YOUMARES | 7

Transcription

YOUMARES | 7

YOUMARES | 7
Conference Proceedings
Masthead
Masthead
Editors
Maya Bode
Christian Jessen
Vera Golz
Cover photograph
Christian Jessen
Published by
German Society for Marine Research
Working Group on Studies and Education
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Meeresforschung (DGM) e.V.
Grindelberg 7
D-20144 Hamburg
Germany
Tel.: +49 (0) 40/4 28 38 - 6221
Fax.: +49 (0) 40/4 28 38 - 5306
Email: [email protected]
Web: www.youmares.net
Web: www.dg-meeresforschung.de
THE CONVENTION FOR YOUNG SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS
|7
People and the 7 Seas – Interaction and Inspiration
11. - 13. September 2016 | Uni Hamburg / ESA ost | Hamburg
1
Welcome to Youmares 7!
I
t is with great pleasure and anticipation that we welcome you this year to the 7th Youmares conference in Hamburg. Starting off as a national students’ event, Youmares has expanded over the years to a worldwide network and international
meeting of young researchers and experts. With this year’s theme “People and the 7 seas – interaction and inspiration”
we look forward to a cheerful and inspiring conference with you working in most varying scientific fields and marine regions
of the world – from coastal to deep sea and tropics to polar regions.
As vast as the ocean may appear, we know and experience these days that resources and ecosystem’s carrying capacities
are limited and already overexploited in many regions of the world’s ocean. Efficient science with the ultimate aim to serve
nature and society needs creativity, knowledge and at the same time the linkage of various disciplines in marine sciences,
engineering, social sciences, politics and economics, at best in an equilibrium state. During the last decades, the society of
marine scientists has grown and together with new technologies and sophisticated networking, we have the opportunity better than ever before – and implied duty to exchange our new findings, bring our knowledge into the world and enhance
interdisciplinary research, partnerships and cooperation.
Youmares is organized by young scientists from various institutes and disciplines from different countries, in collaboration with the German Society for Marine Research (DGM). This year, too, it was fantastic to see how so many committed
people offered their time and expertise to make this conference including this conference book possible. But clearly, without
the contributions from the participants, Youmares would be a little deserted. We are happy to have received so many applications and we would like to thank you all for your contributions and for you being here. Together we accomplished once more
the Youmares mission providing a platform for innovative presentations of your research, fruitful discussions afterwards,
and expanding your networks as an early career step.
Now the stage is yours to present, exchange and discuss ideas and current hot topics of various fields of marine science.
Let us use Youmares 7 to learn and discover new aspects, get inspired, meet new friends and colleagues – and expand our
network! Let us have a great time together – and hopefully, we will see many familiar faces again next year, maybe even
aboard the Youmares organization team!
Maya Bode, Vera Golz, Christian Jessen and Julia Lange
(YOUMARES Coordination team)
September 2016
3
Table of contents
Table of contents
page
Masthead1
3
Table of contents
5
Sponsors7
Retrospect9
Session 1: Early life history stages of fish
11
Session 2: Dissolved Organic Matter
27
Session 3: Eutrophication
43
Session 4: Deep Sea and Polar Regions
51
Session 5: Invasive Species
69
Session 6: How do communities adapt?
87
Session 7: Management & Conservation
103
Session 8: Coastal & Marine Pollution
117
Session 9: Social Dimensions
139
Session 10: Phytoplankton
157
Session 11: Coral Reefs
173
Workshops189
Programme191
5
Sponsors
Sponsors
We want to thank our partners & sponsors:
bioPoncho
7
Retrospect
Retrospect
Since seven years YOUMARES is giving young students a platform to present their research, a space to network with other
marine scientists.
The first meeting took place in Hamburg, 2010
Inspired by this fruitful first meeting the network presented itself in the next year with a name: YOUMARES = YOUng
MArine RESearchers
YOUMARES 2.0 took place in Bremerhaven
The follow-up meeting at Allgemeinnützige in Lübeck in 2012 was organized together with the EMB Fraunhofer institute.
Over 130 partcipants joined the meeting. YOUMARES also became more international as participants came from more than
10 countries.
9
Retrospect
In 2013 YOUMARES 4 took place at Oldenburg University and was organized in collaboration with IMBC. YOUMARES 4
has been the biggest conference so far with over 200 participants from the Netherlands, UK, Italy, Austria, Spain, Denmark,
Norway, Finland, Sweden, Brazil, Iran, Argentina, Indonesia, Ethiopia and of course Germany...
In the following year 2014 YOUMARES 5 took place at the OZEANEUM in Stralsund.
In 2015 YOUMARES took place at NW1, Uni Bremen. For the first time the DGM Meeresforum was realized and took place
before YOUMARES started. The Icebreaker was a joint event on a riverboat on the Weser.
Every year organizing YOUMARES is a challenge. The team constellation changes, as the members start their jobs and have
less time. YOUMARES is organized on a voluntary basis. And also generating a budget challenges the team every year. But
it is also fun and the outcome is priceless. Be part of the family and help organizing YOUMARES 8!
10
From egg to juveniles: Advances and novel applications to study the early life
history stages of fishes
MAIK TIEDEMANN1*, FRANZISKA BILS2** (both authors contributed equally to this work)
Thünen-Institute (TI), Institute of Sea Fisheries, Federal Research Institute for Rural Areas, Forestry and Fisheries, Palmaille 9, 22767 Hamburg,
Germany
2
Institute for Hydrobiology and Fisheries Science, Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability (CEN), Klima Campus, University of
Hamburg, Olbersweg 24, D-22767 Hamburg, Germany
1
*email [email protected]
**email: [email protected]
Abstract
E
vents in the early life of fishes are critical to the fluctuations of fish populations in marine environments. Therefore,
research on ichthyoplankton and juveniles of fishes essentially contribute to the understanding of recruitment processes. This is especially important for regions under high anthropogenic pressure to maintain sustainable fisheries
and ecosystem conservation. This theme session provides a venue for discussing advances and novel applications in the study
on early life history stages of fishes from all „Seven Seas“ with highlighting ecological relevance regarding: climatevariability,
foodsecurity, dispersal and population connectivity.
Oral Presentations
(I-1) Sarah I. Neumann
On the seasonal growth of Hyporhamphus picarti larvae (Hemiramphidae) in the Sine Saloum estuary (Senegal)
(I-2) Common garden crossing experiments of herring and their possibilities
Florian Eggers
Poster Presentations
(P01) Ayoub Baali
Bile metabolites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in three species of fish
from Morocco
(P02) Wahbi Abderrazik
Study of the growth and reproduction of the Sardina pilchardus exploited in the Morocco Casablanca area
Proceedings
Egg and larval fish studies from a bottom-up versus top down perspective
11
On the seasonal growth of Hyporhamphus picarti larvae
(Hemiramphidae) in the Sine Saloum estuary (Senegal)
SARAH I. NEUMANN1*, HANS SLOTERDIJK1, JULIAN DÖRING1, STEFANIE BRÖHL1,
WERNER EKAU1
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, Fahrenheitstraße 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
1
*email: [email protected]
H
yporhamphus picarti (Hemiramphidae) is one of the dominant species of the ichthyoplankton community in the
Sine Saloum estuary (Senegal) and is abundant year-round. This suggests that the Sine Saloum is an important
nursery ground for the species. Throughout the year, H. picarti larvae show higher abundance in February (cool
and dry season) and June (warm and dry season). Investigations on the differences in larval growth between the two seasons
and the impact of water temperature on the larval growth were investigated. The growth increments of the sagittal otoliths
were used to estimate the age of the larval fish. H. picarti larvae were sampled by means of two Neuston nets at the mouth
of the Saloum River. The age of the larvae ranged from 3 to 21 days, with standard lengths (SL) of 4.65 mm to 16.80 mm
for February. In June, the examined age ranged between 2 and 22 days with SL of 3.86 mm to 21.68 mm. For comparison
of growth we used larvae with length between 12.17 mm and 15.44 mm. In February, a significantly lower otolith growth
rate (mm/day) (mean ±SD: 0.00656 ±0.00102) was observed than in June with 0.01004 (SD: ±0.00284) mm/day for a length
class (SL) between 12.76 mm and 15.91 mm. We assume that water temperature was the environmental parameter being the
important factor responsible for the higher larval growth in June compared to February. Information concerning the early
life stages of H. picarti are scarce and the results of the present study contribute to a better understanding of the biology and
ecology of H. picarti larvae.
KEYWORDS: HYPORHAMPHUS PICARTI, LARVAE, SINE SALOUM ESTUARY, AGE AND GROWTH ESTIMATION, TEMPERATURE
12
Common garden crossing experiments of herring and their
possibilities
FLORIAN EGGERS1,2*, ODA W. ALMELAND3, ARIL SLOTTE4, LEIF ANDERSSON5,
ARILD FOLKVORD1,4
University of Bergen, Department of Biology, Postbox 7803, 5020 Bergen, Norway
Institute of Marine Research (IMR), Postbox 1870 Nordnes, 5018 Bergen, Norway
3
Vest Aqua Base AS, Årskog, 5416 Fitjar, Norway
4
Institute of Marine Research and Hjort Centre for Marine Ecosystem Dynamics, Postbox 1870 Nordnes, 5018 Bergen, Norway
5
Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Postbox 1031, 17121 Solna, Sweden
1
2
A
tlantic herring have complex population structures and dynamics. Different populations can be found in fully
marine as well as nearly freshwater conditions, like the Baltic Sea. Mixing of populations is known, but the extent
of connectivity is still unclear. In May 2013, ripe spring spawning herring were collected in fully marine (34 psu,
Norwegian coast 62° N) and in brackish water (6 psu, Baltic Sea 62° N) conditions for factorial common garden fertilization
experiments. One Norwegian herring female was crossed with one Norwegian and one Baltic male generating a F1 generation consisting of purebreds and hybrids which were incubated at two different salinities, 16 and 35 psu. After hatching
larvae were transferred to tanks with corresponding salinities. The newly hatched herring were reared for three years until
their first maturation in May 2016. During the rearing several samples of the F1 generation were conducted and otoliths were
extracted for shape analysis. For the shape analysis purebreds and hybrids from 16 and 35 psu were used, resulting in four
distinct groups. The shape analysis demonstrated significant differences between all four groups. A Canonical Analysis of
Principal Coordinates (CAP) was applied to analyze the variation in shape among the groups. The first discriminating axis
(CAP1) explained the differences between purebreds and hybrids, while the second axis (CAP2) the salinity differences. This
clearly strengthens the use of otolith shape analysis for studies on population dynamics and connectivity. The factorial set
up under common garden conditions in subsequent F2 generations also allows for further experiments testing additional
factors influencing the evolutionary development of distinct populations and their potential role in population connectivity.
KEYWORDS: COMMON GARDEN, OTOLITH SHAPE, SALINITY, POPULATION CONNECTIVITY
13
Bile metabolites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
in Three Species of Fish from Morocco
A. BAALI1*, U. KAMMANN2, R. HANEL2, A. YAHYAOUI3, I. QORAYCHY1
Laboratory of Zoology and General Biology, Faculty of Science, Mohammed V University, Rabat, Morocco
Thünen Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Hamburg, Germany
3
UFR Biodiversity and Aquaculture, Faculty of Science, Mohammed V, University, Rabat, Morocco.
1
2
T
wo PAH metabolites 1-hydroxypyrene and 1-hydroxyphenanthrene were identified and quantified from the bile of
18 European eels (Anguilla anguilla), 7 Moray (Muraenidae), and 28 Conger eels (Conger conger) collected from
Moulay Bousselham lagoon and Boujdour coast. The bile metabolites were separated by high-performance liquid
chromatography with fluorescence detection. The major metabolite present in all fish was 1-hydroxypyrene (<LOD-15.56
ng/ml) with lower concentration of 1-hydroxyphenanthrene (<LOD-9.6 ng/ml). The data confirm the importance of 1-hydroxypyrene as the key PAH metabolite in fish bile and suggest that the common eel is an ideal species for monitoring PAHs in
Moroccan water. The present study provides first information on concentrations of PAH metabolites in fish from Morocco,
especially for Conger eels and Moray.
KEYWORDS: PAH METABOLITES, FISH, LAGOON, COAST, MOROCCO.
14
Study of the growth and reproduction of Sardina pilchardus
exploited in the Morocco Casablanca area
W. ABDERRAZIK1, A. BAALI2, S. FALAH2, O. TAZI1
Laboratory of Environment and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Science Ain Chock, Hassan 2 University, Casablanca, Morocco;
Laboratory of Zoology and General Biology, Faculty of Science, Mohammed V University, Rabat, Morocco.
1
2
A
tlantic sardine (Sardina pilchardus) is one of the most important small pelagic fish species in the Moroccan fishery.
However, assessment of this species is sparse and only little information is available on the reproductive biology.
Thus, this work investigated maturation processes of Atlantic sardine sampled during November 2014 and October
2015 in the Casablanca area. The study showed that females dominated the stocks and that sexual maturity differed between
size classes. This indicates different timings of maturation between individuals of different stocks. A correlation between
the percentage of maturation and the season was observed. We developed a monthly gonad index (RGS) that determines
spawning periods according to an annual cycle. Our index shows that sardine reproduces throughout the year and with a
major peak in winter. The change of a condition coefficient (k) was similar between sexes on an annual base. The sizes at first
sexual maturity (L50) differed significantly between sexes. L50 was 19.8 cm for males and 17.6 cm for females, respectively.
KEYWORDS: ATLANTIC, SARDINA PILCHARDUS, SEX RATIO, SIZE AT FIRST SEXUAL MATURITY (L50).
15
Proceedings
EGG AND LARVAL FISH STUDIES FROM A
BOTTOM-UP VERSUS TOP DOWN PERSPECTIVE
MAIK TIEDEMANN1*, FRANZISKA BILS²** (both authors contributed equally to this work)
Thünen-Institute (TI), Institute of Sea Fisheries, Federal Research Institute for Rural Areas, Forestry and Fisheries, Palmaille 9, 22767 Hamburg,
Germany
2
Institute for Hydrobiology and Fisheries Science, Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability (CEN), Klima Campus,
University of Hamburg, Olbersweg 24, D-22767 Hamburg, Germany
1
1. Why are we interested in fish?
Fishing mortality is driven by human food demand
that has pushed fisheries activities. Fish and their products
are a main source of protein nutrition in human diet. The
average consumption of animal protein stems from 15 %
on seafood, but some countries (e.g. islands or west African
countries) rely to over 50 % on fish protein (Smith et al.,
2010). While humans in the past thought that fish is an
infinite resource some severe fish stock declines became
apparent leading to collapses all over the world, e.g. to name
only some, Californian sardine (Sardinops sagax Jenyns,
1842), Peruvian anchovy (Engraulis ringens Jenyns, 1842)
(Ludwig et al., 1993) or the Newfoundland cod (Gadus
morhua Linnaeus, 1758) (Mason, 2002).
While humans understood that a sustainable
management of seafood is needed, management measures
were developed including quotas, independent assessment
of fish stocks and moratoriums of collapsed stocks. As it is
becoming more and more evident that early life stages are
one of the main drivers of stock fluctuations, management
plans began to integrate early life stages (ELS) of fish into
stock assessment.
2. Early life stages as measures for recruitment
Nowadays, established ELS assessment programs to
manage stocks are already implemented in international
agreements, so far, mostly on small pelagic fish species. For
instance, larval herring (Clupea harengus Linnaeus, 1758)
surveys are implemented in stock assessment from the
North Sea (Heath, 1993), a time-series dating back to the
1960s. Stock recruitment on Atlantic mackerel (Scomber
scombrus Linnaeus, 1758) is based on the annual egg
production method (Priede and Watson, 1993). The daily
egg production method (Stratoudakis et al., 2006), just to
name some, applies for the assessment of Atlantic sardine
(Sardina pilchardus Walbaum, 1792) (Bernal et al., 2011),
Atlantic anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus Linnaeus, 1758)
(Somarakis et al., 2004) or Western Australian sardines (S.
sagax) (Ward et al., 2011).
3. The natural variability
Nevertheless, the underlying processes for ELS survival
rates are still not fully understood. In the following, we
address the most important existing hypothesis and link
these with recent advances by summarizing bottom-up
versus top-down natural factors driving variations in ELS
mortality rates. Furthermore, we compile recent work on
16
anthropogenic impacts influencing larval survival and
therefore recruitment.
4. A floating object in the Sea
The life cycle of most marine teleost fishes is defined
into four life stages: egg, larva, juvenile, and adult.
During these stages the fish undergoes morphological/
physiological development (such as embryonic
development and metamorphosis) as well as changes in
behavior and ecological function. The pelagic eggs and
fish larvae are part of the plankton (Ichthyoplankton)
as both stages are virtually unable to withstand currents
and are mainly passively drifting. The egg stage is either
a free floating particle in the water column, benthic or
the egg develops until hatching internally (live-bearing).
After the egg development in most cases a yolk sac larva
hatches relying on internal yolk reserves. As soon as the
yolk is absorbed (either prior to or some days post hatch),
the larva starts to feed externally (first-feeding larva) and
depends on an optimal abiotic and biotic environment.
Optimal environment means not only suitable temperature,
salinity regimes or other physical measures, but also prey
availability, low predator abundance and low competition.
An optimal environment allows to grow fast to avoid a long
pelagic larval duration, a period in which mortality rate is
supposed to be highest from all life stages of fishes (Fig. 1).
During pelagic larval duration passive drift makes
young larvae vulnerable to survive in the pelagic realm.
They are incapable to change their habitat, when food
supply is low or physical conditions are out of their
physiological performance range (bottom-up control) and
they are nearly incapable to hide from predation (topdown control). Thus, marine ecologist would claim that the
most vulnerable life stages of fish are the ELS responsible
for abundance fluctuations in marine fish populations
(Dahlberg, 1979; Garrido et al., 2015; Hjort, 1926). After
the larval duration the larva starts to develop into the
juvenile stage, a stage where fish is able to swim against
currents and leaves its function as part of the plankton.
While environmental factors are mainly impacting the
ichthyoplankton mortality, the adult fish stocks are
additionally affected by fishing mortality.
5. Why do so many fish eggs and larvae die in the sea?
5.1 Bottom-up control: Starvation
Processes like survival or mortality are complex in
marine environments. Focus in early theories was on
particular single processes that were believed to play a
major role causing fluctuations in fish recruitment. From
these single driver or mechanism hypotheses Johan Hjort
initiated a concept that for the first time included larval fish
mortality as a cause for population dynamics. He claimed
that larval survival is determined on whether or not a
fish larva successfully feeds during the so called „critical
period“ when it shifts from endogenous feeding (yolk sac)
to exogenous feeding (Fig. 1) (Hjort, 1914). Since Hjort‘s
„critical period“ hypothesis comprehensive studies based
on laboratory starvation experiments dealing with food
quality and quantity at the time of the shift to exogenous
feeding were developed (Miller et al., 1988) with the general
and comprehensible conclusion that first feeding larvae are
indeed vulnerable to starvation.
For instance, walleye pollock (Gadus chalcogrammus
Pallas, 1814) larvae that were fed two days after post
hatch grew better and showed higher survival rates than
larvae with delayed initial feeding (Yokota et al., 2016).
Larval pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus Tilesius, 1810)
condition was negatively correlated with the absence of
available prey and even higher negatively impacted when
ambient temperature increased (Laurel et al., 2011).
However, there is evidence that unfed larvae are able to
recover from starvation periods when re-fed (Piccinetti
et al., 2015; Yokota et al., 2016). Such observations in
marine environments are difficult to assess and remain
elusive. Houde (2008) mentioned that even a recovery of
unfed larvae (extension of the critical period) may result
in increased mortality rates (e.g. 90 % rate) leading to a 50fold decline of the recruits.
17
Fig. 1: Conceptual representation of the “Critical Period hypothesis” by Hjort (1914, 1926). While cohort A finds suitable prey
in adequate quantity after yolk absorption, cohort B suffers from insufficient food availability with mortality rates of >90%. Daily
mortality rate, except for the critical period, is M = 0.1. Absolut survivors after 100 days post-hatch differs by 50-fold in cohort B
experiencing a critical period and in cohort A not experiencing a critical period. Redrawn from Houde (2008), based on Houde (2002).
A decade later after Hjort’s “critical period” hypothesis,
Hjort (1926) considered events when larvae might
encounter times of low food availability. He recognized that
fish eggs and larvae are passively drifting and are thus at the
mercy of the sea. Upon, he formulated a second hypothesis,
the “aberrant drift” in which he claimed that larval
recruitment will depend on winds and ocean currents that
can disperse fish larvae from feeding grounds.
These two hypotheses, including biotic (food
availability) and abiotic (ocean currents) factors, are the
baseline for several hypotheses developed during the 20th
century.
One of them is the famous “match-mismatch”
hypothesis of David Cushing (1990, 1975). He observed
a temporal overlap between spawning season and the
time of availably prey (match) that was considered to be
responsible for recruitment success in Pacific sockeye
salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka Walbaum, 1792), Norwegian
herring (C. harengus), North Sea plaice (Pleuronectes
18
platessa Linnaeus, 1758), and Arctic cod (G. morhua). The
latter revealed that besides fisheries mortality, stock size
variation was directly linked to phytoplankton availability
in a North-Sea cod recruitment time-series (Beaugrand et
al., 2003). It has been observed that in years where the peak
of the phytoplankton bloom “mismatched” the cod’s peak
spawning season resulted in low cod recruitment. Similar
observations on haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus
Linnaeus, 1758) recruitment off Nova Scotia was confirmed
in the same year by Platt et al. (2003).
Parallel to Cushing, Lasker (1981) hypothesized, that
a stable ocean environment leads to high larval survival
rates (“Stable ocean hypothesis”). He proposed that during
calm ocean conditions, especially in upwelling areas, water
column stratification concentrate fish larvae and plankton.
Feeding on concentrated plankton leads to increased
larval recruitment and positive contribution to year class
strength. This was shown for anchovy (E. encrasicolus)
in the Benguela current (Shelton and Hutchings, 1989).
Contrasting, McClatchie et al. (2007) found an intermediate
stability, not a high stability as originally proposed, to be
most favourable for larval sardine (S. sagax) survival in
Australia.
Cury & Roy (Cury and Roy, 1989) substantiate
intermediate stability in their “optimal environmental
window hypothesis”. They observed in upwelling areas
intermediate upwelling intensity to be most favourable
for recruitment. Upon, they suggested that a dome shaped
rather than a linear relationship exists between upwelling
intensity and recruitment success. The reason is that not only
upwelling but also turbulence drive recruitment success.
When wind intensifies, turbulence increases (larval feeding
is interrupted) or when wind reduces, upwelling intensity
decreases (less food availability). Recruitment success is
therefore in upwelling regions strongly regulated by the
trade-off between steady productivity and water turbulence.
These observations were confirmed by recruitment studies
on Moroccan sardine (S. pilchardus) from the Canary
Current (Roy et al., 1992), Cape hake (Merluccius spp.)
and anchovy (Engraulis capensis Gilchrist, 1913) from
the Benguela Current (Grote et al., 2007; Waldron et al.,
1997), anchovy (Engraulis mordax Girard, 1854) from the
California Current (Cury et al., 1995; Roy et al., 1992) and
sardine (S. sagax) from the Humboldt Current (Serra et al.,
1998).
Bakun (1996) summarized in his “ocean triad
hypothesis” three physical processes that are most
beneficial for larval survival. The first important triad is the
“enrichment process” that depicts a system in which a steady
nutrient supply controls a steady primary production. Such
systems are found in regions where upwelling or mixing
of nutrient rich waters induce high productivity. Such
high productive regions are enhanced spawning grounds
especially for small pelagic fish (Cury et al., 2000; Santos et
al., 2001). While peak spawning is often found within the
upwelling plume or on the shelf that is influenced by the
upwelling, there is often a decline in larval fish abundance
to the offshore and a strong dissimilarity between species
composition (Moyano et al., 2014; Sassa and Konishi,
2015).
Together with upwelling there is often a convergence
or a frontal zone observed that separates nutrient rich
from nutrient poor surrounding waters. Bakun called that
the “concentration process” the second ocean triad. There
are indications that frontal zones play a vital role in fish
reproduction. For instance, Munk (2014) found enhanced
larval gadoid abundances in the vicinity of a frontal zone of
the Norwegian trench. In Australia, the Tasmanian frontal
area entrained sardine larvae (S. sagax) within a frontal
eddy that retained and mixed newly hatched larvae with
older larvae (Mullaney et al., 2014). That indicates larval
retention or drift within favorable larval habitats, the third
physical process of Bakun’s ocean triad.
The third process stems from a more complex hypothesis
that was developed by Iles & Sinclair (1982). The so called
“member/vagrant hypothesis” points out the importance
of physical processes that retain larvae in nursery areas.
The hypothesis basically implies the importance for an
individual to be in the right place at the right time at any
point of its life cycle (member) or if not being lost for the
population (vagrant). Thus, the number of retention areas
for a species is positively correlated with its population
richness (Browman et al., 2004). For instance, sardine
(S. sagax) and anchovy (E. encrasicolus) larvae from the
Benguela current actively descent to the onshore flowing
deep layer in upwelling areas to retain onshelf (Stenevik et
al., 2007, 2003). Retention areas along the Canary Current
reveal peak spawning of round sardinella (Sardinella aurita
Valenciennes, 1847) that increase survival chances (Mbaye
et al., 2015).
5.2 Top-down control: Predation
All so far summarized pioneering hypothesis are
relevant to larval survival, but do not necessarily constitute
recruitment variations in their full range (Bailey and
Houde, 1989; Peterman and Bradford, 1987). Measuring
mortality rates caused by predation is still one of the most
complicated issues in ichthyoplankton research. There are
great methodological difficulties to quantify predation, and
that is why it still plays a comparatively minor role in ELS
studies.
Estimating ichthyoplankton mortality rates due
to predation is difficult as various groups of potential
predators feed on ichthyoplankton. Predators range from
invertebrates, including gelatinous groups (Medusae,
Siphomedusae, Ctenophora), zooplanktonic crustaceans
(hyperiid amphipods, euphausiids, carnivorous calanoid
19
copepods), Chaetognatha and Cephalapoda as well as
pelagic fishes (Hunter, 1981). Furthermore, mortality rates
caused by diseases are difficult to assess. Thus, detecting
all sources of mortality are virtually impossible. All
hypotheses that account for predation so far do not include
total numbers of preyed eggs or larvae, they rather account
for mechanisms that avoid predation.
Thus, concomitant hypotheses that examine mortality
driven by a top-down control have evolved in the last
century. One of the most debated hypothesis is the “size
dependent survival” or “size selective mortality hypothesis”.
It essentially asserts that larvae that grow faster or are larger
at hatching than others are less vulnerable to predation
(Anderson, 1988; Garrido et al., 2015; Litvak and Leggett,
1992; Sogard, 1997). Faster growth decreases the time of
being a potential food source for many predators. It also
includes the idea that being bigger signifies a certain
degree of protection (Houde, 2008). Meekan et al. (2006)
showed that the silver-stripe round herring (Spratelloides
gracilis Temminck & Schlegel, 1846) undergoes strong size
selective mortality. Slow-growing larvae were preferentially
removed through predation compared to faster and larger
specimen from the same cohort. Takasuka et al. (2003)
showed that growth rates have a direct impact on predation
mortality of larval Japanese anchovy (Engraulis japonicus
Temminck & Schlegel, 1846) independent from larval size
(“growth selective predation”), thus depending on the type
of predator (Takasuka et al., 2007, 2004).
The opportunity for rapid growth is related to the
larval hatch size and condition. It is suggested that the
condition of the mothers and fathers indirectly effect larval
size at hatch and growth rate, known as maternal effects
(Solemdal, 1997). It has been shown that Atlantic cod larval
survival rates were positively correlated with the age of the
female (Vallin and Nissling, 2000). Parents that are exposed
to different temperature regimes can also indirectly effect
the survival of their offspring. For instance, females
of Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii Valenciennes, 1847)
exposed to increased temperatures produced more but
smaller eggs (Tanasichuk and Ware, 1987). Atlantic cod (G.
morhua) oocyste development was faster due to elevated
temperatures and resulted in an earlier spawning time
(Kjesbu et al., 2010). These effects can have positive but also
negative impact according to external conditions at a given
time (predator community structure, food availability).
6. Anticipated larval threats
An understanding of the recruitment variability
demands an understanding of early life history traits.
Processes that determine recruitment success are complex,
but underlie abiotic and biotic drivers. When these
drivers change they will affect larval survival or mortality.
Currently there are many rapid environmental changes
mainly due to human impact. Thus in the following, we
summarize anticipated threats to ELS that are mainly
driven by anthropogenic influences. Several of these can
have both direct and indirect effects on the organism.
The climate change driven impacts are one of the major
threats directly impacting the survival of larval fish, such
as warming, hypoxia or ocean acidification. Warming of
aquatic systems might influence the reproductive success of
fishes. Elevated temperatures increase metabolic demands
of organisms. This can be critical for fish with a narrow
thermal window (Llopiz et al., 2014) especially for arctic
species which are not able to migrate further to the poles
to escape from warming seas (Hollowed et al., 2013).
Temperate species might suffer mainly from the indirect
effects of warming, such as changes in seasonal dynamics
20
leading to shifts in spawning season (Genner et al., 2010)
or match-mismatch conditions as already reported for
Atlantic cod (Beaugrand et al., 2003; Friedland et al., 2013).
But even the ELS of species with a wide thermal window,
such as sardine larvae (S. pilchardus), exhibited an increased
mortality rate and reduced feeding success when exposed
to elevated temperature (+2°C) (Faleiro et al., 2016).
Rising temperature is one factor causing hypoxic
conditions for larval fish. Hypoxia can result in a decreased
hatching success and reduced length compared to sufficient
oxygen conditions in the larvae of Atlantic silverside
(Menidia menidia Linnaeus, 1766) and sheepshead minnow
(Cyprinodon variegatus Lacepède, 1803) (DePasquale et al.,
2015). Low oxygen concentrations can also alter foraging
behavior in pike larvae (Esox lucius Linnaeus, 1758)
(Engström-Öst and Isaksson, 2006).
Due to the climate warming there is an anticipated
change of the upwelling intensity along the major eastern
boundary upwelling ecosystems (Bakun et al., 2015;
Rykaczewski et al., 2015). These regions are responsible
for more than 20 % of fisheries production and thus
highly important for human nutrition and livelihood.
Recruitment success of some species have already been
shown to be directly related to upwelling intensity (Cury
and Roy, 1989). How changing upwelling intensities will
affect spawning success is still unknown. Field observations
are needed to relate different upwelling regimes to the
reproductive success in upwelling regions.
The rise in acidification of aquatic ecosystems has
drawn increased attention in the last decade. A study on
Atlantic herring larvae (C. harengus) revealed a decrease
in condition under reduced pH (Franke and Clemmesen,
2011). Embryos of the inland silverside (Menidia beryllina
Cope, 1867) showed increasing malformations (Baumann
et al., 2011; Forsgren et al., 2013) and larvae of yellowfin
tuna (Thunnus albacares Bonnaterre, 1788) as well as
larvae of Atlantic cod (G. morhua) revealed tissue damages
(Frommel et al., 2016, 2011). The latter additionally
increased otolith growth (Maneja et al., 2013) that might
negatively affect auditorial and olfactorial abilities (Munday
et al., 2009) or swimming behavior (Pimentel et al., 2014).
On the other hand, several studies did not find a
significant effect on the early development or morphology,
e.g. hatch rates or embryogenesis of Atlantic herring (C.
harengus) (Franke and Clemmesen, 2011), egg survival and
size at hatch of Northern rock sole (Lepidopsetta polyxystra
Orr & Matarese, 2000) (Hurst et al., 2016) or hatching,
survival, development and otolith growth of Baltic cod
(G. morhua) (Frommel et al., 2013). It seems that lowering
the pH affects species specific traits. Some traits are less
vulnerable others more, which might result in a shift of
community structures in the future.
Besides single stressors driven by climate change,
combined effects of multiple stressors are not predictable
in their full range, yet; neither the combination of
factors already discussed, nor in combination with direct
anthropogenic influences, such as environmental pollution.
However, pollution like the import of sediments in coral
reefs alters settling behavior of fishes preferring dead corals
over living ones (O’Connor et al., 2016). Most recently
microplastic has been reported as an additional threat in
aquatic environments, even though the direct consequences
for organisms are not understood yet (Hidalgo-Ruz et al.,
2012; Lusher, 2015). A study on larval European perch
(Perca fluviatilis Linnaeus, 1758) showed decreasing
growth rates, altered feeding preferences and innate
behaviors as well as inhibited hatching (Lonnstedt and
Eklov, 2016), when fed with natural prey in combination
with microplastic particles.
7. What can we do?
There is no doubt that all listed threats or changing factors
affect larval fish ecology and physiology. Nevertheless, how
massive the dimension is that reduces the survival success
of ELS, is still to be resolved. From a pessimistic viewpoint
we are facing bleak prospects when humans will continue
their way of living. Fortunately, organisms in general are
plastic and can cope with changing environments. How
tensile their plasticity is to handle anticipated or already
existing threats can only be observed, when monitoring
of ELS, either on ecological or physiological basis,
persist. Thus, we claim to proceed with implementing or
continuing long-term surveys in ELS of fishes, experiments
to better understand larval behavior and combine results
from both to improve coupled biological-physical models
in the future.
So far, we can conclude that solving the “recruitment
problem” may be an unrealistic goal, but understanding
causes of recruitment variability is desirable (Houde,
2008). Our growing knowledge on ELS can help to further
improve environmental protection programs (such as
marine protected areas) as well as ecosystem based fishery
management.
21
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doi:10.1007/s12562-015-0948-6
26
Dissolved organic matter in aquatic systems: assessment and applications
RAFAEL GONÇALVES-ARAUJO1,2,3*
Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Climate Sciences Division, Physical Oceanography of Polar
Seas – Bremerhaven, Germany
2
University of Bremen, Faculty of Biology and Chemistry (FB2) – Bremen, Germany
3
Technical University of Denmark, National Institute for Aquatic Resources, Section for Marine Ecology and Oceanography – Charlottenlund,
Denmark
1
Abstract
D
issolved organic matter (DOM) is a major component of the carbon-pool in aquatic systems and thus represents
an important pathway in the carbon cycle, especially in marine environments. For instance, studies have used
DOM to assess drinking water quality, its importance on biogeochemical cycles, etc. Different techniques varying
from molecular, optical and chemical analysis to satellite remote sensing have been employed to identify, characterize and
quantify DOM and assess its distribution, composition and dynamics in distinct aquatic environments. This session invites
contributions on the different approaches assessing DOM and its applications as an environmental proxy in aquatic systems.
Oral Presentations
(II-1) Sebastian Hellmann
Radiation Budget in the Shelf Areas of the Laptev Sea
(II-2) Rafael Gonçalves-Araujo Fluorescent dissolved organic matter as a biogeochemical tracer in the Davis Strait
(II-3)
Mario Miranda
Reutilization of in situ produced Dissolved Organic Matter: Effect of UV irradiation
(P04)
Jana Geuer &
Michael Rudolph
Catcher in the ocean: Organic ligands and their role in marine life cycles
Proceedings
Tools for assessing content, speciation and origin of DOM in aquatic systems
27
Radiation budget in the shelf areas of the Laptev Sea
SEBASTIAN HELLMANN1*, TILMAN DINTER1,2, JENS HÖLEMANN1, BIRGIT HEIM3, VLADIMIR
ROZANOV2, ASTRID BRACHER1,2
Alfred-Wegener-Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany;
Instute of Environmental Physics, University of Bremen, Otto-Hahn-Allee 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany;
3
Alfred-Wegener-Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Telegrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam, Germany
1
2
T
he Laptev Sea around the Lena River delta in northern Siberia is a very remote area that in-situ measurements
are only sparsely available. Polar night and long-lasting ice coverage until the end of June makes it difficult to
investigate the area all year round. Here satellite investigations of radiances measured e.g. with Envisat-MERIS
satellite and derived inherent optical properties (IOP) may help to generate a time series of changing water constituents, e.g.
chlorophyll and coloured organic matter which can be split further into coloured dissolved organic matter (CDOM) and
suspended particles (SPM). However, large solar zenith angles and cloud coverage in summer after ice break-off makes it
difficult to investigate this region by remote sensing applications. Therefore modelling approaches seems to be useful first
approximations to identify the feedback to the radiation budget in these remote areas.
With the current studies we investigate the influence of CDOM and SPM on the radiative heat transfer into the shelf
regions of the Laptev Sea. As a first step we use the coupled atmosphere-ocean radiative transfer model SCIATRAN to assess
energy input into coastal waters of this region dependent on different concentrations of CDOM varying significantly for
different times of the year. Low solar elevations and high absorption by water constituents in this area extremely reduces
the light penetration depth in the water body. An increased absorption in the surface water leads to higher sea surface
temperatures and a high energy release into the atmosphere often occurring in late autumn and consequently influences
the ice development process. In the context of climate change and thawing permafrost in Siberia the riverine input of those
highly absorbing particles by Lena river may increase in the future. Therefore, a better understanding of these processes is
necessary to predict possible future changes for that remote area.
KEYWORDS: RADIATION, LAPTEV SEA, CDOM, LIGHT AVAILABILITY
28
Fluorescent dissolved organic matter as a biogeochemical
tracer in the Davis Strait
RAFAEL GONÇALVES-ARAUJO1,2,3*, MATS A. GRANSKOG4, ASTRID BRACHER1,5, KUMIKO
AZETSU-SCOTT6, PAUL A. DODD4, COLIN A. STEDMON3
Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Climate Sciences Division, Physical Oceanography of Polar
Seas – Bremerhaven, Germany
2
University of Bremen, Faculty of Biology and Chemistry (FB2) – Bremen, Germany
3
Technical University of Denmark, National Institute for Aquatic Resources, Section for Marine Ecology and Oceanography – Charlottenlund,
Denmark
4
Norwegian Polar Institute, Fram Centre – Tromsø, Norway
5
University of Bremen, Institute of Environmental Physics, – Bremen, Germany
6
Fisheries and Ocean, Canada, Bedford Institute of Oceanography – Dartmouth, Canada
1
C
limate change affects the Arctic environment with regards to permafrost thaw, sea-ice melt, alterations to the
freshwater budget and increased export of terrestrial material to the Arctic Ocean. The Davis Strait, together with
the Fram Strait, represents the major gateways connecting the Arctic and Atlantic. Oceanographic survey was
performed in the Davis Strait in late summer 2013, where hydrographical data and water samples were collected. Meteoric
(fmw), sea-ice melt, Atlantic (faw) and Pacific (fpw) water fractions were determined. The underlying fluorescence properties
of dissolved organic matter (FDOM) were characterized by applying Parallel Factor Analysis (PARAFAC), which isolated
three fluorescent components. Visible wavelength FDOM (VIS-FDOM), associated to terrestrial humic-like material, was
capable of tracing the Arctic outflow due to high values observed in association to Arctic Polar waters (PW) exiting through
Davis Strait. Furthermore, VIS-FDOM was correlated to apparent oxygen utilization and traced deep-water turnover of DOM
and also allowed to distinguish between surface waters from eastern (Atlantic + modified PW) and western (Canada-basin
PW) sectors. The presented findings highlight the potential of designing in situ DOM fluorometers to trace the freshwater
origins and decipher water mass mixing dynamics in the region and the potential of FDOM as a biogeochemical tracer.
KEY-WORDS: FLUORESCENT DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER; DEEP WATER TURNOVER; WATER FRACTIONS; WATER MASSES;
ARCTIC
29
Reutilization of in situ produced dissolved organic matter:
Effect of UV irradiation
MIRANDA, M.1,2*, BRUHNKE P.3, OSTERHOLZ, H.3, DITTMAR T.3, ZIELINSKI, O.1
Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment, University of Oldenburg, Schleusenstrasse 1, 26382, Wilhelmshaven, Germany
Air and Water Quality Laboratory, University of Panama, 0824 Panama, Republic of Panama
3
Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment, University of Oldenburg, 26129, Oldenburg, Germany
1
2
The oceans contain approximately 662 Pg of Carbon, and one of the largest pools of DOM. Large portion of DOM
remains for long periods of time without apparent changes, and their concentration in seawater is low1. The transformation
and reuse of the DOM is influenced mainly by physicochemical and biological processes. The most important of these
triggers is exposure to sunlight of these compounds, which produces the destruction of chemical structures into smaller
fragments which can be reused easily by microorganisms. Samples of dissolved organic matter from three mesocosms
incubated for about 1000 days from different substrates were used for this research. Samples of in situ produced DOM were
UV irradiated continuously for 30 days. A control test was carried out simultaneously in darkness. Samples were filtered
through 0,1 microns, protected from light and stored in cold. Total organic carbon, EEM spectrum, Humidification index
(HIX), Biological Index (BIX) and total cell counts were performed. The results indicate that as the major components of the
FDOM are degraded by UV radiation, the production of labile fractions such as tyrosine peak was increased. A correlation
between the fluorescence intensity peak for tyrosine and the number of cells was observed. The concentration of Dissolved
Organic Carbon remained quasi-constant, thereby suggesting the reusability of dissolved matter contained in the samples.
Our research provides spectroscopic evidences of the reutilization of FDOM fractions after UV irradiation.
KEYWORDS: UV, EEM, FDOM, ULTRAVIOLET, BIX, HIX
30
Catcher in the ocean: Organic ligands and their role in marine
life cycles
JANA GEUER1,2 *, MICHAEL RUDOLPH1,3**, BORIS KOCH1,4
Alfred Wegener Institute, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
University of Bremen, Bibliothekstraße 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany
3
University of Konstanz, Universitätsstraße 10, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
4
University of Applied Sciences, An der Karlstadt 8, 27568 Bremerhaven, Germany
1
2
T
race metals such as iron are essential micronutrients for marine algae and microbes. Due to their low solubility in
seawater however, the concentration of those metal ions limits primary production. By forming complexes with
dissolved organic matter (DOM) trace metals become stabilised in seawater. Those ligands within the DOM can
stem from degradation processes or active production by microorganisms. Microbial biosynthesis of ligands to facilitate
iron(III)-uptake is only one example of primary producers coping with the scarcity of those direly needed metals. Global
changes such as glacial melting largely influence the concentration and bioavailability of micronutrients. However, the
chemical structures of ligands as well as pathways of ligand production and degradation are largely unknown. Because of
their important role marine ligands could serve as proxies for changes in the environment and might help in monitoring
climate changes on a molecular level.
This study aims for the development of a methodology to identify, specify and quantify targeted organic ligands. Seawater
was filtered and extracted via solid-phase extraction. Ligands were identified via Fourier-transform mass spectrometry (MS).
Liquid chromatography coupled with MS and UV/Vis-detection was used for ligand quantification.
First results demonstrate the successful identification and quantification of ligands in seawater extracts. Hence, a few
molecules contributing to the largely uncharacterized DOM-pool could be identified. We plan on separating the ligands from
bulk DOM by implementing immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) in this study. Moreover, the investigation
of photo-degradation processes will shed light onto the life cycles of marine ligands. Microbial production of ligands could
then be compared to our findings concerning the ligand composition in seawater.
Our established analytical pipeline will ultimately lead to further insight into ligand pathways and contribute fundamental
understanding to this significant part of DOM, which will help observing environmental changes in the future.
KEYWORDS: PRIMARY PRODUCTION, TRACE METAL BIOAVAILABILITY, DOM, LIGANDS, LC-MS
31
Proceedings
TOOLS FOR ASSESSING CONTENT, SPECIATION
AND ORIGIN OF DOM IN AQUATIC SYSTEMS
RAFAEL GONÇALVES-ARAUJO1,2*
Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Climate Sciences Division, Physical Oceanography of Polar Seas,
PHYTOOPTICS Group, Bussestraße 24, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
2
University of Bremen, Faculty of Biology, PO Box 330440, 28334 Bremen, Germany
1
ABSTRACT
Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is a major component of the carbon-pool in aquatic systems and thus
represents an important pathway on the carbon cycle, especially in marine environments. For instance, studies
have used DOM to assess drinking water quality, its importance on biogeochemical cycles, its usefulness as
an environmental tracer, etc. This article discusses some of the current methods used to assess the amount
and composition of DOM, and applications of DOM as an environmental tracer in aquatic systems. Different
techniques varying from molecular, optical, and chemical analyses to satellite remote sensing have been
employed to identify, characterize and quantify DOM and to assess its distribution, composition and dynamics
in distinct aquatic environments. Those approaches however, focus only on specific fractions of the total DOMpool. Hence, recent studies have attempted to link the results provided by such complimentary methods to
reach a more comprehensive understanding on the total DOM-pool in aquatic systems. Additionally, DOM
spectroscopic measurements (e.g. absorbance and fluorescence) are cost-effective tools and can be sampled
with high resolution by autonomous devices such as fluorometers. Furthermore, the optical properties of
DOM have been shown to be reliable proxies for monitoring water quality and for tracing fresh water along
the Arctic Ocean. With the climate change pressure on Arctic environments and the expected increase in fresh
water and ancient carbon export from the continent to the ocean, optical analyses of DOM can be an easyto-measure and affordable parameters for assessing and monitoring these effects in the Arctic environment.
KEYWORDS: DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER, CDOM, FDOM, OPTICAL INDICES, ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
1. Introduction
With the climate change pressure on the environment,
the scientific community has sought a more comprehensive
understanding on the carbon cycle, its reservoirs and the
processes governing their dynamics. Aquatic systems
play an important role for the carbon cycle, for instance,
as provision of a large pool of carbon, important sink and
turnover of organic carbon. As a consequence, increasing
effort has been devoted to study aquatic environments
and processes governing the dynamics of both, organic
and inorganic carbon. With more studies on the
characterization of stocks, sources, dynamics, and fate of
32
both organic and inorganic carbon, a more comprehensive
understanding of the carbon cycle would be reached, which
is of great importance for improving forecasts of future
climate scenarios.
Non-living organic matter is present in aquatic
systems as particles, colloids, and dissolved molecules.
The dissolved fraction of organic matter (DOM) is
operationally defined by filtration with specific pore size,
with 0.45 μm being the most accepted limit [Steinberg,
2003]. The DOM fraction encompasses a wide range of
organic compounds with variable molecular complexity
and is one of the largest carbon-pools on Earth [Hedges,
1992]. The most frequently observed compounds in
the DOM-pool are amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids,
pigments, lignins, tannins, and proteins, whose relative
contribution varies in different environments, in relation
to its origin. For instance, terrestrially-derived humic
acids derived from lignin, which is formed exclusively in
vascular plants, contain large amounts of carbon in the
form of aromatic carbons and phenols [Lebo et al., 2000].
Microbially-derived amino acids and proteins, on the other
hand, contain a low aromatic and phenolic content in
relation to terrestrial sourced DOM [Geider and La Roche,
2002]. Given the huge variety in DOM composition and
the wide panel of different approaches employed to analyze
it, this article provides a brief review on some of the current
methods applied to assess the amount and composition of
DOM. Secondly, an overview on the applications of DOM
properties as environmental tracers in aquatic systems is
presented, with focus on the Arctic marine environment.
2. Quantitative and qualitative methods for DOM assessment
Different methods have been applied for performing
chemical analyses of DOM. In general, those methods can
be classified into two groups according to the preparation of
the sample for analysis: the analyses involving purification
and/or pre-concentration and the analyses performed
in filtered original water (Figure 1). The purification and
pre-concentration are employed to avoid interference
of inorganic ions, which can affect highly to sensitive
analyses. However, those methods can have analytical
errors embedded in their analysis such as oxidation of
only a part of DOM and increase in DOM concentration
during drying of samples [Bolan et al., 1996]. A wide range
of methods have been developed using such techniques,
for instance, solid phase extraction (SPE), ultrafiltration,
nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, or electrodialysis. Although
those methods have been widely applied in DOM studies,
this article focuses on the approaches using filtered original
water, which are here further divided into molecular
and bulk analyses. The methods for DOM analysis using
filtered original water can vary significantly with regards
to the analytical procedure, including elemental analysis,
isotopic analysis, chromatography, and mass spectrometry.
Figure 1. Strategies in the chemical analyses of DOM with respect to the pre-processing of samples [addapted from Dubinenkov,
2015].
33
2.1. Molecular analysis
By molecular analysis, this article refers to the
quantification of an essentially pure type of organic
compound or compound class. Two major groups of
methods are applied in molecular analysis of DOM, the
targeted and the non-targeted (Figure 2). Targeted methods
are focused on analyzing specific organic compounds,
which structure is well defined in the literature. In
DOM research, such molecules are usually referred to as
biomarkers. Non-targeted methods are used to detect
the analytical signal (or superposition of signals) from
multiple molecular components with the DOM mixture. In
addition, non-targeted methods can also be employed for
the characterization of bulk DOM, since they can provide
information on the carbon content in a water sample.
Figure 2. Strategies in the chemical analyses of DOM regarding the methods of analysis [addapted from Dubinenkov, 2015].
2.1.1. Targeted molecules
The analysis of targeted molecules consists of quantifying
a specific compound based on its extraction from the water
samples. Examples for targeted biomolecules are lignin
phenols, proteins and amino acids, sugars, amino-sugars,
and lipids. Such molecules can be analyzed by applying
different techniques. For example, most proteinogenic
amino acids can be retained and separated by highperformance liquid chromatography (HPLC; Mopper and
Lindroth, 1982) whereas some phenols can be separated
using both gas chromatography [Benner and Opsahl, 2001]
and HPLC.
2.1.2. Non-targeted molecules
Non-targeted approaches focus on the simultaneous
detection of multiple molecular components. However, such
methods can also provide bulk estimates of DOM. Among
the several non-targeted methods for analysis of DOM,
the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and the Fourier
transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICR MS) have been applied in many studies focusing on
molecular characterization of DOM in the last decades.
34
Despite of the wide application of both methods, this
subsection focuses on the FT-ICR MS method, given the
significant increase in the number of studies using that
method to chemically characterize DOM.
FT-ICR MS provides a detailed characterization of the
diversity of molecular formulas contained in the analyzed
DOM samples [Koch and Dittmar, 2006]. Three distinct
ways are used to analyze DOM with mass spectrometry,
nevertheless all involving preliminary purification and
concentration of samples: hyphenation with HPLC
[Dittmar et al., 2007], direct injection of samples extracts
[Kim et al., 2003] and chromatographic fractions [Koch et
al., 2008]. The FT-ICR MS determines the mass-to-charge
ratio (m/z) of ions based on their cyclotron frequency in
a fixed magnetic field [Marshall and Hendrickson, 2002].
Given the high accuracy and sensitivity of the method,
thousands of different mass peaks of DOM can be resolved
and their respective molecular formulas can be assigned
[Koch et al., 2005]. Several different approaches have been
applied for visualizing the molecular information provided
by the FT-ICR MS. Among them, the van Krevelen diagram
is the most popular method applied [van Krevelen, 1950;
Schmidt et al., 2009]. The diagram is constructed based on
the atomic ratios of carbon compounds and is obtained
from the hydrogen index (hydrogen:carbon) as a function
of the oxygen index (oxygen:carbon).
2.2. Bulk analyses
Bulk analyses to quantify and characterize DOM
samples can be subdivided into elemental, isotopic, and
spectroscopic methods. The most common quantitative
representation of DOM in natural waters is dissolved organic
carbon (DOC) concentration. It is usually quantified via
high temperature catalytic oxidation to CO2 [Sugimura and
Suzuki, 1988]. Carbon isotopic measurements (e.g. 13C and
14
C) can also provide information on bulk DOM in aquatic
systems. Furthermore, such measurements can provide
information on both mass and age of DOM [Williams
and Druffel, 1987; Druffel and Bauer, 2000]. Studies have
shown that DOC in deep waters presented q14C values
reaching –502‰ (i.e., 5600 years) in the Southern Ocean
[Druffel and Bauer, 2000] and –540‰ (i.e., 6240 years)
in the central North Pacific Ocean [Williams and Druffel,
1987]. However, this article focuses on the spectroscopic
methods, such as absorbance (section 2.2.1) and
fluorescence (section 2.2.2) spectra. These parameters can
be monitored with in situ autonomous platforms and ocean
color remote sensing [Cooper et al., 2005; Siegel et al., 2005;
Heim et al., 2014], and the derived optical indices (section
2.2.3) used to characterize and evaluate the transformation
and reactivity of DOM.
2.2.1. Chromophoric dissolved organic matter
Spectral analyses of DOM have been applied to
assess the optically active fraction of DOM, the colored
(or chromophoric) and fluorescent DOM (CDOM and
FDOM, respectively). CDOM is the DOM fraction that
absorbs light in the ultraviolet (UV) and visible wavelength
ranges [Siegel et al., 2002], whereas a fraction of CDOM is
able to fluoresce, characterizing the FDOM fraction. From
the absorbance spectra obtained with spectrophotometers,
the Napierian absorption coefficient of CDOM (a) at each
wavelength (λ) is obtained from the given equation: aλ(m1)=(2.303×Aλ)/L, where Aλ is the absorbance at specific
wavelength and L is the cuvette path length in meters. That
coefficient is adopted as an index of CDOM amount and
different wavelengths have been chosen to determine a.
Studies focusing on ocean color remote sensing previously
presented results on absorption in the visible wavelength
range, a440 or a443 [Siegel et al., 2002, 2005; Heim et
al., 2014]. Other studies, on the other hand, used the
absorption in the UV range (e.g. a325 and a350) because
of its correlations with DOC and lignin concentration
[Spencer et al., 2009; Stedmon et al., 2011], and also because
CDOM is the most important optically active constituent
of water in the open ocean with regards to absorption in the
UV wavelength range [Nelson and Siegel, 2013]. Moreover,
DOC has been shown to be strongly correlated with both
CDOM and FDOM in the Arctic Ocean [Walker et al., 2013;
Gonçalves-Araujo et al., 2015]. Therefore optically active
fractions of DOM can be a proxy for the total DOM-pool
(based on DOC measurements) in the Arctic environment.
2.2.2. Fluorescent dissolved organic matter
FDOM has also been used as an index of DOM amount
[Benner et al., 2005; Cooper et al., 2005]. Furthermore,
it can provide information on the origin, mixing, and
removal of different fractions of DOM [Yamashita and
Tanoue, 2003; Chari et al., 2013; Fukuzaki et al., 2014;
Gonçalves-Araujo et al., 2015]. By acquiring the excitationemission-matrices (EEMs), a qualitative evaluation of the
different compounds of bulk DOM from spectroscopy
35
can be performed [Coble, 1996]. With the adaptation of
the Parallel Factor Analysis (PARAFAC) for the analysis
of DOM, a more holistic differentiation of underlying
independent DOM components was possible [Stedmon
et al., 2003; Stedmon and Bro, 2008]. The PARAFAC is
a multi-way analysis that can be applied to decompose
trilinear data arrays such as EEMs. Furthermore, EEMs
must be corrected for inner-filter effects and for the Raman
and Rayleigh scattering prior to PARAFAC modeling
[Murphy et al., 2013]. Recent studies attempted to
associate molecular groups and PARAFAC-derived DOM
components [Stubbins et al., 2014; Kellerman et al., 2015;
Wagner et al., 2015]. They found significant correlations
between the humic-like fluorescent peak A [e.g., Coble,
2007] and high molecular weight compounds with little
nitrogen, between the protein-like fluorescent peak T and
low molecular weight aromatic compounds (such as amino
acids) and between the humic-like fluorescent peak C and
lignin-derived phenols. Moreover, a recent study pointed
out that some PARAFAC-derived components from the
OpenFluor database [Murphy et al., 2014] have been shown
to match with fluorescence of specific organic compounds,
such as salicylic acid, tyrosine, tryptophan and p-cresol
[Wünsch et al., 2015]. Finally, the fluorescence quantum
yield (Φ) of a pure fluorophore represents the probability
of it to fluoresce after being excited by light [Lakowicz,
2006]. However, given that CDOM in a natural sample
represents a complex mixture of different molecules, some
of those molecules are not able to fluoresce. Hence, the
CDOM fluorescence efficiency of a given water sample
is the result of the combination of those signals. Thus,
studies for analysis of DOM in natural water samples
have expressed their results by means of the apparent
fluorescence quantum yield (AQY), which represents Φ for
a mixture of fluorophores [Green and Blough, 1994; Del
Vecchio and Blough, 2004; Wünsch et al., 2015]. AQY has
been pointed out as a good proxy to assess the effects of
microbial turnover of DOM [Catalá et al., 2015].
2.2.3. Optical indices for DOM modification
The information contained in the spectral analysis
of both CDOM and FDOM cannot only determine the
amount and composition of DOM components, but it can
also give insights into DOM origin and transformation. For
that purpose, several optical indices have been developed.
The spectral slope of absorption spectra (S) is obtained by
applying an exponential function to the UV-VIS spectral
range. It has been shown to be inversely correlated with
the molecular weight of DOM and it can also be related
to photobleaching [Helms et al., 2008]. The choice of
each spectral range for assessment of the spectral slope
varies among different studies and sampling regions. For
instance, S values acquired in the UV region (e.g., 275–
295 nm) can differ from results expressed by means of
the VIS region (e.g., 350–400 nm) reflecting differences
regarding the origin of DOM, as from terrestrial or marine
character [Helms et al., 2008]. Other studies obtained
S values considering the full UV-VIS regions, deriving
S from the range between 300–650 nm [Stedmon and
Markager, 2001]. A recent study showed that nitrate and
cytochrome C exert strong influence on CDOM absorption
spectra, given their absorbance peaks at 302 and 405 nm,
respectively [Catalá et al., 2016]. Furthermore, that same
study showed that those two chromophores can lead S275295 and S350-400 to an overestimation by 13.3 ± 6.0%
and 14.8 ± 10.6%, respectively. The slope ratio (SR) is
36
obtained from the ratio between UV and VIS absorption
spectral slope (275–295 and 350–400 nm, respectively) and
provides strong differentiation between open ocean waters
from those of near-shore coastal or estuarine origin [Helms
et al., 2008]. The specific UV absorbance (SUVA) index is
obtained as a function of the UV absorbance (at 254 nm)
and DOC concentration, and it is used to trace the degree
of aromaticity in CDOM samples [Weishaar et al., 2003],
which is in turn correlated to the molecular weight [Helms
et al., 2008].
Fluorescence is widely used to assess the degree of
humification of bulk DOM, and thus to provide insights
into the origin of DOM. The fluorescence index (FI) can
be applied to distinguish sources of isolated aquatic fulvic
acids. It is determined based on the ratio of the emission
intensity at a wavelength of 450 nm to that at 500 nm,
obtained with an excitation of 370 nm [Mcknight et al.,
2001]. The humification index (HIX) estimates the degree
of maturation of DOM [Zsolnay et al., 1999; Zsolnay,
2003], considering that humification is associated with
an increase in the C/H ratio [Stevenson, 1994] and is thus
reflected in emissions at longer wavelengths [Senesi et al.,
1991]. This index is obtained from the ratio of the areas
of two spectral wavelength regions (435-480 nm versus
300-345 nm) in the emission spectra for an excitation at
254 nm [Zsolnay et al., 1999]. An increase in the degree
of aromaticity (humification) leads to a red shift in the
emission spectrum, which results in higher HIX values. The
biological/autochthonous index (BIX) is used to assess the
biological modification of DOM based on UV fluorescence.
The BIX index is obtained by calculating the ratio of the
emission at 380 and 430 nm, excited at 310 nm [Huguet et
al., 2009]. High BIX values correspond to autochthonous
origin of DOM, i.e., freshly released DOM, whereas low
BIX values indicate allochthonous DOM [Huguet et al.,
2009].
A recent study investigated the correlations between
optical indices and molecular families derived from
FT-ICR-MS measurements [Wagner et al., 2015]. The
authors found that SUVA and HIX are effective in tracking
terrestrially-derived groups of highly aromatic compounds
with low N, P and S content, which have been previously
pointed out by other studies to be photo-labile [Gonsior
et al., 2009; Stubbins et al., 2010]. FI and BIX indices have
been shown, on the other hand, to be associated to biolabile aliphatic formulae [Wagner et al., 2015].
3. DOM as an environmental tracer
DOM has been shown to be a useful tool in a wide
range of applications, from scientific to management
interests. Studies have shown that FDOM measurements
provide a fast and sensitive way to monitor the qualitative
and quantitative variation of DOM in drinking water,
and during the sewage treatment and also recycling water
processes [Guo et al., 2010; Hambly et al., 2010; Murphy
et al., 2011]. PARAFAC-derived protein-like components
(and their relative contribution compared to humic-like
components) were suggested to be a reliable tracer to
monitor the relative amount of raw or treated sewage in
China [Guo et al., 2010]. Another study, conducted with
samples from municipal water systems, highlighted the
dominance of the terrestrial humic-like PARAFAC-derived
component, which has also been identified in other studies
performed on engineered, wastewater impact environments
[Murphy et al., 2011].
Besides its potential use to monitor water quality and
sewage and wastewater treatment, DOM has been shown to
be a water mass tracer, especially the fresh water fractions
[Stedmon and Markager, 2001; Stedmon et al., 2015].
Strong correlations between CDOM and the fraction of
meteoric water, which is a tracer of continental fresh water
input [Dodd et al., 2012], can be used as a proxy to monitor
the fresh water export from the Arctic to the Atlantic
basins, given the high DOM concentrations in those waters.
Furthermore, other optical parameters of DOM can be
applied to trace the fraction of meteoric water in the Arctic
Ocean. Studies have used the correlation between S and
a375 to detect the fractions of meteoric water [Granskog
et al., 2012; Stedmon et al., 2015] by applying the model
proposed by Stedmon and Markager [2001]. It has also
been demonstrated the potential of the visible wavelength
fluorescence of DOM (VIS-FDOM) to trace the fresh
water content of the Arctic outflow [Gonçalves-Araujo et
al., submitted]. Hence, FDOM can be used as a proxy to
trace the origin of the waters occupying the Arctic surface
layer, based on VIS-FDOM end-members proposed by that
study, as being generated either in the Eurasian or Canadian
basins, which cannot be detected by traditional analysis of
hydrographical data (e.g. T-S diagrams and thermohaline
intervals for water masses). Those authors concluded that
their results provide an indication of which wavelength
regions for DOM fluorescence carry information on DOM
source and mixing. Such information has potential for
supporting the design of in situ DOM fluorometers as a
low-cost mechanism to provide high spatial and temporal
resolution data for tracing the freshwater origins and
decipher water mass mixing dynamics in the region, given
the concern regarding the effects of climate change over the
Arctic Ocean.
Given that CDOM absorbs light in both the UV and
visible wavelength ranges, it can play an important role in
the biogeochemical cycles in coastal and inner-shelf waters,
being one of the dominant components interacting with
the underwater light field in those environments [Siegel et
al., 2002; Nelson and Siegel, 2013]. Furthermore, it can act
as a shield for the aquatic biota from harmful UV radiation
[Arrigo and Brown, 1996]. As a result of its UV absorbing
properties, CDOM is susceptible to photo-degradation,
which either induces direct mineralization or produces
microbiologically labile low molecular weight compounds,
which are subsequently utilized by bacteria [Mopper and
Kieber, 2002]. CDOM does not only absorb UV-radiation,
it also absorbs heat, thus influencing the light and heat
penetration in surface waters [Granskog et al., 2015],
especially in coastal and inner-shelf regions.
37
Finally, given the increased coastal erosion and
permafrost thawing rates in the Arctic, with consequent
release of ancient organic carbon [Aiken et al., 2014;
Dubinenkov et al., 2015], many studies have attempted
to trace and elucidate the fate of such compounds in the
aquatic environment. A recent study showed that coastal
erosion in the Yukon coast releases significant amounts of
DOC to the coastal Beaufort Sea [Tanski et al., 2016]. Based
on the results of stable carbon isotope analysis it was also
shown that, especially during summer and autumn, ancient
DOC is released and will likely contribute to older DOC in
the Yukon River and its tributaries in the coming decades
[Aiken et al., 2014].
4. Conclusions
DOM has been shown to play an important role on
the carbon cycle, acting as a link between terrestrial and
aquatic systems. Furthermore, it is an easy-to-measure and
affordable tool for monitoring water quality and sewage
treatment. DOM is subject to several processes that affect
its composition, amount and reactivity. However, the effects
of such processes on different compounds, as well as the
fate of DOM in aquatic systems are still under debate. With
the ongoing climate change over the environment, more
effort has been devoted to understand the role and fate
of DOM in aquatic systems. A variety of new techniques
have emerged in the last decades and better qualitative and
quantitative assessment of the DOM is possible. However,
there are still unresolved questions and unmet capabilities
that need attention in the coming years. For instance,
a more comprehensive understanding on the processes
governing DOM dynamics, such as photo-oxidation,
microbial turnover, adsorption/flocculation, etc. is needed
for a better estimation of DOM production rates as well
as the rates of DOM transformation. A recent special
issue gathered several papers linking the chemical and
optical properties of DOM (“Linking optical and chemical
properties of dissolved organic matter in natural waters”,
Frontiers in Journal, Section Marine Biogeochemistry).
Such studies can provide, for instance, a more consistent
interpretation of optical indices of DOM modification
and PARAFAC-derived fluorescent components. Finally,
it is clear that implementation of new observing systems
including new ocean color sensors and ocean observing
systems, as well as the deployment of autonomous platforms
with DOM-fluorometers, will be responsible for much of
the future collection of data. Therefore, advances on the
analysis and interpretation of the optical properties of
DOM are required to improve the sensitivity and specificity
of sensors deployable on these platforms.
5. Acknowledgements
The author thanks to Prof. Dr. Astrid Bracher and Lumi
Haraguchi for their valuable comments and discussions.
Rafael Gonçalves-Araujo is supported by a PhD fellowship
from the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher
Level Personnel (CAPES-Brazil, Grant 12362/12-3) in
collaboration with the German Academic Exchange
Service (DAAD).
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42
Fighting eutrophication in shallow coastal waters
RENÉ FRIEDLAND1*, NARDINE STYBEL2**
Leibniz-Institute for Baltic Sea Research Warnemuende, Seestr. 15, 18119 Rostock, Germany,
EUCC – The Coastal Union Germany, Friedrich-Barnewitz-Str. 3, 18119 Rostock, Germany
1
2
Abstract
E
utrophication is among the most severe environmental problems threatening the European coastal ecosystems and
the ecosystem services they provide. It results in high turbidity with low euphotic depths and a shift of primary
production from macrophytes to phytoplankton with impacts to higher trophic levels. The classical approach to fight
eutrophication is the reduction of nutrient inputs. Nevertheless, many shallow systems, such as inner coastal waters in the
Baltic Sea (Darss-Zingst-Bodden-Chain or Small Bay of Szczecin Lagoon) do not respond any longer to changes of external
nutrient loads, mainly due to the high nutrient contamination of sediments (which frequently boosts phytoplankton after
resuspension) combined with the low water exchange with open waters. New approaches are necessary, to improve the water
quality of coastal systems and to reach the targets of European legislation like Water Framework Directive or Marine Strategy
Framework Directive. This session will discuss the whole range of internal measures, including conception, modelling and
implementation as well as public acceptance and economic valuation. Studies addressing restauration measures, linked
techniques or socio-economic aspects of the implementation are very welcome.
Oral Presentations
(III-1) Pernille Nielsen (invited)
Ecosystem goods and services of blue mussel mitigation cultures
(III-2) Michal Grossowicz
A quantitative tool reflecting impact of nutrient enrichment from mariculture
(III-3)
René Friedland, Nardine Stybel
Mussel cultivation for water quality improvement, case study Szczecin Lagoon
(P05)
Anton Bühler
Mapping methods of sublitoral seagrass meadows and macroalgae: an overview
Proceedings
Fighting eutrophication
43
Ecosystem goods and services of blue mussel mitigation
cultures
PERNILLE NIELSEN1*, PETER CRANFORD2, KAREN TIMMERMANN3, MARIE MAAR3, JENS
KJERULF PETERSEN1
DTU Aqua, Danish Shellfish Centre, Øroddevej 80, DK-7900 Nykøbing Mors, Denmark,
Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Bedford Institute of Oceanography, 1 Challenger Dr., Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B4C 4C9, Canada
3
Aarhus University, Department of Bioscience, PO Box 358, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
1
2
N
utrient enrichment of coastal waters mainly due to run-off from human activities is a problem occurring worldwide.
Nutrient run-off is of key importance in the production of organic material in the coastal waters, however, once
in excess, the ecosystem can suffer from adverse effects. Marine suspension-feeders, such as mussels, possess a
huge potential for clearing the water column of particulate matter. A controlled introduction of large densities of mussels
to eutrophic habitats represents an ecological engineering approach to alleviating eutrophication symptoms and is know as
mussel mitigation culture. Mussel mitigation farming has focus on the ecological benefits of sequestering excess nutrients
that are removed from the system and recycled back to land. However, the availability of this mitigation approach does not
negate the need to reduce excess nutrient emissions at the source.
In our study, mussels (Mytilus edulis) were used to remove nutrients from a highly eutrophic Danish fjord and studied
on a nutrient extraction mussel farm during a full production cycle. Mussel farming resulted in a production of 900-1100 t
blue mussels in one year corresponding to a nutrient removal of 11-16 t N and 0.5-0.7 t P. In addition to the direct removal
of nutrients - main service provided by mitigation culture - the water column clarity was measured at different spatial and
temporal scales. Food depletion measurements ranged from 27 to 44% at the scale of individual mussels and averaged 13 to
31% at the farm-scale. Despite reduced food availability at this nutrient extraction mussel farm, mussel growth remained
uniform throughout the farm during the production cycle. These data were used in a modelling exercise that explored possible
options for optimizing the ecological services and goods provided by nutrient extraction mussel farms, thus contributing to
achieve set environmental goals.
KEYWORDS: MUSSEL MITIGATION CULTURES, EXCESS NUTRIENTS, FOOD DEPLETION, NUTRIENT REMOVAL.
44
A quantitative tool reflecting impact of nutrient enrichment
from mariculture
MICHAL GROSSOWICZ1*, DAN TCHERNOV1, HEZI GILDOR2
Department of Marine Biology, L. H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, 199 Aba Khoushy Ave., Haifa, 3498838, Israel
The Fredy & Nadine Herrmann Institute of Earth Sciences, the Hebrew University, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, 91904,
Israel.
1
2
T
he global rise in human population necessitates the development of mariculture facilities to promote food security for
future generations. However, these finfish cages are a direct source of nutrients and antibiotics to the water column.
Here, we research the nutrient pollution originating from fish cages in the Eastern Mediterranean by utilizing a
Lagrangian modeling approach that followed trajectories of the water parcels. The effects of farm size and the farm’s distance
from the shoreline were included in the model, and biological uptake and sinking of nutrients were incorporated into the
analysis. By using computations of back-trajectories, we were able to identify which of the proposed farm locations were
potentially harmful to strategically important shoreline areas, such as desalination plants. The results suggest that remotelylocated, smaller and spatially distant farms are more preferable to limit the nutrient and antibiotic effluent resulting from
mariculture activity.
KEYWORDS: LEVANTINE BASIN, LAGRANGIAN SIMULATION, ANTHROPOGENIC EUTROPHICATION, MARICULTURE,
MANAGEMENT
45
Mussel cultivation in the Szczecin Lagoon
RENÉ FRIEDLAND1*, NARDINE STYBEL2
1
2
E
utrophication is among the most severe environmental problems threatening the European coastal ecosystems and
the ecosystem services they provide. It results in high turbidity with low euphotic depths and a shift of primary
production from macrophytes to phytoplankton with impacts to higher trophic levels. The classical approach to fight
eutrophication is the reduction of nutrient inputs. Nevertheless, many shallow systems, such as inner coastal waters in the
Baltic Sea do not respond any longer to changes of external nutrient loads, mainly due to the high nutrient contamination
of sediments combined with the low water exchange with open waters. New approaches are necessary, to improve the water
quality of coastal systems and to reach the targets of European legislation like Water Framework Directive or Marine Strategy
Framework Directive. In our study on the Szczecin Lagoon mussel cultivation seems to be the most promising measure,
as zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) are prevalent in the whole lagoon. But also the cultivation of reeds or submerged
macrophytes are under scientific consideration within the project BONUS BaltCOAST. First workshop results show the local
acceptance of key stakeholders on mitigating measures.
KEYWORDS: EUTROPHICATION, ZEBRA MUSSEL, BALTIC SEA
46
Mapping methods of sublitoral seagrass meadows and
macroalgae: an overview
ANTON BÜHLER1*, HENDRIK SCHUBERT1
Universität Rostock, Institut für Biowissenschaften, AG Ökologie Albert-Einstein-Straße 3 D-18057 Rostock, Germany
1
S
eagrass meadows provide fundamental ecological services including: carbon sequestration and export, nutrient
cycling, sediment stabilisation, enhanced biodiversity, breeding and spawning ground for many aquatic species. Yet,
seagrass meadows are disappearing at an alarming rate both in the Baltic Sea and worldwide, as they are considered
‘coastal canaries’, suffering from high anthropogenic influences on coastal ecosystems. Facing the threats of global change it
is more important than ever to understand and quantify ecological services provided by seagrasses, in order to allow effective
monitoring and conservation efforts.
The following study took place within the context of the BACOSA project, a collaboration between the Universities of
Rostock, Kiel and Greifswald; which aims to analyse, evaluate and quantify the function and the value of coastal ecosystems.
A fundamental part to answer this questions is the assessment of macrophyte stocks, their response to environmental change
and their interaction with other trophic levels. In this study I used three survey methods: i) high definition satellite imagery,
ii) sidescan sonar and iii) scientific diving, to analyse the depth distribution of Zostera marina and other macrophytes in the
outer coastal and Bodden waters of the southern Baltic Sea island of Hiddensee (Germany). The advantages as well as the
drawbacks of the different survey methods are discussed in this poster.
KEYWORDS: SEAGRASS, MAPPING TECHNIQUES, HIGH-DEFINITION SATELLITE IMAGERY, SCIENTIFIC DIVING
47
Proceedings
FIGHTING EUTROPHICATION
RENÉ FRIEDLAND1*, NARDINE STYBEL2**
1
2
Eutrophication, the enrichment of an ecosystem with
chemical nutrients, is one of the main environmental
problems threatening the European coastal ecosystems
and the ecosystem services they provide. Especially in the
Baltic Sea eutrophication threatens the biodiversity and is
caused by excessive inputs of nutrients (mainly nitrogen
and phosphorus) to the marine environment (HELCOM,
2014; 2015). High nutrient loads of the rivers which flow
into the Baltic, followed by enrichment of bioavailable
nutrients, caused increased levels of algal and plant growth,
increased turbidity, oxygen depletion, changes in species
composition, and blooms of algae (Andersen et al., 2015;
Fleming-Lehtinen et al., 2015). The latter has negative
impacts for local tourism due to potential harmful algae,
foam on beaches, and low water transparency. Hence, several
approaches to limit the nutrient inputs to the Baltic Sea
and its coastal water have been made. In 2007, HELCOM’s
Baltic Sea Action Plan (BSAP) was adopted and updated in
2013 (HELCOM, 2007; 2013). Additionally some countries
have local reduction limits, e.g., German rivers entering the
Baltic Sea should not have a higher Nitrogen-concentration
then 2.6 mg/l (BLANO, 2014; Schernewski et al., 2015). At
once, observations (e.g. Schubert et al., 2010 for DarssZingst-Bodden-Chain) and model simulations showed that
the nutrient input reductions by the BSAP are not sufficient
to meet the water quality targets, which have been defined
as Good Environmental Status for most coastal waters
(Friedland et al., 2012).
Therefore, internal measures become more and more
a scientific focus. Restoration measures usually known
for lake restoration (Cooke et al., 2016), such as mussel
farming, stocking of predatory fish, cultivation of reeds,
or submerged macrophytes are potential techniques. They
focus on the reduction of phytoplankton densities and
resuspension of sediments, which fuel the internal cycling
of nutrients (Karstens et al., 2015). In the Szczecin Lagoon
mussel cultivation seems to be the most promising measure,
48
as zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) are prevalent in the
whole lagoon (Schernewski et al., 2012), while blue mussels
(Mytilus edulis) are usually used in more saline Baltic
waters (Nielsen et al., 2016; Lindahl et al., 2005; Schröder et
al., 2014). By introducing artificial hard substrate in farms
(e.g. lines, nets made from polypropylene) mussel larvae
can settle and create dense mussel aggregates. By their high
filtration rate (e.g. 1083 l m-2 d-1 in natural mussel beds
(Stybel et al., 2009) they can improve water transparency.
Schernewski et al. (2012) estimated the potential increase
of secchi depth by 30 cm. As a result, decreased turbidity
will help to increase light penetration into deeper water
areas relevant for resettlement of macrophytes and
sediment stabilization based on macrophyte roots. When
mussels being harvested, nutrients, stored in the mussel, are
removed out of the water. Further, harvested mussels can
be processed to mussel meal or fertilizer which increases
their value in comparison to other nutrient abatement
measures (Gren et al., 2009) and can help to refinance
investment costs of the mussel plant. Alternatively,
macrophytes can be actively planted or resettled. This is
mainly known from shallow lakes (Hilt et al., 2006) and
results in high implementation costs as appropriate carrier
systems or materials are needed (Mählmann et al., 2006).
A first approach to re-establish seagrass beds (Zostera
marina) in the Baltic Sea was reported by Meyer & Nehring
(2006). Manipulating the ecosystem with changes in fish,
zooplankton, and phytoplankton community can also help
to reverse eutrophication processes. Usually turbid waters
lacking vegetation are dominated by cyprinids, such as
bream and roach, with a relatively high density of pikeperch
(Scheffer, 2013). Drastic reductions of the fish stock,
either by selected catching of cyprinids (non-predatory
fish) or stocking of predatory fish species, can change
the fish community into a dominance of roach and pike.
The carnivorous fish community is able to maintain a low
concentration of planktivorous fish which implies quite low
predation on zooplankton, which controls phytoplankton
concentrations by grazing (Joergensen, 2000).
Because internal measures in coastal waters are a
promising new concept for water quality improvement and
just few studies are available on this topic, more research
plants, testing, and modelling are needed. Simultaneously,
analyses of legal, ecological, and economic feasibility will
help to work on financing concepts as well as to increase
acceptance by local stakeholders (Krause et al., 2015).
Known for restored lakes, decreasing water turbidity can
have positive effects for the local tourism and even the
local fisheries sector (FAO, 2001) and favors macrophytes
settlement which in turn can lead to an ecological shift
from a phytoplankton dominated system to a macrophyte
dominated system (Hilt et al., 2006). Broad knowledge and
a shared understanding of internal measures can help to
fulfill the targets of the Water Framework Directive and to
increase benefits for the local community.
References:
Andersen, J.H., Carstensen, J., Conley, D.J., Dromph, K., Fleming-Lehtinen, V., Gustafsson, B.G., Josefson, A.B., Norkko, A.,
Villnäs, A., Murray, C., 2015: Long-term temporal and spatial trends in eutrophication status of the Baltic Sea, Biological
Reviews
BLANO, 2014: Harmonisierte Hintergrund- und Orientierungswerte für Nährstoffe und Chlorophyll-a in den deutschen
Küstengewässern der Ostsee sowie Zielfrachten und Zielkonzentrationen für die Einträge über die Gewässer (in
German). Hrsg.: Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit, www.meeresschutz.info/index.
php/berichte.html
Cooke, G.D., Welch, E.B., Peterson, S., Nichols, S.A., 2016: Restoration and Management of Lakes and Reservoirs. CRC
Press, 3. Edition, 616 p.
Fleming-Lehtinen, V., Andersen, J.H., Carstensen, J., Łysiak-Pastuszak, E., Murray, E., Pyhälä, M., Laamanen, M., 2015:
Recent developments in assessment methodology reveal that the Baltic Sea eutrophication problem is expanding,
Ecological Indicators 48, 380-388
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fisheries. By: Eddy H.R.R. Lammens, Institute for Inland Water Management and Waste Water Treatment Lelystad, The
Netherlands. 23p.
Friedland, R., Neumann, T., Schernewski G., 2012: Climate Change and the Baltic Sea Action Plan: Model simulations on the
future of the western Baltic Sea, Journal of Marine Systems 105–108: 175-186
Gren, I.-M., Lindahl, O., Lindqvist, M., 2009: Values of mussel farming for combating eutrophication: an application to the
Baltic Sea. Ecological Engineering 35(5): 935-945
HELCOM, 2007: HELCOM Baltic Sea Action Plan. HELCOM Ministerial Meeting Krakow, 1-101, Download: http://helcom.
fi/Documents/Baltic%20sea%20action%20plan/BSAP_Final.pdf
HELCOM, 2013: Summary report on the development of revised Maximum Allowable Inputs (MAI) and updated Country
Allocated Reduction Targets (CART) of the Baltic Sea Action Plan. Helsinki Commission, http://www.helcom.fi/balticsea-action-plan/nutrient-reduction-scheme/background-on-target-setting/
HELCOM, 2014: Eutrophication status of the Baltic Sea 2007-2011 - A concise thematic assessment. Baltic Sea Environment
Proceedings No. 143, http://helcom.fi/Lists/Publications/BSEP143.pdf
HELCOM, 2015: Updated Fifth Baltic Sea pollution load compilation (PLC-5.5). Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No.
145, http://helcom.fi/Lists/Publications/BSEP145_Highres.pdf
49
Hilt, S., Gross, E.M., Hupfer, M. , Morscheid, H. Mählmann, J., Melzer,A., Poltz,J., Sandrock,S., Scharf, E.-M., Schneider,S.,
van de Weyer, K., 2006: Restoration of submerged vegetation in shallow eutrophic lakes – A guideline and state of the art
in Germany. Limnologica - Ecology and Management of Inland Waters 36 (3), 155–171
Joergensen, S., 2000: Principles of Pollution Abatement. Elsevier, 532 p.
Karstens, S., Buczko, U., Glatzel, S., 2015: Phosphorus storage and mobilization in coastal Phragmites wetlands: Influence of
local-scale hydrodynamics, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 164, 124-133
Krause, G., Brugere, C., Diedrich, A., Ebeling, M.W., Ferse, S.C.A., Mikkelsen, E., Pérez Agúndez, J.A., Stead, S.M., Stybel, N.,
Troell, M., 2015: A revolution without people? Closing the people–policy gap in aquaculture development, Aquaculture
447, 44-55
Lindahl, O., Hart, R., Hernroth, B., Kollberg, S., Loo, L.-O., Olrog, L., Rehnstam-Holm, A.-S., Svensson, J., Svensson, S.,
Syversen, U., 2005: Improving Marine Water Quality by Mussel Farming: A Profitable Solution for Swedish Society,
AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment 34 (2), 131-138
Mählmann, J., Arnold, R., Herrmann, L., Morscheid, H., Mattukat, F., 2006: Künstliche Wiederbesiedlung von
submersen Makrophyten in Standgewässern mit Hilfe eines textilen Vegetationstragsystems (in German), Rostocker
Meeresbiologische Beiträge 15: 133-145
Meyer, T., Nehring, S., 2006: Anpflanzung von Seegraswiesen Zostera marina L. als interne Maßnahme zur Restaurierung
der Ostsee (in German), Rostocker Meeresbiologische Beiträge 15: 105-119.
Nielsen, P., Cranford, P.J., Maar, M., Petersen, J.K., 2016: Magnitude, spatial scale and optimization of ecosystem services
from a nutrient extraction mussel farm in the eutrophic Skive Fjord, Denmark. Aquaculture Environment Interactions,
8, 311-329
Scheffer, M., 2013: Ecology of Shallow Lakes, Springer Science & Business Media, 357 p.
Schernewski, G., Stybel, N., Neumann, T., 2012: Zebra Mussel Farming in the Szczecin (Oder) Lagoon: Water-Quality
Objectives and Cost-Effectiveness, Ecology and Society, 17(2), 4
Schernewski, G., Friedland, R., Carstens, M., Hirt, U., Leujak, W., Nausch, G., Neumann, T., Petenati, T., Sagert, S., Wasmund,
N., von Weber, M., 2014: Implementation of European marine policy: New water quality targets for German Baltic
waters. Mar. Pol. 51, 305-321
Schröder, T., Stank, J., Schernewski, G., Krost, P., 2014: The impact of a mussel farm on water transparency in the Kiel Fjord.
Ocean & Coastal Management 101, 42−52
Schubert, H., Wasmund, N., Sellner, K.G., 2010: Long-Term Investigations in Brackish Ecosystems, pp. 163-178, in: Müller,
F., Baessler, C., Schubert, H., Klotz, S. (eds.): Long-Term Ecological Research: Between Theory and Application, Springer
Netherlands, Dordrecht
Stybel, N., Fenske, C., Schernewski, G., 2009: Mussel Cultivation to Improve Water Quality in the Szczecin Lagoon. Journal
of Coastal Research 56(56):1459-1463
50
DEEP | DARK | COLD - Frontiers in polar and deep sea research
ALEXANDRA SCHOENLE1*, TOM J. LANGBEHN2**
General Ecology, Institute for Zoology, Department for Biology, Biocenter, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Straße 47b, 50674 Cologne,
Germany
2
Department of Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 52B, P.O. Box 7803, Bergen N-5020 Norway
1
*email: [email protected] **email: [email protected]
Abstract
O
rganisms in polar marine ecosystems and the deep sea endure extreme conditions including permanent or seasonal
darkness, low temperatures and restricted food supply. However, as our access to these ecosystems is limited we
lack a firm understanding of the interactions between biological traits and ecological processes in a changing
ocean. Increased economic interest in fisheries, petroleum and deep-sea mining has rendered these areas focal to future
exploitation. Hence, it is pivotal to study biological mechanisms driving these ecosystems to understand anthropogenic
impacts. We invite talks advancing our understanding from individual to ecosystem level in polar oceans and the deep sea.
Oral Presentations
(IV-1) Eduard Fadeev
Towards characterization of pelagic microbial communities at the Fram Strait
(IV-2) Meri Bilan
Soft corals of the Norwegian margin as transient habitats
(IV-3)
Laura Halbach
Feeding activity of larval Antarctic krill in the Scotia-Weddell Seas
(IV-4)
Dominik A. Nachtsheim Foraging hotspots of Weddell seals in the southern Weddell Sea
(P06)
Alexandra Schoenle
Ciliates in the deep sea: Recorded diversity and pressure experiments
(P07)
Alexandra Schoenle
Small microbes, vast deep sea: Methodological studies on heterotrophic flagellates
(P08)
Tom J. Langbehn
Photoperiodic implications on visual foraging in polar marine ecosystems
Proceedings
DEEP | DARK | COLD - Frontiers in polar and deep-sea research
51
Towards an integrated microbial observatory in the Arctic
Ocean
EDUARD FADEEV1,2*, JOSEPHINE RAPP1,2, PIERRE OFFRE1,2, IAN SALTER1,2, ANTJE BOETIUS1,2
Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz-Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology, Celsiusstraße 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany
1
2
T
he Fram Strait separates Northeast Greenland from the Svalbard Archipelago, and is the only deep connection to
the Arctic Ocean. Therefore, this strait is the only gateway for direct exchange of intermediate and deep waters
between the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic. Two main currents influence the exchanges: i) the West
Spitsbergen Current, bringing Atlantic waters northwards, and ii) the East Greenland Current, which carries cold Arctic
waters and ice southwards. These two currents consist of water masses with different origin, generate distinct physical and
chemical conditions between the eastern and western parts of the strait, which effects the biological characteristics in this
region. Oceanographic observations in the Fram Strait have been carried out for ~15 years with microbial research in the
water column focusing mainly on eukaryotes, while very little exploratory work was conducted on pelagic Bacteria and
Archaea. Here we present a preliminary report of the first extensive survey across the waters of the Fram Strait focused on
Bacterial and Archaeal domains, conducted as part of the Arctic long-term observatory HAUSGARTEN annual expedition
in summer 2016. Besides the investigation of “who is out there”, the observations gained in this survey will be integrated with
other biological and physical data of the long-term observatory framework and will provide an essential step towards the
understanding of the biochemical dynamics in the Fram Strait. In addition, on a long-term plan this project will contribute
to the microbial observatory work as part of the FRAM Helmholtz research infrastructure and EU AtlantOS program.
KEYWORDS: HAUSGARTEN, FRAM STRAIT, ARCTIC, PELAGIC MICROORGANISMS, LONG-TERM OBSERVATORY
52
Soft corals of the Norwegian margin as transient habitats
MERI BILAN1,2*, AUTUN PURSER3
Biologische Anstalt Helgoland, Alfred-Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Kurpromenade 201, 27498
Helgoland, Germany
2
Present Address: University of Açores, DOP/IMAR, Rua Prof. Dr. Frederico Machado, 9901-862 Horta, Portugal
3
Alfred-Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
1
T
he cold water coral reefs and associated fauna on the Norwegian margin have been studied with increasing vigor
during the last two decades, resulting in the first protected cold water coral reefs and new insights into coral ecology.
Nevertheless, spatial distribution, habitat preferences and the associated fauna of soft corals, in particular Drifa
glomerata, have not yet been described in detail. This is particularly important as this species is considered a vulnerable
marine ecosystem (VME) indicator. In order to fill this knowledge gap, we want to present here the spatial distribution and
associated biodiversity of these soft corals within and in the vicinity of the Lophelia reefs on the Norwegian margin from the
video footage collected with the JAGO submersible on the RV Polarstern ARKXXII/1a cruise in 2007.
The soft coral colonies are usually found outside of the living reef sub habitat. These soft corals enhance habitat complexity
and biodiversity within the area, providing ecological services that would not be available in the absence of the colonies.
However, upon death colonies do not provide the hard substrate which results from hard coral moralities on the Norwegian
Margin. We propose the hypothesis that D. glomerata and similar soft corals present additional transient habitat niches;
within this talk we describe and contrast the megafauna within these D. glomerata coral stands with those occupying other
sub habitats within the Norwegian margin reef ecosystems.
KEYWORDS: VULNERABLE MARINE ECOSYSTEMS (VME), NORWEGIAN MARGIN, CORALS
53
Feeding activity of larval Antarctic krill in the Scotia-Weddell
Seas
LAURA HALBACH1*, HANNELORE CANTZLER1, BETTINA MEYER1,2
Alfred-Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment, Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Germany
1
2
T
he recruitment success of Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, was linked to years with more extensive sea ice in the
previous winter, suggesting that sea ice biota may act as a food source when food in the water column is limited
during winter.
The present study aimed to test the hypothesis that larval krill in pack ice regions are in better condition, in terms of
food supply and feeding activity, than larvae from open water. Therefore, samples were taken in the Scotia Sea and northern
Weddell Sea during late austral winter from 14th August to 16th October 2013. Overall, krill larvae in pack ice regions
were not in better condition than in open water. In the pack ice regions, larval krill could not benefit from the high biomass
found within the last 10 cm of the sea ice (Ice Camp1: 21.78 µg L-1 Chl a and 400.55 µg L-1 POC; Ice Camp2: 12.68 µg L-1 Chl
a and 330.2 µg L-1 POC), reflected by their low feeding activities and relatively empty stomachs. In contrast, the high food
availability in open water (0.52 µg L-1 Chl a; 38.3 µg L-1 POC) and in the marginal ice zone (0.73 µg L-1 Chl a; 39.06 µg L-1
POC), was presumably used by larval krill. This was indicated by higher feeding activities and stomach content. Stomach
content analyses showed that different food sources were used during day and night, according to the distinguish diel vertical
migration behaviour of the larvae. During the day larval krill was closely associated with the ice, whereas after sunset they
were dispersed in the upper 20 m of the water column.
KEYWORDS: LARVAE, OVERWINTERING, FEEDING ACTIVITY, STOMACH CONTENT
54
Foraging hotspots of Weddell seals in the southern Weddell
Sea
DOMINIK A. NACHTSHEIM1*, SVENJA RYAN1, MICHAEL SCHRÖDER1, LAURA JENSEN1,
W. CHRIS OOSTHUIZEN2, MARTHÁN BESTER2, HORST BORNEMANN1
Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa and HanseWissenschaftskolleg, Delmenhorst, Germany
1
2
T
he region of the Filchner Outflow System (FOS) in the southeastern Weddell Sea is characterized by intensive and
complex interactions of different water masses. These hydrographic features convert the FOS in an oceanographic
hotspot, which may also show enhanced biological productivity and corresponding aggregations of marine top
predators. In this context, six adult Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) were instrumented with CTD-combined satelliterelay dive loggers during austral summer 2014 to investigate the influence of environmental conditions on the seals’ foraging
behaviour over winter and identify potential foraging hotspots in the FOS. Weddell seals preferred foraging in shallow areas
of the continental shelf (< 700 m), where they presumably exploited the abundant bentho-pelagic fish fauna during both
pelagic and demersal dives. Diurnal and seasonal variations in light availability also affected foraging activities. Furthermore,
Eastern Shelf Water and modified Warm Deep Water were associated with increased hunting time and foraging effort.
Moreover, two areas in the FOS were emphasized as potential foraging hotspots characterized by long residence times
suggesting enhanced prey availability. However, the underlying biological principles contributing to these foraging hotspots
still remain unclear. This highlights the importance of further ecological investigations as the FOS is already threatened by
predicted climatic changes.
KEYWORDS: WEDDELL SEAL, FORAGING BEHAVIOUR, HOTSPOT, WEDDELL SEA, OCEANOGRAPHY
55
Ciliates in the deep sea: Recorded diversity and pressure
experiments
ALEXANDRA SCHOENLE1*, FRANK NITSCHE1, JENNIFER WERNER1, HARTMUT ARNDT1
General Ecology, Institute for Zoology, Department for Biology, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47b, 50674 Cologne, Germany
1
M
icrobial eukaryotes play an important role in biogeochemical cycles not only in productive surface waters
but most presumably also in the deep sea. Recent studies based on metagenomics report deep-sea protistan
assemblages totally different from continental slopes and shelf waters. To give an overview about the ciliate
fauna recorded from the deep sea we summarized the available information on ciliate occurrence from clone libraries and
morphological studies. Our review revealed that representatives of all major phylogenetic groups of ciliates were recorded
from the deep sea (>1000 m depth): karyorelictids, hypotrichs, oligotrichs, armorphorids, litostomatids, suctorians,
nassophoreans, prostomatids, peritrichs, scuticociliates. Species occurring in both habitats, deep sea and shallow waters,
have not been recorded to our knowledge to date. This indicates a high deep-sea specific ciliate fauna. In addition, our
studies of the SSU rDNA and cox1 gene revealed that there are also small ciliate species, Pseudocohnilembus persalinus and
Uronema sp. commonly found in surface waters, which occur in the deep sea and have been sampled from the Pacific Ocean
at various depths (2687 m, 5276 m, 5719 m). The adaptation to deep-sea conditions was investigated by exposing the isolated
ciliates directly or stepwise to different hydrostatic pressures ranging from 170 to 550 atm and temperatures of 2°C and
13°C. Although the results indicated no general barophilic behavior, all four isolated strains survived the highest established
pressure. A better survival for exposures to 550 atm at the lower temperature could be observed. Among microbial eukaryotes,
ciliates should be considered as diverse and potentially important component of deep-sea microeukaryote communities.
KEYWORDS: HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE, DIVERSITY, SCUTICOCILIATES, SSU RDNA, PACIFIC OCEAN
56
Small microbes, vast deep sea: Methodological studies on
heterotrophic flagellates
ALEXANDRA SCHOENLE1*, ALEXANDRA JEUCK1, FRANK NITSCHE1, PAUL VENTER1,
DENNIS PRAUSSE1, HARTMUT ARNDT1
General Ecology, Institute for Zoology, Department for Biology, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47b, 50674 Cologne, Germany
1
E
xtreme environmental conditions in the deep sea hamper access to protist communities. In combination with the
potentially highly diverse species composition, it demands a wide range of methods to be applied at the same time
to guarantee a high resolution of quantitative and qualitative studies of deep-sea heterotrophic flagellates (HF). We
present a possible combination of several culture-independent and culture-dependent methods available for investigating
benthic deep-sea HF communities. Besides live-counting and fixation of HF, we refer to cultivation methods and molecular
surveys using next generation sequencing. Laboratory ecological experiments under deep-sea conditions (high pressure, low
temperature) could allow the approval of the potential deep-sea origin of sampled HF. Preliminary results from two different
research cruises with the research vessel Sonne (SO223T, SO237) underline the need for a range of methods to investigate
deep-sea HF. Sediment samples from undisturbed cores were taken with a Multicorer system during both cruises in the
Atlantic and Pacific Ocean. The combination of different methods offers a unique possibility to receive detailed information
on nanofaunal life in the deep sea. Specific fixation techniques to preserve samples directly at the sampling depth must be
applied in further studies to reflect the real biodiversity of the largest habitat on earth.
KEYWORDS: LIVE-COUNTING, LIQUID-ALIQUOT, FIXATION, NEXT GENERATION SEQUENCING; PRESSURE
57
Photoperiodic implications on visual foraging in polar marine
ecosystems
TOM J. LANGBEHN1,2*, ØYSTEIN VARPE2,3
Department of Biology, University of Bergen, PB Box 7803, 5020 Bergen, Norway
University Centre in Svalbard, PB 156, 9171 Longyearbyen, Norway
3
Akvaplan-niva, Fram Centre, 9296 Tromsø, Norway
1
2
T
rophic interactions are the key link between climate-driven environmental change and community processes
defining ecosystem dynamics. The accelerated loss of Arctic sea ice constitutes a drastic change to the light regime
of the pelagic realm with fundamental implications for the outcome of predator-prey interactions. We used
mechanistic modelling of biological and physical components along a latitudinal gradient from open water to sea-ice covered
seas to investigate light-modulated impacts on seasonal predator-prey interactions involving visual predators. Less sea ice
means increased light which results in more efficient visual search. Phenology of sea ice and its relative timing to the solar
photoperiod was found crucial for foraging. Melting sea ice will seasonally boost visual foraging of planktivorous fish and
thus strengthen top-down control of the arctic pelagic food-web. Strongly non-linear responses in foraging will likely induce
light-driven regime shifts in the pelagic realm.
KEYWORDS: LIGHTSCAPE, PREDATOR-PREY INTERACTION, TOP-DOWN CONTROL, RANGE EXPANSION, SEA ICE
58
Proceedings
DEEP | DARK | COLD - FRONTIERS IN POLAR AND
DEEP-SEA RESEARCH
TOM J. LANGBEHN1*, ALEXANDRA SCHOENLE2** (both authors contributed equally to this work)
Department of Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 52B, P.O. Box 7803, Bergen N-5020 Norway
General Ecology, Institute for Zoology, Department for Biology, Biocenter, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Straße 47b, Cologne D-50674,
Germany
1
2
** email: [email protected]
1.Introduction
Polar marine and deep-sea ecosystems share many
mutual and extreme habitat characteristics, the principal
ones being that they are both permanently cold, either
seasonally or constantly deprived of light, and access
to food varies greatly, spatially and temporally. Human
advances into these realms are limited due to their
remoteness and hostile environment to mankind; a fact
that has always sparked human imagination, driven the
urge to explore and caused many to put their lives on the
line to push beyond those limits to explore the unknown.
Still, human activities in the past have been restricted to
merely short “insights”. For over two centuries the basis
of our knowledge for both the deep sea and polar regions
was owed to the anecdotal knowledge acquired by few
adventurers driven by the spirit of discovery. However, it
was not before the Challenger Expedition from 1872–1876
circumnavigating the globe in the attempt to chart physical
and chemical processes as well as the distribution of life in
the deep-sea and Nansen’s iconic Fram expedition in 1893–
1896 that systematic exploration took place. Hallmarks of
scientific discoveries in the polar and deep oceans have
been paralleled by advances in technology such as the
“Triest” deep-sea submersible allowing humans a first-time
preview into the deepest known part of the world’s oceans.
Besides conventional ship based sampling methods, recent
progress in the field of autonomous survey techniques,
namely oceanographic moorings, satellite remote sensing,
remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) and unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) provide us with an unprecedented amount
and quality of field data.
Early scientific studies have presumed the deep-sea and
polar marine ecosystems to be devoid of any biological
activity, a paradigm that has been refuted (Grassle, 1989;
Sanders, 1968). The prevailing view of biological processes
during the polar night is still that of a biological desert,
a misconception that has lately been called into question
by targeted research on polar night studies revealing high
levels of biological activity during the polar night (Lønne
et al., 2015). Furthermore, ranges of species distribution
in the deep sea were assumed to be extraordinarily large.
Nowadays, new research has shed new light on dispersal
distances, species ranges and diversity in the vast ocean
challenging the broad applicability of a single paradigm for
the deep sea (Bienhold et al., 2016; Brandt et al., 2007; Cordes
et al., 2010; Ebbe et al., 2010; Kaiser et al., 2007; McClain and
Hardy, 2010). These cases in point exemplify that despite
increased international research efforts, arising from the
growing concern about climate change and increased
economic interest in fisheries, petroleum and deep-sea
mining, our present understanding is incomplete, spatial
and temporal patchy, and at risk to drop behind shifting
baselines. However, a firm understanding of biological
patterns, processes and interactions from individual to
ecosystem level in a changing ocean is imperative for
sustainable resource management, conservation planning
and to understand and mitigate anthropogenic impacts.
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2.Ecosystem responses to climate change
2.1.
Perspective: the case of a new arctic lightscape
The Arctic and Antarctic marine ecosystem show
fundamentally different, and sometimes opposing,
ecosystem responses to climate change (Overland et al.,
2008). Polar amplification of climate change causes the
physical forcing to change more rapidly in the Arctic than
at any other latitude. Most prominently, arctic temperatures
rise at twice the global average (Hoegh-Guldberg and Bruno,
2010; Pörtner et al., 2014), paralleled by a significant longterm reduction in seasonal (Parkinson, 2014) and spatial
sea ice extent and thickness (Comiso et al., 2008; Stroeve
et al., 2012), amounting to a total reduction of >50% sea
ice volume (Kwok and Rothrock, 2009). Projections foresee
a transition to an open Arctic Ocean during the summer
season by 2030 (Wang and Overland, 2012).
These profound and systemic modifications of the
seascape are likely to invoke ecological responses both
through bottom-up and top-down regulatory mechanisms.
The transition from a largely frozen ocean to an open
arctic mediterranean sea will fundamentally reconfigure
ecosystem processes and is inconceivable without major
regime shifts (Duarte et al., 2012). The most obvious
consequence is the change in light exposure to the water
column once the Arctic Ocean is largely devoid of its ice
cover (Varpe et al., 2015). Both, in Arctic and Antarctic
systems increased solar exposure has been identified as
a driver of major regime shifts in benthic communities
towards a new eutrophic dominance (Clark et al., 2013;
2.2.
Far less acknowledged is the role of light in shaping
top-down forcing through species interactions (Varpe
et al., 2015). Increased light will boost prey-detection
performance of visually searching predatory fish
(Langbehn unpublished results), representing a key hub
in the arctic food chain. Improved feeding conditions can
strengthen the incentive for seasonal migration and foster
the temperature-driven northward expansion of boreal
species, already observed for the polar domain of the
Barents sea (Fossheim et al., 2015), mirroring the marked
poleward retreated of the north pacific sub-arctic ecotone
(~82 km decade-1) during the past 30 years (Mueter and
Litzow, 2008). The observed and projected switch from a
benthic to pelagic-dominated system (Cochrane et al.,
2009; Grebmeier, 2006, 2012) is likely to have trophic
knock-on effects (Hovinen et al., 2014; Kortsch et al., 2015;
Kwasniewski et al., 2010; Stempniewicz et al., 2007) and
cause evolutionary prey-to-predator feedback loops (Berge
et al., 2012a; Varpe et al., 2015).
In summary, light-driven tipping points may not only
operate through bottom-up process but also are to be
expected to result from increased foraging success of visual
predators.
Climate threats on deep-sea habitats
Up to one quarter of the excess anthropogenic CO2
production is taken up by the ocean (Mikaloff Fletcher et
al., 2006; Sabine, 2004) resulting in a gradual acidification.
Since the beginning of the industrial era the pH of surface
waters already decreased by 0.1 and is predicted to decrease
further by another 0.3-0.4 pH by the end of this century
(Orr et al., 2005). The deep sea, defined here as waters
and sediments beneath continental shelf depths (~200 m
depths), represents the largest and most remote biome of
earth (Gage and Tyler, 1991) acting as a major player of the
earth system. Due to its vast range the deep sea is divided
into different benthic and pelagic depth profiles. While
60
Kortsch et al., 2012) and marine primary production is
projected to steeply increase in the future (Arrigo et al.,
2008; Krause-Jensen et al., 2012).
mesopelagic waters (200-1000 m) and benthic bathyal
regions (200-1000 m) have higher temperatures compared
to deeper parts of the ocean, bathypelagic (1000-3000 m)
waters and benthic abyssal (3000-6000 m) regions have
fairly constant environmental conditions including low
temperatures. The abyssal sea floor, for instance, covers
around 54% of the earth surface and is the most common
benthic environment with remarkably constant conditions
(Gage and Tyler, 1991). While buffering the greenhouse
effect of the earth, ocean acidification, warming and
deoxygenation resulting from human CO2 release has
already been observed in deep waters (Levin and Le Bris,
2015) and these impacts are projected to intensify in
coming decades (Mora et al., 2013).
release from continental margins at bathyal depths (Marlow
et al., 2014; Phrampus and Hornbach, 2012).
It is known, that deep-sea communities are dependent
on sinking detritus from surface water productions
(Johnson et al., 2007) being highly sensitive to variations
in food supply. Thus, predicted reduction of phytoplankton
production will result in lower POC fluxes affecting carbon
cycling in the deep ocean (Jones et al., 2014; Smith et al.,
2008). Species in the deep sea are exposed to a very stable
temperature regime. Estimations have predicted a decadal
warming of 0.1 °C for several abyssal deep-sea basins, while
higher warming rates have been observed in the Arctic and
Antarctic. Warming of several decimal degrees may result
in depth or latitudinal distribution shifts altering species
interactions (Kortsch et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2012). Besides
the impact of rising temperatures on deep-sea fauna, also
physical changes might occur such as an increased methane
We still lack a firm understanding of species-level
distribution and species diversity as well as the functioning
of and the interactions between biodiversity and
ecological processes in the deep sea. Nevertheless, extreme
environmental conditions such as depths and resulting
pressure make sampling the deep sea a challenging task.
Nowadays, several methods need to be applied to overcome
limitations of each method to gain a high resolution of
different trophic levels (Schoenle et al., 2016). Furthermore,
experimental limitations of studies on deep-sea organisms
(e.g. metabolic processes) and their ecological importance
within this environment need to be overcome in the
future. Thus, the fact, that our knowledge about deep-sea
ecosystems is quite limited compared to other marine
habitats, makes it quite hard to predict climate change
induced impacts.
3.Resource exploitation and economic interests
3.1.
Recurrent climate-driven exploitation of arctic marine resources
The Arctic has been ice free several times during the
past millennia, most recently only 8000 years ago, though
no mass extinction events of arctic marine biota is known
(Berge et al., 2012b; Schiermeier, 2012). However, four
centuries ago, during a period similar to contemporary
sea-ice reduction, upwelling at the shelf break toward the
Arctic Ocean sustained high abundances of marine life
throughout the food chain (Falk-Petersen et al., 2015).
Industrialized exploitation of what was widely believed to
be inexhaustible caused the near extinction of the arctic
megafauna (Baker and Clapham, 2004). It is suggested
that post-whaling recovery of whale stocks was limited
due to an discontinued upwelling until 1990, when sea
ice retreated again beyond the shelf (Falk-Petersen et al.,
2015). The culling and local extirpation of a functionally
important predatory guild likely caused ripple effects across
trophic levels and lastingly effected ecological processes
(Hacquebord, 2001; Roman et al., 2014; Smetacek and
Nicol, 2005).
This example stresses (i) the importance of trophic
interactions as the key link between environmental
changes and ecosystem processes, (ii) the difficulty of
correct attribution once human stressors are superimposed
on environmental change and (iii) highlights the need to
study and quantify processes and interactions.
Contemporary sea ice minimum once again renders
the Arctic of economic interest for a portfolio of human
activities such as fisheries (Christiansen et al., 2014;
Hollowed et al., 2013), petroleum exploitation (Gautier et
al., 2009), tourism, and shipping (Miller and Ruiz, 2014;
Smith and Stephenson, 2013), all of which – including
secondary fall-outs such as the introduction of invasive
species (Miller and Ruiz, 2014; Vermeij and Roopnarine,
2008) – in synergy with climate change can act as additional
stressors facilitating regime shifts in the arctic marine
ecosystem (Duarte et al., 2012; Mollmann et al., 2014).
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3.2.
What’s at risk: human aspiration to mine the deep sea
Continental shelf areas have been exploited for decades
including resources such as fish, oil and gas. Thus, the
deep sea has reached rising economical interest in recent
decades concerning deep-sea fisheries and mining.
The growing global demand for metals and rare earth
elements is enhancing the plans to mine the deep sea
targeting manganese nodules, cobalt-rich ferromanganese
crusts, gas hydrates and polymetallic massive sulphides
at depths up to 4000 meters, although it is known that
the growth of manganese nodules is extremely low with
10-100 mm per million years and can only occur under
specific environmental conditions (Barnes and Dymond,
1967) as well as the fact the deep gas hydrate extraction
might destabilize the seafloor further impacting marine
ecosystems and the climate (Lee et al., 2010; Song et al.,
2014). The knowledge about longevity and slow growth of
most deep-sea invertebrates and fish could not prevent the
lack of sustainable approaches of most deep-sea fisheries
resulting in rapid and substantial declines of deep-sea
stocks (Myers and Worm, 2003). Mineral extraction at
hydrothermal vent sites is expected to impact vent dwelling
communities together with diverse associated organisms
(Collins et al., 2013; Van Dover, 2011). Bottom trawls
used for fisheries have already shown to cause direct and
indirect environmental harm (Thrush and Dayton, 2002)
by removing most of the benthic fauna resulting in declines
in faunal biodiversity, cover and abundance (Clark et al.,
2015). The seabed disturbances at the DISCOL area in the
Peru Basin in 1989 and at the Clarion Clipperton Fracture
Zone in 1978 to test mining of nodules are still clearly
visible today. The absence or at least extreme low densities
of sessile and mobile fauna associated to the nodules such
as sponges and ophiuroids are of great concern (Vanreusel
et al., 2016). Also species not associated to nodules (e.g.,
nematodes) are still significantly impacted (Miljutin et al.,
2011). In those areas where the top layer of sediment was
removed, the microbial communities still showed reduced
metabolic activity and biomass. Another study along the
continental slope of the north-western Mediterranean Sea
62
indicated decreased organic matter content (up to 52%),
slower organic carbon turnover (ca. 37%), and reduced
meiofauna abundance (80%), biodiversity (50%), and
nematode species richness (25%) in trawled areas compared
to untrawled sediments (Pusceddu et al., 2014). It has been
shown that a biodiversity loss in deep-sea ecosystems might
be associated with exponential reductions of their functions
(Danovaro et al., 2008). Trawling-induced sediment
displacement causes the morphology of the deep-sea floor
to become smoother over time, reducing its complexity
(Puig et al., 2012). Sediment plumes (over scales of 10-100
km from the mining site) caused by ploughing (Rolinski
et al., 2001; Sharma et al., 2001) may smother suspension
feeders impacting their life cycles (Lohrer et al., 2006) and
could potentially spread toxins, pollutants and acidic waters
from terrigenous as well as deep-sea sediments across
wide areas of the ocean transported by oceanic currents.
Furthermore, cold, nutrient-rich and particle-heavy water
from the deep sea could be brought up to surface waters
due to the movement, collection and waste discharge by
the mining device, potentially creating significant impact
on both the marine environment and atmosphere.
Although there is a huge effort of researchers to
understand deep-sea ecosystems, species distribution and
diversity (Brandt and Ebbe, 2009; Brandt et al., 2007; Caron
and Countway, 2009; Ebbe et al., 2010; Levin et al., 2001;
Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2010), we are still lacking a firm
understanding of deep-sea ecosystem processes due to the
difficult accessibility of the deep sea. Knowledge regarding
the tolerance and adaptability of marine organisms to such
seabed disturbances are limited, and the ecotoxicological
risks are complex, biodiverse and can include very longlived species. To what extent will human related deep-sea
disturbances affect the reproduction, dispersal, ecosystem
functioning, genetic connectivity and diversity? Is there a
possibility of ecosystem recovery from such disturbances
and if so, how quickly will that occur?
4.Conclusion
Interannual or decadal-scale natural background
variability is often superimposed on a long-term climate
trend, making the correct attribution of drivers to observed
change challenging at best. Time series covering 30 years or
more are needed to disentangle climate change effects from
climate modes. However, long-term data for the deepsea and polar ecosystems is often lacking or incomplete,
owed to their unforgiving physical nature that remains a
constraint for scientific activity. Other factors limiting
research within these ecosystems are costs, time constraints
and the capacities of sampling gears. Hence, large gaps in
knowledge concerning biological process below the sea ice
persist (Xavier et al., 2016) and the deep sea remains largely
undiscovered. Only about 5% of the deep sea (>200 m) have
been explored so far, and less than 1% has been sampled
and investigated in detail (Danovaro et al., 2015; Wei et al.,
2010; Rex et al., 2006). This highlights that despite more
than a century of research much remains in the dark.
Nevertheless, innovative technologies have and will
accelerate the knowledge and research of these ecosystems
in the future. High-resolution maps from the deep-sea
floor, especially from abyssal plains, are challenging our
current knowledge about this previously thought “plain”
environment. And the development of surface and under
ice trawl gear allowed qualitative surveys in areas previously
inaccessible to research (David et al., 2015).
To deliver robust predictions of the state of ecosystems
under future climate and anthropogenic impacts,
a mechanistic understanding of biological process
and interactions beyond statistical correlations and
extrapolations is needed as biological processes often
follow non-linear relationships. In this context further
research in the role of diversity to ecosystem functioning,
tipping points, resilience and range shifts is crucial to
our understanding of the future of polar and deepsea ecosystems. The challenge for polar regions will be
to establish biological baseline knowledge, including
taxonomy. Here, the substantial effort of large scale data
collection needs to be maintained and novel technologies
need to be incorporated in the survey schemes to cover the
full annual cycle and areas covered by sea ice (Xavier et al.,
2016). Species-specific responses to future warming will be
difficult to predict but recent advance in the field of traitbased studies have the potential to provide new insights
(Pearson et al., 2014).
In summary, early deep-sea and polar expeditions were
devoted to physical studies such as mapping and sounding
of ocean basins, followed by an era of travelling naturalists
collecting species and biological observations. This led
to a period of in-depth studies on species and later on
population level. Recently the focus has shifted towards
a more holistic approach. We are just now able to link
knowledge from different fields to draw a line from physics,
to species, to processes and interactions. The challenge
for the next decades will be to synthesise and raise these
insights to an ecosystem level to understand intrinsic
drivers and mechanisms, such as the role of seasonality
and climate variability, to be able to correctly attribute and
successfully anticipate climate change and anthropogenic
effects on deep-sea and polar marine ecosystems.
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68
Going global: Invasive and range-expanding species
SIMON JUNGBLUT1,2*
Bremen Marine Ecology (BreMarE), Marine Zoology, Bremen University, P.O. Box 330440, 28334 Bremen, Germany
Functional Ecology, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, P.O. Box 120161, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
1
2
Abstract
I
nvading non-native species can have profound effects on native biodiversity and related ecosystem services. Investigating
the introduction pathways and vectors, invasion pattern and status as well as ecology and ecophysiology of non-native
species, especially invaders, is crucial to understand and predict their potential impact. This session provides a platform
for young marine researchers to present their scientific results concerning whole spectrum of topics related to invasive and
range-expanding species. For instance, single-species cases, community effects of invasive species or modelling approaches
are called to add to this comprehensive session.
Oral Presentations
(V-1) Samir Aljbour
ETS and oxygen consumption of Cassiopea sp. in response to acute and chronic temperature change
(V-2) Morgan McCarthy
(invited)
Crab Weight Watchers: Energy storage and food preferences of ovigerous Hemigrapsus sanguineus and Carcinus maenas
(V-3)
Jonas Geburzi
Timing matters for successful invader establishment
(V-4)
Jonas Letschert
Effects of nature protection level on non-indigenous species
(P09)
Lena Marszewska
Melita nitida Smith, 1873 – a new amphipod in southern Baltic Sea
(P11)
Lena Marszewska
Sampling methods for mobile epifauna with emphasis on non-indigenous species
(P12)
Vanessa Schakau
Spores, salmon & streams: A modelling approach for Ceratomyxosis
Proceedings
Going global: invasive and range-expanding species
69
ETS and oxygen consumption of Cassiopea sp. in response to
acute and chronic temperature change
SAMIR ALJBOUR1*, MARTIN ZIMMER1, ANDREAS KUNZMANN1
Leibniz-Zentrum für Marine Tropenökologie (ZMT) GmbH, Bremen, Germany
1
P
elagic jellyfish blooms are ever increasing worldwide as a potential response to climate-change. However, virtually
nothing is known about their physiological responses to, e.g., sudden changes in water temperature due to extreme
weather events. When confronted with sudden decrease or increase (i.e., 20 or 32°C relative to the control 26°C) in
water temperature, medusae of the upside-down jellyfish Cassiopea sp. exhibited a strong response in locomotory activity
(i.e., bell pulsation increased and decreased by ca. 37 and 46% in hot and cold acute exposure, respectively) relative to control.
Although medusae have significantly (i.e., p-value < 0.05) gained in body mass (wet weight) upon chronic (2 weeks) heat
stress, their body size (e.g., bell diameter) did not change over this time interval. In contrast, chronic cold stress resulted
in both significant shrinking (reduced diameter) and mass loss. Measurements of mitochondrial electron transport system
(ETS) activities and rate of respiratory oxygen uptake (MO2) are good estimates of energy consumption and the potential
aerobic metabolic rates of an organism. While both acute cold/heat-stress (2 hours) have significantly increased ETS-activities,
acclimation over two weeks (chronic cold/heat-stress) resulted in a drop in activities to the control levels. Whereas, acute heatstress has significantly increased MO2, the chronic acclimation resulted in significant decrease in MO2 to the control level, but
no changes could be observed in both acute and chronic cold treatment. Overall these results suggest an enhanced growth
in response to global warming, whereas low temperatures may set the limits for successful invasion of Cassiopea into colder
water bodies.
KEYWORDS: CASSIOPEA, RESPIRATION RATE, ETS, GLOBAL WARMING.
70
Crab Weight Watchers: Energy storage and food preferences
of ovigerous Hemigrapsus sanguineus and Carcinus maenas
MORGAN MCCARTHY1,2,3*, SIMON JUNGBLUT2,3, REINHARD SABOROWSKI3,WILHELM HAGEN2
Earth and Planetary Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, 21218 Baltimore MD, USA
Bremen Marine Ecology (BreMarE), Marine Zoology, University of Bremen, P. O. Box 330440, 28334 Bremen, Germany
3
Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Functional Ecology, P. O. Box 120161, 27515 Bremerhaven, Germany
1
2
T
he intertidal Asian shore crab H. sanguineus was initially found on the French coast in the late 1990’s. It rapidly
extended its range further north and is now well established in the German Wadden Sea. Recently, it was also found
in western Sweden. In its intertidal habitat, it co-occurs with the European green crab C. maenas. The ecophysiology
of H. sanguineus is virtually unknown. In this study, the physiological capacities of both species and their potential for intraguild competition were investigated. We specifically compared the energy deposition and dietary preferences of ovigerous
females of both species.
Females of both species carrying immature or mature eggs were collected in April, June, August and October 2015 in an
intertidal site on the Island of Helgoland, North Sea, Germany. Total lipid levels of midgut glands and eggs were acquired via
extraction. Subsequently, fatty acid compositions were determined through gas chromatography.
Total lipid levels of H. sanguineus midgut glands were clearly higher than those of C. maenas (40% vs. 10% dry mass,
DM). Immature eggs of both species were quite lipid-rich with 30% and 25%DM, respectively. In mature eggs, lipid levels
decreased to ~15%DM each. A Principal Component Analysis of the fatty acid compositions of midgut glands and eggs
revealed separate clusters for both species. Lipids of C. maenas were characterized more by membrane fatty acids. Fatty acids
of C. maenas midgut glands and eggs clustered together. They were largely dominated by carnivory biomarkers. Contrastingly,
fatty acids of midgut glands and all eggs of H. sanguineus formed separate clusters and trophic markers indicated a more
herbivorous diet.
Higher lipid levels and thus more pronounced energy deposition in H. sanguineus midgut glands indicate higher
starvation tolerance for females, a potential competitive advantage over C. maenas. Direct food competition, however, seems
negligible, as H. sanguineus prefers a more herbivorous diet than C. maenas. Deviating fatty acid compositions among H.
sanguineus midgut glands and eggs suggests that this species may represent an income breeder, utilizing energy from both
the midgut gland and dietary input. In contrast, most brachyuran crabs are capital breeders, relying exclusively on internal
reserves.
KEYWORDS: BRACHYURA, SOUTHERN NORTH SEA, ENERGETICS, DIET, LIPIDS, FATTY ACID COMPOSITION
71
Timing matters for successful invader establishment
JONAS C. GEBURZI1,2*, CHRISTIAN BUSCHBAUM1
Alfred-Wegener-Institue, Helmholtz-Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Wadden Sea Station Sylt, Hafenstr. 43, 25992 List, Germany
Kiel University, Zoological Institute, Population Genetics, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
1
2
T
he western Pacific crabs Hemigrapsus takanoi and H. sanguineus were first introduced to Europe in the 1990s and
have afterwards spread along the coast of the European Wadden Sea (south-eastern North Sea) between 2005 and
2010. The crab fauna in the intertidal zone of the Wadden Sea was formerly dominated by the European Shore Crab
Carcinus maenas, itself being a successful invader in many coastal regions around the world and well known as a strong
competitor. Therefore, the rapid establishment of Hemigrapsus spp. was very surprising. We hypothesized that timing of
crab recruitment and subsequent growth of the cohorts play an important role to explain the success of both Hemigrapsus
species. Since December 2014, a bi-weekly survey on the recruitment of all three crab species is conducted in the northern
Wadden Sea. To our knowledge, this is the first temporally highly resolved, long-running data series on the recruitment
of Hemigrapsus spp. for Europe. First results of the survey provide evidence that recruitment phases of C. maenas and
Hemigrapsus spp. are temporally shifted against each other and indicate different strategies of reproduction and juvenile
growth between C. maenas and Hemigrapsus spp. We will present the survey data, and discuss their implications for the
invasion success of Hemigrapsus spp. and for interactions among native and alien crabs.
KEYWORDS: BIOINVASION, CRABS, RECRUITMENT, EARLY LIFE HISTORY, WADDEN SEA
72
Effects of nature protection level on Non-Indigenous
Species
JONAS LETSCHERT1*
Leibniz Center of Marine Tropical Ecology (ZMT), Fahrenheitstr. 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
1
A
lthough the number and importance of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have increased immensely in the last
years many did not achieve their conservation goals. While inadequate enforcement, size, and site selection are the
typically named reasons for this incident, Non-Indigenous Species (NIS) are rarely taken into account. Nonetheless,
NIS can be a severe threat to endemic communities if they become invasive and outcompete local species. Despite the
assumption that undisturbed endemic communities can withstand bio-invasions better than altered ones, case studies have
shown that areas with a high nature protection level contain more NIS than zones with a lower nature protection level.
On the contrary, sometimes the abundances of NIS were even increased in the no-take zones. Furthermore, with ongoing
globalization the risk of bio-invasions increases mainly due to the greater number of ship routes. Many NIS travel as blind
passengers in ballast water or attached to ship hulls. The sensitive ecosystem of the Galápagos Islands is especially threatened
by invasive species, as tourism and thus frequencies of ships has strongly increased during the last years.
This project aims to survey the abundances and diversities of NIS in three zones of the Galapágos Marine Reserve. Together
the study sites represent a gradient from high to low nature protection level and therefore a gradient of anthropogenic
influence. Each site will be assessed by installing settlement plates, executing transects, monitoring touristic activity and
boat traffic, and observing physical parameters like temperature and relative water flow. During a field work period of 6
month, starting at the 1st of October 2016, boat trips will take place every two weeks to each of the study sites to conduct the
transects and check the settlement plates. The hypothesis is a positive correlation of nature protection level with abundances
and diversity of NIS.
KEYWORDS: NON-INDIGENOUS SPECIES, INVASIVE SPECIES, MARINE PROTECTED AREA, GALAPAGOS
73
Melita nitida Smith, 1873 – a new amphipod in southern
Baltic Sea
LENA MARSZEWSKA1*, MONIKA NORMANT-SAREMBA1, FRANCIS KERCKHOF2
Institute of Oceanography, University of Gdańsk, al. Marszałka J. Piłsudskiego 46, 81-378 Gdynia, Poland
Marine Ecology and Management, Operational Directorate Natural Environment, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, 3e en 23e
Linieregimentsplein, B-8400 Ostend, Belgium
1
2
N
on-indigenous species (NIS) are considered a constant threat to the biodiversity and ecosystem services. The
main introduction pathway for these organisms are marine vessels - they might be transported in ballast water
and sediment as well as on ship hulls. Therefore ports are the hotspots where NIS can be released and recorded
at first. In 2014, during the study of mobile fauna diversity in the Port of Gdynia a variety of sampling gear was used. One
of the devices we used was an artificial habitat collector – a trap made of a plastic crate filled with oyster shells – which role
is to provide shelter for small animals. By the means of this trap a new species was found. Among amphipods belonging
to families Gammaridae and Corophiidae 13 were Melita nitida (10 females and 3 males) from the family Melitidae. This
species is native to the Atlantic coast of North America. Because of human activity it was introduced to the northeast Pacific
and to Europe. M. nitida was previously recorded in The North Sea (Belgium and Netherlands) and eastern Baltic Sea
(Germany), but until now there were no records of this species in southern part of the latter reservoir. Species identification
was done based on: (1) the absence of dorsal teeth on the first urosome segment; (2) the presence of a group of dorso-lateral
spines on either side of second urosome; (3) the shape of the second male gnathopod. All individuals were adult, hence it is
not clear if a population of Melita nitida is already established.
KEYWORDS: NON-INDIGENOUS SPECIES, INTRODUCED SPECIES, PORT SURVEY, PORT MONITORING, MOBILE EPIFAUNA
74
Sampling methods for mobile epifauna with emphasis on
non-indigenous species
LENA MARSZEWSKA1*, MONIKA NORMANT-SAREMBA1
Institute of Oceanography, University of Gdańsk, al. Marszałka J. Piłsudskiego 46, 81-378 Gdynia, Poland
1
I
ntroductions of non-indigenous species (NIS) are regarded as one of the primary threats to marine biodiversity. The
major pathway in this process are vessels, hence ports are the hotspots where NIS are released and for this reason they
should be considered priority areas for monitoring. In order to achieve high success in NIS detection different sampling
gear has been deployed.
In our studies we tested the efficacy of four different traps during survey of mobile epifauna with particular reference
to NIS. Sampling was performed in summer 2014, in the Port of Gdynia, which is located in the western part of the Gulf
of Gdansk (Baltic Sea, Poland). We used two baited traps (Fukui and Gee-minnow), and two described as artificial habitat
collectors (PVC tubes and plastic crates filled with oyster shells). The first trap type entices the animals whereas the second,
in contrast, provides a shelter for them.
Altogether 28 taxa representing four classes (Actinopteri, Polychaeta, Bivalvia and Malacostraca) were identified.
Among them seven NIS and cryptogenic (CS) taxa were found: Neogobius melanostomus, Marenzelleria spp., Mya arenaria,
Gammarus tigrinus, Melita nitida, Palaemon elegans, and Rhithropanopeus harrisii. The North American amphipod M. nitida
was recorded for the first time in Poland as well as in the southern Baltic Sea. Artificial habitat collectors were characterized
by higher efficacy than baited traps – both, the number of taxa (including NIS/CS) and their abundance were greater.
KEYWORDS: NON-INDIGENOUS SPECIES, PORT SURVEY, MOBILE FAUNA, SAMPLING TECHNIQUE, BALTIC SEA
75
Spores, salmon & streams: A modelling approach for
Ceratomyxosis
VANESSA SCHAKAU1,2*, FRANK M. HILKER1, MARK A. LEWIS3
Institute of Environmental Systems Research, School of Mathematics/Computer Science, Osnabrück University, Germany
Present Address: Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment, University of Oldenburg, Germany
3
Department of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, University of Alberta, Canada
1
2
S
ome parasites that cause fish diseases have complex life cycles with intermediate hosts. The myxozoan parasite
Ceratomyxa shasta, for example, infects salmon, which in turn spread spores infecting polychaetes in the sediment.
This parasite causes the intestinal infection Ceratomyxosis that has been identified as the main contributor of mortality
in juvenile salmon in the Klamath River, California. The infection dynamics are greatly influenced by environmental factors
such as temperature and water velocity. Climate change and other environmental scenarios, as for instance dam removal, are
likely to affect spore concentration and disease risk. In order to aid disease control and mitigation, it is important to predict
the impact of these changes on the disease dynamics.
Here, we introduce a spatial-temporal model to study the spore concentration in the river and the prevalence of infection
(POI) of migrating salmon. We present the model assumptions and we analyse our model for different water flow settings
and temperatures to explore the effect of different environmental scenarios. Finally, we compare our model results to the
estimated POI delivered by a dose-response model.
KEYWORDS: FISH DISEASE, ECO-EPIDEMIOLOGICAL MODEL, CLIMATE CHANGE, DISEASE ECOLOGY
76
Proceedings
GOING GLOBAL: INVASIVE AND RANGEEXPANDING SPECIES
SIMON JUNGBLUT1,2*
Bremen Marine Ecology (BreMarE), Marine Zoology, Bremen University, P.O. Box 330440, 28334 Bremen, Germany
Functional Ecology, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, P.O. Box 120161, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
1
2
*mail: [email protected]
1. Introduction and Definitions
Biological invasions are known to cause negative impacts
on native species populations, whole native communities
as well as ecosystem functioning, economics, and human
health (Ruiz et al. 2000). These adverse effects and the almost
exponentially increase in reported species introductions
over the past 200 years led to a similarly rapidly growing
body of literature on this topic (Ruiz et al. 2000, Kennedy
et al. 2002). This overview aims to give a short introduction
into the important definitions, introduction vectors and
different establishment mechanisms of invasive species.
As a case study the invasion history of a highly successful
decapod crustacean will be introduced: the Asian shore
crab Hemigrapsus sanguineus.
Species are defined as ‘non-indigenous’ or ‘alien’ when
they occur in habitats which they did not inhabit originally
and which are geographically separated from the native
habitat. These species are often transported into their new
habitats by human activities, i.e. shipping or aquaculture
purposes (Prentis et al. 2008). A non-indigenous species is
regarded ‘invasive’ if there is any proof that its introduction
or spread goes along with adverse impacts for biodiversity
or any ecosystem service (Sakai et al. 2001 and references
therein, Colautti and MacIsaac 2004 and references therein,
EU 2014). Consequently, not every ‘non-indigenous’
species is necessarily ‘invasive’ and non-indigenous species
can be invasive in some regions but not in others. However,
species that are non-indigenous can sooner or later become
invasive (Sakai et al. 2001 and references therein). ‘Range
expanding species’, in contrast, colonize new habitats in
direct vicinity to their original one without a geographical
separation of both areas.
The literature on the introduction and establishment of
the Asian shore crab H. sanguineus provides an example
for the development of a species´ connotation. When this
species was first found in Europe in 1999, it was defined as
an alien species, despite already being invasive at the US
east coast (Breton et al. 2002). In subsequent publications,
as H. sanguineus became more and more dominant in its
new habitat, it was exclusively defined as an invasive species
(Dauvin 2009a, Dauvin 2009b, Landschoff et al. 2013).
2. Introduction pathways
Before a non-native species can become established or
even invasive it has to be transported into a new habitat
(Sakai et al. 2001). In most cases, the introduction of
species is associated with human activities (Hellmann et al.
2008). The route of a non-native species into a new habitat
is called ‘pathway’, e.g. a shipping vessel. Each pathway
may comprise more than one ‘vectors’, meaning transport
opportunities within the pathway. In case of shipping
vessels these vectors might be for instance ballast water,
ballast water tank sediments, hull fouling, etc (Hulme et al.
2008, further examples in Ojaveer et al. 2014).
Gollasch (2006) conducted a literature research to
examine the relative importance of introduction vectors for
introduced species in Europe (Table 1). For comparison,
Lessepsian migration (migration due to the opening of the
Suez Canal between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean;
Bianchi and Morri 2000) is included in this table. Lessepsian
migration is not considered as an invasion pathway but
rather as an additional migration corridor through which
77
species can expand their range. With the expansion of the
Suez Canal, this migration corridor is expected to increase
even more in importance for the Mediterranean Sea (Galil
et al. 2015). However, in many cases, the exact vector of
introduction cannot be identified and two or even three
possibilities were taken into consideration (Gollasch 2006).
What becomes apparent is that shipping, meaning
ballast water and hull fouling, is the most important
pathway, which introduced non-indigenous species to
Europe (Williams et al. 1988, Gollasch 2002, Gollasch
2006, Mineur et al. 2007, Katsanevakis et al. 2013). The
increasing (a) number, (b) size, and (c) speed of vessels
and the increasing (d) volumes of ballast water enhance the
probability of species invasions (Carlton 1996, Reise et al.
1998). About 3.1 billion tons of ballast water were estimated
to be discharged without treatment alone in 2013 (David
2015). Organisms that are transported within ballast water
tanks include bacteria, viruses, diatoms, dinoflagellates,
microscopic stages of macroalgae, zooplankton, larvae of
benthic species, meiobenthic and even vertebrate species
(Hallegraeff and Bolch 1992, Chu et al. 1997, Ruiz et al.
2000, Wonham et al. 2000, Pertola et al. 2006, Radziejewska
et al. 2006, Drake et al. 2007, Flagella et al. 2007, Klein et
al. 2010). Gollasch et al. (2002), for instance, detected
a 15 cm long fish in a ballast water tank. The occurrence
of organisms in ballast water tanks varies with season
(Endresen et al. 2004) and some species even manage to
reproduce during the transportation (Gollasch et al. 2000).
Due to shipping activity, harbours and marinas are highly
probable to act as areas of primary introduction and thus
as stepping-stones to further colonization of new habitats
(Reise et al. 1998, Ashton et al. 2006, Lehtiniemi et al.
2015). Besides the transport via ballast water, secondary
transport, for instance the spread from harbour to harbour,
is often achieved by fouling of boat hulls (Gollasch 2002,
Frey et al. 2009).
Non-indigenous species are also introduced as nontarget species that are associated with aquaculture species
(Savini et al. 2010). For instance, Pacific oysters Crassostrea
gigas, which were imported for aquacultural purposes, are
a common vector for unintentional introductions (Ruesink
et al. 2005). Species introduced together with oysters are
not only living on the shell but also within the mantle cavity
and tissues (Verlaque et al. 2007). For instance up to 45% of
C. gigas at the East Frisian Wadden Sea coast are infested by
the co-introduced parasitic copepod Mytilicola orientalis
(Pogoda et al. 2012). Actually being species-specific for C.
gigas, the parasite was also found in the blue mussel Mytilus
edulis. For macroalgae, the accidental introduction as
epibionts of aquaculture species is a main invasion vector
(Wallentinus 2002).
World-wide aquarium trade, the escape or release of
ornamental aquaria species are known to have contributed
to unintentional species introductions (Semmens et al.
2004, Calado and Chapman 2006, Mazza et al. 2015). The
most famous example is the introduction of the seaweed
Caulerpa taxifolia to the Mediterranean Sea from an
aquarium culture in the mid-1980s (Jousson et al. 1998).
Species might travel even on aquaria accessories, such as
coral skeleton rocks, which are frequently used for saltwater aquaria (Bolton and Graham 2006).
While the majority of introductions happened
unintentionally, some species have been intentionally
introduced into new environments. Examples are species
for aquaculture, stocking, or scientific purposes. These
introductions often resulted in establishment outside of
the species´ native range. An example is the red king crab
Paralithodes camtschaticus. It was introduced to the Russian
Barents Sea as a new species for commercial fisheries in the
1960s (Jørgensen et al. 2005). By means of natural larval
dispersal, the invader then spread from the initial site of
introduction into further new habitats where it potentially
caused negative ecological implications (Falk-Petersen et
al. 2011). Similarly, the red seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii
has been introduced to more than twenty countries worldwide for carrageenan production (Bindu and Levine 2011).
3. Defining invasion status
To define the population status and to facilitate
management options of a non-indigenous species it is
crucial to standardize the scientific terminology (Ojaveer
et al. 2014). In reality, however, multiple limitations hinder
most species introductions to be followed completely. In
78
this section, I aim to present two representative models,
which can be the basis of defining the invasion status of
a non-indigenous species. Which model is appropriate
largely depends on the frequency, at which the abundance
of the non-indigenous species can be examined.
The “neutral terminology” of Colautti and MacIsaac
(2004) (Fig. 1) enables to define the stage of an invasion based
on single snapshot-surveys. Depending on its distribution
and abundance, the invasion stage of a (potential) invader
is classified. This framework of categories reaches from
propagules still present in the native area of a potential
invader (stage 0) over established (stage III, localized and
numerically rare) to widespread and dominant populations
(stage V). To shift from one stage to the next higher stage,
the invading species has to pass a filter, which can be
described as a barrier the species has to overcome (Fig. 1).
For the practical application Colautti and MacIsaac (2004)
emphasize the importance of categorizing individual
populations and not entire species.
Another, possibly more detailed framework to define
status of introduces species was proposed by Boudouresque
et al. (2005). The evolution of the abundance of an
introduced species is described in three phases (Fig. 2). The
“lag phase” is starting with the arrival of a species in a new
habitat and does not show any increase in abundance. This
phase ends either with the elimination of the species or its
naturalization. Naturalization means in this case that the
introduced species is able to reproduce on its own without
any external aid. The second, the “expansion phase”, is
characterized by an increase in abundance as the species
attempts to expand to all favourable habitats, which it is
able to reach in the respective geographical region. In the
last, the “persistence phase”, the species accomplished the
attempt of the expansion phase and occupies all favourable
habitats it is able to reach. The abundance, however,
never reaches a plateau but is fluctuating naturally in the
persistence as well as in the expansion phase (Parker et
al. 1999). These fluctuations are, as in any native species,
the result of predator-prey and parasite-host relationships
as well as unevenness in recruitment and other factors
(Boudouresque et al. 2005). The invasion of some species
was described to follow the “boom and bust” model after
reaching the end of the expansion phase. The abundance
sharply drops, the species disappears not completely but the
abundance fluctuates around a very low level (Williamson
1996). However, it was observed that introduced species
only rarely follow this model as temporal declines or
natural events (e.g. the introduction of the species´
parasite) lead to misinterpretations (Boudourlesque et al.
2005). Overall, a relatively detailed tracking of the species
abundance progression is necessary to put it adequately
into the context of this framework.
Table 1: Absolute and relative importance of invasion vectors (all species, i.e. established, unestablished and
cryptogenic taxa) (Table 4 from Gollasch 2006, redrawn).
Vectors
Taxa
Percent
Lessepsian migration
253
24.5
Ballast water
230
22.3
Hull fouling
170
16.5
Aquaculture
161
15.6
Stocking
90
8.7
Range expansion
65
6.3
Ornamental
20
1.9
Canal (other than Suez)
20
1.9
Science
8
0.8
Bait
6
0.6
Not assessable
9
0.9
1,032
100.0
Total
Lessepsian migration is the species movement through the Suez Canal. Range expansion refers to active and passive
species dispersal. Aquaculture includes species not intended to be placed in open waters and refers to escapes from
aquaculture facilities (target and non-target species). In contrast, stocking refers to taxa which have intentionally been
79
Fig. 1: Suggested framework for defining operationally important terms in invasion studies (redrawn after Colautti and
MacIsaac 2004). Potential invaders begin as propagules residing in a donor region (stage 0) and pass through a series of filters that may
preclude transition to subsequent stages. Note that stages III through V are divided based on the species abundance and distribution.
Under this framework, a non-indigenous species may be localized and numerically rare (stage III), widespread but rare (stage IVa),
localized but dominant (stage IVb), or widespread and dominant (stage V). Adjectives are intended only to aid in conceptualizing
each stage, but should not be used to refer to the stage of interest (e.g. “stage IVb”, not “dominant”) (Colautti and MacIsaac 2004).
Fig. 2: Theoretical evolution of the abundance of an introduced species (redrawn after Boudouresque et al. 2005 and Gothland
et al. 2013).
80
4. Case study: The invasive Asian shore crab Hemigrapsus sanguineus
The Asian shore crab H. sanguineus has its native range
at the coasts of southeastern China, Korea, Japan and
the Russian Sakhalin Island (Fukui 1988, Stephenson et
al. 2009). From the late 1980s on it was found at the US
east coast and its current distribution ranges from Cape
Hatteras in North Carolina to the Schoodic Peninsula in
Maine (Williams and McDermott 1990, Delaney et al. 2008,
Epifanio 2013). In Europe, H. sanguineus was initially found
at the French and Dutch Atlantic coasts in the late 1990s
(Williams and McDermott 1990, Breton et al. 2002). It is
currently distributed from the Contentin Peninsula, France
to the Skagerrak coast of Sweden, including the German
Wadden Sea and the rocky island of Helgoland (Obert et al.
2007, Gothland et al. 2013, Landschoff et al. 2013, Jungblut
et al. 2016). Both invasions, West and East Atlantic coasts,
could be relatively well documented as the first specimens
were found early after the hypothetical introductions.
The first specimens of H. sanguineus in the US were
detected at Townsends Inlet, New Jersey, north of the
mouth of the Delaware Bay in 1988 (Williams and
McDermott 1990). In 1994, the invader reached the Long
Island Sound, Connecticut (McDermott 1998). Further
north, in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, H. sanguineus was
found already in 1992 but its abundances were relatively
low until 1994 (O’Connor 2014). In Europe, H. sanguineus
was initially found in the harbor of Le Havre, France, in
August 1999 and shortly thereafter in the Oosterschelde,
The Netherlands (Breton et al. 2002). In October 2007,
a single male H. sanguineus was found at Helgoland,
Germany, for the first time (H. Auel pers. comm.) and
again some specimens were found at a single of multiple
sampled sites in July 2008 (Scrosati et al. 2011, M. Molis
pers. comm.). The first specimens in the German Wadden
Sea were reported in November 2007 (Obert et al. 2007).
Very recently single specimens were also detected at the
southern English coast as well as the Swedish west coast
(Seeley et al. 2015, M. Berggren pers. comm.).
Around Townsents Inlet, New Jersey, the site of initial
detection in the US, H. sanguineus established very fast and
finally comprised over 75% of the total crab abundance and
biomass until 2001. A follow up sampling in 2011 and 2012
revealed a decrease in H. sanguineus and a tremendous
increase in the native Atlantic mud crab Panopeus herbstii
to about 80% of crab abundance (Schab et al. 2013). It
appears that this is the only report of a decreasing H.
sanguineus population so far, providing some very local
evidence for the relatively rarely observed “boom and bust”
model (Williamson 1996). However, at Townsends Inlet,
H. sanguineus remained the dominant crab species. The
authors speculated that the relatively coarse basal sediment
could be disadvantageous for the re-establishment of mud
crabs (Schab et al. 2013).
Kraemer et al. (2007) followed the population
development of H. sanguineus in the Long Island Sound,
Connecticut, for about 8 years from 1998 to 2005. In the
first two years, the abundances of H. sanguineus and the cooccurring flat back mud crab Eurypanopeus depressus were
similar and accounted together for about 99% of all crabs.
Then, the population of E. depressus declined dramatically
and reached less than 1% for the remaining six years. With
H. sanguineus being extremely abundant, this study reports
the highest density of this species ever recorded in its US
range with about 305 ind./m2 (Kraemer et al. 2007).
The population development of H. sanguineus in
Massachusetts and Rhode Island was recorded by O’Connor
(2014) over a period of 12 years (1998 to 2010). The invasion
of H. sanguineus was split into three phases: an ‘early’ phase
with H. sanguineus abundances significantly lower than
those of resident mud crabs of the Panopeidae-family and
the European green crab Carcinus maenas, respectively, in
1998 and 1999, followed by similar abundances in 2000 and
finally significantly higher abundances of H. sanguineus
from 2001 to 2010. In the latest stage the abundance of H.
sanguineus was close to 200 ind./m2, whereas the mud crabs
were at less than 5 ind./m2 (O’Connor 2014). North of Cape
Cod, however, H. sanguineus abundances are declining
with increasing latitudes, most likely due to temperature
limitation (Delaney et al. 2008, Stephenson et al. 2009).
Soon after the first detections around the island of
Helgoland, Germany, H. sanguineus spread rapidly over
the island´s rocky intertidal. Whereas H. sanguineus
abundances were relatively low in a quantitative sampling
of four sites in August 2009, the same procedure revealed
abundances resembling those of the native European shore
crab C. maenas in August 2014 (Jungblut et al. 2016).
Consequently, the non-indigenous H. sanguineus is now the
only other brachyuran species potentially competing with
C. maenas in the intertidal areas around Helgoland. At a
sheltered site, H. sanguineus outnumbered C. maenas by far
and showed with about 144 ind./m2 in one of the replicates
81
the highest European abundances found so far (Jungblut et
al. 2016). In Europe, its native habitat, C. maenas may have
a competitive advantage due to better adaptation to local
conditions (Dauvin 2009a). In the German Wadden Sea the
impact of H. sanguineus on C. maenas yet seemed to be
negligible. If present at all, the effect seems to be confined
to juvenile C. maenas only (Landschoff et al. 2013).
Generally, the European populations of H. sanguineus may
still continuously grow as observed at the Atlantic coast of
North America (Kraemer et al. 2007, O’Connor 2014).
The competitive success of H. sanguineus over C. maenas
was subject to multiple ecological studies from the east coast
of North America as both are non-indigenous there. Several
studies indicated strong competitive interactions between
both species (e.g. Jensen et al. 2002, Lohrer and Whitlatch
2002, O’Connor 2014). For instance, North American H.
sanguineus dominated over C. maenas in direct competition
for food and displaced them when directly competing for
shelter (Jensen et al. 2002). In some occasions, however,
C. maenas was superior over H. sanguineus (Jensen et al.
2002, MacDonald et al. 2007). Furthermore, H. sanguineus
predates on C. maenas to a higher degree than vice versa
but does not so on conspecifics (Lohrer and Whitlatch
2002, Griffen 2006, Griffen and Byers 2006, Griffen and
Williamson 2008). Moreover, feeding rates of C. maenas
were reduced in the presence of H. sanguineus, whereas this
was not the case vice versa (Griffen et al. 2008). So far, only
ecological comparisons of H. sanguineus and C. maenas
are available but the physiological basis of competitive
strength of either species is unknown. This is mainly due
to still missing physiological data of H. sanguineus which
are needed a) to estimate the ecological implications this
species has on its habitat and b) to predict the invasion
success of H. sanguineus and its potential corresponding
influence on the European C. maenas population.
The invasion history of H. sanguineus at the US east and
the European coasts is mostly a story of success. In only
one US-site, decreasing abundances were reported so far.
A number of ecological studies uncovered competitive
advantages of H. sanguineus over C. maenas and other
crab species. Studies on the physiological basis of these
advantages, however, are still pending.
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JAN BRUEWER1*, HAGEN BUCK-WIESE2**
Red Sea Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
Faculty of Biology and Chemistry (FB2), University of Bremen, Bibliothekstrasse 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany
1
2
Abstract
T
o understand the consequences of environmental changes on ecosystem functioning different levels on which
communities can respond and potentially adapt need to be considered. These different levels are phenotypic
plasticity, and the frequencies of genotypes and species, respectively. Whereas phenotypic plasticity of individuals
reflects the immediate short term response to environmental change, altered genotype and species frequencies mirror longer
termed effects of changed environmental selective forces. Changes on all three levels can alter community functioning such
as productivity, biomass, nutrient recycling or habitat provisioning.
We invite studies that investigate the effects of environmental change on single levels up to overall changes in communities.
Oral Presentations
(VI-1) Thomas Bosch (invited)
The holobiont imperative: why host-microbe interactions matter
(VI-2) Christopher A. Nowak
Physiological adaptations of mesophotic corals across a depth gradient
(VI-3)
Jan Bruewer
Viral gene expression in Symbiodinium, the algal symbiont of corals
(VI-4)
Nina Paul Effects of predation and thermal stress on oxidative responses of Gobius paganellus
(P13) Sebastian Jordan
Bubble Shuttle - bubble-mediated transport of benthic methanotrophs into the water column
(P14)
Diana Martínez Alacórn Lipid metabolism of the North Sea shrimp
Proceedings
The metaorganism frontier - incorporating microbes into the organism’s response to environmental change
87
The holobiont imperative: Why host-microbe interactions
matter
THOMAS C. G. BOSCH1*
University of Kiel, Germany
1
M
ost epithelia in animals are colonized by microbial communities. These resident microbes influence fitness and
thus ecologically important traits of their hosts, ultimately forming a holobiont consisting of a multicellular host
and a community of associated microorganisms. Here, I evaluate information in understanding the evolution
of epithelial-based innate immunity provided by Hydra, an apparently simple animal which shares deep evolutionary
connections with all animals including humans. I highlight growing evidence that a mutual intertwinement between the
stem cell regulatory machinery of the host and the resident microbiota composition ensures the maintenance of homeostasis
between animals and their resident microbiota. Results from this work have opened up new avenues of studies, including
insights into how developmental pathways interact with environmental cues such as microbes.
88
Physiological adaptations of mesophotic corals across a
depth gradient
NORBERT ENGLEBERT1,2,3, CHRISTOPHER A. NOWAK4*, PIM BONGAERTS1,2,3,
OVE HOEGH-GULDBERG1,2,3
Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
Coral Reef Ecosystems Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
3
ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
4
1
2
T
he rising interest in mesophotic corals is driven by the hypothesis that corals thriving in the lower photic zone
(30 - 150 m) are less affected by climate-induced stressors, such as intensifying storms, temperature anomalies, or
bleaching events. To date the photo-physiology of zooxanthellate corals from mesophotic habitats still represents a
huge knowledge gap. In order to cope with the decreasing irradiance over depth, a significant photo-adaptation is essential
for the survival of these zooxanthellate corals in the deep.
By using an integrated approach, the synergy of distinct photo-biological strategies, which allow corals to thrive across
a large depth range (10 - 80 m), was evaluated for the depth-generalist coral species Leptoseris spp. and Pachyseris speciosa.
Accordingly, zooxanthellae adaptations (dimensions, quantities, and mitotic indices), the composition of light-harvesting
and photo-protective pigments, as well as physiological adjustments (tissue thickness and lipid concentrations) were
distinguished.
The analyses revealed that corals of the genera Leptoseris and Pachyseris follow different strategies to adapt towards
decreasing light intensities across a large depth gradient. Specimen of Pachyseris speciosa showed morphological adaptations
in form of significantly decreasing tissue thickness (43%) and a strong negative trend of the Symbiodinium density (41%).
Presumably, this was coupled with a rearrangement of the Symbiodinium cells towards mono-layers to reduce self-shading.
In contrast, within corals of the genus Leptoseris, morphologically only a significant decrease of the Symbiodinium size (22%)
was observable with increasing depth. Overall, both genera had in common that a decrease of photoprotective pigments,
rather than an increase of light-harvesting pigments was observable.
In summary, for the coral genera Leptoseris and Pachyseris, predominantly the synergy of morphological adaptations
of the coral host, morphological adaptations of the harboured symbionts, as well as decreasing photoprotective pigment
concentrations, seem to be the key for a successful colonisation of a large depth gradient.
KEYWORDS: PACHYSERIS SPECIOSA, LEPTOSERIS SPP., SYMBIODINIUM, DEEP REEF REFUGIA HYPOTHESES, PHOTOACCLIMATIZATION
89
Viral gene expression in Symbiodinium, the algal symbiont of
corals
JAN BRUEWER1*, SHOBHIT AGRAWAL1, YIJIN LIEW1, MANUEL ARANDA1,
CHRISTIAN R. VOOLSTRA1
1
C
oral reefs form one of the most diverse ecosystems of the planet. They have a high ecological as well as economical
value. Stony corals with endosymbiotic dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium constitute the foundation of
the hugely important reef ecosystem. However, current research emphasizes that stony corals with Symbiodinium
constitute so-called metaorganisms or holobionts that are associated with a specific microbiota comprised of bacteria,
archaea, and viruses. Recently, viruses have been implicated in the response of corals to coral bleaching and disease, which
are threatening coral reef cover worldwide. While the bacteria associated with corals receive increasing attention, viruses are
still underinvestigated, although the tools and data sets from next generation sequencing are available to explore the presence
and gene expression of viruses.
In our study, we were interested in assessing viral gene expression by using RNAseq data obtained from Symbiodinium.
To do this, we re-analyzed an expression data set of cultured Symbiodinium from four experimental conditions (heat stress
(36°C), cold stress (16°C), dark cycle, and control). Our approach included the removal of host sequence reads, phylogenetic
assignment of reads of putative viral origin, as well as assembly and expression profiling of differentially expressed viral genes.
We could show a diverse community of putative viruses associated with Symbiodinium that responded to the experimental
treatments.
We hope that our developed pipeline will help to re-analyze existing expression data in order to further assess viral gene
expression. Importantly, expression of putative virus genes responded to the treatments, indicating that host associated
viruses provide an additional layer of metaorganism function that should be incorporated in future studies.
KEYWORDS: SYMBIODINIUM, MARINE VIRUS, CORAL REEF, SYMBIOSIS, RNASEQ
90
Effects of predation and thermal stress on oxidative
responses of Gobius paganellus
NINA PAUL1,2*, ANDREAS KUNZMANN1, SARA C. NOVAIS3, CÁTIA S. E. SILVA3,
MARCO F. L. LEMOS3
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT), Bremen, Germany
Universität Bremen, FB2 – Biology/Chemistry, Bremen, Germany
3
MARE – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Instituto Politécnico de Leiria, Portugal
1
2
I
ncreasing atmospheric and sea surface temperatures due to climate change highly affect intertidal ectotherms. In nature,
however, there is a multitude of factors influencing the fitness of an organism at a given time, while single stressor
assessments are far from ecologically relevant scenarios. The interaction of different stressors can have synergistic or
antagonistic effects on the organism, which finally can lead to different states of overall fitness and eventually influencing
whole population dynamics. This study focused on the effects of water temperature increase and predation stress on
the metabolism of an intertidal rock pool fish, the rock goby (Gobius paganellus). To gain detailed insight on how both
stressors affect these organisms, effects at both organismal level (respiration) and cellular level (biochemical biomarkers)
were estimated. Oxygen consumption rates of single fish were measured to establish standard (SMR) and routine metabolic
rates (RMR) of G. paganellus, and the potential influence of simulated predation risk at ambient temperature. Furthermore,
groups of individuals were exposed to simulated predation stress, and temperature increase of 1 °C d-1 from 20 °C up to 29
°C, and also to both stressors combined. Treatment groups were compared with control (20 °C). Cellular energy allocation
(CEA), energy metabolism related enzymes (lactate dehydrogenase-LDH, iso-citrate dehydrogenase-IDH), detoxification
and oxidative stress responses (glutathione s-transferase-GST, superoxide dismutase-SOD, catalase-CAT, lipid peroxidationLPO, DNA damage, heat shock protein) were investigated in muscle, gill, and liver tissue, considering both short-term
exposure and long-term acclimation. Results show that both temperature and predation risk stressors affected the assessed
biochemical parameters. Respiration analyses proved a gobiid-typical freezing behavior as direct response to predation
risk, which was in line with the CEA assessment. The outcomes regarding treatments and endpoints clearly underline the
importance of whole-organismal multi-stressor approaches to get insight in the overall physiological state of an organism.
KEYWORDS: CLIMATE CHANGE, KAIROMONES, COMBINED STRESSORS, RESPIRATION, BIOMARKERS
91
Bubble Shuttle – bubble mediated transport of benthic
methanotrophs into the water column
S. JORDAN1*, H. SCHULZ-VOGT1, O. SCHMALE1
1
Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research Warnemünde (IOW), Seestrasse 15, D-18119 Rostock, Germany
1
9 mega tonnes of methane are released into the atmosphere from oceans surfaces, however this is just a fraction of
the methane released in to the oceans. The importance of methanotrophic microorganisms in the sediment and water
column for balancing marine methane budgets is well accepted. A pilot study at the Rostocker Seep site (Coal Oil Point
seep field, USA) was conducted to test the hypothesis that bubble-mediated transport of methane-oxidizing microorganisms
from the sediment into the water column is quantifiable. Using Catalyzed Reporter Deposition Fluorescence In Situ
Hybridization (CARD-FISH) analysis, aerobic methane oxidizing bacteria (MOB) were detected in the sediment and the
water column, whereas anaerobic methanotrophs (ANME-2) were detected exclusively in the sediment. Critical data for
testing the hypothesis were collected using a novel bubble catcher that trapped naturally emanating seep gas bubbles and
any attached particles approximately 15 cm above the seafloor. Bubble catcher experiments were carried out directly above a
natural bubble seep vent and at a reference site, for which a nitrogen bubble vent without sediment contact was created. The
experiments indicate the existence of a “Bubble Transport Mechanism”, which transports MOB from the sediment into the
water column. In contrast, ANME-2 were not detected in the bubble catcher.
Based on this pilot study, ROV supported experiments at the North Sea Blowout Site and further experiments at the
Rostocker Seep site are planned. These two sites will provide data to estimate the influence of different seep characteristics
to the bentho-pelagic transport mechanism and will show if benthic methanotrophs are able to adapt to conditions in the
water column. In addition, 16S rRNA datasets will be created to evaluate the phylogenetic relationships between benthic
and pelagic methanotrophs at these seep sites. Finally, these experimental datasets will be used to estimate the indirect
contribution of the bubble transport mechanism to the local methane sink.
KEYWORDS: GAS VENT, METHANE, BENTHO-PELAGIC BUBBLE TRANSPORT, METHANOTROPHS
92
Lipid metabolism of the North Sea shrimps
DIANA MARTINEZ-ALARCON1,2*, REINHARD SABOROWSKI2, WILHELM HAGEN1
Bremen Marine Ecology (BreMarE), Marine Zoology, University of Bremen, P.O. Box 330440,28334 Bremen, Germany.
Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Functional Ecology, P.O. Box 120161, 27515 Bremerhaven, Germany.
1
2
C
rangon crangon (Linneaeus, 1758) and Pandalus montagui (Leach, 1814) inhabit the shallow waters of the southern
North Sea. Both species live in a variable environment with frequent and often extreme hydrographic fluctuations.
Extreme environmental fluctuations can impose energetic constraints to organisms as a result of unpredictable food
shortage or compensation for metabolic stress. Therefore, energy storage is important for organisms that inhabit variable
environments. However, information on lipid storage and fatty acid composition in these crustaceans is scarce.
C. crangon is highly abundant and has a key role in the North Sea. Its spawning is observed during the entire year with
maxima in winter and spring. P. montagui has a short spawning period in spring. Another disadvantage of P. montagui might
be a more narrow thermal tolerance compared to C. crangon.
In order to better understand the biochemical strategies which support adaptive physiological process in a variable
environment, we studied the lipid metabolism of both species during spring. The lipid content was determined gravimetrically
and the fatty acids composition by gas chromatography.
P. montagui showed almost three times higher lipid content in the midgut gland in comparison to C. crangon. There
were no significant gender differences. However, egg-bearing females appeared to have a higher lipid amount. Principal
component analysis of the relative fatty acid composition showed strong differences between species.
Overall, fatty acid composition suggested a species-specific dietary source of lipid reserves. However, despite variation
of individual FA within the two species, common features could be recognized. Further research including protein and
gene expression analysis is needed in order to fully understand the mechanisms that allow these species to face the extreme
environmental fluctuations of the North Sea.
KEYWORDS: NORTH SEA, C. CRANGON, P. MONTAGUI, ADAPTATION
93
Proceedings
THE METAORGANISM FRONTIER INCORPORATING MICROBES INTO THE
ORGANISM’S RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL
CHANGE
HAGEN BUCK-WIESE1*, CHRISTIAN R. VOOLSTRA1, JAN D. BRUEWER2**
1
2
Introduction
More than 70% of Earth are covered by oceans with
different marine ecosystems being of high ecologic and
economic value (Constanza et al. 1997). Over 500 million
people depend on coral reef ecosystems alone (Wilkinson
2008). Marine algae, including phytoplankton, macroalgae,
and photosynthetic symbionts in corals amongst others,
produce over 50% of the atmospheric oxygen (Uitz et
al. 2010). It is widely acknowledged that the integrity of
marine ecosystems is under threat in the 21st century.
Ocean acidification, the global increase in sea surface
temperature, and changes in salinity along with overfishing,
eutrophication, sedimentation, and pollution jeopardize
marine species globally (Pauly et al. 1998; Myers & Worm
2003; Karpenter et al. 2008; IPCC 2014). At the same time,
organismal communities adjust and cope with variable
environments (Fuhrman, 2009; Hernandez-agreda et al.
2016). Investigating when and how communities change
in response to environmental fluctuations may provide
knowledge to more accurately predict environmental
resilience to global climate change. Importantly,
anthropogenic action changes the environment at an
unprecedented pace. Accordingly, the question is not
whether ecosystems and the organisms it comprises can
adapt to these changes, but whether it is happening on
a timescale sufficient for organisms to adjust (Doney
& Schimel, 2007; IPCC5 2014). Consequently, studies
assess behavioral, plastic, and evolutionary responses to
environmental change (Karpenter et al. 2008; Chevin et al.
2010; Danovaro et al. 2010; Hoegh-Guldberg 2010; Chen
et al. 2011).
Response and adaptation to environmental change in light of the host and
metaorganism
There are several possibilities for organisms to respond
and adapt. Firstly, migration may allow organisms to escape
unfavorable environmental conditions (Cheung et al. 2009;
Iverson et al. 2004). Migrated individuals benefit from
a suitable habitat elsewhere. Secondly, an organism can
acclimate by adjusting their physiology, morphology, or
behavior to current environmental conditions. Phenotypic
plasticity operates in general at scales of days to weeks
and within an organism‘s lifetime and has no effect on
the genetic composition (Gienapp et al. 2007). Thirdly,
94
organisms can react to environmental stress with epigenetic
modification, such as small RNAs, histone modification,
or DNA methylation (Kinoshita & Seki 2014). Epigenetic
modifications have a key role in controlling the use and
expression of genetic information but do not change the
genetic code. Modifications occur within the lifetime of an
organism and may be passed on to subsequent generations
(Crewes et al. 2011; Thorsell & Nätt 2016). Lastly, organisms
can adapt to new conditions through genetic change, which
is driven by the positive selection of heritable mutations
harboring beneficial attributes. Besides these possibilities,
the importance of bacteria to animal and plant function
becomes increasingly recognized. All organisms associate
with a specific assemblage of microbes that provide
functions related to metabolism, immunity, and stress
tolerance (Ritchie 2006, McFall-Ngai et al. 2013, Moran
& Yun 2015). Consequently, animals and plants comprise
metaorganisms that cannot be understood in isolation but
should be investigated with their associated microbiome.
Microorganisms rule the world
As mentioned above microorganisms are instrumental
for ecosystem and animal and plant function. In particular,
microorganisms, including unicellular eukaryotes, bacteria,
and archaea, are by far the most abundant organisms in the
ocean (Suttle 2007; Rohwer & Youle 2011). Besides freeliving microorganisms, all eukaryotes harbor a highly
diverse microbiome and form a so-called metaorganism
(Rosenberg and Zilber-Rosenberg 2011; McFall-Ngai et al.
2013). For instance, symbiotic bacteria have a key role in
the human gut in order to process food (Singh et al. 2013).
It could be shown that the microbial community may
drastically influence the heat tolerance in aphids (Moran
& Yun 2015). Rather than assessing the response of single
species to environmental stressors, studying the reaction of
the metaorganism is more comprehensive. This is reflected
in the probiotic hypothesis (Reshef et al. 2006; Rosenberg
and Zilber-Rosenberg 2011; Singh et al. 2013), stating,
that the identity of host-associated microbes contributes
to the metaorganism‘s fitness. The probiotic community
can change rapidly due to a dynamic relationship between
environmental conditions and the microbiome (Reshef et
al. 2006; Rosenberg and Zilber-Rosenberg 2011). Migratory
behavior can introduce new microorganism from the
environment (Theis 2016), but not healthy corals have also
been found in the surrounding water, suggesting a decline
in resilience to opportunistic infection (as suggested by
Nguyen-Kim et al. (2015)). About a decade ago, it was
proven that the mucus microbiome shows antibiotic
activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
and other microbes (Ritchie 2006). By now we have more
detailed information, such as the antimicrobial activity of
Pseudoalteromonas against gram-positive strains (ShnitOrland et al. 2012). Yet the exact function and implications
for the coral microbiome remain still under-explored
(Krediet et al. 2013). Recently, viruses associated with
corals, especially in respect of being part of the holobiont,
are receiving increasing attention (e.g. Vega Thurber et al.
2008; Weynberg et al. 2015; Wood-Charlson et al. 2015;
Correa et al. 2016). In respect of the immunity of corals,
researchers found phages that are adapted to remain in the
coral mucus layer, thus, resulting in more bacteria-phage
encounters (bacteriophage adherence to mucus (BAM))
(Barr et al. 2014; Silveira and Rohwer 2016).
Coral holobiont
Corals live in oligotrophic waters, yet coral reefs are one
of the most productive and most biodiverse ecosystems of
the world. In order to grow, corals depend on photosynthates
of symbiotic zooxanthellae of the genus Symbiodinium
(Falkowski et al. 1984; Rowan 2004; Burriesci et al. 2012).
The coral host, Symbiodinium, and symbiotic bacteria form
a complex, species-specific community, the holobiont, with
a bacterial community, that is significantly different to the
adjacent water body (Rohwer et al. 2001, 2002; Rosenberg
and Zilber-Rosenberg 2011; Blackall et al. 2015; Hester et
al. 2015).
It is widely acknowledged that environmental stressors
like heat and excessive UV radiation can cause coral
bleaching (i.e. the loss of pigmented algal symbionts of the
genus Symbiodinium) (Mills et al. 2013; Nguyen-Kim et
al. 2015), which could be observed globally for example in
the 2010 and 2014 – 2016 massive coral bleaching events
(Normille 2016; Wake 2016). However, coral populations
of the Persian-Arabian Gulf (PAG), one of the hottest seas
in the world (summer sea surface temperature ~35°C)
have higher thermal tolerances than congeners in other
geographical regions. The key to coral survival may be
due to a recently discovered species of thermally tolerant
Symbiodinium, namely Symbiodinium thermophilium.
(D’Angelo et al. 2015; Hume et al. 2015, 2016).
95
Besides Symbiodinium, bacteria contribute critical
services, such as nitrogen fixation (Rädecker et al. 2015)
and immunity (Ritchie 2006) to coral holobiont function.
The bacterial microbiome can be divided into three main
groups: (1) a small group of only a few bacteria taxa,
persistent on a spatial and temporal scale, forming the
core microbiome. These are likely symbionts. (2) An
environmental dependent microbiome (<1000 phylotypes),
which aids in success in the given environment. Last
but not least: (3) A highly variable bacterial community
(>1,000 phylotypes) (Hernandez-agreda et al. 2016). It is
known that bacteria play an important role in coral stress
and the cause of coral diseases, yet the consequences for
the coral holobiont are poorly understood. In a laboratorybased experiment, researchers in Vietnam exposed the
scleractinian coral Fungia repanda to heat stress (+4° C)
to subsequently evaluate the differences to non-stressed
corals. The observed thermal tolerance of coral-associated
bacteria was low and a major increase in viral and bacterial
abundances in the mucus layer of stressed corals recorded.
The reported decline of cell activity at higher temperatures
may facilitate opportunistic infections by free-living
bacteria, that are usually outcompeted by coral-associated
bacteria (Nguyen-Kim et al. 2014; Nguyen-Kim et al.
2015). To assess the effect on the microbiological diversity,
a study by Roder et al. (2014) compared healthy and white
plaque diseased corals. Consistently with previous studies
(Sunagawa et al. 2009; Cróquer et al. 2013), they found a
bacterial community shift towards a greater diversity in
diseased corals with promoted Pseudomonodaceae and
Rhodobacteraceae abundances. Many of the bacteria taxa
that have been found in diseased but not healthy corals
have also been found in the surrounding water, suggesting a
decline in resilience to opportunistic infection (as suggested
by Nguyen-Kim et al. (2015)). About a decade ago, it
was proven that the mucus microbiome shows antibiotic
activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
and other microbes (Ritchie 2006). By now we have more
detailed information, such as the antimicrobial activity of
Pseudoalteromonas against gram-positive strains (ShnitOrland et al. 2012). Yet the exact function and implications
for the coral microbiome remain still under-explored
(Krediet et al. 2013). Recently, viruses associated with
corals, especially in respect of being part of the holobiont,
are receiving increasing attention (e.g. Vega Thurber et
al. 2008; Wood-Charlson et al. 2015; Correa et al. 2016;
Weynberg et al. 2015). In respect of the immunity of corals,
researchers found phages that are adapted to remain in the
coral mucus layer, thus, resulting in more bacteria-phage
encounters (bacteriophage adherence to mucus (BAM))
(Barr et al. 2014; Silveira and Rohwer 2016).
Fish
Vertebrates are infected early in their ontogenesis
by microorganisms, which densely populate their hosts
particularly in the intestinal tract (Camp et al. 2009).
The diverse microbiome supports essential metabolic
and immunity processes. We introduce insights into its
plasticity and dynamics in response to host environment
and perturbations from a recently emerging field of
investigations, fish’s intestines.
Microbial community similarities have been found
to reflect phylogeny of host species (Camp et al. 2009;
Roeselers et al. 2011; Miyake et al. 2015; 2016). A healthystate, taxon-specific core gut community appears to form a
constant part of the holobiont, the core microbiome, which
possibly provides services essential to maintaining basic
functioning (Fuhrman 2009; Roeselers et al. 2011; Miyake
et al. 2015). In addition, a roughly equally represented,
flexible partition of microorganisms has been identified,
96
which is believed to permit the holobiont a plastic niche
specificity (Fuhrman 2009; Sullam et al. 2012).
As the microbiome faces fluctuations and perturbations
in the in- and outside of the host, constant acclimatization
takes place (Camp et al. 2009; Van Der Gast et al. 2006; Xia
et al. 2014). Feeding acts as a strong determinant on the
intestinal milieu and the microbiome has been shown to be
distinct dependent on the diet (Semova et al. 2012; Wong
& Rawls 2012; Xia et al. 2014; Miyake et al. 2015; Liu et
al. 2016). Dynamic and transient microbial communities
with elevated protease activity have been described for
carnivores, whereas the microbiome and enzyme activity in
herbivores have been found to be more distinctive (Baldo
et al. 2015; Miyake et al. 2015; Liu et al. 2016). Changes in
resource specificity of the microbiome have been observed
when dietary regimes were shifted to less easily digestible
fibers or enriched with probiotic components (Denev et al.
2009; Xia et al. 2014). Thereby, the microbiotic community
may sustain the contribution to resource digestion.
Similarly, enzyme activity and production changes among
the microbiota in response to nutrient uptake or ambient
temperature (Denev et al. 2009; Guerreiro et al. 2016;
Xia et al. 2014). In nutrient poor conditions, i.e. during
host starvation, a reduction of absolute abundance of
microorganisms in the digestive tract was observed but
also a promoted growth rate of previously less prevalent
Bacteroidia and Sphingobacteria (Xia et al. 2014). These
taxa are not only known to benefit from alternative energy
resources but also to produce antibiotic substances. The
increase in antibiotic levels in starved fish‘s intestines
was associated with their temporal dominance and may
have conserving effects on the microbial community by
preventing immigration of pathogens while abundance
levels are low (Gomez et al. 2013; Xia et al. 2014).
Comparison of the microbiological community
composition of fish metaorganisms to the adjacent water
revealed strikingly clear barriers (Semova et al. 2012;
Sullam et al. 2012). The fish’s intestinal microbiome largely
consists of fish and vertebrate-specific bacterial taxa but
includes only a few taxa which exist in the surrounding
water column (Sullam et al. 2012). This underlines the
selective pressure exhibited on the metaorganism and
indicates intense coevolution (Camp et al. 2009; Li et
al. 2012; Roeselers et al. 2011). However, it also suggests
the gastrointestinal tract to be sufficiently connected
to the surrounding to permit migration. On the level
of prokaryotes, diverse mechanisms of horizontal gene
transfer enhance genomic recombination and ultimately
increase adaptation potential. The high velocity of dispersal
of a beneficial attribute is well known from antibiotic
resistance genes (Czekalski et al. 2012; Bouki et al. 2013;
Novo et al. 2013; Rizzo et al. 2013).
In a recent study by Semova and colleagues (2012), the
formation of lipid droplets in response to dietary changes
was monitored in zebrafish intestines. Special interest
focused on the role of Firmicutes bacteria. Behavioral
studies, using fluorescently marked fatty acids, revealed
diet-induced migrations of the targeted bacteria, consisting
of rapid motility, the formation of biofilms and physical
interaction with the intestinal mucus. The results also
showed the size as well as the abundance of lipid droplets
in the intestinal tissues to be significantly dependent on the
presence of diet-dependent Firmicutes and other bacterial
species, respectively.
Integrated approaches combining metagenomic screens
on holobionts with functional gene analysis are able to
unravel the mutualistic interactions between the host and
its microbiome. The results suggest that selection pressure
in fish intestines acts rather on functional than taxonomic
level (Camp et al. 2009). The phylogenetic composition
is, therefore, variable and adjusts to environmental
and internal circumstances allowing the holobiont to
acclimatize to different temperature and salinity regimes,
nutritional energy sources and pathogen pressure, amongst
others (Fuhrman 2009; Roeselers et al. 2011; Xia et al.
2014).
Conclusion
The pace of environmental change in the Anthropocene
challenges the adaptive capacities of organisms around
the globe. It is acknowledged that eukaryotes and their
associated microbiomes form a so-called metaorganism,
which has been largely overlooked in assessing the ability of
plans and animals to respond to environmental change. But
recent studies suggest a multitude of bacteria associated
with host organisms that is highly dynamic and adjusts
to the most advantageous composition as a function of
the prevailing environment. Consequently, we argue that
the microbiome affects host fitness, and we conclude that
acclimatization and adaptation potential of holobionts
may be strongly enhanced by the striking plasticity of the
associated microbiome.
97
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102
Marine species interactions and ecosystems dynamics, implications for
management and conservation
XOCHITL CORMON1*, MORITZ STÄBLER2**
Channel and North Sea Fisheries Research Unit, IFREMER, Boulogne-sur-Mer, France
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, Resource modelling working group, Bremen, Germany
1
2
Abstract
T
oday, living marine resources represent a primary source of proteins for more than 2.6 billion people and support
the livelihoods of about 11 percent of the world’s population (UN, 2012; FAO, 2014). Seas and oceans worldwide
concentrate dense and diversified human activities, e.g. fishing, tourism, shipping, offshore energy production,
while experiencing many environmental changes, e.g. acidification, increase of water temperature (Boyd et al., 2014). These
anthropogenic and environmental pressures may threaten the integrity and sustainability of marine ecosystems. In this
context, the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg (2002) has put the ecosystem approach to fisheries
(EAF) on the agenda of science supporting marine management and conservation. This concept stresses the importance
of understanding ecosystem functioning, structure and dynamics in order to reach the sustainable exploitation of our seas
and oceans. In such settings, we wanted to have a session presenting theoretical, empirical and more applied studies related
to EAF management. We invited contributions that (i) foster the understanding of marine population dynamics, with a
particular interest on species interactions; (ii) integrate species interactions in the management and conservation of living
marine resources; and (ii) discuss prospects of marine ecosystem management and conservation in an EAF context.
Oral Presentations
(VII-1) Véronique Merten
Trophic ecology of the orangeback flying squid Sthenoteuthis pteropus (Steenstrup, 1855) (Cephalopoda: Ommastrephidae) in the eastern tropical Atlantic
(VII-2) Stefan Königstein Integrative modelling of environmental and anthropogenic driver effects on marine food web dynamics in the Barents Sea
(VII-3)
Tensor Decomposition reveals spatio-temporal dynamics of fish communities
Romain Frelat
(VII-4) Quentin Mauvisseau
On the way for detecting and quantifying unseen species in the sea: the Octopus vulgaris case study
(P15)
Agustin M Saporiti
Feeding behaviour of Tripneustes gratilla related to a seagrass overgrazing event in Zanzibar
(P16)
Hajar Bourassi
Habitat mapping for the conservation and management of an exploitable coastal resource of cirripedes crustaceans Pollicipes pollicipes (Moroccan Atlantic Coast)
(P17)
Samira Falah
Inventory of the epibenthic biodiversity of the Moroccan Atlantic zone between Cape Juby
and the White Cape
Proceedings
Marine species interactions and ecosystem dynamics: implications for management and conservation
103
Trophic ecology of the orangeback flying squid Sthenoteuthis
pteropus (Steenstrup, 1855) (Cephalopoda: Ommastrephidae)
in the eastern tropical Atlantic
VÉRONIQUE MERTEN1*, BERND CHRISTIANSEN2, JAMILEH JAVIDPOUR1, UWE PIATKOWSKI1,
HENK-JAN T. HOVING1
1
2
Helmholtz-Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, GEOMAR, Düsternbrooker Weg 20, D-24105 Kiel, Germany
Universität Hamburg, Institute for Hydrobiology and Fishery Sciences, Große Elbstraße 133, D-22767 Hamburg, Germany
I
n the eastern tropical Atlantic, the orangeback flying squid Sthenoteuthis pteropus is an opportunistic short living
carnivore and among the fastest growing squids. This species is one of the dominant members of the epipelagic nekton
community and due to their ability to live in environments with low oxygen concentrations and high plasticity, they may
be able to cope with a changing ocean. So far our understanding of their trophic ecology is limited. Our study attempted to
better understand its role in the pelagic food web of the eastern tropical Atlantic by investigating its feeding habits.
We examined 152 specimens of the orangeback flying squid Sthenoteuthis pteropus, ranging from 155 to 475 mm (dorsal
mantle length), that were caught by hand jigging in the eastern tropical Atlantic in 2015. Besides body mass and size, factors
such as sex, maturity stages, and stomach fullness were determined. Stomach contents of all individuals were analyzed as
well. To estimate the current trophic position of the squid in the food web, stable isotopes (∂13C; ∂15N) were measured from
mantle tissue samples of 30 squids. We also analyzed stable isotopes of gladius samples taken at 10 and 20 mm increments to
track possible ontogenetic changes in the squid’s diet (n=5).
Preliminary results on the trophic ecology of Sthenoteuthis pteropus are in line with the feeding habits that have been shown
for many other oceanic squids. S. pteropus feeds on abundant members of the oceanic micronekton such as myctophid fishes
(e.g. Electrona sp., Diaphus sp., and Hygophum sp.) and other cephalopods. Amphipods, decapods and other crustaceans
were also found in smaller squid specimens and this is likely part of an ontogenetic transition from crustacean prey to fish
and cephalopod prey. This transition will be studied using the results of the stable isotope analysis, which are still in progress.
KEYWORDS: STABLE ISOTOPES, STOMACH CONTENT, SQUID, TROPHIC ECOLOGY, GLADIUS
104
Integrative modelling of environmental and anthropogenic
driver effects on marine food web dynamics in the Barents
Sea
STEFAN KOENIGSTEIN1,2*
Sustainability Research Centre (artec) / Department of Resilient Energy Systems, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
Integrative Ecophysiology section, Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI) Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
1
2
R
esearch on the combined effects of multiple environmental and anthropogenic stressors in marine ecosystems is of
high importance for assessing the future development of the oceans and their ecosystem services. In the Barents
Sea, economically important fish stocks are subject to temperature-dependent fluctuations, and community shifts
related to ocean warming are already observed. Continued warming and strong ocean acidification are projected for the next
decades and are anticipated to trigger further changes in the community structure of marine ecosystems and their dynamics
with corresponding impacts on human societies.
We developed a multi-species model, which integrates temperature and pH effects on biological processes such as growth,
reproduction and recruitment, integrating impacts observed in different life stages of Atlantic cod, herring and zooplankton
species and linking species responses via the food web. Changes in ecosystem structure and dynamics and the consequences
of climate change and harvesting scenarios for ecosystem resilience and the provision of ecosystem services are explored.
The model reproduces current biomass estimations and typical interdependent oscillations of fish stocks in the Barents
Sea. Warming promotes temperate fish species, but has negative effects on polar species. Ocean acidification is projected to
have negative impacts on some fish stocks through additional metabolic losses, leading to some fish stocks winning, some
losing. Changes in food web dynamics indirectly impact some marine mammal and seabird species, and cause decreases in
secondary production by zooplankton and carbon export from the food web.
Ocean acidification and warming can trigger changes in higher trophic level dynamics and affect ecosystem functioning.
The integrative model helps to interpret effects of two climate change drivers in the context of interactions with decadal climate
variations and resource extraction by fisheries, illustrating how multiple drivers affect ecosystems and the provisioning of
ecosystem services to human societies under global change scenarios.
KEYWORDS: MULTI-SPECIES MODEL, CLIMATE CHANGE, OCEAN ACIDIFICATION, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES, BARENTS SEA
105
Tensor Decomposition reveals spatio-temporal dynamics of
fish communities
ROMAIN FRELAT1*, MARTIN LINDEGREN2, TIM SPAANHEDEN DENCKER2, JENS FLOETER1,
HEINO FOCK3, SASKIA OTTO1, CHRISTIAN MÖLLMANN1
University of Hamburg, Institute for Hydrobiology and Fisheries Science, Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability (CEN), Große
Elbstraße 133, 22767 Hamburg, Germany
2
DTU AQUA - Centre for Ocean Life, Charlottenlund Slot Jægersborg Allé 1, 2920 Charlottenlund, Denmark
3
Thünen-Institute for Sea Fisheries, Palmaille 9, 22767 Hamburg, Germany
1
M
arine ecosystem-based fisheries management requires a holistic understanding of the dynamics of fish
communities and their responses to external pressures such as fisheries exploitation and climate change.
However, characterizing multi-species community dynamics in heavily exploited large marine ecosystems over
time and space is difficult and requires novel statistical approaches. We applied Tensor Decomposition (TD), a mathematical
framework that allows the synchronized study of multiple ecological variables (in our case abundances of fish populations)
measured repeatedly through time and space. We used this comprehensive approach to investigate spatial and temporal
changes of more than 60 demersal fish species in the nine roundfish areas of the North Sea for the period of 1985 to 2015.
The TD approach revealed strong spatial patterns, that explained up to 40% of the total variability, while the temporal
patterns accounted for around 10% of the total variability. Our analysis identified six major groups of species sharing similar
spatio-temporal variability in abundances. These groups were found to be quite homogeneous in terms of traits, related to
size, trophic level, biogeography and habitat preference, supporting the theory that organisms sharing similar traits exhibit
similar dynamics. Furthermore, we conducted correlation analyses relating hydro-climatic drivers and fishing pressure to the
temporal dynamics of the identified groups. These analyses revealed the importance of the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation
(AMO) for the temporal development of the North Sea fish community. Sea bottom temperature was found to be correlated
with the dynamics of a group of large Lusitanian fishes experiencing an increase in abundance in the last decades. The
correlation with fishing pressure was not significant. Nonetheless, most of the commercial fishes (e.g. Cod, European Plaice,
Flounder) has been grouped in the same cluster, suggesting a similar dynamic due to fishing pressure. Using an innovative
statistical approach, our study contributes to a better understanding of the patterns and drivers of the diverse North Sea fish
communities, information that is key to inform a sustainable management of the ocean.
KEYWORDS: SPATIO-TEMPORAL DYNAMICS, MULTIWAY MULTIDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS, ECOSYSTEM BASED MANAGEMENT,
CLIMATE CHANGE, FISHING PRESSURE
106
On the way for detecting and quantifying unseen species in
the sea: the Octopus vulgaris case study
MAUVISSEAU Q.¹*, PARRONDO M.¹, FERNÁNDEZ M P.², GARCÍA L.², MARTINEZ J L.³,
GARCIA-VAZQUEZ E.¹, BORRELL Y. J.¹
¹Department of Functional Biology, University of Oviedo. Calle Julián Clavería s/n. 33006. Spain.
²Centro de Experimentación Pesquera, Dirección de Pesca Marítima. Gobierno Del Principado De Asturias. Gijon. Spain.
³Servicios Cientifico-Técnicos, University of Oviedo, Spain
E
nvironmental DNA (eDNA) can be a powerful method for assessing the presence and the distribution of aquatic
species. We used this tool in order to detect and quantify eDNA from the elusive specie Octopus vulgaris. We
designed specie-specific primers for this species, and set up an experimental aquarium approach to monitor the
variability of the octopus’s detection and of the DNA amount in different controlled conditions. Sea water samples taken at
8 different places in the Cantabrian Sea during February-March 2016 were also analysed. In both experiments we obtained
high detection efficiencies using PCR and qPCRs (SybrGreen protocol). A significant positive correlation between the total
biomass (g of O. vulgaris within thanks) and the amount of O. vulgaris eDNA detected (p-value=0.01261) was found in tank
experiments. Moreover, this specie was also detected by PCR in 7 of the 8 samples taken in the sea and successfully quantified
by qPCR in 5 samples. The lab and field experiments demonstrated the reliability of the eDNA detection method for the
O. vulgaris case. This preliminary study uses an innovative method and gives very promising perspectives for developing
quick and cheap assays that allows assessing O. vulgaris and other marine species distributions and abundances in the sea. In
a close future, quantification of eDNA will allow cheaper and reliable way to manage several aquatic species by using all the
information contained in a water sample. Multiplex barcoding systems for multispecies assessments and metabarcoding of
eDNA will be the next innovation for management.
KEYWORDS: BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT, QUANTIFICATION, OCTOPUS VULGARIS, EDNA DETECTION, QPCR
107
Feeding behaviour of Tripneustes gratilla related to a
seagrass overgrazing event in Zanzibar
AGUSTIN MOREIRA SAPORITI1*, DIEUWKE HOEIJMAKERS1, MIRTA TEICHBERG1
1
Leibniz Centre for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT), Fahrenheitstraße 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
T
he sea urchin Tripnesutes gratilla is known as a cosmopolitan seagrass grazer, and its feeding behaviour has been
extensively studied, but rarely in direct relation to large overgrazing events. In this study we describe an overgrazing
event in Thallasodendrum ciliatum meadows around Prison Island, Zanzibar, Tanzania, that occurred between 2014
and 2015, in relation to T. gratilla feeding behaviour. The impact of the overgrazing event was assessed by surveying the
seagrass meadows (percentage cover, shoot density, above and below biomass, and mapping of the study area). The behaviour
of T. gratilla was portrayed by the analysis of the gut content, feeding rates, and the calculation of electivity parameters
for each seagrass species. For the seagrass species present in the gut, the C:N:P ratio was measured. According to the gut
content, feeding rates and electivity parameters, T. gratilla had a feeding preference for T. ciliatum and, in a lesser extent, for
Syringodium isoetifolium. Preference for this species was related to a low nitrogen and phosphorus content in their tissues.
T. ciliatum meadows show some recovery, suggesting that even though these events are destructive for the seagrass meadows
shoots, their belowground biomass can support the recovery through their energy reserves; demonstrating the resilience of
seagrass meadows to withstand severe changes in their environment.
KEYWORDS: OVERGRAZING, SEA URCHIN, SEAGRASS
108
Habitat mapping for the conservation and management of
an exploitable coastal resource of cirripedes crustaceans
Pollicipes pollicipes (Moroccan Atlantic Coast)
HAJAR BOURASSI1,2*, HAKIMA ZIDANE², MOHAMED I MALOULI2, IMANE HADDI2,3,
MAHDI MAANAN3, AHMAD YAHYAOUI1
Biology department, Sciences Faculty of Rabat, Ibn Battuta’s Avenue, Rabat, Morocco
Department of fisheries resources, National Institute of fisheries Research, 2, BD Sidi Abderrahmane, Ain diab. 20100, Casablanca, Morocco
3
Earth sciences department, Faculty of Sciences Ain Chock, University Hassan II, Casablanca, Morocco.
1
2
T
he marine environment suffered from increasing anthropogenic pressures, which effects impacted quickly many
species that are considered as biological indicators such as cirripedes crustaceans like goose barnacle (Pollicipes
pollicipes). Those represent important resources for population livelihoods but also for coastal ecosystems. Their
exploitation is however poorly controlled despite several ministerial decrees that regulate the exploitation of this resource.
For these reasons, scientific studies are needed to support the implementation of a development plan of these crustaceans. In
addition, goose barnacles live on wave-beaten rocky substrates in the intertidal and low-shore areas on the coast. These areas
are more sensitive to phenomenon caused by the climate change such as temperature and sea level increase.
The main objective of this study is to evaluate the degree of climate change impact on the distribution areas of P. pollicipes.
In this aim, three areas: Manssouria (urban drift), Casablanca (many tourist and recreational sites) and Souiria Kdima
(fishing village and its near “Maroc Chimie”) were chosen for a monthly monitoring of the biological parameters (population
dynamics, reproduction…) and the abiotic ones (environmental parameters). A geostatistical treatment with GIS was applied
to the various collected parameters.
The preliminary results show a large diversity between the three sites, with a goose barnacle’s abundance differing from
one site to another due to their biotope features. The distribution of fauna and flora species showed a typical distribution
with the presence of all the littoral zones (sub-littoral, Medio-littoral and the supra-littoral) in the case of Souiria Lkdima.
Contrary to the tow other sites: Mansouria and Casablanca, where the Mediolittoral zone is missing because of the cliffs,
Whish decreases the biodiversity of the sites.
KEY-WORDS: POLLICIPES POLLICIPES; CONSERVATION; INTERTIDAL BIODIVERSITY; MAPPING
109
Inventory of the epibenthic biodiversity of the Moroccan
Atlantic zone between Cape Juby and the White Cape.
SAMIRA FALAH1,2*, KHALID MANCHIH2, HAKIMA ZIDANE2, KHAOULA AMRANI2,3,
MOHAMED MALOULI2, ANA RAMOS4, AHMAD YAHYAOUI1
Biology department, Faculty of Sciences of Rabat, Avenue Ibn Batouta, Rabat, Morocco
Department of fisheries resources, National Institute of fisheries Research (INRH), Casablanca, Morocco
3
Earth sciences department, Faculty of Sciences Ain Chock, University Hassan II, Casablanca, Morocco
4
Spanish Institute of Oceanography, Cabo Estay Canido, Vigo, Spain
1
2
T
hese last decades, the biodiversity of commercial benthic communities has suffered overexploitation because of
the strong anthropogenic pressures (pollution, overfishing…). This study is motivated by the lack of knowledge
concerning the epibenthos in Morocco, and the importance of these communities in this ecosystem, e.g. indicators
of the overall health of aquatic ecosystems and fundamental component of marine food chains.
The main objectives of our studies are: (1) the realization of a first taxonomic inventory of the species and marine
epibenthic habitats in Morocco (crustaceans and cephalopods); (2) the description of the composition and the structure of
these communities in terms of abundance and biomass; (3) the characterization of their habitat by a combined analysis of
the biotic and abiotic environmental data (ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF)).
Our study area is between Cape Juby and the Cape Blanc. Crustaceans and Cephalopods sampling was carried out by the
scientists of the National Institute of fisheries Research (INRH) on board of the research vessel “Dr. Fridtjof Nansen”. This
work is part of the implementation of ecosystem campaigns CCLME project (The Large Marine Ecosystem Canary Current).
In the winter of 2011 and the summer of 2012, 206 stations were sampled by basic dredging and/or trawling according to the
nature of the biotope, in depths which vary between 22 m and 600m.
The present study show that we have high diversty of species and taxa (22 groups of species and 38 taxa). We note
that the richest taxa are the Decapoda, Prosobranchia and Demospongia. The results discounted are the identification
and localization of the vulnerable marine zones, by appealing to the creation of the protected marine areas (PMA) as a
management and conservation measure of resources, in the long-term, for the future generations.
KEYWORDS: BIODIVERSITY, EPIBENTHOS, MOROCCO, CCLME
110
Proceedings
MARINE SPECIES INTERACTIONS AND
ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS: IMPLICATIONS FOR
MANAGE-MENT AND CONSERVATION
XOCHITL CORMON1*, MORITZ STÄBLER2*
Channel and North Sea Fisheries Research Unit, IFREMER, Boulogne-sur-Mer, France
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, Resource modelling working group, Bremen, Germany
1
2
**email:[email protected]
Today, living marine resources represent a primary
source of proteins for more than 2.6 billion people and
support the livelihoods of about 11 percent of the world’s
population (UN, 2012). Seas and oceans worldwide
concentrate dense and diversified human activities like
fishing, tourism, shipping and offshore energy production.
At the same time seas and oceans experience many
environmental changes with acidification and increase of
water temperature being prominent examples (Boyd et al.,
2014). These anthropogenic and environmental pressures
may threaten the integrity of marine ecosystems and
challenge the sustainable use of their resources. In this
context, the World Summit on Sustainable Development
in Johannesburg (2002) has put the ecosystem approach
to fisheries (EAF) on the political agenda what increased
the importance of science supporting advice on marine
management and ecosystem conservation. The EAF stresses
the importance of understanding ecosystem functioning,
structure and dynamics in order to reach the sustainable
exploitation of our seas and oceans.
In such settings, we called for a session presenting
theoretical, empirical and more applied studies related to
EAF management. We invited contributions that (i) foster
the understanding of marine population dynamics, with
a particular interest on species interactions; (ii) integrate
species interactions in the management and conservation
of living marine resources; and (ii) discuss prospects of
marine ecosystem management and conservation in an
EAF context.
Species interactions as factors regulating marine population dynamics
Understanding marine ecosystem dynamics is essential
to reach a sustainable use of its resource (FAO, 2003).
Marine ecosystem dynamics are characterised by the
ecological interactions occurring between the different
elements composing its structure (represented by its
composition in terms of species and/or populations but
also its abiotic properties). The sustainable exploitation of a
particular living marine resource is related to its population
size, i.e. abundance and biomass (Frederiksen et al., 2006;
Laundré et al., 2014). The size of a population is strongly
influenced by its position within the trophic network to
which it belongs (Cury et al., 2003), describing the different
ecological interactions between the population of interest
and its biotic environment. One of the key ecological
interactions is represented by the relationship between
predators and prey (Jennings et al., 1998; Volterra, 1928).
Predator-prey interactions may regulate both predator and
prey populations through top-down control, i.e. by the
predators, and bottom-up control, i.e. by the available prey
resources (Cury et al., 2003).
Predation mortality is generally considered the main
source of mortality in marine ecosystems (Cury et al.,
2003). For this reason, it has been widely studied over the
years and included in so-called multispecies assessment
models (see next section) based on stomach content data.
For example, the large international stomach content
data collection programs in the North Sea date back
from 1981 and 1991, often referred as “the years of the
stomach” (Daan, 1989; Hislop et al., 1997 ). These programs
aimed to collect data for the North Sea concerning main
commercial species (cod, whiting, saithe, mackerel, horse
mackerel and haddock) and some emerging predators (e.g.,
111
grey gurnard). The aim was to assess their impact on the
population of their prey, such as clupeids, juvenile gadoids
and other forage fishes of commercial importance, as well
as on their own population, when cannibalism occurs.
Since the years of the stomachs, large scale internationally
coordinated stomach sampling is mainly limited by its
cost (in time and in money). Stomach samples from top
predators like sharks, seals, and harbour porpoise are even
scarcer and often only occasional samples are available to
parameterise multi species and ecosystem models.
The reverse effects, i.e. control of the predator by the
prey resources, are generally less studied despite their
acknowledged importance (Frederiksen et al., 2006). This
is because the investigation of the relationship between
prey availability/condition and predator population size/
condition is less straight forward and requires information
about various factors potentially influencing predator
growth and/or starvation mortality. Despite these
challenges, these effects, and their relevance to fisheries
management, were e.g., highlighted between cod and
its main prey capelin in the Barents Sea (Gjøsaeter et al.,
2009) and in Northwest Atlantic (Krohn et al., 1997) but
also in the North Sea between sandeels and their predators
(Engelhard et al., 2013) as well as between Norway pout
and saithe (Cormon et al., 2016a,b).
Another type of interactions potentially regulating the
ecosystem is competition (Volterra, 1928; Lotka, 1932;
Gause, 1934). „Biological competition is the active demand
by two or more individuals [...] for a common resource or
requirement that is actually or potentially limiting“ (Miller,
1967). Thus, competitive species, or populations, deplete
each other’s resources which may impact both competitors.
To understand these interactions and their effects it is
therefore necessary to understand relationships through
shared preys in both directions: (i) how do competitors
impact their prey? and (ii) how does prey reduction impact
both competitors?. Due to their complexity, these effects
are barely taken into account when managing living marine
resource even if they could have a significant impact and
affect resource sustainability (Link and Auster, 2013;
Cormon et al., 2016b; Stäbler et al., 2016).
Integrating species interactions in the management and conservation of
living marine resources
For more than a century, fisheries advice and
management has been exclusively based on single species
stock assessments. But more and more, not least since
the advent of the ecosystem approach to fisheries, has the
insight grown that single species are rarely extracted all
alone (Ulrich et al., 2001; Vinther et al., 2004; Miller and
Poos, 2010; Ulrich et al., 2012). Also, species targeted by the
fisheries eat other target and non-target species or are eaten
by them (multispecies interactions; see section above) with
consequences for fisheries management and the sustainable
exploitation of marine living resources. Additionally,
fishing affects the marine environment it takes place in
(Jennings and Kaiser, 1998; Hiddink et al., 2006, Kuparinen
and Merilä, 2007;Halpern et al., 2008; Branch, 2015) and
vice-versa the marine environment affects the productivity
of stocks to a large extent (van Denderen et al., 2013).
In such settings, multispecies and ecosystem models
form a substantial part of the toolbox to foster sustainable
exploitation of marine living resources and help to minimize
the probability of unexpected undesired outcomes.
112
Multispecies models chiefly aim to advise on sustainable
exploitation of a set of single species, but, unlike classic
single species models, link multiple commercial species
and some key predators through biological interactions,
e.g. the stochastic multispecies model SMS (Lewy and
Vinther, 2004), evolved of the Multi Species Virtual
Population Analysis, MSVPA (Helgason and Gislason,
1979; Pope, 1979). They bear a history of delivering
estimates of predation mortality of fished stocks, which
are then forwarded to single species assessment models
(Gislason and Helgason, 1985; ICES 1997; WGSAM, 2014;
WGBFAS, 2016; WGNSSK, 2016), but have moved beyond
that purpose to deliver ranges of sustainable exploitation of
a species, given certain states of its prey and predator stocks
(ICES, 2013). Ecosystem models, end-to-end models and
individual-based models, on the other hand, can advise if
the scope goes beyond commercially important species.
They therefore embed the interactions between target
species and fisheries in a representation of the whole
ecosystem, e.g. Ecopath with Ecosim (EwE; Christensen
et al., (2008), size spectra models, OSMOSE (Shin and
Cury, 2001), and ATLANTIS (Fulton et al., 2004). Plaganyi
(2007) reviewed a range of fisheries models taking species
interactions into account, ranging from, complex and
holistic ecosystem models to minimum realistic models
(MRM), which are restricted to marine organisms known
to have strong interactions with the species of interest.
Practical applications of multispecies or MRM and
ecosystem models for management can be derived via their
ability to expose trade-offs in catches of different species or
by different fishing gears: leaving some extra forage fish can
benefit abundance and catches of larger predators (Walters
et al., 2005; Smith et al., 2011), while decreased predator
stocks can increase catches of their prey, so called “culling”
(Cury et al., 2003). With those trade-offs quantified,
ecosystem and multispecies models can be used to seek
combinations of exploitation levels that lead to good overall
yields (Mackinson et al., 2009; Stäbler et al., 2016; Kempf
et al. 2016, Rindorf et al. 2016). Other studies explore the
impact of climate change (Cheung et al., 2010, Niiranen, et
al., 2013; Koenigstein et al., 2016 ) and of marine mammal
predators (Morissette et al., 2012; Alexander et al., 2015) on
potential fishing yields, or aim to disentangle how multiple
drivers, including different fishing fleets, impact the state
of food webs and ecosystems (Heymans et al., 2014; Lynam
and Mackinson, 2015).
Criticism, warnings and prospects of the holistic approaches used for
marine ecosystem management and/or conservation
Minimum realistic models (MRM) have been preferred
by different advisory agencies worldwide to account
for multispecies interactions in stock assessment-based
fisheries advice, because of their flexibility and ability to fit
to observations (Plaganyi, 2007). As mentioned previously,
these MRM generally tend to focus on commercial species.
Species of little economic importance, or for which
information is too limited, are generally not assessed
and/or pooled together in „Other“ groups. This tradeoff in complexity may limit the performances of stock
assessments and forecasts (Plaganyi, 2007; Cormon et al.,
2016b). This is particularly true when these „other“ species
interact to a larger extent with those explicitly modelled.
In addition, the focus on predation mortality (assumed as
the main source of mortality in marine ecosystems) at the
expense of bottom-up and competitive processes limits the
use of these tools for top-predators management (Hollowed
et al., 2000, Frederiksen et al., 2006; Morissette et al., 2012;
Engelhard et al., 2014; Pikitch et al., 2014; Cormon et al.,
2016a,b; Stäbler, 2016) and the understanding of species
involved in “multiple directions” interactions dynamics,
e.g. forage species and wasp-waist control (Cury et al.,
2003; Hunt and McKinnell, 2006; Griffiths et al., 2013).
Holistic approaches such as ecosystem and end-to-end
models have the advantage of including all/most of the
important species groups in contrast to MRM. Because they
allow the evaluation of unexpected indirect interactions
that an MRM could miss, they may be preferred to assess
management scenarios (Plaganyi, 2007; Morissette et al.,
2012). However, these models require a large amount of
data inputs which may result from optimisation due to a
lack of empirical data. This may lead to model parameter
uncertainties increasing with the complexity of the model
and thus bias scenario assessments or lead to uncertainties
unacceptable for management authorities (Payne et al.,
2015). In addition to their high requirement in terms
of data, these models are generally time-consuming
in construction and require high mathematical skills,
particularly during their calibration phase (Plaganyi, 2007),
which increases the costs of their implementation.
Improvement of the efficiency of EAF management
tools requires a reduction of their implementation
costs (in time and money) and uncertainties, therefore
increasing the confidence in their role as management
decisions support tools. In this context, the development of
innovative sampling techniques as well as the development
of Models of Intermediate Complexity for Ecosystem
(MICE, Plaganyi et al., 2014) are possible answers to future
challenges posed by the need for a sustainable exploitation
of our seas and oceans.
113
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116
ANDERSON ABEL DE SOUZA MACHADO1,2,3*
Department of Biology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin. Berlin, Germany
School of Geography, Queen Mary, University of London. London, UK
3
Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries. Berlin, Germany
1
2
Abstract
T
he emerging concept of Anthropocene, era in which human influences modify various environmental properties, has
direct implications on coastal research. Indeed, anthropogenic chemical (e.g. metals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals),
physical (e.g. microplastics, sediments, temperature) and biological (e.g. invasive species, eutrophication) stressors
increasingly affect marine and coastal aquatic systems. Consequently, the understanding of coastal environments is
intrinsically linked to the identification of shifts on contaminant baselines, biology, and oceanographic variables. This session
will discuss coastal and marine pollution in a broad context including environmental changes related to human interference.
Studies addressing chemical contamination, biogeochemistry, oceanographic processes, and related biological impacts are
especially welcome.
Oral Presentations
(VIII-1) Gilbert N. Atuga Enrichment of chlorobenzenes degrading cultures from Zeebrugge harbor river
sediments
(VIII-2) Anna Pouch
Distribution and origin of selected POPs in the Arctic fjords sediments
(VIII-3) Valentina Premier
Metal behaviour in the Thames Estuary: Insights from modelling studies
(VIII-4) Benjamin O. Botwe
Short-term sediment-associated trace metal dynamics in coastal marine Tema Harbour (Ghana)
(VIII-5) Spela Korez
Effects of microplastics in the marine isopod Idotea emarginata
(VIII-6) Natalie Prinz
Small particles, big problem! Microplastic and pelagic fish larvae
(P18)
Matthias Marx
Market review on microplastic use in cosmetics
(P19) Veloisa J. Mascarenhas Remote sensing essential optical parameters for environmental monitoring of Sognefjord and Trondheimsfjord, Norway
(P20) Susann Diercks
Photographic assessment of the influence of low pH values on the coralline alga Jania rubens
(P21) Sandra I. Moreno Abril Chronic copper exposure affects growth and somatotropic axis regulation in the estuarine guppy Poecilia vivipara
Proceedings
Coastal and marine pollution in the Anthropocene: Identifying contaminants and processes
117
Enrichment of chlorobenzenes degrading cultures from
Zeebrugge harbor river sediments
GILBERT ATUGA1,2*, YUE LU2, SIAVIASH ATASHGAHI2, HAUKE SMIDT2
Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, English point, P.O. Box 81651, Mombasa, Kenya
Wageningen University, Department of Microbiology, Droevendaalsesteg 4, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
1
2
C
hlorobenzenes (CBs) are compounds that are persistence in the environment. The accumulation of these compounds
in the environment may lead to their biomagnification in food chain. These compounds have been found to be
toxic to human and marine life. The objective of this study was to evaluate anaerobic reductive dechlorination
of enrichment cultures from Zeebrugge harbour, Belgium. Anaerobic enrichment cultures which were initially amended
with one of specific chlorinated benzene, i.e. HCB, 1,2,4,5-TeCB, 1,2,3,5-TeCB, and1,2,3,4-TeCB were spiked with 50 µM
of the respective CBs serving as electron donor, and lactate as electron acceptor. Two serial transfers were conducted. The
reductive dechlorination of enrichment cultures was studied using GC-FID for 44 days, after which a second transfer was
done. Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) was performed on the samples at day zero of first transfer and day 26 of the second
transfer targeting two putative chlorobenzenes degraders (Dehalococcoides spp. and Desulfitobacterium spp.). Based on the
achieved results, reductive dechlorination was observed in all enrichment samples. HCB was dechlorinated via two major
degrading pathways i.e. HCB via PCB, 1,2,4,5-TeCB, 1,2,4-TCB, 1,4-DCB to MCB, or HCB via 1,2,3,5-TeCB to 1,3,5.-TCB.
The 1,2,4,5-TeCB enrichment samples also showed two degrading pathways i.e.1,2,4,5-TeCB via 1,2,4-TCB to 1,3-DCB,
or 1,2,4,5-TeCB via 1,2,4-TCB to 1,4-DCB to MCB. The dechlorination pathway of 1,2,3,5-TeCB pathway was not clear
however dechlorinating products 1,2,4-TCB and MCB were detected. qPCR analysis of the enrichment cultures showed
total quantities of bacteria for the first and second transfer of 105 to 107copies/ml respectively. Desulfitobacterium spp. and
Dehaloccoides spps were detected in all samples. These organisms have been found to be involved in reductive dechlorination
of CBs. However to make any meaningful conclusion, further knowledge is needed to understand the role of microbial
communities in dechlorination.
KEYWORDS: REDUCTIVE DECHLORINATION, CHLOROBENZENES, ENRICHMENT CULTURES
118
Distribution and origin of selected POPs in the Arctic fjords
sediments
POUCH A.1*, ZABORSKA A.1, PAZDRO K.1
Institute of Oceanology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81 – 712 Sopot, Poland
1
T
he objective of the study is to present preliminary results of selected Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
concentrations in the Arctic fjords sediments.
The extension of knowledge on POPs cycling in the Arctic is important since POPs may be transported over
long distances from distant sources, are persistent in the environment and toxic. They tend to accumulate in fatty tissues of
organisms, moreover may biomagnify along the arctic food web. POPs are highly reactive and readily sorbed onto sinking
organic and mineral particles. Therefore, part of them is accumulated by marine organisms and other part is deposited at
the sea bottom. Deposited contaminants may be re-introduced to the water column and be again bioavailable for organisms.
This study presents the results of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
concentration in sediments collected from three fjords (western Svalbard). These fjords are influenced by different water
masses, different rate of glaciers ablation and the intensity of primary and secondary production. In addition, the knowledge
on POPs concentrations in the Adventfjord near Longyearbyen may allow assessing the significance of local pollution
sources. The concentrations of selected PCBs and selected PAHs have been measured in sediment cores from selected depth
intervals. GC-FID and GC-ECD techniques were used for qualitative and quantitative analysis of PCBs and PAHs. To assess
the origin of PAHs contaminants in sediments, individual components ratios were used. Sediment cores were dated using
210
Pb method, therefore the history of POPs accumulation has also been studied.
The concentration of Σ7 PCBs and Σ12 PAHs in sediments ranged from 0.05 to 1.5 ng/g d.w. and from 33.5 to 463.3
ng/g d.w. respectively. The compounds present in highest proportion were volatile CB28 congener and phenanthrene. The
obtained results are also discussed in the context of environmental conditions that may influence POPs accumulation.
KEYWORDS: PCBS, PAHS, CONTAMINATION, ARCTIC SEDIMENTS
119
Metal behaviour in the Thames Estuary: Insights from
modelling studies
VALENTINA PREMIER1,2*, ANDERSON ABEL DE SOUZA MACHADO1,2,3,4, CHRISTIANE ZARFL2,5,
KATE SPENCER4, MARCO TOFFOLON1
Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, via Mesiano 77, 38123 Trento, Italy
Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587 Berlin, Germany
3
Department of Biology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin, Altensteinstr. 6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
4
School of Geography, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4N, UK
5
Center for Applied Geosciences, Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, Hölderlinstr. 12, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
1
2
T
he Thames Estuary represents a vulnerable ecosystem subjected to strong anthropogenic pressure, where metal
contamination threatens wildlife and ecosystem functions. As a basis for ecosystem management it is thus essential
to better understand the mechanisms that control the transport and deposition of metals along the estuary.
We performed a preliminary regression analysis on freshwater discharge, salinity and water chemistry (data set provided
by the Environmental Agency, UK) to identify the main factors affecting metal fate in the estuary. Copper and Zinc
were chosen as modelled metals due to their considerable presence in the estuary. In addition, we coupled a numerical
hydrodynamic and water quality model (belonging to the Delft3D suite) to simulate metal behaviour in the Thames under
various hydrodynamic conditions. The hydrodynamic model was validated using the available data of water level and salinity
along the estuary, and the fate of dissolved and particulate metals was simulated with the specific module within the water
quality model.
Tidal forcing, riverine discharge, salinity, suspended solids, and metal concentrations were identified as the most relevant
parameters. The regression analysis showed weak negative correlations between discharge and salinity and suspended
solids and salinity, a weak positive correlation between metal concentrations and suspended solids and a stronger positive
correlation between Zinc and Copper concentrations. The correlation analysis suggested that internal processes (like
sediment resuspension, settling and accumulation) can be more important than physical processes.
However, the hydrodynamic simulations showed that the position of the salinity front is strongly affected by the riverine
discharge, which in turn affects metal partitioning. Studies on the non-conservative behaviour of metals in an 1-year long
simulation, underline the importance of tidal flats in terms of metal remobilization. Further research is needed to analyze
the influence of climate change and of the loss of these areas.
KEYWORDS: ESTUARINE-HYDRODYNAMICS, ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION, NON-CONSERVATIVE BEHAVIOUR, NUMERICAL
MODELLING, SALINITY
120
Short-term sediment-associated trace metal dynamics in
coastal marine Tema Harbour (Ghana)
BENJAMIN. O. BOTWE1,2*, PETER KELDERMAN1, ELVIS NYARKO2, KENNETH A. IRVINE1,
PIET N. L. LENS1
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, PO Box 3015, 2601 DA Delft, The Netherlands
Department of Marine and Fisheries Sciences, University of Ghana, PO Box LG 99, Legon, Accra, Ghana
1
2
T
his study aimed to assess short-term dynamics in settling sediment-associated trace metals (Mn, Pb, Cr, Cu, Zn, Ni,
Hg, Sn, As, Al and Fe) in the Tema Harbour. Five vertical arrays of sediment traps were deployed at five locations
within the harbour to collect settling sediments over a period of twelve weeks. The traps were retrieved every two
weeks and deposited sediments analysed for trace metals and physicochemical characteristics in the <63 µm fractions. The
trace metal levels were then subjected to statistical analysis to assess temporal and spatial variations. Trace metal levels were
also compared with sediment quality guidelines to characterise their potential ecological risks. Concentrations of the trace
metals varied from <0.1-3.0 (mean = 0.41 ± 0.06 mg.kg-1 d.w) for Hg to 22400-56300 (mean = 37000 ± 900 mg.kg-1 d.w) for
Fe. The results showed that Cu, Hg, As and Al were highly dynamic, exhibiting significant temporal and spatial variations; Zn
and Ni exhibited significant spatial variations; while Fe, Pb and Mn were least dynamic, exhibiting no significant temporal
or spatial variations. The levels of As showed an increasing trend in the last 6-week, suggesting increased inputs of As
during that period. The trace metals also exhibited varied correlations, suggesting they derived from diffuse sources. The
concentrations of As in all cases exceeded the effect range median (ERM) value of 70 mg.kg-1 by factors of 2-18 and thus,
the As concentrations pose with high ecological risk. The levels of Hg and Ni also exceeded their respective ERM values in
about 10% of the samples and thus, they could also be of ecological concern. This study calls for improved pollution control
measures at the Tema Harbour. A more refined risk assessment is recommended to characterise the hazards and ecological
risks posed by the harbour sediments for proper management of sediment contamination in the harbour.
KEYWORDS: TRACE METAL DYNAMICS, SETTLING SEDIMENT, SEDIMENT TRAP, TEMA HARBOUR, ECOLOGICAL RISK
121
Effects of microplastics in the marine isopod Idotea
emarginata
ŠPELA KOREZ1*, LARS GUTOW1, REINHARD SABOROWSKI1
1
Alfred Wegener Institute, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
L
ight weight, mechanical resistance, and low production cost are some of the positive features of plastic materials which
gained versatile use over recent decades. Growing human population and careless usage of plastic products along
with increasing global plastic production, lead to massive litter accumulations in natural environments. Due to river
runoff and gradual degradation of larger plastic pieces into micro-sized ones microplastics enter the marine environment.
Although we are aware since the early 1970s of the threat plastic is representing, there is still little information about the
effects of microplastic on marine biota. In a recent study it was demonstrated that microplastic is ingested and excreted by
the marine isopod Idotea emarginata without clogging the digestive system of the animals. In the present study we are now
studying the effect of microplastics on feeding rates and physiology of this abundant invertebrate from sub- and eulitoral
habitats. Applying different feeding treatments with the fresh brown algae Fucus vesiculosus and dried algae embedded
in agarose we studied the effect on digestive enzyme activities in the gut and midgut gland when the food was blended
with microplastic. Feeding rates did not change when microplastics were added to the diet. Enzyme activities showed high
scatter and inconsistent results. Esterase (C4) and lipase (C18) activities decreases in the gut and in the midgut gland when
fresh algal food was enriched with microplastics. Activities of phosphoesterase exo-and endopeptidase showed no distinct
changes in activity. Our results provide first evidence that microplastic may differently affect digestive enzyme activities in
the gut and the midgut gland of marine isopods. Further research is needed to verify whether the observed alterations affect
food digestion and nutrient assimilation.
KEYWORDS: IDOTEA EMARGINATA, MIDGUT GLAND, GUT, MICROPLASTICS, DIGESTIVE ENZYME
122
Small particles, big problem! Microplastic and pelagic fish
larvae
NATALIE PRINZ1,2*, LARS GUTOW3
Leibniz Centre for Marine Tropical Ecology (ZMT) Fahrenheitstraße 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
3
Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
1
2
D
eclining fisheries stocks and the increasing proliferation of plastic litter in the world’s oceans will become serious
problems for a growing human population. Past research focused on understanding early pelagic fish development
in order to better estimate global fish stock recruitment. Larvae form a bottleneck in fish development, recruitment
and population persistence of economically important resources. As this development stage faces a high amount of biotic
and abiotic pressures, anthropogenic impacts such as plastic pollution will decrease their chance for survival even more.
Large plastic waste progressively breaks up into ever-finer pieces with long half-lives when entering the oceans. However,
academic literature shows a knowledge-gap on how fish ontogeny and the increase in microplastic abundance in marine
environments are interacting. Through an extensive literature review information was tied together to identify potential
effects of microplastic on pelagic fish larvae. I will focus on the importance of their feeding habits, food preference, and
digestive ecophysiology as well as the abundance, distribution, composition and degradation of marine pelagic micro-debris
(<5mm). Do fish larvae eat plastics that are small enough? I hypothesise that microplastics cause physical and chemical
harm to early development stages. Additionally, I discuss how ingestion of plastic particles could channel physically or
chemically hazardous particles up the marine food web, as fish larvae function as a major nutrition for higher trophic levels.
This can subsequently impact entire ecological systems. I conclude that microplastics likely have detrimental effects on larval
hatching success, recruitment, and survival. Accordingly, microplastics and their effects on fish larvae should be taken into
account in future fisheries management. Finally, the urgent need to support regulations to control the amounts of plastic that
accumulate in marine ecosystems is highlighted in order to avoid fine-scale ecological impairment in the future.
KEYWORDS: MICROPLASTIC, PELAGIC FISH LARVAE, INGESTION, FOOD WEB
123
Market review on microplastic use in cosmetics - on the
example of peeling, shampoo and body products
MATTHIAS MARX1,2*, KLAUS KÜMMERER1, CLAUDIA MARX3
Leuphana Universität Lüneburg Institut für Nachhaltige Chemie und Umweltchemie, Scharnhorststraße 1, 21335 Lüneburg, Germany
Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg Institut für Chemie und Biologie des Meeres, Carl-von-Ossietzky-Straße 9-11, 26129 Oldenburg,
Germany
3
Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit Institut für Bedarfsgegenstände, Am alten Eisenwerk 2a,
21339 Lüneburg, Germany
1
2
M
icroplastics are normally categorized as primary (no fragmentation) and secondary microplastics (fragmented).
This categorization ignores fluid plastics. Since the sewage systems cannot filter microplastics completely,
microplastics are released into environment. Because of the multiple applicability cosmetics are one of the main
sources of primary microplastics, which is especially concerning due to the use of additives, e.g. carcinogenic or containing
chlorine. Following the question arises: Which kinds of and how much fluid and solid microplastics are used in cosmetic
products? To answer these questions a market review was generated of peeling, shampoo, and body products that are sold
in Lüneburg (Germany). The analyzed products are distributed at least nationwide. The product types are categorized in
natural, conventional and perfumed products. Altogether, the market review includes 4207 (1627 different) products from
17 different shops.
The results show that 56% of the products include microplastic components (without natural cosmetics 67%). The most
often used plastic types are Polyquaternium-7 (56%), Polyquaternium-10 (36%), Styrene/Acrylates Copolymer (29%) and
Acrylates Copolymer (10%). The solid plastic Polyethylene is found in 5% of the products. To focus on all products of all
listed shops one supermarket shows the highest probability (78%) of buying a product which includes plastics.
Compared to previous market reviews, this analysis is more extensive and only this compares plastic-free products to
products which include plastics. Moreover, the review output is transferable to whole Germany and beyond. To solve the
plastic pollution problems, fluid-plastics have to be included in the definition of microplastics as well as solid plastics. On
technical research level the filter function of sewage systems has to be optimized. This market review may be used to sensitize
the population as a preventive method. Also, the new available knowledge should be implemented in the discussion to ban
the usage of primary microplastics.
KEYWORDS: MICROPLASTICS, COSMETIC, MARINE LITTER, FLUID PLASTICS, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
124
Remote sensing essential optical parameters for
environmental monitoring of Sognefjord and
Trondheimsfjord, Norway
VELOISA J. MASCARENHAS1*, ROHAN H. HENKEL1, DANIELA VOSS1, OLIVER ZIELINSKI1
Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment, Oldenburg University, 26382, Wilhelmshaven, Germany.
1
C
oastal areas cover about 44% of the world’s population. With increase in human settlements, the anthropogenic
influence on the coastal ecosystems is ever increasing which renders them highly vulnerable to climate change.
Coastal waters such as the fjords represent highly dynamic ecosystems constantly under the influence of tidal
energy at one end and freshwater influx at the other. Fjords are premier tourism destinations for their pristine nature and
home to some of the world’s largest deep sea coral reef ecosystems with rich marine biodiversity and fish stocks and many of
the world’s endangered species. Regular monitoring of these vital ecosystems is therefore crucial.
Satellite optical remote sensing techniques serve as a convenient and promising tool to monitor such complex and
dynamic ecosystems for applications of water quality and coastal zone management. However, successful and effective
retrieval of climate change variables and their proxies require sound knowledge of water optical properties. Here we present
for Sognefjord and Trondheimsfjord along the northwestern Norwegian coast, an analysis of the relative contribution of
Optically Active Constituents (OACs) to absorption coefficient (absorption budget) and essential optical parameters such as
the backscattering ratio (bb/b), mass specific absorption coefficients derived from laboratory spectrophotometric analysis of
water samples essential for remote sensing applications in these dynamic ecosystems.
KEYWORDS: OCEAN OPTICS, OPTICAL PROPERTIES, REMOTE SENSING, COAST, FJORDS, ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
125
Photographic assessment of the influence of low pH values
on the coralline alga Jania rubens
S. DIERCKS1*, F.I. ROSSBACH1
Institut für Marine Biologie, Isola del Giglio, Italy
1
S
ince the industrial revolution, the pH of surface oceans has dropped by 0.1 units and will probably drop another
0.3 to 0.4 units by 2100. Increased concentrations of anthropogenic CO2 are reflected in an elevated concentration
of hydrogen ions (H+), which lowers the pH and the available carbonate (CO32–) ions. Decreased carbonate ion
concentrations are leading to lower calcium carbonate saturation state (ΩCaCO3) in the world oceans. An impairing effect
is therefore predicted for marine calcifying organisms forming biogenic calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The coralline red
alga Jania rubens ((Linnaeus) J.V.Lamouroux) can be found in the Baltic Sea, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean as well as the
Mediterranean Sea. As a calcifying alga, it is characterized by a hard thallus, due to calcareous deposits in the cell walls.
Within the framework of a short-term experiment (24 hours) the effects of low pH values (from 0 to 5) on this coralline alga
were documented photographically. Algae fragments were exposed to acidified seawater and photos were taken in regular
intervals (t0; t1/2h; t1h; t3h; t6h; t12h; t24h). Laboratory experiments on the influence of decreasing pH determine species’
relative sensitivities to acidified seawater and can reveal threshold tolerances. Many studies only examine the influence of
low pH in a natural range (e.g. pH 7), but rarely extreme the impact of extreme values is tested. Jania rubens showed gradual
dissolution rates in regard to the different pH values and over time. During short-time exposure, the threshold tolerance
regarding tissue dissolution was found at a pH of about 2. The CaCO3 structures dissolved within the first 2 hours at the very
low pH values (pH 0 and 1), leaving just the gelatinous cellular tissue. Whereas already at a pH of 2, the carbonate structures
which give Jania rubens its solid structure were still present.
KEYWORDS: OCEAN ACIDIFICATION, CORALLINE ALGAE, CARBONATE, PHOTOGRAPHY
126
Chronic copper exposure affects growth and somatotropic
axis regulation in the estuarine guppy Poecilia vivipara
YURI DORNELLES ZEBRAL1, IURI SALIM ABOU ANNI1, SIDNEI BRAZ AFONSO1,
SANDRA ISABEL MORENO ABRIL1*, ADALTO BIANCHINI1
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande-FURG
1
C
opper (Cu) is a micronutrient essential for several biological processes. Nevertheless, it is also an ubiquitous
contaminant associated with human activities. The aim of the present study was to identify the mechanism relaying
the chronic Cu effect on estuarine fish growth. Newborn (<24-h old) Poecilia vivipara were kept under control
conditions or exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of Cu (nominally: 5 and 9 µg/L) in salt water (24 ppt) for
345 days. After exposure, fish had size and weight recorded. Expression of gene encoding for growth hormone (GH) was
evaluated in brain, while expressions of genes encoding for growth hormone receptors (GHR1 and GHR2) were analyzed in
brain, skeletal muscle and liver. In turn, expressions of genes encoding for insulin-like growth factors (IGF1 and IGF2) were
evaluated in skeletal muscle and liver. Additionally, GH concentration was assessed in brain while GHR concentration was
measured in skeletal muscle and liver. Growth was significantly reduced exposed guppies, males (9 µg/L Cu) and females (5
and 9 µg/L Cu). Expression of target genes evaluated by qPCR was only affected in skeletal muscle. A reduced level of GHR2
mRNA was observed in guppies exposed to 5 µg/L Cu, while reduced levels of GHR2, IGF 1 and IGF 2 mRNA were observed
in guppies exposed to 9 µg/L Cu. These findings indicate that the reduced growth observed in P. vivipara chronically exposed
to Cu is associated with the reduction in GHR2 expression. This effect leads to impairment in the expression of IGF1 and
IGF2, which are important trophic factors for maintenance of the muscular anabolic state. Finally, it is concluded that fish
growth impairment induced by chronic Cu exposure is associated with a disruption of the somatotropic axis regulation at
the muscular level. Therefore, Cu can be considered as an endocrine disruptor in P. vivipara.
KEYWORDS: CHRONIC EXPOSURE, ENDOCRINE DISRUPTOR, GROWTH, HORMONE, SOMATOTROPIC AXIS
127
Proceedings
COASTAL AND MARINE POLLUTION IN THE
ANTHROPOCENE: IDENTIFYING CONTAMINANTS
AND PROCESSES
ANDERSON ABEL DE SOUZA MACHADO1,2,3*
Department of Biology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin. Berlin, Germany
School of Geography, Queen Mary, University of London. London, UK
3
Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries. Berlin, Germany
1
2
Abstract:
The emerging concept of the Anthropocene era in which human activities modify various environmental
properties, has direct implications for coastal and marine research. Anthropogenic chemical (e.g. metals,
persistent organic pollutants, and emerging contaminants), physical (e.g. microplastics, sediment loads,
temperature), and biological (e.g. invasive species) stressors increasingly affect marine and coastal aquatic
systems, pushing these environments to a new equilibrium state. This article addresses coastal and marine
pollution in a broad context. Examples of representative baseline changes related to human activity and with
deleterious environmental effects are reviewed here. The main goal is to highlight that human influence is
pervasive in coastal aquatic and marine systems, and therefore increase awareness of marine researchers that
the understanding of the difference between natural and anthropogenic controls is essential to better quantify
impacts and elaborate mitigation actions.
KEYWORDS: BIODIVERSITY LOSS, CONTAMINANT FATE, ECOTOXICOLOGY, EMERGING CONTAMINANTS, LIGHT POLLUTION,
MICROPLASTICS, SHIFTING BASELINES.
1.Introduction
The Anthropocene describes the current epoch in
which humans reached development and numbers to
rival and modify the natural geophysical function of our
planet (Steffen et al. 2011). This concept is established in
environmental sciences (Meybeck 2004) despite the fact that
it is still to be proven as a stratigraphic unit on geological
history (Quaternary Stratigraphy Working Group, 2016).
In this sense, the Anthropocene began ~200 years ago with
the onset of industrialization and the enormous expansion
in the use of fossil fuels (Steffen et al. 2007). The industrial
revolution shattered the energy bottleneck that humans
had faced throughout the history, with the consequently
remarkable explosion in human enterprises modified the
128
baselines for several processes on Earth System (Steffen et
al. 2011).
From urban coastlines with long historic industrialization
such as the Thames Estuary up to environments as remote
as the Arctic Ocean, the imprint of human activities alters
natural physics, chemistry, and biology (Baugh et al. 2013;
National Academy of Science 2014). Shifts on processes
of the Earth System are clear for many (if not most)
processes taking place in coastal areas. Sea level rise, ocean
acidification, and coral reef bleaching are some examples
of the abiotic and biotic anthropogenic disruptions (IPCC
2014). In fact, the chemical composition of the atmosphere
and terrestrial, marine and aquatic continental ecosystems
display significant signs of anthropogenic perturbations
Thus, the present study introduces selected
(Meybeck 2003). Baseline changes are especially noticeable
anthropogenic impacts on the biosphere. The main focus
for the natural cycles of chemical elements such as carbon,
lies on changes that have consequences on the physical,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and various metals (Steffen et al.
chemical, and biological natural function of the coastal
2011; IPCC 2014; Machado et al. 2016). Additionally, a
and marine components of the Earth System. I identify
complex cocktail of various synthetic and potentially toxic
potential contaminants and processes to which human
xenobiotics have been released into the environment in the
influence is already well shown global and distinguishable.
form of persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
and emerging contaminants (Box 1).
Box 1. Trace contaminants
2.Identifying contaminants
After the industrial revolution, human
societies have overcome most of energy
and natural resources limitations that had
previously constrained our species, which
allowed remarkable population growth (Fig.
1A) (Steffen et al. 2011). While industrialization
happened at early stages of Anthropocene,
some of the technological developments
were perceived only lately, after the Great
Acceleration starting ~1940 (Fig. 1B) (Steffen
et al. 2007). Thus, timely diverse contaminants
have been released into the environment since
the beginning of the Anthropocene. Currently,
the American Chemical Society reports >117
million of organic and inorganic chemical
compounds, that have been manipulated by
humans (CAS Registry, 2016). Indeed, the CAS
Registry updates daily ~15,000 new compounds,
with 1-2% of them entering the market and
eventually the environment.
As single contaminants present significantly
different usage and environmental behavior,
it is currently impossible to estimate the exact
extent of human impacts on environmental
chemistry. Some pollutants occur at very low
concentrations, often below quantification
limits. Such trace concentrations do not imply
the absence of effects, however (Box 1).
Other chemicals provide insights on the
dimension of chemical pollution. Carbon
dioxide (CO2; Fig. 1C) is perhaps the most
notorious sign of anthropogenic influence on
geophysical and geochemical forces (Steffen et
al. 2007). The atmospheric concentration of this
greenhouse gas increased since the beginning of
Trace contaminants form a chemically diverse group
with toxicity or environmental concentrations at range of
µg L-1 or below. They might be essential micronutrients
(e.g. Cu), non-essential elements (e.g. Ag) or synthetic
xenobiotics (e.g. polychlorinated biphenyls). This latter
group is of particular concern because organisms have
been exposed to them only during the Anthropocene,
and have not completely evolved specific detoxification
mechanisms.
■■ Metals: The most studied and still problematic group
of contaminants including several chemically stable
elements with high toxicity and extremely long residence
times in aquatic systems (Machado et al. 2016). Al and
Zn are most threatening contaminants for the aquatic
wildlife in the UK.
■■ Persistent organic pollutants (POPs): Toxic
chemicals with relatively long environmental persistence
and high mobility. Their extremely high affinity to
biomolecules and difficulties of metabolic detoxification
allow most of POPs to bioaccumulate and biomagnify
(EPA US, 2016). POPs are transported long distances
in water and atmosphere (Jiménez et al. 2015). Thus,
high concentrations are found in top predators like large
mammals even in remote areas of Arctic or Antarctic
oceans.
■■ Emerging contaminants & endocrine disruptors:
Emerging contaminants are modern or long use chemicals,
including pharmaceuticals, that have environmental
toxicity (mostly sublethal, e.g. carcinogenesis,
genotoxicity, mutagenicity) only recently discovered.
Endocrine disruptors are often emerging contaminants
that interfere with hormonal responses (metals and POPs
might also cause endocrine disruption). It is difficult to
estimate impacts of endocrine disruptors because they
may cause non-monotonic effects at low levels (ng - fg
129
Anthropocene causing climate change, ocean acidification,
and sea-level rise, among other effects (IPCC, 2014).
Moreover, CO2 has an estimated residence time between
3 and 40 years for the atmosphere and ~350 years for the
oceans. This means that most of anthropogenic CO2 has
been stored in the oceans and will continue impacting the
Earth System for the next several centuries (IPCC, 2014).
Figure 1: Characteristic markers of the Anthropocene*. Human population (A), popularization and consumption of technology
(B), carbon dioxide atmospheric contamination (C), fertilizer consumption (D), coastal nitrogen input (E), and water usage (F). *Figures
are adapted from Steffen et al. 2011.
130
Box 2. Climate change
Climate change refers to the unequivocal and
unprecedented warming of the climate system.
The main causes are anthropogenic emissions
of greenhouse gases (the highest in the history
of the planet), which have widespread effects
on atmosphere, oceans, cryosphere, etc. (PCC,
2014). For instance, Arctic environments
experience changes in climate, biology, and
society on a rapid, complex, and interactive
non-linear fashion, with regional and global
consequences (National Academy of Science,
2015).
Nearly all natural and human systems will be
affected by climate change. There is uncertainty
on the magnitude of:
■■ Temperature changes
■■ Sea level rise
■■ Ocean acidification
■■ Extreme events
■■ Coastal squeeze
■■ Climate forcings and feedbacks
Sea ice minimum in the Arctic Ocean on September
2012. Source: NASA (http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/
Fertilizers are also undoubtedly chemical contaminants
causing shifts in coastal and marine systems worldwide
(Fig. 1D). Nutrient contamination on coastal aquatic
systems has widespread sources such as agriculture, house
waste, aquaculture, industrial effluents, and erosion (Cloern
2001). Thus, coastal and marine systems are receiving
enhanced influx of nutrients such as nitrogen (Fig. 1E)
and phosphorus (Steffen et al. 2011). Indeed, nutrient
enrichment has been observed globally with impacts on
trophic structures and coastal eutrophication (Cloern
2001). Such nutrient effects are also associated with the
increase in water use (Fig. 1F), mostly for irrigation, that
compromises quality and quantity of water flowing to
coastal areas (Meybeck 2003, 2004) (see chapter “Fighting
eutrophication in coastal waters”).
Chemical contamination is not the exclusive type of
coastal pollution. Other important anthropogenic stressors
are physical. For instance, shifts in water temperature can
trigger significant changes on the planktonic community
of the Thames Estuary (Lázár et al. 2012). More recently,
the potential effects of night-time lightning in harbors
and coastal areas have been highlighted as pollutant able
to affect epifaunal benthonic communities (Davies et al.
2015). Another relevant physical stressor is the pollution
by sediments. In watersheds not properly managed, high
sediment input can increase turbidity in estuaries and
coastal waters (Baugh et al. 2013). This affects aquatic
photosynthesis, fish respiration, predator behavior,
and benthonic communities. Conversely, intense water
abstraction can decrease sediment input, often associated
with coastal erosion (Meybeck 2004).
Plastic debris, such as microplastics, is another example
of the physical stressor. It has been claimed that plastic
pollution might be the most ubiquitous and long-lasting
anthropogenic changes to the surface of our planet (Barnes
et al. 2009). Environmental abrasion of large plastic
fragments generates microplastics (Zubris & Richards
2005), generally defined as plastic particles smaller than 5
mm (Barnes et al. 2009). The abundance of small plastic
particles is further increased by the use of plastic particles
in scrubbers and abrasives, spillage of pre-production
plastic pellets and powders (Barnes et al. 2009). While
large plastic debris can cause ecological effects e.g. by
organism entangling and decreasing feeding efficiency,
microplastics can additionally cause abrasion of sensitive
tissues such as gills, and if internalized they can physically
disrupt physiological functions. Furthermore, there is a
131
controversial debate on the potential of microplastics to
adsorb and release chemicals under certain conditions,
which would have implications on the facilitation of
organism interaction with other contaminants (Koelmans
et al. 2016). It is unquestionable that plastic pollution is
a widespread problem, with plastic fragments present
in most of aquatic continental and most oceanic
environments (Zubris & Richards 2005, Barnes et al. 2009),
thus representing a clear signature of the later phase of
Anthropocene. The dimension of its impacts still requires
research.
There are also anthropogenic biological stressors.
Aquaculture, for instance, enhances the risk of pathology in
the aquatic fauna and flora by introducing and increasing
the density of certain microbes and their host organisms.
In fact, microbial contamination is recently acknowledged
as a threat to the global biodiversity (Schwartz et al. 2006).
Changes on distribution of diverse species (see chapter
“Going global: invasive and range-expanding species”)
implies anthropogenic disruptions of natural ecological
niches (Dirzo et al. 2014). Moreover, the use of the
entomopathogenic Bacillus thuringiensis as bioinsecticide
to control mosquito nuisance in French wetland reserves
altered predatory pressure on insects and trophic structure
with reduced bird fecundity (Poulin et al. 2010). The
community composition and ecological interactions that
we observe in the contemporary coastal systems are under
strong influence of microbial contamination. Thus, research
is required to elucidate which processes are natural and
which result from biological
3.Identifying processes
a. Global changes
Global change refers to the conjunction of processes
which anthropogenic forcing drives the Earth System away
from its natural function. Thus, global change includes a
wide range of global-scale phenomena: land use and land
cover, urbanization, globalization, coastal ecosystems,
atmospheric composition, riverine flow, nitrogen cycle,
carbon cycle, physical climate, marine food web chains,
biological diversity, population, economy, resource use,
energy, transport, communication, and so on (Steffen et al.
2011). Climate change is the most broadly recognized of
global changes and it remains a challenge from a scientific
and environmental management point of view (IPCC,
2014; Box 2).
Another example of global change is the formation of
the ozone hole (Fig. 2A) caused by Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) emissions and other halogenated ozone depleting
substances (ODS) (Steffen et al. 2011). It had implication on
increasing global UV radiation, and therefore potentially
increasing mutation rates on various biomes since 1970
(NASA, 2016). The ozone hole is currently decreasing
and represents an example of successful control of
environmental damage that took place after 1990 (Steffen
et al. 2011).
Coastal structures and coastal engineered morphology
also alter the hydrodynamics, and consequently the
geochemistry and ecology of coastal systems (Machado
132
et al. 2016). The most iconic example is perhaps “coastal
squeeze”, the loss of tidal areas due to a combination of sea
level rise and construction of hard defenses to maintain
historic coastlines (Pethick 2002). Coastal squeeze affects
tidal propagation and compromises ecosystem services
provided by tidal areas (Pethick 2002). Additional relevant
examples of global change that affect directly biota of
coastal and marine ecosystems are global warming (Fig.
2B), and the ecosystem pressures fisheries overexploitation
(Fig. 2C) and aquaculture (Fig. 2D).
The impact of global changes on water cycle is
of particular concern for estuaries (Meybeck 2004).
Estuaries are amongst the most biologically productive
and biodiverse ecosystems on the planet, which support
a significant part of global fisheries (Cloern 2001). Being
areas of traditionally intense human habitation, estuaries
experience various current and historical stressors (Pethick
2002). Loss of vegetal cover and extreme weather (Fig. 3AB) are causing erosion and increased suspended particle
transport by rivers, resulting in sediment contamination
and its effects (see above). Because of its transitional
position between land and sea, at the lowest end of rivers,
estuaries are also affected by flooding (Pethick 2002). High
flow velocities during floods interfere with the sediment
balance, i.e. the net outcome of sedimentation and erosion.
Alterations on the water level and flooding frequency can
change the chemistry of sedimentary layers and can affect
estuarine contaminant remobilization (Machado et al.
2016). Moreover, the freshwater input is a determining the
position of the salinity fronts (Meybeck 2004). In turn, the
zones of equal salinity, i.e. the isohalines, are determining
the communities of estuarine organisms (Jassby et al.
1995). Therefore, it is sensible that the current global boom
in construction of river dams (Zarfl et al. 2015) (Fig. 3C)
affects the ecology of estuarine systems.
Figure 2: Anthropocene processes affecting life on coastal and marine environments*. Stratospheric ozone depletion (A), global
warming (B), and ecosystem impacts: fisheries (C) and aquaculture (D). *Figures are adapted from Steffen et al. 2011.
Figure 3: Anthropocene processes that directly impact estuarine systems*. Deforestation (A), extreme events as great floods (B),
and river dam construction (C). *Figures are adapted from Steffen et al. 2011.
133
Figure 4: Global atmospheric aerosols. Source: NASA (http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_2393.html).
b. Atmospheric circulation
The absence of human settlements does not assure
nonexistence of anthropogenic impacts. Contaminants
that present a gas-phase or that are adsorbed by aerosols
can be transported in the atmosphere over long distances,
which can be up to thousands of kilometers depending on
the contaminants physico-chemical properties (Li et al.,
2010). Given the global scale of atmospheric circulation
and aerosols transport patterns (Fig. 4, NASA 2016), such
contamination source is not trivial.
The three main processes controlling atmospheric
deposition of contaminants into aquatic environments are
dry deposition, wet deposition, and air–water diffusive
fluxes (Jiménez et al 2015). The importance of each process
depends on the physicochemical properties of pollutants
(e.g., solubility, vapor pressure, and octanol–water
partition coefficient) and the environmental conditions
(e.g., temperature, wind speed, precipitation rates, etc.)
(Jiménez et al 2015). In this context, wet deposition is more
relevant in regions with higher precipitation rates, and it
affects both gas-phase and aerosol-bound contaminants.
In turn, dry deposition drives aquatic contamination for
pollutants associated with the atmospheric particle phase
(e.g., metals, higher molecular weight polychlorinated
dibenzo-p-dioxins, and dibenzofurans and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons-PAHs), while diffusive fluxes
134
dominate for contaminants with a large fraction in the
atmospheric gas phase (e.g., polychlorinated biphenyls and
the low-molecular-weight PAHs) (Jiménez et al 2015).
Atmospheric deposition is suggested as the main
source of POPs to open marine systems and large inland
lakes. The importance of the atmospheric pathway for the
major POPs families has been confirmed in the oceans and
seas worldwide far from coasts, and such pathway likely
supports POPs bioaccumulation and biomagnification on
planktonic food webs throughout the globe (Jiménez et al.
2015). Atmospheric deposition of metals can also account
for metal input on coastal and marine systems (Machado
et al. 2016). Depositions of metals to the English Channel
and the southern bight of the North Sea are not negligible,
representing 20 to 70% of the total input (riverine, direct,
and atmospheric inputs) (Deboudt et al. 2003). It has been
demonstrated that the atmospheric deposition of toxic
metals has changed since the industrial revolution and
potentially alters planktonic communities and impairs
primary production at the global scale (Paytan et al. 2009).
Therefore, it is sensible that coastal and marine systems
distant from urban centers and human influence may have
their function modified due to atmospheric deposition of
contaminants.
c. Biological processes and effects
The Anthropocene impacts discussed above may
underlay a physiological and ecologically altered state of
wild populations. It is accepted that aquatic organisms
as microalgae, mussels, fish, and others inhabiting
polluted sites present altered morphology and physiology
(Monserrat et al. 2007). Biological responses (from
molecular shifts up to behavioral changes) to exposure
to contaminants have been extensively employed as
biomarkers of aquatic contamination (Monserrat et al.
2007). Biomarker studies normally compare the physiology
Box 3. Anthropocene biodiversity loss
It is been increasingly argued that the Earth
System is facing it 6th great extinction. The
Anthropocene defaunation is a pervasive
phenomenon caused by human activity
(Dirzo et al. 2014). While species extinctions
represent concerning losses in terms of genetic
biodiversity, many changes already observed
in terms of species compositions might have
even more drastic impact on the functional
biodiversity.
Causes of biodiversity loss:
■■ Habitat destruction
■■ Chemical pollution
■■ Climate changes
■■ Predation
Anthropocene loss of biodiversity. Adapted from Steffen et al. 2011.
of organisms from polluted site to the physiology of control
organisms from more pristine environments (Monserrat et
al. 2007, Machado et al. 2014). This approach has allowed
improving the understanding of the physiological basis of
pollution effects (Machado et al. 2014). However, given the
widely spread anthropogenic influences, natural baselines
for many physiological pathways of most of the species can
no longer be determined with this approach.
In fact, several studies detected rapid evolutionary
changes in morphology or life history on wild populations
of short-lived organisms or human-exploited species
(Dirzo et al. 2014 and references therein). Such biological
shifts are partially explained by extinction and ecological
pressure on wild populations (Box 3), and by sublethal
toxicity leading to altered metabolism. The latter is of
special concern in the case of endocrine disruption because
very low concentrations of contaminants might activate
and deactivate many physiological responses (Fig. 5)
causing, for instance, hormonal unbalance and increasing
mutation rates (Vanderberg et al. 2012). Additionally, we
lack scientific knowledge to properly assign causality on
many of these effects (Vanderberg et al. 2012), because such
pollutants may trigger non-monotonic dose-responses
(Box 1). Thus, it is impossible to predict the physiological
outcome of the contaminants cocktails currently present in
coastal and aquatic systems during the Anthropocene.
4.
Final Remarks
The Anthropocene describes the epoch in which human
activities rival with the natural biogeochemical forces
on the Earth System. Anthropogenic activities strongly
modify the natural function of the planet, therefore setting
some of the greatest research and policy challenges that
ever confronted humanity.
The present review addresses how the Anthropocene
influences chemistry, physics, and biology of coastal and
marine systems, and the related changes in the natural
function of aquatic coastal and marine systems towards a
new ‘equilibrium’ state. The reality of coastal systems in the
Anthropocene is as systems undergoing shifts on baselines.
This awareness from general marine researchers will allow
better quantification of the impacts and elaboration of
management actions to ensure sustainability for the future
generations.
135
Figure 5: Main mechanisms of endocrine disruption. This process might be pervasive throughout organisms and marine
environments.
5.Acknowledgements
I would like to thanks the Dr Tatiane Combi for the
careful reading and insightful comments on manuscript
content and structure. The present study was carried out
within the Erasmus Mundus Joint Doctorate Program
SMART (Science for MAnagement of Rivers and their
Tidal systems) funded with the support of the EACEA of
the European Union.
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138
Accessed
in
Social dimensions of environmental change in coastal marine realm
STEFAN PARTELOW1,2,3*, JANNE ROHE2,4**, MARTIN C. LUKAS1,2,3***, ERIC TAMATEY LAWER1,2,5****,
KATIE NELSON1,2,5*****, REBECCA BORGES 2,4******
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT), Fahrenheitstraße 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
GLOMAR – Bremen International Graduate School for Marine Sciences, MARUM – Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, University of Bremen,
Leobener Straße, 28359 Bremen, Germany
3
Jacobs University, Campus Ring Road 1, 28759 Bremen, Germany
4
Sustainability Research Center (artec), University of Bremen, Enrique-Schmidt-Str. 7, 28359 Bremen, Germany
5
Faculty for Biology and Chemistry, University of Bremen, Bibliothekstraße 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany
1
2
*[email protected]**[email protected]***[email protected]
****[email protected]
*****[email protected]
******[email protected]
Abstract
H
umans are the dominant driver of environmental change. Yet, the interplay of various social, economic and political structures, dynamics and actors operating on and across various scales is not well understood. This particularly
applies to social-ecological changes on the world’s oceans and coasts. The societal drivers of these changes, their
impacts on society and related governance and management issues receive less research attention than ecological processes.
This session therefore invites contributions from the humanities and social sciences, addressing social, economic, political
and legal implications of interactions between society and the world’s oceans and coasts.
Oral Presentations
(IX-1) Carole Thomas
Cooperation of actors willing to manage the traditional goby fry fishery in Reunion
Island
(IX-2) Paula Senff
Assessing the sustainability of mangrove aquaculture – operationalizing the SES framework
(IX-3) Katarina Trstenjak
Medium and short term coastal changes in Keta (Ghana) – observations, interventions and interpretations
(P22)
Anna-Marie Winter
Stock productivity and fishing activity interplay leading to fisheries collapse
(P23) Malte Winkler
Wave energy conversion in the North Sea: An analysis of feasible locations and technologies
(P24)
Naimul Islam
Climate Change and Hilsa Fishery in Bangladesh: Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation
Proceedings
Ocean and society: Integrating research in the environmental social sciences
139
Cooperation of actors willing to manage the traditional goby
fry fishery in Reunion Island
CAROLE THOMAS1*
Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, UMR 7208 (MNHN-CNRS-UPMC-IRD-UAG-UCB), Département Milieux et Peuplements
Aquatiques, Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, 43 rue Cuvier, CP26, 75231 Paris cedex 05, France,
1
“G
oby fry fisheries” on Reunion Island, is a traditional activity of an economic and social importance. In a context where, on the one hand, the unsustainability of the activity is pointed out and secondly, the law on the
right of use of rivers has changed, different actors have to collaborate in order to regulate fishing activity. An
ecological study of target species associated with an ethnological study of the conditions in which fishing was, is, and will
be performed, is used to analyse the fishing system as an entity. The aim of this contribution is to compare the situation between two sites characterised by a strong fishing activity, Rivière du Mât and Rivière des Roches. This analyse is based on one
year of field study at Reunion Island, in immersion in the social and cultural context, and takes into account 30 interviews
with various stakeholders. The first results describe the case of an encouraging cooperation between scientific, political and
fisherman on the Rivière du Mât. The discussion provides comparison with the Rivière des Roches, where communication
with fishermen is not yet effective.
KEYWORDS: GOBY FRY FISHERIES, REUNION ISLAND, COOPERATION, COMMUNICATION, STAKEHOLDERS
140
Assessing the sustainability of mangrove aquaculture –
operationalizing the SES framework
PAULA SENFF1,2*, STEFAN PARTELOW1, NURLIAH BUHARI2, ANDREAS KUNZMANN1,
ACHIM SCHLÜTER1
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT), Fahrenheitstr. 6. 28359 Bremen, Germany
University of Mataram, Jl. Majapahit No. 62, Kec. Mataram, Mataram, Indonesia
1
2
A
quaculture conducted in mangrove habitats is a common livelihood for many tropical coastal communities. However, land-based pond aquaculture faces numerous ecosystem provisioning and resource appropriation challenges.
A functional mangrove ecosystem can decrease adverse impacts of aquaculture as well as mitigate flooding and
erosion. Communities face challenges to organize labor and distribute resources. Our study operationalizes the diagnostic
social-ecological system (SES) framework to assess the sustainability of mangrove aquaculture ponds on Lombok, Indonesia.
It is the first of this kind at the local community level. We collected mixed-method empirical data through semi-structured
and key informants interviews as well as natural field experiments, ecological field sampling, and satellite imagery. Pond specific social and ecological data were used to calculate quantitative sustainability outcomes for individual ponds. Our analyses
demonstrate the relationships between social-ecological system components that occur at the local community level. Key
characteristics of the SES include a heavily modified natural system, high resource dependence, low economic value, high
variability of environmental parameters and dependence on government subsidies. This study indicates the merits of applying an interdisciplinary approach to the evaluation of human activities in a coastal ecosystem. It also provides a case study of
how the SES framework can be used to facilitate the organization and analysis of diverse types of data.
KEYWORDS: COMMUNITY-BASED AQUACULTURE, ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOODS, SEA CUCUMBERS
141
Medium and short term coastal changes in Keta (Ghana) –
observations, interventions and interpretations
TRSTENJAK KATARINA1*
University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
1
C
oastline of Keta has experienced substantial coastal erosion in the course of the 20th century. The construction of
the Volta river dam is believed to have accelerated the dramatic recession of the coastline from the 1961 onwards
by reducing the amount of sediments transported to the coast. In February 2016 we witnessed an extreme event in
Fuveme where around 50 houses were destroyed by the sea.
The aim of our research was to better understand the Keta coastal system from geomorphological and social perspective.
From social perspective we tried to bring better understanding of processes at the local level, by studying interpretations of
geomorphological processes and related constructions of social reality. Our fieldwork was largely carried out in two villages,
although some scientific observations were done on regional scale. We used the method of semi structured interviews and
performed inductive and deductive coding on the data. UAV (unnamed automatic vehicle) or drone footages were used in
interviews in one village. None of the participants is strictly against using drones in their community, but they agree that the
community should be informed about bringing new technology in the area. The main concern, regarding the drone, is interference with their privacy. Short term coastal changes are mostly explained with „seasonal“changes, also political decisions
and the spiritual world are strong drivers of their interpretations. High trust in “hard” coastal defence structure is observed,
however observations shows that some of the defences may not work properly, therefore further monitoring is necessary in
the future and solid coastal management plan, which should consider large set of scientific research in the area.
KEYWORDS: EROSION, DRONE IMAGES, LOCAL INTERPRETATIONS
142
Stock productivity and fishing activity interplay leading to
fisheries collapse
ANNA-MARIE WINTER1*, ANDRIES PETER RICHTER1,2, ANNE MARIA EIKESET1
Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
Environmental Economics and Natural Resources Group, Wageningen University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 8130, 6700 EW Wageningen,
The Netherlands
1
2
A
lthough overexploitation has been accepted as the primary cause of fisheries collapse, many degraded stocks show
only weak signs of recovery to reduced fishing pressure. Alternative stressors such as climate or Allee effect have
been proposed as drivers of stock collapse but are not necessarily governing stock recovery. With a simple agestructured population model for a cod-like fishery we aim to build a conceptual framework which analyses the interaction
between different individual climate dependent productivity functions and fishing activity. We reveal the importance of stochastic fishing pressure for stock collapse especially if the population shows an Allee effect: mortality fluctuations can push
the population below the threshold of depensation thus accelerating the stock’s degradation even if the average fishing intensity is not high. Apart from stock productivity functions, different harvesting strategies are considered as potential drivers
of fisheries collapse. Selectivity affects stock resilience in two ways. First, truncated size and age structure of the population
reduces its reproductive value. Second, selectivity affects stock’s size and age diversity, which is well known to impact population variability. We discuss whether catching only the largest fish increases or reduces resilience of the stock depends on the
individual productivity function and existence of an Allee effect. We evaluate the role of fishing gear selectivity in context of
climatic change which is likely to alter fish stock productivity.
KEYWORDS: ALLEE EFFECT, PRODUCTIVITY FUNCTION, BALANCED HARVESTING, AGE-STRUCTURED MODEL
143
Wave energy conversion in the North Sea: An analysis of
feasible locations and technologies
MALTE WINKLER1*
University of Koblenz-Landau, Campus Landau, Germany
1
T
he urgency of satisfying growing energy demand with renewable energy has been acknowledged. Wave energy is a
so far untapped resource. Here, the North Sea´s potential to contribute to the EU energy mix by using wave energy
converters (WECs) is analysed. The study aims at revealing best options for installation area and technology. Promising study areas for southern (located in the German and Dutch EEZ) and northern (located near the Shetland Islands´ eastern shore) North Sea are identified using GIS. For the northern North Sea, this study is the first one to suggest suitable sites
for WEC-installation. Based on development status and information availability, most promising technologies are filtered
from current developments: CETO, Seabased, Wavestar, and Pelamis. The devices´ average annual energy output is calculated by multiplying scatter diagrams with power matrices. Production (per device) ranged between 23 and 1,564 MWh/yr in
the southern, and 34 and 1,926 MWh/yr in the northern study area. Indicators for economic performance (cost of energy
(CoE); capacity factor (CF); capture width ratio (η); absorbed energy per wetted surface area (EwS)) of each device are estimated. A point system is applied to rank devices with regard to their economic performance. For the southern SA, Wavestar
was found most promising (CoE=0.16 €/kWh and CF=0.3). For the northern SA, Pelamis was the best solution (CoE=0.17
€/kWh; CF=0.28). Results indicate that wave energy conversion is economically viable in both northern and southern North
Sea. Synergies with the growing offshore wind industry hold potential for further optimization. In both areas CoE is comparable with that of offshore wind, and it is expected to sink in the future. Thus, it is likely that wave energy production in the
North Sea can play a role in the future EU energy mix.
KEYWORDS: NORTH SEA, WAVE ENERGY, RENEWABLES, MARINE SPATIAL PLANNING, ECONOMY
144
Climate Change and Hilsa Fishery in Bangladesh: Impacts,
Vulnerability and Adaptation
NAIMUL ISLAM1*, MOHAMMAD M. ISLAM1
Department of Coastal and Marine Fisheries, Sylhet Agricultural University, Sylhet, Bangladesh
1
B
angladesh is frequently suffered by severe climatic events therefore considered as one of the most climate vulnerable
countries of the world. Based on field work in four hilsa fishing communities in coastal Bangladesh, this study aimed
at mapping out the anticipated impact of climate change on the country‘s single most important hilsa fishery and the
associated fishing communities. To collect empirical data, bottom–up research approach was adopted and information was
collected through 105 individual interviews, 8 focus group discussions, and 20 key informant interviews. To supplement empirical findings, time series data of cyclones and sea-borne depressions in the Bay of Bengal were analyzed. The result showed
that every three years one severe catastrophic cyclone hits Bangladesh coast and hilsa fishers certainly the worst victim since
they live close to coast and their occupation entails risky sea fishing. Cyclone wiped out their house and other physical assets
and many fishers often had to start their livelihoods from scratch. Their target species, the anadromous hilsa, also vulnerable
to climate change impacts. Change in climate-related parameters such as temperature, rainfall or siltation in river bed, for
instances had potential negative impact on their migration patterns as well as breeding and growth performances. As a result,
hilsa productivity in coastal waters decreased, many fishers perceived and negatively affected fishers’ income, livelihoods and
wellbeing. In response to extreme events such, hilsa fishers households take various proactive strategies (keeping valuable
assets and domestic animals in safer place, going to cyclone shelter etc.), reactive strategies (savings, taking loans, relief,
hardworking, taking children out of school etc.). Dredging of river, reducing overfishing, ensuring security in sea fishing,
providing easy access to credit systems, arranging alternative income activities and increasing institutional supports were the
key proposals of fishers to secure their livelihoods.
KEYWORDS: CLIMATE CHANGE, HILSA FISHERY, IMPACT, VULNERABILITY, ADAPTATION
145
Proceedings
OCEAN AND SOCIETY: INTEGRATING RESEARCH
IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIAL SCIENCES
STEFAN PARTELOW1,2,3, MARTIN C. LUKAS2,4, JANNE ROHE1,2,3, KATIE NELSON1,2,3,
REBECCA BORGES1,2,5, SARA MIÑARRO1,2,5, ERIC TAMATEY LAWER2,4
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT), Fahrenheitstraße 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
GLOMAR – Bremen International Graduate School for Marine Sciences, MARUM – Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, University of
Bremen, Leobener Straße, 28359 Bremen, Germany
3
Jacobs University, Campus Ring Road 1, 28759 Bremen, Germany
4
Sustainability Research Center (artec), University of Bremen, Enrique-Schmidt-Str. 7, 28359 Bremen, Germany
5
Faculty for Biology and Chemistry, University of Bremen, Bibliothekstraße 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany
1
2
Abstract
Human influence has become a commonality that drives environmental change across all ecosystems,
including on the world’s oceans and coasts. Yet, the more nuanced interplay of how specific social system
components and processes are coupled to ecological outcomes is not well understood. This is in part due to
the diversity of institutions, culture, economic structures and governance approaches at various levels and
scales. The environmental social sciences play a critical role in examining social systems and their reciprocal
relationships to the environment. These proceedings examine such environmental social science efforts. We
provide a synthesis of current research in the Ocean & Society research group at GLOMAR - the Bremen
International Graduate School for Marine Sciences and outline different methodological, analytical and conceptual approaches taken in the environmental social sciences. Further, we examine contextual examples of
their applicability for integrated research efforts.
KEYWORDS: ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIAL SCIENCE, RESEARCH APPROACHES, DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS, MIXED
METHODS, ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE, HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONS, SOCIAL-ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
1Introduction
The sustainability of marine and coastal ecosystems is
interdependently linked with that of society at multiple
levels and scales (Leslie et al., 2015; Worm et al., 2006).
The structures and functions within social systems act
as direct and indirect independent variables on the
dependent outcomes of environmental systems (Davidson
et al., 2012). Reciprocally, environmental conditions
often shape the formation of social structures and human
activity embedded within them. Such human-environment
interactions can be highly complex, existing at multiple
levels and scales (MEA, 2005; Ostrom, 2009). This creates
many challenges for designing and conducting effective
146
research to understand them. A wide variety of knowledge
needs to be generated and integrated across scientific
domains and to society to address such challenges
(Spangenberg, 2011; Perrings, 2007).
The environmental social sciences combine the
efforts from many traditional social science disciplines
to examine human-environment relations (Cox, 2015).
This wide range of disciplines includes but is not limited
to anthropology, geography, economics, political science,
law, and sociology. More recent interdisciplinary research
fields have emerged, such as political ecology, human
geography, sustainability science, ecological economics,
environmental history or landscape ecology. Combining
such a broad range of theories, concepts and methods has
created many opportunities for science to more accurately
provide fundamental and applied research in relation to
human-environment systems. However, this has created
many challenges related to integrating data collection
methods, analysing diverse data and reconciling multiple
concepts rooted within different disciplinary backgrounds.
In broader reflection, a goal of the environmental social
sciences is to generate and aggregate knowledge, building
scientific consensus that can inform the discourse and
the practical applications of a societal transition towards
sustainability. However, diverse academic structures and
interests have fragmented knowledge generation as well
as the theories and methodological development between
disciplines (Folmer and Johansson-Stenman, 2011).
Bypassing disciplinary boundaries can aid efforts in this
field through conscious conceptual efforts, empirical
research design and data analysis. In this context, the
notion of ‘environmental social sciences’ as a crossdisciplinary research field has been put forward by
scholars from different disciplinary backgrounds (see e.g.
Berkhout, Leach and Scoones, 2003; Cox, 2015; Folmer and
Johansson-Stenman, 2011; Moran, 2010; Smith, Vaccaro
and Aswani, 2011). Our research group Ocean & Society
integrates many of these approaches. In the following
section we outline these efforts with specific examples from
our research.
2 Diverse concepts and methods: Environmental social science in practice
The environmental social sciences use many different
methods of data collection and data analysis for both
fundamental and applied research. Although these
methods are rooted in disciplinary foundations, they
can be combined in various forms and across different
scales to analyse human-environment relations in more
holistic ways. In the environmental social sciences both
quantitative and qualitative data collection methods are
used. Primary data is often collected through surveys,
structured, semi-structured and open-ended interviews,
participant observation, participatory engagements,
experimental setups, remote sensing, and GPS tracking.
Secondary data can be collected through existing political,
2.1
organizational or law texts, historical sources and current
scientific literature. Examples of social science analytical
techniques include both descriptive and inferential
statistics for quantitative data collection, social networks,
spatial analysis, and modelling, among others. Qualitative
data draws on content analysis, process tracing and data
coding. Within different disciplines, many concepts and
theories have emerged to explain human-environment
relations. Below, we elaborate on specific concepts and
methods as well as provide examples of their application
from research in the Ocean & Society research group at
GLOMAR - the Bremen International Graduate School for
Marine Sciences.
Governance and institutional analysis
A key field of research on human-environment
relations is governance, e.g. of natural (marine) resources.
Governance defines or redefines “the fundamental
objectives, policies, laws, and institutions by which societal
issues are addressed” (Olsen, 2003:15). When looking
at how marine resources are governed at a local level,
e.g. in a rural fishing community, the role and meaning
of institutions becomes crucial. Crawford and Ostrom
(1995:582) define institutions as “enduring regularities
of human action in situations structured by rules, norms
and shared strategies, as well as by the physical world”.
The rules, which shape human interactions, can be written
(e.g. in legal documents) or unwritten and hence be rather
invisible (Ostrom and Basurto, 2011). Rule systems, and the
manner in which they evolve and change, can be complex,
especially in common-pool resource systems, such as
marine social-ecological systems. Considering institutions
and their various aspects, as well as institutional change
processes, is therefore of high relevance when looking at
governance systems for marine resources. For example
in the South Pacific local marine governance is rooted
in systems of customary tenure and institutions, i.e.
customary chiefs and leadership can take decisions on the
use, access and transfer of resources. Customary tenure
systems have been the prevailing management regime for
inshore fisheries in Oceania throughout history (Johannes,
1978) and they are still prevalent in many parts of the
region today (Aswani, 2011). These practices are formed
147
through adaptive and dynamic processes - informed by
local ecological knowledge and culturally entrenched in
customary land and sea tenure institutions (Cinner and
Aswani, 2007).
Methods for governance and institutional analysis
include qualitative data collection, such as interviews
(open, semi-structured, structured) and focus groups, as
well as participatory tools, such as mapping and ranking
exercises, and participatory observations. These methods
provide insight to the political framings of environmental
issues and help to deconstruct the roles and strategies
of various actors and their interests. This contributes
strongly towards understanding the underlying causes of
2.2
Combining remote sensing, historical cartography and political ecology
Combining remote sensing and historical cartography
with social-scientific inquiry helps to understand
interlinked watershed and coastal changes over time, their
drivers and related conflicts and governance challenges.
Satellite images and historical maps can be used, for example,
to analyse sedimentation in coastal areas and land use
changes in their adjacent watersheds, where the sediments
originate. Interviews and focus groups provide insight into
the causes of the analysed environmental changes, their
effects on different social groups, and related conflicts. The
combination of these research approaches also provides
scope for cross-fertilisation and cross-validation between
the different methods during the research process.
Satellite images provide an outstanding resource for
analysing environmental dynamics globally across all
spatial scales. However, the lack of historical material
limits the temporal scale of analysis. Prior to the start of
the Landsat missions in the 1970s, Corona images or aerial
photographs, whose spatial coverage and resolution is
very limited, are the only sources of information. To look
further back, which is often necessary to truly understand
contemporary changes, we can integrate historical
cartographic approaches.
In parts of the world, coastlines were the first landscape
features systematically mapped. For example, most of the
earliest maps of Indonesia are sea charts, only depicting
coastlines. Hence, particularly for analysing coastal
dynamics, historical maps provide large potential, as a
number of studies demonstrate (Crowell et al., 1991; JabaloySánchez et al., 2010; Levin, 2006; Lukas, 2014; 2015a; Marfai
et al., 2008; Monmonier, 2008). Yet, most of this potential
148
environmental change and related politics and to finding
appropriate solutions to these issues. Used together with
these methods, satellite imagery and historical cartographic
material can provide data for examining environmental
change over time (Section 2.2). This contributes to a
better understanding of how changes in the environment
influence institutional/policy decisions and vice versa, and
to examine strategies for planning protected areas (Section
2.3), as well as to inform future outlooks through socialecological modelling (Section 2.4). Field experiments can
help to better understand individual decision making
behaviour – a main source of uncertainty in environmental
management (Section 2.5).
remains unused to date. It remains hidden in archives and
the realm of historical cartographers, who engage with the
material, its accuracy and its makers, but without using
it for analysing environmental changes. However, the
knowledge compiled by historical cartographers supports
historical-cartographic reconstructions of environmental
change and helps to approach methodological challenges
related to the varying reliability of historical maps (Lukas,
2014, 2015a). Depending on their accuracy and on the
magnitudes of environmental change, some maps can be
analysed quantitatively in combination with more recent
satellite images, whereas earlier, less accurate maps might
be suitable for qualitative analyses only (ibid.).
Whereas the advancement of remote sensing
technologies has tremendously improved the scope for
detecting environmental changes, our understanding of the
drivers of these changes is often still vague. In the absence
of clear evidence, discourses are sometimes dominated by
simplistic assumptions, reflecting the political interests of
certain actors. This particularly applies to environmental
issues caused by a vast range of interwoven factors
unfolding across various scales. Watershed dynamics and
their effects on coastal waters are a prime example in this
respect (Lukas, 2015b).
A central dimension of watershed dynamics are land
use changes. Related research had for long focussed on
methodological-technical considerations of detecting land
use change in satellite images, while their drivers remained
underexplored (Geist & Lambin, 2001; Lambin et al., 2003;
Turner, 2002), were often reduced to pre-selected macro
variables (see e.g. Verburg et al., 1999), and hence often
framed by simplified assumptions (Lambin et al., 2001).
Meta-analyses of case studies (Geist & Lambin, 2001, 2002;
Geist et al., 2006; Magliocca et al., 2015; Rudel, 2005, 2008)
and the linking of quantitative broader-scale assessments
with qualitative social-scientific case studies (as proposed
by Lambin et al., 1999 and Turner et al., 1995) have since
improved our understanding of the drivers of land use
change in many parts of the world.
Yet, in some areas, including the island of Java, simplistic
assumptions, focussing on demographic factors while
neglecting many others, still dominate political debates. In
such contexts, research that links (1) area-wide analyses of
land use change through remote sensing and mapping with
(2) social-scientific case studies, comprising interviews,
focus groups and transect walks to explore the drivers of
2.3
these changes, and (3) social-scientific, political ecologyinfused inquiry into related governance approaches through
interviews on all political levels provides new insight – not
only into the dynamics and drivers of social-ecological
dynamics, but also into their political construction
(Karstens & Lukas, 2014; Lukas, 2014, 2015b). The latter
refers to the discursive framing of environmental matters
in line with the political interests of particular actors.
Such cross-disciplinary research unravelling the roles and
strategies of various actors and their interests (a strength
of political ecology) and confronting their discursive
framings with new insight into the dynamics and drivers of
environmental dynamics (gained through remote sensing
and social-scientific case studies) can greatly contribute to
(more open) debates over governance alternatives.
Ecosystem services (ESs) and Marine Spatial Planning (MSP)
Over time, various governance concepts and approaches
have been promoted globally and implemented across
different regional and local circumstances throughout the
world. Ecosystem services approaches and marine spatial
planning are major concepts that have been applied over the
past years. The first assumes that human societies depend
on a range of goods and services supplied by ecosystems,
known as Ecosystem Services (MEA, 2003). However
environmental degradation, including biodiversity loss,
impairs the capacity of ecosystems, including those in
the marine realm, to provide these services (Worm et al.,
2006). Conservation strategies, such as marine protected
areas (MPAs) that have been implemented in response,
have been shown to help recover species richness (Worm et
al., 2009; Vandeperre et al., 2011), but such efforts require
systematic planning that considers the provision of ESs.
Systematic spatial planning is supposed to help ensure
that protected areas and other measures contribute to
environmental protection and human well-being, as
linked through the provision of ESs. In this context, MSP
represents a tool that combines spatially-explicit data with
other biological and social data to support decisions for
the conservation and sustainable use of resources or ESs.
MSP has been defined as a “public process of analysing
and allocating the spatial and temporal distribution of
human activities in marine areas to achieve ecological,
economic, and social objectives [...]” (Ehler and Douvere,
2009:18). It should promote the active participation of
stakeholders while being integrated across different sectors
and government levels. Since ESs are directly relevant to
people, tracking them facilitates communication among
decision-makers and other stakeholders (Guerry et al.,
2012). Moreover, Nelson et al. (2009) argue that quantifying
ESs in a spatially explicit manner, and analysing trade-offs
between them, can help to make natural resource decisions
more effective, efficient, and defensible. Both aspects of the
ES approach could be beneficial in a MSP process, which,
in its turn, is an important tool to help protect ESs.
A practical approach to mapping ESs in MSP is
currently being examined in a mangrove area in the state of
Para, north Brazil. The aim of this project is to incorporate
the non-monetary values that stakeholders associate with
the relevant ESs into the zoning processes for two marine
protected areas. Beyond the practical contributions to
zoning and the management of the protected areas, the
results will explore 1) how the different spatial perceptions
and values attributed to ESs in the region could be
integrated into the zoning processes; 2) how these zonings
could in turn contribute to conservation of ESs; and 3) how
these aspects contrast between the two MPAs, which are
in different data-availability and governance contexts. MPA
zoning, as an aspect of an MSP process, requires an indepth understanding of governance structures, including
institutions, rules and tenure systems (see Section 2.1), all of
which directly influence MSP processes and, consequently,
their outcomes. Therefore, knowledge about governance
aspects should be included in an MSP process, either as
data that will directly guide spatial decisions with the use,
149
for example, of decision-support tools, or as background
information, which should help steer the planning
process. Other data to be incorporated in such a process
are, for instance, remote sensing-based information (see
Section 2.2) and the geographical distribution of species.
For the MPA zoning project, these data will be collected
through interviews and participatory mapping with local
2.4
Modelling social-ecological systems
Models help us understand complex systems by
simplifying them to their core components. The way
this simplification is done is defined by the purpose
of the modelling effort, the spatial and time scales
represented, and the available information on the system
– both in terms of data and scientific understanding of its
components and processes (Weijerman et al., 2015). From
hypothesis testing to generation of predictive data, model
simulations can show the effects of complex interactions
among human resource users, environmental and socioeconomic factors on the life histories of organisms and
the dynamics of marine ecosystems. They provide a
flexible integration between human and environmental
processes, while encouraging the development of solid and
realistic causal relationships. Particularly, the mechanistic
approach provided by agent- or individual-based models
(IBMs; Grimm, 1999) have allowed models to represent
human behaviour in a range of applications, such as traffic
management, evacuation planning, market dynamics, or
diffusion of ideas (Bonabeau, 2002).
In the marine resource management realm, substantial
efforts have been made to produce models representing the
feedback between resource changes and human behaviour.
Cabral et al. (2010) created an IBM to evaluate the response
of a fish community to different fishing boat exploration
strategies. Another IBM was developed as a decision
support tool to predict the effect of individual transferable
2.5
quotas on the coral reef fin fishery in Queensland, Australia
(Little et al., 2009), by simulating the movement, site
selection and fishing activities of individual fishing vessels
based on information collected by the vessels through
fishing and cumulative knowledge. Gao & Hailu (2012)
developed a decision support system for the management
of recreational fishing representing fishermen’s choices
based on site attributes and angler characteristics, catch
expectations, and the set of fishing sites available; their
fishing choices affect fish stocks, coral cover and algal cover
in a coupled trophodynamic model.
IBMs contribute to the synthesis of qualitative but also
quantitative knowledge of ecosystems (Berger et al., 2008).
Reliable qualitative data may be used to develop model
rules and concepts, while quantitative data are needed to
derive parameter values and rates. One of the challenges
in current modelling efforts consists of obtaining reliable
social science data that can be used in ecosystem models.
With attributes like decision uncertainty, misreporting,
unexpected behaviour or demographic change, human
behaviour is the main source of uncertainty in fisheries
management (Fulton et al., 2011). The examples in this
section show how modelling can be used to inform
management, but comprehensive knowledge is needed
from other environmental social science efforts on the
processes of interest to inform and compare model results
with real system dynamics.
Economic Field Experiments
Field experiments help us understand the decisionmaking behaviour of individual resource users and what
influences these behaviours. Marine resources represent
public goods and common resources. Global and local
challenges to protect the marine environment often require
individuals to bear personal costs in order to benefit the whole
group, a behaviour defined as ‘collective action’ (Ostrom,
150
stakeholders, including direct beneficiaries of mangrove
ESs, and other interested groups, such as researchers and
managers. Existing expert knowledge-based data will also
be compiled. In addition, building on the data collected in
relation to ESs, this data can be used in models to further
explore hypothesis testing and predictive data on humanenvironment relationships in MSP.
1990). The conventional economic analysis, based on the
assumption of self-regarding individuals, predicts zero
cooperation (Olson, 1965). However, extensive evidence
from laboratory studies and field observations contradict
these assumptions showing that many individuals cooperate
and are able to manage their commons (Baland & Platteau,
1996; Chaudhuri, 2011; Ostrom, 1990). It can be difficult
to extrapolate the often abstract findings from lab results
to policy-relevant contexts. Additionally, it is difficult to
pinpoint causal inference from a particular intervention
from field observations alone. Field experiments in
economics occupy an important middle ground between
laboratory experiments and naturally occurring data by
utilizing randomization in a real world environment. This
method allows researchers to draw clear conclusions about
causality while also providing the external validity that
is critical for policy recommendations (Kraft-Todd et al.,
2015). Field experiments are being utilized widely in the
social sciences to better understand individual decisionmaking behaviour, and this is an area ripe for exploration
in the marine and natural resources sector.
The ability to provide public goods is essential for
economic and social development, however, there is very
limited experimental evidence regarding contributions
to real public goods in developing countries (Carlsson
et al., 2011). Many developing countries have limited
2.6
governmental financial support for conservation,
meaning that a large proportion of these public goods
must be provided privately by local institutions and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Ostrom and others
have analysed the effects of institutional settings to manage
cooperation-dilemma situations. To date, research on
the direct influence of institutions on individual giving
behaviour is scant (Dietz et al., 2003; Ostrom, 1990,
2009b; and Ostrom et al., 1992). However, we can learn
from behavioural experiments that have been carefully
analysed in the literature on charitable giving (Alpizar and
Martinsson, 2013; Eckel and Grossman, 2003; Huck and
Rasul, 2011; Karlan, List, & Shafir, 2011; List and LuckingReiley, 2002; Shang and Croson, 2009). Understanding
the stimuli (e.g. social image, reciprocity, norms) that
promote environmentally-responsible behavior can
provide governments, NGOs, and scientists with improved
sustainability strategies in the marine context. Economic
field experiments provide the tools for us to do this.
Comparative research & data coding
Comparative research aims to test the validity of
academic knowledge within or between case studies to
support theory generation and policy. Case research
includes context based research or knowledge generation
on institutions, governance, marine spatial planning and
human behaviour, among others, as mentioned in previous
sections. This requires common units of analysis between
cases and transparency in the indicators used to measure
system variables as well as the methods used for data
collection and analysis (Poteete et al., 2010). Frameworks
are commonly used for structuring comparative socialecological systems research, where the units of analysis
within the framework can maintain the common identity
needed across the cases investigated. However, they vary
significantly in their disciplinary origin, purpose and
conceptualizations of system functioning (Binder et al.,
2013). As frameworks can often provide an epistemological
or ontological structure to research, they do not offer
methods for data collection or data analysis. Environmental
social science data collection methods will vary depending
on the research questions and discipline. A core analytical
method for comparative data analysis is coding, which can
be used deductively to organize data into the categories of
a framework or inductively to identify emergent themes
or theoretical perspectives, particularly in qualitative
data. Identifying emergent commonalities in system data,
especially when analysed statistically, requires the use of a
common framework and coding scheme for comparability.
In the Diagnosing and Comparing Social-Ecological
Systems: RECODE research program at the Leibniz Center
for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT) and GLOMAR, the
methodological challenges associated with SES research
are being examined within diverse tropical coastal marine
systems. Three cases are examined within the study in
Indonesia, Brazil and Costa Rica, and then compared.
Although the cases are diverse, the common units of
analysis are defined and structured with the diagnostic
SES framework (Ostrom, 2009; Mcginnis and Ostrom,
2014). Mixed data collection methods are used, including
interviews, surveys, workshops, environmental field
sampling, GIS, and document analysis, and are integrated
into a combined systems analysis. Within individual cases,
spatial analysis will be conducted to examine spatially
distinct interrelations between social and ecological system
functions. To organize our mixed data for analysis, data
coding is used to organize data into the variables of the SES
framework. A core challenge of this research is to identify
systematic procedures for data type transformation while
maintaining comparability and contextual relevance.
After data organization is common across cases, multiple
analytical methods will be used to interpret the organized
data, in particular the theory of collective action.
151
3 Concluding remarks
The environmental social sciences draw on a wide
variety of concepts, data collection and analytical methods
to examine human-environment relationships. Efforts are
emerging to integrate traditional disciplinary approaches
and to examine their conceptual and methodological
compatibility for approaching sustainability-related
research questions. We have shed light on a variety of
approaches and methods, used in different research contexts
within our Ocean & Society research group at GLOMAR
- the Bremen International Graduate School for Marine
Sciences. These different approaches, and in some cases
their combination, provide insight into various aspects
of human-environment relations. Remote sensing and
historical cartographic material provide large potential for
analysing spatial and temporal patterns of environmental
changes. Governance and institutional analyses and political
ecology approaches provide insight into the drivers of these
changes, into the evolution and functioning of resource
governance regimes and related institutions that formally
and informally structure how societies interact with the
environment, as well as into environmental conflicts and
politicisations of environmental matters. Applied research,
for example, into ecosystem services and marine spatial
planning procedures can support political decision making
and contribute to the application of respective governance
approaches. Modelling integrates various kinds of data to
hypothesize system changes and generate predictive data
that can be used to support decision making. Experiments
on human behaviour explore the reasoning and motivations
behind decision making processes of individuals and
groups. Finally, comparative research aims to aggregate
and validate the contributions within the environmental
social sciences to build consensus on theory generation
and policy. These are examples of a large repertoire of
approaches and methods that have been developed in the
environmental social sciences, often across disciplinary
boundaries. Integration and cross-fertilisation between
these various approaches provides significant potential for
better understanding human-environment relationships
in their various dimensions. Though such integration has
been increasingly pursued, much of this potential still
remains unrealised to date.
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156
Phytoplankton: Are we all looking at it differently? Diverse methods and
approaches to the study of marine phytoplankton
LARISSA SCHULTZE1*, INGRID M. ANGEL-BENAVIDES1**
Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Institute of Coastal Research, Max-Planck Straße 1, 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
1
Abstract
P
hytoplankton not only forms the basis of the marine food chain, it also contributes largely to global oxygen production and atmospheric carbon fixation. Therefore, understanding phytoplankton biology and ecology, its role in biogeochemical cycles and its interactions with physical processes are major objectives for marine researchers. To tackle
these problems a variety of methods are applied, including techniques for detection (e.g. optics) and species discrimination
(e.g. microscopy), as well as numerical modeling. To promote interdisciplinary dialog, we invite researches investigating any
aspect of phytoplankton dynamics to share their work, focusing on the methodology used and its inherent advantages and
limitations.
Oral Presentations
(X-1) Onur Kerimoglu (invited)
(X-2) Lumi Haraguchi Modelling autotrophic acclimation: southern North Sea as a case study
Monitoring natural phytoplankton communities: a comparison between traditional methods and scanning flow cytometry
(X-3) Janina Rahlff
Microsensor technology on the rise - Oxygen micro-gradients at the sea surface
(X-4) Maria Moreno de Castro
The price we pay for the uncertainty in experiments on phytoplankton dynamics
(P25) Maike Scheffold
Modelling Cyanobacteria’s Influence on the Baltic Sea Ecosystem
Functioning
(P26) YangYang Liu
Underway observations of inherent optical properties for the estimation of near-surface chlorophyll-a in the Fram Strait
Proceedings
Phytoplankton: Are we all looking at it differently? Diverse methods and approaches to the study of marine phytoplankton
157
Modelling autotrophic acclimation: Southern North Sea as a
case study
ONUR KERIMOGLU1*, RICHARD HOFMEISTER1, KAI WIRTZ1
1
Helmholtz Zentrum Geesthacht, Max-Planck-Str-1. 21052 Geesthacht, Germany
V
ariability in the elemental composition and pigment content of autotrophic organisms is recognized to reflect
acclimation processes, through which, individuals continuously re-adjust their cellular machinery to match the
changes in their environment. Despite the presence of ample experimental theoretical work providing evidence
and explanation for various acclimation processes, they are very often ignored by the conventional ecosystem models. The
heuristic and often ill-behaved formulations that replace mechanistic descriptions of such processes, in turn, not only reduce
the capability of those models to match the field observations, but they can also lead to erroneous rate estimations. Aim
of this research was to develop an acclimative autotroph model and integrate it in a 3-D coupled physcial-biogeochemical
model of the Southern North Sea. The acclimative model is built up on a set of novel process descriptions concerning the
allocation of internal resources and operation of cellular metabolism. Coupled model system consists of a simple lower trophic level model, a simple sediment diagenesis model, the general estuarine transport model (GETM) as the hydrodynamical
driver and static components that describe atmospheric forcing, background turbidity, riverine fluxes and boundary conditions. The phytoplankton model can successfully predict the steady-state C:N:P:chlorophyll ratios obtained in chemostat
experiments. As a component of the coupled model system, the acclimative model exhibits stable behavior as demonstrated
by a decadal hindcast simulation. Simulated chlorophyll and nutrient concentrations compare well with the satellite and insitu data across a large region characterized by contrasting environmental conditions. The model can also capture the deepchlorophyll maxima usually observed during summer months in the off-shore areas of the Southern North Sea. Our results
suggest considerable lateral variation in the phytoplankton composition in the southern North Sea, and therefore calls for an
increased attention to the role of stoichimetric regulation in driving the regional biogeochemical cycles.
KEYWORDS: OPTIMALITY, ADAPTATION, PHYSICAL-BIOLOGICAL COUPLING, BIOGEOCHEMISTRY, PHYTOPLANKTON
158
Monitoring natural phytoplankton communities: a
comparison between traditional methods and scanning flow
cytometry
LUMI HARAGUCHI1*, HANS H. JAKOBSEN1, NINA LUNDHOLM2, JACOB CARSTENSEN1
Department of Bioscience – Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
Natural History Museum of Denmark, Sølvgade 83 opgang S, 1307 København K, Denmark
1
2
P
hytoplankton dynamics can vary within hours (physiology) to years (climatic responses) and thus, monitoring at
different time scales is relevant to understand the functions of this community and assess changes. However, most
of the standard techniques frequently used in monitoring programs are time consuming and/or expensive, limiting
the sampling frequency. On the other hand, the use of faster methods, such as flow cytometry, has become more frequent
in phytoplankton studies, although comparison between this technique and traditional ones are still scarce. This study aims
to assess if natural phytoplankton communities analysed with scanning flow cytometry (SFCM) and traditional techniques
(chlorophyll a extracts and microscopy) provide comparable results. For this purpose, monthly samples from March to September 2015 sampled at 4 stations in Roskilde Fjord (Denmark) were analysed with the SFCM Cytosense and with traditional inverted microscopic method. Our results show that total red fluorescence from the samples were highly correlated with
extracted chlorophyll a. It also revealed that the cell counts from both SFCM and microscope are comparable for the fraction
>20µm, and that correlation decreases with size fraction. Furthermore, we propose an empirical algorithm to obtain the cell
volume from SFCM data, making possible to estimate the carbon biomass and compare it with carbon estimations derived
from microscopy. We conclude that besides being faster, SFCM also showed a higher contribution of small phytoplankton
populations (<5µm) when compared to traditional counts in this coastal area, indicating that this portion of the community
could be systematically overlooked by traditional monitoring programs in coastal zones. On the other hand, the data from
SFCM has very small taxonomical insights without the microscopy support, thus a combination of techniques can result in
much better results.
KEYWORDS: PHYTOPLANKTON, SCANNING FLOW CYTOMETRY, MICROSCOPY
159
Microsensor technology on the rise - Oxygen micro-gradients
at the sea surface
JANINA RAHLFF1*, CHRISTIAN STOLLE1,3, HELGE-ANSGAR GIEBEL2, OLIVER WURL1
Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM), Carl-von-Ossietzky-University Oldenburg, Schleusenstraße 1,
26382 Wilhelmshaven, Germany
2
Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM), Carl-von-Ossietzky-University Oldenburg, PO Box 2503,
Carl-von-Ossietzky-Straße 9-11, 26111, Oldenburg, Germany
3
Current address: Leibniz-Institute for Baltic Sea Research Warnemuende (IOW), Seestr. 15, 18119 Rostock, Germany
1
T
he sea surface microlayer (uppermost 1 mm) is positioned at the interface of the ocean and atmosphere and, therefore, takes a central role in controlling air-sea exchange processes. While it is also a vast and demanding habitat for
heterotrophic microbes, phytoplankton communities typically avoid the highly radiated microlayer and are rather
found in underlying near surface water. However, little is known about photosynthetic activity in the near surface water
(e.g. < 5 m depth) as current ship-based technology destroys the integrity of the surface. Using a tank set-up filled with 800
L of North Sea water and state-of-the-art Clarke-type oxygen sensors, we investigated the fundamental effects of light on
phytoplankton-controlled oxygen (O2) micro-gradients through the surface (upper 5 mm). We further unraveled net community production in the microlayer and underlying water by applying light and dark incubations. Micro-profiling revealed
O2 gradients to be highly influenced by light, causing profiles to shift towards higher production of O2 compared to no-light
conditions. Investigations on oxygen consumption rates showed that the microlayer is dominated by heterotrophic activity.
Photosynthesis and primary production played a major role in the near surface water, e.g. below the microlayer. We conclude
that microsensors used for micro-profiling in steps of 50 µm through the surface and simultaneous measurements on net
community production provide an adequate means to study biological upper oceans processes.
KEYWORDS: SEA-SURFACE MICROLAYER, OXYGEN CONSUMPTION, MICROSENSORS, PHYTOPLANKTON
160
The price we pay for the uncertainty in experiments on
phytoplankton dynamics
MARIA MORENO DE CASTRO1*, MARKUS SCHARTAU2, KAI WIRTZ1
Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Centre for Materials and Coastal Research, Geesthacht, Germany
GEOMAR, Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research, Kiel, Germany
1
2
T
o understand how a natural system works, scientists often study the response of the system to modifications of its
dynamics. In such experiments, certain treatment is applied to the system and the presence or lack of a treatment
effect is identified by the comparison with the dynamics from non-manipulated samples. To improve the confidence
on the results, each treatment is applied in replicates, such that, a sufficiently large number of replicates ensures that unresolved effects non-directly related to the treatment cancel out when averaging the results. Unresolved differences among same
treatment replicates are usually referred to as uncertainty. Depending on its nature, uncertainty may get damped and filtered
over the course of the experiment and cancel out when averaging even on a low number of replicates. However, other kind of
uncertainty may get amplified by the dynamics and trigger high variability in the results. In such cases, non-treatment related
differences do not necessarily cancel out by averaging and can mask treatment effects,
especially when the number of replicates is low. Mesocosm experiments on ocean acidification provide controllability in
a realistic set-up. However, they are costly and low number of replicates is typically available. As a consequence, mesocosm
often show high diversity in the initial conditions, generating high variability in the results, thus acidification effects may be
masked. To investigate which mechanisms regulate this uncertainty propagation, a realistic analysis needs to consider that
the unresolved differences among replicates can vary in time and may randomly occur with several intensities and frequencies, an effort efficiently accomplished by the use of stochastic models
simulating mesocosm dynamics. Taking three ocean acidification mesocosm experiments with phytoplankton as test
cases, we confirm that uncertainty in initial nutrient concentration, phytoplankton community composition and biomass
losses are major contributors to the observed variability. We estimate mesocom tolerance thresholds to uncertainty propagation, which may be helpful for future experimental designs. Moreover, we found that the system tolerance to time-varying
uncertainty is higher than estimated from deterministic models where uncertainty is static. This points towards to a systematic underestimation of parameter ranges when applying deterministic model calibration.
KEYWORDS: PHYTOPLANKTON, VARIABILITY, UNCERTAINTY QUANTIFICATION, STOCHASTIC MODELLING
161
Modelling cyanobacteria’s influence on the Baltic Sea
ecosystem functioning
MAIKE I.E. SCHEFFOLD1*
IHF Hamburg, Große Elbstraße 133, 22767 Hamburg, Master Student of SICSS, Grindelberg 5, 20144 Hamburg, Germany
1
F
or scientific and management purposes, the understanding of ecosystem functioning becomes more and more important in the context of changing environmental conditions of the Baltic Sea. Especially, key groups that are particularly sensitive to climate change have to be identified and monitored. Among those key groups are cyanobacteria
which are expected to increase in concentration with global warming. A rise of cyanobacteria concentrations in the Baltic
Sea in future can be crucial, especially with respect to eutrophication and bottom hypoxia. In this study, a numerical model
to closer evaluate the functional roles of cyanobacteria in the Baltic Sea ecosystem and the nonlinearities related to climate
induced change is used. The numerical model consists of a water column model and an ecosystem model that includes different phytoplankton groups, zooplankton, nutrients, dead organic matter and oxygen and a cyanobacteria life cycle model.
The model is forced by atmospheric forcing fields of a regional climate model, using the A1B emission scenarios. In two
model setups, one with and one without cyanobacteria, the influence of cyanobacteria on zoo- and phytoplankton and environmental conditions, such as nutrients and oxygen are studied. To analyse nonlinearities, the forcing is split in two halves:
From 1960 to 2096 the sequence of years is similar to the original forcing fields. From 2096 to 2232 the same forcing fields are
used in reverse order, leading to a decreasing trend of temperature. First results show the nonlinearities of ecosystem changes
and reveal that the state of the ecosystem is different after both forcing sequences compared to 1960 and cyanobacteria are
mainly responsible for this difference.
KEYWORDS: CYANOBACTERIA, ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING, FORCING MODIFICATION, NUMERICAL MODEL, CLIMATE
EXPERIMENT
162
Underway observations of inherent optical properties for the
estimation of near-surface chlorophyll-a in the Fram Strait
YANGYANG LIU1,2*, MARTA RAMÍREZ-PÉREZ4, RÜDIGER RÖTTGERS5, ASTRID BRACHER1,2,3,
SONJA WIEGMANN1
Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bussestraße 24, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
Institute of Biology and Chemistry, University of Bremen, Leobener Strasse NW 2, 28359 Bremen, Germany
3
Institute of Environmental Physics, University of Bremen, Otto-Hahn-Allee 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany
4
Institute of Marine Sciences (ICM-CSIC), Passeig Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
5
Helmholtz Zentrum Geesthacht Center of Materials and Coastal Research, Max-Planck-Str., 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
1
2
*email: Yangyang Liu, [email protected]
C
hlorophyll-a, the most important photosynthetic pigment of marine phytoplankton, is one of the basic marine biogeochemical variables. Chlorophyll-a concentration can be measured by applying high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) techniques to filtered water samples, which is greatly limited by time and number of samples.
The inherent optical properties (IOPs) of seawater are proved to have good linkage to biogeochemical variables. With the
emergency of in situ optical sensors, high spatial and temporal resolution measurements of bio-optical properties are achievable, making it possible to understand ocean biogeochemical processes on a broader scale. However, data quality control of
the optical sensors remains challenging because of biofouling and the instrumental instability.
In this study, we established a ship-based flow-through system of Absorption Attenuation Spectra Meter (AC-s) and
conducted continuous underway measurements of hyperspectral IOPs during the PS93.2 expedition to the Fram Strait. The
system collected periodical measurements of total and 0.2 μm cartridge filtered absorption and attenuation, allowing for
the calculation of particulate absorption and attenuation by differencing the corresponding IOPs of the total and filtered
seawater. The continuous particulate absorption coefficients were then averaged to 1-min intervals, compared and corrected
with discrete filter-pad measurements. The near-surface phytoplankton Chlorophyll-a concentrations were finally retrieved
from the quality controlled hyperspectral particulate absorption based on empirical orthogonal functions in the Fram Strait.
KEYWORDS: PHYTOPLANKTON, AC-S, ABSORPTION, EMPIRICAL ORTHOGONAL FUNCTIONS
163
Proceedings
PHYTOPLANKTON: ARE WE ALL LOOKING AT
IT DIFFERENTLY? DIVERSE METHODS AND
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF MARINE
PHYTOPLANKTON
LARISSA SCHULTZE1*, INGRID M. ANGEL-BENAVIDES1** (The authors contributed equally to this work)
Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Institute of Coastal Research, Max-Planck Straße 1, 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
1
Abstract
Phytoplankton not only forms the basis of the marine food chain, it also contributes largely to global
oxygen production and atmospheric carbon fixation. Therefore, understanding phytoplankton biology and
ecology, its role in biogeochemical cycles and its interactions with physical processes are major objectives
for marine researchers. To tackle these problems, a variety of methods are applied, including techniques for
detection (e.g. optics) and species identification (e.g. microscopy), as well as numerical modeling. Here we
provide a general overview of the most widely used techniques for the study of phytoplankton, with emphasis
on the principle of the methods.
1.Introduction
Marine phytoplankton are photosynthetic organisms
found drifting with the currents in seawater. These
organisms are characterized by their microscopic size,
ranging from less than 1 µm to more than 100 µm
(Blondeau-Patissier et al., 2014, Johnson & Martiny, 2015),
and by their great genetic diversity. Phytoplankton can be
eukaryotic or prokaryotic, unicellular or multicellular (e. g.
in the form of chains or filaments), whereby some species
might form colonies (Brennan & Owende, 2010; Von Berg
et al., 2004). Although some species are mixotroph or
heterotroph (Brennan & Owende, 2010), it is assumed that
the vast majority of phytoplankton species are obligated
photoautotrophs, obtaining energy through oxygenic
photosynthesis. Consequently, phytoplankton typically
colonize the upper part of the water column, down to the
depth of light penetration (euphotic zone).
Phytoplankton abundance and composition vary in
time and space, depending on the availability of light and
164
nutrients, temperature conditions, salinity, carbon dioxide
concentration, grazing, stability of the water column,
etc. (Racault et al., 2012; Simpson & Sharples, 2012;
Falkowski & Oliver, 2007). Details on the above mentioned
growth requirements can be group or species specific. In
general, phytoplankton variability follows biogeographic
and seasonal patterns, but it also responds to several
oceanographic processes across a large range of temporal
and spatial scales, which modify the environmental
conditions for growth. Examples of these processes are
stratification, grazing pressure and upwelling of subsurface
waters.
On a global scale, marine phytoplankton is a crucial
actor for biogeochemical cycles and the climate system. It
contributes largely to the global net primary production by
providing the basis of the marine food chain. Through the
transformation of inorganic carbon into organic carbon,
marine phytoplankton participates in the biological carbon
pump, sequestrating carbon into the deep ocean. Moreover,
marine phytoplankton is responsible for half of the global
oxygen production and influences the rate of heating at
the ocean surface due to its absorption of solar radiation
(Sathyendranath et al., 1991).
Given the multifaceted importance of marine
phytoplankton, the study of its characteristics and dynamics
along all the levels of biological organization are important
tasks for marine biologists and oceanographers. It is therefore
not surprising that a wide range of methods is used to study
marine phytoplankton. Different scientific approaches are
chosen depending on the research focus, the feasibility of
the method according to the sampling capabilities, and the
scientific background of the investigators. However, it is
crucial that researchers dealing with phytoplankton have a
general knowledge about the myriad of methods available,
not only to critically assess published results but also to
identify possible synergies with other methods and fruitful
collaborations with other research groups. The following
section provides an overview of some of the most common
approaches to the study of marine phytoplankton without
claiming completeness.
2.State of the art: Methods to study phytoplankton distribution and dynamics
The techniques used for studying marine phytoplankton
encompass all organization levels of these organisms and
are therefore widely diverse (see Table 1). On a microscale,
techniques for the identification of microalgal species and
description of community composition are broadly used
by ecologists and phylogeneticists (microscopy, molecular
methods, laboratory experiments). On a macroscale, bloom
detection and monitoring of phytoplankton distribution
are often accomplished by oceanographers applying remote
sensing techniques and mounting fluorescence and other
sensors, such as dissolved oxygen and optical backscattering,
on various platforms (field experiments, observational
data). Furthermore, to understand ecosystem functioning
and infer primary production from observational data,
numerical models are often applied. Many of the existing
techniques are under continuous development, yet each
one of these methods has advantages and limitations,
which are often related to detection limits, uncertainty
sources, sampling frequency and sample size.
Table 1. General overview of the different approaches to study phytoplankton and their overall characteristics
165
Phytoplankton species composition and physiology: Microscopy, flow cytometry and molecular
methods
Net phytoplankton growth and species composition
are the result of an interplay of various physical (e. g. light
intensity, turbulence), chemical (e. g. nutrient availability)
and biological (e. g. predation, competition) parameters.
Understanding phytoplankton dynamics under different
environmental conditions requires scientific experiments
tackling the identification and the physiology of the species
of interest.
Phytoplankton samples are generally collected by
a sampler (e. g. rosette samplers, limnos samplers) in
the study region (Majaneva et al., 2009), and preserved
under low temperature conditions for later analysis in the
laboratory. The most traditional method for the study of
phytoplankton is microscopy, as the observation of cell
morphology has been used by taxonomists to identify
phytoplankton species. Typically, seawater samples are
fixed with Lugol’s solution and stored in the fridge (4-8 °C)
for posterior analysis (Wollschläger et al., 2014). The cell
identification and counting are usually performed using
a cell-counting chamber. Although the use of microscopy
is the most direct way to investigate the structure of a
phytoplankton community, the taxonomic determination
of phytoplankton species has to be carried out by an expert.
Moreover, the smallest algal groups (e. g. picoplankton)
tend to lack morphological features, which are necessary
for a reliable species identification and cell count (Ebenezer
et al., 2012; Wollschläger et al., 2014).
The fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) is a
special type of flow cytometry and can be used as an
alternative technique to cell counts by microscopy. For this
method, samples are fixed with glutaraldehyde, incubated
and subsequently stored at freezing temperatures.
Autofluorescent microalgae are analyzed using a flow
cytometer after being excited by a blue and a red laser.
According to their response characteristics, cells are
differentiated from another and sorted into different
bins (Wollschläger et al., 2014). As for microscopy, this
technique should be used by experienced researchers
to obtain acceptable levels of performance for the flow
cytometer and reliable measurements. The ability of
flow cytometry to estimate picoplankton abundance has
enabled the creation of size-abundance spectra. In such
166
spectra, the slope indicates the relative importance of the
size classes (Marañón, 2015) by combining flow cytometry
and microscopy data.
To overcome some of the uncertainties related to
microscopy and flow cytometry, many molecular methods
relying on genetic material have been developed for species
identification. In general, molecular biological techniques
make use of genetic material and allow the identification of
organisms below to the species level (specific strains). Some
of them are: (1) denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis
(DGGE),
(2)
restriction
fragmentation
length
polymorphism (RFLP), (3) amplified fragmentation length
polymorphism (AFLP) and (4) microsatellites. Detailed
description and correct usage of each of these methods are
available in De Bruin et al. (2003) and Johnson & Martiny
(2014). The development of molecular techniques has
greatly advanced the identification of microorganisms and
their abundance over space and time in different regions.
Although phylogenetic description of organisms provides
valuable insights from an evolutionary perspective, it lacks
information on the ecological role and dynamics of the
analyzed organisms (Fuhrman et al., 2015).
Laboratory and field experiments are used to assess
the physiological status of cells. Traditionally, information
about phytoplankton physiological characteristics has
been obtained measuring the changes of key parameters
on incubated water samples. For instance, primary
production rates are estimated by measuring changes in
fixed carbon or produced oxygen, taking into account
the light-dependency of the process (Cullen, 2001). The
simplest technique measures concentration changes in O2
in dark and illuminated conditions, allowing estimates of
gross and net primary production. This technique requires
an assumption of the photosynthetic quotient to convert
to carbon-fixation units. Another approach is to measure
the incorporation of inorganic carbon marked with carbon
isotopes into organic matter, the radioactive 14C being
the one most widely used. Once the carbon uptake per
unit chlorophyll is known, the primary production rate
can be calculated from chlorophyll concentration data,
allowing global scale estimates (Cullen, 2001). Besides
changes in O2 concentrations and isotope uptake, nutrient
uptake rates can also be monitored by measuring changes
in enzymes used for nutrient assimilation, such as nitrate
reductase. It is important to note that the degree to which
environmental conditions can be simulated are affected
by the type and time of the incubations. Additionally, the
variable chlorophyll fluorescence has been used to study
the phytoplankton photosynthetic capacity in situ (Kolber
& Falkowski, 1993). Information on photophysiological
parameters collected using in situ active fluorometers and
estimated from ocean color data (Behrenfeld et al., 2009)
provide a unique insight phytoplankton on physiological
status.
Phytoplankton abundance: Determination of chlorophyll-a concentration in the ocean
Chlorophyll-a is the main photosynthetic pigment and
is present in all terrestrial and photosynthetic organisms.
Therefore, the chlorophyll-a concentration has been used
as an index of phytoplankton biomass and is probably
the most common biochemical parameter measured
in oceanography (Jeffrey et al., 1997). The principles
of the determination methods are generally based on
the interaction of light with the chlorophyll molecules,
enabling the quantification of chlorophyll concentration
from discrete water samples, or using in situ or remote
sensors.
The spectrophotometric determination method relies
on the direct relationship between the absorbance at
664 nm and the chlorophyll-a concentration. It requires
the separation of the particulate material from discrete
seawater samples, which is then treated with a solvent,
such as acetone or ethanol, to release the pigments
into solution. Since the development of this method in
the 1940s, different techniques have been proposed in
order to account for other chlorophyll types (Parsons
& Strickland, 1963) and the presence of chlorophyll
degradation products (Lorenzen, 1967). Information about
the size-structure of the phytoplankton community can be
obtained by separating the phytoplankton size classes by
filtration, i. e. by filtering the water samples using different
pore sizes. Such size partition is known as size-fractioned
chlorophyll-a.
The fluorometric method is more versatile and has been
the most popular method for chlorophyll-a determination
during the last decades. It measures the chlorophyll
fluorescence, which occurs in vivo when an absorbed
photon from the visible part of the electromagnetic
spectrum (400 nm to 670 nm) is not used in photochemical
reactions (i.e. charge separation or resonance energy
transfer) nor is dissipated as heat. Instead, the energy is reemitted in the form of a lower energy photon, with a peak in
the red portion of the spectrum (~685 nm) (Suggett et al.,
2010). The in vitro fluorometry method consists in exciting
chlorophyll-a molecules present in extracted samples using
blue light (~430 nm), in order to measure the resulting
fluorescence at ~663 nm. In order to obtain the chlorophyll
concentration, fluorescence sensors are calibrated using
pure chlorophyll standards. Fluorometry is currently
preferred over the spectrophotometric method due to
its superior sensitivity and the possibility to determine
chlorophyll-b and phaeophytins (Jeffrey et al., 1997).
In vivo fluorometry was introduced in the 1960s-1970s
as an in situ, non-intrusive technique to monitor chlorophyll
concentration with a higher spatial and temporal resolution.
As in the in vitro technique, it measures the fluorescence
after induced excitation using blue light. However, the in
situ measurements are affected by the physiological state
of the living microalgae, which determines the amount
of energy re-emitted as fluorescence (Falkowski & Kiefer,
1985). For example, if the photosynthetic apparatus of
microalgae is saturated due to exposure to high light
intensities, the fluorescence response of those cells is going
to be significantly different from the response of lightlimited cells. The acquisition of chlorophyll-a fluorescence
measurements is considered cost-effective: sensors can be
installed in autonomous platforms and ships, and require
relatively low maintenance relative to the amount of
data collected (Sauzède et al., 2015). Currently, there are
a number of scientific instruments (e. g. towed chains,
scanfish, gliders, triaxus) adjusted to carry fluorescence
sensors along with other probes, such as oxygen, optical
backscatter and CTD (conductivity, temperature and
depth). These probes are used to identify anoxic zones,
to correct for fluorescence quenching and to estimate
pycnocline and mixed layer depths, respectively (Hemsley
et al., 2015). Thus, data from fluorescence sensors are often
complemented with data acquired by other sensors.
167
It is also possible to measure chlorophyll fluorescence
using remote sensors on board of remote fixed platforms,
aircrafts or satellites. Active sensors deployed on lowaltitude aircrafts follow the same principle described
before, exciting the chlorophyll using blue-light lasers
(Günther, 1986) and have been successfully used to map
phytoplankton distribution and monitor blooms in
coastal and oceanic waters (Hoge et al., 2005). The most
widely used method for the remote sensing of chlorophyll
concentration is based on the passive measurement of
the ocean color, known as ocean color radiometry. The
ocean color corresponds to the water leaving reflectance,
i.e. the ratio between the water leaving radiance and the
downwelling irradiance at the sea-surface, in the visible
part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which depends
on the optically active constituents present in water. The
chlorophyll-a molecule is considered optically active
because it changes the color of the water by absorbing light
preferentially in the blue and red regions of the spectrum,
while reflecting the green light. Empirical algorithms
relating blue-to-green reflectance ratios to chlorophyll
concentration can be established and applied to ocean color
images, after removal of the atmospheric contribution, to
obtain surface chlorophyll maps (Blondeau-Patissier et al.,
2014). In the last two decades, large spatial coverage and
frequent sampling provided by satellite-born multispectral
imaging radiometers have enabled the observation of
phytoplankton distribution and seasonal cycles on global
scales. The improved design and capabilities of modern
multi-spectral satellite-born sensors (e.g. SeaWiFS,
MODIS, VIIRS) and the advances in the methods to retrieve
inherent optical properties (absorption and backscattering
of light) from the measured apparent optical properties
(i.e. radiance and reflectance) have allowed the estimation
of parameters that describe the phytoplankton community
beyond the chlorophyll-a concentration. For instance,
maps of dominant phytoplankton size class (Hirata et
al., 2008) and dominant functional group (Bracher et al.,
2009) provide an insight on the community structure.
Other algorithms have been specifically developed for
the detection of harmful algae blooms (Shen et al.,2012).
Moreover, estimates of the phytoplankton specific
absorption and sun-induced fluorescence are potentially
useful for studying phytoplankton physiology (Behrenfeld
et al., 2009). Despite the advantages of remote sensing
techniques in providing information about the large-scale
distribution of phytoplankton, they are only able to scan the
surface layers of the ocean. The lack of vertical resolution is
therefore the major drawback of remote sensing methods
(Sauzède et al., 2015).
Finally, the high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC) is able to accurately determine the concentration
of chlorophyll-a and other pigments (carotenoids,
peridinin, etc.) from water samples (Peloquin et al., 2013),
providing information about the community composition
(Sauzède et al., 2015). The analysis of samples in a liquid
chromatograph requires careful filtration, conservation and
preparation, including pigment extraction of the replicates
(Wollschläger et al., 2014). This method is both costly and
time consuming, and is therefore not suitable for a large
number of measurements (Sauzède et al., 2015).
It is important to notice that the use of chlorophyll-a
concentration as a proxy of phytoplankton biomass has
to be taken with caution (Kruskopf and Flynn, 2005).
Although a correlation between chlorophyll-a and biomass
is expected, different environmental conditions (e. g.
gradients of light and nutrients) affect the physiological
status of the phytoplankton cells and may alter chlorophyll-a
concentrations. For instance, phytoplankton communities
acclimated to low-light conditions, such as those observed
in the deep chlorophyll maximum in the subtropical waters,
often exhibit high chlorophyll to carbon ratios (Marañón et
al., 2000). In such scenario, the maximum in chlorophyll-a
concentration does not coincide with the maximum of
phytoplankton biomass (Marañón et al., 2000), as the first
only reflects the higher efficiency necessary for perform
light absorption at higher depths.
Understanding phytoplankton dynamics and ecology: Modeling marine ecosystems
Models related to aquatic ecosystems generally aim at
describing and projecting physical, biological and chemical
processes using a set of differential equations, forcing
functions and initial conditions (Shimoda & Arhonditsis,
168
2016). The first aquatic ecosystem models were used
in the 1970s and analyzed the interactions between
nutrients, organic matter and “biology”. In these nutrient
phytoplankton-zooplankton-detritus (NPZD) models,
which are still in use, phytoplankton and zooplankton are
defined in a general way, as state variables. Although spatial
and temporal patterns of whole plankton communities
are fairly predictable, the analysis of aggregate plankton
features does not reflect episodic events nor provide details
about community dynamics and the mechanisms behind
its formation (Shimoda & Arhonditsis, 2016).
More sophisticated models provide the possibility
to differentiate between two or more phytoplankton
groups with the aim to describe biogeochemical cycling
in a more detailed manner (Anderson, 2005; Shimoda
& Arhonditsis, 2016; Ward et al., 2012). In contrast to
the simple NPZD models, these models are based on
the concept of functional grouping of plankton. The
differentiation between phytoplankton functional types
offers the possibility to specify morphological, ecological
and physiological characteristics of specific phytoplankton
groups. Even though this characterization is not detailed
enough to describe single specific species, it provides the
possibility to include specializations for resources (light
intensity, nutrient demands, temperature) and thus to
induce competition between planktonic groups to a certain
extent (Shimoda & Arhonditsis, 2016).
The development of more sophisticated biogeochemical
models has great potential in the study of ecosystems
changes, in the context of water quality management
and in the prediction of algal blooms. However, there is
increased scientific debate related to the reliability of the
results obtained by such biogeochemical models. Sources
of criticism are linked to insufficient model calibration and
to weak parameterizations based on poorly understood
ecological interactions (Anderson, 2005; Shimoda &
Arhonditsis, 2016), and on the lack of observational data
for many regions. Moreover, many biogeochemical models
lack studies verifying their ability to predict changes in
phytoplankton community composition, which is an aspect
that should be tackled more carefully in ongoing research
projects (Shimoda & Arhonditsis, 2016).
3. Aim of the Session
The credibility and acceptance of the above mentioned
techniques and other methods in this field of research vary
greatly among marine microalgae researchers. Criticism
regarding low sampling size linked to data gathered and
processed by experimentalists and lack of model verification
in studies performed by modelers are common topics
in current scientific debate. Considering that different
methods are used for distinct applications and embrace
different length scales, micro and macro scales, this session
aims to host a constructive discussion platform for young
scientists of different academic background in marine algal
research. To advance this field of research, the combination
of model and observational data, and the integration of
experimental data focusing on different length scales,
might be scientific strategies to focus on, while promoting
interdisciplinary work and cooperation.
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171
Coral reefs and people in changing times
JAN-CLAAS DAJKA1*, RYAN S. MCANDREWS1,2**
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT), Fahrenheitstrasse 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
1
2
Abstract
O
ver half a billion people across the tropics depend on healthy, functioning coral reef ecosystems for the services
they provide. This dependence is becoming ever more necessary with rapidly increasing coastal populations. In
recent decades, human activities have been implicated in degrading coral reefs, even causing shifts away from coral
dominance. It is vital that we continue the work to understand how human activity can impact ecological processes on coral
reefs. This session will discuss how local and global human impacts can affect ecosystem functions on coral reefs as well as
reef resilience.
Oral Presentations
(XI-1) Hagen Buck-Wiese
Tracking ampicilin resistant coral pathogens of White Syndrome in Acropora
(XI-2) Steven Lee
Removal of the sea cucumber Holothuria scabra reduces sediment function
(XI-3) Emmanuela Orero Rubio
Comparative evaluation of ecosystem services provided by artificial reefs in the Gulf of Thailand
(XI-4) Claudia Pogoreutz
Microbial community responses to excess nitrogen availability in
Pocillopora verrucosa
(XI-5) Isabell Jasmin Kittel
Comparative evaluation of ecosystem services provided artificial reefs in the Gulf of Thailand – associated fish communities, their functional diversity
and biomass
(P27) Ramona Brunner Assessing vertical connectivitiy of two scleractinian coral species around Bermuda
(P28)
Ryan S. McAndrews Sediment-induced functional plasticity of herbivorous coral reef fish
(P29)
Arjen Tilstra Nitrogen cycling in coral reef organisms under environmental change (NICE)
Proceedings
Coral reefs and people in changing times
173
Tracking ampicillin resistant coral pathogens of White
Syndrome in Acropora
HAGEN BUCK-WIESE1*, JAN BRUEWER1,2
Red Sea Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
1
2
A
pproximately 75% of all known coral species can be found in the coral triangle of Papua, Malaysia and Indonesia.
In this highly diverse framework hard corals such as Acroporidae are keystone species and form the 3D reef
structure. However, overfishing, nutrification, global climate change and spreading diseases disturb the fragile
coral reef equilibrium. White Syndrome is the most common coral disease in the Pacific, yet little is known about possible
pathogens. As long as the causative agents remain unknown, no actions can be taken to prevent massive outbreaks, nor can
the environmental management be improved. Interestingly, recent research on other coral diseases suggests a direct link
between disease prevalence and human sewage. Microorganisms which originate from anthropogenic activities might act as
pathogens on scleractinian corals and provoke disease.
In this study we intend to tackle the lack of known causative agents at the Coral Eye station off Sulawesi by introducing
widely used antibiotics as selective factor for the spectrum of microorganisms under investigation. Our approach includes
the isolation of all ampicillin resistant bacteria in the coral tissue of an Acropora species, comparison between healthy and
diseased corals and testing possible pathogens with Koch’s postulates.
Upon successful completion, we hope to be able to state an etiological pathogen of White Syndrome. We will promote
the implementation of our findings in bacteria-focused sewage treatment to reduce the number of pathogens introduced to
the coral triangle. Further we will contribute to coral reef research and results might affect managemental improvements
globally.
KEYWORDS: WHITE SYNDROME, ACROPORA SPP., ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE, CORAL PATHOGEN
174
Removal of the sea cucumber Holothuria scabra reduces
sediment function
STEVEN LEE1*, SEBASTIAN C.A. FERSE2, AMANDA FORD2, CHRISTIAN WILD2,
SANGEETA MANGUBHAI3
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, Fahrenheitstrasse 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
3
Wildlife Conservation Society Fiji, 11 Ma‘afu Street, Suva, FIJI
1
2
A
substantial amount of organic matter (OM) on coral reefs is mineralized in permeable sands. Bioturbation through
reef ecosystem engineers such as sea cucumbers can potentially enhance recycling of OM in reef sands. However
growing demand from Asian markets is driving the overexploitation of sea cucumbers globally. Thus there is a
pressing need to understand the consequences their removal has on reef ecosystems. Densities of Holothuria scabra were
manipulated in enclosures in situ on a reef flat in Natuvu, Vanua Levu, Fiji, to simulate different fishing intensities. Two
treatments (n=4 treatment-1) were used; High (350g m-2) and Exclusion (0 g m-2), Cage controls (no cage walls) and Natural
controls (60g m-2). Sedimentary oxygen consumption (SOC), grain size distribution, porosity, and O2 penetration depth
were recorded. Sediment reworked through ingestion was quantified. All parameters are combined to provide a more
comprehensive view of the ecosystem role of H. scabra. Our calculations show that the current population of H. scabra on
Natuvu’s reef flat has the potential to rework 7850 kg dry wt-1 year-1 1000 m-2, which is approximately the weight of the upper
5 mm of sediment in 1895 m2. Our SOC results show that natural controls and cage controls were similar. SOC rates were
consistently higher in exclusion than high-density enclosures. This indicates that the removal of sea cucumbers may lead
to a reduced ability of reef sands to process OM pulses caused by land-derived eutrophication. Oxygen penetration depth
decreased significantly when the local stressor of sea cucumber removal was coupled with the global stressor of elevated sea
temperatures, resulting from the 2016 El Niño. Thus removal of sea cucumbers decreases the resilience of coastal ecosystems
to local stressors and potentially leaves local reefs more vulnerable to global stressors.
KEYWORDS: HOLOTHURIA SCABRA, SEDIMENT OXYGEN CONSUMPTION, OXYGEN PENETRATION, LOCAL RESILIENCE,
BIOTURBATION
175
Comparative evaluation of ecosystem services provided by
artificial reefs in the Gulf of Thailand
EMMANUELLA ORERO RUBIO1,2*, SEBASTIAN C.A. FERSE2, CHRISTIAN WILD1
1
2
C
oral reefs provide critically important ecosystem services including supporting services such as primary production
and habitat provisioning. Despite this, reefs are under threat from a variety of local and global stressors. Artificial
reefs (ARs) have been used worldwide as a management tool to increase productivity and manage aquatic resources,
but their contribution to coral reef restoration in terms of ecosystem services remains poorly understood. This study thus
compared primary production and benthic community composition between artificial and natural reefs (NRs) located close
to the island of Koh Pha Ngan (Gulf of Thailand). Experimental set-ups equipped with terracotta tiles were placed at three
natural and three artificial reefs. Over a period of six months, photosynthesis and respiration rates of these light exposed and
shaded tiles were measured during light and dark incubation experiments and benthic community composition was assessed
using photo documentation of tiles. In addition, settlement of organisms was analysed with the aid of CPCe program. Results
show significantly higher gross primary productivity (4511.00 ± 641.38 mg O2 m-2 d-1 for ARs and 899.44 ± 98.49 mg O2 m-2
d-1 for NRs) and respiration rates (-4060.33 ± 622.50 mg O2 m-2 d-1 for ARs and -916.22 ± 85.96 mg O2 m-2 d-1 for NRs) for tiles
placed on ARs, but no differences for net primary productivity. Benthic community composition was significantly different
for light exposed tiles between the two types of reefs, showing a higher diversity on ARs (Shannon Wiener Diversity Index
value of 0.54 ± 0.08 for ARs and of 0.05 ± 0.03 for NRs). No differences were observed for shaded tiles. Even though it seems
unlikely that ARs will ever provide the same services as NRs they can still be useful management tool. This study shows their
potential to provide certain ecosystem services that can in turn support other ecosystem goods, basic for human wellbeing
(e.g. food supply).
KEYWORDS: ECOSYSTEM SERVICES, ARTIFICIAL REEFS, PRIMARY PRODUCTION
176
Microbial community responses to excess nitrogen
availability in Pocillopora verrucosa
CLAUDIA POGOREUTZ1,2,3*, NILS RÄDECKER1,3, ANNY CÁRDENAS1,2,3, ASTRID GÄRDES2,
CHRISTIAN WILD1, CHRISTIAN R. VOOLSTRA3
3
1
2
T
he symbiosis between corals and photosynthetic algae of the genus Symbiodinium provides the foundation to
the success of coral reefs in tropical oligotrophic waters. This symbiosis is maintained by a constant nitrogen (N)
limitation of the algal partners, adjusting their cell division rates to those of the coral host. Recent studies proposed
that restructuring of the coral-associated bacterial community may aid corals to maintain this N-limitation even under
eutrophic (nutrient enriched) conditions. To test this assertion, we aimed to release Symbiodinium populations from N
limitation in hospite by exposing colonies of the common Red Sea coral Pocillopora verrucosa to excess N availability in a
two-week aquaria experiment. Strikingly, the overall structure of bacterial communities remained stable throughout the
experiment even after the onset of holobiont breakdown and partial mortality. These findings suggest that the ability of the
P. verrucosa bacterial community to adjust to changing environmental conditions is limited, and likely strictly regulated by
the coral host. In contrast, the host lost control over its Symbiodinium population, which more than doubled over the course
of the experiment, likely resulting in the retention of photosynthates, and starvation of the coral host. Based on our findings
we argue that the acclimative capacity of P. verrucosa to counteract excess N enrichment is very limited, thereby making it
highly susceptible to anthropogenic nutrient input into coral reef waters.
KEYWORDS: CORAL HOLOBIONT, DISEASE, MORTALITY, SYMBIODINIUM, NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT
177
Comparative evaluation of ecosystem services provided
by artificial reefs in the Gulf of Thailand – associated fish
communities, their functional diversity and biomass
ISABELL J. KITTEL1,2*, NAOMI R. TAYLOR1,2, SEBASTIAN C.A. FERSE2, CHRISTIAN WILD1
1
2
H
istorically, Thailand has been a highly productive sea but due to the advancement of fisheries technology, the fish
stocks drastically declined. The country’s countermeasure was to implement an Artificial Reef Program since 1978,
with the main aim of creating more habitats and thus compensating for the impacts of overfishing and habitat loss.
Some of the desired positive effects such as lowering the fishing effort are being reported but studies also highlight potentially
deleterious effects. As the available fish biomass can be concentrated at an artificial reef by being a centre of fish aggregation
rather than production, the problem of overfishing could be amplified.
This study aims to complement the understanding of artificial reefs impacts on associated fish communities and possible
ecosystem services drawn from them. Prototypes of metal structures were deployed in Chaloklum Bay, Koh Phangan, Gulf
of Thailand in 2013 but since then, not monitored regularly. This study assessed these artificial reefs for their fish community
and value to the local fisheries. Abundances and sizes of associated fish communities were monitored on cubic metal artificial
reefs and compared with natural reef controls in similar geographical locations. Social surveys were conducted to determine
the monetary value of local subsistence fisheries target species.
Results show that the metal artificial reefs act as species-specific fish aggregation devices and harbour a less diverse fish
community which is very distinct from the fish assemblage on the natural reefs. Carnivorous and omnivorous fishes are
higher in abundance and biomass on the artificial reefs whilst no corallivores were found. There were less herbivorous fishes
present on the artificial reefs. Generally, species found on the artificial reefs were usually important target-species of the local
fisheries, some of them being highly priced and of local value. Sociologically, the artificial reefs are providing the desired
ecosystem services in terms of food supply and local fisheries income, but ecological contributions are debatable.
KEYWORDS: ECOSYSTEM SERVICES, ARTIFICIAL REEFS, BIOMASS, ABUNDANCE, DIVERSITY
178
Assessing vertical connectivity of two scleractinian coral
species around Bermuda
PIM BONGAERTS1,2,3, RAMONA BRUNNER4*, OVE HOEGH-GULDBERG1,2,3
Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
Coral Reef Ecosystems Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
3
ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
4
1
2
I
n a world with declining coral reefs, the ‘deep reef refugia’ hypothesis is a gleam of hope for future oceans. This
hypothesis postulates that the relatively unexplored mesophotic reefs may be less vulnerable to certain stressors (e.g.
storms, thermal bleaching) compared to shallow reefs and could provide propagules to their shallow counterparts.
Therefore, this study investigates (1) the extent of vertical connectivity between shallow and deep populations and assesses
whether (2) Symbiodinium association differ between 10 m and 40 m. The gene flow of the brooding species Agaricia fragilis
(n = 112) and the broadcast spawner Stephanocoenia intersepta (n = 111), collected from water depths between 13 m and 40
m around Bermuda (Sargasso Sea; Atlantic Ocean), was investigated using the population genetic approach of Restriction
site–associated DNA (RAD) sequencing. Vertical connectivity of corals can be also limited by symbiont depth zonation
and therefore the Symbiodinium diversity and distribution was assessed using ITS2 genotyping after Denaturing Gradient
Gel Electrophoresis (DGGE). The outcomes of this study revealed a single panmitic population with vertical gene flow in
case of the broadcast spawner S. intersepta. On the contrary a genetic segregation was present between shallow and deep
populations of the brooding species A. fragilis. In both coral species a symbiont depth zonation was not observed. These
findings extent current knowledge about vertical connectivity between depth-generalistic coral species and verify the ‘deep
reef refugia’ hypothesis for S. intersepta around Bermuda.
KEYWORDS: MESOPHOTIC CORAL REEFS, GENE FLOW, RESTRICTION SITE–ASSOCIATED DNA (RAD) SEQUENCING, DEEP REEF
REFUGIA HYPOTHESIS, SYMBIODINIUM ASSOCIATION
179
Sediment-induced plasticity of herbivorous fish function on a
coastal coral reef in Fiji
RYAN S. MCANDREWS1,2*, SONIA BEJARANO2, ANDREAS EICH1,2, AMANDA K. FORD1,2,
SEBASTIAN C. A. FERSE2
1
2
H
uman impacts can interact with ecosystem functions in complex ways, investigation of which necessitates
multivariate perspectives. Using underwater visual census (UVC) and remote cameras, this study identified
functionally important herbivorous fishes based on behavioural feeding traits and quantified trait plasticity across
different levels of water quality on a coral reef in Fiji. Feeding observations illuminated behavioural plasticity along a gradient
of terrestrially-influenced sedimentation. Additionally, areas with poor water quality and exhibited functional niches not
occupied by resident herbivore assemblages. Comparing data sets compiled from UVC and camera footage provided a novel
insight on the impact of terrestrial sediments to herbivorous function. Ubiquitous fishes surprisingly occupied narrower
functional niches on impacted reefs, while other herbivores were deterred entirely. High sediment input is likely responsible
for niche compression in such areas. The synergy of poor water quality and impaired herbivory could lead to undermined
reef resilience near densely populated areas.
KEYWORDS: HERBIVORY, SEDIMENTATION, FUNCTIONAL TRAITS, BEHAVIOUR, HUMAN IMPACT, CORAL REEFS
180
Nitrogen cycling in coral reef organisms under environmental
change (NICE)
ARJEN TILSTRA1*, FLORIAN ROTH1, NILS RÄDECKER1, CLAUDIA POGOREUTZ1,3,
SUSANA CARVALHO2, BURTON JONES2, ULRICH STRUCK4, BENJAMIN KÜRTEN2,
CHRISTIAN R. VOOLSTRA2, CHRISTIAN WILD1
3
4
Museum für Naturkunde, Prinzregentenstrasse 90, 10717 Berlin, Germany
1
2
N
itrogen (N) is one of the limiting nutrients in highly productive coral reef environments and thus plays a key role in
the metabolism of reef organisms and the functioning of their ecosystems. Recent research revealed that microbemediated dinitrogen (N2) fixation is ubiquitous in coral reefs, and that active N2-fixing prokaryotes (diazotrophs)
are associated with many different reef organisms. However, the interplay of N2 fixation with nitrification and denitrification
in the marine N cycle and the susceptibility of all these processes to key environmental disturbances has not yet been
investigated. N2 fixation in corals appears to be essential for overcoming N starvation in oligotrophic reef environments. At
the same time, in the presence of nutrient enrichment, both nitrification and denitrification may be important processes for
preserving growth-limitation of the symbiotic algae (Symbiodinium) in the coral host. In this context, expected increases
in sea surface temperature resulting from global warming can potentially alter microbial N cycling in corals and other reef
organisms. Ultimately, an imbalance in the carbon:nitrogen:phosphorus (C:N:P) ratio may impact the delicate equilibrium
that regulates coral symbiosis, resulting in the onset of bleaching. The project (NICE) will quantify all major processes and
identify associated microbial players of the N cycle in hard corals and other common reef organisms including soft corals
and (macro)algae. An interdisciplinary approach combining expertise from coral physiology, molecular microbial ecology,
biogeochemistry, and reef ecology will allow testing the hypotheses mentioned above. Importantly, a range of global and local
environmental disturbances (increased temperature and eutrophication) will be simulated to understand N cycle responses.
NICE will provide novel knowledge of N cycling in coral reef organisms. The results generated by this project partnership,
between KAUST, Saudi Arabia, and University of Bremen, Germany, will effectively contribute to a better science-based
management of coral reefs.
KEYWORDS: NITROGEN CYCLING, DINITROGEN-FIXATION, NITRIFICATION, DENITRIFICATION, MICROBES
181
Proceedings
CORAL REEFS AND PEOPLE IN CHANGING TIMES
JAN-CLAAS DAJKA1*, RYAN MCANDREWS1,2**
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT), Fahrenheitstrasse 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
1
2
1.Coral reefs dependences
a. Corals as ecosystem engineers
Tropical coral reefs are estimated to harbour 25% of
marine species (Spalding and Grenfell 1997; Spalding et
al. 2001; Wilkinson 2008). This diversity extends across
communities of microbes, flora and fauna alike. Coral reefs
are often taken as a prime example for strong connectivity
between the ecologies of various organisms (Begon et al.
2005). Sessile organisms that lay down hard calciumcarbonate (CaCO3) structures as their skeletons (most wellknown: hard corals; Smith 1978) are closely interwoven with
scores of other species inhabiting the system (McClanahan
1995b). Habitat providing, fundamental cornerstones of
an ecosystem such as structural builders are referred to as
ecosystem engineers. The two major factors by which corals
classify as important ecosystem engineers and cause other
organisms to associate with them are physical structure and
primary productivity (Odum and Odum 1955).
The hard structures of reefs are essential for organism
communities to establish. The importance of structural
complexity is among the most highlighted in coral reef
research (Graham and Nash 2013). Studies investigated
stages of reef degradation ranging from the initial time of
death of coral polyps to the physical disintegration of the
skeleton and which stage ultimately causes most organisms
to disassociate with a particular reef. For most motile
reef-associated organisms (especially well-studied: fishes),
structure is the determinant factor (McClanahan 1995a;
Graham et al. 2006; Alvarez-Filip et al. 2011; Bozec et al.
2014). In particular, the significance of structure to fishes
gave rise to the idea of artificial reefs as potential substitutes
for modern reefs (Hixon and Beets 1989). In addition, the
corrugated nature of hard-coral skeletons also increases
the relative surface area of the habitat, further elevating the
productivity of the ecosystem (Willis et al. 2005).
The oligotrophic conditions prevalent in tropical waters
pose a great challenge to biological productivity, yet we view
coral reefs as some of the most productive hubs of the world
(SOTT 2014). Thanks to a symbiosis with single-celled
algae, zooxanthellae, corals are able to photosynthesise and
give rise to nutritious oases. As a result, life is enabled to
flourish in otherwise nutrient-poor areas (Hatcher 1990;
Wilkinson 2008; SOTT 2014).
b. Functional groups
While the reef inhabitants depend on their habitat,
many of the reef ’s inhabitants are crucial to the upkeep
of its present form (Choat 1991). Functional ecology
is concerned with the roles and functions individual
organisms fulfil in their respective ecosystem (Begon et
al. 2005). On reefs, these groupings can be concerned with
different levels such as taxonomy, ontogeny or even position
in the water column. Most frequently, reef functional
groups are defined by their trophic preferences, for instance
carnivores, herbivores or corallivores (Mouillot et al. 2014).
182
Many of the functions fulfilled by these groups are crucial to
the upkeep of the coral reef ecosystem. Functional groups
are therefore investigated in detail to yield in proactive
management approaches with the aim to prolong tropical
coral reef existence for a temporal maximum (Nyström
2006). Currently, the herbivore community attracts most
scientific interest (Bellwood et al. 2004). Their importance
stems from the active removal of algal mass and loose
sediments from reef surfaces (Green and Bellwood 2009;
Goatley and Bellwood 2012).
c. Human dependence
Human coastal communities often depend on services
the marine ecosystem provides. This is particularly true
for tropical communities (Wilkinson 2008; Cinner et al.
2009; IPCC 2014). The tropics are home to roughly 40%
of the world’s population, equating to 2.8 billion people
and rising. Projections based upon a measured growth rate
of 2.2% per annum since 1950 place the tropical part of
the planet’s population by 2050 (SOTT 2014). The major
ecosystems of the tropics are deserts, tropical savannahs,
mangroves, rainforests and coral reefs, ranked from least
to most provision of ecosystem services. 500 million
people directly depend on services provided by coral
reefs alone (SOTT 2014). These services include tourism,
coastal protection, fisheries, pharmaceutical benefits from
chemical compounds (ranked from highest to lowest
monetary value), as well as biogeochemical cycling and
cultural values (both not ranked). The annual intrinsic
value of the world’s coral reefs combined is at least 25 billion
USD (Wilkinson 2008). These figures are only considering
direct human dependence where indirect dependences
are evident but difficult to be included in quantification
(SOTT 2014). To date, there is no other tropical ecosystem
that provides the above mentioned services as efficiently as
coral reefs do (Smith 1978; Moberg and Folke 1999).
2.Changing times
a. Main threats to coral reefs
The existence of modern reefs dominated by corals
is under serious threat. Coral cover declines have been
reported at alarming rates over recent decades (Wilkinson
2008). These declines are caused by a synergy of both
chronic and acute impacts of global (warming and ocean
acidification) and local (e.g. overfishing/ overharvest,
sedimentation, excess nutrient influx, pathogens)
magnitude (Hughes et al. 2003; Bellwood et al. 2004;
Carpenter et al. 2008; Bozec and Mumby 2015). High
stress levels can drive feedback processes that destabilise
coral dominance and promote towards dominance of other
benthic organisms such as macroalgae (van de Leemput
et al. 2016) or non-coral invertebrates (Przeslawski et al.
2008). This process is termed regime shift (Graham et al.
2015). Regime shifts from coral to macroalgae dominance
currently receives highest scientific attention (Bruno et al.
2009; Smith et al. 2016).
b. Global stressors
Excess heat stored within Earth’s atmosphere is especially
absorbed by the oceans (93% from 1971 to 2010; Rhein et
al. 2013) and mean sea surface temperatures are expected
to rise from ~27.5°C (2010) to ~29.5°C (2060) (Bozec and
Mumby 2015). Driven to the edge of their thermal limits,
reef-building corals are forced to expel their algal symbionts
and hence lose the ability to photosynthesise as well as
their characteristic colourisation, leaving them in whitish
appearance. A process referred to as bleaching. If the coral
cannot regain its algal symbiont in a matter of weeks, it dies
(Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). The CaCO3 skeleton that is left is
subject to erosion and disintegration.
Atmospheric carbon-dioxide (CO2) levels are expected
to exceed 500 parts per million by 2050 to 2100. Over 30%
of this atmospheric CO2 is absorbed by seawater (Kleypas
et al. 2006). This does not leave the ocean’s pH-balance
untouched. The process is termed ocean acidification,
causing a majority of the world’s oceans to be undersaturated
in CaCO3 forms such as aragonite or calcite. The result for
calcifying organisms is a decrease in calcification rates by
as much as 30% within the next 30 to 50 years (Kleypas et
al. 2006). The primary skeletal structure of these organisms
that is made from CaCO3 and will significantly weaken
or even disintegrate in these regimes. Reef-building hard
corals are one group of organisms relying on aragonite
structures in their skeletons (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007).
183
c. Local stressors
A multitude of local stressors are adding onto the already
pressing global stressors. The following is a compilation of
local stressors and their resulting impacts that have in part
been assessed in the studies presented in this session of
Youmares 7.
Overfishing and overharvest can lead to the collapse of
entire coastal ecosystems (Jackson 2001), especially when
important functional groups, e.g. herbivores (Hughes et
al. 2007), are being targeted and removed (Graham et al.
2007). Many organism roles and their importance, such as
corallivores (Cole et al. 2008), have been determined by
now. Though many others, such as sea cucumbers, remain
largely unassessed (Purcell et al. 2013). The consequences
of their removal are therefore unknown which calls for
objective investigation (McClanahan 1995b).
Both overfishing and excess nutrient influx
(eutrophication) into the coral reef ecosystem tend to be the
most detrimental to coral-dominated systems (McManus
et al. 2000). Excess nutrients in the coral reef ecosystem
favour algal growth and can act as a feedback process
reinforcing algal dominance, for instance demonstrated
in the inner-shelf Great Barrier Reef (Bell 1992). This can
ultimately lead to a regime shift away from coral dominance
(van de Leemput et al. 2016). Eutrophication has also
been correlated to mass-occurrences of the corallivorous
Crown-of -Thorns-Starfish (Acanthaster planci) that has
been reported to be responsible for multiple coral massmortality events, especially in the Indo-Pacific (Pratchett et
al. 2009). Causative investigations finding evidence on the
correlation are still due.
The impact of sedimentation on coral reefs has long
been overlooked and investigations mostly focussed on
smothering and reduction of photosynthesis in corals.
However, recent studies also suggest a suppression of
herbivory by sediment-loads which can weaken coral
resilience yet again (Goatley and Bellwood 2012).
Multiple coral pathogens are known to date and novel
discoveries are ongoing. Pathogens are constantly reported
to make corals more vulnerable to previously mentioned
stressors (Carpenter et al. 2008). Within corals, Acroporidae
(staghorn corals) are especially affected by diseases and are
reported to be killed within months of infection (Gladfelter
1982; Carpenter et al. 2008). Exemplary pathogens
emerging in the Indo-Pacific are tissue loss diseases termed
“white syndrome” (Work and Aeby 2011).
d. Resilience and management
A central theme of the management of coral reefs
is resilience (Bellwood et al. 2004). Resilience of corals
towards chronic and acute stressors means the resistance
against the disturbances as well as the ability to recover
from them (Nyström et al. 2008). The resilience of any
large adaptive ecosystem relies heavily on the functional
roles of its biodiversity. Response diversity is the variability
in responses of functional groups to environmental
change (Elmqvist et al. 2003). An increasing body of
evidence suggests that resilience weakens as functional
response diversity is reduced (Nyström 2006; Graham
et al. 2007; Mouillot et al. 2013; Guillemot et al. 2014). A
classic example has been shown in the Caribbean, Jamaica
especially (Hughes 1994). Overfishing of herbivores as well
as eutrophication had led to increased macroalgae growth.
The then functionally essential macroalgae-feeding sea
184
urchin Diadema antillarum fell victim to a disease which
led to many Caribbean coral reefs being dominated by
macroalgae (Mumby and Steneck 2008).
In an attempt to prolong the existence of coral reefs and
re-strengthen coral reef resilience, large-scale research is
tackling a range of the aforementioned issues. Most wellknown are no-take areas or fisheries restrictions aimed to
protect functionally important groups from overharvest
(MacNeil et al. 2015). Furthermore, much scientific
attention is now turned towards learning from the different
reef regime states. Be it the ones that we desire (Cinner et
al. 2016) or those that are likely to arise as an alternative in
the face of climate change (Graham et al. 2015). Central to
these approaches is the increased combination of scientific
disciplines, especially sociology and ecology, to effectively
counteract reef degradation (Cinner et al. 2016).
3.Conclusion
A large ecosystem such as coral reefs can be greatly
affected by human actions through the manipulation of topdown and bottom-up processes. Included are the removal
of functionally valuable species and their response diversity
(top-down) as well as affecting the system via emissions or
pollutants (bottom-up). Additionally, altering magnitude,
frequency or duration of any stressors to which organisms
are adapted (Folke et al. 2004) are all synergistically adding
to weakening resilience of systems that a large part of our
population relies on.
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Workshops
Workshops @Youmares 7
Monday, September 12th 2016 from 14:00 to 16:00
WS1 - Climate change & biodiversity
CHRISTINA HÖRTERER (AWI) AND MAXIMILIAN SCHUPP (AWI)
Threats and Opportunities for local actors of the North Sea
Climate change has a wide range of effects on marine ecosystems. One of the most apparent effects
is the shift in local biodiversity induced by changing temperatures and changes in species range. Some
marine ecosystems are less affected, while other marine regions are suffering greatly from these changes.
The biodiversity and economy in the North Sea are especially affected by shifts in the distribution and
abundance of native and non-native species and extreme weather events. These pressures can have
cumulative effects on entire food webs as well as the goods and services we draw from the stability and
productivity of these ecosystems.
In this multidisciplinary workshop we want to investigate the perceptions of young scientists with
differing backgrounds (eg. oceanography, meteorology and social sciences) towards climate change
and biodiversity shifts. With the help of the workshop participants we want to expand on results from
previous workshops to identify and discuss resulting risks and opportunities for local stakeholders with
a broad focus on the fisheries and aquaculture sectors of the North Sea.
A short framing talk by an expert about impacts of climate change and biodiversity shifts will give
an introduction into the topic. Attached to the talk the participant will have time for questions. Later
we want the participants to make up their mind about their personal perception towards the impacts of
climate change and biodiversity shift on the North Sea with focus on fisheries and aquaculture.
We will discuss on which time scale the impacts will take place and how the ecosystems, society,
economy and politics are affected and how problems could be approached. Approximate number of
participants: 20
WS2 - How to design a successful experiment?
MARK LENZ (GEOMAR)
This workshop is tailored for students who are in an early phase of their MA or PhD project. It focuses
on fundamental concepts in designing experiments for the life sciences and by this, it aims at enabling
early career researchers to run successful and relevant experiments. Furthermore, it will elucidate the
intimate connection between experimental design and statistical data analysis.
189
Workshops @Youmares 7
WS3 - Broadcast and media and science
FRANK SCHWEIKERT (ALDEBARAN)
Communication is an essential tool to bridge the gap between science and society. On the other side
leaving the ivorytower of knowledge could be for some scientists a gauntlet with a mostly uncertain
result.
This is due to the different languages and expectations from the media and scientists and the chronic
shortage of suitable moderators for this important process.
Using various examples in the seminar will be shown how with respects of scientific principles
nevertheless a very successful and especially broad-based communication can be achieved.
WS4 - Visioning: A powerful practice to focus and accomplish your
challenge
JULIA LANGE
Visioning is a technique that is used to support a person or a group of stakeholders in developing a
(shared) vision of the future. Choose a challenge or problem that you encounter and imagine your vision
of success. It is a clear and succinct description of what you like it to look like after you successfully
implement your strategies and achieve your full potential. To set a comfortable atmosphere, a brief
meditation shall focus your mind followed by a series of questions that shall help you to shape your
vision. The goal of visioning is to develop a written and visualised statement of a your long term goal
and strategic objectives in the field of your challenge.
190
Programme
Programme
YOUMARES
YOUNG MARINE RESEARCHERS
7
PEOPLE AND THE 7 SEAS
INTERACTION & INSPIRATION
Conference and Network Meeting
11th - 13th September 2016
Uni Hamburg - ESA Ost, Hamburg
PROGRAMME
191
Programme - Day 1
PROGRAMME DAY 1
Programme - Day 1
SUNDAY, SEPTEMBER 11TH 2016
10:00 12:30
DGM Member Meeting
Uni Hamburg, ESA Ost
13:00 17:00
DGM Forum
17:30 20:00
Icebreaker YOUMARES 7 – Joint Venture with DGM Forum
Uni Hamburg, ESA Ost
17.30
18.00
Registration
Welcoming speech by Monika Breuch-Moritz (BSH President) and Prof. Dr. Boris Koch
(DGM Chairman)
Nissis Kunstkantine – Am Dalmannkai 6, 20457 Hamburg
192
Programme - Day 2
Programme - Day 2
PROGRAMME DAY 2
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12TH 2016
8:00
Registration
Uni Hamburg, ESA Ost, Foyer
8:30 10:00
Official Opening of YOUMARES 7: Welcome Words & Keynote Talks
Dr. Claudia Hanfland (POLMAR, AWI), Prof. Dr. Detlef Stammer (CEN) and Prof. Dr. Boris Koch
(DGM) as well as Lisa-Henrike Hentschel (Critical Scientists & Ocean Philosophers)
Uni Hamburg, ESA Ost, Room 221
10:00 10:15
10:15
10:15 11:15
Coffee Break & Screen Printing Event
Start of Sessions
(Session III) Fighting eutrophication in
shallow coastal waters
Dr. René Friedland and Nardine Stybel
Lecture Hall A
(Session II) Dissolved organic matter
in aquatic systems: Assessment and
applications
Rafael Gonçalves-Araujo
Lecture Hall B
(III-1) Ecosystem goods and services of blue
(II-1) Radiation budget in the shelf areas of
mussel mitigation cultures
the Laptev Sea
Inv. speaker: Dr. Pernille Nielsen
Sebastian Hellmann
(III-2) A quantitative tool reflecting impact of
(II-2) Fluorescent dissolved organic matter as
nutrient enrichment from mariculture
a biogeochemical tracer in the Davis Strait
Michal Grossowicz
Rafael Gonçalves-Araujo
(III-3) Mussel cultivation for water quality
(III-3) Reutilization of in situ produced
improvement, case study Szczecin Lagoon
dissolved organic matter: Effect of UV
Dr. René Friedland and Nardine Stybel
irradiation
Mario Miranda
11:15 12:45
(Session VI) How do communities adapt?
Jan Brüwer and Hagen Buck-Wiese
Lecture Hall A
(Session IV) Deep | dark | cold Frontiers in polar and deep sea research
Alexandra Schoenle and Tom J. Langbehn
Lecture Hall A
(VI-1) The holobiont imperative: Why host microbe
(IV-1) Towards an integrated microbial
interactions matter
observatory in the Arctic Ocean
Invited speaker: Prof. Dr.Dr.h.c. Thomas C.G. Bosch
Eduard Fadeev
(VI-2) Physiological adaptations of mesophotic
(IV-2) Soft corals of the Norwegian margin
corals across a depth gradient
as transient habitats
Christopher A. Nowak
Meri Bilan
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Programme - Day 2
Programme - Day 2
PROGRAMME DAY 2
(VI-3) Viral gene expression in Symbiodinium, the
(IV-3) Feeding activity of larval Antarctic krill
algal symbiont of corals
in the Scotia-Weddell Seas
Jan Brüwer
Laura Halbach
(VI-4) Effects of predation and thermal stress on
(IV-4) Foraging hotspots of Weddell seals in
oxidative responses of Gobius paganellus
the southern Weddell Sea
Nina Paul
Dominik A. Nachtsheim
12:45 14:00
Lunch Break & Screen Printing Event
14:00 16:00
Workshops and Excursions
Individual meeting points
(WS-1) Biodiversity, Christina Hörterer (AWI) and Maximilian Schupp (AWI)
(WS-2) How to design a successful experiment?, Dr. Mark Lenz (GEOMAR)
(WS-3) Broadcast and media and science, Frank Schweikert (ALDEBARAN)
(WS-4) Visioning: A powerful practice to focus and accomplish your challenge, Julia Lange
(E-1) Aquarium – Guided tour, Guido Westhoff (presenter), Elham Kamyab
(E-2) Maritimes Museum – Guided tour, Manfred Stein (presenter), Vera Golz
(E-3) MS Stubniz – Tour + Discussion on the Development of Fisheries Research, Frank-Roland Fließ
16:00 16:15
Coffee Break & Screen Printing Event
16:15 18:00
Poster Session
18:45 21:00
Networking Event – Business meets Science
194
Room 221
Foyer & Room 221
Programme - Day 3
Programme - Day 3
PROGRAMME DAY 3
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13TH 2016
8:30 9:20
(Session I) From egg to juveniles: Advances
and novel applications to study the early life
history stages of fishes
(Session IX) Social dimensions of
environmental change in the coastal
marine realm
Maik Tiedemann and Franziska Bils
Janne Rohe, Stefan Partelow, Dr. Martin Lukas,
Lecture Hall A
Eric Tamatey Lawer, Katie Nelson, Rebecca
Borges
Lecture Hall B
(I-1) On the seasonal growth of Hyporhamphus
(IX-1) Cooperation of actors willing to manage
picarti larvae (Hemiramphidae) in the Sine Saloum
the traditional goby fry fishery in Reunion
estuary (Senegal)
Island
Sarah I. Neumann
Carole Thomas
(I-2) Common garden crossing experiments of
(IX-2) Assessing the sustainability of mangro-
herring and their possibilities
ve aquaculture – operationalizing the SES
Florian Eggers
framework
Paula Senff
(IX-3) Medium and short term coastal changes
in Keta (Ghana) – observations, interventions
and interpretations
Katarina Trstenjak
9:20 11.00
(Session VIII) Coastal and marine pollution
in the anthropocene: Identifying
contaminants and processes
(Session XI) Coral reefs and people in
changing times
Anderson A. de Souza Machado
Lecture Hall B
Jan-Claas Dajka and Ryan S. McAndrews
Lecture Hall A
(VIII-1) Enrichment of chlorobenzenes degrading
(XI-1) Tracking ampicilin resistant coral patho-
cultures from Zeebrugge harbor river sediments
gens of White Syndrome in Acropor
Gilbert A. Atuga
Hagen Buck-Wiese
(VIII-2) Distribution and origin of selected POPs
(XI-2) Removal of the sea cucumber Holothuria
in the Arctic fjords sediments
Anna Pouch
scabra reduces sediment function
Steven Lee
(VIII-3) Metal behaviour in the Thames Estuary:
(XI-3) Comparative evaluation of ecosystem
Insights from modelling studies
services provided by artificial reefs in the Gulf
Valentina Premier
of Thailand
Emmanuela Orero Rubio
(VIII-4) Short-term sediment-associated trace
(XI-4) Microbial community responses to
metal dynamics in coastal marine Tema Harbour
excess nitrogen availability in Pocillopora
(Ghana)
verrucos
Benjamin O. Botwe
Claudia Pogoreutz
195
Programme - Day 3
PROGRAMME DAY 3
(VIII-5) Effects of microplastics in the marine
(XI-5) Comparative evaluation of ecosystem
isopod Idotea emarginata
services provided artificial reefs in the Gulf of
Spela Korez
Thailand – associated fish communities, their
(VIII-6) Small particles, big problem! Microplastic
and pelagic fish larvae
functional diversity and biomass
Isabell J. Kittel
Natalie Prinz
11:00 11:15
Coffee Break
11:15 12:45
(Session X) Phytoplankton: Are we all
looking at it differently? Diverse methods
and approaches to the study of marine
phytoplankton
(Session V) Going global: Invasive and
range-expanding species
Simon Jungblut
Lecture Hall B
Ingrid M. Angel Benavides and Larissa K. Schultze
Lecture Hall A
(X-1) Modelling autotrophic acclimation: Southern
(V-1) ETS and oxygen consumption of Cas-
North Sea as a case study
siopea sp. in response to acute and chronic
Invited speaker: Dr. Onur Kerimoglu
temperature change
Samir Aljbour
(X-2) Monitoring natural phytoplankton communi-
(V-2) Crab Weight Watchers: Energy storage
ties: a comparison between traditional methods
and food preferences of ovigerous Hemi-
and scanning flow cytometry
grapsus sanguineus and Carcinus maenas
Lumi Haraguchi
Invited speaker: Morgan McCarthy
(X-3) Microsensor technology on the rise - Oxygen
(V-3) Timing matters for successful invader
micro-gradients at the sea surface
establishment
Janina Rahlff
Jonas Geburzi
(X-4) The price we pay for the uncertainty in
(V-4) Effects of nature protection level on
experiments on phytoplankton dynamics
Non-Indigenous Species
Dr. Maria Moreno de Castro
Jonas Letschert
12:45 14:00
Lunch Break
14:00 15:00
(Session VII) Marine species interactions and ecosystem dynamics: Implications for
management and conservations
Dr. Xochitl Cormon and Moritz Stäbler
Lecture Hall A
196
Programme - Day 3
PROGRAMME DAY 3
(VII-1) Trophic ecology of the orangeback flying squid Sthenoteuthis pteropus (Steenstrup, 1855)
(Cephalopoda: Ommastrephidae) in the eastern tropical Atlantic
Véronique Merten
(VII-2) Integrative modelling of environmental and anthropogenic driver effects on marine food web
dynamics in the Barents Sea
Stefan Königstein
(VII-3) Tensor Decomposition reveals spatio-temporal dynamics of fish communities
Romain Frelat
(VII-4) On the way for detecting and quantifying unseen species in the sea: the Octopus vulgaris
case study
Quentin Mauvisseau
15:00 15:30
Keynote: Lower Ecological Impact
Dr. Rainer Froese (GEOMAR)
Uni Hamburg, ESA Ost, Room 221
15:30 16:30
Plenary Discussion „Low Impact Fisheries – How to get there“
Prof. Dr. Rainer Froese (GEMOAR), Björn Stockhausen (Seas at Risk) and Stella Nemecky (WWF)
Moderated by Cornelia Nauen (Mundus Maris)
Lecture Hall A
16:30 17:00
17:00 17:45
19:30
Coffee Break
YOUMARES 7 Awards: Best Poster and Best Talk & End of Conference
Lecture Hall A
Post Conference Clubbing
VOLT
Karolinenstraße 45, 20357 Hamburg
197
Programme - Venues
VENUES
Programme - Venues
CONFERENCE
ESA Ost
Universität Hamburg ESA Ost
Edmund-Siemers-Allee 1
20148 Hamburg
ICEBREAKER
Nissis
Kunstkantine
CLUBBING
VOLT
VOLT
Karolinenstraße 45
20357 Hamburg
YOUMARES - joint venture with DGM Meeresforum | Powered by Working Group on Studies and Education
198
www.youmares.net
Picture Front: © Lena Heel, Back: © Google Maps
Nissis Kunstkantine
Am Dalmannkai 6
20457 Hamburg

YOUMARES | 7

Transcription

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