
component of the blood than does
oxygen, the victim asphyxiates in an
oxygen rich environment.
The likely sources of carbon monoxide
are the engine exhaust path and fuel fired
cabin heaters. The exhaust path can allow
carbon monoxide into the cabin via a
leak in a heating manifold or through a
leak in an exhaust pipe which allows
exhaust gases to enter the cabin air stream.
Badly maintained fuel fired cabin heaters
with leaks in their manifolds can also
allow carbon monoxide into the cabin.
The location of the doors on some
aircraft permits exhaust gas to swirl back
into the cabin should the door be opened
in flight.
The effects of carbon monoxide are
similar to the effects of hypoxia as there
is a reduced capacity for the blood to
carry oxygen to the tissues. An individual
may experience symptoms similar to
hypoxia at any cabin altitude whenever
an internal combustion engine is operating
and the potential exists for exhaust fumes
to enter the cockpit. Visual signs of carbon
monoxide poisoning may include a cherry
red appearance to the lips and finger nail
beds, headache becoming severe, nausea,
confusion and then unconsciousness.
If you suspect carbon monoxide poisoning, shut off all heating that may be
in use. Change the cabin air source if
possible; for example, close cabin air
shut-off vents, and open the window if
permissible. Breathe pure oxygen if it is
available. Declare an emergency and land
at the nearest suitable location.
Prevention is better than cure. Before
operating with a window or door removed
or open, consult your flight manual –
there could be a safety limitation.
Ensure regular inspection and maintenance of heaters and exhaust gas paths.
Some aircraft manufacturers recommend
that exhaust and heater systems be inspected as often as every 25 hours of flight
time.
Early warning devices such as “dead
stop” patches are excellent insurance.
These small (3cm square) pieces of
cardboard contain a disc which changes
in colour in a carbon monoxide rich
environment. They are an inexpensive
($8) form of insurance.
CARBON DIOXIDE
O
xygen
enters
into
the
metabolic pathways in the body cells via
the lungs, and is converted to carbon
dioxide and energy. Carbon dioxide
therefore is the gas present in expired air.
In an enclosed environment with
minimal airflow, the concentration of
carbon dioxide as a result of expired air
can build up to significant levels over a
period of time.
Increased levels of carbon dioxide in
the air that is breathed can cause a
condition known as carbon dioxide
narcosis which results in mental
confusion, extreme tiredness, headaches
and eventually unconsciousness.
There are no skin signs of carbon
dioxide narcosis. Any possibility of
carbon dioxide narcosis being responsible for symptoms can immediately be
dealt with by ensuring an airflow in the
cabin.
Particular care should be taken with
tightly sealed fibreglass cockpits. Unless
there is vented air, carbon dioxide can
build up quickly.
✔
✔✔ ✔✔
✔✔✔✔✔✔✔✔
✔✔
FIT✔ ✔
✔✔✔
FOR
✔✔
✔✔✔✔✔
✔
F✔✔✔
LYING
✔✔✔✔
✔✔✔✔✔✔✔
Blood sugar and
the brain
A
s a pilot, you should be aware of the
effects of eating habits on performance.
There are numerous accidents which have
been directly and indirectly linked to diet.
One pilot lined up his Cessna 150 to
land on the wrong runway.The tower
controllers alerted him to the situation,
and then cleared him to land on the runway.
At about 200–300ft, he became dizzy, and
then lost consciousness.
The aircraft crashed inverted; fortunately,
the pilot was uninjured. Investigations
determined that he was suffering from
reactive or functional hypoglycaemia (low
blood sugar level) which can result from
eating a high carbohydrate diet, consisting
of too much refined sugar and white flour.
In these cases. the pancreas secretes
excessive amounts of insulin, a hormone
that causes the body to burn sugar.
After a number of hours, the level of
glucose in the blood drops dangerously low.
The brain and central nervous system are
unable to store glucose and therefore need
constant refuelling.
This makes the brain very sensitive to
drops in blood sugar levels.
The body’s response to lack of glucose
(hypoglycaemia) includes fatigue, mental
confusion, faintness, headaches, forgetfulness,
dizziness, blurred vision, coldness, low blood
pressure, nervousness, depression and
extreme hunger.
Caffeine, alcohol and nicotine also adversely
affect sugar metabolism. Perhaps a strong cup
of sugared coffee on an empty stomach just
prior to flying is not such a good idea.
What you should eat before flying is a
balanced diet. For example, carbohydrates
can come from fruit, instead of doughnuts
or chocolate bars.
Many pilots have heard of the preflight
acronym I’M SAFE.This is used to remind
pilots to check their physical condition before
flying. Is there any risk that they are impaired
by Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue
or Eating? Keep in mind that illness and fatigue
can both be caused by an improper diet.
You do a preflight check on your aircraft,
so why not preflight yourself as well?
Eating sensibly is essential to safe flying.
– Ian Dix, CASA safety education officer.
16
MEDICAL MATTERS
will lower performance even more.
Pilots should also be aware of the phenomenon of “sleep deficit”. The amount
of sleep people need varies, but intensive
flying operations frequently cause sleep
disturbance, to the point that “sleep deficit”
occurs.
As a guide, if less than eight hours of
quality sleep is obtained in any 24 hour
period, sleep loss begins to accumulate.
The nature of flying operations is such
that
rest periods can become fragmented,
lying requires skill, alertness and
with
sleep often being scheduled for
coordination, sometimes under
unusual
hours.
adverse conditions.
In
these
circumstances, a pilot’s sleep
It is often necessary to complete the
deficit
is
likely
to accumulate to a point
most important and demanding part of a
where
fatigue
becomes
important.
task at the end of a long and difficult day.
Once
an
individual
suffers from sleep
Fatigue can result in an inability to perdeficit,
considerable
time
off is needed to
form effectively. A fatigued person may
restore
the
body
to
its
normal
state.
not be aware that judgement has been
Studies
have
shown
that,
following
impaired.
duty
times
of
12-20
hours,
fatigue
may
The symptoms, however, are apparent
exist
for
more
than
one
or
two
days.
to the rested observer and include:
There are a multitude of other factors
• Poor concentration.
which
contribute to aircrew fatigue. Some
• A low frustration
of these are age, experience
threshold.
level, cockpit temperature,
“Studies have
• Degraded coordination.
humidity, cabin altitude
• Slowness in response.
shown
that
and physical fitness,
• Carelessness.
including the effects of
• Acceptance of low
following duty
caffeine, some medicastandards of accuracy.
times
of
12-20
tions, alcohol and smoking.
How many of us have
There are a few irreexperienced errors such as
hours, fatigue
futable
facts worth keepwrongly set altimeters,
ing
in
mind:
may
exist
for
missed altitude calls, infit individcorrect headings, and poor
more than one •ualsPhysically
have
more
mental
approaches followed by
alertness
and
stamina,
and
or
two
days.”
dicey landings after a long
are
less
affected
by
fatigue.
and difficult day?
• Studies show that
Fortunately, such errors
smokers
are
more
prone to fatigue, and
are usually countered by our ability to
suffer
a
definite
reduction
in altitude
draw on reserve energy to “psych up” and
tolerance.
handle a stressful situation.
The human body functions on a 24- • Alcohol causes significant impairment
hour biological clock, and any disruption of flying skills. This impairment can last
of the body’s rhythms will increase up to 72 hours.
• Proper sustenance before and during
fatigue and stress.
Studies show that our poorest per- flight will assist in combating fatigue.
Too much coffee during and after
formance occurs at the low point in our
flight
might impair adequate rest and
circadian rhythm – the time we would
contribute
to unnecessary fatigue on the
normally be sleeping. Hence the worst
next
day’s
flight.
period is from about 0300 to 0600.
Recognising and managing fatigue is
If you are trying to land between
essential
to flight safety.
✈
0300-0600 after a long duty period,
F AT I G U E
F
don’t expect your judgement and skills to
be at their best. Matters such as inadequate crew rest and crossing time zones
Dr R. W. Liddell is director of aviation medicine for
CASA.
COVER STORY
STORM
WARNING
Thunderstorms are the single most
hazardous weather phenomenon a pilot can
encounter, write Geoff Smith and Gil Moore.
E
very kind of aviation hazard is
packed into a thunderstorm:
reduced visibility, low cloud, severe
icing, turbulence, hail, heavy precipitation, lightning, wind shear, and even
the possibility of a tornado, or a water
spout.
The effects can be alarming, as this
pilot attests:
"All went to plan until, on this very
dark moonless night, I realised that I had
entered cloud. No problem – no return
on the radar and nothing dramatic
forecast.
“Just after leaving FL230 on descent,
everything turned sour. The aircraft was
seized and shaken like the proverbial ‘rat’.
Ice built up on the airframe
breathtakingly quickly. There was a
blinding flash., and the whole world
turned an iridescent green. Rain was now
deafening and the aircraft was
uncontrollable.
“If the seat belt had let go, I would
have lost the whole aircraft. Gear down,
power off; aircraft climbing at over
2000ft per minute, and then plunging at
a similar rate. A sharp crack, and everything in the aircraft went black. We had
been hit by lightning.
“Severe turbulence. Little by little,
light and radios came back. I seemed to
have been wrestling for hours and was
feeling desperately tired. I was now down
below 5000ft descending rapidly in spite
of gear up and full power. Now down to
800ft descending rapidly, resigned to
dying and trying to get out a Mayday
call, when the aircraft was abruptly spat
out of the side into clear air with
Esperance directly ahead.”
Surviving a wild thunderstorm can make
for a great story, but it's an experience
you are better off without. Certainly for
most aircraft in general aviation, the rule
is to keep clear.
Almost any thunderstorm can spell
disaster for the wrong combination of
aircraft and pilot. A non-instrument
rated pilot on a VFR flight must avoid
thunderstorms at all costs – and by as
Hail damage.
0–5 days
5–10 days
10–15 days
15–20 days
20–30 days
30–40 days
40–50 days
50–60 days
60–80 days
over 80 days
Thunderstorm frequency.
wide a margin as possible.
Instrument rated pilots should also
stay clear of thunderstorms wherever
possible.
Of the 15 million thunderstorms
which occur each year world-wide, most
will take place in the steamy heat of the
equatorial regions.
Over the next few months, some areas
in the north of Australia will experience
up to 80 thunderstorm days. Down in
south-eastern Tasmania, they will experience only five thunderstorm days over
the Summer season.
Only in the coastal south-western part
of Western Australia and the western
coast of Tasmania do more thunderstorms occur in winter rather than
summer.
Even though tropical storms are higher
and more frequent, sub-tropical cells
pack the same amount of violent energy
into a smaller volume.
Thunderstorms occur when cumulonimbus clouds reach a critical energy
level. For a thunderstorm to form, there
must be a great deal of moisture in the
lower levels of the atmosphere, plus
enough unstable air above to cause strong
updraughts.
The ascent of huge volumes of air in
thunderstorms is rapid – up to 10m/s over
a relatively small area.
A thunderstorm which has been declared
severe will involve hail two centimetres
or more in diameter; wind gusts reaching
48 knots or more measured at ground
level; rainfall producing flash flooding
COVER STORY
which exceeds the one-in-five year
occurrence; and can even incorporate
tornadoes.
Pilots must know and retain certain
facts about thunderstorms to make proper
operational decisions. Thunderstorms
can be generated as frontal, heat, orographic, cold stream, nocturnal, equatorial
and convergence thunderstorms.
Frontal storms
Confined to the front, they can be
crossed quickly if you don’t plan to fly
parallel to the front. A prognostic chart
should suggest which end of the front
will have the least activity.
Be careful though, these charts don't
give the whole picture. There may be
thunderstorm build-up along the prefrontal troughs. This is not always
indicated on the chart.
(TAF) – allowing you to avoid the frontal
storm by selecting the time and direction
you choose to fly.
While there may be gaps between cumulonimbus clouds, a word of caution to
general aviation operators: very turbulent
air may be present.
Although cumulonimbus clouds will
sometimes reach the tropopause, turbine
aircraft can often cruise at altitudes where
the gaps between clouds are wider. Again
a word of caution: most aircraft cannot
outclimb a developing cumulonimbus
cloud and severe turbulence may occur in
the clear air above a developing large
cumulous or cumulonimbus cloud.
Heat storms
Get out of bed early and don’t fly after
midday. Select routes over water where
practical. In the Kimberley region, flying
over Lake Argyle may
be an option.
Around coastal
regions, follow the sea
breeze coastal convergence zone, that is, the
area where coastal sea
breezes are predominant.
Alternatively, fly in
the late evening and
before sunrise when
heat storms will be in
the dissipating stage.
During their development, they will be separated and gaps can
be found. However,
the number of gaps
will decrease as the day
wears on.
They will invariably
reach the tropopause.
When conditions are
very unstable, they
will outclimb even
turbine
aircraft.
Options for cruising
on top can therefore
Schematic illustration of a thunderstorm.
be very limited. Anvils
or their dissipated remThese pre-frontal and frontal storms nants make airborne radar a prerequisite
may also speed up or lag behind the front for a smooth ride at pressurised cruising
line indicated in the chart as they move levels.
though your region due to topographic
interference. This is especially the case in Orographic storms
Orographic storms are determined by
south-eastern Australia.
Frontal movement can usually be accu- topography, and are therefore confined to
rately predicted by studying the latest the land. On the east coast of Australia,
area forecast and Terminal Area Forecast keep away from the Great Divide when
storms are developing. If you are in IMC
18
and in that area, turn on the radar and
you will usually find a gap.
Cold stream storms
Unlike frontal storms which pass through
as a line, these tend to be scattered and
occur more frequently, although they are
short lived. They often continue at
20–30 minute intervals, resulting in
“INTER” operational requirements.
They occur mainly in Winter in the
south-west of western Australia and along
the southern regions of the continent.
They are usually well separated and can
be “embedded”, and difficult to detect
for unpressurised non radar equipped
aircraft. Although they can exist over
land and water, orographic influences can
accentuate and localise their effect. These
storms may not reach the tropopause, and
have shallow wind gusts and soft hail.
Nocturnal storms
Generally confined to the tropics, and over
water, their greatest asset is the accompanying lightning, which helps to identify
and avoid the worst areas. As they are
most mature at dawn and dissipate soon
afterwards, route selection and timing
can be used to minimise their effect.
Convergence storms
The characteristics of convergence storms
vary according to the cause of the
convergence. Generally they are localised
or slow moving which allows circumnavigation. The exception is the
development of the supercell, which is a
very intense, fast moving storm which
can leave a swathe of destruction in its
path.
It is common in our Summer months
for a line of convergence storms to form
along the Great Divide in the early
afternoon, and move over the coastal
plains towards late afternoon.
Hail
Hail is produced by cumulonimbus and
large cumulus clouds. It is usually
encountered in those areas of the cloud
where the updrafts or downdrafts are the
strongest. Avoid flying under the anvil,
where there is an increased chance of hail.
The photograph on page 17 shows
what a short 20 second encounter with
hail can do to an aircraft. The aeroplane
was in the clear, 10nm away from the
storm when it encountered hail.
Give yourself an ample buffer, or fly
upwind of the storm if practical.
The airframe components most likely
to suffer from hail damage are the
COVER STORY
leading edges, lifting surfaces, pitots,
aerials, intakes and first stages of compressors. The noise can be alarming.
Conventional airframe icing will always
be present in cumulonimbus cloud above
the freezing level. Airframe icing can be
more of a problem than hail, particularly
in cold stream, frontal and orographic
storms. It presents the same problems
you can encounter when operating in
strataform clouds.
Lightning
Lightning is an electrical discharge within
a cloud, between clouds and between the
clouds and the ground.
Its main practical effect is to degrade
performance of navigational and communications equipment.
As you enter a cumulonimbus cloud,
radio static may be a precursor of lightning ahead.
Just as we take precautions on the ground
to avoid lightning strikes, so must the
pilot protect the aircraft from strikes in
in flight.
Many aircraft strikes occur without the
pilot's knowledge. A burning or ozone
smell might be noticed in unpressurised
(lowly ventilated) aircraft. Electrostatic
phenomena (St Elmo's fire, impact discharge) often occur.
In an incident last year at Sydney airport,
Microburst.
Gust front outflow from a thunderstorm.
the heat generated from
a lightning strike on a
small turboprop commuter aircraft shattered
the composite material
of a baggage locker,
and the debris passed
dangerously close to
propellers and engine
intake areas.
Lightning can cause:
• Pilot disorientation
Thunderstorm showing the wind increasing with height.
and possibly temporary Sloping warm inflow is conducive for the formation of large hail.
blindness.
Some stones may make many trips collecting a fresh layer of ice
• Instrument failure. on each circuit. Eventually they become too heavy for the updraft
• Flight control failure. to support, and can enter the adjacent downdraft hurtling to the
• Fuel tank burnout ground with increased velocity.
and possible explosion.
where the strongest winds occur.
• Engine flameout with electrical failure.
As the ring vortex moves outwards
• Failure of non metallic components.
from
the centre, it tends to stretch until a
• Deformation and burning of holes in
limit
is reached and the vortex disintethe skin.
grates
into several pieces or roll vortices.
• Acoustic shock and magnetic forces.
• Possible failure of non metallic heli- These bands can continue to supply high
winds lasting two to three minutes.
copter blades.
Microbursts can occur with or without
rain – hence the terms wet or dry microDowndrafts
Windshear is probably the greatest chal- burst.
Visual indications of severe wind shear
lenge for the pilot. While aircraft have
broken up from vertical shear during cumu- and downbursts include:
lonimbus encounters, design criteria ensure • Thick precipitation curtains falling from
that certificated aircraft will survive pro- a cumulonimbus or large cumulus showvided correct operational procedure is ing a marked fanning or distinctive foot
shape at the surface.
employed.
Downdrafts occur in the mature stage • Areas of raised dust and debris in a
of the thunderstorm, and spread out in circular pattern under virga or cumuloall directions on impact with the ground. nimbus and cumulus.
They are often called gust fronts, and the • Formation of roll clouds, shelf clouds
horizontal velocities of the wind may or ragged scud near the gust front indireach 80–100 knots and last for 10–30 cating signs of rapid rotation or very
strong winds at the surface.
minutes.
Recent studies have revealed that these • Wind socks pointing in opposite
gust fronts and microbursts present a directions.
One in fifteen thunderstorms produces
very real danger to aircraft in the landing
or take-off phase. A downburst is a a microburst, but it does not require a
strong downdraft which induces an thunderstorm to produce a microburst.
Typically, a penetration of a microburst
outburst of damaging winds on or near to
area
will take no more than 30 seconds.
the ground. The sizes of downbursts vary
The time available for recognition and
from less than one kilometre to tens of
appropriate action is usually no more
kilometres. An intense microburst can
than 5–15 seconds. In any microburst
bring very damaging winds with
encounter, the flight path must be conhorizontal speeds as high as 150 knots.
trolled with pitch attitude and not airspeed
Microbursts tend to have a relatively control. Indicated airspeed will increase
short life – generally less than 10 very rapidly, immediately followed by a
minutes, and often only between 3–5 rapid decrease.
minutes.
A reduced airspeed (above the safe stall
In a microburst, a strong spear of cold margin) may have to be accepted to ensure
air flows downward to strike the ground flight path control. Potential energy must
and spread out. The danger area with a be converted to kinetic energy, and this
microburst is the horizontal vortex ring translates to maintaining pitch attitude
close to the touchdown point. This is control, regardless of airspeed.
FLYING OPERATIONS
The basics
• If thunderstorms are forecast, plan an
alternate route before becoming airborne.
Planning will be far more rational when
not confronted by the problem.
• Be prepared to divert before the thunderstorms become unavoidable.
• Avoid by at least 30km any thunderstorm identified as severe or giving an
intense radar echo.
• Avoid the entire area if it has five oktas
or more thunderstorm activity.
• Remember that vivid and frequent lightning indicates the probability of a severe
thunderstorm.
• Consider any localised convective cell
over approximately 15,000ft high as a
thunderstorm, whether there is thunder
or not.
• Don’t land or take-off in the face of an
approaching thunderstorm. A sudden gust
front or low-level turbulence could cause
loss of control.
• Don’t try to fly under a thunderstorm
– even if you can see through to the
other side. Don’t fly into a cloud mass
containing isolated thunderstorms
without airborne weather radar. Thunderstorms not embedded usually can be
visually avoided.
• Don’t trust appearance as a reliable
indicator of turbulence inside a thunderstorm.
When faced with no other option, the
penetration of thunderstorms by a properly
rated pilot flying an IFR-equipped aircraft should be carried out with extreme
caution and due attention.
Before entering a storm, general aviation
pilots should:
• Tighten seat belts and secure all loose
objects.
• Plan and hold your heading to take
you through the storm in the minimum
possible time.
• To avoid the most critical icing, establish
a penetration altitude below the freezing
level or above the level of minus 15
degrees celsius.
• Turn pitot heat on, and select carburettor heat or turbine-engine anti-ice.
• Configure your aircraft for turbulence
penetration using power settings and airspeed recommended in your aircraft flight
manual.
• Turn up the cockpit lights to the highest
intensity to lessen temporary blindness
from lightning. Lowering your seat as far
as possible can also help by keeping your
eye-level below the top of the glareshield.
• Disengage the autopilot. The automatic
20
altitude and attitude hold controls on most
GA autopilots will cause the aircraft to
overreact, thus increasing the likelihood
of structural stress.
• If using airborne radar, tilt the antenna
up and down occasionally. This will help
you detect other thunderstorm activity at
altitudes other than the one being flown.
• During thunderstorm penetration keep
your eyes on your instruments. Looking
outside can increase the danger of temporary blindness from lightning, and cause
spatial disorientation.
• Don’t change power settings; maintain
the power settings for the recommended
turbulence penetration airspeed.
• Strive to maintain a constant attitude.
• Do not try to maintain a constant altitude or airspeed, as the control inputs
can significantly increase the stress on the
aircraft.
• In severe hail the windscreen may
shatter, causing serious injury. If hail is
encountered, lower your head below
windscreen level until the hail eases.
• Don’t try to turn back once you are in
the thunderstorm. A straight course
through the storm usually will get you
out of the hazards in the shortest time. In
addition, turning manoeuvres increase
stress on the aircraft.
High end ops
Even aircraft which have the capability to
avoid build-ups throughout the cruise
can confront the thunderstorm problem
during arrivals and departures. The following points are relevant to success for the
“high end”:
• Radar. Understand the manufacturer's
handbook on the equipment's capabilities and limitations, particularly the gain
controls. Radar is very useful when looking
up or down for determining core tops.
The higher the cell, the greater the energy.
This fact is useful when deciding on a
climb out or descent path.
Heavy rain can badly attenuate antenna
performance making the radar next to
useless when you need it most.
• Turbulence penetration. Structural
aspects and stall margins aside, you
should get a better ride if you are close to
MAUW. Aircraft inertia will also be
greater thereby minimising flight path
deviations. Unswept wings with a high
co-efficient of lift will give a less
comfortable ride.
Configure and operate according to the
aircraft manufacturer’s recommendation.
Be prepared to accept speed and
altitude variations. Most reasonably
modern autopilots will cope better with
these conditions than some pilots.
While some have a “turbulence” setting,
they will chase vertical “sub modes”, for
example, altitude, air speed and vertical
speed.
Therefore, unless the pilot notes say
differently, or you think you can do better,
keep primary pitch and roll attitude modes
engaged, disengage lateral sub modes if
they are likely to wander (eg VOR) or
revert to Heading hold, and disengage the
vertical sub modes.
Before entering turbulence, secure the
cockpit and cabin, and configure the fuel
system – select the fullest or additional
tanks, boost pumps on if applicable, and
so on.
Engine handling
All turbine engines at or near maximum
power have their compressor operating
lines close to the surge or stall line.
Engine accelerations, such as throttle
increases, and intake flow distortions –
for example, from turbulence, hail, ice
and heavy rain – move the operating line
towards the stall line. At constant rpm,
bleeding air from the compressor has the
opposite effect.
Therefore whether climbing, cruising or
descending, having any compressor bleed
air system on should be advantageous.
In the climb in gusty, torrential rain
with bleed air off, there is greater potential for engine stall. Despite the sophisticated fuel control systems which are
sometimes fitted, smooth symmetric and
slow throttle movement (particularly
increases) are preferable.
In the descent, power settings above
idle are more desirable (to provide bleed
air for systems) and sustain mass flows to
ensure continued combustion.
This often requires early air brake selection or configuring early in the approach
to carry more power. It should be no surprise that most engine manufacturers
require selection of continuous ignition
in these conditions, even if their engines
are fitted with automatic systems.
Geoff Smith is the regional and defence manager
(NSW) for the Bureau of Meteorology. Gil Moore is
Melbourne based aviation consultant.
Additional research by Kenn Batt, severe weather
section for the Bureau of Meteorology, NSW; and
Mike Adams, flying operations inspector, CASA.
Information also adapted from Aviation Safety Digest,
108 and the 1993 aviation weather seminar held in
Fremantle, WA.
FLYING OPERATIONS
T
he Global Positioning System
(GPS) is influencing the way
pilots think about navigation.
Installations of TSO approved units in
IFR aircraft are common. GPS is in
everyday use in VFR operations.
Incidents of pilots being “uncertain” of
their position is almost a thing of the
past. Why? The widespread use of GPS,
of course.
How much formal training do VFR pilots have in
the use of GPS? How many
know the significance of
RAIM? More importantly,
how many can still revert to
accurate visual or Dead
Reckoning navigation
when their GPS system
fails?
To the pilot of an aircraft inbound to
Charleville, your position relative to
Charleville is important, not your
position relative Narrabri or Longreach.
You should be monitoring your
position relative to aerodromes and way
points along the track, not just the
departure and destination points.
Good situational awareness is a must
missing filtering.
The problem manifests itself as either
RAIM or navigation capability loss.
Another well documented problem is
the GPS system failing to give position
information while the pilot is transmitting on VHF. One of the possible
causes of this is an unsatisfactory
electromagnetic compatibility between
the GPS equipment
installation and other onboard equipment.
The explanation is that
By Allister Polkinghorne
harmonic interference
from some VHF transmissions may adversely
affect reception of GPS
signals if sufficient attenuation of harmonics is
not provided. A minimum separation of 1.1
metres, centre to centre
between a GPS antenna
and a transmitting antenna
is recommended to minimise interference.
Trouble with GPS
Integrity
The integrity of GPS
information can only be
verified by an integrity
monitoring system, such as
Receiver Autonomous
Integrity
Monitoring
(RAIM). This means that
hand-held units, which
don’t have an integrity
monitoring capability, may
give false information.
In VFR conditions, you
will have the ability to see
any conflicting terrain;
however, the same cannot
hand-held units and
be said for control zone All
some panel-mounted GPS
boundaries or other traffic. units do not have RAIM
Many issues surrounding capability and may give
the use of GPS in VFR false information.
operations have been raised
including use of the GO TO function for all operations. Using the GO TO
and the integrity of the navigation function, it is easy to sit back, enjoy the
solution.
ride – and become
Providing navisituationally dull.
gation information
Reported GPS unit
between two points “Using the GO TO
failures are very rare.
500nm or 5,000nm
However, there have
apart presents no function, it is easy to
been numerous probproblem to any GPS sit back, enjoy the ride lems with “temunit. You should
porary installations”,
recognise that when – and become
or where pilots have
you are navigating a
yoke
or cockpitlong track using situationally dull.”
combing mounted
GPS, say, Longreach
units without an
to Narrabri and you
external aerial. The
are 14nm abeam Charleville, the result is “system” failures which can be
information you have visible on the GPS traced to reduced capability of the receiver
is that you are 210 nm from Longreach due to poor installation and incorrect or
or 311nm to Narrabri.
Installation
Airworthiness Advisory
Circular (AAC) number
6-26 sets out the requirements for the installation
of GPS equipment.
In summary, a proper
installation will assist
GPS
equipment
reliability,
and
enhance the availability of navigation
information.
At present there
are no requirements
in the private pilot training syllabus for
GPS knowledge – but the facts are that
GPS is in widespread use, and is a useful
aid to navigation.
You can minimise the risk of incident
due to false GPS information by having
equipment well installed, and staying
situationally aware. Pilots should retain
well developed DR and visual navigation
skills and cross-check the GPS solution
regularly during flight.
If there is some doubt about the GPS
solution, you should revert to traditional
navigation techniques.
✈
Allister Polkinghorne is a CASA safety education
officer, and an education advisor to Australia’s global
navigation satellite system implementation team.
FLYING OPERATIONS
All power lines are
potential killers.
John Freeman describes
how to locate and avoid
them.
Low flying near power lines
P
requires heavy, tall poles spaced close likely to find the wire before it finds you.
together, while thin, low-voltage line
Terrain
requires small, low poles some distance
The terrain poses different problems
apart.
relating to power lines. For example, it is
Another indicator is the insulator
possible for thick timber in forested areas
which protects the wire from the poles.
to obscure the view of a building,
The direction of the insulator points to
meaning it is even less likely you will see
the direction of the wire. The tension in
the power lines.
the wire run can be determined
The combination of hilly or
according to whether the insulator is
mountainous terrain with power line
horizontal or drooping.
runs has been the
An indicator of
cause of many acciheavy, high voltage
dents. Valleys, large
“There
have
been
wire runs, is a cleared
undulations and so on
firebreak. A firebreak many instances
mean that the power
can easily be seen from
when
aircraft
have
authorities construct
above or alongside, but
large networks of
not when approaching struck wires even
wires, often many
at right angles.
when
the
poles
hundreds of feet above
A good way to note
ground.
variations in wires and were clearly
These wires will be
wire systems is from visible.”
of heavy gauge so that
the ground. Driving,
they can span the disfor instance, provides
tance. With increased
an excellent opportunity to notice
wire thickness, there is little chance of the
features of wire systems. When carrying
aircraft being able to cut through the
out a low flying exercise it is very
wire, and little chance of surviving the
important to inspect the area the air
resulting collision with the ground.
beforehand (above 300ft) and make a
When flying in hilly or mountainous
mental note of the location of all
areas, always survey the area first to locate
powerlines.
wires. Flight should not be conducted at
The secret is to be constantly alert, and
a level below the terrain on either side of
remember this sequence: building, pole,
the aircraft.
insulator, and finally the wire itself. In
Rivers, reservoirs and the like often
following this sequence, you will be more
have long wire spans across them. Unless
ower lines are arguably the greatest
hazard for low flying aircraft. In the
past decade there has been an
average of four fatal accidents per year
involving collision with power lines.
Surprisingly, only about a quarter of
these were agriculture related.
Power lines can be very difficult to see.
It is easy for a wire to be hidden from
view by background camouflage, glare, a
pilot’s blind spot, or poor light. Look for
the indications of the wire’s position
before locating the actual wire.
Power lines come in many configurations – from big grids carried on large
lattice-type towers, to the Single Wire
Earth Return (SWER) systems, with long
spans and hidden poles.
All power lines are potential killers,
and there is no guarantee that they won’t
be found near aircraft landing areas.
Big grids will kill you if contacted, and
the single-wire earth line can deflect the
aircraft so close to the ground that it is
impossible to recover.
Location indicators
There are many signs which should alert
the pilot to think power lines. It must be
assumed that all buildings have power
connected, and thus, the first warning is
settlement.
A second indicator is the poles
themselves. These will vary considerably
in spacing. Thick, high-voltage wire
22
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itio
aircraft position 2
▲
• Slow down when low flying in bad
weather to give yourself more time to
locate the wires.
fie
• Keep your windscreen as clean as
possible..
e
• To minimise the visual illusions, make it
a habit to move your head around.
e of
ang
• Be aware of the factors which add to the
possibility of not seeing a wire. At low
levels it only takes a small or momentary
distraction to cause a strike.
sid
• Once a wire has been located, it is
essential to keep its location at the
forefront of your mind.
of r
• Before low flying, always survey the
area to locate the wires or their clues.
aircraft track
ut
Only a quarter of accidents involving
power lines are agriculture related.
Power lines are a hazard to all pilots.
John Freeman is the author of “Flight at lower levels”,
published by Wakefield Press in 1991.
Out
SOME HARD EARNED ADVICE
In some cases, extra clearance is
necessary. Guy wires, which are used to
correct sideways force on a pole where
the wire run changes direction, are an
example. These wires are only found at a
bend in the wire run or at a junction and
they can sometimes be connected to a
supplementary pole, which is often
found some distance from the wire run.
Danger exists because guy wires are
seldom attached with insulators. The
result is a wire that is difficult to see and
which is found some distance from the
main run.
At low levels it is possible, in windgradient or gusty conditions, to lose
height before adequate correction can be
made. For this reason, extra vertical
clearance above wires should be
considered whenever flying at low levels,
particularly when taking off or landing.
O
There have been many instances where
aircraft have struck wires due to the poles
being camouflaged or hidden by the
terrain. The most likely explanation is
related to limits of the field of vision.
The field of vision is the angle you can
see when looking straight ahead. In
Extra clearance
F
Visual effects
levels, the smallest distraction – such as
checking the fuel gauge, or responding to
a radio call – can be enough to cause a
pilot not to see a wire.
F
confirmed to be completely wire free, the
location of all wires must be known
when low flying in such an area.
In rural areas, electrical supply is
usually laid out in the form of major
arteries which then feed smaller and
smaller systems. When flying in a
familiar area, maybe near home base or
on an operation over a period of time, it
is best to accustom yourself to the major
arterial supply, which will then help you
to locate and remember the minor
systems.
humans this is approximately 70 degrees,
not including peripheral vision. The
range of vision refers to the distance that
can be seen.
The diagram (right) shows that it is
quite easy for a wire or the clue to a wire
to be within the field of vision, but
outside the range of vision. Likewise,
when in the range of vision, the wire or
its indication can easily fall outside the
field of vision.
In such cases, it may be impossible to
see the wire by looking straight ahead.
Your field of vision can be increased by
moving your head from side to side.
This should be made standard practice
when flying at low levels. However, the
only way to be certain of avoiding a
collision is to know where the wires are
before descending to their level.
Optical illusions can be blamed for
many power line related accidents. An
example of a common situation is when
there are two power lines running parallel
with a small lateral separation, say, on
either side of a road.
The wire that is highest often looks to
be the the furthest away when viewed
from right angles, irrespective of which
side the wires are viewed from. This
illusion is very marked until about 100m
from the wire. In cases where the high
wire is closest, it appears to change places
with the low wire and then move to its
true position.
The human eye has great difficulty
judging the position of a long, thin
object against a bland background. It is
all too easy for the pole or wire to be
disguised by the surroundings.
When operating in areas where the
wire grids are carried on lattice-type
towers, note that the towers also carry a
much thinner earth wire attached to the
top of the towers. This can be very
difficult to see, as the grey coloured
towers easily blend with the background
in dull or misty conditions.
Remember that the wires in a power
line run are easily seen from an “up-sun”
position, but will be quite invisible from
a “down-sun” position. This applies
irrespective of the wires’ thickness.
There have been many instances in
which aircraft have struck wires when
previously located even when the poles
were clearly visible. When flying at low
Power line poles can fall outside the
field of vision when they are within
the range of vision.
aircraft position 1
AIRWORTHINESS
The problem of documentation
opt in and out of different approved
maintenance programs which use
f you buy an aircraft, you will need its alternative documents to the log book,
total maintenance history for a such as workcards or computer based
certificate of airworthiness.
systems.
Certificate of Registration (C of R)
An approved maintenance program
holders are responsible for retaining all using alternative means to record an
documents relating to the maintenance aircraft’s maintenance history will require
of their aircraft and its components.
that data be retained by the C of R
This means that C of R holders need holder, so that the maintenance can be
to make arrangements to retain all reviewed from time to time.
maintenance documents which have
Without documented evidence, there
been referred to in the aircraft log book.
is no way the C of R holder can confirm
This includes worksheets, test reports,
that the required
non-destructive
maintenance was
testing reports, W & “A complete
actually performed,
B reports, airworand that parts fitted
thiness tag/release maintenance history
during maintenance
notes for parts and is priceless whenever
are actually authentic
any other mainteand serviceable.
nance documents an application is
A complete mainsupplied with parts made to vary the
tenance history is
that have been fitted
priceless whenever an
maintenance
to the aircraft.
application is made
Invoices or ship- system.”
to vary the mainping notes for all
tenance system, and
approved standard or
provides invaluable
commercial parts
data to support the
should also be kept.
engineering justiThese can be used as
fication for adjustproof of the maintement of maintenance
nance history and
task periods.
used for traceability
Don’t wait for the
of parts fitted during
Civil Aviation Safety
any maintenance
Authority (CASA) to
performed on the
audit your docuaircraft or aircraft
mentation. If any
components.
evidence is found
The maintenance
missing, then the
organisation has no
Authority may
obligation under the
issue, under CAR
civil aviation rules to
38, a maintenance
retain copies of the
direction to have
maintenance
maintenance
documents for any longer than 12
performed. CASA may also
months after the completion of order a part to be replaced because there
maintenance.
is no certification for it, or there is no
The aircraft logbook, or its approved reference to it in the aircraft logbook, or
alternative, is primarily used to record there are no release notes or equivalent
facts or events that will be important to documents to support the fitting of the
the future airworthiness control of the part.
aircraft (or the engine in the case of an
It is the responsibility of the C of R
engine logbook).
holder to keep his or her maintenance
The logbook records information on records up to date – not the maintenance
the completion of maintenance tasks, but organisation, not CASA, just the
not all details.
Certificate of Registration holder.
The total maintenance history of the
aircraft and its components can also be a Ken Cannane is manager of CASA’s continuing
problem for those C of R holders who airworthiness section.
LEVELS OF
RELIABILITY
By Ken Cannane
I
24
W
hy should a Certificate of
Registration (C of R) holder read
and consider manufacturer’s maintenance
instructions, such as service alerts, service
letters and service bulletins?
The rules require the achievement of a
level of maintenance which will ensure
that the aircraft remains safe. However,
this does not guarantee that the reliability
of the aircraft will meet the expectations
of the C of R holder.
Many aircraft are being maintained to
basic maintenance schedules, without
utilising the more economical
maintenance program that can be
approved under Civil Aviation
Regulation 42M.
This allows for an approved
maintenance program that will satisfy the
rules. It also enables the manufacturer’s
recommended maintenance periods to be
varied, depending on the reliability of the
aircraft or the aircraft part.
For example, a Piper PA31-350
maintenance schedule requires engine
shock mounts to be changed every
500hrs.
Evidence shows that these mounts can
remain safely in service for longer
periods; so with justification the
replacement period can be extended.
The periodic inspection period of
100hrs can also be extended with
appropriate justification backed by
reliability reports and a good
maintenance history.
There are three levels of maintenance a
C of R holder can opt for:
• The resale level. Maximum
maintenance for maximum resale value
(exceeds recommended maintenance).
• Operator’s reliability level. Maintained
to a level of reliability suitable for the
operation. (Exceeds the minimum safe
level, but less than “resale level”.)
• Minimum safe level. Used as a basis to
develop operator’s programs.
CASA regulates a minimum safe level
of maintenance, leaving the C of R
holder to determine the level
maintenance to be achieved above this
minimum safe level.
Assistance is available from your
maintenance organisation, a professional
engineer, or your nearest CASA district
office (listed on page 39).
– Ken Cannane
AIRWORTHINESS
How
skin joints can fail
▲
A rivetted skin joint showing small
fatigue cracks (red) which have started to
grow after thousands of fuselage
pressurisations.These are hard to detect,
even with modern inspection methods.
▲ Once the fatigue cracks grow, it is not
long before the shrinking areas of skin
between the rivets cannot carry the load,
and let go in rapid succession, like a zipper.
Aloha Airlines Boeing 737, 1988: the skin of the fuselage “unzipped” due
to skin joint failure (see inset).
Fuselage fatigue has
been a problem for jet
airliners since the Comet.
Repairs can fail unless
they are damage tolerant.
Steve Swift reports.
Damage tolerant repairs
I
n a discussion paper intended for
release soon, CASA will be inviting
public comment on a proposal to
change the rules governing the design
and subsequent maintenance of aircraft
structural repairs.
Good repair design has never been
simple, but it will no longer be good
enough to just “stick a patch on it”. New
repairs will sprout “fingers”. Old repairs
will be put under the microscope of new
technology. All this is part of an
international move to require structural
repairs (and modifications) to be
“damage tolerant”.
Fail-safe failed
For the origins of this change, we need to
go back to Africa nearly 20 years ago, to
14 May 1977. The crew of Boeing 707
G-BEBP, weary from a long overnight
flight from London, lowered flaps for
landing on approach to Lusaka, Zambia.
Six seconds later they heard a loud bang
as the tailplane broke off.
There was nothing they could do.
Observers at the airfield watched the
helpless aircraft pitch down and spear
into the ground. All six on board the
cargo flight were killed instantly.
Investigators found that a fatigue
crack, which had been growing in the top
part of the rear spar for hundreds of
flights, had finally ruptured the tailplane.
But that should not have been
dangerous. The Boeing 707 had been
designed as “fail-safe”: if one part fails,
there is supposed to be a back up.
In fact, the rear spar did have an extra
“The crew of Boeing
707 G-BEBP, weary
from a long overnight
flight from London,
lowered flaps for
landing. Six seconds
later, they heard a loud
bang as the tailplane
broke off.”
“fail-safe” member. But it didn’t work –
the crack went straight through it.
Fail-safe failed. It failed because the
crack in the top part was far from
obvious and there were no inspections.
And it failed because the strength of a
cracked tailplane had not been tested: the
fail-safe member was not strong enough.
So in December 1978, the United
States Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) changed the fatigue rules for large
aircraft (Amendment 45 to FAR 25).
“Fail-safe” was out. “Damage tolerance”
was in.
Since damage from fatigue and
corrosion is inevitable in old aircraft,
there is a need for a genuine ability to fly
safely with damage until it is detected
and repaired. Damage tolerance is what
fail-safe tried to be.
While still valuing structural
redundancy,
damage
tolerance
emphasises testing:
• Fatigue testing so we know where,
when and how to look for cracks.
• Residual strength testing to confirm
that the cracked structure is strong
enough.
There must be specific, directed
inspections. It is no longer good enough
to hope that damage will be obvious.
Damage tolerance also calls for
consideration that the back up structure
might itself be cracked.
But in 1978 the new rules only applied
to new aircraft — the ones with the least
urgent need. So in May 1981, the US
FAA took the bold step of requiring a
damage tolerance assessment of old
AIRWORTHINESS
inside, or using clever
aircraft (Advisory Circular 91inspection methods to look
56). Such retrospectivity is INITIAL TARGET AIRCRAFT
through the doubler. Two such
unusual. Normally the lower • Airbus A300
• Boeing 747
methods are X-ray and low
safety level of superseded rules is • Boeing 727
• Douglas DC-9/MD-80
frequency eddy current.
constant and tolerable. But • Boeing 737
• Fokker F28
The diagram on page 27 also
fatigue is different. With
shows two ideas on how repairs
inadequate rules the risk just
can be made more damage
keeps rising until it eventually
tolerant in future.
becomes intolerable.
A damage tolerance assessA damage tolerance assessment involves asking:
ment of a fail-safe aircraft
• Where will it crack?
almost always results in extra
• When will it crack?
inspections: the now familiar
• How fast will cracks grow?
Supplemental
Structural
• How well can we find the
Inspection Document (SSID).
cracks?
SSIDs have been developed for ▲
Initially, the damage tolerant repair assessment
• When will things become
most large jet airliners.
is
proposed
for the pressurised fuselage only. Other
unsafe?
But during the flurry of
For repairs, the process is set
activity which followed the aircraft, and other parts of the aircraft, are proposed
out in the table below. The
Aloha Airlines Boeing 737 to be added over time.
result, like the SSID for the
accident in 1988, it was
standard airframe, will be extra
recognised that something had been and stay hidden under the doubler. Such
inspections. Uninspectable repairs will
overlooked: SSIDs cover the standard a repair caused a Fokker F28 to make an
have to be upgraded.
aircraft, but aircraft do not stay that way emergency descent in Papua New Guinea
If adopted, implementation would be
for long. They need improvements, so after a hole blew in its rear pressure
progressive, starting with the pressurised
they get modified; they get damaged, so bulkhead. Similarly, a Lockheed L-188
fuselages of the oldest jet airliners. To
they get repaired. These alterations must Electra on an Australian domestic flight
help with the assessment, aircraft
also be damage tolerant to ensure a barely made it to its destination after a
manufacturers will be producing
consistent level of safety throughout the repaired wing plank ruptured, spewing
simplified manuals. Specialist engineers
airframe. The safety chain is only as fuel over the countryside. The tanks were
empty by the time the aircraft landed.
will probably be able to do it just as
strong as its weakest link.
A damage tolerance assessment would
easily from first principles – if they can
The diagram on page 27 shows a
get enough design information.
typical old-style repair. The problem is have shown that such repairs can only be
Designers of new repairs will have to
that cracks start in the underlying skin kept safe by looking regularly from the
▲ Damage tolerance
assessment of an aircraft’s
repairs involves three simple
steps.
Manufacturers will be
producing simplified manuals
to help engineers categorise
repairs and determine
structural maintenance
requirements. Specialists in
damage tolerance will
probably be able to do it just
as easily from first principles
– if they can get enough
design information.
26
.
AIRWORTHINESS
Pictorial View
showing section through critical
row of rivets
Top View
Aircraft
skin
Aircraft
skin
Internal repair
doubler
AACs
ADs
Airworthiness Advisory Circulars
Aircraft
skin
Airworthiness Directives.
‘finger’
Damage tolerant repair
design concepts from
a paper by Tom Swift,
United States Federal
Aviation Administration
consider not just strength, but stiffness and
inspectability. We now know, for example,
that “you can go wrong if it’s big and strong”,
contrary to what engineers were once taught.
And so we keep on learning. If there is
one thing we can be sure about in the ageing aircraft business, it is that we are not
finished yet.
Inquiries can be directed to the project
manager, AW 96/6, Airworthiness Branch,
CASA, GPO Box 2005, Canberra ACT
2601.
Phone (06) 268 4456; fax (06) 268 4906;
e-mail [email protected]
and
CAAPs
Civil Aviation Advisory Publications
ON THE INTERNET
FROM EARLY 1997
http://www.casa.gov.au
Steve Swift is CASA’s principal engineer, fatigue
evaluation.
AIRWORTHINESS
Electrical system failure
When your electrical generation system fails all you’ve got
left is your battery. Some questions for pilots to consider.
T
here are many components in any
aircraft electrical system whose
failure could result in loss of
generated power.
In single-engine aircraft, the failure of
only one item can have that effect. Some
twin-engine aircraft, despite having two
generating systems, are in the same
position.
Typically, electrical generating system
failures result from such mundane causes
as a broken V belt, loose or broken wire
to the generator/alternator or voltage
regulator, voltage regulator failure or even
bearing failures in alternators/generators.
While one failure may cause a loss of
generated electrical power, that does not
imply a total loss of electrical power. All
being well, there remains a battery with a
capacity to supply some power for some
period of time.
Day VFR is the least troublesome
operation when there is a loss of electrical
power. Before writing off this situation as
“not a problem”, give some thought to a
typical operation. What systems would
you have left – flaps, undercarriage
extension, communications? What
compensating actions would be required,
and how would you ensure you were not
going to be a hazard to someone else?
In night VMC operations there is
more reliance on the aircraft’s electrical
system – for instrument lighting, if
nothing else.
The rules require you carry a torch, so
that if all electrical power is lost there is
no good reason why a safe landing would
not be possible. Don’t dismiss this
situation too lightly though.
Ever tried landing at night with only a
torch stuck in your mouth for
instrument lighting? No landing lights
either, perhaps no flaps, and possibly
with the undercarriage having to be
extended manually (was it 50 turns of the
handle?), but hopefully landing at your
intended destination and hopefully with
runway lights (if you can turn them on).
In IFR operation, loss of electrical
power leaves you with a torch and a
standby compass.
Yes, you might say, but I always have
the aircraft battery as an emergency backup. True. But for how long? How long is
28
it going to take you to reduce the
electrical loads on the battery to a
minimum? How do you reduce the
electrical loads to a minimum without
switching off the systems you need? Just
what are the minimum loads you should
retain? What compensating actions are
necessary when loads are reduced to a
minimum? Is the undercarriage driven by
an electrically-operated hydraulic pump?
Will you have flaps? Is the electrical fuel
pump really necessary?
If answers don’t spring to mind, there
is always the flight manual you carry in
the aircraft. That should have the
answers. Checked it lately?
One thing is sure, you do not have any
energy that can be extracted from a
battery is dependent on the rate at which
the energy is extracted. For example, a
15 amp hour battery may be able to
supply a current of 3 amps for 5 hours.
The same battery will only provide about
8 amp hours at 15 amps discharge rate
(32 minutes), 6 amp hours at 30 amps
(12 minutes) and 5.25 amp hours at 40
amps 8 minutes).
To illustrate this, let’s take a common
single-engine IFR approved type, and
make the following assumptions:
• The aircraft has a generating system
failure warning light that gives
immediate warning of a failure.
• A generating system failure occurs soon
after take-off at night, in IMC.
• It takes you two minutes to shed all
non-essential loads.
• The aircraft has a serviceable 15.5 amp
hour lead acid battery which is fully
charged before engine start.
• You spend five minutes on the ground
A quick battery test for pilots
All it takes is to add an accurate voltmeter to your panel.
The best type is an expanded scale, analog meter.
These will have a lower reading of 7-8 volts and upper
end of 15-16 volts, with 8-16 being the optimum.
The voltmeter should get its power from as close to
the battery as possible. An in-line fuse right at the
battery contractor is best; go right to the bus if running
the wire is too difficult.
A simple test of your battery’s capacity is to look at
the voltmeter while starting the engine. In warm
weather, the needle shouldn’t drop below 8.5-9 volts
during cranking. In cold weather 8-8.5 volts is the
minimum. Double these values for 28-volt systems.
If the voltmeter falls below these levels, you should
have the battery’s capacity checked by your
maintenance organisation.
time to spare after the generating system
fails if you are going to successfully
manage the situation.
Detailed knowledge of the aircraft
electrical system is an essential
requirement of all who fly IFR.
Knowing that non-essential electrical
loads should be shed as soon as possible
after a generating system failure is not
enough. Knowing how and what loads to
shed is essential. It is desirable to have
some idea of the likely time available
before battery power is depleted.
Whatever battery power is left after a
generating system failure should be
conserved for essential systems. There is a
peculiarity in battery characteristics that
makes the time element critical. The
peculiarity being that the amount of
after starting for taxiing and run-up, pretake-off checks etc.
• The aircraft has an emergency load of
11 amps and a normal load (at night) of
40 amps excluding landing lights.
You start off with a fully charged,
serviceable battery with at least 80 per
cent of original capacity. Battery capacity
is 12.4 amp hours. Assume two 10second attempts at engine start. Because
of the high current drain, the battery
capacity will typically be reduced by 3.3
amp hours. You now have 9.1 amp hours
remaining.
After engine start, you apply the
normal load of 40 amps by switching on
such things as radios, navigation lights,
taxi light and landing light, anti-collision
beacon etc. The alternator now provides
AIRWORTHINESS
some power, however, we are at idle rpm
and even alternators don’t provide full
output at idle. Let’s assume the alternator
provided 50 per cent of its output at
1,000 rpm (a not unusual case) and is a
50 amp alternator. The alternator
therefore provides 25 amps and the
battery must supply the remainder of the
40 amp load, that is, 15 amps, for the
five-minute taxi etc. At this rate of
discharge, the battery will typically lose a
further 2.25 amp hours capacity.
Remaining battery capacity is therefore
9.1 - 2.25 = 6.85 amp hours.
Soon after take-off, the generating
system fails. You know because of the
failure warning light. You now have a 40
amp load for two minutes to collect your
thoughts, control the aircraft in IMC,
and reduce the load to the emergency
figure of 11 amps. During this two
minutes you will have consumed around
3.4 amp hours of the battery’s capacity.
You now have 6.85 - 3.40 = 3.45 amp
hours left. With the emergency load of
11 amps, the battery will typically only
provide 0.7 of its capacity. You therefore
have:
0.7 x 3.45 hours remaining = 2.15
amp hours
2.15 x 60 = 129 amp minutes
129 amp minutes = 11.7 minutes of
battery power at 11 amps
That’s right – about 12 minutes.
Remember the assumptions: a fully
charged, serviceable battery; a warning
light that alerted you immediately to the
failure; and sufficient knowledge of the
systems in the aircraft to be able to shed
non-essential loads in only two minutes.
Let’s look at a significant assumption
in the example – a serviceable, fully
charged battery. Is it? Does it ever get a
capacity check? When is it replaced?
How many times have you had to do a
jump start with an external power
source? How many times has the engine
on your aircraft been obstinate at
starting, and how much power would
have been left in the battery after it
finally started?
Finally, how many times have you
written up the maintenance release for
problems with a less than serviceable
battery?
Maintenance staff are not going to fix a
problem they don’t know about.
✈
Updated from an Aviation Safety Digest article, 132,
Autumn 1987.
How to get an exemption from
an Airworthiness Directive
T
here used to be a charge for
processing a request for an
exemption or variation to an
Airworthiness Directive. Since the
charge was dropped, applications have
jumped three-fold.
Prior to June 95, CASA technical
specialists processed approximately 35
exemption and variation requests per
month. Since charging for these ceased,
the number has risen to around 100 per
month.
Airworthiness Directives (ADs) are
issued only after carefully considering
whether there is a real safety risk with
particular aircraft, components or
equipment.
Generally the times allocated for
compliance with an Airworthiness
Directive are those considered to be the
maximum that could be allowed under
the circumstances.
Owners and operators have a right to
seek to delay or vary the compliance.
However, hardship, inconvenience,
expediency, lack of parts or an operator’s
cost-saving measures or maintenance
planning requirements are not grounds
for ignoring the safety risk.
If you seek an exemption or variation
for a period, or permanently, the first
step is to consider what technical
justification you can provide to CASA
to show that your proposed course of
action will ensure an equivalent level of
safety to that required by the AD.
Justification could include:
• Confirmation that the original
manufacturer supports the proposal, or
at least has no technical objection to it.
• Service or inspection reports that
support your reasoning.
• Nomination of operational restrictions – for example, reduced Maximum
Take-off Weight (MTOW), or speed
reductions.
• A statement that no other
airworthiness limitations will be
exceeded during the period of the
exemption – for example, the time in
service will not exceed the manufacturer's limits.
• That the safety risk is balanced, for
example, by back-up systems or
redundancy.
To apply for an exemption or
variation, you should contact your local
CASA district office (listed on page 39),
where copies of the new standard
application form (AWB/AW/057) can
be obtained. The form has been
developed to ensure that all the
information required by CASA to assess
the application is provided.
Once your application is filled out
and submitted to a CASA district office,
it will be processed. You will need to
allow a minimum of five working days
to receive advice of the result.
Applications made without using the
new standardised CASA form may take
longer to assess, particularly if the
information required is incomplete.
Requests for exemptions and
variations are not considered critical to
safety of flight; the safety risk is
addressed by the AD. CASA airworthiness staff will try to process the
application in a timely, accurate and
consistent manner; however, if CASA
staff have urgent safety-of-flight issues
to address, these will receive priority
over requests for exemption or variation
to an AD.
CASA does consider the economic
impact of ADs, and is sympathetic to
genuine difficulties facing industry, but
adequate management of the safety risk
will always take precedence.
Good maintenance planning ought to
avoid the need to make unnecessary
requests.
✈
– Ralph Murphy, airworthiness branch, CASA.
REGULATION
SPORT
AVIATION
Club attitude
Safety indicators for clubs
By Ben Firkins
O
ne of the great benefits of
operating in a club environment
is the sharing of wisdom – not to
mention yarns – with your peers.
Safety is one of those areas where
everyone can participate and have some
impact within their sphere of influence.
How can you assess the safety of your
club’s operation? Are you in an
environment where there is an accident
waiting to happen, or are you consciously
on the path to identifying potential
hazards, and limiting the opportunities
for accidents?
While the following safety indicators
for clubs are not exhaustive, it should
provide some guidance in your quest for
safety.
Financial
Are you only repairing parts which are
critical, or deferring work to the next
annual inspection?
The usual trend is that daily inspectors
start accepting a creeping regression in
airworthiness standards, until there is an
accident or an incident, after which there
is much “navel gazing” before standards
are raised again.
Workload distribution
Is all the work being done by a small core
of the membership? Are they getting
burnt out so that in a couple of years
time all the experience walks out of the
door, leaving the club with inexperienced
staffers who take over on a trial and error
basis ?
Is there a group of inexperienced
members performing critical activities
without being monitored, such as
performing annual inspections, or
training students? Do you have a
structured training and supervision
program?
30
Environmental indicators
A change in environment is a big risk
indicator. Moving to a new location
involves all kinds of problems – different
airspace, micrometeorology, different
runway lengths and widths (operating for
the first time on a wider strip usually
results in students flaring higher) and
different forced landing options, to name
just a few.
Another risk indicator is having
another group move into your patch.
This can produce subtle changes in the
environment without a location change.
Is there friction and antagonism
polarising the members, with a
reluctance to help adversaries to the
detriment of airfield safety?
An enthusiastic, go-getting clique is an
indicator that things may slip unnoticed
or result in a “near enough is good
enough” attitude. Have you noticed
pilots taking off too close to last light in
order to land back at the hangar to save
walking the aircraft back to the hangar.
Are members unlikely to report an
incident because they are afraid of the
chief flying instructor’s authoritarian
action? Is each case considered on its own
merits? Is there a person or committee
looking for trends in club incidents, and
devising methods to prevent the
incidents turning into accidents?
How to improve safety levels
Communication. Does your club have a
safety committee to which other
members can bring safety-related
concerns anonymously? Are the
committee’s deliberations circulated? Do
you liaise with other airspace users and
organisations in your area?
Consensus. Does the club operate in a
manner so that everyone can speak? Are
all concerns considered by the club’s
Club profile
executive or safety and maintenance
An ageing fleet is prone to fatigue. An committees?
instructor or maintenance staffing pool External Review. As well as the annual
with members close to retirement will visit from your Federation’s operations
require planning – and
manager, consider
perhaps training – for “An enthusiastic, gohaving someone take
replacement workers.
an informal and
If you have recently getting clique is an
objective look at your
acquired high perfor- indicator that things
organisation
for
mance aircraft, when may slip by unnoticed.” possible danger areas.
all other club aircraft
For example, ask a
are older and slower,
nearby ballooning
you should ask yourself a couple of key group to look over your hang-gliding
questions: is there progression training; club. While they are not experts in hanghow is the new aircraft to be maintained?
gliding, they can observe impartially. You
Is one person always doing the same could then return the favour by
activity without being checked – such as conducting a similar informal review for
maintaining one particular glider, or them. Alternatives are to set up a safety
taking students from ab-initio to post committee to review your operations on
solo? Is there an increased chance that a regular basis, or have a safety review on
this one person will miss a slowly the agenda for the instructors and
deteriorating item or part of the training maintenance panel.
syllabus (or teach it incorrectly)?
Finally, if all this seems esoteric, and
Is there follow-up supervision and you wonder if you can afford the time to
training for post-solo pilots, or are they take a reflective look, ask yourself whether
left to generate bad habits with only an your club can afford an accident.
✈
annual checkride? Similarly, what is the
level of flying proficiency? Are you Ben Firkins is the CASA sport aviation inspector for
avoiding check flights because you doubt the west region.
that you’ll pass?
REGULATION & THE LAW
In order to alleviate the
impact of the constant
stream of bills all light
aircraft owners know
only too well, many
owners make their
aircraft available for
others to fly.
Tony Pyne discusses the
legal obligations, and
describes a simple hire
agreement which will
protect owners.
Aircraft for hire
A
ircraft hire can vary from
occasional rentals of the aircraft
to friends who are also pilots, to
having the aircraft “on line” with a flying
organisation which, in turn, makes the
aircraft available to its students and
licensed pilots.
Most such arrangements have
traditionally been informal, word of
mouth deals done by a handshake with
little thought being given to the legal
position and liabilities of either party if
something goes wrong and the aircraft is
damaged.
It is too late after the event to assign
responsibilities – that is the province of
lawyers and insurers.
This article will concentrate principally
on simple arrangements directly between
the owner and the hiring pilot. However,
you should appreciate that in
circumstances where the owner makes
the aircraft available to a flying school or
an aero club which then hires it to pilots
who may not be known to the owner, the
problems can be exacerbated. Even more
care should be taken with contractual
arrangements.
The liability of the hirer/pilot under
private hire arrangement for loss or
damage to the aircraft is governed by the
common law, unless modified in terms of
the contract of hire.
Unless so modified, the hirer will be
liable to the owner for damage caused by
the hirer intentionally (that is, on least negligent.
Accident without fault is not enough,
purpose), recklessly (not caring whether
the damage occurs or not) or negligently for example where the damage was due
(where the hirer does not act in to the failure of the owner to adequately
accordance with the standard of care maintain the aircraft.
ordinarily expected of a reasonable pilot
Any hire agreement should be kept
of ordinary skill).
simple. In addition to basic matters such
As the aircraft is given over to the as description of the aircraft, price per
hirer’s, custody, control
hour, responsibility for
and possession purfuel costs and landing
suant to the agreement, “Most arrangements fees, consideration should
the hirer becomes have traditionally
be given to including the
bailee of the aircraft
following in any such
and may, as such, be been informal, wordagreement:
liable to the owner or of-mouth deals done
• A requirement that the
organisation who hired by a handshake with
hirer return the aircraft in
it for failure to return little thought being
the same condition as
the aircraft (for
provided to him or her,
given
to
the
legal
example, due to an
reasonable wear and tear
accident) or to return it position and
excepted, and provisions
in the same condition liabilities of either
for unscheduled mainas it was in when
tenance.
party if something
released for hire.
• An undertaking that
goes
wrong
and
the
Of course, if failure
only the hiring pilot will
to return the aircraft aircraft is damaged.”
fly the aircraft.
was due to a third
• An undertaking that
party, the hirer can
usually recover from that third party the the pilot will comply with Civil Aviation
amount for which he or she is liable to Regulations, and that in the unlikely
event that the owner’s cover under the
the owner.
In order to succeed in a claim, the relevant insurance policy is lost as a result
owner must prove that the pilot was at of non-compliance, the owner will then
REGULATION & THE LAW
have a contractual right of action to
recover the amount of the loss. Such a
provision should be in respect of the
owner’s policy excess in any event.
• A requirement to use only licensed
aerodromes or other places meeting the
requirements of CAR 92.
• An undertaking that the pilot will not
engage in hazardous operations and
similar matters.
• A provision preventing the hirer from
using the aircraft for commercial
operations or cross hiring it.
While it may appear appropriate for
any hire agreement to include a warranty
that the aircraft is covered under a policy
of insurance, perhaps even specifying the
amount of cover, it is not practical to set
out the circumstances in which cover can
be lost.
Pilots should read the policy relating to
the aircraft, and owners should make this
policy available for this purpose.
It would be prudent for a hiring pilot
to take out a non-ownership liability
policy to cover situations where the
aircraft privately hired is for any reason
uninsured or under-insured, or to cover
any excess for which the pilot is liable.
However, if the pilot’s own actions are
such as to cause cover under any aircraft
policy to be lost or to justify subrogation
proceedings against the pilot, it is likely
that cover would not be available under
the non-ownership policy.
As indicated above, the agreement
should state who is to pay any excess for
claims on the aircraft policy and the
amount of such excess.
Sadly, in today’s increasing litigious
society, word-of-mouth arrangements can
lead to problems when something goes
wrong – even between friends.
Owners should give consideration to
protecting themselves by way of a simple
hire agreement signed by all those who
use their aircraft.
A little forethought can pay significant
dividends – and protect your aircraft.
Note that owners of aircraft hired to
another party which use them for
charter or regular public transport
should be aware of new legislation in
relation to compulsory liability
insurance of passengers in such
operations.
Tony Pyne is a consultant in aviation law in the
Melbourne, Brisbane and Sydney offices of Minter
Ellison, Solicitors. © Tony Pyne 1996.
32
AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES
Airworthiness Directives (ADs) advise
Certificate of Registration (C of R)
holders of additional maintenance
requirements.
AIRCRAFT – ENGINES
There are no amendments to this issue.
AIRCRAFT – EQUIPMENT
1. Propellers - Variable Pitch – Hamilton Standard
AD/PHS/20 Amdt 2 - Propeller Blade Shanks
JUNE 1996
JULY 1996
Approved for 20 June 1996
HELICOPTERS
1. Eurocopter AS 332 (Super Puma) Series
Helicopters
AD/S-PUMA/20 Amdt 2 - CANCELLED
AD/S-PUMA/21 Amdt 1 - Tail Rotor Pitch Change
Spiders
AD/S-PUMA/22 - Tail Rotor Shaft
2. Eurocopter SA 330 (Puma) Series Helicopters
AD/PUMA/35 Amdt 3 - Tail Rotor Flapping Hinge
AD/PUMA/36 Amdt 1 - Tail Rotor Pitch Change
Spiders
AD/PUMA/37 - Inclined Drive Shaft Fairing
AIRCRAFT - NOT GREATER THAN 5700KG
1. Swearingen SA 226 & SA 227 Series A’planes
AD/SWSA 226/73 Amdt 1 - Current Limiter
Protection
AD/SWSA 226/78 - Landing Gear Struts
2. Twin Commander (Gulfstream/Rockwell/
Aerocommander 500, 600 & 700) Series
Aeroplanes
AD/AC/96 - Nose Landing Gear Bolt
AIRCRAFT - GREATER THAN 5700KG
1. Airbus Industrie A320 Series Aeroplanes
AD/A320/68 - Flight Warning Computer
2. AMD Fan Jet Falcon (Falcon 20 Mystere Falcon 200) Series Aeroplanes
AD/AMD 20/25 - Wing to Fuselage Upper Fairings
3. AMD Falcon 50 and 900 Series Aeroplanes
AD/AMD 50/10 Amdt 1 - Overhead Panel Wiring
Harness
4. Boeing 747 Series Aeroplanes
AD/B747/157 Amdt 1 - P&W JT9D Aft Engine
Mount Tangential Link
AD/B747/159 - STILL TO BE ISSUED
AD/B747/160 - STILL TO BE ISSUED
AD/B747/161 - Triple Channel Autoland
Autopilots
AD/B747/162 - Overhead Stowage Bin
AD/B757/13 Amdt 1 - Nacelle Strut Midspar Fuse
Pins
AD/B757/30 – Spoiler Actuators
AD/B767/85 Amdt 2 - MLG Outer Cylinder Aft
Trunnion
7. Douglas DC9 Series Aeroplanes
AD/DC9/96 – Overhead Switch Panel Wiring
8. Embraer EMB 120 (Brasilia) Series A’planes
AD/EMB 120/12 Amdt 1 – Aileron Upper
Channel Fairings
9. Fokker F50 (F27 Mk 50) Series Aeroplanes
AD/F50/70 – LH Elevator Drainage
AIRCRAFT – LIGHTER THAN AIR
There are no amendments this issue.
Approved for 18 July 1996
HELICOPTERS
1. McDonnell Douglas (Hughes) & Kawasaki 369
Series Helicopters
AD/HU 369/89 - Main Blade Root End
AD/HU 369/91 - Flight Trials Hardpoints
2. Robinson R22 Series Helicopters
AD/R22/42 - Main Rotor Blades
AIRCRAFT – NOT GREATER THAN 5700KG
1. GAF N22 and N24 Series Aeroplanes
AD/GAF N22/58 Amdt 5 - Horizontal Stabiliser
AD/GAF N22/75 - Horizontal Stabiliser Access
Panel Intercostal Angles and Upper and Lower
Skins
2. Mitsubishi MU-2 Series Aeroplanes
AD/MU-2/58 - Wing Tip Tank Attachment
3. Piper PA-11 (Cub) & J3 Series Aeroplanes
AD/PA-11/5 Amdt 6 - Wing Lift Struts
4. Piper PA-20 (Pacer) Series Aeroplanes
5. Piper PA-22 (Tri-Pacer and Colt) Series
Aeroplanes
AD/PA-22/33 Amdt 6 – Wing Lift Struts
6. Piper PA-25 (Pawnee) Series Aeroplanes
7. Piper PA-28 Series Aeroplanes
AD/PA-28/92 – Landing Light Seal
8. Pitts S-1 and S-2 Series Aeroplanes
AD/PITTS S-2/16 – Upper Fuselage Longerons
AIRCRAFT – GREATER THAN 5700KG
1. Airbus Industrie A300 & A310 Series A’planes
AD/AB3/73 Amdt 1 - Ram Air Turbine Uplock Pin
2. Airbus Industrie A320 Series Aeroplanes
AD/A320/69 - Passenger Door Emergency
Door Actuator Striker Mechanism
3. AMD Falcon 50 and 900 Series Aeroplanes
AD/AMD 50/12 - Right Hand Electrical
Cabinet Wiring Harness
AD/B727/100 Amdt 3 - Elevator Rear Spar
AD/B737/95 - Electrical/Electronics
Equipment Bay Wire Chafing
AD/B747/41 Amdt 1 - Fuselage Section 41,
Stringer 6 - Stations 340 to 400
AD/B747/46 Amdt 5 – Forward Fuselage Pressure
Shell
AD/B747/159 – Forward Pressure Bulkhead
AD/B747/160 – Fuselage Skin Above Main
Entry Doors – 2
AD/B757/30 Amdt 1 - Spoiler Actuators
AD/B767/63 Amdt 3 - Thrust Reverser Control
System
AD/B767/89 - Thrust Reverser Control
System Operational Checks
9. British Aerospace BAe 4100 (Jetstream)
Series Aeroplanes
AD/J41/10 - CANCELLED
AD/J41/19 – Attachment Bracket for Door
Restraint Cable
AD/F50/71 - Wings - Bottom Skin Access Covers
There are no amendments to this issue.
1. Propellers – Variable Pitch - Hamilton
Standard
AD/PHS/21 Amdt 1 - Blade Spar Taper Bore
AUGUST 1996
Approved for 15 August 1996
AIRCRAFT – HELICOPTERS
1. Bell 206 & Agusta Bell 206 Series Helicopters
AD/BELL 206/137 – Fuel Drain Tubes
2. Bell 222 Series Helicopters
AD/BELL 222/19 – Retrofit of Engine
Overspeed Controller
3. Bell UH-1 Series Helicopters
AD/UH-1/1 – Tail Rotor Blades
4. Eurocopter BK117 Series Helicopters
AD/GBK 117/7 – Retrofit of Engine Overspeed
Controller
5. Kawasaki BK117 Series Helicopters
AD/JBK 117/9 – Retrofit of Engine
Overspeed Controller
AD/R22/44 – V Belt Upper Sheave
AD/R44/5 – Low RPM Warning Unit
8. Eurocopter AS332 (Super Puma)
Series Helicopters
AD/S-PUMA/23 – Main Rotor Spindles and
Flapping Hinge Pins
AIRCRAFT – NOT GREATER THAN 5700KG
1. Aircraft – General
AD/GENERAL/4 Amdt 3 – Aircraft Exits
2. Aerospatiale (Socata) TB9 & TB10 (Tobago)
Series Aeroplanes
AD/TB10/26 Amdt 2 – Main Landing Gear
Support Ribs
3. Beechcraft 35 (Bonanza) Series Aeroplanes
AD/BEECH 35/66 Amdt 1 – Engine Fuel
Metering Unit
4. Beechcraft 36 Series Aeroplanes
AD/BEECH 36/42 Amdt 1 – Engine Fuel
Metering Unit
5. DHC-6 (Twin Otter) Series Aeroplanes
AD/DHC-6/62 Amdt 5 – Elevator Quadrant
Control Column and Elevator/Rudder Pulley
Brackets
6. Maule M-4 Series Aeroplanes
AD/ML-M4/17 – Gascolator and Electric Fuel
Pump – Proximity to Dual Exhaust System
7. Mitsubishi Mu-2 Series Aeroplanes
AD/MU-2/59 – Propeller Feathering Valve and
Linkage
AD/PA-28/93 – Flap Handle Attach Bolt
AD/PA-31/106 Amdt 2 – Fuselage Station
332.0 Bulkhead
AD/PA-31/114 Amdt 3 – Main Landing Gear
Forward Side Brace
10. Piper PA-32 (Cherokee Six) Series A’planes
AD/PA-32/80 - Flap Handle Attach Bolt
11. Piper PA-34 (Seneca) Series Aeroplanes
12. Piper PA-44 (Seminole) Series Aeroplanes
AD/PITTS S-2/17 - Rear Lower Fuselage Wing
Fittings
1. AlliedSignal (Lycoming) Turbine Engines
LTS101 Series
AD/LTS/9 Amdt 2 – Number 3 and 4 Bearing
Monitoring
AD/LTS/13 - Improved Power Turbine Retention
1. Emergency Equipment
AD/EMY/31 - Aerazur Life Raft Type 606
2. Fuel Supply and Metering Equipment
AD/FSM/25 Amdt 2 - Lear Romec Fuel Pumps
3. Propellers - General
AD/PROP/1 - Propellers – Overhaul
4. Propellers - Fixed Pitch
AD/PFP/7 Amdt 3 - Sensenich Propellers
Operating Limitation
AD/PFP/8 Amdt 3 - Sensenich Propellers Blade Modification
AD/PFP/7 Amdt 3 - Sensenich Propellers
Operating Limitation
SEPTEMBER 1996
Approved for 12 September 1996.
AIRCRAFT – GREATER THAN 5700KGS
1. Aircraft - General
AD/GENERAL/4 Amdt 3 - Aircraft Exits
2. Airbus Industrie A300 & A310 Series A’planes
AD/AB3/9 Amdt 5 - Fuselage Debonding and
Lap Joint Cracking
3. Airtractor 800 Series Aeroplanes
AD/AT 800/2 - Airframe Life Limits
AD/B737/96 - TO BE ISSUED LATER
AD/B737/97 - Fwd Galley Service Door
Lower Gate Hinge
AD/B767/90 - Aileron Cable/Generator
Power Feeder Cable Chafing
6. British Aerospace BAe 125 Series Aeroplanes
AD/HS 125/154 - Engine Pylon Firewall
7. British Aerospace BAe 4100 (Jetstream)
Series Aeroplanes
AD/J41/20 - Flap Nacelle Fairing Attachment
8. CASA 212 Series Aeroplanes
AD/CASA/18 - Power Quadrant Slots
AD/CASA/19 - False Spar, Flap Housing Area
AD/CASA/20 - Corrosion of Rudder Torsion Tube
AD/CASA/21 - Corrosion Prevention and
Control Programme (CPCP)
AD/CASA/22 - Inner Flap Fittings
AD/CASA/23 - Aileron Control Rod Movable Joint
AD/DC9/69 Amdt 1 - Structural Modification
AD/DC9/97 - Slant Pressure Panel Water Exclusion
AD/DC9/98 - Cockpit Fuselage Upper Nose Skin
AD/F50/69 Amdt 2 - In Wing Aileron Control
Cables
11. Gates Learjet 35 & 36 Series Aeroplanes
AD/LEARJET 35/34 - Auxiliary Cabin Heater Wiring
HELICOPTERS
1. Bell 206 and Agusta Bell 206 Series Helicopters
AD/BELL 206/109 Amdt 3 – Tail Boom Skin
2. Bell 222 Series Helicopters
AD/BELL 222/18 Amdt 2 – Tail Rotor Blades
3. Eurocopter SA 360 & SA 365 (Dauphin)
Series Helicopters
AD/DAUPHIN/43 – Main Rotor Head Frequency
Adapter
AIRCRAFT – NOT GREATER THAN 5700 KGS
Series Aeroplanes
AD/TB10/25 Amdt 2 – Wing Rear Attachment
Fittings
2. Aerospatiale (Socata) TBM 700 Series Aeroplanes
AD/TBM 700/13 Amdt 1 – Oil Cooler Interference
3. Cessna 150, F150, 152 & F152 Series Aeroplanes
AD/CESSNA 150/45 – STOL Conversion Wing Stall
Fence
4. Pilatus Britten Norman BN-2 Series Aeroplanes
AD/BN-2/57 Amdt 1 – Engine Air Intake Hose
AD/PA-31/94 Amdt 2 – Fuselage Bulkhead at
STA.317.5
6. Weatherly 620 Series Aeroplanes
AD/W620/2 – Wing Hinge Pins
AIRCRAFT – GREATER THAN 5700 KGS
1. Airbus Industrie A300 & A310 Series Aeroplanes
AD/AB3/64 Amdt 2 – Thrust Reverser Lever
2. Beechcraft 1900 Series Aeroplanes
AD/BEECH 1900/14 – Pilot’s and Co-Pilot’s
Windshields
AD/B737/96 – Fin Aft Terminal Support Fitting
Bolts
AD/B747/163 – Fuselage Internal Structure
5. British Aerospace (Hawker Siddeley) BAe 125
Series Aeroplanes
AD/BAe 125/155 – Fuselage Fluid Drainage
AD/BAe 125/156 – Control Cable Assemblies at
Keel Subframe 15A
6. British Aerospace BAe 146 Series Aeroplanes
AD/BAe 146/16 Amdt 4 – Rear Spar Root Joint
Attach Fittings Wing Rib 2
AD/BAe 146/61 – Top Wing Skin Stress Corrosion
Cracking
AD/BAe 146/62 – TO BE ISSUED AT A LATER DATE
AD/BAe 146/63 – Pitot-Static System – True
Airspeed Computer No 1
AD/BAe 146/64 – Pitot-Static System – True
Airspeed Computer No 2
7. British Aerospace BAe 4100 (Jetstream) Series
Aeroplanes
AD/J41/21 – Rear Pressure Bulkhead Modification
AD/J41/22 – Flight Controls – Yaw Damper Servo
AD/J41/23 – Flight Control Computer Overheat
AD/J41/24 – Tailplane to Fin Sealing
8. British Aerospace (Hawker Siddeley) HS 748
Series Aeroplanes
AD/HS 748/21 – Corrosion Prevention and Control
Program
AD/DC9/59 Amdt 2 – Supplemental Inspections for
Ageing Aircraft
CASA PRODUCTS
AD/R22/45 – Throttle Governor and Low RPM
Warning
AIRCRAFT – NOT GREATER THAN 5700 KGS
Series Aeroplanes
AD/TB10/28 – Upper Attachment of Front Seat
Belts
2. Aerospatiale (Socata) TB20 Trinidad
Series Aeroplanes
AD/TB20/33 – Upper Attachment of Front Seat
Belts
3. Aerospatiale (Socata) TBM 700 Series Aeroplanes
AD/TBM 700/17 – Elevator Trim Tab Fitting
4. Avions Pierre Robin Series Aeroplanes
AD/ROBIN/29 – Hydraulic Lines
5. Morovan Zlin Z 526 Series Aeroplanes
AD/Z 526/2 – Main Wing Spar Corrosion
AD/PITTS S-2/16 Amdt 1 – Upper Fuselage
Longerons
7. Short SC7 (Skyvan) Series Aeroplanes
AD/SC7/26 – Wing Attachment Bushes in Fuselage
Front and Rear Spar Frames
AIRCRAFT – GREATER THAN 5700 KGS
1. Hot Air Balloons
AD/BAL/16 – Thunder and Colt Suspension Cables
1. Airbus Industrie A300 & A310 Series Aeroplanes
AD/AB3/77 – Stress Corrosion Aft Door Frames
AD/B747/164 – Door 5 Escape Slide/Raft
1. Continental Piston Engines
AD/CON/47 Amdt 4 – Cancelled
AD/CON/66 Amdt 2 – Fuel Pump Drive Coupling
AD/CON/75 – Magneto Timing
AD/CON/76 – Superior Pistons
2. Lycoming Piston Engines
AD/LYC/85 Amdt 1 – Exhaust Assembly
3. AlliedSignal (Lycoming) Turbine Engines – LTS
101 Series
AD/LTS/14 – Power Turbine Rotor
AD/LTS/15 – Gas Generator Rotor
4. Pratt and Whitney Canada Turbine Engines – PT6A
Series
AD/PT6A/11 – CANCELLED
1. Air Induction Systems
AD/AIRIND/2 Amdt 1 – Brackett Air Filter Gasket
OCTOBER 1996
Approved for 10 October 1996.
HELICOPTERS
1. Eurocopter AS 350 (Ecureuil) Series Helicopters
AD/ECUREUIL/55 – MGB Suspension BiDirectional Cross Beam
2. Eurocopter AS 355 (Twin Ecureuil) Series
Helicopters
AD/AS 355/47 – MGB Suspension Bi-Directional
Cross Beam
AD/R22/14 – CANCELLED
34
AD/B767/28 Amdt 3 – Wing Leading Edge Slat
Control Rod
4. British Aerospace BAe 3100 (Jetstream) Series
Aeroplanes
AD/JETSTREAM/27 Amdt 1 – Shear Angles at Wing
Rib 36
5. Fokker F28 Series Aeroplanes
AD/F28/78 – Lap Joint at Stringer 16/17 and 58/59
To order the following products
contact CASA on 1800 676 063
(free call):
Airspace – General
● Airborne Collision Avoidance System in
Australia. Discussion Paper: Ref. BO9601BB.
Dangerous Goods
● Dangerous Goods (aircrew version). Flyer:
Ref. FN0005BB.
● Dangerous Goods (company version). Flyer:
Ref. FN0006BB.
Maintenance
Aircraft Maintenance, A Pilot’s Guide.
Booklet: Ref. BN0001DW.
● The Maintenance Release. Flyer: Ref.
IN0001DW.
●
CASA Internal Procedure
Manuals
The following manuals are available by
sending a cheque or money order to the
Manager, Manuals Distribution Service, CASA,
GPO Box 2005, Canberra ACT 2601. Prices
include postage.
● Aviation Safety Surveillance Program, $50
● Flight Crew Licensing Procedures, $50
● AME Licensing Procedures, $50
● Compliance and Enforcement Manual, $30
● Aviation Safety Occurrence Manual, $30
● Manual of Operational Standards, $30
● Aircraft Register Procedures, $30
● Manual of Aerodromes Procedures, $30
● Industry Education Manual, $30
● Certificate of Airworthiness Procedures, $30
● Exemptions and Variations Procedures, $30
● Major Defect Reporting Procedures, $30
● Certificate of Approval Procedures, $30
● Air Operator Certification (HiCap RPT) $50
To order the following products
contact Airservices’ Publications
Centre on 1800 331 676 (free call):
Airspace – General
6. Israel Aircraft Industries 1123 & 1124 (Westwind)
Series Aeroplanes
AD/IAI-W/17 Amdt 1 – Aileron Push Pull Tube and
Guide Rollers
● Australia’s Airspace Based on ICAO Class.
Pilot Aid: 20/6/96. Poster: 20/6/96
● Transponder Codes. Sticker: Ref. STK0001BB.
● The GPS and Australian Aviation
Navigation. Instructor Pack: Ref. IP0005BB,
$76. Booklet: Ref. BN0004DW, $5. Video: Ref.
VN0002GD, $8.20 (prices include postage).
● GPS Primary Means Enroute IFR
Navigation. Pilot Aid: Ref. PAN016DW.
1. There are no amendments to the Aircraft – Lighter
Than Air series this issue.
1. Continental Piston Engines (Including models
manufactured by Rolls Royce)
AD/CON/45 Amdt 3 – Camshaft Oil Transfer Holes
2. Pratt & Whitney Piston Engines
AD/PW-P/18 – R1340 PMA Crankshaft
3. Rotax 912 Series Piston Engines
AD/ROTAX/5 – Carburettor Contamination
4. Rolls Royce Turbine Engines – RB211 Series
AD/RB211/20 – Fuel Flow Governor
1. Propellers – Variable Pitch – Hartzell
AD/PHZL/67 – Propeller Blade Cracking
Airspace – Pilot Navigation
Airspace – Terminal
● Joining the Circuit at Uncontrolled Aerodromes
in VMC. Pilot Aid: Ref. PAN0006DW. Poster: Ref.
PN0002DW.
● Entry into Controlled Airspace. Pilot Aid: Ref.
PAN0012BB.
● Victor 1, Sydney Coastal. Pilot Aid: Ref.
PAN0013BB. Poster: Ref. PN0003BB.
● Independent Visual Approaches, Sydney Airport.
Pilot Aid: Ref. PAN014DW. Poster: Ref.
PN0005DW. Video: Ref.VD0001DW.
Pilot Briefing
● Domestic Flight Plan Form – A Guide for Pilots.
Pamphlet: Ref. PAMN0003BB.
Safety check
TEST YOUR AVIATION UNDERSTANDING
How well do you know the rules?
12
9
3
FLASH BACK
6
50 years ago
9/9/1946: The first Trans Australia
Airlines (TAA) flight was made by a
DC3 from Melbourne to Sydney. TAA
carried its first fare-paying passengers
on 10 October 1946.
3/11/1946: The US Navy airship
XM-1 landed in Georgia, USA after a
record flight of 170hrs. This was the
longest “unrefuelled” flight until the
nine day round-theworld gruel by Dick
Rutan and Jeana
Yeager in 1986.
25 years ago
Q If CASA requests the holder
of a flight crew licence to produce
his or her licence, personal log
book or medical certificate, must
the holder do so without delay?
A
If CASA makes such a request,
the holder must produce the relevant
document without delay or, if the
holder does not have immediate
access to the document at the time
of the request, produce it at the place
specified by CASA not more than
7 days after the day of the request
(CAR 5.56 refers).
Q
Can an
exemption under
CAR 82(3) exempt
a pilot from the
requirement to
carry a radio in a
Mandatory Broadcast Zone under
CAR 99A?
systems. The fact that it is impossible
to broadcast without carrying radiocommunication systems, does not
mean that an exemption from carry
ing radiocommunication systems is
an exemption from broadcasting.
A person who is exempt from carrying
a radio under CAR 82 will not be able
to enter a MBZ because he/she can
not broadcast.
Q
An operator with aircraft
carrying passengers and cargo in
commercial operations has a policy
of not carrying dangerous goods.
Does an employee of the operator
who loads and unloads air cargo
need dangerous goods training?
A
A
2/11/1971: The first production
Jaguar 2-seat version was flown by
Bernard Witt at Tolouse-Blagnac.
The flight lasted about 1 hour.
An exemption under CAR 82(3)
will not be effective in respect to CAR
99A. An exemption under CAR 82 (3)
only provides an exemption from the
requirements of CAR 82, that is to be
equipped with radiocommunication
If the operator’s employee
handles, or is involved in handling,
any cargo carried, or to be carried, on
an aircraft engaged in a commercial
operation, the employee must
undertake dangerous goods training.
This is so whether or not the cargo
concerned is dangerous goods (section
23B of the Civil Aviation Act 1988 and
CAR 262P refer).
“Safety check” crossword no. 1
Clues across
Clues down
1 A permanently installed system.
5 Radio frequencies between 300 and 3000
MHz (Abbreviation).
7 A movable airfoil on the leading edge of the
wing.
9 The ratio of the speed of an aeroplane to the
speed of sound in the same aeronautical
conditions.
11 A type of construction in which most of the
strength is provided by the skin.
14 In the air.
15 Oxidation of iron.
17 An unexpected malfunction.
20 Exerting a strong attractive power or force.
22 Without instruments (Acronym).
1 Fog (Abbreviation).
2 A force acting parallel & opposite to the wind.
3 Smoke (French abbreviation.).
4 Engagement of gears.
6 A manoeuvre reducing speed before landing.
7 The outer cover of an aircraft.
8 A reference for many aerodynamic
measurements in aircraft operations & designs.
10 A type of icing.
12 One of the basic elements.
13 A device which prevents lift by disrupting airflow.
16 To pull.
18 Base unit of current (colloquialism).
19 Issues clearances.
21 A category of aviation.
4/9/1971: The
Concorde (pictured above), made its
inaugural crossing of the Atlantic from
Tolouse, France to Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
20
19
21
22
Send your completed crossword to the Editor,PO Box 2005,Canberra ACT 2601 for a chance to win $50 worth of aviation publications.Answers will be published in the Summer issue of the magazine.
SAFETY CHECK
Twin-jet Regular Public
Transport departure from
Cairns
The take-off, climb and departure are busy phases of flight
for the crew of any aircraft. Add to this poor weather or
difficult terrain, and the work of the crew can be made even
more difficult. You are the pilot of a twin-jet RPT (above
5,700 kg MTOW) flight about to depart Cairns. Use the chart
on page 38 to answer the questions below.
TRUE
OR
FALSE?
1 At the departure weight, your
aircraft is capable of achieving
a gross climb gradient of 3.3 per
cent, all engines operating.
Which runways can be used for
departure, assuming nil
wind conditions?
a RWY 15 and 33.
Answer True or False to the
following statements:
b RWY 15 only.
2 A child’s car seat that complies
with Australian Standard
AS1754 may be used in a
sideways facing seat.
reduced.
2 The standard radar departure
accounts for an aircraft suffering
an engine failure following
achievement of V1.
a True.
b False.
3 Prior to accepting radar vectors
to track 315 from the VOR the
aircraft must be above:
a 3,800ft.
b 5,400ft.
c 3,600ft.
3 The holder of an Air Operators
Certificate must maintain a
reference library.
4 Over-wing refuelling is
permitted in certain hangars.
5 The signal area for a primary
wind direction indicator may be
white, provided the wind
indicator sleeve is black.
Check your answers on page 39.
a Yes, but only if the 030 track is
flown.
b No – specific SID chart must be
used.
c Yes, with no limitations.
6 An aircraft is issued with a
departure clearance including
the words “...15 RADAR EIGHT
DEPARTURE...”. Can the chart
on page 38 be used for this
departure?
a Yes.
b No — chart may have been
superseded.
c No — ATC may have issued wrong
clearance.
d b) and c).
c RWY 33 only.
d No runway – weight must be
1 A company operating aeroplanes
expands into the helicopter
business and employs an
experienced and current
helicopter pilot, but the
company’s Chief Pilot is not
helicopter qualified. The
company can lawfully carry out
helicopter operations.
departure maintain 5000...”.
Can the chart shown on page 38
be used for the departure?
d Enroute LSALT.
4 Reported wind for take-off on
runway 33 is 040 at 30 knots.
At 120 knots initial climb speed,
the best heading to fly the initial
track of the SRD is:
a 345 magnetic.
b 330 magnetic.
c 315 magnetic.
d Initial assigned ATC heading.
5 The aircraft is issued with a
departure clearance including
the words “...15 BIBOOHRA
7 The aircraft commences takeoff on runway 33, cleared by
ATC to fly the SRD procedure.
At 100ft after take-off, the
aircraft suffers an engine failure
and can no longer maintain a
climb gradient of 4.6 per cent.
Which would be the most
correct course of action?
a Advise ATC. Continue to fly the
SRD procedure.
b Advise ATC. Fly company specific
procedure to ensure terrain clearance.
c Climb as steeply as possible to
2000ft and monitor radar altimeter.
8 A non-DME equipped aircraft is
cleared by ATC for a standard
radar departure off runway 33.
Assuming nil wind and an initial
climb speed of 120 knots:
a Procedure cannot be flown without
DME.
b Turn should be commenced as soon
as aircraft is safely airborne.
c Turn should be commenced 70
seconds after passing the far end of
the runway.
d ATC should be asked for radar
distance to commence turn.
Compiled by John McGhie, flying operations inspector, CASA.
SAFETY CHECK
Avionic and mechanical quiz: do you measure up?
Mechanics
1 A severe condition of chafing or
fretting, in which a transfer of
metal from one part to another
occurs, is called:
Avionics
1 The best extinguishing agent for
an electrical fire is:
a Water.
b Carbon tetrachloride.
c Carbon dioxide.
2 Which of the following should
be checked when inspecting
engine ball bearings?
2 The stationary field strength in
a direct current generator is
varied:
a By the reverse current relay.
b Because of generator speed.
c According to the load requirements.
3 What does the output
frequency of an a.c. generator
(alternator) depend on?
a The speed of rotation and the
strength of the field.
b The strength of the field and the
number of field poles.
c The speed of rotation and the
4 If the generator is
malfunctioning, its voltage
can be reduced to residual by
actuating the:
a Gouging.
b Erosion.
c Galling.
a Metal dissimilation.
b Bearing out of balance.
c Flaking or pitting of races.
3 What is the purpose of a power
check on a reciprocating engine?
a To check magneto drop.
b To determine satisfactory
performance.
c To determine if the fuel/air mixture
is correct.
“
4 At what speed must a
crankshaft turn if each cylinder
of a four stroke cycle engine is
to be fired 200 times a minute?
a 200 rpm.
b 400 rpm.
c 800 rpm.
5 In a gas turbine engine,
combustion occurs at a
constant:
a Pressure.
b Velocity.
c Density.
6 On a carburettor without an
automatic mixture control, as
you ascend the mixture will be:
a Enriched.
b Leaned.
c Unaffected.
W H AT ’ S T H E M E S S AG E ?
PHOTO COURTESY AIRCLAIMS AUSTRALIA
A specially designed quiz
for AMEs and LAMEs.
a Master solenoid.
b Overvoltage circuit breaker.
c Master switch.
5 How many hours will a 140
ampere-hour battery deliver 15
amps?
a 15.0 hours.
b 1.40 hours.
c 9.33 hours.
6 Which of the following aircraft
circuits does not contain a
circuit protection device?
a Generator circuit.
b Exterior lighting circuit.
c Starter circuit.
”
In 25 words or less, tell us what you think is the safety message in
this photo. The most creative and concise caption will be published
in a future edition of Flight Safety Australia.
The creator of the best entry will win their choice of safety education
products (see list on page 34) to the value of $50.
Send your entries to the Editor, Flight Safety Australia, GPO Box
2005, Canberra ACT 2601, by 10 December 1996.
THIS CHART IS NOT FOR OPERATIONAL USE
DUE TO BE SUPERSEDED ON 5 DECEMBER 1996
SAFETY CHECK
ANSWERS
How did you rate?
True or False
False. CAO82.0 paras. 4.2 and 4.3
preclude such operations under IFR
unless the chief pilot holds the
appropriate instrument rating (para
4.2): or under VFR where the chief
pilot does not hold appropriate
endorsement or rating without the
approval in writing CASA
(para 4.3).
False. CAO 20.16.3 para. 13.5.
True. Section 28BH of the Civil
Aviation Act 1988 sets out the
requirements for a reference library.
False. CAO 20.9 para 4.1.1.1 (b)
False. The fabric for the sleeve must
be white and the signal area black
(CAO 92.2).
1
2
3
4
5
Cairns Standard Radar Departure
RWY 15 only.
False.
3,600ft.
345 magnetic.
No – specific SID chart must be
used.
6 d Both b) and c).
1
2
3
4
5
b
b
c
a
b
7 b Advise ATC. Fly company specific
procedure to ensure terrain
clearance.
8 c Turn should be commenced 70
seconds after passing the far end of
the runway.
Avionic and Mechanical quiz: do
you measure up?
Avionics
1 c Carbon dioxide.
2 c According to the load requirements.
3 c The speed of rotation and the
4 c Master switch.
5 c 9.33 hours.
6 c Starter circuit.
Mechanics
1 c Galling.
2 c Flaking or pitting of races.
3 b To determine satisfactory
performance.
4 b 400 rpm.
5 a Pressure.
6 a Be enriched.
CAPTION WINNER
SCUD RUNNER COMES HOME TO ROOST
The winner of the Winter issue safety caption contest, who remains anonymous,
receives $50 worth of aviation publications. Thanks to all who entered.
C I V I L AV I AT I O N
SAF E T Y A U T H O R I T Y
A U S T RA L I A
CENTRAL OFFICE
Austrade Building, Cnr Barry Drive &
Northbourne Ave, Canberra. Postal address:
GPO Box 2005, Canberra ACT 2601.
Ph 06 222 2111, fax 06 222 2444.
NORTH-EAST REGION
Regional Manager: PO Box 10556, Brisbane
QLD 4000. Ph 07 3833 6390,
fax 07 3832 6964.
Archerfield District: PO Box 13, Archerfield
QLD 4108. Flying Operations:
ph 07 3275 8237, fax 07 3274 5806;
Airworthiness: ph 07 3275 8218,
fax 07 3275 3162.
Brisbane District: PO Box 791, Hamilton
Central QLD 4007. Ph 07 3866 3701,
fax 07 3866 3474.
Cairns District: PO Box 280N, Cairns North
QLD 4870. Ph 070 505 376, fax 070 505 396.
Townsville District: PO Box 7740, Garbutt
QLD 4814. Ph 077 273 900, fax 070 273 901.
SOUTH-EAST REGION
Regional Manager: PO Box 409, Mascot, NSW
2020. Ph 02 9556 6812, fax 02 9556 6800.
Bankstown District: PO Box CP57, Condell
Park NSW 2200. Ph 02 9795 6000. Flying
Operations: fax 02 9795 6900; Airworthiness:
fax 02 795 6901.
Coffs Harbour District: PO Box 1442, Coffs
Harbour NSW 2450. Ph 066 511 199,
fax 066 528 280.
Melbourne District: Building 178, Melbourne
Jet Base, South Centre Rd, Tullamarine VIC
3043. Ph 03 9339 2823, fax 03 9339 2867.
Moorabbin District: PO Box 20, Cheltenham
VIC 3192. Ph 03 9586 6179, fax 03 9586 6186.
Sydney District: PO Box 409, Mascot NSW
2020. Ph 02 9556 6838, fax 02 9556 6840.
Tamworth District: PO Box 895, Tamworth
NSW 2340. Ph 067 615 420, fax 067 615 421.
Wagga District: PO Box 1024, Wagga Wagga
NSW 2650. Airworthiness: ph 069 218 121.
Flying Operations: ph 069 218 158,
fax 069 218 557.
WEST REGION
Regional Manager: GPO Box 1082,
Cloverdale WA 6105. Ph 09 476 8777,
fax 09 476 8954.
Adelaide District: PO Box 126, Export Park
SA 5950. Ph 08 238 7790, fax 08 234 4043.
Darwin District: PO Box 41196, Casuarina
NT 0801. Ph 08 8920 7333, fax 08 89451 899.
Jandakot District: 23 Eagle Drive, Jandakot
Airport WA 6164. Ph 09 417 6138,
fax 09 417 2623.
Parafield District: Control Tower Building,
Parafield Airport SA. Ph 08 282 3048,
fax 08 282 3010.
Perth District: GPO Box 1082, Cloverdale WA
6105. Ph 09 476 8777, fax 09 476 8985.
Free seminars for all aviators
Presented by the Civil Aviation Safety Authority in conjunction with
Airservices Australia, the Bureau of Air Safety Investigation and the
Bureau of Meteorology.
FLIGHT
SAFETY
FORUM
Held on Saturday 26 October
SYDNEY
THANK YOU FOR YOUR SUPPORT
Held on Sunday 17 November
PERTH
THANK YOU FOR YOUR SUPPORT
Sunday 24 November
ADELAIDE
CONVENTION CENTRE, NORTH TERRACE
Saturday 8 March 97
BRISBANE
CONVENTION CENTRE, SOUTH BANK
Saturday 22 March 97
MELBOURNE
WORLD CONGRESS CENTRE, MELBOURNE
For further information
please call the Flight
Safety Forum hotline
on 1800 062 485
Bureau of Air Safety Investigation

- Civil Aviation Safety Authority

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