effect of congruence between brand and celebrity endorser on

Transcription

1
EFFECT OF CONGRUENCE BETWEEN BRAND AND CELEBRITY ENDORSER
ON CUSTOMER’S PERCEPTION
BY
PANG NGA CHUN
11007427
AN HONOURS PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFULLMENT OF
THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEREE OF
BACHELOR OF ARTS
IN
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND RECREATION MANAGEMENT (HONOURS)
HONG KONG BAPTIST UNIVERSITY
APRIL 2013
APRIL, 2013
2
30th APRIL, 2013
We hereby recommend that the Honours Project by Miss.
Pang Nga Chun entitled “Effect of Congruence between band
and celebrity endorser on customer’s perception” be
accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the Bachelor of Arts Honours Degree in Physical Education
And Recreation Management.
______________________
Dr. Seungmo Kim
Lau
Chief Adviser
______________________
Prof. Patrick
Second Reader
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this honours project “Effect of
Congruence between band and celebrity endorser on
customer’s perception” represents my own work and had not
been previously submitted to this or other institution
for a degree,
diploma or other qualification. Citations from the other
authors were listed in the references.
Pang Nga Chun
30th April, 2013
4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratefulness to my chief
advisor, Dr. Seungmo Kim, for his generous and
professional guidance throughout the whole project
period. I would also like to show my special thanks to
Prof. Patrick Lau for being my second reader.
Lastly, I would like to thank all the participants for
their sincere participation.
_______________________________
Pang Nga Chun
5
Department of Physical
Education
Hong Kong Baptist University
Date: _________________________
ABSTRACT
Over the years sports companies tended to spend huge sum
of money on celebrity endorsements so as to make an
advertisement more noticeable for customers. However, the
selection of an appropriate spokesperson for a product
was essential. The present study was to investigate how
the customer’s perception on matching between athlete and
actor endorser and his endorsed sports-related and
sports-unrelated products and determine the impact of
three characteristics of the endorser with
attractiveness, expertise and trustworthiness on
customers’ purchasing intention. A total of 200
participants, were being invited to participate to
questionnaires with four combinations of advertisements.
Results revealed that expertise-athlete endorser was
perfectly matched with sport-related product. Other
6
finding showed trustworthiness and attractiveness were
important factor to affect purchasing intention on with
and without sports product respectively. Hopefully, the
result findings would be a useful reference for endorser
selection by marketers.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
Page
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Statement of Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Delimitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Significance of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
The benefits and effects of Celebrity endorsement . 14
Source credibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Expertise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Trustworthiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7
Source attractiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Similarity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .19
Familiarity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Likeability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Match-up hypothesis
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Meaning transfer model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3. METHOD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Participants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26
Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Data Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4. ANALYSIS OF DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Research Implications . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 53
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Summary of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Recommendations for Further Study. . . . .
. . . ..59
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REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
APPENDIX
A. Questionnaire (English). . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
B. Stimulus Material (Advertisements) . . . . . . . 73
i. Athlete paired with sports-related product. . . .73
ii. Star/actor paired with sports-related product. . 74
iii. Athlete paired with sports-unrelated products. .75
iv. Star/actor paired with sports-unrelated products.76
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
Page
1. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Gender
of the Subjects (N=200) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2a. Mean and Standard Deviation of the
Subjects’ Age .33 (N=150) . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2B. Frequency and Percentage of
Subjects’ Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3. Frequency and Percentage of
Subjects’ Educational status . . . .
. . . . . . 35
4. Reliability of all variables by
Cronbach’s Aplha. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
5. One Way ANOVA of Mean difference between groups
in Matching (N=200) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
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6. One Way ANOVA of Mean difference among four
advertisements in Matching. . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7. Post Hoc Tests of comparisons Mean difference
between groups in Matching. . . . . . . . . . . .39
8. Homogenous Subsets of comparisons Mean difference
between groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
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9. Multiple Progressions of indicating the relationship
between combinations of three predictors and purchasing
intention among four advertisements . . . . . . . 41
10. Means of different variables in purchasing intention
among four advertisements. . . . . . . . . . . .42
11. Indicating the correlations between three
characteristics individually with purchasing
intention in four advertisements. . . . . . . . 43
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
Page
1. Frequency of the subjects of different ages . . .
34
2. Mean Difference among four advertisements . . . .
38
in Matching
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Celebrity endorsement that had become a trend was
considered a useful technique for product marketing and
brand building. (Mukherjee, 2009). Surprisingly, Nike
that had been named the most valuable brand in sports
with value of $15.9 billion shown on the Forbes magazine,
spent $294 million on Endorser compensation according to
Nike’s 2012 10-K report. Although Nike had spent a vast
amount of money on endorsements such as Michael Jordan as
well as Tiger woods, Nike still benefited from celebrity
endorsers. In 2002, Kevin found out that the Nike golf
ball division obtained additional profits of $60 million
benefited from Tiger Woods through the acquisition of 4.5
million customers who switched as additional $1.6 million
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in profit by sponsoring him for 10 years. Actually,
celebrity endorsers could not only have benefit on
increasing profits directly, but also change customer’s
perception on the endorsed product. Cacioppo, Petty and
Schumann, (1983) pointed out that consumers would have
more positive brand attitude towards products which were
endorsed by celebrities. Furthermore, in 2007, Choi and
Rifon stated that celebrities had full of power to exert
on consumers though they were physically and socially
distant from an average customer. However, it was
difficult for the marketer to select a proper celebrity
to be spokesperson of the brand. Because of this, many
researches strived to find out some ideas for making an
effective advertising with a suitable endorser. From
consumer’s point of view, Keller and Kevin (1993)
suggested that an effective advertising should foster a
match or connection between the celebrity endorser and
endorsed brand. Accordingly, Hsu and McDonald (2002)
addressed if the characteristics of celebrity matched
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with the attributes of the product, celebrity endorsement
could be effective; and even leaded to more efficient
advertising suggested by Louie and Obermiller (2002).
Similarly, previous research was strongly suggested the
significance of the match-up hypothesis, or the ‘’fit’’
between the characteristics of endorser and the brand.
Match-up Hypothesis was focus mainly on attractiveness,
expertise and trustworthiness that the three
characteristics were related to source credibility
(Ohanian, 1990., Till & Busler, 1998). Specifically,
Expertise was emphasized on how honest and believable the
celebrity was about what endorser said concerning the
brand. Trustworthiness was emphasized on knowledge and
experience of the celebrity endorser (Belch & Belch,
2003) On the other hand; Source attractiveness was
related to physical attributes included in similarity,
familiarity and likeability (Ohanian, 1991). Based on the
conception of Match-up Hypothesis, in 2000, Busler and
Till had done a study that a fictitious endorser calling
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Ted Franklin was created and described as either a “US
Olympic Track and Field athlete” or a “stage and screen
actor”. Either energy bars that were considered an
expertise-related product, or expertise-unrelated candy
bars were paired with him. Finally, results showed that
brand attitudes were significantly higher than the actor
when the athlete endorsed energy bars instead of
endorsing candy bars. In fact, it was mostly regarded as
the most persuasive endorsements since the well-known
athletes bring instant credibility to the brands by the
close association between their career in the sport and
the products. The finders even gave a relative example on
the belief that Michael Jordon was considered as an
effective celebrity endorser, who had greater influence
on endorsing products related to his athletic deftness
such as Gatorade or Nike, rather than products that were
unrelated to his athletic performance such as WorldCom
Communications. Because of the strong support of Match-up
Hypothesis, I would like to find out the customer’s
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perceptions on sports-related product and sportsunrelated sport paired with athlete endorser and actor
endorser. Meanwhile, I would like to examine impact of
characteristics of endorsers with attractiveness,
expertise and trustworthiness on the customer’s
purchasing intention of two types of the endorsed
products.
Statement of Problem
The main purpose of the current study was to examine
the effect of congruence between with and without sports
brand and expertise-celebrity and attractive-celebrity
endorser on customer’s perception. A secondary purpose
was to examine the linear relationship between three
source credibility of endorsers and customers’ purchasing
intention.
Definition of Terms
The following terms were defined specifically for
this study:
Effect
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Effect was the result of a particular influence and
that a change that somebody / something caused in
somebody /something else according to Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary. In this study, we would focus on
the effect of congruence between brand personality and
endorser on customer’s perception
Congruence
In 2010, Achouri and Bouslama specifically listed two
areas of congruence on their research. The congruence
between brand personality and self-image and in the other
fields of marketing included in sponsorship, extending
branding and co-branding as well as advertising.
The notion of congruence always appeared in advertising.
Kamins and Gupta (1994) referred congruence or fit as a
tool of persuasion that had relationship with match up
hypothesis could be measured (Schlecht, 2003). The
researcher found out the importance of congruence for the
spokesperson/product combination that would result in the
perception of believability of the spokesperson though
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the advertiser believability was not affected. On the
other hand, Speed and Thompson (2000) defined congruence
as being the attitude towards related to the sponsor and
the event. It investigated that the customers would have
more responses if the association between the sponsor and
the event was increased. Based on the Match-up
hypothesis, Kamins(1990) confirmed the need for
congruence with the product and advertisement. After
that, the congruence between the endorser and the
endorsed brand could be measured suggested by Busler&
Till (2000).
Brand
According to Tybout and Calkins (2005), a brand was a
set of associations linked to a name, mark or symbol
related to a product or service. Besides, any type of
product or service could be branded.
In addition, brand
was changed from a name when people linked it to other
things. Brand could be positive or negation. Therefore,
many companies such as Coca-Cola or even any brands of
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water like Evian and Aquafina were willing to spend money
on brand building in order to maintain a positive
reputation.
Celebrity endorser
Celebrity was defined as people who enjoyed public
recognition by a large share of certain group of people
and uses this recognition to represent a consumer product
by appearing with in an advertisement (McCracken, 1989.,
Schlecht, 2003). A celebrity could be considered as the
source of the message a company seeks to send to their
target audience.
Celebrity endorser was one of effective way to make
message of the advertisement more persuasive (Choi &
Rifon, 2012). According to Belch & Belch (2003), many
companies tended to hire some popular people, movie
stars, entertainers, athletes, pop-stars and even wellknown public figure to pitch their products. What’s more,
it was stated the effects on celebrity endorsement that
could influence consumers’ feelings, attitudes, and even
20
purchase behavior, especially beneficial for the product
with low involvement. More specifically, Ohanian (1991),
there was relationship between celebrity endorsers and
purchase intentions; meanwhile, the researcher suggested
that the most effective advertisement was the celebrity
spokespeople with knowledgeable, experienced and
qualified to talk about the product they are endorsing.
Customer
Based on the New Penguin Business Dictionary, it
stated that the word was sometimes used interchangeably
with ‘consumer’, but formally it was reserved for the
designation of those who directly bought from an
organization. Thus, a manufacturer often had just a few
wholesalers, distributors and retailers as customers, in
contrast to the mass of final consumers who bought from
retail stores. ‘Customer’ was used commonly in the
context of business-to-business marketing customer
relationship management.
Perception
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According to Kanuk and Schiffman (2004), perception
was the process by which an individual selects,
organizes, and interpreted stimuli into a meaningful and
coherented picture of the world. Furthermore, based on
each person’ needs, values, and expectations, how each
person recognized, selected, organized and interpreted
these stimuli were an individual process.’’
Additionally,
Tybout and Calkins (2005) considered that there was high
relationship between brand and perception. People’
perception on a product or service was affected by the
brand. Sometimes, how people perceived something matters
far more than the absolute truth.
McCraken (1989) went on to describe a consumer as a ‘self’
that constantly detracted into their lives the symbolic
properties from consumer products in order to construct
aspects of themselves and the world.
Delimitations
The delimitations of the study were listed as
followings:
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(1)
The questionnaire were distributed and collected by
the researcher for a period of two months between
February and April 2013.
(2)
The subjects were randomly selected to all aged
between 15 or above.
(3)
Total of fifty and two hundreds volunteers were
involved in the primary and secondary surveys
respectively.
(4)
The result could only reflect the Hong Kong
customer’ perception of the effect on congruence
between brand and celebrity endorser on customer’s
perception.
Limitations
The Limitations of the study were listed as
followings:
(1)
The participants of the study of primary and
secondary study (N=50) and (N=200) was small,
necessitating caution in extrapolation of the data
to a larger population.
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(2)
It was assumed that all participants familiar with
the brand of Nike Company.
(3)
It was assumed that all subjects would answer the
questionnaire honestly.
(4)
Self-designed questionnaire was used which might
affect the validity and reliability of the study.
(5)
It was limited to select one sport-related brand,
Nike, to investigate the effect of congruence
between sporty brand and celebrity endorser on
customer’ perception.
Hypotheses
The following hypothesis and questions were set in
the study:
1. As implied by the ‘’match-up’’ hypothesis, expertisecelebrity endorser would have a significantly positive
match with sports-related product.
2. Physical attractive-celebrity endorser should have a
significantly positive match with attractive-related
products.
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3. There was a positive linear relationship between
customers’ purchasing intention and the
characteristics of the celebrity.
4.
Expertise had a significant relationship with
purchasing intention in sports-related product.
5.
Attractiveness had a significant relationship with
purchasing intention in sports-unrelated products.
Significance of the study
In this study, it would like to be investigated the
perception of people on mating between sports-related
band and product-related band paired with expertiseathlete and attractive-actor endorsements based on the
adamant theory of match-up hypothesis. On the one hand,
the impact of celebrity’ characteristics perceived image
on consumers’ intention to purchase the two types of
products would be indicated.
The similar topic of celebrity endorsements was heavily
documented in academic literature, but the reason why the
25
researcher was interested in the topic was that it
enabled us to understand the celebrity endorsement
process from Hong Kong consumers’ point of view. Not much
work has been seen in the Hong Kong light even though the
truth of it was being a trend for celebrity endorsed
products.
Implications of this study aimed at providing a direction
for marketers when considering an effective and
appropriate celebrity for endorsement and exploring other
desirable and preferable celebrates. Besides, how local
customers perceived the association between the sportsrelated brand and the athlete or actor / singer celebrity
endorsement would be examined customer’s perception on
matching. More importantly,
this findings might provide
a useful information for sports marketers, especially
Nike Company to decide an advertising strategy for
customers in Hong Kong so as to increase their purchasing
intention.
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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURES
There were six sections in this chapter. The first
section introduced the benefits and effects of using
celebrities as product endorsers. The following five
sections summarized the findings of previous researches
on the following categories:
(a) The benefits and effects of Celebrity endorsement (b)
Source credibility (c) Source attractiveness (d) Match-up
hypothesis (e)Meaning transfer model
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The benefits and effects of Celebrity endorsement
Academic researchers had conducted sufficient
empirical research to express the benefits of product
endorsement. Ohanian (1991) stated that advertising with
using a well-known endorser could achieve a high degree
of attention and recall for consumers, whose purchasing
intention was also affected. Kamins and Gupta (1994) also
agreed the advantages of advertisement endorsed by
celebrity that the attention of consumers to the
advertisement was enhanced and consumers would easily
remember and believe the endorsed advertisement.
Recently, Vyas (2012) specifically listed seven benefits
of celebrity endorsement on the product or brand showing
below:
1)Raising brand or campaign awareness 2) Raising the
brands profile and media coverage 3) Attracting new
audiences 4) Demystifying key messages and issues 5)
Mobilizing public opinion and involvement. 6)
Contributing to brand repositioning in the public
28
perception 7) Reinvigorating a long running campaign.
(P.213)
Owing to the assumption of positive impacts of
endorsements, Vyas studied the effectiveness of celebrity
endorsement of various brands among college students and
it was found out that celebrity endorsement increased
recall and preference of product/ service and celebrities
were suitable to endorse not only the high quality and
precious product, but also the low cost and day to day
product suggested by young respondents.
Pringle (2004) showed different data done by Millward
Brown (2003) and mruk research to ensure the
effectiveness of celebrity compared to non-celebrity.
Celebrity could draw customer’ attention, persuade and
communicate customer, whose interest in involvement in
the brand could be generated, and was also used to
develop a brand ’’cue’’ that customer could recognize the
brand easily. Meanwhile, Pringle emphasized selecting the
29
‘right’ celebrity to endorser a product is very
significant that could add values by association.
Source credibility
Source credibility was a term commonly used to imply
that receiver accepted the messages because the sources
were considered as having relevant knowledge, skills,
experience and trust to give without biased and
subjective information. (Ohanian, 1990., Dimed &
Joulyana, 2005). Moreover, source credibility could be
distinguished as low or high credibility. (Hovland, 1952)
Meanwhile, Hovland mainly concluded two factors,
expertness and trustworthiness that leaded to the
perceived credibility in his studies.
Expertise
In 1953, Hovland defined expertise as “the extent to
which a communicator was perceived to be a source of
valid assertions”, (Hovland & Weiss, 1951). Expertise was
a strong factor that influenced source credibility and
purchase intention. (Ohanian, 1991). Erdogan (1999)
30
stated that expertise came from knowledge, experience, or
training the spokesperson possesses in the related field.
In addition, the product that someone was endorsing
should be related to expertise of the source suggested by
Busler and Till, 1998. More specifically, Baker & Erdogan
& Tagg in 2001 defined the meaning of expertise of an
endorser was the ability of an endorser, who provided an
accurate information from knowledge, experience, training
or skills the endorser possesses. Shank in 2004 defines
as consists of knowledge, special experience and skills.
Trustworthiness
Hovland defined trustworthiness as “the degree of
confidence in the communicator’s intent to communicate
the assertions he considers most valid and consists of
honesty, integrity and believability in 1953. Ohanian,
1991 stated that trustworthiness referred to customers’
confidence in the endorser for carrying messages in an
honest manner. More specifically, Erdogan mentioned three
elements, honest, believable and dependable, are the
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value of trustworthiness that helped advertisers to
select endorsers as a standard and referred to the
audience’s confidence in the source for providing
information an objective and honest manner.
Simultaneously, Belch& Belch, 2001 suggested the
trustworthy should be included in the sense of honesty,
ethics and believability.
Source attractiveness
Physical attractiveness was considered an
informational cue that involved three effects,
inescapable, persuasive and subtle. Celebrities were
selected by advertisers mostly based on their physical
appeal and celebrity status stated by Erdogan(1999).
Ohanian (1991) confirmed the contact of source
attractiveness for appreciating the efficacy of pleasant
appearance owing to most societies place a high premium
on physical attractiveness. A study conducted by Homer
and Kahle (1985) disclosed that purchasing behavior would
be affected after seeing an attractive celebrity in a
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magazine advertisement than an unattractive celebrity.
Another study was found out that physically attractive
communicator’s celebrities were more successful at
changing one’ belief compared with the unattractive
counterparts (Churchill & Baker, 1977) and generating
purchase intentions (Kahle& Homer, 1985., Friedman &
Friedman, 1976). What’s more, source attractiveness was
related to three physical attributes included similarity,
familiarity as well as likeability that they were
essential in the individual’s initial judgment of another
person.
Similarity
If consumers feel a sense of similarity with the
person, her/ his message would be more power to affect
the consumer. (Belch & Belch, 2001) More specifically,
Ohhanian (1990) stated that similarity could be measured
when the communicator and receiver had similar need,
goals, interest and lifestyle.
Familiarity
33
It was considered as the level of knowledge a
celebrity possesses. A celebrity was need to be analyzed
his/her previous knowledge in the exposure phase if the
celebrity was selected to be an endorser for a company
suggested by Belch & Belch (2001). However, Dimed &
Joulyana (2005) thought that an attribute of familiarity
was difficult and too diffusive for respondents to
evaluate.
Likeability
In general, likeability defined as attractiveness.
According to Belch & Belch, 2001, it could be defined
that one of the characteristics from the celebrity that
was admired or well know in the public eye, however,
balance between the attractiveness of celebrity and
company should be considered so as to avoid overshadowing
the brand itself (Ohanian, 1990).
Match-up hypothesis
In 1973, in order to identify variations in their
effectiveness to the compatibility between the product
34
and the endorser or lack thereof, Kanungo and Pang
investigated various combinations of products and their
male and female endorsers. After that, the idea of
celebrity-product congruence was developed to be known as
the ‘’match-up’’ hypothesis. Match-up Hypothesis was a
significant stage for marketers to choose their
endorsers. Homer and Kahle(1985) stated that using Matchup Hypothesis for endorser selection fits well with
Social Adaptation theory which implied that the adaptive
importance of the information would determine the impact.
After three years, McCracken (1989) gave some examples to
disguised better matched and mis-mated between endorser
and endorsed products. The idea of endorser / product fit
or congruence had been labeled the ‘’ match-up
hypothesis’’. Subsequently, Kamins (1990) mentioned that
the existence of a meaningful association between
celebrity, audience and product was needed. In 1996,
Bradley indicates that emotional bond between the
endorser and the consumer would be created as the
35
celebrity’s stamp of approval, if the fit was right.
Celebrity and product congruence had positive impact on
achieving positive consumer attitudes in the context of
celebrity endorsements shown by empirical studies. (Homer
& Homer, 1985., Kamins, 1990., Till & Busler, 1998).
More
specifically, Katyal (2007) examined twelve parameters
that postulate compatibility between brand image and the
celebrity, which are Celebrity popularity, Celebrity
physical attractiveness, Celebrity credibility, Celebrity
prior endorsements, Whether celebrity is a brand user,
Celebrity profession, Celebrity’s fit with the brand
image, Celebrity—Target audience match, Celebrity
associated values, Celebrity—Product match, Celebrity
controversy risk and Costs of acquiring the celebrity.
Meaning transfer model
McCraken (1989) found that the use of celebrity
endorsers stand for an effective way of transferring
meaning to brands as it was believed that the celebrities
encoded unique sets of meanings which were transferable
36
to the endorsed product as considering an endorsement
process and that this cultural meaning residing in the
celebrity was passed on to the product which in turn was
passed on to the consumer. He argued that the personality
and life style of celebrities offered meanings of
deepness and power for celebrities to add value to the
image transfer process, in comparison to non-famous
endorsers.
After McCraken examined the merely theoretical concept of
this meaning transfer model, subsequently, some
researchers tried to apply the theory into the real life.
Three-stage process of meaning transfer explained by
Schlecht (2003) that the processes involved the creation
of the celebrity image, transferred from the celebrity to
the brand and the brand transferred image onto the
consumers. Three-stage process of meaning transfer
illustrated below figure 1:
37
Figure 1: Meaning Movement and the Endorsement Process
Source: McCracken (1989), PP.45
The first stage, the meanings linked with well-known
person moves from the endorser to the product or the
brand, and the celebrity from its public persona gave
this meaning.
In the second stage, the creation of product personality
took place as the endorser to the consumer transferred
the meaning. This was based on the symbolic properties
transported by the endorser.
In the last stage which was known as the consumption
process, the brand meaning was come from the consumer.
The consumers who identified themselves with these
symbolic properties the meanings were transferred to them
38
thereby rendering the process of transfer of the meaning
from the celebrity to the consumer complete. It was
beyond question that the consumer’s role in the process
of endorsing brands with well-known people was
significant shown on the final stage (McCraken, 1989).
Summary
Obviously, it was worth using a celebrity to endorse
a brand owing to different advantages from celebrity
endorsement shown by various empirical evidences.
However, according to match-up hypothesis, the
characteristics of celebrity matched with the attributed
of the product in print advertisement that was an
effective way of using endorsement effectively to achieve
higher brand recall. Additionally, based on meaning
transfer model, how consumers will perceive a product was
closely related to their purchasing intention on that.
Attractiveness, expertise and trustworthiness were main
source credibility to affect purchasing intention.
Therefore, in order to indicate an effective celebrity
39
who possessed the most appropriate characteristics in
relation to the brand, how customers perceived congruence
or fit between the celebrity and the product or brand and
how customer perceived those three sources influence on
purchasing intention should be examined in this current
study.
Chapter 3
METHOD
The method of this study was divided into the
following sections:
(a) Participants
(b) Procedures
40
(c) Data Collection
(d) Data analysis.
Participants
All participates were selected randomly to do the
test. A total of 50 men and women volunteers to
participate for the first phase of this research. A total
of 200 men and women would be invited to participate in
the second phase of this research. The subjects were all
aged fifteen or above.
Procedures
The survey would be used the self-constructed
questionnaires, which mainly contained two parts:
At the first stage, two celebrity endorsers chosen for
second study were selected by the questionnaire that was
required participants to name five celebrity endorsers
for Nike Company. Fifty participants at 15 or above years
old were utilized in the initial stage. The question
was’’ which five celebrity endorsements you would like to
41
suggest to Nike Company”. Meanwhile, the participants of
demographics, genders and ages, were collected. The
questionnaire was provided in English and Chinese
version.
In the Second part of the questionnaire, apart from
asking the participants of age group, gender as well as
educational background, characteristics of the endorser
in the advertisement perceived by the participants were
each measured with the expertise, trustworthiness or
attractiveness scale developed by Ohanian (1990). The
reliability coefficients for the expertise
trustworthiness, and the attractiveness measure were
high. Two different sets of questionnaires with four
combinations of advertisements shown below were done by
the participants.
1) Athlete celebrity paired with a sports-related product
2) Singer or actor celebrity paired with a sports-related
product
3) Athlete celebrity paired with sports-unrelated product
42
4) Singer or actor paired with sports-unrelated product
According to the measuring developed by Ohanian, items
from those three dimensions source credibility scale were
preceded by the phase “The celebrity in the advertisement
is...” and anchor by seven-point semantic-differential
scales. For the attractiveness scale, the endpoints of
the five items were “unattractive – attractive, not
classy – classy, ugly –beautiful, plain – elegant, and
not sexy – sexy”. For the expertise scale, the endpoints
of the five items were “Not an expert – an expert,
inexperienced – experienced, unknowledgeable –
knowledgeable, unqualified – qualified, and unskilled –
skilled”. For the trustworthiness scale, the endpoints of
the five items were “dependable-undependable, honestdishonest, reliable-unreliable, sincere-insincere and
trustworthy-untrustworthy”. Beforehand, customers’
perception on the level of matching would be tested by
question ‘’ Do you think the product is perfectly matched
with the celebrity’’ and anchor by seven-point semantic-
43
differential scales. For the scale, the endpoints of the
two items were “disagree-agree’’. Additionally,
participants were being asked four questions that were
indicated how endorsers’ characteristics affected the
customer’ intention to purchase on the four different
combinations. The scale used by Coyle and Thorson (2001)
that was included in four items: ‘’ It is very likely
that I will buy Nike.’’ ‘’ I will purchase Nike the next
time I need a product’’ ‘’ I will definitely try Nike’’
‘’ suppose that a friend called you last night to get
your advice in his/her search for a product. Would you
recommend him/her to buy a product from Nike?’’ and
anchor by seven-point semantic-differential scales. For
the scale, the endpoints of the two items were “disagreeagree’’, exception to the last question that the items
was ‘’absolutely not-absolutely’’.
Data Collection
All the responses in the questionnaire were coded for
further analysis and were inputted into the Statistical
44
Package for the Social Science (SPSS program). One-way
ANOVA was used to indicate how customer perceived
matching between the endorser and endorsed product with
different combinations. Simultaneously, Post Hoc Tests
was used to compare mean differences among four
combinations in matching. What’s more, multiple
regression of coefficients was used to examine the
relation strength of the three endorser characteristics
and purchasing intention of the individual combination
perceived by customers.
45
Chapter 4
Analysis of Data
The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effect of congruence between brand and celebrity endorser
on customer’s perception. A secondary purpose is to
determine relationship between Source Credibility and
customers’ purchasing intention. A total number of 200
questionnaires were received. Customer’ perception on
matching between products and celebrity endorsers among
four advertisements, Jeremy Lin with sports-related
product, Leo Ku with sports-related product, Jeremy Lin
with non-sports product and Leo Ku with non-sports
products was analyzed by One way ANOVA . Tukey Post Hoc
test was used in comparing the mean difference among four
advertisements and then Homogeneous Subsets was used to
summary of the major differences among the means.
Additionally, Multiple Regression was used to determine
the impact of three characteristics of endorser that were
46
attraction, expertise and trustworthy on the purchasing
intention and indicate the strength of relationship
between three characteristics and consumer’s purchasing
intention. The level of significant was set at .05 level.
The above analyses were computed with the aid of the
Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS). The
data of the study was presented as the following:
1. Description of the subject’s personal data included
in gender, age and educational background.
2. Presentation of Reliability of all variables by
Cronbach’s Aplha
3. Presentation of the One Way ANOVA on the customer’s
perception on matching between products and endorsers
among four different advertisements.
4. Presentation of Post Hoc Test and Homogenous Subsets
on comparing the mean difference among four
advertisements.
5. Presentation of Multiple Regression to determine the
impact of attraction, expertise and trustworthy on
47
the purchasing intention
Results
1) Descriptive statistics of the subjects
In the study, a total of 200 questionnaires were
collected at which 55.5% (N=111) of them were female and
44.5% (N=89) of them were Male. (See Table 1)
Table 1
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Gender of the
Subjects (N=200)
Subjects’ gender
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Male
89
44.5
Female
111
55.5
Total
200
100.0
All the participants were aged between 15 to 50 years
old. The mean age of the subjects was 1.42 and the
standard deviation was 0.697 (see Table 2a). In addition,
the frequency and percentage distribution of the
subjects’ age were presented in Table 2b and Figure 1.
48
Table 2a
Mean and Standard Deviation of the Subjects’ Age (N=150)
Subjects’ Age
Min.
Max.
15-15
41-50
Mean
SD
15-25
0.697
Table 2b
Frequency and Percentage of Subjects’ Age
Subjects’ Age
Frequency
Percentage (%)
15-20
134
32.4
21-30
54
13.1
31-40
6
1.5
41-50
6
1.5
Total
200
48.4
49
Frequency of Subject’s Age
140
134
120
Frequency
100
80
54
60
40
20
6
6
0
15-20
21-30
31-40
41-50
Age groups
Figure 1. Frequency of the subjects of different ages.
For the educational status of the participants,
weighted score for achieved educational status were
given, ‘1’ for Primary Education or below, ‘2’ for Junior
Secondary Education, ‘3’ for Senior secondary Education
and ‘4’ for Tertiary Education (degree, master and Ph D
holder).None of the educational status of the
participants was Primary Education or below. The mean
educational status of the subjects was 3.37 and the
standard deviation was 0.829 (see Table 3).
Table 3
Frequency and Percentage of Subjects’ Educational status
50
Subjects’
Frequency
Educational status
Percentage
(%)
Junior Secondary School 39
9.4
Senior
51
12.3
School
109
26.4
Tertiary Education
200
48.4
Secondary
Total
2) Presentation of Reliability of all variables by
Cronbach’s
Aplha
The reliability of all variables that were included
in three source credibility namely Attractiveness,
Expertise and Trustworthiness as well as Purchasing
Intention had indicated. All these items were over 0.7
valve that indicated that the test was reliable and
consistent. (see Table 4)
Table 4
Reliability of all variables by Cronbach’s Aplha
51
Variable
Cronbach’Aplha
Attractiveness
.85
Expertise
.86
Trustworthiness
.88
Purchasing Intention
.87
3) One Way ANOVA of customer perceived matching between
products and endorsers with four different
advertisements.
Result from the One Way ANOVA showed that there was
significant mean difference in matching between groups
and within groups among four advertisements: A) Jeremy
Lin with sports-related product, B) Leo Ko with sportsrelated product, C) Jeremy Lin with non-sports products
and D) Leo Ko with non-sports products, F(3,796)=55.86,
p=0.00, which rejected the null hypothesis (see Table 5).
Table 5
One Way ANOVA of Mean difference between groups in
Matching (N=200)
52
Source
SS
df
MS
397.15
3
129.048
Ad C
Within
groups
1839.01
769
2.310
Ad D
Total
2226.155
769
AD A
Between
F
55.86
p
.000
Groups
Ad B
p < .05, two-tailed.
Meanwhile, the highest mean of customer’s perception on
matching between product and celebrity was Advertisement
A (M=5.39, SD= 1.41) and the Advertisement C was the
second high (M=4.00, SD=1.60) shown on Table 6 and Figure
2.
Table 6
One Way ANOVA of Mean difference among four
advertisements in Matching
N
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
53
Ad A
200 5.39
1.41
.10
Ad B
200 3.56
1.53
.11
Ad C
200 4.00
1.60
.11
Ad D
200 3.94
1.54
.11
Total
800 4.22
1.67
.06
Mean difference among four advertisements in Matching
1
Mean
10
0
4
2
Advertisement A
Advertisement B
Advertisement C
Advertisement D
3
Figure 2 Mean Difference among four advertisements in
Matching
2) Presentation of Post Hoc Test and Homogenous Subsets on
comparing the mean difference among four
advertisements.
Tukey Post Hoc Test comparisons of the four
advertisements indicated that Advertisement A p=.000.gave
significantly higher match rating than the Advertisement
C (M=1.39, 95% CI [.99, 1.78]), B (M=1.84, 95% CI [1.84,
54
2.23]) and D (M=1.46, 95% CI [1.06, 1.84]). Exception of
Advertisement A and C, Advertisement B and D were not
statistically significant at p<.05. (See Table 7)
Table 7
Post Hoc Tests of comparisons Mean difference between
groups in Matching
Tukey
HSD
(I)Group
(J)Group
Mean
Difference
Std.
95%Condifence
In
Error Sig
Lower Upper
Bound Bound
A
B
C
B
1.84
.15
.000
1.44
2.23
C
1.39
.15
.000
.10
1.78
D
1.45
.15
.000
1.06
1.84
A
-1.84
.15
.000
2.23
-1.44
C
-.45
.15
.017
-8.41
-.06
D
-.39
.15
0.56
-.78
.01
A
-1.39
.15
.000
-1.78
-.10
B
.45
.15
.017
.06
.84
55
D
D
.07
.15
.974
-.33
.46
A
-1.45
.15
.000
-1.84
-1.06
B
.39
.15
.56
-.01
.78
C
-.07
.15
.974
-.46
.33
Advertisement A was extremely difference from other three
advertisements in the matching presented in Table 8.
Table 8
Homogenous Subsets of comparisons Mean difference between
groups
Group
N
Subset for alpha= .05
1
1
Ad A
200
Ad B
200
3.55
Ad C
200
4.00
Ad D
200
Sig.
2
3
5.39
4.00
3.94
.06
.97
1.00
5) Multiple Regression of determining the impact of
attraction, expertise and trustworthy on the purchasing
intention.
56
Result from Multiple Regression of four
advertisements showed that attraction, expertise and
trustworthy were significant relationship with customer’
purchasing intention. Advertisement C (F=3,196)=82.2,
p=.000 had the highest value of R Square by 50 percentage
of the totally variances could be explained by the model.
The R Square of Advertisement B (F=3,196)=73.7, p=.000
and D (F=3,196)=71.4, p=.000)were 53 and 52 percentage
respectively. The R Square of Advertisement A (F=3,196)=
65.1, p=.000) was 50 percentage
that the source
credibility had the least relationship with the
purchasing intention compared to the others.
Nevertheless, the three elements of source credibility
were significant variables to predict customers’
purchasing intention shown on the data collected in four
advertisements. (See table 9)Meanwhile, the mean of three
dimensions with four advertisements was shown in Table
10.
Table 9
57
Multiple Progressions of indicating the relationship
between combinations of three predictors and purchasing
intention among four advertisements
Groups
R
R Square
Adjusted R Square
Std. Error
of the Estimate
Ad A
.71
.50
.50
.93
Ad B
.73
.53
.52
.97
Ad C
.75
.56
.55
.98
Ad D
.72
.52
.52
.98
Table 10
Means of different variables in purchasing intention
among four advertisements
Ad A Mean
Ad B Mean
Ad C Mean Ad D Mean
Intention
4.90
3.58
3.97
3.87
Attractiveness
4.43
3.63
3.81
3.83
Expertise
5.41
3.26
4.24
3.74
Trustworthy
5.27
3.86
4.42
4.05
The results revealed that the three dimensions in
advertisement A were high relevant predictor of
58
purchasing intention to the sports-related product
(basketball shoes) with the athlete, especially in
expertise, whereas, each dimension in advertisement B was
low relevant to the sports-related product that the mean
ratings were also below
Simultaneously, expertise and
trustworthy were relative predictors to affect purchasing
intention shown in advertisement C, and there was only
trustworthy as a relevant predictor to affect
participants, who purchasing the sports-unrelated
products with fashion.
6) Multiple Regression of relationship between purchasing
intention and attraction, expertise and trustworthy
among different advertisements.
Result showed that Trustworthy was relative strongly
strength to change in purchasing intention in
Advertisement A and B. On the other hand, changing the
Attractiveness in Advertisement C and D would
dramatically change in purchasing intention. (See Picture
11) In addition, Comparison of three sources with various
59
groups were presented in Figure 3. Lastly, the linear
relation of three characteristics and purchasing
intention was shown by Figure 4. \
Picture 11
Indicating the correlations between three characteristics
individually with purchasing intention in four
advertisements
Unstandardize standardized
d
Coefficients
Coefficients
Beta
B Std.Error
Ad A
(constant)
.54
.32
Attractiveness .73
.07
Expertise
.01
Trustworthiness .50
t
Sig
1.67
.094
.33
5.25
.000
.05
.05
.20
.841
.08
.45
.595
.000
Trustworthiness and Attractiveness (p=.000) were
significant relation with purchasing intention. However,
Expertise(P=.841) were not significant relation with
purchasing intention.
Ad B
Unstandardized standardized
Coefficients
Coefficients
B
Beta
t
Sig
60
Std.Error
(constant)
.11
.25
.44
.66
Attractiveness .30
.08
.27
3.79
.000
Expertise
.27
.09
.23
3.00
.003
Trustworthiness .40
.07
.35
5.44
.000
Attractiveness, Trustworthiness, (p=.000) and
Expertise (p=.003) were significant relation with
purchasing intention.
With sports product in Advertisement A and B,
Trustworthiness had higher relationship with purchasing
intention than the others. Attractiveness was the second
relative strength with purchasing intention, whereas,
Expertise had low correlation.
Ad C
(constant)
Unstandardized standardized
Coefficients
Coefficients
B
Std.Error
Beta
.30
.24
Attractiveness .39
.06
.34
.28
.08
.27
.22
.06
.25
Expertise
Trustworthiness
t
Sig
1.23
.220
5.21
.000
3.54
3.76
.000
.000
61
Three sources were significant relation with purchasing
intention. p=.000.
Unstandardize standardized
d
Coefficients
Coefficients
Beta
B
Std.Error
Ad D
(constant)
t
Sig
.39
.25
1.34 .183
Attractiveness .48
.08
.42
6.03
.000
Expertise
.23
.09
.20
2.65
.009
Trustworthiness .21
.08
.19
2.52
.012
Attractiveness (p=.000), Expertise (p=.009) and
Trustworthiness (p=.012) were significant relation with
purchasing intention. With non-sports product in
Advertisement C and D, Attractiveness had the more high
relationship with purchasing intention compared to the
other dimensions. Trustworthiness was the second relative
strength with purchasing intention, similarly, Expertise
had the low correlation comparably.
Discussion
From the present research, one of the goal was to
examine customer’s perception on the expertise and
62
attractiveness aspect of the ‘’match-up’’ hypothesis of
celebrity. Both celebrity endorsers (athlete / singer and
actor) were linkage to sports-related product and sportsunrelated products with fashion design. There were four
combinations: A) Lin Shu Ho, Jeremy with a pair of
basketball shoes, B) Ku Kui Kei, Leo with a pair of
basketball shoes, C)
Leo Lin Shu Ho, Jeremy with a pair
of shoes, sun glasses and watch with fashion, D) Ku Kui
Kei, Leo with a pair of shoes, sun glasses and watch with
fashion. The second goal of the research was to
investigate the impact of source credibility on
consumers’ intention to purchase. These findings were the
useful information and implications to provide for the
marketers or advertisers for selecting celebrity
endorsement. This chapter would be divided into three
sections in order to further elaborate the research. The
first section was congruence between the product and
endorser. The second section was the impact of
Attractiveness, Trustworthiness and Expertise on
63
purchasing Intention. The last section was the
implications of the present research.
Congruence between the product and endorser
Result from the present research confirmed a Match-up
hypothesis that predicted expertise endorser was more
effective when promoting sports-related products used to
enhance one’s ability on the sports. Obviously, the
difference in mean values of 5.39 for advertisement A was
greatly larger the value of 3.56 for Advertisement B.
What’s more, advertisement A was found to lead to higher
mean in matching than the other two combinations. There
were mean differences among the four advertisements for
either dependent measure were observed to be significant.
These findings were consistent with predictions of
‘’match-up’’ hypotheses of celebrity selection. It was
suggested that customer’s had different perceptions on
different characteristics of celebrity endorsement so
that should be ‘’fit’’ or match or with the attributes of
64
the product. More specifically, Kahle & Homer, 1985.
Baker & Churchill, 1986 and Kamins, 1990 recommended that
celebrity’s physical attractiveness should be congruent
(match up) with the presence and degree to which the
product advertised enhances at attractiveness. Meanwhile,
Till & Busler (1998) argued that expertise was likely to
be a more appropriate and powerful criterion for matching
products with endorsers even though attractive endorser
was more effective when promoting products used to
enhance one’s attractiveness. Coca-Cola and Pizza Hut
were well-known examples of athlete’s endorsement given
by Till & Busler.
These findings lend statistical also support to the
finding from Till & Busler that Advertisement C (athlete/
products with fashion), had larger mean value than D
(star / products with fashion). It was concluded that
expertise like athlete could make for a fit with the
endorser product related or unrelated to sports product;
however, sports-related products could not fit with
65
someone who was not professional and experienced on the
endorsed product.
The impact of Attractiveness, Trustworthiness and
Expertise on purchasing Intention
Result from the research indicated that each dimension
of source credibility, attractiveness, expertise and
trustworthy was a significant factor explaining the
respondents’ purchasing intention with regard to
purchasing intention measure (Coyle and Thorson, 2001).
However, one dimension of expertise in advertisement A
that was a relative weak to influence to purchasing
intention. These findings would be partially explained.
Although expertise was high in mean for explaining the
respondents’ purchasing intention, Expertise was an
insignificant factor for predicting to the participants’
intentions to purchase the pair of basketball shoes
endorsed by Jeremy Lin in advertisement A. On the other
hand, trustworthy was a factor of relative strength to
impact on purchasing intention. It was possible that
66
untrustworthy or unreliable endorser would lead a
negative impact on customers’ purchasing intention of
endorsed sports-related product even if the endorser was
expertise or attractiveness of the endorsed product.
Namely, Tiger Woods was professional on golf and he was
considered as a handsome athlete with sly smile, silicone
filled chest and bleached blond hair. Nevertheless, Nike
lost approximately $ 1.3 million in profit of his
endorsed products with a loss of 105,000 customers
because of his love affairs scandal. (Kevin,
2010)Simultaneously, attractiveness was another important
predictor affecting to purchasing intention. It was a
true that physically attractive was an effective source
to facilitate attitude change (Petty and Cacioppo, 1980)
and participants were more likely to intend to purchase
the product endorsed by attractive than an unattractive
endorser. (Kahle & Homer, 1985)That’s why expertise and
attractive athlete endorser tended to be popular such as
David Robert Joseph Beckham and Maria Yuryevna Sharapova.
67
The means of three dimensions in another advertisement
with the same sports-related product and Leo, Ku were
ineffectively to present respondents’ purchasing
intention. However, coefficients for three endorser
characteristics on purchasing intention were significant.
Similarly, trustworthiness was a greater factor to
influence purchasing intention compared to the others.
Attractiveness was the second essential influence.
Therefore, whoever expertise athlete or attractive star
endorsed a sports-related product; level of
trustworthiness with individual could not be neglected.
Besides, the impact of Jeremy, Lin’ perceived
advertisement C on consumers’ intention to purchase
showed that expertise and trustworthiness were the
relevant factors to influence purchasing intention. What’
more, coefficients for three endorser characteristics on
purchasing intention were of significance and
attractiveness had high relationship with the purchasing
intention with the product. Truly, Jeremy, Lin was
68
considered as a professional expertise athlete rather
than physically attractive celebrity, because of this,
the mean of expertise perceived by participants was
higher than attractiveness. At the same time, result from
the finding showed that attractiveness was an essential
factor to predict for purchasing intention shown on the
data.
Besides, participant’s perceived only trustworthiness
characteristic of the endorser Ku, Leo of with fashion’
products as a factor for determining to the purchasing
intention. Also, purchasing intention for the product had
significant coefficients for three endorser
characteristics; similarly, attractiveness was higher
than the others. In fact, empirical support for the
importance of physical attractive celebrity for an
attractive-related product that could bring about higher
brand attitude and purchase intentions. (Homer & Kahle,
1985. Kamins, 1990. Till & Busler, 1998. Schleclot, 2003.
Pringle, 2004.)In 1979, Friedman and Friedman suggested
69
using physical attractive celebrities for enhancing
attractiveness of the endorsed product and it could gain
from the dual effects of celebrity status and physical.
More specifically, a research had indicated that
participants were more likely to intend to purchase after
exposure an unattractiveness celebrity done by Homer &
Kahle (1985). Based on the theory, Later, Kamins (1990)
had done a study to find out the purchasing intention of
four combinations by using physically attractive
celebrity (Tome selleck) and unattractive celebrity
(Telly Savalas) to endorse an attractiveness-related
product (luxury car) and unattractiveness-related product
(home computer) respectively. The result showed that use
of physically attractive celebrity was observed higher
mean values in purchase intension.
Research Implications
The current research suggested that sports marketers
should consider matching with the attribute of product
and endorser when using product endorsers as endorsements
70
were more effective when the endorser’s characteristics
were congruent with the endorsed products. For example,
it would be positive impact upon product namely enhancing
attention and recall the endorsed products, consumer’s
product attitude and advertisement evaluation. Till &
Busler urged that expertise as a more important dimension
for driving match-up effect. In fact, the celebrity was
good matches for affective products but can also endorse
functional products within her/his area of expertise. For
instance, Maria Sharapva endorsed not only Nike athletic
products but also Gatorade thirst quencher beverages and
Canon cameras. (Simmers & Damron-Martinez & Haytko,
2009.) Clearly, in this case, sport celebrity Jeremy Lin
could endorse not only basketball shoes, but also
products with fashion perceived as matching between
products and endorser by the participants. Interestingly,
the findings showed that the star celebrity, Ku Leo,
could not match with either the basketball shoes or
fashion’s products. The findings begged questions why
71
some athlete celebrities were able to successfully
endorse a wide range of related or unrelated products. It
could be analyzed by Till & Busler, who thought expertise
was more effective for matching products with celebrities
then attractiveness because the logic bridge between
attractive endorser and product used to enhance one’
attractiveness. Furthermore, in order to simulate the
customer’ purchasing intention, sources credibility with
different types of products were also needed to be
concerned. Ohanian (1991) stated that attractiveness,
expertise and trustworthiness were most closely
associated with intent to purchase endorsed product but
she found out that the perceived expertise of the
celebrities was a significant factor explaining the
respondents’ intentions to purchase. Reversely, an
interesting finding was that trustworthiness and
attractiveness were main endorser characteristics
excepting expertise to predict for purchasing intention
with the two types of products. These findings would be
72
supported by Kahle & Homer, who argued that participants
were more likely to purchase after exposure to an
attractive than unattractive so physical attractiveness
of a celebrity may often be central in attitude-change
contexts. Therefore, expertise was a very essential and
effective factor to increase matching with sporty
endorser and sports-related product, however, the
athlete-endorser was also required to be trustworthiness
and attractiveness at the same time so as to simulate
customer’ purchasing intention.
73
Chapter 5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Summary of Results
This study was designed to examine the effect of
congruence between brand and celebrity endorser on
customer’s perception. It was conducted that the
expertise-athlete and sports-related product combination
was a more effective fit than the actor and sportsrelated product. Meanwhile, the impact of three endorser
characteristics’ perceived on consumers’ purchasing
intention had determined. It concluded that
attractiveness, expertise as well as trustworthiness were
important credible sources to influence on intention to
purchase both sports-related product and non-sports-
74
products; however, attractiveness and trustworthiness had
closely interaction with the purchasing intention.
Conclusions
Based on the results, conclusions were made and
showed as follow:
1. There was a significant positive relationship between
a match between a product and the endorser
characteristics.
2. There was a significant positive relationship between
the match-up dimension of expertise-endorser and
sports-related product.
3. There would be a significant positive relationship
between match-up dimension of expertise-endorser and
non-related product.
4. Source characteristics of expertise, trustworthiness
75
as well as attractiveness were the significant factors
to predict for purchasing intention on sports-related
product.
5. Source characteristics of expertise, trustworthiness
as well as attractiveness were the significant factors
to predict for purchasing intention on sportsunrelated product.
6. There would be a significant closely relationship
between Source characteristics of trustworthiness and
purchasing intention on sports-related product.
7. There would be a significant closely relationship
between Source characteristics of attractiveness and
purchasing intention on sports-unrelated product.
Recommendations for Further Studies
1. To avoid select the celebrity endorser in a limit
group. In order to indicate customer’ perception on
the congruence between product and endorser with two
types of products in the second study, fifty searches
had been done for endorser selection. However, some
76
participants were tertiary education. As a result,
celebrity selection might be a lack of generalization.
Further studies should attempt to ask different ages
of group or educational backgrounds for the
celebrities.
2. As the study examined the matching and intention to
purchase a sports apparel only, it would be important
to investigate whether similar results could be
obtained for other sports products, such as sports
equipment.
3. The study only mainly focused on students of the
Secondary school and Universities so the results might
not be generalized to other consumers. Further
research can extend to study also people at work and
the elderly.
4. In order to compare the importance of expertise and
attractiveness factor on matching obviously, it was
better to choose an attractiveness-related product
like cosmetic products instead of the fashion’
77
products with sporty brand.
In conclusion, effect on customer’ perception on
congruence between two characteristics of celebrity
endorsers and sports-related product and non-sports
product had indicated. It found out that matching with
endorser’ characteristics and the attribute of product
should be considered as an effective and efficient
advertisement. Meanwhile, source credibility of the
endorser especially trustworthy for sports-related
product and attractiveness for attractive-related
products should not be avoided when marketers was
choosing a celebrity for endorsement. It was hoped that
this study suggested some considerations for sports
marketers and advertisers in developing a more systematic
and effective approach to product endorsers selection in
the future.
78
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APPENDIX A
Questionnaire of the Study
Please take a moment to complete this survey. Your
responses will be kept strictly confidential. Please take
a moment to fill it out. Please indicate your answer by
83
circling.
Gender: Male / Female
Age: 15-20 / 20-30 / 31-40 / 41-50 / above 50
Educational Background: Primary education or below/
Junior Secondary education/Senior Secondary
Education/Tertiary education
Please carefully look at the advertising first before you
answer below questions:
Advertisement A
1) Do you think the product is perfectly matched with the
celebity?
Disagree
__________________________________ Agree
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
2) The celebrity in the advertisement is
Unattractive_________________________________ Attractive
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Not Classy __________________________________ Classy
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Ugly
__________________________________ Beautiful
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Elegant
__________________________________ Plain
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Not Sexy
__________________________________ Sexy
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Not an Expert________________________________ Expert
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Inexperienced________________________________ Experienced
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Unknowledgeable____________________________
_Knowledgeable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Unqualified _________________________________ Qualified
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
84
Unskilled
_________________________________ Skilled
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Undependable ________________________________ Dependable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Dishonest
_________________________________ Honest
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Unreliable
_________________________________ Reliable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Insincere
__________________________________ Sincere
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Untrustworthy_________________________________
Trustworthy
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
5) It is very likely that I will buy Nike
Disagree
__________________________________ Agree
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
6) I will purchase Nike the next time I need the pair of
basketball’s shoes.
Disagree
____________________________________ Agree
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
7) I will definitely try Nike.
Disagree
____________________________________ Agree
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8) Suppose that a friend called you last night to get your
advice in his/her search for a pair of basketball’s
shoes. Would you recommend him/her to buy basketball’s
shoes from Nike?
Absolutely Not_________________________________
Absolutely
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Advertisement B
9) Do you think the product is perfectly matched with the
celebity?
Disagree
__________________________________ Agree
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
85
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Ugly
Elegant
Not Sexy
__________________________________ Beautiful
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
__________________________________ Plain
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
__________________________________ Sexy
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Inexperienced________________________________
Experienced,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Unknowledgeable____________________________
_Knowledgeable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Unqualified
_________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Unskilled
_________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Undependable ________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Dishonest
_________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Unreliable
_________________________________
Qualified
Skilled
Dependable
Honest
Reliable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Insincere
__________________________________ Sincere
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Untrustworthy_________________________________
Trustworthy
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
86
Disagree
____________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
14) I will purchase Nike the next time I need the
basketball’s shoes.
Disagree
____________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Disagree
____________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Agree
pair of
Agree
Agree
16) Suppose that a friend called you last night to get
your advice in his/her search for a pair of
basketball’s shoes, Would you recommend him/her to buy
the pair of basketball’s shoes from Nike?
Absolutely Not_________________________________
Absolutely
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Advertisement C
17) Do you think the products are perfectly matched with
the celebity?
Disagree
__________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Unattractive_________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Not Classy __________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Ugly
__________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Elegant
Agree
Attractive
Classy
Beautiful
__________________________________ Plain
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Not Sexy
__________________________________ Sexy
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
87
Inexperienced________________________________
Experienced,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Unknowledgeable____________________________ Knowledgeable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Unskilled
_________________________________ Skilled
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Undependable ________________________________ Dependable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Dishonest
_________________________________ Honest
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Unreliable
_________________________________ Reliable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Insincere
__________________________________ Sincere
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Untrustworthy_________________________________
Trustworthy
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Disagree
____________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
22) I will purchase Nike the next time I need the
shoes, watch or sun glasses.
Disagree
____________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Disagree
____________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Agree
pair of
Agree
Agree
your advice in his/her search for a pair of shoes,
watch or sun glasses. Would you recommend him/her to
buy the pair of shoes, watch or sun glasses from Nike?
Absolutely Not_________________________________
Absolutely
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
88
Advertisement D
25) Do you think the products are perfectly matched with
the celebity?
Disagree
__________________________________ Agree
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Ugly
__________________________________ Beautiful
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Elegant
__________________________________ Plain
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Not Sexy
__________________________________ Sexy
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Inexperienced________________________________
Experienced,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Unknowledgeable____________________________ Knowledgeable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Unskilled
_________________________________ Skilled
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Undependable ________________________________
Dishonest
Unreliable
Insincere
Dependable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
_________________________________ Honest
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
_________________________________ Reliable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
__________________________________ Sincere
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
89
Untrustworthy_________________________________
Trustworthy
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Disagree
____________________________________ Agree
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
30) I will purchase Nike the next time I need the pair of
shoes, watch or sun glasses.
Disagree
____________________________________ Agree
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Disagree
____________________________________ Agree
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
your advice in his/her search for a pair of shoes,
watch or sun glasses. Would you recommend him/her to
buy the pair of shoes, watch or sun glasses from Nike?
Absolutely Not_________________________________
Absolutely
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Thanks You
90
APPENDIX (i)
Athlete paired with sports-unrelated products
91
APPENDIX (ii)
Star/actor paired with sports-unrelated products
92
APPENDIX (iii)
Athlete paired with sports-related product
93
APPENDIX IV
Star/actor paired with sports-related product
94
Advertisement C
Athlete paired with sports-unrelated products
95
Advertisement D
96

effect of congruence between brand and celebrity endorser on

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