Journal of Religious Education - Australian Catholic University

Transcription

JOURNAL OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION
Contents
EDITORIAL
Marian de Souza
Religious Education in interesting times..........
Page
2
Sandra Ruthven
Challenging anti-Semitism in Passion Portrayals
Page
4
Kate Adams
Searching for connectedness: the role of RE and spirituality in supporting
children’s questions about death
Page
12
Peter Mudge
Two-fold and four-fold learning models – an analysis with implications for
religious education and for stretching ways of knowing (Part 1 of 2)
Page
18
Michael Maroney
An exploration of youth spirituality amongst senior students in three
Catholic Schools in the Archdiocese of Sydney
Page
29
Brendan Hyde
Dangerous Games: Play and pseudoplay in religious education
Page
37
Leslie J Francis & Chris Hermans
Psychological health and attitude toward Christianity: A study among pupils
attending Catholic Schools in the Netherlands
Page
47
Mark A. Maddix
Transformational, Experiential, and Non-formal Learning: Foundations
for Adult Christian Education
Page
56
BOOK REVIEWS
Graham Rossiter
Gabriel Moran, 2007, Fashioning a people: The educational insights of Maria Harris
Page
66
Page
69
Graham Rossiter
Gabriel Moran, 2008, Speaking of teaching: Lessons from history
IDEAS FOR PRACTIONERS
Antony Luby
Evidence-based approach to classroom RE
Journal of Religious Education 57(2) 2009 1
EDITORIAL
Religious Education in interesting times…
In recent weeks I have read and heard the saying “we live in interesting times” more than a few
times. Sometimes it has been followed by an explanation that the phrase has derived from a
Chinese curse. However, a cursory search of the WWW suggests that the authenticity of this
claim is unrealized. Whatever its origins, the application of the phrase usually suggests that the
times we live in are difficult. I would suggest that as religious educators, we do, indeed, live in
interesting times, and I mean this, not as a curse but in a very positive way. The times we live in
may be fraught with challenges and difficulties attached to teaching this subject but the byproduct of this situation means that religious educators are kept on their toes and, without doubt,
the problems they encounter stimulate their intellectual and creative vision to discover how they
can become more effective in developing and delivering religious education programs that can, at
once, raise students’ awareness, maintain their attention and inspire their future actions as
religiously literate people.
The articles in this issue are, in some ways, evidence of the interesting times in which we live
since they are an assortment of topics, generated by various issues that create certain levels of
tension in the subject. As such, they should be of interest to most religious educators who try to
be responsive and flexible in their classroom practice. Sandra Ruthven begins her article by
highlighting the need for Christian educators to be well informed about the roots of Christian
anti-Semitism. In particular, she focuses on the various portrayals of the passion of Christ and
how these may be used to educate students not only about Christian-Jewish history but also
about the relations of Christianity with other faith traditions. Certainly, this has been an ongoing
issue in the Christian world and continues to have significance for the contemporary world.
The second article by Kate Adams presents some research findings on how to address children’s
questions about death in the classroom. In a society besieged by materialistic values, death is
often a complex topic that is difficult to discuss and teach. Adams concludes that teachers need to
be empathetic, and they need to understand that children's questions about death are a search
for connectedness. In this way, they are more able to effectively support children when
responding to the children’s questions.
Given the interest that many religious educators have about the spiritual dimension of learning,
Peter Mudge’s article is timely as he explores two ways of knowing, one of which is intuitive and
involving spirituality. Drawing widely from Christian and Jewish traditions to inform his work,
Mudge argues that it is essential for the integrated and grounded teaching of religious education
to incorporate these different ways of knowing. Accordingly, this article makes a useful
contribution to the ongoing conversation about how the spiritual dimension in religious
education may be addressed. The article that follows by Michael Maroney recognizes the growing
differentiation between the 'spiritual' and the 'religious' particularly for young people. Maroney
examines the spirituality of Year 12 students in three Catholic schools located in the Sydney
Archdiocese and he presents the findings that identify the various influences on students’
spirituality, and the effect the Catholic school has on their faith, image of God, and attitude to the
Church.
2 Journal of Religious Education 57(2) 2009
An investigation into the theory and practice of Berryman’s Godly Play as a strategy to teach Scripture in
junior primary classrooms is the basis of the following article by Brendan Hyde. Hyde sets out to
investigate the intention of Godly Play and what may happen in practice when this intention is not
realized. He argues that the basis of Godly Play is invitational and it is about the intrinsic learning
possibilities that may be found within genuine play. When this becomes altered, however unintentionally,
with activities that derive from a power base that is more concerned with the attainment of predetermined
outcomes, the result is pseudoplay, which is understood to be the opposite of play. Ultimately, Hyde argues
that when pseudoplay occurs in the early years’ religious education classroom, dangerous games are
instigated which can stifle both the spirituality of children and their learning in religious education.
The final two articles in this issue relate to other aspects of religious education. Leslie Francis and Chris
Hermans offer insights into the association between religion and psychological health among young people
and draw on their research in a number of different countries to discuss the implications for religious
education. Since, in general, the wellbeing of young people continues to be of concern and the role of
religion and spirituality in promoting wellbeing is receiving some attention at the wider societal level,
Francis and Herman’s findings should, certainly, be relevant to readers of this journal. A further pertinent
perspective is provided by Mark Maddix who scrutinizes how theories in adult education may inform adult
Christian education and adult educational ministry in local churches. Maddix concludes that these theories
do provide a foundational basis for learning in adult Christian education programs since these programs
aim to bring about transformation and change. This can be achieved by renewing old structures of teaching
and learning that have inhibited transformation and change and, instead, developing ‘new “wineskins” that
address the learning needs of adults and that allow them to engage in the learning process. These
experiential, transformational, and non-formal educational theories provide the adult Christian educator
with a new structure in which they may house these new “wineskins.”’
The excursion into this range of topics around religious education in this issue of the journal, then, serve to
remind us that while religious educators may, indeed, be living in interesting times, there continues to be a
wealth of research that has spawned creative ideas and exciting resources which can inform, stimulate and
excite new ventures and advances in the subject which aim to respond to the religious and spiritual needs
of contemporary students and, hopefully, grow them into religiously literate citizens.
Marian de Souza
Editor
Sandra Ruthven*
Challenging anti-Semitism in Passion Portrayals
Abstract:
This article highlights the need for religious educators to be well informed of the roots of Christian antiSemitism, especially as it is expressed in Passion portrayals. It is vital that religious education teachers in all
settings make themselves aware of current scholarship regarding representations of the Passion. There is a
wealth of materials and many opportunities for interesting and engaging learning encounters. Teachers
have a responsibility to be well informed about Christian anti-Semitism and ensure that their students are
made aware of the history of Christian-Jewish relations. Such an issue has important implications for the
relationships Christians have, not only with Jews and Judaism but also with other faiths.
Introduction
Easter is a hugely important season in the Christian calendar and provides the ideal opportunity for central
Church teachings to be described and discussed. Interpretations of the Easter story have in the past been
used to denigrate Jews and Judaism culminating in the horrific events of the Shoah (Jones, 1999). “As
Connor Cruise O’Brien said, antisemitism is a very light sleeper” (Harries, 2003, p. 215) and there is
evidence that it is wakening again: “In France in 1998 there was only one violent attack on Jews. In 1999
there were nine, and in 2000, 116” (Harries, 2003, p. 214). It is the responsibility of all Christians to examine
critically attitudes, traditions and theology in order to ensure that Christians are not contributing to this
awakening. The recent history of relations between Jews and Christians shows much to be hopeful about,
but we cannot afford to become complacent: “Think only of the words the Jewish encounter with
Christianity added to the vocabulary of human pain: blood libel, book burnings, disputations, forced
conversions, inquisition, auto da fe, expulsion, ghetto and pogrom” (Sacks, 2008, Section VII). There is still
much to be done and it is the responsibility of Christian educators across the Church to take every
opportunity to improve their own understanding and disseminate that knowledge to others. This article will
examine the problems and challenges associated with Christian presentations of the passion of Jesus from
the perspective of Jewish-Christian relations and offer some suggestions for how they can be addressed.
Dealing with the Deicide Charge
Sadly, presentations of the passion of Jesus, either through liturgy or dramatic portrayal have historically
been frightening times for Jews. The charge of “deicide”, what Braybrooke (2000, p. 45) calls “the most
dangerous aspect of Christian anti-Jewish polemic”, has dominated the minds of Christians since it was
explicitly articulated by Melito of Sardis in the late second century (Boys, 2000, p. 251). This particular
interpretation of the Gospel accounts of the death of Jesus have persisted until more recent scholarship
has thrown light on how such an interpretation distorts the Gospel message. Unfortunately, some rich and
deeply loved Christian tradition of Passion plays and liturgies have emerged from this earlier interpretation
and such accounts continue to form the focus of Holy Week. There is therefore an urgent need for all those
involved in presentations of the Passion to be aware of this scholarship and to firmly, but sensitively, turn
around the common misperceptions of centuries which have corrupted interpretations of the Passion to
the detriment of Jews and Judaism. This means that Holy Week, which has traditionally been a time for
Jews to fear for their safety around Christians fired up by a desire to seek revenge on the “Christ-killers”,
must today be an opportunity to critically examine old attitudes and stereotypes. “There is extensive
information now available with which to interpret, understand and contextualize a Passion narrative. Those
who convey the Passion have a responsibility to do their best to avail themselves of these resources”
(Centre for Christian-Jewish Learning, 2004). Ignorance is no longer an excuse.
Over Forty Years of Christian Teaching on Passion Presentations
The biggest challenge for modern Christian educators is to disseminate effectively the changes which have
occurred and been widely documented in the Christian churches’ attitudes towards Jews and Judaism over
the last 40 years. Specifically in the case of presentations of the Passion, there has been a widespread
refutation of the deicide charge. As early as 1947 the International Council of Christians and Jews held in
Seeligsberg, Switzerland made specific mention of Passion presentations when it stated: “Avoid presenting
the Passion in such a way as to bring the odium of the killing of Jesus upon all Jews or Jews alone” (Boys,
2000, p. 74). Furthermore the important Vatican II document Nostra Aetate (1965) confirms, “Even though
the Jewish authorities and those who followed their lead pressed for the death of Christ (see John 19:6),
neither all Jews indiscriminately at that time, nor Jews today, can be charged with the crimes committed
during his passion.” (Section 4, para. 6). Other Catholic documents have, since, further expanded and
developed strategies and recommendations for maintaining the new relationship between Catholics and
Jews expressed in Nostra Aetate (Guidelines and Suggestions, 1974; Notes on the Correct Way to Present
Jews and Judaism, 1985; Criteria for the Evaluation of Dramatizations of the Passion, 1988). Unfortunately,
despite these documents and numerous others from Protestant organizations, “most Christians are
abysmally ignorant of the long history of anti-Jewish teaching that has left such an open wound in Jewish
communities and compromised the integrity of the preaching of the Gospel” (Boys, 2003, para. 18). Of
particular concern is an appreciation for how popular dramatizations of the Passion in plays and film and
Holy Week liturgies continue to heedlessly misrepresent current Church teaching and so perpetuate what
French educator Jules Isaac famously called the Christian “teaching of contempt” against Jews (Sherwin,
2000, p. 142).
Passion Plays
The history of Passion plays is a long one, going back at least 1000 years (Mork, 2004). Whilst there is
widespread evidence of their performance in village squares from the tenth century, extant texts are
mainly from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Certainly the most famous Passion play is that
performed at Oberammergau in the Bavarian Alps. As a pledge for being saved from the plague the
townsfolk decided to perform the Passion play every ten years. The tradition began in 1634 and continues
to this day, although now it is performed in the year ending with zero, so that the next performance is in
2010. The Oberammergau Passion play is a huge production with a cast of 2,200 (half the town’s
inhabitants) and a six hour performance attracting 500,000 people to a season which lasts from May to
October (Maier, 2000). Unfortunately, Oberammergau is also famous for the ringing endorsement its
Passion play was given by Adolf Hitler.
It is vital that the Passion Play be continued at Oberammergau; for never has the menace of Jewry
been so convincingly portrayed as in this presentation of what happened in the times of the Romans.
There one sees in Pontius Pilate a Roman racially and intellectually so superior, that he stands out
like a firm, clean rock in the middle of the whole muck and mire of Jewry. (cited in Sanders, 2006,
p.50)
Hitler attended the play in 1930 and then four years later for the celebration of its 300 year anniversary.
The changes to the play since that time show an interesting adjustment to the concerns of a post-Holocaust
world. Revisions have been slow but significant so that the year 2000 performance showed Jesus the Jew
wearing a prayer shawl and uttering a blessing in Hebrew and a menorah on the table at the Last Supper
(Sherman, 2000). The program notes also point out the troubled history of the play. Nonetheless, the Antidefamation League still have concerns about the Oberammergau production (Anti-defamation League, n.d.)
and John Pawlikowski also comments of the 2000 version that “despite the fact that the play has created
more of a Jewish context for Jesus’ message, it hasn’t significantly changed the underlying theology”
(Sanders, 2006, pp. 61-62). Obviously there is room for further improvements but at least there is an
openness to dialogue and a recognition by the organisers that such representations require sensitive
handling (Mork, 2004). “The charge that Jews killed Jesus has led to horror and bloodshed. When treading
on such dangerous ground, one has a moral obligation to step with care” (Sanders, 2006, p. 69). Sadly,
such care was not shown by Hollywood’s most recent and well-publicised foray into the Passion story, Mel
Gibson’s The Passion of the Christ. In fact, in an ironic twist, “Christian Stueckl, the director who was
instrumental in the reform of the Oberammergau Passion Play, believes there are too many old anti-Jewish
clichés in the Gibson film” (Mork, 2005, p. 91).
Gibson’s film: The Passion of the Christ (2004)
The controversy surrounding Mel Gibson’s The Passion of the Christ, released in Holy Week 2004, is a
instructive study of the very issues confronting educators who are faithfully trying to dismantle the antiJudaic interpretations of Passion accounts. Adele Reinhartz, in an article surveying the Jesus film genre,
notes that “although these movies deal with a subject set in the distant past, they do so in a way that
necessarily grapples with the issues and concerns of the filmmakers’ own historical and social contexts”
(Reinhartz, 2004, p. 8). Mel Gibson’s context is what some have called “sectarian Catholicism” or more
commonly “traditionalist Catholicism” (Lawler, 2004). What this means is that Mel Gibson rejects Vatican II
on the grounds that it betrayed true Catholicism and so he is not likely to heed its pronouncements. He
maintains a literalistic reading of the Bible and so news of his forthcoming film obviously made a lot of Jews
and Christians very nervous. Furthermore, in line with Reinhartz’s observation, the Catholic bishops of
France noted that “the face of Christ shows through less than the obsessions of our times – the dread of
evil, fascination with violence and the search for the guilty” (Boys, 2003, para. 14).
Nonetheless, despite Gibson’s motives for making the film and his astute reading of popular tastes, it has
provided an “unparalleled” teaching opportunity and has brought the issues to a wider audience than could
otherwise have been reached (Berger, 2008, p. 8; see also Garber, 2005). It has initiated a raft of excellent
and widely available teaching resources which outline the challenges which need to be addressed and
summarise the issues involved (Paley & Koesters, n.d.; Christian Scholars Group, 2004; Catholic Biblical
Association of America, (CBAA), n.d., c.). Furthermore, there have been concerted efforts by many
denominations to “inoculate” their parishioners against the anti-Jewish potential of the film (Edelman,
2005).
Interpreting Gospel Accounts
One issue at the centre of the debate over Gibson’s film and which is pivotal for all presentations of the
Passion is the question of how we read the Gospel accounts in particular, and the Bible more generally.
There is much confusion and a great deal of ignorance among Christians about when the Gospels were
written and the genre of writing they represent. Philip Cunningham, drawing on the work of the Pontifical
Biblical Commission’s Instruction on the Historical Truth of the Gospels, points out that in any Gospel
account there may be material from three distinct periods of early church history.
Stage 1: The Ministry of Jesus
Traditions that date from Jesus’ words and deeds during his ministry in the late 20s and early 30s of
the first century.
Stage 2: The Post-Resurrectional Preaching of the Apostles
Ideas about Jesus that arose after the Resurrection, especially consideration about his divine identity,
expressed through the exalted use of earlier terms such as “Lord” and “Son of God”.
Stage 3: The Writing of the Gospels by the Evangelists
The narratives about Jesus that are shaped by the situations, concerns and insights of the Gospel
writers themselves. (Cunningham, 2004, p. 2)
The Gospels are not simple historical accounts and it is disingenuous to maintain Biblical accuracy whilst
ignoring Biblical scholarship. This confusion was further exacerbated by the purported response of John
Paul II to a private showing of the film. It was widely reported - although later denied - that he said “It is as
it was” which Peter Gilmour points out “regretfully, reinforced imaginative expression as historical fact”
(Gilmour, 2005, p. 313). Certainly, the Gospel accounts themselves are scarce on detail and there are
contradictions between them (Vermes, 2005; Cunningham, 2004). When presenting a version of the
Passion, (and they are all only versions, since there is no definitive “true story”) decisions must be made
about which versions to highlight or forefront and this has important implications for how Jews are
portrayed (Hamm, 2004). “Argumentative words written from a position of weakness can become a license
for oppression when read form (sic) positions of dominance” (CBBA, n.d., d., para. 2). We must distinguish
between the later polemics of the Gospel writers with the likely events of the arrest and execution of Jesus
and then discern what is appropriate today.
We are now in a better position to understand that the invective against “the Jews”, especially in John and
famously in Matthew’s “blood curse,” must be seen within the context of a desire to underplay Roman
responsibility for Jesus’ death and to move it instead to a small group of Jews who were regarded as
religious competitors. “The Passion of Jesus of Nazareth is part of history, but it is also the central core of
Christian theology, the very nucleus of the Church’s faith” (Vermes, 2005, p. 9). It is the emerging early
Christology that helps to polarise this new group from Second Temple Judaism. Without this understanding
it is too easy to gloss over the all too human motivations of the Evangelists and in the meantime, castigate
the motives of their rivals. “Although Jesus died on a Roman cross on the Roman charge of sedition – Jesus
was not killed by “the Jews” but by “the state” – Pontius Pilate became a saint in some Christian traditions
while Jews have been vilified, ghettoised, and murdered” (Levine, 2003, para. 4).
There is obviously a great deal at stake when depicting the Passion story. The Christian Scholars Group has
summarised this as “facts, faith and film-making” (2004). The facts are that Pilate was not a bumbling
bureaucrat intimidated by Jewish leaders but “a stubborn, irascible, vindictive, naturally inflexible, selfwilled and obdurate man who committed insults, robberies, outrages and wanton injuries” (Vermes, 2005,
p. 120). Similarly the number of the “crowds” of Jews calling “Crucify him” referred to in Mark and Luke are
not specified in either of the Gospels and so this is yet another area that calls for sensitivity. Even greater
sensitivity is needed when including the famous “blood curse” from Matthew (27:25). Modern scholarship
agrees that this is “not a Stage 1 historic event, but is part of Matthew’s Stage 3 polemic against Jewish
rivals” (Cunningham, 2004, p. 9; Sanders, 2006, p. 65). So it is that there are important caveats to be
considered when delivering representations of the Passion in order that traditional anti-Jewish bias is
weeded out. Dramatic portrayals of the Passion do well to keep in mind that they are “a liturgical
experience as well as a theatrical one” (Sherman, 2000, p. 822) and there is more at stake than merely
presenting an engaging entertainment. Careful attention must be paid to all aspects of the production,
including lighting, costuming, props and staging (Ryan & Goldburg, 2004; Ryan, 2002). There is a
responsibility to not incite violence or disapprobation against the Jews. Furthermore, too often non-Biblical
sources creep into such dramatic portrayals and these are often blatantly anti-Semitic. In Gibson’s case he
drew heavily on the “fanciful meditation of Anne Catherine Emmerich (Anna Katharina Emmerick) – a 19th
century anti-Jewish German nun” (Smith, 2004, p. 3). But unlike other Passion plays, which have limited
audiences, the concern over Gibson’s The Passion of the Christ is that “one man’s vision could affect or
infect the preconscious of millions if not billions of viewers, and do so continuously, year after year”
(Shafer, 2004, p. viii). The need for significant corrections to such views is no doubt urgent.
Teaching the Whole Story
The Church has a pressing responsibility in its schools and parishes to actively preach and teach against
such simplistic understandings of the Passion story. “In the church’s gospels the Passion narrative is not the
whole story. Rather, it is just a segment of a message of healing, liberation, and promise of ultimate
redemption” (Smith, 2004, p. 15). To focus exclusively on Christ’s suffering can distort the Easter message
and eclipse the importance of Jesus’ ministry to the marginalised and oppressed (Sanders, 2006). In a postShoah world, for Christians, “the central issue is not just our concern for how a teaching of contempt can
re-emerge but the necessity of moving away from theologies of sacrificial suffering toward theologies of
respect for the other as the central redeeming act” (Moore, 2005, p. 104). Liturgy plays a vital role in
developing an understanding of the basics of faith and so it is here also that we must carefully examine
what the liturgy tells us about our relationship to Jews and Judaism (Boys, 2000). Furthermore,
“understanding why the New Testament is often anti-Jewish does not excuse us from removing the effects
of such anti-Jewishness today” (Townsend, 1977, para. 4). But if there are complexities in ensuring that
dramatic portrayals of the Passion do not encourage anti-Semitism, the demands of doing the same in
liturgical settings is equally necessary but significantly more challenging.
Holy Week Liturgies
The liturgies of Holy Week understandably, make use of the Gospel narratives of the Passion. One of the
synoptic accounts is chosen for the Palm Sunday reading and John’s account is read every Good Friday. The
issues are complex regarding how one deals with the anti-Jewish polemic present in these texts and there
are different considerations for the direct reading of the Bible as opposed to lectionary excerpts. The
Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments is opposed to changing biblical texts
and “feels that problematic biblical texts should be handled homiletically and educationally” (CBAA, n.d., a.
para. 17). Nonetheless, there is some latitude regarding the translation one uses. Certainly the translation
of hoi Ioudaioi from John’s Gospel, traditionally understood as “the Jews” is an interesting case in point.
The gospel writer’s use of this phrase has no doubt contributed to anti-Semitism and is therefore in need of
review. One solution offered by the CBAA is that “hoi Ioudaioi has either been elided or rendered as “the
chief priests” throughout” (CBAA, n.d., b., para. 22). Still, this is just one aspect of John’s account and “the
thorny problem is that the Johannine passion narrative is in reality a cosmic drama, but today’s
congregations inevitably hear it as a historical chronicle” (CBAA, n.d., b., para. 28). It would seem that once
again education is the key but the challenge arises as to the appropriateness of any overtly didactic
exposition in a liturgical setting.
Lectionary readings are more amenable to change and there have been attempts to prepare narratives
which avoid the more problematic aspects of the Gospel Passion accounts (Townsend, 1977; CBAA, n.d.,
d.). But these attempts, whilst based on the statements from Church documents, receive little institutional
support. Pawlikowski, forcefully points out that “if Catholic leaders are not going to apply official texts on
Christian-Jewish relations to concrete situations such as the appearance of The Passion of the Christ, we
may as well have a solemn burning of them in St. Peter’s Square” (Pawlikowski, 2005, p. 98). The recent
controversy regarding the reintroduction to the Good Friday mass of the prayer for the Jews clearly
illustrates this conflict (Pawlikowski, 2008). For although there are committed organizations and individuals
who are dedicated to examining and eliminating the roots of anti-Semitism in Christian theology, there are
those who regard this as a destabilizing of all that Christians hold sacred. The question becomes whether
supersessionism (the belief that Christianity superseded Judaism) is fundamental to Christian theology and
this continues to be a source of debate (Harries, 2003). Rosemary Radford Ruether articulates this as
whether it is “possible to purify the Christian message of its anti-Jewish ideology without invalidating the
Christian claims altogether” and finds this a “frightening question” (Radford Ruether, 1974, p. 8).
Nonetheless, it is a question central to continuing fruitful dialogue between Christians and Jews and one
which is equally relevant to Christianity’s relationships with other religions.
Conclusion
The unspeakable horrors of the Shoah are “a Christian problem,” as survivor Elie Wiesel claims; as
Christians we have a responsibility to ensure that the spectre of anti-Semitism does not rise again (cited in
Sanders, 2006, p. 115). “After Auschwitz, we cannot afford a naivete about the Passion narratives. The only
hope lies in careful, thoughtful examinations of the texts and of Christians’ use of them” (Sanders, 2006, p.
77). Educators obviously have an important role to play, but as Mary Boys points out, “too few Christians
hear sermons or engage in Bible study enriched by careful analysis of texts in their cultural, historical and
literary contexts” (Boys, 2003, para. 19). The dominant paradigm is a literalist, fundamentalist reading of
the Bible and this kills thoughtful inquiry. In fact the issues to do with representations of the Passion are at
the very heart of Christianity and the challenges it faces in the 21st century. Between the easy answers of
fundamentalism and the relativity of fragmented life-worlds there is a third way which calls for informed
engagement or what Mary Boys calls the “fruitful tension” between particularism and pluralism whereby
we need others to help us more fully understand ourselves (Boys, 2002, p. 13).
But as Christians we can never let the searing flame of anti-Semitism burn anew when we see what it
did to Jewish bodies and the Christian soul over the centuries and in light of the churches’ recent
condemnation of it as fundamentally sinful. (Pawlikowski, 2004, p. 7)
Our sacred stories say a great deal about what we value and who we are. As Christians we need to
scrutinise our Passion narratives for the harm they can cause Jews and Judaism. In doing so, we not only
open up opportunities for healing old wounds, but we may “show the world another way: honouring
humanity as God’s image, protecting the environment as God’s work, respecting diversity as God’s will, and
keeping the covenant as God’s word” (Sacks, 2008, section viii). The success or failure of such an enterprise
has universal implications.
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*Sandra Ruthven is a secondary school teacher in Perth, Western Australia and has recently
completed a Master of Religious Education at the University of Notre Dame Australia
(Fremantle).
Kate Adams*
Searching for connectedness: The role of RE and spirituality in supporting
children’s questions about death
Abstract
Most children ask questions about what happens after death in their quest to understand and make
meaning of the world, and such thoughts are not restricted to RE lessons but can occur at any point in the
school day. In a society where death is almost a taboo subject, teachers can be unprepared to deal with
such questions. This paper explores the role that Religious Education and spiritual development in the UK
may have in supporting teachers and children in discussing death in the classroom. It argues that children’s
questions about death reflect their spiritual search for meaning and connectedness, which is illustrated
through a case study of an 8 year old girl. The paper concludes that teachers, through understanding
children's search for connectedness in their questions about death, and by developing an empathic
approach, can support children more effectively when responding to the questions.
Introduction
Many children will inevitably ask questions about death, whether it be in response to an actual death,
someone’s illness, a story, or to material on television or a computer game. Children can pose these
questions to teachers at any point, often out of context, and it can be difficult to know how to respond.
The philosophy of a faith school that nurtures children in their own faith may naturally provide a supportive
framework for answering children’s ultimate questions about death, but for schools outside of the faith
sector, teachers may have particular difficulties in dealing with them. One reason for adults’ reservations
may be due to what Walters (2008, p.277) terms the ‘death-denying and grief-avoiding dimension’ that
many Western cultures have adopted, which implies that children should be ‘protected from the harshness
of loss and death.’ This approach of many adults lies in contrast to children's openness towards the subject.
It is often the adults who find talking about death difficult – not children. As Bellous (2008) suggests,
children want and need to share their stories of loss and recovery, which are important expressions of
spiritual connectedness.
The role of schools in supporting children who are grieving is documented elsewhere (see; Jackson &
Colwell, 2002; Leaman, 1995; Rowling, 2003). Rowling (2008) pays particular attention to the place of the
spiritual in schools’ supportive roles, arguing that schools are communities that should recognise
spirituality’s sense of connectedness. Such an approach enables schools to acknowledge the communal
aspects of loss, and not perceive it simply as an individual’s loss. Rather than focussing on children who are
bereaved, this paper concentrates on children's questions and comments about death which do not
necessarily arise as a direct consequence of loss: questions relating to why people die; what happens after
death; and children’s spiritual experiences such as seeing or dreaming about a deceased person. Many
children will raise such issues spontaneously, and often outside of Religious Education lessons, which can
leave some teachers unprepared for them. Yet for children, these questions are important and often reflect
a search for meaning and connection as they attempt to make sense of the world.
In exploring the topic of children's questions and comments about death, this paper suggests that they are
displaying elements of their spirituality by virtue of their search for ‘connectedness’. Illustrated by a case
study of dialogue between an 8 year old girl and her teacher in a school in England, it argues that when
children are seeking answers to questions related to death, they are not only searching for meaning about
the world, but also seeking connection with either self and others and, for some, God. The paper proposes
that teachers need to understand this search for connectedness in order to fully empathise and support
children in their quest for meaning in relation to issues surrounding death as and when they arise.
The curriculum
The sensitive nature of the topic of death and its associated spirituality lies in stark contrast to the
dominant discourse of performativity which is prevalent in the education systems of many Western
countries. In the UK, Turner-Bisset (2007) highlights how educational discourse has become based around
learning objectives, evidence, efficiency and accountability as measured by the government inspection
agency, the Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills (Ofsted) and Standard
Assessment Tests (SATS) results. Similarly, in Australia, Buchanan and Hyde (2008) observe how their
education system centres on the cognitive dimensions of learning.
Theoretically, teachers in England and Wales are well placed to nurture children’s spirituality given the legal
requirement to ensure the spiritual development of children and to teach Religious Education in all schools
(Education Reform Act 1988). In this context, the religious and the spiritual are not synonymous (Ofsted,
2004). These legal requirements, though not without their significant complications, afford teachers the
opportunity to openly address the spiritual and affective elements of teaching and learning in their
classrooms.
All Religious Education syllabi incorporate the topic of death in some form, particularly through the
components of learning about religions, their teachings about death and the afterlife and associated
ceremonies. The components of ‘learning from religion’ offer children the opportunity to reflect on these
religious teachings and to begin to form their own views, which can of course also include the belief that
there is no life beyond death. However, many teachers lack confidence in teaching about religion and
addressing spirituality, particularly in responding to issues about death. Yet for children the topic is a key
one in their search for connectedness.
A child’s search for connectedness
The notion that part of a child's spirituality is relational is well documented (see Adams, Hyde and Woolley,
2008; Bosacki, 2001; Champagne, 2001; de Souza, 2006; Hay and Nye, 2006; Hyde, 2008). The concept of
relationality has been conceptualised in different ways. For example, Hay and Nye (1998; 2006) propose
that children's spirituality is expressed in their relational consciousness, which can be categorised as childself, child-people, child-world and child-God. de Souza (2006, p. 167) uses the terms Self, Social Other,
Physical Other and Transcendent Other when describing children's searchings for connectedness.
Children's search for connectedness with people is not simply limited to their relationships with friends and
family; it is also expressed through a need to connect with the people who have died, or whom they fear
will die. When children seek answers to questions such as ‘what happens after people die?’ they are likely
to be expressing some of these components of relational consciousness. For some children, there is
evidence of a connection with a Transcendent Other/God whom they believe has a role to play in life after
death, when they seek comfort in the belief that God will take care of their loved one in an afterlife, or that
their spirit will be reincarnated into another body. Further, entwined in this search for connection is a
developing relationship with self in which a child forms their views and beliefs that shape their identity. The
following case study explicates these arguments and the theoretical stances further.
Case study
Emily is 8 years old and attends a rural school in England that has no faith based affiliation. She is in a
class of 27 boys and girls, is interested in her work and achieves average academic attainment in all
curriculum areas. She has a generally shy and calm demeanour and at times has a tendency to choose
to be alone (though has a friendship group in school). She particularly enjoys engaging in quiet
activities such as individual artwork. Although rarely contributing to whole class RE discussions, her
written work demonstrates that she engages with the topics discussed.
The teacher reported that one day Emily entered the classroom in a particularly sombre mood and did
not apply her usual conscientious approach to her tasks, instead, working at a much slower pace. The
teacher suspected that she was upset but Emily did not want to engage in conversation so the
teacher withdrew. Later that day, during a geography lesson, Emily suddenly asked what happens
after a person dies. Her teacher avoided providing a direct answer and instead asked Emily why she
had posed the question.
“My Granddad is poorly, he was in the hospital all night but my mum wouldn’t let me see him. She
said the doctors are trying to make him better but I said what if they don’t, and mum said it would be
okay but one day in the future he will go to heaven. She said he would still be alive if he was in heaven
but I said I couldn’t see him if he was up in the sky and how would I know if he is really there?”
Children's verbal expressions
Many children express some aspects of their spirituality directly, as Emily did when she asked her teacher
and her mother what happens after people die. Emily’s verbal response, although relatively short, offers
insights into her spiritual quest to make sense of her granddad’s illness and her realisation that even if he
recovered, he would die at some point in the future.
Emily’s questions directly reflect a search for connectedness with her granddad, particularly in the future
after his death. The relational component of her questioning is explicit in terms of her relationship with
another person (see Adams, Hyde and Woolley, 2008; de Souza, 2006; Hay and Nye, 2006). However, there
is also, perhaps, an implicit relational component with regards to her relationship with God, or
Transcendent Other (see Adams, Hyde and Woolley, 2008; de Souza, 2006; Hay and Nye, 2006) when Emily
talks of her Granddad being alive in heaven.
In addition to expressing a relationship with Other and with God, Emily is also communicating a relationship
with Self. A person’s belief system(s) forms a fundamental part of their identity – whether it has a religious
or secular basis. An individual’s belief about what happens after death – whether humans are reincarnated,
go to heaven, roam this world as a spirit, or perhaps nothing at all – shapes their sense of self and can even
affect their behaviour. A person, for example, who is terrified of going to hell may be desperate to avoid
any behaviour which may potentially lead to such an outcome. By asking questions about heaven, and
wondering how she could be sure that her Granddad was there given that she did not think she would be
able to see him, Emily is trying to understand the concept of heaven and make sense of it. Hyde (2008)
describes how children's explorations of death and what might occur after death are often a part of
children weaving threads of meaning in order to connect with those who have died. Whilst Emily has not
lost her Granddad at this point, she is perhaps seeking this meaning in preparation for the loss.
Children's non verbal expressions
Whilst children's verbal contributions to discussions of a spiritual nature are the more immediately
recognisable, the non-verbal are also of significance but need a vigilant teacher to identify them – a task
that is particularly difficult in a busy classroom. Emily’s teacher had a heightened sensitivity to her pupils’
emotional and spiritual welfare and immediately noticed Emily’s change in mood. Further, the teacher
displayed emotional intelligence by reading Emily’s feelings; she withdrew from Emily in the morning but
responded in the afternoon, when she was aware that Emily was ready to converse. A teacher’s emotional
intelligence is a key trait in enabling a supportive response to children's questions, allowing them to sense
when it is and is not appropriate to discuss the subject; inadvertent pressure on a child to talk when they
are not ready to can be upsetting for the child and potentially lead them to retreat into silence. Emily’s
teacher was adept at noticing non-verbal cues; it was normal for Emily to be quiet in class but despite that,
the teacher noticed that she was unusually so that morning.
Goleman (1996) suggests that a key feature of a person with high emotional intelligence is the ability to
empathise, and proposes that teachers develop empathy which can lead to caring, altruism and
compassion. For teachers to be empathic when talking to children about death, they need to have a
particular sensitivity towards children's search for meaning and be alert to the possibility that there may be
a stimulus for the questions, such as a relative’s illness or death of a pet, which the teacher may not be
aware of.
Teachers not only need to listen to what children say, but they also need to listen for their spiritual
experiences (Champagne, 2001). In the hectic target-driven curriculum it is a challenge for teachers to
listen for children's spirituality, particularly when they are responsible for a large class. Yet it is essential
that they are alert to the spiritual aspect of children's lives which involves reflection on their own,
particularly when difficulties in discussing issues related to death lie more with adults than with children
(Adams, Hyde and Woolley, 2008).
Supporting children in the curriculum
The specific support that RE can give to children’s spirituality in relation to issues of death will inevitably
vary according to the context within which it is located. For example, RE in faith schools that nurtures
children's faith may support children through the particular religion’s belief system about death and the
afterlife. However the situation is complex partly because of the pluralistic nature of schools’ composition.
Teachers need to operate sensitively because they cannot know how each child’s parents/carers respond to
their own child’s questions about death. If a child were to declare their family’s views, as Emily did,
teachers will have a natural starting point.
RE in the UK, which is compulsory in all government-funded schools including those with no faith character,
need a different approach. In these schools with no faith character, a teacher needs to phrase responses to
direct questions carefully, possibly referring to the fact that there are different views about life after death.
For example, a teacher could use the following formula and adapt it to suit the age and ability of the child
and the curriculum coverage to date: “As you know from our RE lessons, different religions have different
beliefs. We have recently looked at the ideas of going to heaven or being reincarnated. What do you think
happens?” This approach does not declare the teacher’s personal viewpoint, indicates that there are
diverse beliefs and gives the child the opportunity for reflection as required by the ‘learning from religion’
component of the syllabus.
Discussions surrounding ultimate questions in RE (including those not related to death) are essential
because they afford children opportunities to seek meaning and also create an environment in which it is
the norm to share their thoughts. By encouraging children to contemplate the bigger questions in life, they
will become aware that there are many possible different answers and will be able to gradually construct
their own worldview.
Effective teaching about religions’ understandings of death as part of the RE curriculum will inevitably
involve engaging children in reflection and lead to children posing their own questions during the topic. In
this scenario of lessons which have been planned in advance, the teacher can, to some extent, anticipate
and prepare for responding to children's questions. However, when children raise issues outside of the
taught topic, the teacher can be caught unawares. In order to be ready to support children, a school needs
to be emotionally literate – to be able to understand social situations, and form good relationships (Weare,
2004). If empathic relationships are already in place, children are more likely to feel comfortable in
initiating discussions with staff. In turn, if teachers are adept at recognising emotions in others, and
managing emotions within the context of the relationships (Salovey and Mayer, 1990), then there is
increased likelihood of positive outcomes to the discussions. Such an ethos will permeate throughout the
curriculum.
The curriculum beyond RE plays an important role in supporting children, not only through the creation of a
positive ethos. Spiritual development is intended to occur throughout the curriculum (Ofsted, 2004) and
teachers can use other lessons to approach the subject. For example, they might explore images of the
afterlife in Art, or use poetry or fiction in Literacy to explore authors’ ideas and depictions of what might
exist after death. Using the theme in lessons outside of RE will contribute to creating an environment in
which the teacher appears at ease when discussing death which in turn will be supportive for the children.
Throughout the school day, when listening for children's spirituality (Champagne, 2001), teachers also need
to be aware of cues in addition to direct questions about death. Many children talk openly about having
seen a person who has died, often in a matter of fact way (Adams, Hyde and Woolley, 2008). Similarly,
dreaming about a person who has died is a normal part of the grieving process and as the dreamer comes
to accept the death, the dream characters often appear as they did when alive, having conversations in the
dream, which can bring comfort and reassurance to the dreamer (Garfield, 1996). Children are no
exception to this experience and will of report dreams of people who have died, and dreams which appear
to prepare them for losses that have not yet occurred (Adams, 2007). For children it is thus natural to see a
deceased person either whilst awake or asleep, and any discussion about the experience is likely to further
reflect a search for connectedness with the person who has died. Such conversations amongst children may
well also raise issues for peers who are not bereaved as they seek to understand what happens to people
after death.
Finally, it is important to emphasise that the teacher is not a counsellor, and it is not their role to prepare
children for the losses of loved ones which they may experience during their school years. However,
children's questions and ponderings about death and what may lie beyond are inevitable during school
hours and teachers need to be able to manage them as effectively as they can within their own educational
context.
Conclusions
Whilst this paper is limited via its use of a single case study, it addresses an area of children's searching that
most teachers will encounter, even outside of the RE class. For adults, talking about death can be a
particularly challenging task in a society where it can be almost taboo, yet in contrast children tend to
discuss it openly. Further, children have a need to raise questions and share their experiences in their
search for meaning and connectedness with self, others and for some, a Transcendent Other. By
recognising the role that such questions and conversations play in children's spiritual lives, teachers may be
better equipped to manage them effectively and empathically.
References
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*Dr Kate Adams is Senior Lecturer in Education Studies at Bishop Grosseteste University College Lincoln,
UK. She is co-author of The Spiritual Dimension of Childhood and author of Behaviour for Learning in the
Primary School.
Peter Mudge*
Two-fold and four-fold learning models – an analysis with implications for religious
education and for stretching ways of knowing
(Part 1 of 2)
Abstract
Many ways of knowing and spirituality are routinely neglected in the primary, secondary and tertiary
environments, not only in religious education, but also in many other subject areas and disciplines. Drawing
mainly on the Christian, Orthodox and Jewish traditions, this paper explores a more expansive framework
for ‘ways of knowing’ within the context of religious education.
It approaches the topic by examining some commonly used two-fold models of knowing (Part One, this
paper) and four-fold complementary models of knowing (Part Two, next issue). It then supplements these
traditional models with insights about ways of knowing from Christian and other traditions of spirituality. In
addition, the paper argues that inclusion of this wider variety of ways of knowing is essential for the
integrated and grounded teaching or religious education.
Introduction
This paper assumes that while two- and four-fold taxomonies of knowing (discussed in more detail below)
have much to contribute to the field of religious education, they do not offer the breadth of knowing and
understanding contained in models based on Christian theology and spirituality. The overall orientation of
this paper is to present ways in which these latter types of knowing can benefit thinking, knowing and
pedagogy in the classroom environment. The paper also assumes that the classroom teacher is committed
to ‘stretching’ ways of knowing beyond any one individual style of knowing to enhance and maximise
students’ learning in religious education and other subjects (Atkin, 1997, p.3; cf. Holt, in Atkin, 2007, p.22).
In addition, this argument is contextualised within the assumption of a spiritual dimension to religious
education. As such, the paper assumes the presence of a transcendent or spiritual dimension as part of any
process of human knowing. In general terms, it understands ‘spirituality’ as ‘a conscious way of life based
on a transcendent referent’ (Mason, Webber, Singleton, and Hughes, 2006, p.2). That is, it acknowledges a
reality beyond but complementary to the immanent, a reality that exists in God, yet in and beyond the
material or created world (cf. Sinclair, 2003, p.1267). This definition therefore assumes the centrality of the
spirit or soul in the process of knowing, which is not simply limited to knowledge of physical nature or
matter (cf. Sinclair, 2003, p.1148). In Catholic or Christian terms, this assumption of a spiritual dimension
translates into a way of life centred on and responsive to the Holy Trinity and to the presence of the Spirit
of the Risen Christ within each person as a member of the Body of Christ. As such, it is a spirituality that is
visionary, sacramental, relational, and transformational (cf. McBrien, 1981, p.1093). From within a
leadership matrix, Fullan further nuances this same understanding in relation to moral purpose, which aims
‘to make a difference in the lives of students’ and is always there in the school and lives of teachers ‘in
nascent form to be cultivated and activated’. He cites Parker Palmer’s The Courage to Teach as a good
example of ‘how the best teachers integrate the intellectual, emotional, and spiritual aspects of teaching to
create powerful learning communities’ (2001, pp.13, 27).
Two-fold complementary models of knowing
Learning [as an integration of John Holt’s four Worlds] is “holistic” – the whole person grows as a
result of powerful learning – learning is not linear, new learning is not an “appendage” but rather it
contributes to transformation of the whole
(Atkin, 2007, p.10)
Traditional taxonomies of knowing and spirituality, in general, can be divided into two major systems –
two-fold and four-fold complementary ways of knowing. The two-fold taxonomies (sometimes included
alongside tripartite models below) have been further divided into two tables – Table One lists
pedagogically-based models while Table Two lists models linked to spirituality, scripture and theology. Each
table lists its theories and protagonists in broad chronological order. We now examine each Table in turn.
Table One is constructed in relation to two distinct ‘types of knowing’ described in different ways by
various authors. In between these two types of knowing is what I refer to as a grey liminal or transitional
area. The Table includes de Bono’s (1969; 1990a) contrast between convergent and divergent knowing,
along with Claxton and Lucas’s (2004) comparison between ‘fast’ hare and ‘slow’ tortoise knowing, and
neuropsychologist Goldberg’s (2007) dialectic between the familiar and the routinised, compared with the
novel and the daring. Note in particular Holt’s distinction (and integration) between the worlds we know,
those we have heard about, and those not even heard about or imagined. ‘Knowing Style 1’ in the left hand
column is typically focused on aspects such as – separation, structure, direct experience, logic, control,
action, scientific observation, regulation, description, the familiar and the routine. ‘Knowing Style 2’ on the
other hand is oriented towards a type of knowing characterised as – tacit, intuitive, incorporative,
communal, and focused on the infinite world of possibilities, imagination, receptivity, surprise, narrative,
divergence, the ability to pass beyond traditional boundaries, holism, myth, contemplation, novelty and
daring.
I would also argue in relation to Table One that the grey, ‘fuzzy’ or transitional area is of particular
significance. This is Van Gennep’s and Turner’s ‘in-between’ territory of anti-structure and liminality. It
represents that potentially fertile area where knowers are ‘on the cusp’ between initial or surface knowing,
compared with deeper, symbolic knowing and non-knowing. This grey area is described by a range of
authors employing terms such as – transitional, marginal, ‘not [previously] experienced’, reversal,
disruption, madness, contradiction, confusion and disorientation.
Finally, I would propose that Table One challenges teachers and students alike to stretch their ways of
knowing from Style 1, through the grey, transitional area, to Style 2. Both styles of knowing are
complementary but they are also both necessary and valuable for the nurturing of holistic, integrated
religious education.
included a more detailed summary of Claxton’s two modes of knowing. It is significant that
Claxton’s slow/tortoise mode allows valuable time for play, leisure, dreaming, hovering and contemplating,
and even permits the ‘heretical’ stance of ‘not knowing’.
Below Table 1 is
Table One – Summary of Two and Three-fold Models of Knowing (Pedagogical)
Theorist or Author
Van
Gennep
(1960/1908,p.vii)
Knowing Style 1
Preparation & Separation
Polanyi (1966, p.4; 1969,
pp.124-125, 133)
Turner (1969); Alexander
(1991, pp.13-44)
Holt (1971, p.20)
We know what we can see and
objectify
Structure
Ornstein (1977, pp.26-52,
67-88) – theory of
bimodal consciousness
Polkinghorne,
citing
Bruner (1988, pp.1,6,11)
World 1 – the world I hold inside
my body;
World 2 – the world I know
about from direct experience
Action mode – logic, control,
analysis,
and
prediction;
operates in a world of sign,
concept, system
Logico-scientific mode; research
and observation based
Grey, transitional area
Transition/Marginalisation
The candidate is ‘no one’ &
‘no thing’
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
Antistructure
<~~~~Liminality~~~~~~>
World 3 – The world I have
heard about, but have not
experienced in any direct
way through the senses
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
Knowing Style 2
Incorporation
‘We know more than we can
tell’ (tacit dimension)
Communitas
World 4 – The infinite world of
possibilities, the world I haven’t
heard about or even at this
stage imagined
Receptive mode – association,
surrender,
intuition,
and
surprise; operates in a ‘world’
of symbol, ritual and story
Narrative mode or type of
understanding;
practical,
concrete and experiential
Lateral,
unpredictable,
divergent thinking
De Bono (1969, pp.39-40;
1990a, p.23)
Lateral thinking
De Bono (1969, pp. 244,
277);
Breaking the boundaries
of reasonableness
Linear, predictable, convergent
thinking
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
Reasonable,
planned,
predictable, direct, regulated
Breaking the boundaries of
reasonable, creativity, new
insights,
and
unexpected
outcomes.
Knudtson & Suzuki (1997,
pp.8-19;
cf.
Self,
2006,pp.111-139)
Scruton (citing Russell,
1998, pp.152ff)
Scientific mind;
One-step removed view
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
Use of diversions, paradox,
provocations,
reversal
thinking,
disruptions,
madness, chance, irony,
ambivalence, contradiction,
accident, mistake
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
Knowing
by
description;
objective and more distant
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
K. Armstrong; (2005, p.97;
and in Prentice, 2000,
p.27)
Claxton (2000, passim);
Claxton & Lucas (2004,
passim)
Logos (literal, descriptive, based
on reason; establish truth via
careful enquiry)
D-mode
(hare
mode)
–
deliberate,
conscious,
purposeful, clear cut, focused on
solutions and explanations
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
J.
Armstrong
p.161f)
(2005,
Initial confusion; also nonknowing or surface, literal
knowing
Croakley (2006, p.31)
Goldberg (2007, pp.194199)
Vardy (2007, p.4; 2004,
pp.3-4; NB In Britain,
stillness is a compulsory
part of the National
Curriculum from Years 1
to 11)
‘What is seen with the eye’
Familiar and Routinisation brain
processes
Education and spirituality that
solely stresses the cognitive
Formative
knowing
–
accompanied by confusion,
disorientation
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
Knowing by acquaintance;
subjective
and
more
intimate/engaged
Mythos (symbolic, narrative,
imaginative; requires emotional
participation)
Slower, more contemplative
(tortoise mode) – attentive,
meditative,
ruminating,
hovering, playful, leisurely,
questioning,
open
to
hypothesising
Summative knowing – fuller
knowing, ‘making connections’
at the end of human existence
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
Redressing the imbalance
between the cognitive, the
affective and the spiritual
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
Native or Shamanic mind;
‘Savage’ totalising view
‘Not with the eye alone’
Novelty and Daring brain
processes
Students gain inner confidence,
recognising the value of silence,
gentleness, compassion, and
concern for others
Claxton’s two modes of knowing
D-mode (hare mode) thinking vs. slower, more contemplative thinking (tortoise mode); Both modes are complementary and
necessary (Claxton)
D-MODE/HARE
(‘D’ can stand for ‘default’ as well as ‘deliberation’)
•Deliberate, conscious thinking; purposeful and clear-cut
•Find answers/solutions
•Perception = unproblematic
•Conscious, articulate
•Focus on explanation
SLOW/TORTOISE
(Gives us permission to slow down, be attentive, ‘look’)
•More playful, leisurely and dreamy; mulling & ruminating,
being contemplative & meditative
•Explore the questions
•Questions perception; allows hypothesising
•Not knowing, big picture
•Focus on observation
(Claxton, 2000, passim)
Two-fold models linked to spirituality and theology
The summary contained in Table Two below continues some trends found in Table One but instead
references key terms to the areas of spirituality, mysticism, scripture and theology. To this author’s
knowledge and cognizant of recent literature on the topic, this ‘tracking’ of ways of knowing from Christian
spirituality, along with the process of linking it with classroom practices, has not previously been
synthesised in exactly this way. This ‘tracking’ is deemed necessary because of the protracted historical
divisions between life, theology, spirituality, epistemology and pedagogy.
Once again, Table Two lists two contrasting styles of knowing interrupted by a grey, transitional area. Of
particular interest are the transitions in Eastern spirituality from lips to mind to heart, in Paul of Tarsus
from the human spirit to the indwelling Holy Spirit, and the influential Pseudo-Dionysius’ and Gregory of
Nyssa’s pilgrimages from the light of God-images through the enveloping, impenetrable cloud to the
‘dazzling darkness’ of God who is Nameless.
Like Table One, Table Two is also replete with common transitions from a style of knowing (Knowing Style
1) focused on what is –distant, objective, noetic, reasonable, intellectual, material, prose-oriented, visual,
and use of the senses, which then shifts to another different style of knowing (Knowing Style 2) more
characterised by what is – intimate, relational to the Divine, subjective, affective, non-rational, virtuous,
poetry-orientated, and given to beholding and spiritual intuition. Chronological order in Table Two is
extremely significant as a tool for tracking not only historical context but also connections between spiritual
writers and ideas. For example, certain Jewish perspectives on spirituality influenced Gregory of Nyssa, who
in turn directly influenced Pseudo-Dionysius, who then affected Bonaventure, Meister Eckhart, Nicholas of
Cusa and Adrian van Kaam, to name but a few in that particular pedigree of spirituality.
Furthermore, again like Table One, in between these two styles of knowing, these spiritual guides have
identified a transitional grey, fuzzy or liminal area described in relation to what is typically described as –
unknowable, illuminative, confusing, spiralling, and directionless. It often arises out of the experience of –
seeing differently, leaving behind familiar words and landmarks, kenosis or ‘self-emptying’, bi-polar
reversal, being turned upside-down, liminality, moving beyond scientific and aesthetic understanding, and
arriving at the pre-conceptual, the pre-symbolic, silence, or emptiness. Finally, the symbol † used in Table
Two signifies knowing styles used by certain spiritual writers that could be equated with ‘unknowing’, ‘non
knowing’, ‘knowing beyond words’, or any equivalent encounter with God as hidden darkness, the
ineffable, or the Mystery (often also referred to as apophatic knowing).
Table Two – Summary of Two and Three-fold Models of Knowing (based on writings about
Spirituality, Scripture, Theology and Mysticism)
Spiritual Writer
Eastern spirituality
(Holmes, 1980, p.37)
Western spirituality
(Holmes, 1980, p.37)
† Jewish perspectives
(Fackenheim, 1987, pp.
155-166; Neusner, 1987,
pp.3-12,
205-216;
Unterman, 1991, pp.62;
Heschel, cited in Neusner,
1991, pp.340, 362)
Paul of Tarsus (d.c.62 CE)
(cf. 1 Cor 2:14; and
Schwiezer, 1968, pp.88-95)
† Islamic Sufi mystics; from
Thawbān ibn Ibrāhīm
(c.180/796–245/860);
(Renard, 2004, pp.xi-xii, 11,
20)
† Gregory of Nyssa (c.330395 CE)
(cf. Daniélou, 1979, pp.2334ff; Sitzia, 1996, p.27)
Knowing Style 1
Prayer of the lips
God is immanent
Purgative
<~Prayer of the mind~>
God is ultimately unknowable
<~~~~~Illuminative~~~>
Via cognitiva
Enchantment through words
The human soul is hewn out of
the divine; it is initially drawn
to material things
God enters the human
consciousness; the divine
spark inside is kindled
The world of perception
Psychikos (the person existing
on the merely natural level)
Way of knowing = ‘ilm;
discursive, acquired, received
knowledge; but pitfalls of
intellectualism,
arrogance,
desiccation;
Fragmented, compartment alised knowledge
Light, then epektasis or
‘straining
towards
God’;
‘tension, expansion, perpetual
growth/progress of the soul
into God’
† Various spiritual writers;
e.g. Rous, Pseudo Macarius,
Rolle, J of Norwich, Fox,
Law (200s CE ff)
†
Pseudo-Dionysius
(b.c.480 CE) (Luibheid,
1987, pp.55, 135-141)
‘eye of reason’, seed of reason,
spark of the soul
† Isaac of Nineveh (d.c. 700
CE) (cf. Holmes, 1980, p.38;
Elkins, 2001, pp.20-39, 166181; and J. Armstrong,
2005, pp.70-80)
† John Scotus Erigena
(c.810-877 CE)
(Schmiel, 1984, pp.182-187)
Way of the intellect
† Bonaventure (1217-1274
CE) – the three ways of
meditation
(Holmes, 1980, p.66)
† Meister Eckhart (c.12601327/8 CE) (Turner, 1999,
pp.140-167; O’Neal, 2005,
pp.22-24; Smith, 2004,
pp.1-13; Demkovich, 2006,
pp.107-133,164-166)
Purgative; triggered by poverty
as openness to God’s grace
The visible God of light; we can
name God as ‘I am being’, ‘life’,
‘light’, ‘truth’
Sensing or hearing the
underground river (God); the
human person as created and
co-creator
The self and the Godhead who
are visible and knowable;
Beingness and Groundedness
Beginning of a gradual
invasion, a slow experience
of ‘being overtaken by God’;
The mystic is called to
become the seeker of
experiential knowledge of
God
<~~~~~~~Cloud~~~~~~>
The spiritual life does not
progress along a straight line
but through a series of spirals
(Schmiel, 1984, p.184; Fox,
1984, p.215)
<~~~~~training of the eye to
see differently~~~>
Plunging into the darkness of
the One who is beyond all
things; leave behind every
word, thing, voice
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
Kenosis, the self-emptying of
God
into
creation;
panentheism; God
calls
humans to complete the
circle of Creation through a
parallel self-emptying
<~~~Illuminative~~~~~~>
<~~~Illumination and deeper
knowledge
through
confusion, darkness, and
ineffectiveness
of
all
language;
movement
towards unattachedness and
ownerlessness ~~~~>
Knowing Style 2
Prayer of the heart
God is transcendent
Unitative/Unitive
Via Contemplativa combined
with the Via Activa
Enchantment beyond words;
‘our text is within’
The human soul finds its true
home in God;
What is underneath the world
of perception
Pneumatikos
(the
person
animated by the indwelling
Spirit of God)
Way of knowing = ma‘rifa; the
person’s entire being has been
overtaken by the divine
presence; privileged connection
between the human and the
divine
Holistic knowledge/wisdom
Darkness – this darkness
constantly calls the soul
through ‘desire’ (epithumia) or
‘yearning’ (pothos)
‘eye of the soul’, third eye,
inner eye, eye of love (Holmes,
1980, pp.12, 35, 78-79, 123,
130, 135)
Brilliant darkness of a hidden
silence,
deepest
shadow,
overwhelming light, Wholly
unsensed and unseen
Way of tears (penthos)
[knowing that is beyond
rational
or
intellectual
processes]
Participating with God as
underground river; unity with
God as a trinity of being, force
& operation; God calls us into
‘divine darkness, the mother
night to which all being returns’
Unitive/Unitative; ‘Christ is…our
only
access
to
the
unknowability of God’ (Turner,
1999, p.132)
‘God, who has no name – who
is beyond names – is
inexpressible and the soul in its
ground is also inexpressible, as
[God] is inexpressible’ (cited in
Turner, 1999, p.141)
Spiritual Writer
Knowing Style 1
Knowing Style 2
† Cloud of Unknowing,
anonymous English author
(c.1370 CE)
(Holmes, 1980, p.79)
† Nicholas of Cusa (c.14001464 CE)
(Yockey, 1987, pp.18-19)
Seeking ‘gnosis’ or [special]
knowledge;
Moving from ‘cloud of
forgetfulness’
Knowing as tasting or digesting
visible things
Explicatio
–
unfolding,
uncoiling,
explanation,
explication of God
Cf. Explicate order
Prose-based, bodily, sensory
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
Seeking love in and through
God
Moving into the ‘cloud of
knowing’
Knowing that ultimately God is
indigestible
Complicatio – folding, intricacy,
complication, even confusion of
God
Cf. Implicate order
Poetry-based, beyond words,
logic, intellect, non-verbal
Seeing but not knowing
Liminality = at the threshold
Looking at objectively
I-I, I-It, It-It, We-We, Us-Them
Human being
Conceptual knowledge
Gazing upon
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
† T. S. Eliot (1888-1965)
(Prentice, 2000, p.28; Eliot,
1975, pp.30-31)
† Buber (1996/1923, pp.1114, 46, 60n, 67, 81n, 91-92,
173, 178n)
† Heschel (1983/1955,
pp.114-116, 131);
(cf.
his
concept
of
‘knowledge
by
inacquaintance’);
cf.
Whelan, 1986, pp.28-29
† Rahner (1966) (cited in
McCool, 1975, pp.108-120)
†
Parabolic
knowing
(‘upside down’ or ‘reversal
knowing’) (Crossan, 1973,
p.55; 1975, pp.121-122;
York,
1991,
p.42;
Lambrecht, 1991, p.28;
Nolan, 2007, pp.49-62;
Neyrey, 1991, pp.296-303)
Knowing as naming, explaining,
capturing something
† Holmes (1980, p.4)
Kataphatic – the
imaginal, ‘thingness’
Calculative
† Van Kaam (1983, pp.302304; and in Whelan, 1986,
p.28; cf. Mudge, 2007a)
Brueggemann
(1989,
p.142ff)
McFague (1997, p.116;
Edwards, 2006, p.111)
† Sheldrake (1995, p.7)
O’Donohue (1999, pp.67,
105, 256; 2000, p.38)
† Ranson
(2006, pp.51-68)
Thematic
Focus on the finite
I find the treasure; the act of
choosing and figuring out
Moving through darkness
and confusion
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
Ltn. Superliminare = ‘overthreshold’ (cf. Ex 12:22)
Beholding
I-Thou
Being for others
Scientific
&
Aesthetic
understanding
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
The dawning awareness that
knowing is a living encounter
– immediate, preconceptual,
and presymbolic
‘Essence’ of the Thou
Mystery and pure action, the
act that is not arbitrary
Knowing as waiting upon,
receptivity; ‘something forcing
itself upon us, being drawn to,
and overwhelmed by Mystery’
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
Non-thematic
Focus on the Mystery/Infinite
I choose the pearl of great
price; this transforms my life
I lose the treasure (cf.
Bouyer, 1961, p.265)
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
Revelation
Resolution
Revolution
The values and structures of
our society are right-side up
for us, but to God they are
upside-down and unjust
known,
Bi-polar reversal; our world is
turned upside-down so it is
now right-side up; people are
confused and anxious
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
Informational
Logocentric,
prose-driven,
focused on the dominant
consciousness
‘Arrogant eye’; objectifies,
manipulates, uses, exploits;
rushed and distracted
<~~~~Recreational~~~~~>
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
This
world,
observable
‘thin membrane’ between
this world and the other
world
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
material,
Rational,
disenchantment,
reasonable,
verifiable,
everything is systematised and
classified
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
We are shifted into a new way
of seeing and living, in the rightside up Reign of God
Apophatic – the unknown,
emptying, no-thingness
Meditative
Formational
Mythocentric, expressed in
poetry, focused
on the
alternative consciousness
‘Loving eye’; a sound eye
guided by wisdom; detached;
sees uniqueness of the other;
pays attention
Other world, spiritual, ineffable
(cf. Schmiel, 1984, pp.166-168,
182)
Non-rational, re-enchantment,
non-reasonable, non-empirical,
the return of poetic knowing;
characterised by listening,
desire, wonder, acceptance of
darkness.
Spiritual Writer
Knowing Style 1
Knowing Style 2
McFague (1997, p.116;
Edwards, 2006, p.111)
‘Arrogant eye’; objectifies,
manipulates, uses, exploits;
rushed and distracted
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
† Sheldrake (1995, p.7)
O’Donohue (1999, pp.67,
105, 256; 2000, p.38)
This
world,
observable
† Ranson
(2006, pp.51-68)
Rational,
disenchantment,
reasonable,
verifiable,
everything is systematised and
classified
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
‘thin membrane’ between
this world and the other
world
<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~>
‘Loving eye’; a sound eye
guided by wisdom; detached;
sees uniqueness of the other;
pays attention
Other world, spiritual, ineffable
(cf. Schmiel, 1984, pp.166-168,
182)
material,
Non-rational, re-enchantment,
non-reasonable, non-empirical,
the return of poetic knowing;
characterised by listening,
desire, wonder, acceptance of
darkness
† Strongly focused on knowing as ‘unknowing’, ‘non knowing’, ‘knowing beyond knowing’, hidden darkness, the ineffable, or
equivalent
Finally, Table Two also contains its challenges for teachers and students. Not only does it affirm that there
are two different but complementary and necessary ‘knowing styles’, but that holistic learning and
integrated religious education and spirituality require that the person incorporates practices such as prayer,
contemplation, praxis and ‘deep seeing’ (cf. Mudge, 2007b, pp.45-48) along with stances or attitudes such
as enchantment, wisdom, and openness to the Spirit of God.
The commensurate challenge for teachers and students of religious education for both Tables One and Two
is that, whereas ‘Knowing Style 1’ is understood, incorporated and practiced effectively in the school
context, the same cannot be said for both the liminal, transitional style of knowing, and ‘Knowing Style 2’
which are often ‘missing’ or ‘ignored’ – honoured, it may be said, more in the breach than the observance.
Thus, a significant challenge for teachers in particular is to incorporate into the religious education
classroom context the pedagogical orientations of Table One, along with the spiritual themes and practices
of Table Two.
Conclusions and Future Directions
Practical strategies for cultivating a balanced approach towards ways of knowing
We have reached the mid-point of the journey. The still, dark point of the turning world. We have
long known we would have to face it: the heart of darkness coiled at the core of our being
(Cooper, 2002, p.107)
The research explored in this paper raises a number of challenges and possibilities for multiple pedagogical
contexts in the religious education classroom. Some of these include the need to expand understanding
and practice of ways of knowing in the following areas. For some of these areas I have also suggested
possible teaching strategies for the religious education classroom:
1. affirm and expand ways of knowing linked to Knowing Style 1 which embraces activities focused on
what is – distant, objective, noetic, reasonable, intellectual, material, prose-oriented, visual, and that
embrace the senses. This could be approached, for example, through an indepth objective study of
creation, the cosmos, sacred scriptures, and of the ways in which our senses provide us with a rich,
empirical experience of the world.
2. incorporate and encourage neglected ways of knowing linked to the grey, fuzzy, liminal, transitional
phase of awareness between Knowing Styles 1 and 2, including activities that allow students to
experience the – transitional, marginal, ‘not [previously] experienced’, reversal, disruption, ‘madness’,
contradiction, confusion and disorientation. This phase is also typically described in relation to what is
– unknowable, illuminative, confusing, spiralling, and directionless. It often arises out of the experience
of – seeing differently, leaving behind familiar words and landmarks, kenosis or ‘self-emptying’, bipolar reversal, being turned upside-down, liminality, moving beyond scientific and aesthetic
understanding, and arriving at the pre-conceptual, the pre-symbolic, silence, or emptiness. Teachers
can encourage these marginalized and neglected ways of knowing by studying saints and holy figures
classified as “wise fools”, and equally by studying parables, koans, and other examples of this grey or
luminal way of knowing. At the same time they could introduce students to examples and stories of
reversal, paradox, silence, transformation and disorientation (e.g. Ezekiel in 1 Kings 19:1-12) in order to
highlight the value and place of this type of knowing.
3. integrate and promote largely ignored ways of knowing linked to Knowing Style 2 which is typically
referenced as – tacit, intuitive, incorporative, communal, and focused on the infinite world of
possibilities, imagination, receptivity, surprise, narrative, divergence, the ability to pass beyond
traditional boundaries, holism, myth, contemplation, novelty and daring. This knowing style is also
habitually described in relation to what is – intimate, relational to the Divine, subjective, affective,
non-rational, virtuous, poetry-orientated, and given to beholding and spiritual intuition. For many
spiritual writers, this style of knowing is equated with ‘unknowing’, ‘non knowing’, ‘knowing beyond
words’, or any equivalent encounter with God as hidden darkness, the ineffable, or the Mystery. This
difficult and elusive style of knowing could be cultivated by inviting students to engage their
imagination in religious education classrooms, such as through the use of a variety of narratives,
myths, exercises in contemplation, poetry, art and role-play. In particular, teachers could create
favourable conditions for this style of knowing by privileging those type of activities that do not require
words, clear explanations, rationality, or research (e.g. responses incorporating music, mime, silent
role play, symbol, metaphor and lectio divina).
4. acknowledge and augment a broader range of ways of knowing (embracing Knowing Styles 1 and 2,
along with liminal phase knowing) than those currently or traditionally included in pedagogy,
programming, teaching, evaluation, assessment, and within current epistemologies. This would
embrace ways of knowing based on two-fold and four-fold models, as well as on teaching instruments
such as the Question Matrix;
5. acknowledge that one cannot ‘prove’ or empirically measure those ways of knowing identified as
‘Knowing Style 2’. However, one can provide opportunities for teachers and students to experience or
sense these types of knowing. For example, one way to approach ‘Knowing Style 2’ is to gather
informal ‘evidence’ or observations, showing that the student has considered or remained open to this
type of knowing, such as through the completion of a journal reflection, a meditation, or portfolio.
These types of knowing should not be graded but instead acknowledged on a ‘completed’, ‘pass’ or
‘satisfactory’ basis. The PEEL (2007) taxonomy and teaching strategies, for example, provide one
effective vehicle for cultivating Knowing Style 2, with its emphasis on hypothesising, taking risks,
suspension of judgement, and reflective praxis.
Perhaps the greatest challenge for teachers and students alike is to acknowledge that these different styles
and models of knowing exist in the first place, to incorporate those neglected ways of knowing from
Christianity and other traditions, and to apply them meaningfully and systematically in the religious
education classroom. As Julia Atkin, cited earlier, has poignantly remarked, one of the most confronting
pedagogical tasks facing teachers today is to find ways of “stretching” students’ ways of knowing beyond
their preferred style and comfort zone, and towards ways of knowing that they have not yet experienced
(Atkin, 1997, p.3).
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*Dr. Peter Mudge is an Administrator of Mission – Team Leader, specialising in religious education,
spirituality and pedagogy at the Diocesan Office, Diocese of Wilcannia-Forbes, NSW, Australia. His areas of
interest and research include – religious education, spiritualty, sacred space, connected knowing,
transformative pedagogies, and the role of the arts in religious education. He has received formal training
in drawing painting which he pursues in his art studio.
A selection of his copyright-free art images can be found at: www.flickr.com/photos/ceoreals/sets
His contact email is: [email protected]
Dr Michael Maroney*
An exploration of youth spirituality amongst senior students in three Catholic
Schools in the Archdiocese of Sydney
Abstract
The theory and practice of Catholic schooling, particularly with respect to religious education, have the
purpose of promoting the spiritual and moral development of young people. This includes a special
emphasis on acquainting them with the religious traditions and spirituality of the Catholic Church. Because
Catholic schooling has always endeavoured to meet the religious and personal needs of students, there has
been an ongoing interest in monitoring the spirituality of youth to inform an effective religious education
program. While for many young people spirituality is primarily religious; there is a growing differentiation
between the 'spiritual' and the 'religious'. In some cases, particular versions of spirituality have been
described as 'non-religious' or even 'secular. This paper reports on an investigation of this issue by exploring
the spirituality of year 12 students in three Catholic schools located in the Sydney Archdiocese. A number of
interesting results emerged from the study that assists in articulating what contributes to a student’s
spirituality, and the effect the Catholic school has on their faith, image of God, and attitude to the Church.
Introduction
Increasingly, spirituality has become a prominent focus in classroom religious education. Traditionally,
there has been the fundamental concern to hand on the religious beliefs and practices of the religious
tradition which sponsors the church school. In this situation, it becomes important for educators to make
some appraisal of the relative influence of traditional religious sources of spirituality on the way that young
people construct their own idiosyncratic, personal spiritualities (Crawford & Rossiter, 2006). This paper is
the first part in a series taken from a doctoral thesis that investigated the spirituality of 207 Year 12
students (58% female and 42% male) in three metropolitan Catholic schools in the Archdiocese of Sydney in
2006 and 2007 – a girls college, a boys college and a co-educational college.
The project explored their understanding of spirituality and the links between their spirituality and the
experience of Catholic schooling. A systematic questionnaire provided quantitative data, a summary of
which was then discussed in focus groups. In this way, students were invited to interpret the empirical
data and to attempt to explain why young people thought and felt as they did – yielding qualitative data.
The focus groups also responded to an innovative use of cartoon caricatures of God which prompted
participants to talk about the ways in which they and other teenagers imagined God and God’s role in the
world, and in their own lives (Maroney, 2008).
This bulletin presents some of the responses and discusses a number of issues and implications for
stakeholders interested in the spiritual and moral education of young people, especially those in the
Catholic schools.
What impact are our schools having on our students’ spiritual development?
The findings indicating the influences of our schools is presented in Table 1 and indicates that the highest
result (56.5%) was a preference in conversing with God informally rather than in formal school prayer
situations. Generally, a significant number of students indicated that prayer is important to them (46.8%)
although respondents commented negatively about school liturgies helping with their spiritual
development (26.8%). The retreat experience is important to a number of students (42.7%) confirming the
results of other studies on this subject (Crawford & Rossiter, 2006; Flynn & Mok, 2002; Hughes, 2007; Smith
& Denton, 2005). A low score was given to religious education teachers contributing to students’ faith and
religious practice (31.7%). This result is important given the contemporary situation of religious education
being the only formal exposure that most students’ have to the teachings and culture of the Catholic
Church. For some young people spirituality remains very religious, but for a number it has shifted in that it
is no longer so dependent on formal religion and theology. This tends to make it more experience, and
lifestyle centred. Young people are interested in what affects them in the ‘here and now’; their spirituality
is very existential (Hill, 2004).
Table 1: Influence of Catholic Education
Males
N=78
Influence of Catholic Education
Importance1
44.6%
Females
N=129
Avg
3.07
Importance
65.7%
Average
Avg
3.80
Importance
56.5%
Avg2
3.51
Rather converse with God than
formal prayers
Prayer is important to me
24.7%
2.44
62%
3.81
46.8%
3.26
Retreat experience was deeply
29.6%
2.68
51.7%
3.42
42.7%
3.12
spiritual
I will take on board the moral
18.7%
2.56
53.3%
3.46
39.7%
3.09
teachings of the Church
Catholic Education influenced my
24.6%
2.51
47.9%
3.27
38.5%
2.96
Spirituality
Catholic education helped my
22.2%
2.49
48.7%
3.18
37.9%
2.90
appreciation of the Church
RE teachers contributed to my
23.3%
2.42
36.3%
2.85
31.7%
2.67
belief in God
Catholic Church is out of touch
27.6%
2.85
29.8%
2.77
28.7%
2.81
with reality
School liturgies helped my belief
15%
2.23
34.7%
2.86
26.8%
2.60
in God
Catholic Education had a negative
29.6%
2.22
22.2%
2.22
19.2%
2.22
impact on my Spirituality
1
Percentage importance is calculated by using a Likert scale score. Scores of 1 represented-little
importance through to 5-very important. Percentages displayed are calculated scores for 4 and 5
combined.
2
Item Range 1 – 5; Mid-point = 3
What influences our students’ faith development?
The results about the influences on students’ faith development were spread more evenly over the
responses which perhaps indicated some diversity in individual religious journeys. However, the strongest
results were for parents (57.6%), church teaching (42.7%) and religious education (52%). The result for the
influence of religious education on students’ faith development was higher than the previous data for the
influence of religious education teachers; pointing to a higher value placed on the curriculum, rather than
the quality of the teaching.
According to the results, teachers and friends were the least influential in terms of articulating and
nurturing a faith in God (31.3%/22.5%). The result for the influence of priests was significant at 40.8%,
indicating students may see the priest as a symbolic/pastoral figure in their faith development.
The data here suggests that a principal location for developing young people’s faith is with the parents at
home (Mason, Webber, Singleton, 2006). Teachers may be educating young people in the faith but
students may be looking more towards what their parents are doing and saying, with regard to a faith in
God and the Church.
Table 2: Influences on Faith Development
Males
N=78
Influence on Faith
Development
Females
N=129
Average
Importance1 Avg Importance Avg Importance Avg2
Parents
46.4%
3.93
74.8%
2.83
57.6%
3.48
Religious Education
33.3%
2.53
71%
3.85
52%
3.31
Church teaching
37.6%
2.82
67.3%
3.89
42.7%
3.45
Priests
26.1%
2.45
56.4%
3.36
40.8%
2.99
Teachers
26.2%
2.23
34.1%
2.92
31.3%
2.63
Friends
17.2%
1.99
32.1%
2.68
22.5%
2.40
1
Percentage importance is calculated by using a Likert scale score. Scores of 1
represented-little importance through to 5-very important. Percentages displayed
are calculated scores for 4 and 5 combined. 2 Item Range 1 – 5; Mid-point = 3
What influences our students’ moral development?
Table 3 presents the findings of the influences on the students’ moral development.
Table 3: Influences on Moral Development
Influences on Moral development
Males
N = 78
Importance Avg
Females
N = 129
Importance
Avg
Average
Importance
Avg2
90.8%
84.4%
67.1%
63.7%
46.3%
4.50
4.34
3.85
3.75
3.34
1
Parents
Conscience
Friends
Belief in God
Teachers
82.7%
77.2%
49.4%
41.8%
38.4%
4.71
4.06
3.52
3.05
3.49
96.7%
90.6%
78.2%
79.6%
56.2%
4.21
4.55
4.09
4.26
3.14
Role model for others
37.9%
2.84
68.8%
3.73
55.1%
3.35
Boy or Girlfriend
49.4%
3.28
47.1%
3.35
48.3%
3.32
Belonging to a school community
27.9%
2.83
47.9%
3.41
39.5%
3.17
Community/Sporting Affiliation
46.5%
3.21
31.3%
2.85
37.8%
3.00
Social Justice Involvement
20.6%
2.46
42.4%
3.10
33.2%
2.83
Helping Younger students
22.9%
2.63
34.5%
2.99
29.6%
2.84
Pop star
17.2%
2.26
21.6%
2.32
20%
2.30
Sports star
20.7%
2.53
16.1%
2.12
18%
2.29
Behaviour of celebrities
8.2%
1.81
10.1%
1.92
9.3%
1.87
1
combined.2 Item Range 1 – 5; Mid-point = 3
Parents were considered to be the people to whom young people turn when it comes to understanding
appropriate social behaviour and a sense of right and wrong (90.8%). However, students responded
confidently in stating that their own sense of right and wrong was good enough for them, even at a young
age (84.4%). In addition, 56.2% of female students indicated that teachers had an impact, compared with
38.4% for male respondents.
Role modelling and nurturing younger students appear to be more important to females than for males.
Females also tend to view belief in God as a more important formative factor in their moral development
than do males. 79.6% of females surveyed indicated that belief in God directly affects their moral
development. Male responses were not as strong at 40.1%.
Overall, female responses were higher for each value than the male responses. The only difference in which
the response was reversed was in the case of sport where 20.7% of males indicated that a sportsperson
who is respected as a role model can influence their moral and values development. Interestingly, both
genders (<10%) rejected celebrities as major influences on their moral development.
Who is God and what is God like?
The next table, Table 4 shows that the two most popular responses to statements on God and Religion
were, “God is a caring being who loves me” (70.2% overall), and “God always forgives me” (65.6%).
Table 4: Religiosity and concepts of God
My Religion
A Caring Being who loves me
Males
N=78
Importanc
Avg
e1
54.7%
2.43
Females
N=129
Importan
Avg
ce
70.4%
3.81
Average
Importan
ce
70.2%
Avg2
1.98
God always forgives me
Jesus’ death gets me into
heaven
Knowing Jesus helps me be a
better person
Frequency of Prayer life
Jesus Christ is truly God
God is real person to me in
daily life
Jesus Christ is truly a human
being
Hope God exists but not sure
50.6%
46.6%
2.55
2.63
75.5%
71%
2.37
2.23
65.6%
61.1%
2.13
2.15
29.3%
3.09
65%
1.84
58%
2.50
29.5%
37.9%
1.69
2.40
2.88
28%
70.4%
55%
2.18
3.24
1.86
54.3%
54.8%
48.2%
43.9%
3.25
2.49
2.69
36.5%
2.82
47.8%
3.13
43.3%
2.61
31.5%
3.04
48.5%
2.11
38.3%
3.00
Some sort of God but look at
the results in the world
42.7%
2.76
32%
2.47
36.2%
3.08
Believe in God or gods-not
40%
2.99
32%
2.97
35.1%
3.22
sure
Mass Attendance
22%
2.38
40.4%
3.13
33%
2.90
Religiousness
22%
2.39
39%
2.45
31.3%
2.84
Do not believe in God
19.8%
3.74
12.3%
3.29
15.2%
4.10
1
At the other end of the scale, most students indicated a belief in God by disagreeing with the statement
that “there is no such thing as God” (15.2%). Three statements were included that related to Jesus and
particular Christological dogmas. The first declaration was “Jesus Christ is truly God”; 55% of females and
37.9% of males indicated that they believed that statement to be true. Interestingly, more students (46.6%
of males and 71% of females) believe Jesus’ death allows them entry into Heaven, in contrast to believing
he is God. The results on Jesus reflect a sense of ambiguity regarding Jesus’ divinity/humanity, and what
they believe to be true for their concept of God (Kohn, 2003).
Overall, the image of God that was most commonly acknowledged was a deity that is not judicial and
menacing (Hughes, 2007; Mason et al, 2006). Neither is their God a recorder of wrong doing and a
punisher of trivial misdemeanours. God for a number of Catholic school students has a nature that is
unconditionally loving and forgiving.
How do Catholic school students express their spirituality?
Table 5: Expression of spirituality
How do you express your
spirituality
Males
N=78
Females
N=129
Average
Personal Reflection
39.6%
2.93
76.5%
4.14
61.5%
3.65
Spontaneously
35.8%
2.67
49.8%
3.88
56%
3.39
Being Alone
37.3%
2.84
67.2%
3.91
55.3%
3.47
Formal prayer
17.5%
2.09
35%
3.15
35%
2.72
Church Services
18.4%
2.07
44.8%
3.15
34%
2.71
Reflecting on other Books
8.8%
1.78
32.2%
2.61
22.5%
2.27
Yoga & Meditation
13.8%
1.64
22.4%
2.45
18.9%
2.12
Reflecting on Bible Passages
11.1%
1.68
21.6%
2.32
17.3%
2.06
Other Spiritual Practices
8.6%
1.67
15.3%
2.21
12.7%
1.98
Pentecostal Churches
6.2%
1.56
12%
2.16
9.6%
1.91
1
importance through to 5-very important. Percentages displayed are calculated scores for 4 and
5 combined.2 Item Range 1 – 5; Mid-point = 3
The ways in which students express their spirituality is presented in Table 5. The highest response for
females was expressing their spirituality through personal reflection (76.5%). For males it was also the
highest result at 39.6% and was closely followed by “being alone” at 37.3%. Significantly, students indicated
that church services (34%) and alternative spiritualities (31%) such as Yoga and Meditation were similarly
important. From this section of the survey it appears that spirituality for most students was a personal and
reflective dimension of their lives and is not linked exclusively to religious belief and practice.
What is the basis for students’ spirituality?
The next section explored what aspects of life students find meaningful and what they feel contributes to
their personal spirituality. The questionnaire provided eight statements relating to a basis for spirituality.
For this item, students could choose only one response. The results reported are combined percentages of
those who agree with the statements.
The highest response was the first statement on an individual value system that underpinned their sense of
meaning via life’s experiences (28.6%). The second highest response was to the statement on life being a
journey of discovery; of self and God (15.1%). A number of students highlighted the insecurity inherent in
the thought of a world without God (8.7%). The lowest score was for the teachings of the Catholic Church
being unhelpful in the quest for a sense of transcendence (4.6%).
The students in this survey accept a spiritual dimension to life quite readily. They do not see themselves as
being ‘shackled’ in one dimension or pathway to a personal spirituality (Horell, 2004). The generational
difference that appears evident is that they are not aligning themselves as exclusively to the Church and its
doctrines in their ‘search for God’, as perhaps was the case for earlier generations
Table 6: Basis for a personal spirituality
Statement
My personal value system which often gives me meaning to
life's experiences
Life is a journey of discovery of who I am and who God is.
I try to make sense of life which certainly has a spiritual
dimension
I would feel insecure and frightened in a world without God
I sense a spiritual dimension to life, but I am uncertain about
it
The teachings of the Catholic Church
I believe that I am connected to something greater than me
but I find religions like Christianity are not helping me in
exploring this
The interaction of my faith and the world I experience on a
daily basis
Male Female
Overall
N=78 N=129
34.5% 24.4% 28.6%
8%
10.3%
20.2%
9.2%
15.1%
9.7%
1.1%
6.9%
14.3%
7.6%
8.7%
7.3%
4.6%
9.2%
9.2%
5.9%
7.3%
7.3%
6.9%
5.9%
6.3%
If a problem in your life happens, or you have to make a decision, what would you normally do?
The survey then moved to the issue of problems in life and what particular person would be the one who
could be consulted with a degree of trust and wisdom. The intention was to draw out the attitude that
students display towards their own decision-making processes and the connection with their wider social
world.
Table 7: Consultation for decisions in life
Who would you consult for a
decision or problem in life
Males
N=78
Females
N=129
Average
Think by yourself
84.7%
4.38
82.2%
4.33
82.4%
4.35
Talk with best friend only
60.6%
3.69
84.8%
4.25
75%
4.01
Talk with friends
53.5%
3.48
71.9%
3.90
63.1%
3.72
Talk with parents
56%
3.31
58%
3.73
55.4%
3.55
Pray
25.9%
2.64
54.6%
2.84
47.2%
3.00
Talk with an adult friend
24.7%
2.64
34.4%
2.83
30.4%
2.75
Talk with a teacher
8.3%
1.95
7.6%
1.90
7.9%
1.92
Talk with a priest
7.1%
2.33
4.2%
3.48
5.4%
1.73
1
The results in Table 7 were noteworthy given that the highest response, (82.4%), was “Thinking by
yourself.” “Talking with best friend only” was the next highest (75%), followed by ‘Talking with friends”
(63.1%). The least helpful people in this situation were “Teachers” (7.9%) and “Priests” (5.4%).
The highest response for males was to “think by yourself” when sorting through a problem. Females agreed
this was the best option but were also more inclined to confide in a best friend. Both genders rejected the
notion that talking with an adult, other than their parents was a likely proposition. In addition, females
were more inclined to turn to prayer in a difficult life situation. Interestingly, when students were asked to
indicate what they would do when confronted with a moral or ethical dilemma, most responded that they
would “think by myself,” a clear indication of conscientious self-reliance. If a student’s decision to act in a
moral situation is individualistic, then it may be a symptom of institutional disillusionment and distrust
(Power, Higgins, Kohlberg, 1989).
Implications and conclusion
Through exploring the spirituality of senior students in three Catholic schools, this research project
provided new data confirming a number of conclusions of recent research on youth spirituality. Parents
were identified as important in their personal and spiritual development, even though the parental role
changes significantly for adolescents. The current social trends towards individualism and moral selfreliance were strongly evident. The traditional ‘Catholic God’, as enshrined in theology and in the forefront
of Catholic school religious education is not well accepted in its traditional form as real for many students in
this study (Crawford & Rossiter, 2006; Hughes, 2007).
The study raises many questions and issues that have important implications for planning a relevant
religious education. It prompts speculation about how best to address what might be judged to be the
strengths and the potential problems with youth spirituality. In turn, this highlights the need for much
greater scrutiny of the complex relationships between the prevailing culture and young people’s spiritual
and moral development (Hill, 2004). A searching understanding of the life-world of young people and how
this can have a shaping influence on their spirituality is essential for educators, especially those engaged in
religious education.
In Catholic school systems, where the study was conducted, there are significant implications for what it
means to educate young people in spirituality. The more traditional role for Catholic school religious
education needs to address the significant new focus of youth spirituality on individualism and moral selfreliance (Rossiter 2004; Crawford & Rossiter, 2006). The religious heritage is not so much a body of truth
to be proclaimed authoritatively – and to be accepted relatively unquestioningly. Rather, this valuable
dimension to religious education can help provide young people with meaning and purpose by discovering
the bridges between their needs and the religious tradition; this can help them make sense of their lives,
and by putting their lives into more historical perspective, it can give them valuable identity reference
points in times that are confusing and overwhelming. In this sense, access to the heritage dimension of
religious education is best perceived as resourcing young people’s spirituality.
In addition, because the spiritual dimension to life for many young people emerges principally in
relationship with existential, self-affirmation, friendship and lifestyle questions, there is a vital need for a
second, complementary approach to religious education that addresses these questions directly and openly
because it helps young people learn how to identify, interpret and evaluate the social/cultural influences on
people’s thinking, values and behaviour – as well as on themselves.
This can help them discern what is happening in the world and assist them in self-reflection which may
bring about better self-understanding and a more hopeful attitude towards finding a meaningful way
through an increasingly complex life-world. With both of these complementary elements in a school’s
religious education and across-the-curriculum studies, the school is in a better position to make a
contribution that becomes an integral and sustaining part of a contemporary youth spirituality
References
Crawford, M., & Rossiter, G. (2006), Reasons for Living, Education and young people's search for meaning,
identity and spirituality, Camberwell, Vic: Australian Council for Educational Research.
Flynn, M., and Mok, M (2002). Catholic schools 2000: a longitudinal study of year 12 students in catholic
schools, 1972-1982-1990-1998. Sydney: Catholic Education Commission.
Horell, H. (2004). Fostering Hope: Christian Religious Education in a Postmodern Age, Religious Education,
99, 1, 5-22.
Kohn, R. (2003). The New Believers: Re-imagining God, Sydney: HarperCollins.
Maroney, Michael (2008) “An Exploration of a Contemporary Youth Spirituality Among Senior Students in
Three Catholic Schools”. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Australian Catholic University
Strathfield
Hill, B, (2004). Exploring Religion in School: A National Priority, Adelaide: Openbook.
Hughes, P. (2007). Putting Life Together, Melbourne: CRA / Fairfield Press.
Mason, M., Webber, R., & Singleton, A. (2006). 'The Spirit of Generation Y' accessed 5/8/06
http://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/research/ccls/spir/sppub/sppub.htm
Power, F. C., Higgins, A., & Kohlberg, L. (1989). Lawrence Kohlberg's Approach to Moral Education: A Study
of Three Democratic High Schools . New York: Columbia University Press.
Smith, C., & Denton, M. (2005). Soul Searching: The Religious and Spiritual Lives of American Teenagers.
New York: Oxford University Press.
*Dr. Maroney has taught Religious Education in Catholic schools for the past 7 years. Prior to that he
worked as a Police Officer and a Fireman.
Brendan Hyde*
Dangerous Games: Play and pseudoplay in religious education
Abstract
In Godly Play, an invitation is given for play with the language of God and God’s people: sacred stories,
parables, liturgical actions and silence. Through this evocative language, through wondering, and through
the community of players gathered, the deepest of invitations is issued – the invitation to come and play
with God (Berryman, 2002). But what happens when, albeit with the best of intentions, play is substituted
with activities emanating from a directive based on power, as opposed to an invitation, which are more
concerned with the attainment of predetermined outcomes than with genuine play for its own intrinsic
worth? Such occurrences often result in pseudoplay, which is understood to be the opposite of play. This
paper argues that when pseudoplay occurs in the early years’ religious education classroom, dangerous
games are instigated which can stifle both the spirituality of children and their learning in religious
education.
“Play is much more important to religious education than either science or theology have led us to believe”
(Berryman, 2002, p. 47).
Introduction
This paper is provocative. It highlights the tension which exists between approaches to religious education
which have been influenced by The Catechesis of the Good Shepherd (Cavalletti, 1983) and Godly Play
(Berryman, 1991, 2002), that have become prevalent notably in the Catholic Archdioceses of Melbourne
and Sydney for students in the early years’ of schooling, and outcomes based approaches to religious
educationi. In the former approaches, the notion of genuine play is a central concept. It is necessary then
that any approach to religious education which takes its impetus from The Catechesis of the Good Shepherd
and/or Godly Play will emphasize the centrality of play in its pedagogy. However, as with other subjects in
the curriculum more generally, approaches to religious education in Catholic schooling in Australia have
been impacted upon by outcomes based philosophies in which knowledge and skills are agreed upon
according to utilitarian purposes. This has also impacted upon the religious education curricula in the
Archdioceses of Melbourne and Sydney. The influence of outcomes based approaches presents a tension
and challenge for religious education curricula which are influenced by the approaches of Cavalletti and
Berryman, because genuine play does not feature significantly in outcomes based philosophies, since it
does not serve a utilitarian purpose.
This tension is explored within this paper in terms of two key concepts – play, and its opposite, pseudoplay.
It argues that, when pseudoplay in religious education is effectually disguised as play, as is a common,
albeit unintentional occurrence in early years’ classrooms whose religious education methodology has been
influenced by the work of Cavalletti and/or Berryman (Hyde, Greene & Luttick, 2008), four particular types
of games, dangerous in nature, are instigated – compulsion, entertainment, manipulation, and competition.
It is also argued that these games operate so as to effectually stifle both the spirituality of children and
their learning in religious education.
Play
Play constitutes one of the most enduring discourses in early childhood education, and includes the notions
of play as development, play as education, play-based learning, and play-based curriculum (see for example
Frost et al., 2005; Johnson et al., 2005). Although it is recognized that play encompasses many dimensions,
and that it has been considered as an ambiguous concept (Sutton-Smith, 1997, Walker, 2007), for the
purposes of this paper play has been conceptualized as comprising four dimensions which have
implications for approaches to religious education which are influenced particularly the Godly Play
methodology: the elements of play, the bounds of experience of play, the metaphor of play, and the
theology of play. Each of these dimensions may be viewed not as being mutually exclusive, but rather as
being connected.
The elements of play
In reviewing the literature on pretend play, Sawyers and Carrick (2008) outline five elements which
comprise this activity – themes, roles, object substitutions, fantasy and reality, and children’s
understanding of pretense. The themes of play centre around script theory, in which children’s play
imitates events they have experienced (Shank & Abelson, 1977), and emotive theory, in which children
enact events which enable them to express emotions (Fein, 1991). Roles in play refer to the behaviour of
children which enables them to simulate the identity and characteristics of another person (Fein, 1981).
Object substitution refers to the ability of children to symbolically transform a common object from its
original purpose to a pretend purpose (Copple, Cocking & Matthews, 1984), for example, a spoon becoming
a telephone. The complexity of a child’s object substitution skills mature as the child grows. Children’s
understanding of fantasy and reality is complex, and studies have shown that during pretend play children
are capable of layering the pretend world onto the real world without losing the properties of the real
world (Lillard, 1993). For example, a child pretending that a block is a biscuit will not attempt to eat the
block. Children are able to “act among the layers of pretense and reality” (Sawyers & Carrick, 2008, p. 139).
One of the major requirements for pretense is the child’s ability to make a mental image of the object of
pretense, although some studies indicate that children do not necessarily view pretending as primarily
requiring mental representation (Lillard, 1993).
The bounds of experience of play
Garvey (1977) offered a five-part description of play which sets up the bounds of the experience of play.
Firstly, play is pleasurable. It is enjoyable. A child plays because the very act of playing brings pleasure and
enjoyment. It is essentially satisfying (see also Winnicott, 2005, original work published 1971). Secondly,
play has no extrinsic goals. It is played for itself, and has no predetermined outcomes. Thirdly, play is
spontaneous and voluntary. It is freely chosen by the player and initiated by the player. This notion is
important since it effectually suggests that play is not a directive based on power or authority. Play is
engaged in for its own sake. This does not mean that, in the case of a child, an adult cannot suggest,
prompt, guide or scaffold the play. However, it does mean that play is owned by the child (Walker, 2007).
Fourthly, play involves a deep and active engagement on the part of the players. Those who play may
become lost in the very act of play, and experience its delight (see also Hyde, 2008). Berryman (2002) refers
to an excerpt from the novel Lord of the flies to illustrate this point. When the character Ralph swims, he
dives and surfaces with his eyes opened – her turns over in the water, holding his nose as the sunlight
dances over his face. The fifth of Garvey’s description is that play has systematic relations to what is not
play, such as creativity, problem solving, language learning, the development of social and other cognitive
and social phenomena. These activities are not play, but play may nourish such endeavours. As will be
discussed, Garvey’s five-point description of play in particular highlights the tension between religious
education influenced by the Godly Play methodology, and approaches which emanate from outcomes
based philosophy.
The metaphor of play
The concept of play has also been drawn upon in hermeneutics by Gadamer (1989; original work published
in 1960) as a metaphor to describe the interaction which takes place between a text and its interpreter in
the creation of meaning and understanding. For Gadamer, play expressed the human capacity for
engagement and responsiveness that are to be found at the centre of understanding. The playing of a game,
according to Gadamer, had the capacity to draw the players into its power, leaving them with no control
over the outcome. In fact, the whole point of playing a game is that its conclusion is unknown. It is not
exactly clear what will happen – what a player’s next move might be, who will win, and so on. Play leads
the players, or dialogue partners in Gadamer’s words, to become lost in the encounter.
The notion of middle space (Zwischen) is central to Gadamer’s reflection on play. He suggested that
understanding is an event which unfolds in the middle space between the text and its interpreterii. Just as
the playing of a game is resolved on the playing field, game board, or in some other designated space,
common meaning between a text and its interpreter is to be found in the encounter between them, that is,
in the middle space. It is seriously playful. An interpreter takes seriously the challenge to enter the middle
space that is opened up in a playful and dialogical engagement with the text which is the object of the
interpreter’s interest.
The key insight from this dimension of the conceptualization of play, in terms of approaches to religious
education influenced by the Godly Play approach, is that genuine play results in understanding. Seriously
playful play results in the production of something new, which in Gadamerian terms, reflects the
perspective of both players – the text and the interpreter.
Theology of play
The fourth dimension of the conceptualization of play involves the theology of play. Specifically in religious
terms, a theology of play, as Berryman (2002) conceives it, is summarized by three propositions iii. The first
concerns the awareness that Christians have of the great game of Hide-and-Seek with God. In theological
terms, this is known as Revelation. Relationship with God for the infant and very young child is one of
Peekaboo and, as it develops, one of Hide-and-Seek. Berryman uses the phrase “Deus Absconditus atque
Praesnes” (p. 131), meaning God is hidden yet also present to capture this notion. People do not play Hideand-Seek with people they know are not there. The possibility of a presence that can be revealed is
necessary for the game to go forward. Play with the language of God and of God’s people – sacred stories,
parables, liturgical actions and silences – are the means through which the elusive presence of God may be
encountered and discovered.
The second proposition of this theology of play is the notion of the nonverbal communication system – the
silent child as Berryman (2002) describes it. All people, but children in particular, communicate using nonverbal cues – body language, gesture, facial expression, a smile, a grimace, and so forth. For Berryman, play
is signaled by the nonverbal communication system, to which children are particularly sensitive, and
through which children often express their spirituality (Berryman, 2002; Adams, Hyde & Woolley, 2008).
Children tend to be more open to spirituality than adults because they draw upon their nonverbal powers
of communication, whereas adults rely more upon their abilities to use words and language, which often
cannot express the spiritual. Through the silent child, adults may learn about their own spirituality, and if
particularly observant and astute, something of what it means to stand in the presence of God.
The third proposition of Berryman’s (2002) theology of play concerns the quality of loving relationships
people experience with others, their deep selves, with nature and with God. These four areas of
relationships – with the deep self, with others, with nature, and with God – form the basis of what much
contemporary scholarship understands to be the essence of a person’s spirituality (see for example Adams,
Hyde & Woolley, 2008; Champagne, 2003; Eaude, 2005; 2006; Fisher, 1999; Hyde, 2008). When words are
relied upon as the only way of expressing these relationships, development and a sense of grounding in
these relationships is hindered. The non-verbal and play enhance the quality of these relationships.
These four dimensions of play – the elements of play, the bounds of the experience of play, the metaphor
of play, and the theology of play – comprise, for the purpose of this paper and workshop, the
conceptualization of play. Each of these four dimensions is summarized in Figure 1.
Elements of Play
Themes, roles, object substitution, fantasy and
reality, understanding of pretense
(Sawyers & Carrick, 2008)
Bounds of the
Experience of Play
Pleasurable, no extrinsic
goals, spontaneous,
active engagement,
systematic relations to
what is not play
(Garvey, 1977)
Play
Metaphor of
Play
Capacity for
engagement and
responsiveness
(Gadamer, 1960)
Theology of Play
The theological journey of hide-and-seek
Nonverbal communication
Quality relationships
(Berryman, 2002)
Figure 1: A conceptualization of play
In approaches to religious education influenced by the Godly Play method the above conceptualization of
play has great relevance. The bounds of the experience of play form an underpinning philosophy for the
nature of play itself. The elements of play – themes, objects, substitutions, and so forth, are present in one
form or another. The experience of play results in deep engagement and responsiveness, as well as in the
creation of meaning and understanding, and Berryman’s (2002) propositions for the theology of play
provide a rationale for the way in which the religious education session may be structured. They certainly
have relevance for the Godly Play approach and impact upon the way in which a Sunday school Godly Play
session is constructed.
However, despite the relevance of the of the above conceptualization of play, approaches to religious
education in Australian Catholic early years’ classrooms influenced by the Godly Play method are also
swayed by the educational paradigm with its focus on outcomes based approaches. Genuine play is not
afforded a high priority in outcomes approaches to education because it does not serve the utilitarian
purposes inherent in the outcomes based philosophy. Adherents of such approaches would also argue that
play does not easily lend itself to observable, measurable competenciesiv. The outcomes based movement
is indeed a considerable force with which to contend. Attempting to find a balance then between these two
approaches – Godly Play on the one hand, and outcomes based philosophy on the other – has often
resulted in a series of misconceptions and misunderstanding as teachers of religious education, who try to
accommodate the Godly Play influence into an outcomes based approach to education. The research of
Hyde, Greene and Luttick (2008) showed that such an accommodation on the part of religious educators,
no matter how well intentioned, has the potential to develop into something potentially destructive. For
what is conceived of as play in such an accommodation often results in the opposite of play. Berryman
(2002) describes the opposite of play as “pseudoplay” (p. 43).
Pseudoplay
Pseudoplay is not only an artificial and simulated portrayal of play. It is in fact the opposite of play.
Berryman (2002) describes the opposite of play as emptiness. People at play are full of life, connected to
the game and to players in the game. Those who are empty isolate themselves from play with the deep self,
with others, with nature and with God. In terms of spirituality, this represents disconnection rather than
connectedness with self, other, the world and with God, which much of the contemporary literature
describes as spirituality (see for example, Eaude, 2005, 2006; Fisher, 1999; Hyde, 2008). Pseudoplay
therefore is potentially destructive to an individual’s spirituality. However, and as Berryman warns, those
who cannot play are not necessarily perceived by others as being dull, or lifeless. They often appear as
being full of energy and are attractive so as to lure others to them. Their aim is to consume the energy of
those around them. Berryman cites the example of the character of Jack from Lord of the Flies as
epitomizing pseudoplay. Jack’s play is not play for play’s sake, but is calculated to attract followers. Jack
makes several invitations to pseudoplay, for example, “Who’ll join my tribe and have fun?” (Goulding, cited
in Beryman, 2002, p. 42). But Jack’s fun ultimately involved a frenzied dance of death in which another of
the story’s characters – Simon – is killed by the other boys. Such is what “fun” and “play” had come to
mean under Jack, the empty one.
Berryman (2002) goes on to describe pseudoplay as numbness, parasitic and obsessed, aimed at attracting
others, to claim their energy. Pseudoplay disguises itself as play to maintain dominance, and exploits others
for their energy and creativity. Such a description is both derisive and sobering. Is it really fair to describe
the misconceived attempts to incorporate play into mainstream religious education in early years’
classrooms in Catholic schools as pseudoplay?
The Godly Play influence in Australian Catholic early years’ classrooms – The Good Shepherd Experience
(Elliott, 2005) (as it is known in the Archdioceses of Melbourne and Sydney) – is, in many cases, becoming
pseudoplay. Because of the sway of the educational paradigm, it is outcome driven and constitutes a
directive based on authority. Activities such as problem solving, language learning, and the like are being
disguised as genuine play, but are effectually concerned with the attainment of predetermined outcomes.
In other words, it is pseudoplay, rather than genuine play, which has, albeit with the best of intentions,
been designed for students’ engagement. When the notion of pseudoplay in religious education is
compared with each of the bounds of experience of play as outlined by Garvey (1977), a juxtaposition can
be made which clearly indicates the way in which pseudoplay may be conceived of as the opposite of play.
Table 1 below illustrates this juxtaposition.
Table 1: A juxtaposition of play with pseudoplay in religious education
Play
Pseudoplay in Religious Education
Play is pleasurable.
Pseudoplay is a task in which the student is required to engage,
regardless of whether or not it brings pleasure.
Play has no extrinsic goals.
Pseudoplay is concerned with the attainment of predetermined
learning outcomes. It is not played for itself.
Play is spontaneous.
Pseudoplay is a directive based on authority. It is calculated by
placing it into a defined timeslot. It is not freely chosen by the player.
Play requires engagement.
Pseudoplay requires a passive rather than involving a deep
engagement on the part of the players.
Play has systematic relations to what is
not play, such as problem solving,
language learning, and other cognitive
phenomena.
Pseudoplay disguises itself as genuine play in the curriculum through
problem solving, language learning, and so forth. Genuine play
nourishes these endeavors, but does not disguise itself as them.
Hyde, Greene and Luttick (2008) have highlighted the tension which exists in approaches to religious
education influenced by the Godly Play methodology and the outcomes based approach to the curriculum
which has dominance in western education. They contend that much of what is described as play, in
approaches to religious education which are influenced by the Godly Play methodology in early years’
classrooms in Catholic schools, is, in fact, pseudoplay. Activities such as problem solving, language learning,
creativity and other cognitive skills and phenomena which have been favored in outcomes based
approaches have been disguised as play, albeit with the best of intentions. The aims of such activities are
not play for play’s sake, and they are almost certainly not freely chosen by the children. They constitute a
directive based on power and have quite explicit goals behind their motivation – that being the
achievement of specific outcomes related to the religious education curriculum. They are pseudoplay.
Pseudoplay is calculated in that the play has been programmed into a defined space and time within the
curriculum. The activities designed for children – problem solving, language learning, and the like – have
been disguised as play, instead of allowing genuine play to nurture and enhance these endeavours.
As well, pseudoplay is not compatible with the three propositions of the theology of play as outlined by
Berryman (2002). It does not advance the game of hide-and-seek with God (Revelation). It frequently bypasses or ignores the non-verbal communication systems of children. It stifles rather than enhances the
loving relationships a child might experience with her or his deep self, with others, with the world, and with
God.
Because of its emphasis on genuine play, Godly Play represents a counter-hegemonic approach to
curriculum (Hyde, Greene & Luttick, 2008). It is concerned with more than cognitive development. In
placing an emphasis on the centrality of play, the methodology gives prominence to the affective and
spiritual dimensions of education (Hyde, 2004, 2007), which have a focus on nurturing relationships with
self, others, nature and with God. Generally, these are not viewed as being compatible with the outcomes
based approach to education. Religious education programs influenced by the Godly Play method have
then been implemented by teachers attempting to accommodate this method into an outcomes based
approach to education. This may in part explain why teachers have experienced difficulty and
misunderstandings in relation to its implementation (Hyde, Green & Luttick, 2008). The result in many
instances is that pseudoplay, rather then genuine play, has been instigated and encouraged.
Dangerous Games
When pseudoplay in religious education is effectually disguised as play, four particular types of games,
dangerous in nature, are instigated which operate so as to effectually stifle both the spirituality of children
and their learning in religious education. These four games, based on Berryman’s (2002) understanding, are
compulsion, entertainment, manipulation, and competition. It is argued that all four of these dangerous
games are, at one time or another, being played in early years’ religious education classrooms whose
programs are influenced by the Godly Play method. Each is explored in turn below.
The game of compulsion
Games in which individuals are coerced into playing are always ultimately destructive. Adults often find
themselves the unwilling participants in such games, for example, games which involve the use of particular
language which serve to include or exclude others, or games which involve the taking on of particular
responsibilities, or forming particular alliances in order to ensure success or promotion. One has to “play
the game” in order to succeed, or in order to get ahead. Reality television abounds with such games.
Although the participants may have voluntarily agreed to take part in the first instance, the twists which are
typical of these types of games soon require that participants become obedient servants of the game itself
if they are to succeed in the game. This is because such games are aimed at winning at all costs. If one is to
be the winner, then one is compelled to act in certain ways, or to do certain things to ensure success.
Ultimately, this cannot be anything but destructive, particularly to those who loose (for whom the game is
soul-destroying), but also to those who “win” for they are left with nothing but emptiness and isolation
from the other players.
The compulsive nature of schooling in Australian Catholic schools generally highlights the tension which
exists here in terms of religious education in early years’ classrooms influenced by the Godly Play approach.
Students have no choice but to engage in this curriculum area (as they have no choice but to engage in any
other subject area of the curriculum). Additionally, since particular outcomes and standards must be
achieved by the student to measure success, it could be argued that children are beginning to be inducted
into a culture which effectually teaches them to succeed at all costs. They are becoming obedient servants
of a game not their own, in which there are winners and losers. Such a game also stands in clear opposition
to the principles of early childhood education generally, which indicates that predetermined outcomes and
standards are not appropriate for young children because individual development trajectories are unique
and individual. Children develop at their own rates and in their own time (see for example Walker, 2007,
Cupit, 2005, 2007). The best religious education, according to Berryman (2002), does not use force. Rather,
it is concerned with the deep engagement which results from voluntary involvement in such an activity.
This paper does not advocate that children in early years’ Catholic classrooms not be involved in religious
education, or in the attainment of standards and outcomes. However, it does highlight the potentially
dangerous game into which they may be coerced in religious education curricular which, although
influenced by the Godly Play and Catechesis of the Good Shepherd approaches, has at its core the
achievement of compulsory outcomes and standards against which schools are increasingly having to
report.
The entertainment game
When pseudoplay in religious education requires a passive rather than a deep engagement on the part of
the players, a teacher can effectually create passive consumers of religion. Many forms of entertainment
serve so as to render both children and adults as passive consumers. In entertainment, the energy flow only
in one direction. Much of what passes as play in contemporary western culture could be considered passive
entertainment. Television is a typical form of entertainment which renders individuals as passive
consumers. So too do many electronic games, Ipods, and MP3 players. In the case of Ipods in particular,
people utilize these so that they can intentionally “tune-out” from the events of life surrounding them.
There is nothing inherently wrong with these forms of entertainment. However it needs to be
acknowledged that they lead the individual to a passive rather deep engagement with the elements of the
activity. A religious education curriculum which encourages passive rather than deep engagement on the
part of the players constitutes a potentially dangerous game. Such a game can empty children of life rather
then stimulating them to play and “be filled with life” (Berryman, 2006).
Manipulation
This is indeed a highly dangerous game. To manipulate someone effectually means to control or exert
influence over them for one own advantage, often in a devious manner. Generally, religious education
offered by Church-sponsored schools, irrespective of the faith tradition sponsoring the school, has been the
subject of much criticism for precisely this reason. It has been argued by some that that this type of
manipulation has resulted in indoctrination which does violence to the rights of the child (see for example
Marples, 2005).
Berryman (2002) argues that religious education which is manipulative involves the teacher directing the
activities to produce a product which meets the teacher’s needs. In the case of early year’s religious
education, those needs could be conceived of as including the need to address and have students achieve
particular standards and learning outcomes. Students are not led to genuine play, but are manipulated
through pseudoplay to engage in activities which have a predetermined end. The learners’ links to
creativity and authentic learning are severed. Children tempted to participate in such games may be “playburned” (Berryman, 2002, p. 46) by the deception and thus influenced to avoid future invitations to play.
Again, the tension is highlighted here for religious educators working with curricular influenced by the
Godly Play method. The question as to whether it is possible to enable students in early years’ religious
education classrooms to engage with genuine play without manipulation is one which need to be seriously
considered.
Competition
The outcomes based nature of the curriculum generally renders this a particular challenge for religious
education influenced by the Godly Play method, since the philosophy from which the outcomes based
curriculum emanates is based on comparison and competition (Ryan, 1998). In the business and economic
contexts which have given rise to outcome based philosophy, an essential requirement would be the
comparison with competitors as a means by which to asses a company’s relative performance. A term such
as “competitive market forces” is among those which reflect such understandings. Translating this notion to
education generally, and to religious education in particular, is a dangerous game in which to engage. The
basis of comparison of students groups cannot be equal, even of the groups in question are broadly similar,
and differences between student groups, teachers, and the kind of teaching provided is highly variable. To
attempt to compare them is, according to Ryan “fanciful” (p. 18). It is also dangerous. Since learners are
compared to one another, they are also are encouraged ultimately to compete with one another. As
Berryman (2002) notes, the product of this dangerous games becomes the winning itself, and not the
playing for itself. Pertinently, Berryman also notes that for every winner there are many losers. While
educators would maintain that their programs (in any curriculum area) are geared towards enabling
students to reach their full potentialv, the question needs to be raised as to whether, albeit unintentionally,
the game of competition is effectually setting up large numbers of students to fail. Winning and losing are
both potentially isolating and destructive to spirituality, since winning excludes losers, and losing results in
experiences of disconnection. Winning may temporarily fill the hunger of those who seek such success, but
the craving is never satisfied.
The four dangerous games outlined above are not mutually exclusive. Together, they hinder children’s
access to the natural qualities of genuine play. Berryman (2002) argues that when religious education
teaches pseudoplay to children it relays to them that pseudoplay is normal for the Christian game. This
serves to distort the players’ relationships with their deep selves, with others, with nature and with God,
since “the dysfunctional language taught inevitably shapes the learners’ world view” (p. 47).
Conclusion
The purpose of this paper has not been to condemn the attempts and efforts of educators who implement
approaches to religious education influenced by the Godly Play and Catechesis of the Good Shepherd
methodologies, nor has it been to reprimand the bodies who plan and direct such curricula for use in early
years’ Catholic classrooms. The Godly Play approach has considerable merit, and nurtures not only
children’s religious development, but also their spirituality. Its emphasis on genuine play in religious
education is unique and resonates generally with much of early childhood theory and practice. Therefore it
is appropriate that approaches to religious education in early years’ classrooms be influenced by this
methodology. However, and as highlighted in this paper, there are tensions which need to be
acknowledged. Dangerous games are instigated when genuine play, central to the Godly Play method, is
substituted with activities emanating from a directive based on power which are more concerned with the
attainment of predetermined outcomes than with genuine play for its own intrinsic worth (pseudoplay). It
is critical then that religious educators are aware of both the tensions that exist, as well as the potentially
dangerous games instigated by pseudoplay, which can stifle both the spirituality of children and their
learning in religious education. It is essential that they are instead prepared to enable students to engage
in opportunities for genuine play as a means by which to nurture their students’ religious and spiritual
development.
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Berryman, J. (1991). Godly play: A way of religious education. San Francisco: Harper.
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The Routledge reader in early childhood education (pp. 136-159). London: Routledge.
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Sutton-Smith, B. (1997). The ambiguity of play. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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*Brendan Hyde, PhD, National School of Religious Education, the Australian Catholic University, Melbourne
Campus
i
This paper emanates from the findings of a research project funded by the Victorian Bishops’ Grant for Excellence in
Religious Education. Acknowledgment is made to the generosity of this body in providing the funding for this research.
ii
A similar concept was developed by Winnicott (1971/2005), who posited that playing implies trust, and belongs to
the potential space between a baby and its mother in the first instance.
iii
While Miller (1973) was among the first to conceive of the notion of a theology of play, purely in theological terms,
Berryman framed and developed this notion within a larger project which he understood as a theology of childhood.
iv
Although this may be the case, research indicates that 20% of the energy of young mammals in the wild is spent
solely in play (Palmer, 2007), that is, in activity which seems to serve no observable purpose. This being the case,
Berryman (2006) questions why nature would favor the use of so much energy in the service of what appears a
useless activity. Perhaps play is not as useless as it first appears.
v
The phrase “to reach their full potential” is an interesting one, as it seems incomplete. To reach one’s full potential to
do what exactly? To become an independent learner? To take one’s place as a citizen in society? To become a better
person? Or to win at all costs? It seems that this phrase require significant further clarification.
Leslie J Francis & Chris Hermans*
Psychological health and attitude toward Christianity: A study among pupils
attending Catholic Schools in the Netherlands
Abstract
This study examines the wider relevance of recent research conducted in England, Northern Ireland and
Hong Kong concerning the association between religion and psychological health among young people, by
administering translations of the same measures to a sample of 980 pupils attending Catholic secondary
schools in the Netherlands. These pupils completed the short-form Revised Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire together with the Francis Scale of Attitude toward Christianity. The data confirmed the key
finding from previous research that a more positive attitude toward Christianity is associated with lower
scores recorded on the psychoticism scale. The implications of these findings are discussed for religious
educators.
Introduction
The broader research literature on the relationship between religion and psychological health provides a
complex picture (Koenig, McCullough, & Larson, 2001) since findings tend to vary according to the
populations studied and according to the definitions of religiosity and psychological health employed. A
series of three earlier studies concerned with the relationship between religion and psychological health,
conducted in Hong Kong (Francis, Lewis, & Ng, 2003), England (Francis & Burton, 2007), and Northern
Ireland (Francis, Robbins, ap Siôn, Lewis, & Barnes, 2007), proposed an interesting solution to the problem
of operationalizing the assessment both of psychological health and of individual differences in attachment
to the Christian tradition.
These three studies proposed adopting Eysenck’s dimensional model of personality (Eysenck & Eysenck,
1985) as providing an economical and elegant indicator of psychological health. This dimensional model of
personality, as operationalized through the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975),
the Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Eysenck, Eysenck, & Barrett, 1985), and the Eysenck
Personality Scales (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1991), maintains that abnormal personality (poor functional
psychological health) is not discrete from, but continuous with normal personality (good functional
psychological health). Accordingly, neurotic disorders lie at one extreme of a dimension of normal
personality, ranging from emotional stability, through emotional lability, to neurotic disorder. Similarly,
psychotic disorders lie at one extreme of another dimension of normal personality, ranging from
tendermindedness, through toughmindedness, to psychotic disorder. Eysenck’s model also maintains that
the two dimensions of neuroticism and psychoticism are orthogonal and independent of each other.
Alongside the measures of neuroticism and psychoticism, Eysenck’s model adds a third dimension of
personality which is not itself concerned with psychological disorder. This third dimension ranges from
introversion, through ambiversion, to extraversion. Eysenck’s questionnaires, designed to measure these
three dimensions of personality, also routinely include a lie scale.
For the purposes of the present study, the key interest in Eysenck’s dimensional model of personality
concerns the neuroticism scale (assessing the characteristics of normal personality functioning as
precursors of neurotic disorder) and the psychoticism scale (assessing the characteristics of normal
personality functioning as precursors to psychotic disorder). Eysenck and Eysenck (1975) defined high
scorers on the neuroticism scale as being anxious, worrying, moody, and frequently depressed individuals
who are likely to sleep badly and to suffer from various psychosomatic disorders. They are seen as overly
emotional, reacting too strongly to all sorts of stimuli, and finding it difficult to get back on an even keel
after emotionally arousing experiences. Strong reactions interfere with their proper adjustment, making
them react in irrational, sometimes rigid ways. Highly neurotic individuals are worriers whose main
characteristic is a constant preoccupation with things that might go wrong, and a strong anxiety reaction to
these thoughts. Eysenck and Eysenck (1976) define high scorers on the psychoticism scale as being cold,
impersonal, hostile, lacking in sympathy, unfriendly, untrustful, odd, unemotional, unhelpful, lacking in
insight, and strange, with paranoid ideas that people are against them. Eysenck and Eysenck (1976) also
use the following descriptors: egocentric, self-centered, impersonal, lacking in empathy, solitary,
troublesome, cruel, glacial, inhumane, insensitive, sensation-seeking, aggressive, foolhardy, making fools of
others and liking odd and unusual things. Eysenck and Eysenck (1975) maintained that emotions such as
empathy and guilt are characteristically absent in people who score high on measures of psychoticism.
The three studies reported by Francis, Lewis, and Ng (2003), Francis and Burton (2007), and Francis,
Robbins, ap Siôn, Lewis, and Barnes (2007), proposed adopting the Francis Scale of Attitude toward
Christianity (Francis, 1989; Francis, Lewis, Philipchalk, Brown, & Lester, 1995) as providing an economical
and elegant indicator of attachment to the Christian tradition. According to Francis’s theory underpinning
the development of this measure (Kay & Francis, 1996), the attitudinal dimension of religion (concerned
with religious affect) gets closer to the heart of the individual’s religion than either the cognitive dimension
(concerned with religious beliefs) or the behavioral dimension (concerned with religious practices). The
affective dimension is less likely than the behavioral dimension (for example, church attendance) to be
subject to social constraints. Some young people may attend church as a consequence of parental
pressure, while other young people may refrain from attending church as a consequence of peer pressure.
The affective dimension is less likely than the cognitive dimension (for example, beliefs about the virgin
birth of Jesus or beliefs about the immaculate conception of Mary) to be conditioned by social learning and
by denominational teaching. The assessment of the deep-seated affective or attitudinal dimension
provides a relatively more stable assessment of Christian commitment which transcends denominational
differences.
The Francis Scale of Attitude toward Christianity, originally published by Francis (1978), contains both
negative and positive items concerned with an affective response to five components of the Christian faith
accessible to and recognised by both children and adults, namely God, Jesus, bible, prayer and church.
Each item is assessed on a five-point scale (agree strongly, agree, not certain, disagree, disagree strongly),
producing a range of scores from 24 to 120. The reliability and validity of the scale have been supported by
studies among school pupils in England (Francis, 1987, 1989), Kenya (Fulljames & Francis, 1987), Nigeria
(Francis & McCarron, 1989), Northern Ireland (Francis & Greer, 1990; Greer & Francis, 1991), Scotland
(Gibson, 1989; Gibson & Francis, 1989) and South Africa (Francis, Kerr, & Lewis, 2005). Another series of
studies have supported the reliability and validity of the scale among adults in Australia and Canada
(Francis, Lewis, Philipchalk, Brown, & Lester, 1995), England (Francis & Stubbs, 1987), the Republic of
Ireland (Malbty, 1994), Northern Ireland (Lewis & Malbty, 1997) and the USA (Lewis & Maltby, 1995a).
The Francis scale of Attitude toward Christianity has also been translated into other languages, recognising
that integration of cross-cultural quantitative studies in the psychology of religion has been hampered by
the lack of common instrumentation. Examples are provided by editions in Arabic (Munayer, 2000),
Chinese (Francis, Lewis and Ng, 2002), Dutch (Francis & Hermans, 2000; Lewis & Hermans, 2003), French
(Lewis & Francis, 2003, 2004), German (Francis & Kwiran, 1999a; Francis, Ziebertz, & Lewis, 2002), Greek
(Youtika, Joseph, & Diduca, 1999), Norwegian (Francis & Enger, 2002; Lewis, Francis, & Enger, 2003),
Portugese (Ferreira & Neto, 2002), Swedish (Eek, 2001), and Welsh (Evans & Francis, 1996; Lewis & Francis,
2002; Francis & Thomas, 2003).
The first of the three studies in the series concerned with the association between attitude toward
Christianity and psychological health reported on the administration of the Francis Scale of Attitude toward
Christianity alongside the short-form Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire among a sample of 598
Chinese-speaking, secondary-school pupils in Hong Kong (Francis, Lewis, & Ng, 2003). These data
demonstrated that a positive attitude toward Christianity was associated with neither higher nor lower
neuroticism scores, but was associated with lower psychoticism scores. Thus, there was no evidence to
48
Journal of Religious Education 57(2) 2009
associate a positive attitude toward Christianity with poorer levels of psychological health among
adolescents in Hong Kong, and some evidence to associate a positive attitude toward Christianity with
better levels of psychological health (in terms of lower psychoticism scores).
The second study in the series reported on the administration of the Francis Scale of Attitude toward
Christianity alongside the short-form Revised Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire among a sample of
5,808 secondary school pupils in England (Francis & Burton, 2007). These data demonstrated that a positive
attitude toward Christianity was associated with higher neuroticism scores and with lower psychoticism
scores. Thus, there was some evidence to associate a positive attitude toward Christianity with poorer
levels of psychological health among adolescents in England (in terms of higher neuroticism scores) and
some evidence to associate a positive attitude toward Christianity with better levels of psychological health
(in terms of lower psychoticism scores).
The third study in the series reported on the administration of the Francis Scale of Attitude toward
Christianity alongside the abbreviated Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire among two samples of
secondary school pupils in Northern Ireland: 1,093 attending Protestant schools and 1,266 attending
Catholic schools (Francis, Robbins, ap Siôn, Lewis, & Barnes, 2007). These data demonstrated that among
both religious communities a positive attitude toward Christianity was associated with neither higher nor
lower neuroticism scores, but was associated with lower psychoticism scores. Thus, there was no evidence
to associate a positive attitude toward Christianity with poorer levels of psychological health among
adolescents in Northern Ireland, and some evidence to associate a positive attitude toward Christianity
with better levels of psychological health (in terms of lower psychoticism scores).
All three studies were agreed, therefore, on finding an inverse correlation between scores recorded on the
index of attitude toward Christianity and the psychoticism scale. This basic finding is consistent with the
consensus from a wider body of international research exploring the relationship between attitude toward
Christianity and the Eysenckian dimensional model of personality , including studies in Australia and Canada
(Francis, Lewis, Brown, Philipchalk, & Lester, 1995), France (Lewis & Francis, 2000), Germany (Francis &
Kwiran, 1999b; Francis, Ziebertz, & Lewis, 2003), Greece (Youtika, Joseph, & Diduca, 1999), Hong Kong
(Francis, Lewis, & Ng, 2003), Northern Ireland (Lewis & Joseph, 1994), Norway (Francis & Enger, 2005),
Republic of Ireland (Maltby, 1997), South Africa (Francis & Kerr, 2003), United States of America (Lewis &
Maltby, 1995b), and the United Kingdom (Francis, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1999; Bourke, Francis, & Robbins,
2005). The positive correlation between scores recorded on the index of attitude toward Christianity and
the neuroticism scale reported by Francis and Burton (2007) is not generally supported by the wider body
of international research cited above.
The aim of the present study, therefore, is to extend this body of research within a different linguistic and
cultural context by administering the Dutch translation of the Francis Scale of Attitude toward Christianity
and the Dutch translation of the short-form Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire to a sample of
young people educated within the Catholic school system in the Netherlands. This is an interesting and
important context in which to extend the research tradition for two reasons. First, the Netherlands is often
described as a highly secularised society in which the social significance of religion has been largely
marginalised. Second, both the Protestant and the Catholic Churches have retained a significant
involvement in the provision of schools within the state-maintained sector.
Method
Sample
The survey was completed by a sample of 980 secondary school pupils attending a variety of Catholic state
maintained schools in the Netherlands, with a mean age of 13.7 (sd = 15.5) years. Of the total respondents
47% were male and 53% were female; 39% had no religious affiliation, 54% were Catholic and 7% were
Protestant. The small proportion of Islamic pupils completing the survey were excluded from the sample in
view of the inappropriate content of the questionnaire. Between one-third and two-fifths (36%) of the
sample attended church weekly, 30% attended monthly, 22% attended at least once a year and 12% never
attended church.
Measures
Attitude toward Christianity was assessed by the Dutch translation of the Francis Scale of Attitude toward
Christianity (Francis & Hermans, 2000) is a 24-item Likert type scale concerned with assessing affective
response to five aspects of the Christian tradition, namely God, Jesus, bible, prayer and church. Each item
is assessed on a five point scale: agree strongly, agree, not certain, disagree and disagree strongly.
Psychological health was assessed by a Dutch translation of the short-form Revised Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire (Eysenck, Eysenck, & Barrett, 1985) which proposes four twelve-item measures of
extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism and the lie scale. Each item is assessed on a dichotomous scale:
yes and no. The items were first translated into Dutch and then back-translated to ensure comparability
across the two languages.
Data analysis
The data were analysed by the SPSS statistical package, using the frequency, reliability and correlation
routines.
Results
Table 1 presents the reliabilities of the four personality scales and the scale of attitude toward Christianity
in terms of the alpha coefficients (Cronbach, 1951), together with the mean scale scores for males and
females separately.
These data demonstrate that all five scales function in a satisfactory manner among the present sample.
Table 1: Reliability coefficients and mean scale scores by sex
___________________________________________________________________________
male
female
scales
alpha
mean sd
mean
sd
t
___________________________________________________________________________
extraversion
0.82
7.9
3.0
8.2 3.3
1.7
neuroticism
0.75
4.7
2.9
5.4 2.9
3.8
psychoticism
0.70
4.1
2.5
3.6 2.7
2.9
lie scale
0.71
4.5
2.8
5.0 2.6
2.8
attitude toward Christianity 0.96
61.2
20.6
66.2 20.3
3.7
___________________________________________________________________________
p<
NS
.001
.01
.01
.001
Table 2 presents the Pearson correlation coefficients between extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism, the
lie scale and attitude toward Christianity. Given the size of the sample the probability level has been set at
one percent.
Table 2: Correlations between personality and attitude toward Christianity
_______________________________________________________________________
E
N
P
L
_______________________________________________________________________
attitude toward Christianity
+0.00
+0.08
-0.19***
+0.12***
lie scale
-0.28***
+0.03
+0.08
psychoticism
-0.34***
+0.12***
neuroticism
-0.28***
______________________________________________________________________
Note. ** = p<.01; *** = p<.001
50
In view of the significant relationships between both personality and sex and attitude toward Christianity
and sex, Table 3 presents the partial correlation coefficients controlling for sex. These data demonstrate
that there is a significant negative correlation between attitude toward Christianity and psychoticism
scores, while attitude toward Christianity is independent of both extraversion scores and neuroticism
scores. There is also a significant positive correlation between attitude toward Christianity and lie scale
scores.
Table 3: Partial correlations controlling for sex
__________________________________________________________________________
E
N
P
L
__________________________________________________________________________
attitude toward Christianity
-0.01
+0.06
-0.18***
+0.11***
lie scale
-0.30***
+0.03
0.11**
psychoticism
-0.35***
+0.14***
neuroticism
-0.30***
__________________________________________________________________________
Note. ** = p<.01; *** = p<.001
Discussion and conclusion
This study has contributed to a growing body of research concerned with examining the association
between religion and psychological health when religiosity is accessed through the Francis Scale of Attitude
toward Christianity and psychological health is accessed through the two Eysenckian personality
dimensions of psychoticism and neuroticism. The clear consensus to emerge from all of these studies
concerns the consistent finding that a more positive attitude toward Christianity is associated with lower
psychoticism scores. According to the theoretical framework within which the present study has been
established lower psychoticism scores have been interpreted as indicative of a better quality of
psychological health.
Moreover, within the series of studies only one has found a significant association with neuroticism scores.
In this study of 5,808 young people in England, Francis and Burton (2007) found that a more positive
attitude toward Christianity was associated with higher neuroticism scores. According to the theoretical
framework within which the present study has been established higher neuroticism scores have been
interpreted as indicative of a poorer quality of psychological health. This finding has not been reproduced
elsewhere and requires further investigation.
The only significant association between the Eysenckian dimensional model of personality and attitude
toward Christianity in the Netherlands (namely with the psychoticism scale) implies that this dimension of
religiosity is associated with better mental health, a finding consistent with studies conducted elsewhere
including studies in Australia and Canada (Francis, Lewis, Brown, Philipchalk, & Lester, 1995), France (Lewis
& Francis, 2000), Germany (Francis & Kwiran, 1999b; Francis, Ziebertz, & Lewis, 2003), Greece (Youtika,
Joseph, & Diduca, 1999), Hong Kong (Francis, Lewis, & Ng, 2003), Northern Ireland (Lewis & Joseph, 1994),
Norway (Francis & Enger, 2005), Republic of Ireland (Maltby, 1997), South Africa (Francis & Kerr, 2003),
United States of America (Lewis & Maltby, 1995b), and the United Kingdom (Francis, 1991, 1993, 1999;
Bourke, Francis, & Robbins, 2005).
However, being purely cross-sectional correlational studies, the data currently available are not able to
adjudicate on the direction of causality in the relationship reported. Eysenck’s psychologically-driven theory
would argue for the priority of personality in shaping these relationships, seeing individual differences in
personality to be biologically based. According to this account, individuals who record low scores on the
psychoticism scale would be more drawn to the Christian tradition. Such a view is consistent with Eysenck’s
notion regarding the relationship between low psychoticism and greater conditioning into tenderminded
social attitudes and the general location of religiosity within the domain of tenderminded social attitudes
(Eysenck, 1975, 1976). On the other hand, such a psychologically-driven theory may be hard-pressed to
explain the lack of relationship between neuroticism scores and religion, since the psychological mechanism
posited here suggests that religion provides an attractive escape for neurotic anxieties.
An alternative theologically-driven theory would argue for the priority of religious experience in shaping the
relationship between personality, mental health and religion, seeing religion as essentially transformative
of individual differences. According to this account individuals who record high scores on the scale of
attitude toward Christianity would be challenged by their faith to transform and reject those qualities listed
by Eysenck as characterising the high scorer on the psychoticism scale: egocentric, self-centred, impersonal,
lacking in empathy, solitary, troublesome, cruel, glacial, inhumane, insensitive, sensation-seeking, aggressive
and foolhardy (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1976). On the other hand, such theologically-driven theory may be
more hard-pressed to account for the lack of association between attitude toward Christianity and
neuroticism. Consistently throughout the Gospel tradition the Christian faith proclaims the twin messages
of ‘Fear not’, and ‘Peace be with you’, from the angelic annunciation preceding the Lucan birth narrative to
the Johannine post-resurrection appearances. According to such theory the Christian disciple should be
less troubled by those qualities listed by Eysenck as characterising the high scorer on the neuroticism scale:
anxious, worrying, moody, frequently depressed, poor sleepers, suffering from various psychosomatic
disorders, and overly emotional (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975).
The real challenge for future research now is to extend this tradition of research concerning the association
between the attitudinal dimension of religion and the Eysenckian conceptualisation of psychological health
within other faith traditions. Such extension could be made possible by application of the Sahin-Francis
Scale of Attitude toward Islam (Sahin & Francis, 2002), the Katz-Francis Scale of Attitude toward Judaism
(Francis & Katz, 2007) and the Santosh Francis Scale of Attitude toward Hinduism (Francis, Santosh,
Robbins, & Vij, 2008).
The study also carries implications for ways in which religious education is conceived within the Catholic
school system in the Netherlands. In this context Catholic schools are part of the wider state-maintained
system and attract pupils from secularised as well as from Catholic homes, as evidenced by the facts that
39% of the pupils in the current sample claimed no religious affiliation and that 12% never attended church.
If Eysenck’s psychologically-driven theory accounting for the association between psychological health and
religiosity is accepted, the religious educator needs to be aware of the extent to which pupil attitudes
toward the Christian tradition are shaped by internal psychological factors. According to this account, the
religious educator may need to work harder to develop a positive attitude toward the Christian tradition
among pupils who record higher psychoticism scores. If the alternative theologically driven theory
accounting for the association between psychological health and religiosity is accepted, the religious
educator may be seen to be fulfilling a key function not only for the benefit of the faith community but also
for the psychological wellbeing of individuals and consequently for the social wellbeing of society as a
whole.
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54
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*Leslie J Francis is Professor of Religions and Education within the Warwick Religions and
Education Research Unit, and Canon Theologian of Bangor Cathedral, Wales.
*Christopher A. M. Hermans is a Professor in Pastoral Theology at Radboud Universiteit
Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Mark A. Maddix*
Transformational, Experiential, and Non-formal Learning:
Foundations for Adult Christian Education
Abstract
The paper explores the landscape of adult education theories and their relationship to adult Christian
education. Specific attention is given to experiential learning theories of John Dewey, David Kolb and James
Loder, transformational learning theories of James Mezirow and Paulo Freire, and non-formal learning
theories of Phillip Coombs and Ted Ward. The paper also focuses on how these theories apply to adult
educational ministry in the local church.
Introduction
The emergence of adult education is evident in the explosion of adult educational programs in higher
education. Examples include: adult education programs, continuing education programs, degree
completion programs, online education, and conferencing. The need for adults to expand skills, talents,
and abilities are evident in the re-emergence of adult education. Changes in society have affected the
bulge of interest in adult education. Patricia Cross (1991) states, “the changing demographics, economical,
and technological advances of society has forced adults to continue to learn. The change in demographics
since World War II and the baby boomers have contributed to a population bulge in the middle adult years.
This increasing population coupled with advanced technology has forced more people to become adult
learners” (6-7). Also, economically adults are experiencing promotion squeezes because the career ladder
has become severely congested, forcing people to look at a number of possible alternatives, all of which
have ramification on adult education (Thomas 1991, 22; Cross, 6). The downsizing of corporations has
resulted in adults retiring early, and some have had to seek other skills for employment. Each of these
elements has provided a basis for the increased interest in adult education.
These sociological changes of adult education have also impacted adult ministry in the local church.
Congregations are struggling to renovate old adult educational structures by developing new strategies and
approaches. Christian educators have a challenge of putting “new wine” into “old wineskins.” Participation
in Sunday school classes is declining due to a lack of interest and irrelevant bible teaching. Teachers are
using traditional forms of teaching that are outdated and lack engagement by the students (Foster 1994,
24). Christian educator’s development of “new wineskins” is to include more transformative, experiential,
and non-formal approaches to learning. These challenges will result in developing new and creative
avenues that foster learning and faith development.
This article explores the landscape of experiential, transformational, and non-formal learning theories as
one possible avenue to renovate adult Christian education in the local church. This article builds on the
primary presupposition that adult educational theories are foundational for adult Christian education
(Wickett 1991, 1). Specific attention is given to the experiential learning theories of John Dewey, David
Kolb, and James Loder; transformational learning theories of James Mezirow and Paulo Freire; and nonformal learning theories of Phillip Coombs and Ted Ward. Once these educational theories are explored
the paper focuses on how they apply to adult educational ministry in the local church. Thomas Groome’s
“shared praxis” approach to religious education is provided as an example of how an adult Christian
education approach can incorporate and critique adult educational learning theories.
Adult education and the adult Learner
In order to provide effective adult educational ministries in the local church the Christian educator is to
understand the distinct characteristics of the adult learner. Rosemary Caffarella (1994) describes five
primary characteristics of adult learners. First, adults bring prior knowledge and experience into the
learning context.
The adult learner is able to call upon past experiences and prior knowledge in
formulating learning activities as well as serving as a resource for other learners (Knowles, 1980). In
reflecting on their past experiences and prior knowledge, adults want and need to modify their values and
beliefs, and reintegrate what these experiences mean in terms of their values and beliefs (Caffarella and
Barnett, 30). Second, adults bring different processes of learning to the learning context. Adults have
different learning styles and teachers should not focus on one mode of learning. Adults tend to be more
reflective and dialectical in their thinking. They appear to be more tolerant of contradictory and ambiguity,
and they engage more often in problem solving (30). Third, adults are active learners. Adults prefer to be
actively involved in the learning process versus being passive recipients of knowledge. Fourth, adults are
collaborative learners. Adult learners prefer to set their own learning goals, such as contractual learning
agreements and they prefer being involved in the learning process. And fifth, the adult context for learning
is different. It is important to identify the different stations of life for the learner (Caffarella and Barnett,
29-34). Many traditional educational programs have a difficult time understanding the unique needs of
the adult learner. Ted Ward (1997) refers to this as “the herding method” which places all learners on the
same level, instead of providing various learning experiences that reflect the needs of the adult learner.
These characteristics and needs of adult learners provide a context for education of adults in
congregations. It is important to understand the unique needs of the adult learner and to modify our
educational ministries to effectively minister to them. The involvement of adults in establishing these
ministry objectives and goals are critical for growth and maturation of adults.
Life-Long Learning
One of the primary premises of adult learning is that adults continue to learn and grow throughout the life
span which is a life-long process. Cross (1981) understanding of life-long learning “including formal,
informal, and non-formal education; life-long learning begins in the home and continues throughout the
lifespan; and community plays a vital role in learning” (261f). Also, “the hallmarks of society is that
learning occurs throughout the lifespan; that learning occurs in informal, non-formal, and informal settings;
that learning is aimed at improving the quality of life” (Reed and Laughran, 1984, 5). Thus, it is evident that
adults learn continuously throughout their life-span, and learning is not only contextualized to schooling
but includes all aspects of society.
Adult educational ministries are to include learning opportunities that challenge adults to continue to grow
and develop. They are also to develop learning experience beyond the traditional Sunday school or bible
study group. Since growth and maturation takes place in homes, in community, and through interaction
with one another the adult educator is to be conscious that the development of human persons are not
limited to the church context.
Self-Directed Learning
Malcolm Knowles (1980) theory of adult learning is foundational in adult educational theory and
development. Knowle’s research substantiates that adults learn differently than children and educational
methodologies should reflect these differences. According to Knowles, androgogy is defined as “is the art
and science of helping adults learn in contrast to pedagogy as the art and science of teaching children”
(42f). Embedded in Knowle’s androgogical theory is his view of self-directed learning. He believes that as
adults mature they become more self-directed in learning. Self-directed learning is the process by which
adults develop and formulate their own learning. The student becomes less dependent on the teacher,
and the teacher becomes more of a facilitator of learning.
Stephen Brookfield (1984) has written extensively on adult learning and self-directed learning. He states,
“The act of learning, of deliberately choosing to acquire certain skills, knowledge, or affective dispositions,
must be one of the most fundamental features by which we define what it is to be human. The locus of
control can remain in the adult environment for adults to create their own reality” (68-69). Brookfield
establishes the heart of self-directed learning as allowing adults to choose and even control their own
learning experiences. Also, Brookfield establishes that one of the primary goals of adult education is selfdirected learning, “adult education is actively concerned to assist adults in their quest for a sense of control
in their own lives, within their interpersonal relationships, with regard to the social forms and beliefs which
have been uncritically assimilated by learning, and which may be publicly accepted by a majority as
common sense” (1985, 46-47).
One area of concern regarding self-directed learning is that it can lead to individualized learning. However,
many of the adult educational theorists assert that self-directed learning is not to be divorced from the
social dimensions of learning. Alan Knox (1977) opposes any removal of the learner from the social
context, “adults function within a social environment of family, community, and nation that influences their
development and learning. They are embedded in an interpersonal network that shapes their lives that can
be used to promote their development” (31).
Self-directed learning is an important aspect of adult educational ministries. The role of the Christian
educator is to provide androgogical teaching methods and opportunities for adults to be directly involved in
their own learning. Self-directed learning should result in less dependence on the teacher for growth,
learning, and maturation, and give more independence to the learner.
Experiential learning
Experiential learning theory became a significant movement in the middle of the nineteenth century. It
was an attempt to move from formal, abstract education to experiential based education. In the beginning
of the twentieth century, cooperative education was introduced to complement classroom instruction
(Jackson and Caffarella 1994, 6). During this time the emergence of progressive education by John Dewey
became influential. Dewey’s contribution to education is his pragmatic approach to education that offers a
justification for “learning by doing.” Dewey stressed that the creation of new knowledge was more
fundamental than simply learning how to do something.
He developed an experiential learning
methodology as a cycle of “trying” and “undergoing” by becoming aware of a problem, getting an idea,
trying out a response, experiencing the consequences, and either confirming or modifying previous
conception (1938). Dewey’s research confirmed that learning from experience to be the most effective
means of knowing, which he calls the principle of the “continuity of experience.”
The principle of
continuity of experience means that every person both takes up something from those which have gone
before and modifies in some way the quality of those which come after as an individual passes from one
situation to another, his/her world and environment, expands and contracts. What he/she has learned in
the way of knowledge and skill in one situation becomes an instrument of understanding and dealing
effectively with the situation that follows. The process goes on as long as life and learning continue (1938,
44).
The primary focus of Dewey’s model of experiential learning is his emphasis on the reflective process. The
reflective process includes a very intellectual and complex reflective process of observation of the
surrounding condition; knowledge of what has happened in a similar situation in the past; and judgment,
which puts together what is observed and what is recalled to see what they signify (1938, 69). This praxis
approach is foundational to Dewey’s process of knowing. For Dewey, “learning is the reorganizing of
experience” (1938).
David Kolb’s experiential learning model
John Dewey’s research in experiential learning provides the theoretical foundation of experiential learning
theory. Building on Dewey, Jean Piaget, and Kurt Lewin, David Kolb (1980) developed an experiential
learning model that provides links between educational theory and educational practice. Kolb’s primary
thesis states that learning is the “process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of
experience” (38). Kolb’s experiential learning model provides four processes that are to be negotiated by
the learner. These four processes begin with Concrete Experience (CE). As a personal experiences life they
reflect on these experiences, which he calls Reflective Observation (RO). After reflecting on an experience,
these reflections begin to develop into concepts and judgments which he calls Abstract Conceptualization
(AC). These concepts or ideas that have been formulated from reflection result in doing or acting, which
he refers to as Active Experimentation (AE). The praxis process of learning includes all four aspects and
effective teaching will include all four aspects of learning. In Kolb’s theory, two ways of grasping
information are Concrete Experience and Abstract Conceptualization and two opposing ways of
transforming or processing information as Reflective Observation and Active Experimentation (38ff).
For Kolb, an experience not reflected upon is unrealized learning. Reflection provides the critical link
between experience and the process of change and adaptation in the mind. Kolb’s research provides an
excellent model that links theory to practice. In adult educational ministries Kolb’s model can be used for
teaching, program development, and to create significant times for Christian educators and pastors to
reflect upon their educational experiences. It also provides the adult educator with a learning style format.
The adult educator can use the format to develop lesson plans that includes all four domains of learning.
Convictional Knowing
James Loder, former professor of Christian Education at Princeton Theological Seminary has developed a
theory of knowing called, “convictional knowing”. Loder’s five stage “logic” of the human spirit includes
conflict, scanning, insight, release, and interpretation/verification. Through this process the human spirit is
reconstructed by the work of the Holy Spirit. This logic permeates every aspect of human development as a
pattern that governs the stage transition process (Loder, 1981, 128). Convictional knowing are life-changing
events through which ways of knowing, believing, feeling, and acting are radically altered. Unlike James
Fowler’s faith development theory and Lawrence Kohlberg’s moral development theory, Loder is most
interested in the dynamics of Christian transformation. He wants to discern how Christ through the Holy
Spirit transforms the human spirit. Both Fowler and Kohlberg provide a more general view of human
transformation that does not include a Christian dimension.
Loder‘s theory is a significant critique of the development theories of Fowler and Kohlberg. As human
persons experience life, convictional knowing takes place, which is the work of the Holy Spirit. Through this
process human persons are transformed and changed. Loder’s theory provides the adult Christian
educator with an understanding that as experiences are created in the educational context, change and
formation takes place by the work of the Holy Spirit.
Transformational learning - Jack Mezirow
One of the most influential contributors to adult education is the research by Jack Mezirow. Mezirow’s
seminal work Transformational Dimensions of Adult Learning (1991) provides a theory of how adults learn
by making meaning of their experiences. Mezirow’s research is developed primarily from the critical
learning theory of Jürgen Habermas. Mezirow argues that all humans function within meaning systems that
function as lens and filters through which a person’s experience is mediated and by which it is interpreted.
He believes that changes occur in meaning structures either incrementally or suddenly. Central to this
change process is critical reflection. Through critical reflection underlying assumptions of meaning
perspectives are identified, critically assessed, and reformulated to allow the development of a more
inclusive and permeable meaning perspectives.
Mezirow understands the process of perspective
transformation as the “central process of adult development” (1991, 155).
Meaning perspectives “are the large, unconscious, frameworks into which our conceptual content is fitted.
Meaning schemes are actual beliefs, ideas, or concepts that are fitted into our meaning perspectives, which
play a critical role in how we think and act” (1991, 6). For Mezirow, a defining condition of being human is
that we have to understand the meanings of our experiences. For some, any uncritically assimilated
explanation by an authority figure will suffice. But in contemporary societies we must learn to make our
own interpretations, rather than act on the purposes, beliefs, judgments, and feelings of others. According
to Mezirow, facilitating such understanding is the cardinal goal of adult education. Transformational
learning theory is to develop autonomous thinkers (Mezirow 1997, 5).
Transformational learning is the process of effective change in a frame of reference. Adults have acquired a
coherent body of experiences-associated concepts, values, feelings, conditioned responses - frames of
references that define their life world. These frames of references are the structures of assumptions
through which we understand our experience (1997, 5). People transform frames of references through
critically reflecting on the assumptions upon which interpretations, beliefs, and habits of mind or point of
views are based.
Mezirow provides a constructivist view of knowing that centers on subjective individual knowing. For
Mezirow, knowing and the construction of knowing is within oneself. He doesn’t believe that knowledge is
external or objective, but that knowing is confined to each individual person. Also, Mezirow develops
three primary types of learning from Habermas (1981); instrumental learning, communicative learning, and
emanicipatory learning. Instrumental Learning involves the truth of an assertion that can be established
through empirical testing. Communicative Learning involves understanding the purposes, values, beliefs,
and feelings. These are less amendable to empirical testing. Communicative learning includes dialogue and
discourse. Emancipatory Learning is the freedom from that which would limit control over one’s life.
Emancipatory learning is accomplished through critical reflection.
Transformational learning is
emancipatory learning. Habermas (1981) uses “emancipator,” Freire (1973) uses “conscientization,” and
Mezirow uses “transformational.” Central to all these learning theories is reflection, “reflective learning is
the assessment and or reassessment of beliefs. It becomes transformational when these beliefs are found
to be inadequate and invalid” (1991, 6).
Mezirow’s theory of transformational learning has been criticized on a number of fronts. Collard and Law
(1989) critique Mezirow for his lack of a unified social theory for change. They believe that his theory of
adult learning is fragmented and does not seem to know where to locate his theory in Habermas, Freire, or
Dewey (103ff). Mezirow has responded to their criticism by stating that he doesn’t view social action as the
only goal of adult learning and that such social action is an act of the learner not the teacher (1989, 172).
Also, Michael Newman (1994) counters the argument and states that perspective transformation can occur
in private and social settings. Mark Tennant (1993) critiques Mezirow on the bases that he fails to
adequately distinguish between what is transformational and what is a normal process of adult
development. He believes that the shifts in schemes are more appropriately understood as normative for
adult learning and shifts in perspective are better as transformational (35f). Mezirow responds by stating
that it is the transitions in meaning schemes and meaning perspectives toward the acquisition of meaning
perspectives and meaning schemes which are more inclusive, and integrative of experiences.
Mezirow’s transformational learning theory is not without critique or debate, but provides a very
comprehensive theory of adult learning. Adult educational ministries can benefit from Mezirow’s research
in identifying “habitual” thinking and developing opportunities for people to reflect on their underlying
assumptions. As people experience new horizons it will be important for them to identify the underlying
perspectives that are driving their actions. Again, adult educators will need to develop opportunities for
adults to critically reflect on their experiences and hopeful they will be able to construct new meaning.
Paulo Freire
The influence of Paulo Freire’s philosophy of education in Brazil has become internationally known in the
field of adult education. Freire’s philosophy of education focuses on transformational learning as well.
However, Mezirow is concerned with individual transformation; Freire is concerned with both individual
and social transformation. His critical pedagogy focuses on liberating adults through dialogic, problemposing pedagogical style that challenges students to become aware of their own thoughts and to recognize
their own power to change the world (1973). Transformation is a means to realize this vision.
Conscientization is achieved through a combination of action and reflection, a praxis approach. The goal of
education is to raise the critical conscience of the learner by means of experiential encounters with the
realities of their culture. He is concerned that all learners have equal access to learning (1970, 53). Friere is
against the formal education model of “banking education.” Banking education” is the depositing of
information from the teacher to the learner. Formal education follows the banking approach to education
in which the scope of actions allowed to the student extends only as far as receiving, filing and storing the
deposits. In the last analysis, it is the men (women) themselves who are filed away through a lack of
creativity, transformation, and knowledge (58).
Freire’s non-formal model of education is counter to the oppressive nature of formal education. Feire
places a strong value on human persons and their ability to grow and learn. He values human potentials
and invites them to be no longer the objects of education but the subjects of education. Freire’s
philosophy of education is helpful in identifying the limits of formal education and its oppressive nature.
Summary of transformational learning
Freire and Mezirow provide theoretical models for transformational learning. These theoretical models
can be linked to adult Christian education. Mezirow states, “to facilitate transformational learning,
education must help learners become aware and critical of their own and other’s assumptions. This
includes creating environments for effective discourse which opens the door to other perspectives and to
allow new information that is given to the learner to be incorporated into frames of references” (1997, 10).
Also, it includes education that “fosters critical reflective thought, imaginative problem posing, and
discourse that is learner-centered, participatory, interactive, and involves group deliberation and problem
solving” (10). The goal of transformational learning as a model for adult education is “to help the individual
become a more autonomous thinker by learning to negotiate his/her own values, meanings, and purposes
rather than to uncritically act on those of others” (11).
The implementation of transformational learning theory is evident in adult educational literature.
Christian educators and pastors can adapt aspects of transformational learning into the very fabric of adult
educational ministries with the primary goal of transformational learning.
Non-formal education
The impact of experiential learning and transformational learning theory include educational
methodologies that foster transformation of knowledge. Non-formal education is concerned primarily
with transformation as well. Although, non-formal education has been around for a long time, it became a
formal discipline of study in 1972 by Philip Coombs. Coombs developed non-formal education after
developing formal education in post-Colonial countries. From his research he recognized that formal
educational models of learning were not working in third world countries and an alternative model needed
to be developed (Ward, 1997).
A holistic approach of education includes non-formal education (transformational education), informal
education (socialization), and formal education (school or traditional education) (Ward, 1997; Thomas
1991). Informal education and non-formal education include socialization. Informal education is the most
natural form of socialization as people learn naturally through human interaction. Non-formal education
includes informal aspects as well as organized learning components. Non-formal education is a shift from
formal abstract education, where the teacher presents information and hope that a student will later apply
the knowledge. Non-formal education is more experientially based learning. An example of non-formal
education is Paulo Freire’s problem-posing approach instead of banking education (1970).
The real issue in adult education is, “What constitutes effective learning?” Reed and Laughran (1984)
answer this question by stating, “The evaluation of non-formal education focuses on how knowledge is
implemented rather than on how knowledge is memorized.” Effective learning depends on the relevancy
of educational goals to social values, the accommodation of the learner’s characteristics of learning, and
the accommodation of the pedagogical experiences of the learner (Ward and Herzog, 1974). In non-formal
education, content is organized around the situation specific of the group of people. The ordering of
knowledge is required by the learner’s basic life function rather than external aspects by the teacher in
formal education. Non-formal education tends to be oriented to a reward system that is closer to the
world of work and to the improvement of the quality of everyday life. Formal education is concerned more
with certification or validation of the learner’s achievements through degrees, awards, etc. However, the
educational ministries of local churches are better served by adapting non-formal approaches to education.
The problem is that many churches have adopted the schooling method of learning as the primary place of
learning. Instead, adult Christian education programs should develop more transformative approaches to
learning that include non-formal aspects of education. Since learning takes place through informal, nonformal, and informal settings it becomes important that adult Christian educational programs takes this
into consideration and includes each of these learning aspects.
One way to provide more transformational learning in formal teaching contexts is to include experiential
forms of learning. Patty Lee and Rosemary Cafferella (1994) state, “even though transformation takes
place through direct experience, in-class instruction can be enhanced by appropriate experiential learning
activities that can contribute to the transfer of learning to the real world contexts” (1994, 45). Examples of
these in-class learning activities include dialogue, role plays, games, simulations, discovery learning, and
storytelling.
Lee and Cafferella provide a balanced approach to education by establishing in-class
educational experiences and field-based educational experiences. Field based learning experiences are the
most direct means of experiential and transformational learning, while in-class experiences provide more
transformational forms of learning. These transformational forms of learning “provide adult learners with
opportunities to use or closely observe skills, that impact on particular values, and the relevant responsible
patterns within the contexts in which these actions make the most sense” (Lee and Caffarella 1994, 50).
Shared praxis approach
One example of an adult Christian education approach that builds on adult educational theory is the shared
praxis approach to religious education developed by Thomas Groome (1980). Groome influenced by Jurgen
Habermas and Paulo Friere, rejected their prevailing educational philosophies as giving too little place to
the student's lived experience. He defines “shared praxis” approach as a "group of Christians sharing in
dialogue their critical reflection on present action in light of the Christian story and its vision toward the
end of lived Christian faith” (1980, 25). For Groome "story" means scripture and tradition; "vision" is God's
vision for creation; “the kingdom of God” is the realization of God's reign characterized by justice and
liberation. Groome's pedagogy is based on a process view of revelation. God continues to reveal himself to
us in our present. Therefore, we must be "in touch" with both past and present revelation. Groome’s
shared praxis is a form of experiential education influenced by the Hebrew call to “know” as well as
Groome’s understanding of the nature of faith, faith development (he relies on James Fowler at this point),
and the need of persons for freedom and empowerment. Here also he relies on Paulo Freire (Reed and
Prevost, 361). Groom describes shared praxis in terms of molding six components (present action, critical
reflection, dialogue, the “story,” the “vision,” and present dialectical hermeneutics) into five movements:
1.
Naming Present Action—in which participants describe what they do corporately and
individually as the faith community in reaction to the lesson content;
2.
The Participants’ Story and Visions—in which the participants begin to critically reflect
on what led to the “present action” and what was expected to come of it:
3.
The Christian Community Story and Vision—in which Groome would rely on Scripture,
tradition, and history communicated through a variety of possible media and urge the
participants toward growth and change or maturity in Christian faith.
4.
Dialectical Hermeneutic Between the Story and Participant’s Story—in which
participants can discover how their stories compare to, contrast with, rise out of, and
are part of the Story of the Christian faith community.
5.
Dialectical Hermeneutic Between the Vision and the Participant’s Vision—in which
participants are challenged to discover ways in which their hopes and future actions can
be a part of or are a part of the hope and future actions of the Christian faith
community and will, indeed, be a part of the birthing of that community (Groome 1980,
207-23).
Groome’s theory provides adult Christian educators with an experiential learning approach that can help in
faith formation of adults. Groome’s “praxis approach” which gives attention to a dialectical hermeneutic
between “the faith handed down” and present lived experience, students learn to see for themselves how
the tradition affirms, questions, and calls one beyond present faith practice, even as the tradition is itself
reinterpreted in light of contemporary experience.
Implications for adult Christian education
Experiential learning theories of John Dewey, David Kolb, and James Loder, the transformational learning
theories of Jack Mezirow and Paulo Friere, and the non-formal educational theory of Phillip Coombs and
Ted Ward, provide a foundation for adult learning theories which can be applied to adult educational
ministries. As Christian educators adapt these theories they are faced with the question, “In what ways do
these theories impact adult educational ministries?” “What do they teach us about adults and how they
learn?” “What kinds of programs and structures need to be developed to foster this kind of learning?”
The implications of adult learning theories on adult Christian education are many but three practical
examples are provided below.
First, adult learning theories help the adult Christian educator to develop educational ministries that are
holistic and include both traditional and non-traditional forms of education. For example, Sunday school
classes and small learning groups for adults need to include safe environments that foster critical thinking
and reflection. Adults learn best when they can connect new information to past experiences. They also
value discussion and dialogue.
Second, transformational learning can take place as adult Christian educators assist adults in “making
meaning” out of their lived experiences by helping them connect those experiences to their faith tradition.
Transformation takes place as new patterns of thinking are developed and old meaning structures are
eliminated. Groome’s shared praxis approach provides an example of whereby adults can see how their
stories are integrated into the story of the faith tradition.
Third, experiential forms of learning include providing adult educational ministries that allow adults to be
actively engaged in learning. Adults take ownership of their own learning. Christian educators can provide
resources to assist adults to become “self-directed” learners. Many adult educational programs create
more dependency on the teacher instead of empowering adults to be more independent.
Conclusion
Generally speaking, then, adult educational theories provide a foundation to learning in adult Christian
education programs. One of the primary goals of teaching adults is transformation and change. As adults
reflect on their experiences new meaning can be formed. This process of transformation is a life-long
process by self-directed adult learners. The role of the adult Christian educator is to renovate old
structures of teaching and learning that inhibit transformation and change. New “wineskins” are to be
developed that address the learning needs of adults and that allow them to engage in the learning process.
These experiential, transformational, and non-formal educational theories provide the adult Christian
educator with a new structure in which they may house these new “wineskins.”
References
Brookfield, S. D. (1984). Self-Directed adult learning: A critical paradigm. Adult Education Quarterly, 35
(2), 59-71.
Brookfield, S. D. (1985). A critical definition of adult education. Adult Education Quarterly, 36 (1), 44-49.
Brookfield, S. D. (1987). Developing critical thinkers: Challenging adults to explore alternative ways of
thinking and acting. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Caffarella, R. S. & O’ Connell, J. M. (1987). Self-directed adult learning: A critical paradigm revisited. Adult
Education Quarterly, 37 (4), 199-211.
Caffarella, R. S. & O’ Connell. J. M. (1993). Self-directed learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing
Education. 57, 25-35.
Caffarella, R. S. & & Bruce Barnett. (1994).
Characteristics of adult learners and foundations of
experimental learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 62, 29-42.
Collard, S & Law, M (1989). The Limits of perspective transformation: A critique of Mezirow’s theory.
Adult Education Quarterly. 39(2), 99-107.
Collard, S & Law, M. (1994). Understanding and promoting transformative learning. San Francisco: Jossey
Bass.
Cranton, P. (1994). Understanding and promoting transformative learning. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Cranton, P. (eds). (1997). Transformative Learning in Action: Insights from Practice. San Francisco: Jossey
Bass.
Cross, K. P. (1991). Adults as learners. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: MacMilliam Publishing Company.
Foster, C. (1994). Educating Congregations: The Future of Christian Education.
Nashville: Abingdon.
Freire, P. (1973). Education for critical consciousness. New York: Continuum Publishing Company.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury.
Groome, T. H. (1980). Christian Religious Education: Sharing Our Story and Vision. San Francisco: Harper
and Row.
Habermas, J. (1971). Knowledge and human interests. Boston: Beacon Press.
Jackson, L. & Caffarella, R. (1994). Experiential learning: A new approach. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Knowles, Malcolm. (1980). The modern practice of adult education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice
Hall.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Knox, A. B. (1977). Adult development and learning. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Lee, P. and Caffarella, R.S. (1994). Methods and techniques for engaging learners in experiential learning.”
New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. 62, 43-54.
Loder, J. E. (1981). The transforming moment: Understanding convictional experiences. San Francisco:
Harper and Row.
Merriam, S. B., and Rosemary S. Cafferella. (1991). Learning in adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mezirow, J. (1981). A critical theory of adult learning and education. Adult Education Quarterly, 32 (1), 324.
Mezirow, J. (1989). Transformation theory and social action: A response to Collard and Law. Adult
Education Quarterly, 39 (3), 169-175.
Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Mezirow, J. (1994). Understanding transformative learning. Adult Education
Quarterly. 44 (4), 243-244.
Mezirow, J. (1997). Transformative learning: Theory to practice. New Directions for Continuing Education.
74, 5-12.
Newman, Michael. (1994). Response to understanding transformation theory. Adult Education Quarterly.
44 (4), 236-242.
Reed, H. B. and Laughran. E. L. (1984). Beyond education for economic, social, and personal development.
Amherst, Mass: School of Education, University of Massachusetts.
Tennant, M. C. (1993). Perspective transformation and adult development. Adult Education Quarterly. 44
(1), 34-42.
Thomas, A. M. (1991). Beyond education: A new perspective on society’s Management of Learning. San
Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Ward, T. and Herzog, Jr. W. A. (1974). Program Studies in Non-Formal education: Effective learning in NonFormal Education. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University.
Ward, T. (1997). DCE 961 Nonformal Education Class Notes. Trinity Evangelical Divinity School.
Wickett, R. E. Y. (1991). Models of adult Religious education practice. Birmingham, Alabama: Religious
Education Press.
*Mark A. Maddix is an Associate Professor of Christian Education and Dean, School of Theology & Christian
Ministries at Northwest Nazarene University.
Gabriel Moran, 2007, Fashioning a people: The educational insights of Maria Harris.
New London CT: Twenty-third Publications.
185 pp. Paperback.
Fashion me a people: Man, woman and the Church was a significant book by United States author Eugene
Kennedy in 1967 about sexuality and human relationships within the new Catholic spirituality that was
emerging after the Second Vatican Council. Then again in 1989, the same title was used appropriately by
Maria Harris for her popular book on the curriculum of the Church, Fashion me a people: Curriculum in the
Church. Harris’ book is still commonly used in US programs in religious education and ministry both in the
Catholic Church and in other denominations. More recently, Gabriel Moran, arguably the most notable
philosopher of religious education in the English speaking world, has written a book of reflections on the
educational thinking of his late wife and colleague Maria Harris who died in 2005. This book, Fashioning a
people today: The educational insights of Maria Harris revisits the ideas of Harris, in an ongoing
‘conversation’ with the principles considered in her earlier book, reflecting on their meaning and
significance and commenting on their contemporary relevance.
The book begins with a brief account of Maria Harris’ life and academic career. Then, following the same
seven chapter structural pattern in the original, Moran begins with a consideration of the Church as people,
and its religious and educational mission. He then examines the notion of the Church’s curriculum in both
its “life long and life wide” dimensions. Then follow five chapters corresponding with the five different
forms of basic Christian ministry as listed in chapter 2 of the Acts of the Apostles: different forms of
community; liturgy and work; proclamation and witness; teachings and doctrine and compassion and
service.
This book not only gives access to Gabriel Moran’s ideas on these topics, it reaches back and highlights
Maria Harris’s insights showing the essential harmony and complementarity between the religious
educational thinking of these two prominent US scholars and writers.
Following up her books on youth ministry (Portraits of youth Ministry, 1981) and on teaching (Teaching and
religious imagination, in 1987) Maria Harris showed how the New Testament understanding of ministry
could be interpreted through the discourse of contemporary educational theory. Adding to this legacy,
Gabriel Moran has contributed his own reflections on the importance of educational ministry for the
Church.
When Maria Harris died in 2005, the field of religious education lost one of its leading scholars and bright
personalities. She had lectured in the Southern hemisphere a number of times, beginning with work at the
National Pastoral Institute of Religious Education in Melbourne in the early 1980s. All of the educators
who know something of her work through participating in her programs and/or through reading her books
will welcome this short book about the contemporary value and relevance of her educational ideas. In
addition, the epilogue, giving an account of the last years of life, is informative, moving and very inspiring.
It recounts how a highly talented, exuberant personality courageously, but quietly, negotiated the path of
developing dementia which led to her untimely death. It is a touching story that will mean a lot to all of
the educators who have had the privilege of meeting and working with Maria Harris and Gabriel Moran.
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Gabriel Moran, 2008, Speaking of teaching: Lessons from history.
Lanham MD: Lexington Books.
195 pp. Hardback.
An inordinate prominence for the word ‘learning’ as the new buzzword in educational discourse, together
with an overzealous belief in the educational power of information technology have created problems for
the appreciation of what it means to teach – especially in school education, but also in other contexts.
In Westernised countries, it has become common for what are essentially child-minding facilities to be
called ‘learning’ centres. Instead of children, the word ‘learners’ is often substituted. At Strathfield, in
Sydney, one such facility is called The Little Academy. This is just one of a number of indications that the
word learning has become so prominent in contemporary talk and writing about education that one can be
excused for getting the impression that there is a public adoration of learning as the idea that has most
significance in education. It has become a new ‘motherhood’ statement; all appears well as long as
children are ‘learning’ – the word ‘pupils’ has tended to disappear from use. But just what and how they
are learning may be vague, unspecified or not appraised. Similarly, there is ambiguity about the role of the
teacher – surely it must mean more than ‘child-minding’.
Another aspect of this same problem is the way some enthusiasts think that if the Internet, online work or
computers are not involved, then it is not ‘authentic’ learning. Even though authors like Hugh Mackay
(2007) have pointed out that access to large flows of information does not necessarily guarantee personal
‘communication’ (and similarly, extensive texting and Facebook like activities might not compensate for
problematic communication skills in direct person-to-person relationships), there remains a strong
mythology about the importance of information technology in education and personal life. The naivety in
the Australian Government’s ‘a computer for every student’ policy is a pertinent example. Some of the
most unimaginative (and unprofessional) examples of recent teaching have been where teachers have sat
back and relaxed while the class ‘worked on computers doing research on the Internet’.
These are just two from a range of issues that have created problems for the understanding of what it
means to teach. This is the environment into which Gabriel Moran has launched his most recent book on
teaching. It makes a valuable contribution to the need for re-appraising the notion of teaching and the
role of the teacher in an educational world where all the recent attention seems to have been given to the
idea popularised by Carl Rogers (1969) and others: ‘the facilitation of learning’ – as a substitute for the
word teaching. The latest trend tends to see teaching as a ‘conduit for technology’. Teaching and learning
have always been intimately related. It is difficult to understand one without some reference to the other.
In his 1997 book (Showing how: The act of teaching), Gabriel Moran explored the notion of teaching as
“showing someone how to do something” – this applied to all human contexts and not just to the
classroom. This was consistent with the understanding that education was more extensive than schooling.
What Moran has done in this new book is appraise what is either said or implied about teaching in the
writings of a number of great philosophers and educators. There are chapters on Plato, Augustine,
Rousseau, Dewey and Wittgenstein. In each of these chapters, he not only highlights their insights about
teaching but also shows what has often been either missed or misunderstood. These chapters are thus
informative and stimulating, especially for those who think they know what these authors have
traditionally had to say about education. It does not fail to give valuable insights into the works of these
authors and it regularly hints at implications in relation to various contemporary educational problems. In
addition, he explores what is implied about teaching in a discussion of two perennial problem areas “Can
morality be taught?” and “Can religion be taught?”
As with all of Moran’s books, the precision with which he clarifies the meaning of terms in the light of their
etymological history is prominent. It is very readable and has something of a ‘narrative’ like character in
the way it weaves its argument through considerations of the work of some of history’s great writers. It
will help readers broaden their understanding of what it means to teach and will help clarify the various
educational roles of the teacher in different contexts, in the light of a rich philosophical heritage.
In this book, and as he has always done in the past, Gabriel Moran has brought an extraordinary panoramic
perspective to bear on the study of teaching. But at the same time this is not lacking in precision and
depth of analysis of particular issues. The result is a superb treatise on the nature of teaching. When the
current excessive emphasis on learning can eclipse the great need for attention to teaching – pushing this
role more to the background – it is more than timely for a thoughtful treatise exploring what it means to
teach.
While no doubt much of ‘personal’ learning will remain within the orbit of the learner, fundamental to
education is the notion of partnership between teaching and learning. In the light of these issues, Moran’s
new book makes a much-needed and substantial contribution to the philosophy of teaching. And
inevitably, this will also make a valuable contribution to understanding both learning and education. In a
sense, Moran helps liberate teachers from the unrealistic expectations of those who do not fully
understand the subtle differences about who can teach what in particular contexts and particular
circumstances. The book not only clarifies the notion of teaching, it sows the seeds for many important
practical implications for teaching in all areas of life.
Graham Rossiter, Australian Catholic University
References
Maria Harris, (1981). Portrait of Youth Ministry, New York: Paulist Press.
Maria Harris, (1987). Teaching and Religious Imagination: An Essay in the Theology of Teaching. San
Francisco: Harper and Row.
Maria Harris, (1989). Fashion me a people: Curriculum in the Church. Louisville, Ky: Westminster/John
Knox Press.
Eugene Kennedy, (1967). Fashion me a people: Man woman and the church. New York: Sheed and Ward.
Hugh Mackay, (2007). Advance Australia ... where? How we’ve changed, why we’ve changed, and what
will happen next. Sydney: Hachette Australia.
Gabriel Moran, (1997). Showing how: The act of teaching. Philadelphia: Trinity Press International.
Gabriel Moran, (2007). Fashioning a people today: The educational insights of Maria Harris. New London
CT: Twenty-third Publications.
Carl Rogers, (1969). Freedom to Learn: A View of what Education Might Become. Columbus, Ohio: Charles
E. Merrill.
IDEAS FOR PRACTITIONERS
AN EVIDENCE-BASED APPROACH TO CLASSROOM RE
As a chartered teacher of Catholic RE within non-Catholic schools I have found it essential to adopt an
evidence-based approach to the curriculum. From the early years of secondary schooling (aged 12) the
pupils are likely to be asked questions about their faith from non-Catholic pupils; and the tone of these
questions can range from polite and inquisitive to impolite and dismissive. Whatever the question or its
tone the pupils have to feel comfortable in engaging with the questioners – hence their early introduction
to apologetics and evangelization.
In their first unit the pupils study the evidences for the historical fact and foundational teaching of the
Catholic Church namely, the resurrection of Christ. This is done in a dialectical fashion such that the pupils
are introduced to likely arguments from non-believers and how to counter them. Above all, there is an
emphasis on the language employed by non-believers i.e. evidence – especially historical and scientific. For
example, non-Catholic pupils often question the historical authenticity of Biblical accounts of the
resurrection as to them it seems unreal and more like a fairy-tale than history; and so a particular emphasis
is placed upon historical evidence e.g. see extracts below from textbook Trial of the Resurrection:1
Extract 1
Joe: “Evidence. How do we know that the Bible stories were copied accurately? For Hebrew scribes, copying
the Bible was a sacred task and they made sure that they didn’t make a mistake. How?
First of all, before they even copied a letter or a word, they counted all the rows and columns. Then they
counted all of the words; and then all of the letters. Only afterwards, when they knew the number of rows,
columns, words and letters; did they start to copy the words. And when they had finished copying – what
did they do then? Aye, that’s right. They counted all of the rows, columns, words and letters again to make
sure that nothing had been missed out. And if they found a single mistake what did they do? They tore it up
and started all over again.
Remember, for a Hebrew scribe this was a sacred task – he wasn’t copying out an ink exercise in his
schoolbook! In fact, scribes were known to change their pens, and even their clothes, when they had to copy
the sacred name of God.”
Chief Prosecutor: “Yes, very interesting, I daresay, but do you have any proof?”
Joe: “Incredibly, yes we do. I am sure that you have heard of the Dead Sea Scrolls. When they were
discovered they were dated to the 1st century, shortly after the time of Jesus. They were compared with
copies of parts of the Bible from a thousand years later – and they were found to be almost exactly the
same. Yes, that’s right – the Bible had been copied accurately for 1,000 years!”2
Reflection
I often set the pupils a ‘simple’ task of behaving like a Hebrew scribe by copying down a page. This can have
quite an impact as they quickly learn that this is a laborious and time-consuming task because of the
extraordinary level of care with which it was undertaken – but the point is usually well taken!
Extract 2
Chief Prosecutor: “Again, very interesting… but, what if the information was copied down wrongly in the
first place? All you’ve proved then is that they have accurately copied a mistake!”
[Narrator]: Joe walks out from behind his desk – goes over to the prosecution desk – and bares a clenched
fist at the face of the deputy prosecutor – and Taggart-style says “Hey, china, pick a windae! Coz that’s the
wan yur leavin’ by!”
Chief Prosecutor: [alarmed] “Your Honour… Your Honour, I object! That hooligan is threatening my
colleague!”
Joe: “Prove it!”
Chief Prosecutor: “Prove it? What do you mean? I’ve seen you with my own eyes!”
Joe: [calmly] “Yes, that’s right; you are an eye-witness. You’ve seen it with your own eyes… so that makes
you a good witness. Well, what about the disciples, were they not eye-witnesses? Did they not see an angry
Jesus threaten the corrupt moneylenders in the Temple? Do you believe that story? Or, do you just pick and
choose the stories that you want to believe?”
Chief Prosecutor: [irritated] “What is the point of this charade?”
Judge: “Yes, Joe, what is the point?”
Joe: “The point, your Honour, is that the disciples were eye-witnesses to the events in the life of Jesus;
andthey recorded the events accurately. For example, Jesus was addressed as ‘Rabbuni’; and this means
‘Master’ or ‘Teacher’ and refers to a person who has a scribe following him and writing down what he has
to say. One of the disciples of Jesus was Matthew, a tax collector. Why was he chosen? Tax collectors were
hated because they collected money for the Romans – and they were the enemy. Most likely, Matthew was
chosen to show that God’s love is for everybody – no-one is excluded. But also, as a tax collector, Matthew
had learned shorthand. Therefore, he could accurately write down what Jesus said – word for word. And the
evidence for this? In Matthew’s own Gospel we find many more sayings of Jesus than in any other Gospel.
Why? Perhaps, because Matthew had kept accurate shorthand notes of what his Master, Jesus, had to say.”
Reflection
Clear links can be drawn with the subject of History and the use of internal and external evidence. The
internal evidence of the Bible supports the theory that Matthew actually recorded the very words of Jesus.
Extract 3
Calvin: “Your Honour, my young, but very learned colleague, has clearly demonstrated the accuracy of the
Biblical accounts. I should now like to address the prosecution’s comments about biblical scholarship.”
Judge: “You may proceed.”
Calvin: “I should like to make four points. Recent scholarship tells us the following:
1. Historical findings suggest the New Testament was written shortly after the events took place.3
2. Recent language studies also indicate that the Gospels were written close to the time that they
actually happened.4
3. Recent scientific study of Gospel fragments could be material evidence of eyewitness accounts
of the life of Jesus.5
4. Even the enemies of Jesus admit that he was a powerful teacher and a miracle worker; and that
he was crucified and believed to have risen on the third day.
Chief Prosecutor: “Oh, really, your Honour, I object! This is fanciful nonsense! What, even the enemies of
Jesus admit that he was a great teacher and a miracle worker?! Oh, come off it!”
Calvin: “Yes, my learned colleague, remarkable isn’t it? If you don’t want to read about Jesus from his
friends, then what do his enemies, the Romans and the Jewish religious leaders tell us? For example,
Tacitus, Josephus and the Talmud:
1. Jesus was a real person – some wrote about him because he annoyed them!
2. Jesus was a great teacher – he attracted large crowds to listen to his teachings – but the religious
leaders didn’t like his teachings and so they argued against them.
3. Jesus performed miracles! Yes, even his enemies admitted this. They called him a ‘wonder-worker’
but claimed that his power came from the devil and not from God.
4. Jesus was crucified. And finally;
5. His followers believe that Jesus rose from the dead.
A great teacher, who performed miracles, crucified and believed to have risen from the dead. Sounds pretty
much like the Bible got it right, after all, don’t you think?”
Reflection
A good focus here is that of corroboration. Some of the historical events within the Bible are recorded
elsewhere and this helps to underline the authenticity of the biblical accounts.
Review
With this dialectical approach it seemed to me that the pupils learning were being encouraged to adopt a
deep approach to their learning. Previously, I had been able to encourage such an approach to learning by
promoting active and enterprising pedagogies. I believed that the pupils were adopting a deep approach to
their learning and in February 2006 I put this hypothesis to the test with a questionnaire survey of the first
cohort of eighteen pupils who had studied the unit ‘Trial of the Resurrection.’ Drawing upon previous
research (Entwistle & Kozeki 1985, Luby 1993) 6 for validity, and, for reliability, using five test items for each
of the two areas surveyed; the pupils’ responses affirmed that they were adopting a deep approach to their
learning.
Incorporating evidence and arguments within a dialectical approach to a story can also be used with older
pupils e.g. ‘Creation on Trial’ examines the creation-evolution debate. (See extract 4 below)
Extract 4
Chief Prosecutor: “Your honour, I should now like to introduce the theory of evolution.”
Mark Richmond: [stage whisper] “And which theory of evolution would that be? Darwinian? NeoDarwinian? Post-Darwinian? Whatever?”
Chief Prosecutor: [angry look towards Defence desk] “Dear me, how petty! The fact that the theory has
undergone several changes is a strength. It shows that scientists are open-minded and prepared to consider
change.”
Judge: “Please proceed.”
Chief Prosecutor: “Thank you, your honour. To take but one example, the chimpanzee, our closest living
relative. In the highly regarded ‘Science’ journal, 23 December 2005 (volume 310, pages 1878-1879) the
‘BREAKTHROUGH OF THE YEAR’ is entitled ‘Evolution in Action’ – and I quote:
‘Amid this outpouring of results, 2005 stands out as a banner year for uncovering the intricacies of how
evolution actually proceeds… One of the most dramatic results came in September, when an
international team published the genome of our closest relative, the chimpanzee… The genome data
confirm our close kinship with chimps… the total difference in DNA between our two species (being)
about 4%.’
So, not only has the theory of evolution been around for more than 150 years, but we are understanding
more and more about it as the years go past. And, as you well know, evolution explains the existence of life
without the need to refer to God.”
…
Calvin: “Thank you, your honour. If I may address my second point. I could not help but notice that the Chief
Prosecutor missed out the following sentence from her ‘Science’ journal quote, namely:
‘With the human genome already in hand, researchers could begin to line up chimp and human DNA
and examine, one by one, the 40 million evolutionary events that separate them from us.’
Really, there are no less than 40 million differences between humans and chimps? And how many of these
differences - or evolutionary events - have been observed taking place by scientists in my lifetime?”
Chief Prosecutor: [glancing at the scientific adviser] “Well, none.”
Calvin: “OK, then, how many of these evolutionary events have been observed at all by scientists?”
Chief Prosecutor: [alarmed look at scientific adviser] “Em, it appears that none of these evolutionary events
have ever been observed - probably because they took place a long time ago.”
Calvin: “Strange, don’t you think? Science; a form of knowledge based on observation, claims that 40 million
events took place without ever observing even just one of them!”
Chief Prosecutor: “Well, that’s as may be, but evolution is a well established scientific fact. You can’t dispute
that.”
Calvin: “Oh no? Let’s see shall we? A fact is something like ‘Colorado is a state within the USA.’ But if the
statement was ‘Colorado is the most beautiful state within the USA,’ then that’s a matter of opinion. Others
may prefer California or Wyoming or Washington. What about evolution? If there were one theory of
evolution then that theory could be understood as a fact. However, there is theistic evolution, naturalistic
evolution, Darwinian evolution, neo-Darwinian evolution, and so on. Scientists select the one that they
prefer – therefore, the scientists have different opinions on the matter. So, rather than being a fact –
evolution is much more like an opinion.”
Judge: [scribbling on pad] “Mmm, interesting.”
Reflection
This often surprises the pupils as they uncritically accept evolution as a ‘given.’ To be asked to take a critical
approach is unusual and it is this criticality7 which promotes a deep approach to their learning.
Conclusion
I am sure that colleagues will wish further evidence of this dialectical evidence-based story approach to RE
– and then draw their own conclusions. If so, then I invite you to have a look at a limited preview of Trial of
the Resurrection available through Google Book Search (type ‘Trial of the Resurrection’) and/or a free
download of Creation on Trial at www.tes.co.uk/resources/Home.aspx (type ‘religious education’ – ‘book’ –
‘key stage 4’). I would welcome feedback and, perhaps, we can begin our own dialogue.
Antony Luby
Chartered Teacher
Aberdeen City Council
[email protected]
1
This is a fictional account of the Christian churches being tried at the World Court. However, the evidences and
arguments are real.
2
No changes needed to be made to the text of the Bible – only some footnotes (like this) were changed.
3
Tresmontant, C, 1989, The Hebrew Christ, Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press. A member of the university at the
Sorbonne, he combines both historical and language approaches and concludes: all four Gospels were written in
Hebrew first, and then translated. Hebrew Matthew was written shortly after the Resurrection, followed within a
few years by a Greek translation. Hebrew John was written by 36 CE, and then also quickly translated. Luke came
next, being written between 40 and 60 CE, and Mark probably came last..."
4
Carmignac, J, 1987, The Birth of the Synoptics, Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press. A translator of the Dead Sea Scrolls
and an expert in Hebrew language, Carmignac translated the Gospels 'backwards,' from Greek into Hebrew, and was
astonished at what he found... Carmignac discovered the Greek translator of Mark had slavishly kept to the Hebrew
word order and grammar... (and this being) true, then we have Gospels written by eyewitnesses at a very early
date.”
5
At the end of 1994 Carsten Thiede, a papyrologist… in Germany, announced his findings concerning three papyrus
scraps belonging to Magdalen College, Oxford. The scraps contain phrases from the twenty-sixth chapter of
Matthew's Gospel. A few decades earlier the scraps had been dated as coming from the end of the second century
and therefore were thought uninteresting and were forgotten; but Thiede, literally taking a fresh look by using a newly
invented high-power microscope, concluded that the dating was faulty. He said the scraps were written no later than
the year 60 CE... As The Times of London said, this finding 'provides the first material evidence that the Gospel
according to St Matthew is an eyewitness account written by contemporaries of Christ’.”
6
Entwistle, N J, and Kozeki, B, 1985, ‘Relationships between school motivation, approaches to studying, and
attainment, among British and Hungarian adolescents,’ Br J educ Psychol 55 124-137.
Luby, A, 1993, Democracy and the Classroom: Lessons from the Borders Enterprise Initiative, unpublished MPhil thesis,
Glasgow: University of Strathclyde.
7
A highly recommended read is Wright, A, 2007, Critical Religious Education, Multiculturalism and the Pursuit of Truth,
Cardiff: University of Wales Press. But please note that it is expensive - £75.
JOURNAL OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION
JOURNAL OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION is a refereed publication for the academic exploration of
the task of religious education in modern society. The journal helps disseminate original
writings and research in religious education and catechesis -- and in related areas such as
spirituality, theology, moral and faith development, cultural contexts, ministry and schooling.
It includes a variety of feature sections -- on contemporary educational issues, book reviews,
conferences, resources and practical hints for teachers. Articles for publication on religious
education in various contexts and on the related areas noted above, as well as on any of the
feature sections are welcome. See the inside back cover for details.
EDITOR: Dr Marian de Souza (Australian Catholic University, Ballarat Campus)
BOOK REVIEW EDITOR: Dr Brendan Hyde (Australian Catholic University, Melbourne Campus)
EDITORIAL BOARD
Professor Marie Emmitt (Dean of Education, Australian Catholic University)
Professor Peta Goldburg rsm (Head, National School of Religious Education, Australian
Catholic University, McAuley Campus)
Professor Neil Ormerod (National School of Philosophy and Theology, Australian Catholic
University)
Professor Graham Rossiter (National School of Religious Education, Australian Catholic
University)
Dr Marian de Souza (Editor, Australian Catholic University, Ballarat Campus)
CONSULTING EDITORS
Professor Mary Boys (Union Theological Seminary, New York, USA)
Professor Lorna Bowman (Brescia University College, London, Ontario, Canada N6g 1H2)
Professor Emeritus Robert Crotty (University of South Australia)
Associate Professor Peter Hobson (University of New England, Armidale)
Professor Robert Jackson (University of Warwick, United Kingdom)
Professor Herman Lombaerts (Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium)
Professor Terry Lovat (University of Newcastle, New South Wales)
Dr Andrew McGrady (Mater Dei Institute, Dublin, Ireland)
Professor Mary Elizabeth Moore (Emory University, Atlanta, USA)
Professor John Sullivan (Liverpool Hope University College, UK)
Dr Laurie Woods (Australian Catholic University)
Dr Richard Rymarz (St Joseph’s College, University of Alberta)
EDITORIAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Dr Michael Buchanan Australian Catholic University, St Patrick’s Campus
Dr Sandra Carroll Australian Catholic University, Mount Saint Mary Campus
Mr Michael Chambers Australian Catholic University, McAuley Campus
Dr Graham English Australian Catholic University, Mount Saint Mary Campus
Professor Peta Goldburg rsm Australian Catholic University, McAuley Campus
Dr Jan Grajczonek Australian Catholic University, McAuley Campus
Dr Brendan Hyde Australian Catholic University, St Patrick’s Campus
Professor Graham Rossiter, Australian Catholic University, Mount Saint Mary Campus
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EDUCATION
Notes for Contributors
Journal of Religious Education is an academic refereed journal subject to peer
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Articles on the following are welcomed:
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
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