Gary Kitmacher, The Soviet Lunar Program in

Gary Kitmacher,
Space Race:
The Soviet Lunar Program in the
1960s
Sergei
Korolyov
Sergei Pavlovich Korolev (1907-1966) is widely regarded as the founder of the Soviet space program. Involved in preWorld War II studies of rocketry in the USSR, Korolev, like many of his colleagues, went through Stalin's prisons and later
participated in the search for rocket technology in occupied Germany after WWII. His incredible energy, intelligence,
belief in the prospects of space flight, managerial abilities and almost mythical skills in decision-making made him the
head of the first Soviet rocket development center, known today as RKK Energia. He deserves the most credits for turning
rocket weapons into an instrument of space exploration and making the Soviet Union the world's first space-faring nation.
At the peak of his career, Korolev led the development of the first R-7 ICBM, and which has carried Russian cosmonauts
into orbit for decades to come until the present day.
Korolev's largest undertaking was the development of the N-1 Moon Rocket,
Soviet counterpart to the Saturn V. But Korolev died at the height of his career as a
result of a botched surgical operation on January 14, 1966. After his death, facing
technical challenges, unrealistic schedule and political pressure the N-1 never flew
succesfully.
Korolev's contribution to the space program was publically recognized by the
Soviet authorities only after his death. The first uncensored biography of Korolev.
Was published in 2002.
Sputnik 1
1957
Sputnik 2
1957
The R-7, developed as the first
Soviet Intercontinental
Ballistic Missile (ICBM) and
then adapted for us to launch
the first satellite, first living
thing in orbit, the first man
and woman into space, and still
used to launch Ruzzuian Soyuz
and Progress to the International
Space Station.
R-7
R-7 and
Vostok
Size comparison of
the first two manned
spacecraft launched
into orbit.
R-7 and
MercuryAtlas
Vostok 1,
April 12, 1969
Yuri Gagarin,
first man in
space
Voskhod 1,
October, 1964
first multi-man spacecraft
Voskhod
Spacecraft
Voskhod 2,
March, 1965
first spacewalk
Voskhod 3
Soyuz 1,
Vladimir Komarov,
killed during landing
1968
Luna 1
First Attempt to Reach the Moon
1958
Luna 3
First Photographs
of the Moon’s Farside,
1959
On February 3, 1966, Luna-9 became the first spacecraft to land on the Moon. On February 4
and 5, it transmitted 3 photographic panoramas.
Luna 9
First Lunar Soft
Landing
Luna-17 with Lunokhod-1
Luna-17 landed on the Moon on November 15, 1970. The
robotic rover, Lunokhod-1 rolled off the landing platform to
explore the surface of the Moon for about a month.
Lunachod
unmanned
Moon rover
Luna-21 with Lunokhod-2
Luna-21 entered Lunar orbit on January 12, 1973, and landed on
January 15. The robotic rover, Lunokhod-2 rolled off the landing
platform to explore the surface of the Moon for about 4 months.
Luna 16, 20 and 24 collected samples of lunar soil and returned them to Earth,
beginning in 1970. The program returned 0.326 kg of samples. The Luna
missions were the first space-exploration sample return missions to rely solely
on advanced robotics.
Luna-24 was the last spacecraft to soft land on the Moon (Soviet or American),
on August 18, 1976. Boring 2.25 meters into the Moon, it obtained a 170.1 gram
core sample 1.6 meters in length. The drilling apparatus packed the sample into
a 8mm diameter plastic tube, which was wound into a helical container. At the
Vernadsky Institute, the core was initially transfered to a flat spiral container to
be x-rayed, then transfered to a series of trays. Luna-24 did not carry cameras.
Luna 16
First Automated
Sample Return
Unlike in the US in the 1960s, the Soviet space program had no centralized organization like NASA and no long-term
plan. Korolev realized that the growing diversification of the space program would require a major reform of its
organizational structure. But the Soviet leadership failed to centralize the program and it remained in the hands of mostly
non-specialized design bureaus, many working for different ministeries.
Korolev was not the only designer of rockets and spacecraft. Vladimir N. Chelomei had developed military missiles but
had no experience with space launchers. Chelomei hired Khrushchev's son, Sergei. That family link offered an advantage
in a political system where personal connections were important. Chelomei had Khrushchev's support and the biggest
biggest project budget of all bureaus. The Soviet space program contained several rival, parallel projects.
Chelomei had an important ally, Valentin Glushko, the primary designer of Soviet rocket engines. Glushko and Korolev
had had a series of disagreements over 30 years. Glushko had helped to send Korolev to a forced-labor camp in the 1930s
and 40s. Glushko and Chelomei, worked together to develop the Proton rocket, and in 1962 Khrushchev assigned
Chelomei's group to prepare for a manned spacecraft intended for circumlunar flight - the LK-1. At this time there was no
stated goal of a Moon landing within the Soviet Union.
In competition, Korolev allied himself with Nikolai D. Kuznetsov, who had developed but had n o experience in rocket
engines. Kuznetsov's began its work on rocket propulsion systems from scratch. In the constrained time available,
Kuznetsov was able to develop only a conventionally fueled gasoline/oxygen engine that had little power. The N1 moon
rocket would need no fewer than 30 of these engines in its first stage.
Korolev developed a series of cornerstone man-in-space projects: Vostok, then the N-1 rocket, and then an advanced
multipurpose spacecraft called Soyuz (Union). When the Soyuz was conceived in the early 1960s, space stations, lunar
missions and manned flights around Mars were all being considered. The Soyuz spacecraft was designed for use in any of
these programs.
Korolev’s system consisted of the manned Soyuz, a translunar injection stage, and three tanker spacecraft which would
refuel the stage. The Soyuz could also be used to orbit and maneuver to the first Soviet space station.
Just as the Soviet moon effort was picking up speed, disaster struck. On 14 January 1966 Korolev died unexpectedly
during surgery. He was succeeded by Vasili Mishin, But Mishin was not confirmed in his position until May 1967. He
didn’t have Korolev's leadership ability nor his political standing.
In January 1967, a modified version of the Soyuz without its orbital compartment meant for circumlunar flight, was tested
atop its Proton rocket at Baikonur. Four unmanned test flights were to be conducted in early 1967 followed by the first
manned circumlunar flight in June 1967.
Then in April, 1967, the first manned Soyuz failed and Vladimir Komarov was killed, the first human to die during a
spaceflight. The Soyuz spacecraft was crucial. It was far more advanced than anything attempted before. It could change
orbits and dock with other spacecraft. It could fly missions lasting several weeks, and variants of it would be used to fly
around the Moon (the L1) and to be the mother craft (LOK) for the manned lunar lander (LK). Soyuz suffered serious
development problems. The first three unmanned test missions all failed in November 1966-February 1967. But the Soviets
could not afford to wait. Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev demanded a first flight in April involving Soyuz 1 and 2, to test the
new lunar spacesuits during a 'spacewalk' as well as perform the first-ever docking between two Soviet spacecraft. The
rendezvous, docking, and spacewalks were all crucial for the moon missions. Despite several people, including Cosmonaut
Yuri Gagarin, trying to persuade leaders that the Soyuz was not ready to fly with a human on board, the decision was made to
proceed.
Soyuz 1, with Voskhod veteran cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov on board, blasted off on 15 April. The Soyuz 1 flight was
plagued by serious problems, and Komarov was commanded back after one day, and the launch of Soyuz 2 (carrying three
more cosmonauts) was quickly cancelled. Komarov's spacecraft tumbled out of control and the craft lacked adequate solar
power when a solar panel failed to deploy. The returning craft survived the atmospheric re-entry but then the landing
parachutes failed to deploy and the capsule impacted at 600km/h. On impact the Soyuz caught fire and little was left of it.
Komarov was buried in the Kremlin wall two days later.
The Soyuz accident delayed the L1 program; tests did not resume until September and November 1967. Neither spacecraft
reached orbit due to problems with the Proton booster, and the original goal of a manned circumlunar flight during the 50th
anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution in October 1967 had to be abandoned.
The L1 project became known to the world in March 1968 when a 7K-L1 craft (called "Zond-4" by the Soviets to conceal its
true purpose) was placed into a highly elliptical orbit 180 degrees away from the Moon. Zond-4 had to be destroyed when a
technical error shifted the landing point into the Gulf of Guinea. The next two attempts failed to reach orbit, and failed on the
launch pad.
Meanwhile, NASA started out with a major tragedy, the Apollo launch pad fire, in January 1967. This forced a major
redesign of the spacecraft, and an acceleration of the Apollo program’s test schedule. The Americans announced in August,
1968, that they would test the first Apollo manned in orbit in October, 1967, and if successful , would plan that the next
mission, Apollo 8, in December, 1968, be sent to orbit the moon.
Though the Soviets had been planning for their first circumlunar flight in January, 1969, after two successful unmanned
tests, now they had little choice but to move the manned Zond-7 mission to December 1968 instead. Int would be a last
ditch effort to beat Americans around the moon.
First came the unmanned Zond-5 in September., 1967 It was the first L1 craft to fly around the Moon . The mission went
well . The Soviet Navy picked up the capsule in the Indian Ocean. The biological experiments contained on board , turtles
and banana flies, had survived. The Russians confirmed that the Zond flights were testing an automated spacecraft
capable of a manned lunar fly-by.
Everything now depended on Zond-6 in November. If it was a complete success there was still a small chance that the next
flight in early December would be manned. The probe was launched safely on 10 November and flew past the Moon three
days later. But the landing went awry. First the spacecraft depressurized because of a faulty rubber gasket a few hours
before reentry, killing the animals on board. The capsule descended safely through the atmosphere but then parachute
deployment came too early and the capsule crashed on Soviet soil.
The L1 cosmonauts sent a letter to the Soviet government asking for permission to launch a manned mission. They even
travelled to the Baikonur Cosmodrome in order to be ready to fly at a short notice. But the permission never came. Apollo
8 was successful in December.
All of the planned manned L1 flights were put on hold.
Two unmanned tests in late 1969 failed as a result of Proton launch vehicle problems. A final unmanned lunar flight, Zond
8, took place in October, 1970, but the reentry profile lost attitude control of the capsule and it followed a high G trajectory
that would have injured any cosmonauts. No more Zond lunar flights were ever tried.
Zond L-1 spacecraft
The second series used a stripped-down variant of the
manned Soyuz spacecraft, and consisted of the
descent and service modules, but lacked the orbital
module. Zond was capable of carrying as many as 2
cosmonauts. The failure of the first Soyuz in April,
1968, delayed the possibility of a lunar mission. A
series of four test flights between 1968 and 1970
would all have killed or injured a human crew. The
Soviets ran out of time to beat the US when
Apollo 8 launched with 3 astronauts into orbit around
the Moon in December 1968.
Zond L-1 mission
The Zond spacecraft, aka Soyuz 7K-L1, was designed to
carry a single cosmonaut around the moon and back in a
non-orbital loop. The booster rocket was the Proton. The
Spacecraft was similar to a Soyuz without the orbital
compartment
Returned capsules from 2 Zond circumlunar flights
Zond L-1
Proton rocket used to launch Zond
Block D stage
The last L1 spaceaft flew in December, 1970, in this configuration in
order to test the Block D stage in earth orbit. This flight was successful.
Zond
L-1
PREPARING FOR THE FIRST MANNED LUNAR LANDING
After the Soviets missed the opportunity to be first around the moon with the L1 missions, the focus shifted to the N1
program. The first flight-ready N1 moon rocket carrier rocket was on its launch pad at Baikonur in May 1968, but had to
be returned for repair when cracks were found in the first stage.
It was tested again on its pad in November, 1968, and then prepared for launch beginning in February, 1969. The rocket
was developed in record time because the government did not commit serious resources and declare a national goal to
land cosmonauts on the moon until after the Apollo fire, in February, 1967.
In March 1968, cosmonauts started training at Star City in preparation for a Moon landing. An Mi-8 helicopter was used
to simulate the final descent to the surface and a moonwalk simulator was installed in the Star City gymnasium. The
spacecraft, designated the L3, was not ready however. It was decided to test the N-1 rocket with an unmanned L1
spacecraft to perform high-resolution photography of potential landing sites from lunar orbit.
Because development of the L3 LOK and LK spacecraft was lagging, it would not be ready for a first test flight in 1970.
The first lunar-landing mission would be commanded by the Voskhod 2 first spacewalker, Alexei Leonov, with Oleg
Makarov serving as the LOK pilot in lunar orbit.
The Soviets hoped that unplanned setbacks during the US Apollo program might cause sufficient delay to permit a Soviet
cosmonaut to get to the Moon first.
In the meantime, the Soviets decided to proceed with a new space station which would be competitive with the American
Manned Orbiting Laboratory, to be called Almaz. And they decided to develop, using a large cargo vehicle called TKS,
Coupled with a nuclear upper stage, to be used for a manned Mars fly-by mission. Later, in 1971, the TKS program was
coupled with the Almaz program to become the DOS-1 Salyut space station.
The first succesful manned Soyuz missions, Soyuz 4 and 5 were launched in January, 1969. The two vehicles
rendezvoused and docked in orbit and two of the four crewmen performed EVAs testing versions of the Kretchet moon
suit, transferring from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4.
First N-1 rocket on the launch pad in 1968
N-1
N-1 L-3
In early 1969, the Soviets were ready to test their various lunar-landing spacecraft for the first time.
The first to go was an unmanned lunar rover. But its Proton rocket exploded 40 seconds after launch on 19 February
1969.
On 21 February the first N1 booster, 3L, roared to life and the giant rocket began to rise skyward. But at 66s after liftoff, probably near the time of maximum dynamic pressure, a leaking oxidizer pipe started a fire at the rear of the first
stage. The unmanned L1 Zond escape system activated, pulling the capsule away from the booster. The N1 was
destroyed by range safety while the L1 landed safely. Heat and vibrations from the first stage's 30 engines had damaged
the rocket, it was later determined.
The Apollo 9 astronauts successfully tested the first Apollo Lunar Module in Earth orbit in February and March. Shortly
after the N1 launch failure. In May, Apollo 10 tested the Apollo Lunar Module in moon orbit , in a dress rehearsal of the
Apollo 11 mission.
After some modifications, a second N1 launch attempt, rocket number 5L was launched July 3. Nine seconds after
liftoff at an altitude of 200 meters, a piece of debris entered the oxidizer pump of one of the engines, causing it to
explode. The explosion wiped out other engines and vital control systems. The N1 engine control/thrust coordination
system shut down the remaining engines. The launch escape tower then pulled an unmanned L1 spacecraft, away from
the booster, which fell back on the pad. The resulting explosion destroyed the porimary launch pad 2 and did significant
damage to the test pad 1 and an N1 test vehicle 500 meters away.
The last Soviet hope was to return a sample of lunar soil before the Americans could land on the moon. On July 13,
1969, only 3 days before the launch of Apollo 11, a Proton booster sent Luna 15 towards the Moon. But the Soviet
probe's landing system failed and it crashed on the Moon. The same day, on July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong became the
first man to walk on the Moon.
The Soviets had lost.
The first N-1 to be launched, L3, on its pad to the left, while a second booster is tested on a second pad to the right in February, 1969.
N-1
Scale model of the
N-1 rocket
illustrating the
interior arrangement
of propellant tanks
and rocket engines.
After two years of re-work and re-testing, the Soviets were ready to fly the N1 again. The launch took place June 27,
1971. At an altitude of about 250 meters, the support structure between the second and third stages collapsed. The third
stage and unmanned LK/LOK spacecraft toppled over, falling near the launch pad.
A new plan for a revised L-3M moon project was presented to the Council of Chief Designers, and was approved in early
1972. The new project would use two N-1 rockets. One would launch a large lunar landing stage and the second would
carry a crew in a capsule that provided a habitat throughout the flight. The crew capsule would meet and dock to the
lander stage in lunar orbit, and the entire 100,000 pound vehicle descend to the lunar surface. This was about 4 times the
mass of the Apollo LM. 2 or 3 cosmonauts would spend up to a month on the lunar surface. A Soyuz capsule fwould be
used for the landing on Earth . The Soviet government never funded the program however.
MORE N1 FAILURES
The fourth and final N1 rocket launched the morning on November 23, 1972, just about 1 month before the last Apollo
moon landing. At 90 seconds after launch, a line carrying liquid oxygen failed and an oxygen fire broke out. All engines
on the 1st stage were shut down 107 seconds into the flight and only six seconds before second stage separation. The
escape rocket pulled the payload, an unmanned LOK orbiter, away from the rocket, which was then destroyed by range
safety.
Two new N1s were constructed, vehicle s 8L and 9L, the first set for launch in August 1974 and the second later that year.
Mishin had came increasingly under fire for the failure of the N-1 and for problems with the Salyut space stations. In May
1974, Mishin was dismissed and replaced by Valentin Glushko. Glushko immediately suspended the existing lunar
program and began planning a program for a lunar base using an entirely new rocket to be called Vulcan. The plans were
opposed by the Academy of Sciences, the government and the military. They regarded the US Shuttle, now being tested in
preparation for orbital flight, as a more serious military threat, so the Soviet program turned their attention to
development of Buran instead of any more moon rockets.
Components of the remaining six N1 rockets were destroyed. The last Soviet lunar probe, Luna 24, was launched in
October 1976.
Stage
Designations
N-1
RD-170
N-1
Engines
L-3
LK
Kretchet
Moonsuit
Lunar Cabin
and Cosmonaut
1 Launch from Earth
2 Trans-lunar Injection
3 Lunar Orbit Insertion
4 Cosmonaut Transfers to Lunar Cabin
5 Lunar Descent
6 Maneuvers to Landing Site
7 Lunar Landing
8 Depressurization and Hatch Opening
9 Exit from Lunar Cabin
10 Set Foot on Moon
11 Moonwalk and Set Up Flag
12 Launch and Ascent From Moon
13 Rendezvous in Moon Orbit
14 Transfer Moon Rocks to LOK
15 Transfer Cosmonaut to LOK
16 Trans-Earth Injection
17 Entry into Earth’s Atmosphere
18 Earth’s Landing
L-3Mission Sequence
N-1 Components
now in or near the
Baikonur Facility
photos by G. Kitmacher
Sun screen at an employee
resort camp
Stage split in half and used for storage sheds
Launch pads later used for Buran
Launch pad tilt table
Bulkheads used for planters, children’s sandboxes
On the pads, January, 1996
Stage used for housing at
employee resort camp
Soyuz return capsule
External views of early and later L3M manned lunar lander designs by Glushko.