Proceedings of Sandalwood Meeting held in Vanuatu.
Transcription
Proceedings of Sandalwood Meeting held in Vanuatu.
Sandalwood pruning demonstration at Tropical Rainforest Aromatic’s sandalwood farm on Efate SANDALWOOD RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, RESEARCH AND TRADE IN THE PACIFIC AND ASIAN REGION PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGIONAL WORKSHOP PORT VILA, VANUATU 22 – 25 NOVEMBER 2010 Edited by Lex Thomson, Cenon Padolina, Rajan Sami, Vinesh Prasad and John Doran 2 REGIONAL WORKSHOP ON SANDALWOOD RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, RESEARCH AND TRADE IN THE PACIFIC AND ASIAN REGION 3 CONTENTS 1 Executive Summary 05 2 Introduction 06 3 Country Reports 07 3.1 Cook Islands, Teaunuku Koroa 07 3.2 Fiji, Binesh Dayal 09 3.3 French Polynesia, Leopold Stein 20 3.4 New Caledonia, Philippe Bourgine 22 3.5 Niue, Terry-Anne Mokoia 26 3.6 Papua New Guinea, Robert Kiapranis 27 3.7 Samoa, Tito Alatimu 31 3.8 Tonga, Ketoni Akau’ola 32 3.9 Vanuatu, Tate Hannington 37 4 SPC Regional Report: Cenon Padolina and Vinesh Prasad 44 5 Technical Presentations on Sandalwood Resource Development 46 5.1 Conservation Strategy for Sandalwood (Santalum insulare) in French Polynesia and Findings after 10 Years of its Implementation, Jean-Francois Butaud et al. 5.2 Planted Sandalwood Developments in Vanuatu, Tony Page, Tate Hannington, Anna Potrawiak, Alick Berry and Clement Bled 57 5.3 Private Sector – SWOT Analysis of the Vanuatu Sandalwood Industry, Jonathan Naupa 61 5.4 The Sustainable Management and Conservation of Santalum yasi in Fiji and Tonga: A combined Ecological and Genetic Approach, Ryan Huish, Tevita Faka’osi, Heimuli Likiafu, Joseva Mateboto and Lex Thomson. 63 5.5 Sandalwood Plantings in Rotuma, Fiji, Vilisoni Nataniela and Lex Thomson 64 5.6 An Integrated Management and Conservation Strategy for Sandalwood (Santalum album) in West Timor Indonesia, Yudhistira Ardhyana Nugraha Rua Ora 5.7 Tropical Forestry Services Corporation: A Sandalwood Plantation Manager, Peter Kimber 90 6 Technical Presentations on Sandalwood Research 92 6.1 The Impact of Heartwood Rot on Sandalwood (Santalum album) Oil Production, Liz Barbour, L. Norris and T. Burgess 6.2 Sempit’s Tree – Extreme Variation of Oil Composition and Quality in a Single Santalum 46 65 92 austrocaledonicum Tree, Peter Murphy, Jonathan Naupa Ben Brookman and Sempit Naritantop 6.3 Breeding behaviour of three Sandalwood species (Santalum album, S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum), Tony Page, Tate Hanington and Clement Bled 99 102 6.4 The Vegetative Propagation of Sandalwood species, S. yasi, S. album and F1 hybrid, Maloni Havea 109 6.5 Micropropagation of Sandalwood (Santalum spp), Sainimili Baiculacula 111 117 7 Technical Presentations on Sandalwood Trade and Markets 7.1 Historical Perspectives, Recent Sandalwood Trade and Future Prospects from the Pacific Islands, Lex Thomson and John Doran 117 7.2 The Development of Sandalwood Planting and Products in China, Chan Kamwah 121 7.3 Amruqa’s Essential Oil Trade from PNG and Plans for Sandalwood, Sharmayne Ryan 122 8 Group Discussions, Findings and Recommendations 123 8.1 Group Discussions and Findings 123 8.2 Recommendations 126 9 Appendices 127 9.1 List of Participants 127 9.2 Workshop Programme 133 9.3 Opening Speech, Minister of Forestry, Vanuatu 138 04 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Regional Workshop on Sandalwood Resource Development, Research and Trade in the Pacific and Asian Region was organised by the Forests and Trees and Forestry and Agriculture Diversification Teams within the Land Resources Division of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) in collaboration with the Department of Forests of Vanuatu and James Cook University of Australia. Financial and other support was provided by the European Union-Facilitating Agricultural Commodity Trade (FACT) Pilot Project, the SPC/GIZ Programme on Coping with Climate Change in the Pacific Region (CCCPIR), the Asia Pacific Association of Forestry Research Institution (APAFRI) and the International Seminar Support Scheme (ISSS) of AusAID. It was held from the 22nd to 25th of November 2010 at the Melanesian Hotel in Port Vila, Vanuatu and attended by 45 participants from the Asia-Pacific region. The objectives of the workshop were to: • Exchange information on sandalwood resource development, research and trade within the Pacific Islands and Asia. • Strengthen and explore opportunities for collaboration amongst countries and territories in the Pacific Islands and Asia. • To discuss and review new developments in production and uses for sandalwood oil and santalols. • Develop recommendations for future directions to ensure sustainability of sandalwood as a vital economic resource. Representatives from Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu presented country reports providing details of present activities aimed at conservation and sustainable development of sandalwood. Technical presentations highlighting the latest developments on Sandalwood Resource Development, Research and Markets/Trade were given by resource persons in the region representing government and private sectors. A field trip was held on the third day of the workshop to visit the Vanuatu Forestry Department Nursery, sandalwood plantations at Snake Hill established and managed by Tropical Rainforest Aromatics (TRA), the sandalwood plantations of Far North Oils, a sandalwood oil distillation plant of TRA and agroforestry farms near Port Vila. In its final session, the workshop participants agreed that sandalwood has a unique potential to continue to contribute to the improvement of living standards of people in Pacific Island countries and territories. However, in order for this to happen, there must be a critical assessment of the resource, continuation of cutting-edge research and development, improved management practices and policies, and marketing initiatives and promotions in the key markets of East Asia, India, Middle East, Europe and USA. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Date of Publication August 2012 This publication has been produced with the assistance of the European Union-funded Facilitating Agricultural Commodity Trade (FACT) Project implemented by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, James Cook University, Australia and the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR). The data presented, conclusions drawn and the recommendations made are the sole responsibility of the authors. 05 2. INTRODUCTION Sandalwood has considerable cultural and economic importance to many communities in a number of countries and territories in the Pacific Islands and Asia. It is for this reason that its conservation is an important issue and deserves added input to ensure its sustainable development and management. Because of its high economic value and suitability to be grown in cultivated situations (agroforestry systems and plantations), sandalwood has the potential to make a significant contribution to rural economies. In the Pacific Islands sandalwood was heavily exploited from early in the 19th century. It is now almost extinct in some countries. Many of these countries failed to regulate the exploitation of their sandalwood resources due to strong market demand coupled with the lack of replanting programmes. As much of the initial stands have been exploited throughout the Asia-Pacific region, there is concern now for its survival. For this reason, greater research and input into ways of improving stand management, introduction of sandalwood in agroforestry systems, and policy requirements to conserve both the different species and its habitat are required. There is now great interest in the development of sandalwood due to its economic potential. Large-scale development of plantations of sandalwood is going on in several parts of northern Australia, India and southern China. In the Pacific Islands, several countries are now promoting the planting of sandalwood at a community level while regulating the harvesting of their remaining stock in their natural habitats. In recognition of its great potential, the Government of Vanuatu is encouraging and supporting the replanting and local processing of sandalwood while regulating harvesting from its natural stands. Vanuatu has been chosen to host this workshop in recognition of the significant sandalwood development work there, providing excellent opportunities to participants from other countries and territories to observe and to learn. The first regional sandalwood meeting was held in Hawaii in 1991, followed by meetings in Noumea in 1994 and 2002 and a meeting in Fiji in 2005. Opening Ceremony During the opening ceremony, workshop facilitator Mr Cenon Padolina of SPC officially welcomed all the participants to the regional sandalwood workshop and also introduced the chief guest, Mr. Gilbert Mermer – First Political Advisor for the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, Livestock and Quarantine of the Republic of Vanuatu. In his opening address, Mr Mermer commented on the appropriateness of the workshop’s theme and challenged the participants and stakeholders present to develop a standardised information package that ensures only one message is delivered by all to avoid conflicting information from being communicated to growers. He said, “History is being created with the regional sandalwood workshop finally being held in Vanuatu. The government and people of Vanuatu would like to thank the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, EU, AusAID, GTZ, APAFRI and JCU for making it possible for this workshop to be held in the Happiest Place on Planet Earth.’’ “Between 2007 and 2009, the total income earned by Vanuatu’s sandalwood owners in royalty payments was estimated at VUV 233 million, generating even more interest among ni-Vanuatu to participate in replanting.” Mr Mermer stated that the use of sandalwood in the Pacific has a long history, and noted that the history of sandalwood utilisation in Vanuatu is recorded in Dorothy Shineberg’s book ‘They Came for Sandalwood’. “Sandalwood is an important tree crop that has supported the people of the Pacific Islands for many years. Sandalwood also has the potential to contribute to the improvement of living standards of the people in the Pacific. However, for this to happen, it needs critical assessment, research and improved management practices,” he said. 06 3 COUNTRY REPORTS 3.1 COOK ISLANDS, Teaunuku Koroa, Mangaia Island Council Introduction The Cook Islands consists of 15 islands scattered over some 2 million square kilometres of the Pacific Ocean. They lie in the centre of the Polynesian Triangle, flanked to the west by the Kingdom of Tonga and Samoa and to the east by the islands of French Polynesia. Total population is 12,000 (Cook Islands Statistics, Quarterly Bulletin December 2009). Since 1965 Cook Islands has been a self-governing country in free association with New Zealand. The islands are divided into two groups: the Northern Group of atolls namely, Penrhyn, Manihiki, Rakahanga, Pukapuka, Nassau, Palmeston, and Suvarrow and the Southern Group of volcanic and raised coralline islands namely Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Atiu, Mangaia, Mauke, Manuae, Mitiaro, and Takutea. Background From the 1940s until 1964, agriculture was the back-bone of the country (fruit trees for example citrus spp, pineapples, root crops, fresh vegetables, maire (Alyxia stellata) garlands to Hawaii mainly from the Southern Cooks and copra), as well as pearls, pearl shells, fish, etc from the Northern Cooks. Following the development of an international airport, tourism took over as the economic mainstay of the country, followed by marine exports (black pearls and tuna), then agricultural exports. With the tourist influx, and increased domestic market opportunities our export of produce started to fade; furthermore, many people ignored their plantations and migrated overseas. With the neglect of these plantations, soil erosion increased and exotic trees (including Pinus caribaea and Acacia spp.) were introduced to help control stop erosion. One of these introduced trees was the sandalwood with the seeds sourced from SPC in Fiji and New Caledonia. Sandalwood in the Cook Islands and its uses The island of Mitiaro in the Southern Cooks has an endemic variety of sandalwood known locally as a’i (Santalum insulare var. mitiaro). It is a slow growing variety which only grows in a certain area of the island and according to the people on Mitiaro it flowers but does not set seed. On Mitiaro, they use their sandalwood as a cure for migraine, and as a body oil. In 1992 Santalum austrocaledonicum was introduced through Mr Ives Erhart of CIRAD Forêt and trialled on Rarotonga. In 1994, S. austrocaledonicum was planted on Mangaia, Mauke, and Mitiaro islands. Santalum album was later introduced accidentally in the Cook Islands and planted from 1998 to 2000 on Mangaia only. In 2004, a new batch of S. album seeds (1,000) was sown and planted on Mangaia Plantations and age Mangaia Santalum austrocaledonicum - 5,000 trees aged 6-16 years covering 5 ha Santalum album - 600 trees aged 6-12 years Hybrid - 400 trees aged 6-12 years Mitiaro Santalum insulare -120-200 plants, possibly a root-suckering clone Santalum austrocaledonicum - 1000 trees aged 16 years covering 2 ha Santalum album - 100 trees aged 6 years Mauke Santalum austrocaledonicum – 2,000 trees aged 16 yrs covering 3 ha Research and development Collaborators are: • CIRAD Forêt • SPRIG/SPC (Lex Thomson) 07 Trade and industry • Family remedies National plan and strategies • All the plantations on the island of Mangaia are owned by the landowners with ongoing management and maintenance provided by the Island Administration of Mangaia. • It is envisaged that a national plan and strategies for the sandalwood in the whole of the Cook Islands will be developed in the future. Extension and awareness • TV programmes • Inter island work attachments and workshops • Overseas trainings, meetings and workshops Other agencies/programmes in the sandalwood development sector • SPC/GIZ (formerly GTZ) • Refer to Research and Development. Priority national activities for implementation • Research for quality and properties of sandalwood, and pest and diseases • Extension is a must and more information is needed on processing and marketing • Development needed to strengthen ties between the landowners, local government and overseas agencies for example SPC/GIZ. Acknowledgements I would like to express my gratitude to the following organisations and individuals: The Land Resources Division of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) Ms Helen Henry, Island Secretary, Mangaia Island Administration Mr Anthony Brown, Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture Mr Nooroa Tokari, Senior Project Officer Mr Teokotai Topa, Island Secretary and Tokai Ngaiorae, Agriculture Officer, Mitiaro Island Administration And all of those who helped me with information on sandalwood in the Cook Islands 08 3.2 FIJI Binesh Dayal, Fiji Department of Forestry Abstract Sandalwood in Fiji was first harvested and exploited by European settlers dating back to January 1800 at Bua Bay, Vanua Levu. Volumes and prices are unknown for sandalwood traded during those days and it is unclear how much resource owners benefited from trading this valuable resource. Sandalwood in Fiji now remains a commercially depleted resource. Illegal harvesting operations were recently undertaken in the Lau Group and Vanua Levu but the Department of Forestry has put a stop to exports. Commercial value of sandalwood remains the biggest incentive for development and conservation with regeneration by landowners now progressing to sustain the demand in the long run. In 2002, the Forestry Department with funding assistance from SPC/SPRIG embarked on more vigourous research and development to support regeneration in the country. Now, interest on replanting is growing and attempts are being made to quickly raise sufficient supply of quality seed for seedling production. Action is urgently needed to ensure the conservation of genetic resources of the species, including the development of seed stands of local provenances for use in future propagation and replanting. Introduction Santalum yasi or ‘yasi’ as known locally is the native sandalwood of Fiji and forms a fundamental part of the local tradition, history and ecology of the country. Overexploitation in the early 1800s led to the near extinction of the species. Periodic commercial exploitation has continued as recently as the 1980s. Regeneration to replace exploited areas has not been significant due to lack of suitable silvicultural practices and limited resources for development. Sandalwood is a semi-parasitic tree and the essential oil from its heartwood is one of the most valuable non-wood commodities in the world. The growing and harvesting of sandalwood has great potential to become a major industry and economic earner in the next two or even three decades with the current level of extensive planting programmes. Research and development of sandalwood in Fiji over the years has been on a casual basis (Jiko 1992) with more vigourous research on sandalwood starting in 2002. The Forestry Department through its Silviculture Research Division formally incorporated sandalwood research in its five year development programme (2002 – 2007) in partnership with the AUSAID funded SPRIG Project (South Pacific Regional Initiative on Forest Genetic Resources). Current research focus is mainly on improving techniques on the propagation of sandalwood and conservation of S. yasi through the establishment of ‘in-situ’ and ‘ex-situ’ stands at specific locations. Sandalwood resource base The native sandalwood resource base is distributed in certain locations in Fiji, namely in Bua Province and Udu, Nasealevu, Dreketi areas, Macuata Province of Vanua Levu, Kadavu, Rotuma, Ono-i-Lau, Lakeba, Oneata (Lau Province), Nausori Highlands and Colo West Range from Tubenasolo to Nasaucoko, Western Viti Levu (Figure 1). Sandalwood resources in Fiji have been infrequently estimated. In 1994, a survey in Bua estimated a total of 50,000 to 61,000 trees of all sizes giving an expected yield of 1,191 tons of heartwood (based on dbh of 7 cm with 35% heartwood content (Usumaki, 1981: Bulai, 1995: Thomson, 2000). In Ono-i-Lau, only 14.9 tons was estimated (Tabunakawai and Chang, 1984; Jiko, 1993). No other survey or inventory of sandalwood has been undertaken since due to its distribution and funding requirement to travel to the remote sites where sandalwood might still occur. Trees are usually harvested when they reach a commercial size. 09 MAP 1: NATURAL DISTRIBUTION OF SANTALUM YASI IN FIJI Research and development Seed technology The Sandalwood Seed Production Areas (SPAS), Sandalwood Field Clonal Seed Orchard (FCOS), Sandalwood Family Trials established at specific locations and Containerized Clonal Seed Orchard (CCSO) in the Colo-ISuva nursery are now producing seeds for further research and development of sandalwood in Fiji. In addition, the grafting between S. yasi and S. album has allowed the mass production of seeds at an early stage of one and half years to two years. Provision of funding through the SPRIG Project and SPC has enabled the collection of seeds from the outer islands for further research work on sandalwood. Flowering can occur throughout the year, however the peak flowering period occurs in February and again from October and November. Fruiting occurs in the wet season from January to March with light fruiting in the cooler season from June to August. Sandalwood seed normally takes about four to five months to develop, mature and ripen after flowering (Figure 2). The average fruit weight is 0.85 grams and there are approximately 800 to 850 fruits in one kilogram. After sandalwood seeds have been processed there are 6,000 to 7,000 dry seeds per kilogram. The average size of S. yasi fruits is 1.2 cm x 1.1 cm while the average size of the seed is 0.9 cm x 0.7 cm. Technology for sandalwood seed processing has been improved to ensure speedier processing of ripe sandalwood fruits and higher viability. Initially, S. yasi ripe fruits were collected and soaked in water for depulping the flesh. A new technique has been developed where the S. yasi fruits are buried in river sand or compost matter for nine days to allow the fleshy component to soften up. The seeds are then cleaned and air dried at room temperature. Germination tests for sandalwood seeds, usually involves sowing on compost matter in germination trays and placed in a shady, covered area. Germination speed is from 30 days onwards up to 90 days. Germination percentage is usually above 95% for properly processed seeds. 10 Fig 2. Sandalwood fruits and seedlings Nursery production Sandalwood seeds are sown on well-composted mahogany pods. Research has also been undertaken using other compost materials such as coconut husk humus and sawdust humus. All compost materials used for the germination of sandalwood seeds are sterilized due to the high presence of fungi and bacteria in composted matter, which may kill seeds. Using sterilized compost material for germinating sandalwood seeds is ideal mainly due to the texture of the compost medium that does not allow damage to the soft root tissue when pricking out germinants for transplanting into pots. Transplanted wildings are also used to supplement seedling production. Young regeneration is dug up and potted in the nursery. To encourage good growth of wildings in the field, it is best to clear and cultivate undergrowth and fence out animals to induce and protect germination of fallen seed. This method is best on sandy, well-drained soils and suitable in areas where larger, fruit-bearing sandalwoods remain. A number of trials were also undertaken to ascertain the best potting medium in the nursery. It is now conclusive that the best potting medium for propagating sandalwood seedlings is 6 parts of decomposed sawdust, 4 parts of forest floor top soil (sandy loam), 1 part of river sand plus NPK. A high percentage of survival has been noted when using this mixture for raising sandalwood seedlings. After the germinants have been transplanted into the pots in the nursery, it usually takes 8 to 10 months for the seedlings to attain a reasonable size and be hardened to where they can perform well after field planting (Figure 3). Fig 3. Sandalwood propagation and seedlings in the nursery Vegetative propagation In early 2009, a sandalwood grafting trial was undertaken in the Colo-i-Suva nursery (Figure 4). The total number of plants grafted was 100 using the stock of S. album and scion of S. yasi. Assessments were undertaken on a monthly basis and there was 70% survival after the first assessment. However, by the end of 2009 the survival percentage was only 10%. Further research on grafting is continuing to produce successful results. Cuttings trials were also undertaken in the nursery misting facility (Figure 4). A recent trial on cuttings showed 80% survival after eight weeks, but cuttings did not root and eventually died. 11 Fig 4. Grafting and cutting trial Tree improvement Seed production areas (SPAs) The primary objective of SPAs is to have a continuous supply of seed for future use. Also, they will determine the best growing conditions for the Santalum species e.g. climatic conditions and soil types, and determine the best planting space and host plant. Approximately, two hectares of SPAs have been established and growth of natural regeneration under the seed trees is also being encouraged to increase stocking (Table 1 and Figure 5). TABLE 1. SEED PRODUCTION AREAS Location Species Spacing No of Trees Area (ha) Host Species Nukurua S. yasi 4m x 4m 250 0.40 Morinda citrifolia, Calliandra calothyrsus Colo-i-Suva S. yasi 4m x 4m 150 0.24 C. calothyrsus Colo-i-Suva S. yasi 4m x 4m 250 0.40 Vunimaqo S. yasi 3m x 3m 250 0.23 Vunimaqo S. album 3m x 3m 150 0.14 M. citrifolia M. citrifolia, C. calothyrsus, Gliricidia sepium M.citrifolia, C. calothyrsus, G. sepium S. yasi and 4m x 2m 85 0.07 M. citrifolia, Acacia mangium 4m x 2m 205 0.16 M. citrifolia Total 1,115 1.64 Lololo Korovou S. album S. yasi The seed trees in SPAs provide accessible seed sources, general growth data under suitable silvicultural regime, and act as demonstration plots for extension purposes showing sandalwood growing with suitable host species. 12 Selection of plus trees The majority of the plus trees that were initially selected were not under Fiji Department of Forestry control and thus, when matured, they were harvested and sold. The origin of progeny of the selected seed trees within the SPAs is recorded and current status is known. A recent selection of plus trees in natural stands has been undertaken in Bua Province (Figure 6), Lakeba and Ono-I-Lau in the Lau Province and in Kadavu. Seed collection from the selected seed trees will be for progeny testing and establishment of demonstration stands. Selection criteria is based on vigour, stem form, disease resistance and fruiting intensity. The selected clones will be vegetatively propagated in the clonal seed orchard. Fig 5. Vunimaqo SPA Fig 6. Seed tree selected at Banikea Village, Bua, Vanua Levu Clonal seed orchards Successful grafts from the initial grafting trials have been established in clonal seed orchards (CSOs). Separate, isolated CSOs for S. yasi and S. album have been established at Colo-i-Suva to reduce likelihood of hybridization (Figure 7). Yasi family trials and provenance resource stands (PRS) A S. yasi family trial consisting of nine families (total of 165 plants) from Lakeba was established in September 2002 at Vunimaqo at a spacing of 4 m x 2 m with field hosts, C. calothyrsus (intermediate) and Citrus reticulta (long term)(total area 0.13 ha). Growth performance for height and girth is undertaken on a bi-annual basis and the current survival percentage in this plot is 62%, mean height of the surviving plants in this plot is 5.61 m and mean diameter (30 cm above ground level) is 5.5 cm (Figure 8). Fig 7. Clonal seed orchard A S. yasi family trial (total of 70 plants) of seed trees from Kadavu was established in April 2004 at Lololo at a spacing of 2 m x 2 m with field host of A. mangium (total area 0.03 ha). Growth performance for height and girth is undertaken on a bi-annual basis and the current survival percentage in this plot is 47%, mean height of the surviving plants in this plot is 1.62m. 13 A S. yasi family trial consisting of eight families (total of 120 plants) from Bua was established in December 2004 at Vunimaqo at a spacing of 3 m x 3 m with field hosts of C. calothyrsus and C. Limon (total area of 0.11 ha) A S. austrocaledonicum species trial (total of 50 plants) was established in August 2006 at Naloto, Verata, Tailevu at a spacing of 3 m x 3 m with a field host of Citrus species (total area of 0.05 ha). Growth performance for the height and girth is undertaken on a quarterly basis and the current survival percentage in this plot is 48%, mean height of the surviving plants in this plot is 3.19 m (Figure 8). Fig 8. Lakeba S. yasi family and S. austrocaledonicum species trial plots In situ and ex situ sandalwood gene conservation The primary purpose of gene conservation is to protect the S. yasi genetic pool. Hybridization between S. yasi and S. album is the major concern and the need arises for the pure gene of S. yasi to be protected. The Forestry Department ensures that there is no introduction of exotic Santalum species where S. yasi is naturally distributed. Tabulated left (Table 2) are the S. yasi gene conservation plots established to date in the country. TABLE 2. SANTALUM YASI GENE CONSERVATION STANDS IN FIJI Location Date Stand Gene Established Type Source Spacing No of Area (ha) Host Species Nawailevu Jan 2004 In situ Nawailevu 4m x 2m 400 0.32 A. mangium Lekutu Jan 2004 In situ Lekutu 4m x 2m 400 0.32 A. mangium trees Colo-i-Suva 08/11/09 Ex situ Lakeba 3 m x 3m 40 0.04 Existing vegetation Rokovuaka 07/07/10 Ex situ Naivaka 3m x 3m 150 0.14 Citrus species Tore, Cuvu 04/10/10 Ex situ Noro 4m x 4m 100 0.16 Citrus species 1,090 0.98 Total Santalum yasi seedlings sourced from different locations of Bua Province are being raised in the nursery as well as the host plants of Citrus species. The establishment of gene conservation stands will be continued with specific locations already identified (Figure 9). Trade and industry Sandalwood is still harvested in most parts of the country today where this valuable resource exists, however, there are considerable fluctuations from year to year. The extent to which sandalwood resource owners benefit from harvesting this valuable resource is questionable. In addition to this, some local buyers do not comply with the licensing conditions required and these facts only come to the attention of the Forestry Department when the exporter applies for the permit to export the sandalwood produce. The need arises here for the proper control of harvesting of sandalwood in the country. There are currently four registered exporters in the country with the number of local buyers unknown. Fig 9. In situ S. yasi gene conservation stand at Nawailevu, Bua, Vanua Levu Sandalwood harvesting in the country involves the felling of the tree, uprooting of roots and removing the sapwood (Figure 10). The local buyers in Fiji have different approaches when purchasing sandalwood from the resource owners. Some purchase sandalwood without the sapwood removed while others purchase heartwood (sapwood removed) and sapwood chips separately 14 The purchasing prices for wood may vary when the sandalwood sapwood is not removed. Woods can be purchased at approximately FJ$10 to $15 per kg. Where the sapwood is removed, the rate is approximately FJ$35 to $80 per kg. The age of the sandalwood tree can impact on price as do the different parts of the sandalwood tree e.g. the roots have the highest levels of heartwood present, while the stem and branches have less. Most domestic buyers process the sandalwood further to meet the requirements of buyers abroad, e.g. by processing the heartwood into dust or chip form. Over 50% of the total sandalwood purchased is exported to markets abroad while the remaining percentage is used locally for production of sandalwood products such as scented oil, soap and candles. An economic research study was undertaken by the Forestry Department in 2007 on Lakeba Island in the Lau Group to study the volume of heartwood and sapwood of 26-year-old sandalwood trees, which is when they are matured and the heartwood is fully developed. Six percent of the sandalwood trees in this stand were sampled during the research study. Sandalwood species studied were S. yasi (Fiji sandalwood) and S. album (Indian sandalwood). Results from this research study showed that the Indian sandalwood are more vigorous and have a higher percentage of heartwood than sapwood. On the other hand, Fiji sandalwood has a lower percentage of heartwood. Sandalwood harvested at this site was sold directly to an overseas buyer for FJ$35,000 per ton. Tabulated below (Tables 2 & 3) are the findings on sandalwood harvests and revenue generated from this economic research. Export destinations are mostly Asian countries. TABLE 3. ECONOMIC RESEARCH ON SANDALWOOD HEARTWOOD Species Sap wood Heart wood (HW) Gross weight HW @ 30.00/kg 61 kg 39 kg 100 kg FJ$1,170 116 kg 259 kg 375 kg FJ$7,770 S. yasi (approx.1 tree) S. album (approx.1 tree) Fig 10. Sandalwood harvesting TABLE 4. SANDALWOOD HARVEST AND EXPORT DATA Total Year Total Year Total Year 2007(MT) Revenue($) 2008(MT) Revenue($) 2009(MT) 73.4 $22,436 233.1 $111,564 33.1 Total Revenue($) $82,789 EXPORT Year Quantity (MT) 2007 116.3 2,679,886 2008 306.5 6,001,770 2009 82.1 2,603,668 15 Value (FJ$) National plan and strategies National plans and strategies on the future management, conservation and development of sandalwood in the country include the following components. • • • Conservation and better utilization of the genetic resources of sandalwood in Fiji Extensive replanting programme by 2011 in areas where sandalwood occurs naturally and its introduction to other parts of Fiji where it does not naturally occur Management and conservation of S. yasi genetic resources (both in situ and ex situ) and establishment of seed stands of sandalwood to ensure that there is a continuous supply of seeds for future use • Research undertaken on sandalwood for the development of scientifically sound conservation and management strategy • Collaboration with landowners that have sandalwood populations/stands for their conservation on the islands, and • Encourage landowners to conserve sandalwood populations/stands in localities that are potentially good seed sources. Extension and awareness Extension and awareness in the country aims to increase understanding and interest in the community to address areas such as the importance and benefits of replanting, the need for seed sources and the need for partnership (Figure 11). Partnership will encompass transferring relevant knowledge in silviculture practices to cover seed collection, seed processing, nursery production techniques and reforestation management systems. Extensive awareness programmes have been undertaken in the country via radio talkback shows, exhibitions and during forest restoration training programmes in communities. The Forestry Department has developed awareness campaigns on the sustainable production of S. yasi including information brochures for growers, research papers and training workshops. SPC provided the funding assistance for the printing of the brochure. Funding assistance provided by the former Fiji-German Forestry Project and SPC-SPRIG Project has enabled the Forestry Department to reach out to communities to conduct awareness and community assistance on the following components: • • • • • Provide training on sandalwood seed technology Sandalwood cultivation Spacing of plants and appropriate host species Conditions that best suit the growth and survival of sandalwood Development of nurseries for farmers and communities with interest in sandalwood propagation and cultivation. To date, five nurseries have been developed by the Forestry Department through funding assistance, but only three are currently operational. Fig 11. Community assistance Sandalwood cultivation in the general areas where the species naturally occurs is regarded as the best way forward to conserve the genetic resources and provide economic benefits to rural communities. Use of local seed sources will ensure that the genetic integrity of locally adapted populations is maintained. The Forestry Department promotes replanting of S. yasi using local germplasm sources and production of high quality seedlings in its extension nurseries. 16 Some of the main issues and constraints encountered include the following: • • • • Collection of seeds – birds quickly eat ripe fruit Landowner lack of awareness Resources depleted faster than can be replaced Technology transfer hindrance. Other agencies/programmes Pacific Reforestation (Fiji) Ltd is undertaking research on sandalwood and host species in collaboration with the Fiji Government, specifically, exploring the possibilities of a marketing and branding strategy to maximise market recognition and appreciation of Fiji S. yasi and its essential oil in the overseas market (Figure 12). Fig 12. Sandalwood seedling propagation by Pacific Reforestation (Fiji) Ltd World Wildlife Fund (WWF) is undertaking nursery development and restoration of trees by replanting sandalwood for communities as a long term income source and an alternative to exploitation of forest resources with higher economic returns. National Trust of Fiji (NTF) is planning sandalwood nursery development for communities and the restoration of grasslands through the replanting of sandalwood for income generation as alternative to exploiting natural resources for livelihoods. University of the South Pacific – Institute of Applied Science (USP-IAS) is undertaking research on S. yasi DNA and providing training on sandalwood to communities (Figure 13). This has included restoration of forests in degraded areas through the replanting of sandalwood and promoting the valuable resource for livelihoods. Partners in Community Development Fiji (PCDF) is providing training on sandalwood and nursery development for communities and forest restoration through the replanting of sandalwood. Sustainable Rural Livelihoods Center (SRL) is undertaking sandalwood nursery establishment for communities and sandalwood reforestation projects in deforested areas Fig 13. Sandalwood training provided to the villagers of Namada, Nadroga (an initiative by USP-IAS) Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) works with national partners to help conserve, improve and better promote the wise use of genetic resources of local sandalwood species as a means to enhance environmental protection and promote economic and rural development. 17 The primary purpose is to strengthen the capacity of the participating Departments, Regional Organisations and NGOs to conserve, improve and better promote the wise use of sandalwood genetic resources in order to promote sustainable rural development. SPC is also undertaking research on sandalwood tissue culture for mass production of planting material. The Forestry Department works in collaboration with the above companies and agencies to facilitate the training programmes and implementation phases of the nursery development and sandalwood restoration projects. One of the major issues and constraints faced is the management of projects by the communities after implementation. Lack of interest displayed by the communities all too frequently results in failure of projects since sandalwood is a long term development and there are other alternatives for more rapid income returns. It has been noted that sandalwood nurseries developed by and for individual growers who have displayed great interest in propagating and cultivating sandalwood have been more successful. Sandalwood propagation and cultivation requires intensive tendering practices and conditions (environmental) favouring its survival and growth. These are all limiting factors. Priority national activities for implementation: • Specific technical and economic information and data relating to the cultivation of sandalwood planting, including in agroforestry systems, be collated and developed into a guide for growers. • Emphasis is placed on encouraging the replanting of sandalwood. • Greater numbers of high quality sandalwood seedlings with suitable pot host be grown for distribution to farmers which may then be used as local seed sources for replanting programmes. • The Forestry Department encourages and continues assisting with the development of community and private nurseries emphasising that only local seeds of sandalwood are used. A key issue for the Forestry Department is helping those landowners who are entitled to the sandalwood regeneration fund and, with the iTaukei Land Trust Board, utilise these funds to establish S. yasi woodlots from local germplasm sources. There is also a need to engage and support local communities and landowners to establish gene conservation/seed stands for their local sandalwood population and to encourage research on S. yasi to assist in the scientifically sound conservation and management of its genetic resources. Sandalwood has the advantage of providing a very high value, non-perishable product. It is also free of the quarantine impediments which have seriously constrained trade in agricultural commodities. Commercial value of sandalwood remains the biggest incentive for its development and conservation. Possible threats that may be encountered include the following: • • • • • • Illegal forest fires and natural disasters like cyclones; Pests and diseases e.g. fungal root attacks; Unsustainable and uncontrolled harvesting; Damage to regeneration by feral cattle; Clearing land for agricultural development; and Theft of sandalwood. Conclusion Financial returns can be great from cultivating sandalwood if good silviculture, management and correct germplasm are used. The intensive level of exploitation of native stands drives the need for extensive cultivation of the species. The vigorous research, development and conservation of this valuable resource in Fiji and the significant demand for sandalwood is expected to lead to extensive cultivation in the country. Funding assistance has enabled the Forestry Department to undertake research, development and conservation of this valuable species. It has also enabled the Department to acquire seeds from remote sources in outer islands for establishment of family trials, seed production areas and conservation stands. 18 Sandalwood silviculture has been the vital component of research and improved techniques are now supporting immediate replanting programmes in the country. The extensive awareness programmes and promotion of planting techniques through the dissemination of Information on Growing Sandalwood in Fiji manual to communities and individuals has allowed regeneration of sandalwood in the country. There is a great need for the Forestry Department through the Silviculture Research Division and Extension Division to raise sufficient seedlings to meet the current demand and replanting programmes. Furthermore, wider R&D on sandalwood needs to be continued especially by replanting, determining its potential as an agroforestry species with timber and agricultural crops and as well as conserving the genepool of S. yasi (without introgression from introduced S. album). References Bulai P., 1995. Sandalwood in Fiji. In L Gerum, JED Fox and Y Ehrhart (eds.) Sandalwood seed, nursery and plantation technology. Proceedings of a regional workshop for Pacific Island Countries; August 1-11, 1994; Noumea, New Caledonia. RAS/92/361. Field Document No. 8. UNDP/FAO South Pacific Forestry Development Programme, Suva, Fiji. Pp 167-172 Jiko, L. R, 1993, Status and Current Interest in Sandalwood in Fiji. In: Sandalwood in the Pacific Region: ACIAR Proceedings No. 49, Australia: 13-18 Tabunakawai, K. and Chang, A. 1984 Thomson, L.A.J., et al. 2000. A strategy for conserving, managing and better utilizing the genetic resources of Santalum yasi (sandalwood) in the Kingdom of Tonga and Republic of Fiji. (SPRIG Project document; Department of Forestry, Fiji and Division of Forests, Tonga). Usumaki, J. T. 1981, A Report on Survey of Sandalwood in Bua Province, Vanua Levu, Fiji.(unpublished report of Fiji Department of Forestry). 19 3.3 FRENCH POLYNESIA Leopold Stein, Chef du département de la Forêt et de la gestion de l’espace rural (FOGER) Service du dévelopement rural (Department of Forests and Management of Rural Areas and Rural Development) Introduction There are seven varieties of the local species Santalum insulare in French Polynesia viz. insulare, alticola, raiateense, marchionense, deckeri, raivavense and margaretae. It is a hardwood, shrub or tree of 10 – 13 m high with opposed leaves and branches, hemiparasitic roots and perfumed heartwood. It is used in medicine, cosmetics, body care and carving. On the other hand, there are three introduced species of sandalwood, viz S. album, S. yasi and S. austrocaledonicum vars. austrocaledonicum and pilosulum. Sandalwood is rare in French Polynesia for a number of reasons. Historically, there was overharvesting between 1805 and 1826 during trade between China, Europe and the South Pacific. Today, it continues to be overharvested for the tourism sector. Other impacts on sandalwood include rat predation on seeds, invasive species and grazing. TABLE 1. STATUS OF NATURAL STANDS Location No of Trees Tahiti 313 Moorea 222 Raiatea 58 Rapa 14 Raivavae Over 2000 Marquises North 1251 Marquises South 431 TABLE 2. DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTATIONS Location No of Trees Tahiti 360 Moorea 140 Nuku Hiva 1341 Hiva Oa 541 Ua Huka 112 Sandalwood conservation and reforestation programme SDR Programme / Partnership - Direction of Conservation - University of French Polynesia - French delegate to research - Own and private owners SDR programme strategies - Conservation of genetic diversity - Creation of 9 management units Conservation regime General status - In FP cleaning, felling, extraction of trees (fruit tree, forest tree, must be approved by mayor of township). - Many sandalwood varieties are fully protected by regulation. 20 Propagation - Creation of nurseries for sandalwood production - Training for nursery staffs - Creation of seed orchard Sandalwood plantation - Setting of trials plots in arboretum and seed orchards - Creation of production (more than 6 ha today) - Plants sale to public (no transport of plants between islands Public awareness - Few Tahitians know how to identify a sandalwood tree - Meeting, information in schools - Booklets - Tree planting day - Develop arboretum Overview - Conservation and management of the resource. The last stands must be protected from cattle, goats, horses, theft and rats. Hosts plants will have to be replanted afterwards. - Creation of conservatory plantation. To preserve genetics, plantations and be created on sites, near the existing stands on a controlled perimeter to avoid back crossing. - Creation of cultivation techniques for each species Spacing and density of hosts Form pruning Silviculture of host plants Fertilization Irrigation - Development of techniques to value sandalwood Shaping work Silviculture of host plants Fertilization Irrigation Issues to overcome Control of hosts plants and pests Management of natural habitats Reduce early management costs Protection of stems from mechanical damage 21 3.4 NEW CALEDONIA Philippe Bourgine, Department of Rural Development Province Sud, New Caledonia Introduction New Caledonia is organised in three provinces as shown on the map below: Northern Province, Southern Province and Loyalty Islands Province. These are French overseas territories managed by their own parliaments elected for five years. Their jurisdiction includes economic development, conservation and management of natural resources, and primary school education. Each province is free to set its own policies. However, one can notice minimal differences in approach between the 3 collectivities (unless mentioned). Local government deals with regional relations, education (programmes), customs, biosecurity and public health. It is composed of 11 members, representative of all major political parties who have seats in the New Caledonian parliament. The New Caledonian parliament is composed of members of the provincial assemblies and it is in charge of the budget and legislation for areas that come under government. Sandalwood resource base Existing natural stands As in many other Pacific islands, sandalwood trade was very active from 1820 to 1920, during which time it was bought from local populations for very little. At the time, there was no management of the forest, resulting in sandalwood disappearing in many places. 22 There is one species present in New Caledonia Santalum austrocaledonicum, which has three varieties: var austrocaledonicum; var minutum; and var pilosulum. Santalum austrocaledonicum var austrocaledonicum is the most common and can be found on the Isle of Pines and Loyalty Islands. Santalum austrocaledonicum var minutum is only found in one place north of the main island, while S. austrocaledonicum var pilosulum is present near Noumea and probably along the west coast. Most of the remaining stands for these two, less common varieties are small in size (from one hectare up to 20 to 30 hectares in Noumea). But it is not really worth considering the area as in some stands, trees can be scarce within the existing vegetation. Inventory of all trees is a better option. These stands are not logged and are partly protected (reserve status or belonging to private owners and/or public territory). On the Loyalty Islands and on the Isle of Pines, the resource is much more important. Recent inventories (2003 on Maré - Loyalty Islands, 2008 on the Isle of Pines) have shown that sandalwood stocks on these islands were important and could be harvested on the basis of an annual quota of heartwood. The Isle of Pines has the largest potential with 530 tons of heartwood standing. The area covered by sandalwood natural stands represents more than 9000 hectares on the Isle of Pines. However, as these are natural stands, the density of trees per hectare varies a lot as well the structure of these populations. Sandalwood is often grown around houses and on land boundaries. When found on fallow land, it has a natural origin (mainly spread by birds). The density of trees is often more important in the village or on cropping land than in natural stands. These inventories are needed to monitor existing stock after seven years of harvesting on the Isle of Pines, as well as checking if the management plan is working as planned and sustainable. Demographic trends of sandalwood populations As little is known of the small populations listed above, there is a need to monitor them in order to ascertain their present status. For the Isle of Pines, the recent inventory (2008) has clearly demonstrated that even if the population is well managed and production not endangered for the next 10 to 20 years, there is a gap in the younger classes mostly as a result of uncontrolled burning. This could lead to a dramatic drop in production and a loss of income for these communities in about 20 to 30 years from now. Planting programme For the Southern Province, the planting programme has been about one to two hectares per year. This programme has been conducted mainly on the Isle of Pines and on bare land. There are also grants which take the form of seedlings awarded to land owners who harvest their trees. For each tree felled and sold to the local distillery, five young plants are now given for planting (it used to be three up until 2008). Until recently, the young plants were given to associations in charge of distribution. Following a recommendation made after the 2008 inventory, the young plants will now be stocked at the distillery and provided directly to the land owner. This will allow the Southern Province to better locate these plants and monitor them on a long term basis. Research and development There is currently no research activity on sandalwood. Development is carried out by the Association Interprovinciale des Centres Agricoles (AICA) which is in charge of mass selection in natural stands, seed collecting and conservation, establishment of seed orchards and setting of compartment trials on different soils and climate. During the 2008 inventory on the Isle of Pines, more than 100 “plus” trees were recorded and located by GPS. Seeds will be collected from these trees for future plantations. AICA has also started a mass selection in other stands around the country to ensure the broadest possible genetic base. Trees are selected on a phenotypic basis (size in diameter and height, well-formed trunk). The tree owners have been asked to collect and sell the seeds from these trees to the Southern Province. The first procurement was done in 2010 with around 5000 viable seeds being bought. Trade and industry General regulations New Caledonia’s forestry regulations are based on Decree No. 405 dated 18 March 1910 and its subsequent amendments and additions from 1926, 1936, 1968 and environmental codes for Northern Province (2008) and Southern Province (2009). 23 Provinces have the right to issue harvest permits irrespective of the status of the land. However, on customary lands the permit can only be delivered after getting the approval of the owners (generally the chiefs). A permit spells out the technical and statutory conditions of the exploitation. The main technical criteria for allowing a sandalwood tree to be cut are: - Having a girth over 70 cm (measured at 20 cm above the ground level) and sapwood width under 3 cm - All trees with a girth over 100 cm. The statutory criteria are determined by the inventory and, for Isle of Pines, it is not more than 40 tons of heartwood per year. On customary land (Isle of Pines), the forestry service manages the harvesting operation. The trees to be felled are marked by forest officers and a number is given to each tree (with records of girth and locality). This number is also recorded on arrival of the tree and its parts at the distillery. This helps to control and prevent illegal harvesting. The original inhibitants on Isle of Pines are divided into eight tribes. Because of history and past exploitation of the resource, the richness in sandalwood resource owned by different tribes is variable. Therefore, an annual harvesting permit is delivered to each tribe based on inventory data. Some tribes have large annual harvesting allocations (10 tons for the richest) and some only a few hundreds of kilograms. Industry Sandalwood was discovered on New Caledonia in the 1820s, and between 1828 and 1865 around 2000 tons of heartwood was exported to Australia and then onwards to China for tea trading. From 1906 to 1923, 980 tons from New Caledonia and Vanuatu were harvested and sent to the European market. More recently, between 1948 and 1990, 1985 tons have been cut in New Caledonia. Of this, a portion has been processed locally into oil and another portion exported to Europe. There are currently two private distillation units. One is based on Mare Island (Loyalty Islands), the other has been operating on the Isle of Pines since 2001. TABLE 1. PRODUCTION – ISLE OF PINES 1999/2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Oil 3793 kg 1410 kg 1500 kg 1300 kg 1551 kg 1561 kg Residue/Waste 68 tons 40,7 tons 45 tons 45 tons 53 tons 53 tons The number of trees harvested each year to get enough heartwood (about 40 tons) to produce around 1000 kilos of oil is around 300 trees on the Isle of Pines (inventories made by IAC in 1988 and 1994 have confirmed that the average weight of heartwood per tree was about 150 kg when criteria for logging is considered and respected). Most of the sandalwood oil is sold on the French market, but also in Germany, and the United States of America. The waste is dried and then sold to the Asian market where oil is extracted with solvent, then crushed and used to make incense sticks. For the foreseeable future New Caledonia cannot produce more oil than about 1 MT per year given the current sandalwood stocks and the need to exploit this resource in a sustainable manner, The earnings in 2009 were 112 million Pacific Francs (Equivalent to 938000 Euros). About half of this amount stays on the islands and is redistributed to the landowners. The distillery unit employs seven persons on the Isle of Pines. 24 National plan and strategies The harvestable natural stands of sandalwood are now managed in a sustainable way. The stock has been inventoried and an annual quota of heartwood is allowed for harvesting. It has been fixed at 40 tons/year on the Isle of Pines. On the Isle of Pines, inventories will be conducted every five to eight years to check the stock and adapt the management of the population by increasing or decreasing the amount of heartwood allowed to be cut. In addition to the young plants given to landowners, the Southern Province is developing a planting programme of 100 hectares per year starting in 2012. In terms of management, sandalwood can only be distillated on the Isle of Pines and no export of wood is permitted. This has been decided with the full support of tribal authorities in order to maximise value adding opportunities on the island. For the conservation of sandalwood, the largest stand remaining on the main island is located within the city of Noumea and is now a flora reserve. Other stands are mostly located on private land and are not exploited. Extension and awareness This is to be considered only on Loyalty Islands and Isles of Pines where the stands are harvested. The major issue in the awareness programme is to inform people not to use burning as a way to clear their plots of land before planting or at least control the fire to prevent it spreading beyond their land. Sandalwood trees are often planted close to houses where cropping land can be found as well as on fallow land. When burning is uncontrolled, the seedlings are killed and therefore, this may lead to a gap of 20 to 40 years in production. When fire is used in an intensive way, sandalwood may disappear altogether. Other agencies/programmes The other main programme involving sandalwood is known as the ‘dry sclerophyl forest programme’. This programme works on the main island and only on the West Coast where remnants of this ecosystem can be found. It is financed by France, New Caledonia, Northern Province, Southern Province and WWF. Its goals are to protect, restore and make people aware of this very specific and endangered ecosystem. It covers only 4000 hectares and the main threats to this ecosystem are bushfires, invasive species and cattle grazing. Sandalwood is one of the species planted during restoration of these forests. The trees used for restoration come from nearby remnants of forests. It is a way to protect the genetic resources of these limited populations. The agency responsible for this programme is the Department of Conservation of the Southern Province. Priority national activities for implementation 1 Identify within the remaining populations the best trees with regards to form but also with superior oil production capacity. Select these for use in seed orchards 2 Inventory all small natural stands remaining and study the structure of these populations in order to establish their current conservation status 3 Carry on with the seed collection from these natural stands and create a seed bank 4 Establish field trials in different sites 5 Monitor plantations and trees on the Isle of Pines References Friou, M., Nasi, R and Cornu, A. (1994). Inventaire des peuplements de santal de l’Ile des Pins. CIRAD-Forêt/province Sud, Nouméa, 42 p. Quemin, C. (1988). Etudes sur le santal (Santalum austrocaledonicum). Mémoire ENITEF, CTFT, Nouméa, Nouvelle-Calédonie, 84 p. Tassin, J., Hnepeune, S., Azaïs, T., Ricci, J.P. and Dessert, A. (2005), Country report of New Caledonia. Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Sandalwood Research, Development and Extension in the Pacific Islands and Asia, Noumea, New Caledonia SPRIG-CPS, pp 53-56. Brinkert, M., (2003). Inventaire des populations de santal (Santalum austrocaledonicum) sur l’île de Maré, Nouvelle-Calédonie. Mémoire FIF- ENGREF, IAC/Province des Iles Loyautés, 75p. Lemaresquier, L., (2008). Inventaire des populations de santal (Santalum austrocaledonicum) sur l’île des Pins, Nouvelle-Calédonie. Mémoire FIF- ENGREF, Province Sud, 75p. L’agriculture calédonienne de 2000 à 2009, DAVAR, Gouvernement de la Nouvelle-Calédonie. 25 3.5 NIUE Terry Anne Mokoia, Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Introduction Niue is one of the world’s largest raised single coral atolls with a total land area of 269 km2. It is situated in the Southwest Pacific Ocean at 19° south and 169° west. The population is less than 1,400 people. There are two distinctive seasons, the hot wet season from November to March (which coincides with the tropical cyclone season) and a cool dry season from April to November. Average rainfall is approx 2,180mm but varies from 810 to 3,330 mm per annum. Sixty-eight percent of the total annual rainfall is concentrated in the wet season. During the wet season, the daily maximum temperature is 30°C (January/February) with a daily minimum of 23°C. The daily maximum during the dry season is 26°C with a daily minimum of 19°C The soils are of marginal fertility for intensive agriculture. Land is covered with fern growth indicating the poor structure and nutrient content of the soil. The soils are sketetal with makatea (limestone) outcrop over approximately 50% of the island.. There are four main soil types (and other minor soil types), viz. Hikutavake, Hakupu, Fonuakula and Palai soils. Niue is still largely covered by tropical forest (19,351ha or 74% of the island). It has one of the highest forest areas per inhabitant amongst island countries in the Pacific Region (and logging is almost non-existent). TABLE 1. FOREST RESOURCES ACCORDING TO LAND COVER CLASSES (LANDCARE 2001)* Matured Forest 6,805ha - 26% Secondary Forest 11,233ha - 43% Littoral Forest 1,313ha - 5% Total Forest 19,351ha - 74% Managed Land, Bare Land, Littoral Scrubland 6,792ha - 26% Total Land 26,143ha - 100% *Figures are not the latest (1994) and were amended after ground truthing (2001 – 2004) Sandalwood areas Niue was not formally part of the SPRIG Project Phases 1 and 2 but they received assistance in terms of securing seeds for a seed orchard. Very little is known about the small sandalwood natural stand at Hakupu and Alofi which covers less than 1 sq km and has fewer than 100 small trees. There are unconfirmed sightings of sandalwood plants in other areas. A complete inventory of the stand is recommended. Research and development An attempt to establish a seed orchard was not successful due to lack of maintenance. Due to limited manpower within the Forestry Division there is currently no research and development on sandalwood. National plan and strategies The government should continue to be supportive in all agricultural policies to promote conservation and sustainable development concepts. The national forest policy recognised that agroforestry development and intercropping will be encouraged and promoted. Research will focus on data collection of promising species and provenances in support of indigenous forest management with emphasis on agroforestry development. Extension and awareness An awareness programme for landowners is needed so that they might grasp the importance of this valuable tree species. 26 3.6 PAPUA NEW GUINEA Robert Kiapranis, Forest Research Institute, PNG Forest Authority Abstract This paper documents the conservation status of sandalwood, Santalum macgregorii, in the Buzi and Berr villages in the West Kiwai local level government area of the Western Province and attempts to propose a conservation plan for the species based on observations carried out during a recent field trip to the area. The wood oils of Santalum macgregorii across PNG were found to be highly variable in composition and yield. Doran, Brophy and Niangu (2005) reported that some wood samples collected from Buzi and Berr gave oils of commercial yield with levels of Z-α-santalol and Z-β-santalol very similar to those of high quality Indian sandalwood (S. album) oils. Doran et al (2005) suggested that as a result of the high yield and good quality, these oils might be expected to command a higher price in the market place than oils from sandalwood in the Central and Gulf Provinces. It is therefore in the best interest of the Papua New Guinea Forest Authority to concentrate its research, development and extension programmes with sandalwood from this area. Although commercial exploitation of PNG sandalwood commenced in the late 1800s and has been going on intermittently for over 100 years, existing records indicate that very little sandalwood was harvested in the Western Province. However, despite escaping from commercial exploitation, natural distribution of sandalwood populations in the province is sporadic and limited to within 50 kilometres of the coastline (Doran et al 2005) and even this may be confined to only the southern coastline close to the Indonesian border. For this reason, the object of this proposal is to identify a number of populations in the area and protect them in order to conserve the genetic resource of the species from complete erosion. Introduction During the last sandalwood trip to the Western Province in September 2006, a one day meeting was arranged with the people of Buzi and Berr villages to explain the purpose of the visit to the area. Many issues were discussed at the meeting including various aspects of sandalwood conservation, management and sustainable utilization. The people are keen to plant and harvest their sandalwood in a sustainable manner but a suitable strategy that would enable all villagers to participate and benefit from this development must be identified and implemented. The purpose of this paper is therefore to document their interest and highlight the conservation status of sandalwood in Buzi and Berr villages and identify a suitable conservation plan appropriate for the area based on the findings of the recent trip. Background In a relatively short time since interest in sandalwood was rekindled in October 1996, information on Santalum macgregorii has expanded from investigative work in PNG with assistance from Australian research collaborators. Several germplasm collection expeditions were undertaken in the Central and Gulf Provinces. Bosimbi (1997) assessed its natural distribution from Kwikila in the Central Province to Malalaua in the Gulf Province and more recently sandalwood was found in the Western Province (Doran and Lea, 2005). Seed collections were undertaken in 2001by Agiwa and Bewang, in 2002 by Bosimbi and Bewang and in 2004 by Agiwa and Brammall. The aim of the collections has been to establish an ex situ seed production stand for easy access to seed and other vegetative material for the production and distribution of planting material to interested stakeholders. Since the sighting of sandalwood in the Western Province by Doran and Lea (2005), one investigative and wood sample collection trip was done by Bosimbi in September, 2006. Observations during the trip were alarming, to say the least, and there is a need for urgent conservative measures to be taken to preserve this high oil yielding sandalwood chemotype. It is isolated and characterised by fast declining, fragmented populations. 27 Conservation status of Buzi and Berr sandalwood The conservation status in this context refers to the present state of the genetic resource in the area and the risk of future erosion. During the September visit, six small populations were investigated. Three of them known locally as Usasara, Dod and Mandra Kodo are on the Buzi side and the other three, Biklup, Bie Bodigat and Among Kodo are on the Berr side of the swamp separating the two villages. Usasara, Dod and Biklup populations display similar characteristics to sandalwood in the Central and Gulf Provinces, however, the Mandra Kodo and Among Kodo populations are the two sites of greater interest and concern due to their high oil contents and the fact that the sizes of the population are very small and quite isolated. At the time of visit, there were about 18 mature individuals in an area less than 50 x 50 m2 located within extensive grassland. The Mandra Kodo and Among Kodo populations are under very serious threat for the following reasons; 1. First and perhaps the foremost reason is the threat from people other than the rightful landowners. Until 2005 when these populations were discovered (Doran and Lea 2005), not many villagers knew what sandalwood looked like and therefore they were relatively safe from poaching. However, now that they have been discovered and known to many people, they are in imminent danger of being poached by people induced by fast cash rewards and not by the rightful resource owners. This was the trend observed in the Central and Gulf areas when the Hiritano highway was extended from Bereina to Malalaua. 2. Secondly, there is no sign of regeneration of young sandalwood wildlings either as seedlings from seeds or coppice from roots and stumps. In contrast, the regeneration at the Usasara population is prolific and healthy with approximately 200 -300 seedlings per 50 x 50m2. The complete lack of regeneration here is mainly attributed to heavy bird and rodent predation and the intense fires that are rampant in the area during the dry season. 3. It was also observed that there is no regeneration by coppicing either from roots or stumps of trees that have been cut down. Cut stumps are often subjected to very heavy and intense fires that induce fungal and other pathogenic attack that prevent coppicing. The urgency for conserving the highly restricted and endangered genetic resources of the species in the area is evident. This calls for immediate action to put in place a breeding programme to slow down it’s erosion while consideration is given to demographic and economic factors prevailing in the area. Current legislation and forest policies also need to be considered in order to put together an effective and workable sandalwood conservation and management plan for the sandalwood at Mandra Kodo and Among Kodo respectively. Special features of Western Province sandalwoods Due to the high oil content reported by Doran et al (2005), further studies are needed to confirm their initial findings. In the meantime, some physical and structural differences that make the Buzi and Berr sandalwoods unique are listed here. The tree itself has some twigs that resemble willow branches that develop and hang downwards and often reach to the ground. According to villagers, this phenomenon occurs every year during the wet season. Conservation strategy In the selection of populations to be conserved, the main objective is to secure the genetic variation and prevent it from erosion (Theidale et al, 2002). Several specific points can be used as criterion for selecting a stand for conservation; • Population size – the stand should be large enough to conserve the genetic variation and provide good conditions for adequate regeneration. • Legal conservation status – because most sandalwood is on traditional land, proper land demarcation must be done and the land registered as a conservation area before any activities can take place. • The socio-economic context – areas designated as conservation areas must be far enough from heavily populated areas but within easy reach for purposes of management and benefit sharing. • Management and costs – the management option taken must be realistic and cost effective. In general, the selection of conservation measures for a given population depends on the conservation status and the nature of the biological material to be conserved (Theidale et al, 2002). Where all the criteria are met, in situ conservation may be possible. However, where the conservation status or the population size is too low, another population may have to be identified or ex situ conservation undertaken. The latter is probably the most likely and cost effective method for the Western Province sandalwood. 28 The two populations of Mandra Kodo and Among Kodo marked for conservation and sustainable development are too small and do not satisfy any of the above criteria and therefore require immediate action to capture and conserve remaining genetic variation through establishment of ex situ populations in safe environments. Efforts should also be made to restock and increase their current population sizes. Sandalwood plantations Plantation establishment is one way of contributing to the conservation of this scarce and fast eroding genetic resource because the sandalwood from Buzi and Berr represent a valuable gene pool. A complementary breeding programme based on material taken from the present populations and bred elsewhere (ex situ) for reintroduction later for plantation development will contribute significantly to the conservation of the species. It is by this means that the unique genetic make-up of the Buzi and Berr sandalwoods that cause them to yield higher percentages of commercial oils will be captured and improved. Refer to Table 1 for some physical and structural differences between the Buzi/Berr and Central/Gulf sandalwoods. The breeding programme may commence immediately while legislative and demographic factors are being considered to draw up an effective sandalwood development, management and extension strategy. At present there are no substantial sandalwood plantations in Papua New Guinea. Seedlings are now easy to raise in the nursery using techniques developed here and elsewhere (Tuiwain, 2005). However, raising large quantities of seedlings for plantation development has hitherto not proved successful due to the difficulty in obtaining sandalwood seed. Field trial plantings established in 1997 at Leron were destroyed by fire the following year and those established by the Forest Research Institute in the Lae Botanical Gardens are yet to start producing enough seed for plantation establishment. So far, enough seedlings have been raised at the Leron nursery to plant about two hectares. Seeds were collected there from the remnants of the 1997 plantings. It appears that attempts to plant other species at Leron have failed numerous times except sandalwood. This planting will therefore test this assumption and if found to be doing exceptionally well, the whole area at Leron will be planted with sandalwood. When this is successful, it is hoped that sandalwood from Western Province will be propagated and planted at Leron for further breeding, propagation and distribution to various stakeholders, especially back into its native habitat in the Buzi and Berr areas of the Western Province. TABLE 1. PHYSICAL & STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES IN 3 SANDALWOOD SAMPLES Pores Color Tylosis Weight Rays Hardness Parenchyma Smell Fibres Texture Grain Mandra Kodo (Western) Very small, numerous, solitary Yellow-brown Abundant Moderately heavy Narrow Hard Diffuse in aggregate, apotracheal. Pleasant aromatic odour Very thick wall. Very fine Interlocked Vanuamai (Central) Very small, numerous, solitary Yellow-yellow-brown Moderately abundant Moderately heavy Narrow Hard Parenchyma Apotracheal, diffuse (few), indistinct Pleasantly aromatic odour Very thick wall Very fine Interlocked Miaru (Gulf) Very small, moderately numerous, solitary Yellow-brown-brown Few (compared to samples 1 & 2) Moderately heavy Narrow Very hard Parenchyma Apotracheal, diffuse in aggregate Aromatic odour Very thick wall Very fine Interlocked Discussion In the absence of significant sandalwood plantations, all remaining stands of sandalwood in the country are owned by traditional landowners (Gunn et al 2002 citing Paul 1990). It is, therefore, only logical that any development efforts to conserve and manage the sandalwood resource in the country be done in direct consultation with and participation of these resource owners. During the rapid rural appraisal (RRA) survey by Gunn ibid in 2002, villagers from Miaru in the Gulf and Eboa in the Central Province expressed keen interest to plant sandalwood trees and undertake activities that would help to conserve the remaining populations in their respective areas. 29 During the September 2006 visit to Buzi and Berr villages in the Western Province, the people there also expressed similar sentiments. However, despite the enthusiasm expressed by villagers and recommendations by Gunn et al (2002) in their presentation of the sandalwood conservation and management strategy to the National Forest Board, nothing specific or concrete has been done to encourage farmers and resource owners to develop and manage their sandalwood resources. During the 1996 sandalwood workshop in Port Moresby, a working group was established to put together a sandalwood development strategy in the country. The group recommended that a full time officer be appointed from the Southern Regional Office to continue to conduct landowner awareness, support them to develop their sandalwood and provide general support and advisory services. The Papua New Guinea Forest Authority never took these recommendations seriously and the committee has since disbanded. The National Tree Seed Centre of the Management Division and the Forest Research Institute are the only sections undertaking research and develop sandalwood in the country at present and rely on recurrent funds. In contrast, the Authority is spending a lot of money in trying to investigate and develop eaglewood with funding support from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Besides being a new comer to the scene, eaglewood requires an inoculant to help it to develop oil in the wood while sandalwood already has oil naturally in the wood. It is believed that more money will be spent on research to find a suitable inoculant to infect the eaglewood trees in order for them to start developing oils in the wood and this technology may take some years to develop. It may be argued that eaglewood commands a higher return per kilogram of wood, mainly due to its scarcity, but ultimately both species end up producing highly valuable oils and associated wood products and therefore both warrant attention. Recommendations Notwithstanding difficulty of securing financial support, it is strongly recommended that the following actions be taken to develop the potential of sandalwood in the Western Province. 1. 2. Immediately implement recommendation 8 of the Gunn committee. That is to support in situ and ex situ conservation stands of sandalwood through involvement of resource owners in awareness campaigns to reinforce the value of their sandalwood and develop methods of protecting existing trees as well as planting new trees. Immediately implement recommendation 10 by the above committee to support specific actions to protect and manage the sandalwood in the Western Province. One specific action required now is to start raising planting material to enrich existing populations through either seedlings or vegetative propagation. Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the Buzi and Berr villagers for their hospitality and friendship extended during the field trip, especially Koven, Awati (Papagraun), Moses, Wago, Ati, Eric, Tonie, Esau, Joel and Sam. Siwi Mathe and family deserve a special mention for transporting and looking after us during the weeklong stay at Buzi, and guide Oleam Warapa Baia. References Bosimbi D. and Bewang I.F. (2007). Report on sandalwood research, development and extension in PNG. P 57-61 in L. Thomson, S. Bulai and B. Wilikibau (eds), Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Sandalwood Research, Development and Extension in the Pacific Islands, 28 November – 1 December 2005, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji.Doran J.C., Brophy J.J and Niangu M. (2007). Chemical variation in the oils of Santalum macgregorii (PNG sandalwood). P 101-107 in L. Thomson, S. Bulai and B. Wilikibau (eds), Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Sandalwood Research, Development and Extension in the Pacific Islands, 28 November – 1 December 2005, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji. Doran J.C. and Lea D. (2005). Annual Report, 1 January 2004 to 31 December 2004, for Essential Oil Crops for Rural Communities in PNG and Australia (ACIAR FST/1998/113) Project. CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Client Report No. 1538, Canberra.Gunn B.G., Bewang I.F. and Bunn Y. (2002). A Strategy for Conserving and Managing the Genetic Resources of Santalum macgregorii (PNG sandalwood) in Papua New Guinea. Unpublished report prepared for PNG Forest Authority as part of ACIARs Domestication of Papua New Guinea’s Indigenous Forest Species Project ACIAR FST/1998/115). CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra. Theilade I., Sekeli P.M., Hald S. and Graudal L., (Editors 2002). Conservation Plan for Genetic Resources of Zambezi teak (Baikiaea plurijuga) in Zambia. DFSC Case Study No.2. DFSC and FAO in collaboration with Forestry Department, Lusaka, Zambia.Tuiwain T. (2005). Germination technique for sandalwood (Santalum macgregorii F.v. Muller) in Papua New Guinea. Planted Forest Programme, Forest Research Institute, Lae, Papua New Guinea. 30 3.7 SAMOA Tito Alatimu, Forestry Division, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Samoa has not established any substantial plantations of sandalwood as yet however plans are underway to do so. An NGO has shown keen interest to set up a trading company. The last sighting of sandalwood was in 1991, before it was introduced by SPRIG project in 2003. Another NGO – Women in Business - has shown keen interest in seed propagation and are being assisted by SPC. The priority issues for Samoa are: • Research and development work on the species for better results • Awareness and publicity on the growing and management • Mass production of seed materials to supplement growing demand 31 3.8 KINGDOM OF TONGA Ketoni Akau’ola, Forestry Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Forests and Fisheries Sandalwood resource base Santalum yasi, known locally as ahi, is a small, semi-parasitic tree found naturally in Tonga and Fiji in the South Pacific. The species produces a highly valued heartwood and has been commercially exploited and traded since the early 1800s. Its exploitation has been from native stands and characterised by short periods of intensive extraction followed by longer periods while the resource regenerates. S. yasi has excellent potential to supplement incomes of villagers in rural parts of Tonga. S. yasi grows throughout Tonga but its frequency varies between islands (Map 1). For example: • ‘Eua - Very common especially in secondary forest and coastal areas but very rare in the South-eastern side of the island • Tongatapu - Rare to very rare in coastal and lowland forests • Ha’apai - Common in the Ha’apai group especially in Foa and Pangai • Vava’u - Common in the northern side of Vava’u group and small outer islands Map 1 Natural Distribution Of Santalum Yasi In Tonga 32 With the exception of ‘Eua, sandalwood (S. yasi) populations now exist as scattered individuals often located in remote, less accessible sites. Whilst such individuals constitute an economic and genetic resource of potentially great significance, it has been difficult to fully realise these. The immediate genetic resource is difficult to realise because it is difficult or impossible to undertake sizeable seed collections from a number of trees. This is due to inaccessibility of remnant trees and light fruiting over a long period (and consumption of mature fruits by birds). There is also a risk that a high proportion of set seed from isolated remnant trees may arise from selfing and be liable to produce less fit plants. TABLE 1. FRUITING AND FLOWERING MONTHS FOR S. YASI IN TONGA Tongatapu Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Flowering Fruiting ‘Eua Flowering Fruiting Ha’apai Flowering Fruiting Vava’u Flowering Fruiting Research and development The high economic value of sandalwood makes it a highly promising tree species for rural income generation. This is not surprising, given that sandalwood provides a non-perishable product (heartwood and essential oil) that has found good markets for Tonga for more than 200 years. In Tonga, research and development of sandalwood has been limited with no detailed research on sandalwood in the country. The present and previous work from other countries will help fill this gap. This will produce information about sandalwood, which it is hoped will be used by rural communities, government and resource developers in their quest to develop and apply more efficient research for sandalwood resource development in Tonga. The research and development of sandalwood in Tonga needs to be strengthened. More importantly, the results could be used to assist the government, private nurseries and the villagers in the genetic improvement of their sandalwood resources. Currently the main efforts to conserve the genetic resources of S. yasi are as follows: 1. Propagation and distribution of seedlings in government nurseries in Tonga. 2. Protection and management by the Forestry and Conservation Division of the only substantial sandalwood population remaining in the Ha’apai Group, on Foa Island. 4. Small-scale replanting of sandalwood on ‘Eua by the Forestry and Conservation Division on its governmen t- lease forest estate. 5. Small-scale field trials on Foa Island (different permanent hosts) and ‘Eua (Fijian seed sources) under the SPRIG Project. 6. Establishment of potted seed orchard in Tongatapu nursery 33 SPRIG project and recent activities The existing 0.2 ha (half acre) of sandalwood plot at Toafa area in Vava'u was established by the SPRIG project. A 0.4 ha (one acre) sandalwood plot with 500 sandalwood and 500 citrus seedlings was established during 2010 at the Vava’u forestry station. It is partly intercropped with the new ma’ala yam, kava, taro and kape. The intermediate and longer term host plants planted for sandalwood were citrus, Rhus taitensis (tavahi) and pineapple: these had been found to be the best host plants as observed in the sandalwood plots of Mr. Nafe Kuila (first sandalwood block planting grower in Tonga) at Leimatua village (3.2 ha) with assistance from SPC. Trade and industry In pre-European times, sandalwood was traditionally bartered or traded between Tonga and neighbouring countries, notably Fiji and Samoa. Early Tongan navigators usually took with them sandalwood products such as scented coconut oil, powder and heartwood to exchange for other goods. During the 1960’s and 70’s overexploitation of the resource occurred leading to the harvesting of immature trees. The Forest Act of 1979 banned export of sandalwood products in order to allow the resource to regenerate. This ban was later amended to allow Tongan citizens to undertake export under certain licensing conditions, but these licenses have been abused due to a lack of monitoring and enforcement. The most recent commercial exploitation of sandalwood on ‘Eua was in 1996-97 when some small scale utilization occurred. The price paid to cutters was 2-3,000 Paanga (AUD2,000-3,000) per tonne of heartwood. The main reasons for the decline of sandalwood in Tonga include over harvesting without natural regeneration or replanting; the latter being associated with a low importance attached to planting. During garden development, sandalwood plants, especially seedlings and young saplings, are either inadvertently or deliberately cut or otherwise destroyed. The loss and excessive opening up of forest associations and replacement with grassy associations has reduced sandalwood habitat and resulted in more frequent fires which can destroy sandalwood in all age classes. The quantities and value of sandalwood (heartwood) exported from Tonga during the last nine years are outlined below: TABLE 2. SUMMARY OF SANDALWOOD EXPORT QUANTITY Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Metric Tonne 60.7 6 1.9 21.8 80 29 53.7 203.7 18.6 0 $T Million 0.18 0.01 0.01 0.08 0.25 0.07 0.12 0.5 0 Source: Statistics Department (Foreign Trade report) METRIC PER TONNE Figure 1. Metric tonnes exported from Tonga annually from 2000 to 2009 34 2006 2007 2008 0.12 2009 $ MILLION Figure 2. The value in Australian dollars of sandalwood export during the last nine years National plan and strategies The reduction in the sandalwood resource is a direct result of overharvesting whereby all larger individuals, i.e. main fruit bearing trees, are periodically cut out. Failure to retain an adequate number of seed trees for natural regeneration or undertake enrichment planting means that the populations take a very long time to recover after such intensive exploitation. The species has considerable economic potential, however, the resource is depleted and there is a need to regenerate, sustainably manage and better conserve remaining populations. Three actions are recommended to conserve, manage and better utilize the genetic resources of S. yasi as follows: • Develop appropriate policies and legislations to enable sound management of sandalwood in the country • Amend the Forests Act and regulations to provide greater control over sandalwood harvesting and to introduce the appropriate fees and charges to ensure that the ministry has funds to monitor sandalwood operations and produce sandalwood seedlings • Plan for a national forest policy, which will cover sandalwood management strategies Extension and awareness Sandalwood planting programmes The potential value of sandalwood to the national economies of Pacific Islands including Tonga and to their rural peoples indicates that more attention should be paid to the development of sandalwood cultivation. One of the main objectives of the former SPRIG project throughout the Pacific Island Countries (PICs) is to help conserve, improve and better promote the wise use of genetic resources of regional priority tree species, including sandalwood. It is expected that this approach will promote economic and rural development. Sandalwood in Tonga is an important tree because of its high economic value compared to other tree species. The heartwood has a good smell due to fragrant essential oils, which upon steam distillation has an exceptionally high commercial value (e.g. FJD1000 per litre). Other agencies/programmes Tonga Trust (NGO), Vavau youth and community level 35 Priority national activities for implementation • Coordinate and undertake national forest inventories in Tonga Forest resource knowledge is based on the national forest resource inventory. Such data is out-of-date and needs updating. Detailed forest inventories for individual forest areas do not generally exist and Tonga’s biodiversity is poorly understood. • There is a need to develop appropriate policies and legislations to enable sound management of the country’s forest resources through; a) b) c) d) e) Formulation of a national forest policy that outlines guiding principles to assist strategic planning and implementation of a set of key national objectives Review, develop, enforce and monitor existing forest legislations to address pressing forestry economic and conservation issues Harmonise the policies of the forestry sector with those of the agricultural sector, particularly in relation to land use, incentives to agriculture and expansion of agricultural domain Capacity building, and Upgrade capital resources to match development needs The Forestry Act of 1961 is the only act that provides the legal status in which the Forestry Division operates. With the diversification in the roles of the Forestry Division identified in the five year development plan, it was considered that the 1961 Forest Act is too general in its application and does not give the legal status and authority required for the management of forest resources. The act is outdated and does not cover sustainable forest management and other forest policy developments. A review of other relevant legislation is necessary to remove anomalies and ensure compatibility and coordination. Other acts related to forest resources management include the 1988 Parks and Reserves Acts and the proposed new Environment Act initiated by the Ministry of Land, Survey and Natural Resources. According to a number of reports, these acts are overlapping thus creating confusion in the authority for the management of forest resources and resulting in duplication of efforts and resources. • Curtail commercial exploitation of sandalwood for 20 years through a. Restricting the issue of export licenses b. Limiting the total annual sandalwood harvest to the estimated national sustainable level of harvest Tongan farming system is increasingly threatened by rising population, growing encroachment of non-agricultural development into agricultural lands; increasing allocation of land for monocrops; and increasing monetary expectations and aspirations of the people from farming Government issues such as over regulation and poor enforcement, poor monitoring and evaluation, lack of strategic planning and policy, poor coordination of services. 36 3.9 VANUATU Hanington Tate, Department of Forests Introduction Sandalwood is an important tree crop for many Pacific islands including Vanuatu, where the naturally occurring Santalum austrocaledonicum is the only species being promoted for cultivation. Sandalwood in Vanuatu has a long but not so good history dating back to the 18th century, when it was harvested by Europeans based in Australia and traded with China to quench their love for Chinese tea. As history has it, sandalwood is one of the earliest natural products to enter international trade including in ancient times from Indonesia to India and then from India to China. Sandalwood is an important crop for Vanuatu. It is the only crop that generates much needed income in the remotest areas and in many cases remains the only source of income in these isolated communities. Its uniqueness as a source of income for people in remote areas, as well as its value to the national economy, has encouraged the government to develop it into a sustainably managed industry. The sandalwood industry has progressively developed to the stage where it is now an important value adding and export industry. The contribution of the industry in continuously increasing the price of wood has also generated an enormous interest in sandalwood replanting among several communities, and this is a positive sign for the future of the industry. Research into sandalwood is of considerable importance for the continuous development of the sandalwood sector in Vanuatu. Sandalwood research has been the foundation for the current work of developing elite sandalwood germplasm production through a selection and breeding programme. Sandalwood resource base Sandalwood grows naturally on the islands of Aneityum, Futuna, Aniwa, Tanna, Erromango, Efate, Malakula and Santo. It is likely that the natural stock in almost all the islands have continued to decrease over the past few decades. However, at the moment an accurate estimate of the natural stock would be impossible because it is difficult to locate individual standing trees in the forest, and any exercise to do so would be prohibitively expensive. What has been done so far was an inventory conducted by the Department of Forests in collaboration with James Cook University on wild stock on Erromango, Efate (Moso Island) and Malakula in 2008. This inventory report has indicated a very limited stock of mature sandalwood in the wild. Consquently, the sandalwood industry cannot rely on wild sandalwood for its survival in the future The natural sandalwood stock is important to continuously sustain the development of the industry over the next few decades. Bearing this in mind, it is important that the natural stock is managed in a sustainable manner and several steps have been taken to better ensure sustainability. The annual sustainable harvesting quota has been set at 80 metric tons since 1997 when the sandalwood regulations came into force. Since then, the total quota of all sandalwood licenses issued is limited to a total of allowable purchase of 80 metric tons. However, in 2003 when the policy came into force, one of its requirements was for the annual sustainable yield to be reduced to 70 metric tons per year, until such time when information is available to set up a new quota. However, that policy requirement has never been implemented and the annual sustainable quota remains at 80 metric tons. The government and the industry are mindful of the importance of the wild resource and have urged resource owners to assist with its management. The government is also considering the possibility of gene conservation of the resource but action has yet to be taken. Planting programme Future sustainability of the sandalwood industry in Vanuatu will involve a shift from the natural to the planted resource. The efforts undertaken by the government and the industry in the past to promote planting of sandalwood have now been taken up by communities and individuals. Sandalwood is now being planted in areas outside of the natural range in Vanuatu, which is seen as a good development for the industry. However, there is a concern as to whether trees planted in non-native locations will still develop good quality heartwood, and whether planted trees have been given silvicultural treatments that achieve good heartwood development. These issues have led the Department of Forests to develop information packages and videos; and conduct several community training and awareness workshops. 37 The planting programme appears to be undertaken well by the farmers and communities. After seeking silvicultural information from the Department of Forests and the industry, individuals are starting to set up their own sandalwood nurseries. Since 2007, the demand for sandalwood seedlings has outstripped supply from government nurseries. Therefore, home nurseries have emerged as the suppliers of sandalwood seedlings. Interestingly, VANWODS (micro-credit scheme for women) has embarked on raising sandalwood seedlings to supply to its members and also for sale. There are also ongoing planting programmes by Tropical Rainforest Aromatics and Summit Estate. The difficulty in obtaining high quality seeds remains the major constraint to the planting programme. To address this issue, the Department of Forests, with financial assistance from ACIAR, is embarking on establishing grafted seed orchards on some islands. The primary objective of this programme is to provide high quality seed sources for private and community planting programmes. Research and development Sandalwood research is paramount for continuous development and improvement of the industry in Vanuatu. Research is conducted at different levels by the industry to address the sector’s development needs and also by the government, notably tree improvement programmes. Ad hoc research has been undertaken over the years without providing any real direction towards sandalwood improvement. It becomes clear that sandalwood, which is a valuable forestry product, remains an unknown commodity due to absence of information on variability within populations within an island and trees between islands; until research into oil qualities was undertaken between 2004 and 2006. The result of the research entitled Identification and Oil Analysis of Sandalwood Varieties in Vanuatu has set the basis for sandalwood improvement in Vanuatu. In collaboration with James Cook University, the results have guided the Department of Forests to propagate selected elite individuals from wild sandalwood growing islands into a grafted orchard. These so called elite materials will form the basis for future research. The sandalwood improvement research is currently underway. The aim of this research programme is hybridization programmes, specifically aiming at improvement of specific characters of selected individuals. The hybridization programmes, if successful, will provide Vanuatu sandalwood the opportunity to be more competitive in the global sandalwood market. Development and planned extension programmes Sandalwood extension programmes are ongoing, with the aim of providing information to farmers and communities. The Department of Forests is aware that the industry is also undertaking extension programmes, through supplying of seedlings and information dissemination. The Department of Forests’ programmes aim to empower and equip local communities with skills and knowledge. These programmes were delivered in the form of training workshops, field days, video productions, posters, media (radio) and leaflets. It is also important to note the benefits of information sharing between individuals (e.g. farmer-to-farmer). The Department of Forests’ community extension and training programmes are an integral part in assisting sandalwood and general forestry farmers. It is important to note that these programmes have been very effective during the course of 2009, in which the Department of Forests has conducted 10 workshops on nursery construction and management techniques, including seed propagation on 10 islands in Vanuatu. The training also included setting up of 10 community and private forestry nurseries and instruction on woodlot management techniques, some of which are very specific to sandalwood. These activities include production and supply of videos, posters and leaflets. The Department of Forests is currently undertaking a similar process in which it is planning to conduct 12 training workshops and establish 12 community nurseries in 12 islands from the Banks Group in the north to Aneityum, which is southern most island of Vanuatu. These nurseries are an important infrastructure for the communities to have access to sandalwood seedlings. Research activities undertaken Sandalwood research in Vanuatu has been conducted by the government as well as the industry. Research undertaken by the Department of Forests with Australian research institutions in the past was basically aimed at identifying and selecting elite germplasm (oil yield and alpha/beta santalol content) for domestication and tree improvement programmes. 38 This research activity resulted in collection and establishment of a grafted stock in Port Vila of selected individuals from throughout the country. This forms the basis for the current research activity, which is aimed at the grafting of these materials and deploying them to selected islands for establishment of grafted seed orchards; and also to undertake controlled hybridization programmes among selected individuals to establish a progeny trial. Industry research is mainly concentrated on product assessment, especially on oil quality. The industry information also concurs with the findings of the ACIAR funded JCU/Vanuatu Department of Forest research, which indicated that sandalwood trees on some islands (Santo and Malekula) are better in terms of oil yield and quality than others. This information is important as they could form the basis for future development of sandalwood in Vanuatu in the coming years. Trade and industry Trade in sandalwood has quite a long history. Sandalwood traders started harvesting sandalwood in Vanuatu as early as the 1850s. The wood was harvested by early Europeans and exported through Sydney to China in exchange for Chinese tea. This continued as different players, mainly Asians, became the main buyers of Vanuatu sandalwood. The exploitation continued as a non-regulated activity until the sandalwood regulation was enacted in 1997. Since then, licensees are only able to operate in Vanuatu during the three harvesting months per year. This type of activity continued with the majority of licensees having no real interest in longer-term development of the industry. However, a few licensees have been showing interest in developing sandalwood into a local processing industry. This has resulted in the development and adoption of a sandalwood policy. The sandalwood policy has two main conditions; establishment of a local processing industry supporting reforestation. Only two companies: Tropical Rainforest Aromatics and Far North Timber Sales were interested and issued with sandalwood licenses. The private sector now plays a significant role in the development of sandalwood industry in Vanuatu. Since the establishment of the industry, the minimum royalty rates have significantly increased from VT 250 per kilo of heartwood to VT 1,000 per kilo in 2010. This increase has generated significant interest among ni-Vanuatu and encouraged them to embark on sandalwood planting. The linkage between trade and reforestation activities is important because it guarantees the future of the sandalwood industry in Vanuatu. Harvests, sales and earnings, markets Annual harvesting of sandalwood is regulated by the sandalwood license. At the moment, only two companies have been issued sandalwood licenses, and each year they utilize the entire annual sustainable quota. Sandalwood harvesting in Vanuatu is done by the sandalwood/landowners from the natural forests. This occurs during the three months of the sandalwood harvesting season. The harvested sandalwood heartwood is then sold to the two licensees. The quality of sandalwood extracted from the natural forest appears to be declining. Each year, the majority of wood collected is from smaller trees and the quantity/quality of heartwood is decreasing. However, the quantity of wood remains almost the same. The total quantity of sandalwood harvested over the last three years is 261 metric tons, and the money earned by the resource owners was VT 232,800,000 (Table 1). The income generated by sandalwood heartwood sales into the remote communities is very important because, in some remote communities, this is the only source of real income. TABLE 1. SANDALWOOD HARVESTS, ROYALTIES TO LANDOWNERS AND GOVERNMENT REVENUE 2007 TO 2009 Year Amount harvested (Kilograms) 2007 112,000 95,200,000 2008 76,000 64,600,000 2009 73,000 73,000,000 Total 261,000 232,800,000 39 Royalties (Vt) The main sandalwood markets are in Europe and Asia. The types of sandalwood products exported to these markets are sandalwood oil, carving logs, semi processed sandalwood chips and small sandalwood logs. Market potential Sandalwood is regarded as having good future market potential. Vanuatu is aware of the development of sandalwood plantations particularly in Western Australia, and how these large scale developments may affect the international sandalwood market in the near future. Despite these huge developments, Vanuatu feels that there is still a market for its sandalwood, targeting markets that appreciate organically grown wood, most of which is raised through the unique traditional farming system. The market for sandalwood continues to be lucrative. Anecdotal reports have noted that demand for sandalwood continues to outstrip supply; and that the current supply may only meet 50% of the world demand for sandalwood and sandalwood products. It is also estimated that the annual supply of Vanuatu sandalwood (80 tons) represents around one percent of the world market. This means that there is a huge potential for developing the sector and increasing supply to the world market. Each year, the Department of Forests receives between two to four inquiries, declaring interest in buying substantial quantities of sandalwood heartwood. These are important indications of a growing demand for sandalwood that fuelled the current planting programmes, knowing that demand for sandalwood will continue to persist. National plan and strategies Sandalwood is an important forest product and Vanuatu will continue to develop and improve its sandalwood resources. Currently, there are no specific plans or strategies for the management, conservation and development of the national sandalwood resource. However, being an important resource, the government, through the Department of Forests will soon be embarking on specific plans to develop sandalwood. Two of these plans are listed below; Deployment of elite genetic resources The Department of Forests in collaboration with JCU, through an ACIAR funded project, is currently working on establishing the basis for deployment of elite genetic material onto several islands in Vanuatu. These grafted seed orchards are intended to improve the supply of seeds to the local communities. It is anticipated that getting seeds close to the farmers will increase their planting rates. Forestry master plan The Department of Forests has commenced initial discussions on the development of a Forestry Master Plan. The Master Plan intends to guide the development of the forestry sector in Vanuatu, by guiding where specific industries including plantations should be established. Using existing information, the plan will identify which areas in Vanuatu are best suited to planting of sandalwood. This information will guide both investor and individuals and landowners to plan their sandalwood plantings. In the absence of such a plan, it has been difficult to assess whether trees planted in recent times have been situated in the most suitable sandalwood growing zones. Sandalwood conservation A sandalwood conservation strategy was developed in 2000 (Anon, 2000), but has yet to be fully implemented. In the strategy, specific areas have been suggested for gene conservation. Research results from five years ago identified several populations and individual trees of superior, oil-producing characteristics which should be conserved. This is an important area that needs to be re-visited. Extension and awareness The government currently does not have a specific extension and awareness programme on sandalwood. The Department of Forests, with limited resources, is unable to effectively implement an efficient extension and awareness programme on sandalwood. The Department is forced to utilise opportunities in other programmes to provide awareness on sandalwood planting and silviculture. The sandalwood programme is currently undertaken by the industry and individuals, and the main role of the Department of Forests has been to provide information and train local communities on the management aspects of growing sandalwood. 40 The siliviculture of sandalwood is complex. It is a hemi-parasitic tree, gaining up to 50% of its nutritional needs from host trees and other plants. In order for sandalwood to produce a high quality heartwood, it has to be grown in areas suitable for the tree and under appropriate management/silvicultural regimes. Due to absence of a sandalwood cultivation guide, many of the local farmers involved in sandalwood planting may not achieve the maximum expected returns from their trees. Such a guide is planned and will be published in 2012. There are several issues that affect the extension and awareness programmes. A sandalwood development programme is required to ensure that the sector and the industry’s development are guided. In the absence of a development programme, it is difficult to direct and effectively promote the development of the sector. The features of the development programme might include but not be limited to; (i) Identifying and mapping areas suitable for sandalwood both in traditional and non-traditional sandalwood growing areas; (ii) guidelines for movement of germplasm and development; (iii) information on silvicultural practices; (iv) in situ and ex situ conservation plans; and (v) prioritization of research activities. The programme ought to include processing; particularly product development. At the moment, the processing industry is alone in product research and development. This is an area that needs collaborative efforts from both the industry and the government to look into researching and developing new sandalwood products. Standardisation of awareness materials There is an urgent need to standardise sandalwood training and awareness materials. With the involvement of other stakeholders in promoting sandalwood, it is important that those involved in awareness and training convey similar messages. It is the role of the Department of Forests to collaborate with other players in the industry to develop standardised sandalwood awareness training materials. Financial resources Financial resources for training and awareness raising is also an issue. In most locations it is not possible for the department to conduct awareness and training outside duty stations due to budgetary constraints. It is, therefore, hopeful that a sandalwood development programme can pave the way for collaborative implementation of the plan, and also become an instrument which can attract donor funding. Other agencies The development of the sandalwood sector in Vanuatu is going through an interesting development stage. The promotion of sandalwood replanting which used to be the province of the Department of Forests and industry has now widened to include other agencies. Two of these agencies are listed below. VANWOD As of last year, the VANWOD microfinance scheme (organisation promoting women in business) began promoting sandalwood as a resource that its members can tap into. The organisation purchases sandalwood seeds from farmers, raises the seedlings and distributes them to its members as part of its financial scheme. The organisation in 2010 has become the main buyer of seeds and also one of the main suppliers of sandalwood seedlings in Port Vila. Sandalwood industry The sandalwood industry has played a significant and pivotal role in the development of sandalwood in Vanuatu. Their involvement in implementing government policy on onshore value adding of sandalwood has led to a steady increase in sandalwood royalties in the last few years. This increase in royalties has contributed directly to the current increase in sandalwood reforestation efforts and interest among sandalwood owners, communities and individuals from non-traditional sandalwood growing islands to start growing sandalwood. The industry has also participated and supported communities and individuals to plant sandalwood. The industry supplies seedlings, seeds and information on replanting and conducts awareness on sandalwood in some schools. Community groups The role of community groups in promoting sandalwood is also noted. In 2009, the Department of Forests set up ten forestry nurseries, each one on a different island. These nurseries promote sandalwood as one of the main nursery plants. Also recently, certain groups of churches have also shown interest in raising sandalwood seedlings for their members to plant. These are examples of some of the developments in which other agencies are involved in promoting sandalwood planting. 41 Main issues and constraints faced Agencies involved in sandalwood planting face a series of constraints in implementing their planting programmes. The main issue is the need for participants in the sector to cooperate well and assist each other. Two of the main constraints faced are: Financial assistance A majority of agencies require financial support to assist them with the purchase of nursery materials and seeds to begin producing seedlings. The Department of Forests has, on several occasions, been approached by community groups, and church groups requiring capital to purchase nursery materials. Access to sufficient financial resources remains a constraint to sandalwood replanting efforts. Information Appropriate information on growing sandalwood remains an issue, and lack of proper information might have future deleterious consequences for wood quality. Introduction of Santalum album One of the main challenges to the sandalwood industry in Vanuatu is the introduction of Santalum album. How the Indian sandalwood will affect Vanuatu sandalwood is not yet known, but what is certain is that the S. album seed source is unknown, and thereby raises the question of the integrity of the material now grown in Vanuatu. Santalum album spontaneously hybridises with S. austrocaledonicum (Lex Thomson, pers. comm.), and uncontrolled hybrids might become commonplace. The challenge for the sandalwood industry is to verify the quality of the introduced species. Such information is required to ensure appropriate management and sandalwood breeding and also marketing of S. album from Vanuatu. Priority national activities for implementation There are several national priority development activities that need to be implemented to ensure appropriate development of the sandalwood sector. It is evident that sandalwood resources in the wild are diminishing and that the industry cannot solely rely on wild sandalwood in future. It is also evident that to be successful in the sandalwood business, the industry/licensees have to make the different products required by the market. While sandalwood oil remains an important product, the demand for raw wood is continuing to increase. It seems that the industry has moved forward, and to ensure that sandalwood remains an important forest product, it is important that the industry and the government collaborate on research on developing new products. Listed below are some of national priorities that Vanuatu needs to address in the near future. Research Research is essential for the development of the sandalwood sector in Vanuatu. The last research on sandalwood was on the verification of oil yield and quality in the natural population. The information gained has led the government to make selections of elite individuals as a basis for future improvement and planting. The current priority research activity in Vanuatu is the tree improvement research. The current sandalwood project, which started in 2010, is aimed at genetic improvement through controlled hybridisation of selected elite individuals. It is envisaged that by the end of 2011 that Vanuatu will have successfully raised controlled pollinated seedlings for establishing progeny trials. Development The sandalwood sector in Vanuatu has been progressing well, as the communities, land owners and other agencies are currently taking the leading role in planting sandalwood. While this is an important step for future sustainability of the industry, the concern now is whether the trees are planted in areas most suitable for growing sandalwood, and also whether the participants are fully aware of the silvicultural requirements for raising a good crop of trees. This is an important issue for consideration, and raises the need for a sandalwood development plan. Another priority development area for the sandalwood sector, which falls under a current ACIAR funded project, is the deployment of grafted seed orchards to several communities in the country, which would provide seeds of good genetic and physiological qualities to surrounding communities. 42 Extension The government through the Department of Forests will continue with its normal extension activities. At the moment, standardisation of training and awareness materials is very important, and it is a priority for producing these. Several materials have been developed but only need to be combined into one simple step-by-step document that farmers, the Department of Forests, and other agencies can use. Most of the information is already contained in the “Fasin blong Planem Sandalwud” manual. Legislation Sandalwood cultivation involves considerable investment and time and has the potential to provide a high return on initial investment. However, while reforestation has been encouraged and carried out by several individuals, no specific regulations governing planted forests, including sandalwood, exist in Vanuatu. Legislation that provides security over planted trees and a legal framework for trading in planted sandalwood trees is required. This may help attract future investments into the reforestation of sandalwood. References Anon. 2000. A strategy for conserving, managing and better utilizing the genetic resources of Santalum austrocaledonicum (sandalwood) in Vanuatu. AusAID-SPRIG Project and Vanuatu Department of Forests, Port Vila. 31 p. 43 4 SPC REGIONAL REPORT ON SANDALWOOD Cenon Padolina and Vinesh Prasad, Land Resources Division, Secretariat of the Pacific Community Exchange of sandalwood seeds/planting materials in PICTs There has been limited exchange of tree germplasm between the small island countries in the Pacific, mainly for research and development, although historically a number of useful tree species had been introduced from within and outside the region. These exchanges are poorly documented. During the implementation of the SPRIG project, there was active sharing of improved germplasm among the participating countries using agreed and safe protocols, mainly in the form of seed exchanges. At national levels, tree seed collection practices have been enhanced and are being maintained and actively used. Effective and efficient procedures for the production of planting stocks, including seedlings, cuttings and wildlings collection were developed. Unfortunately, however, these activities were adversely affected in recent years by declining government budget support for forestry research and development in most PICTs. The main problem facing the sandalwood industry in the Pacific is the supply of sufficient quantities of seed for replanting purposes. The availability of seeds has been affected mainly by the overexploitation of the species where most of the mature trees are harvested and traded. Likewise, the species has intermediate seed storage behaviour, with seeds losing viability during storage within a period of months to several years. Due to the importance of sandalwood to the economy of Vanuatu, its Department of Forests is working towards better management of this resource. This is being achieved through the development of a specific policy on sustainable management of sandalwood, which emphasises replanting. The policy recommendations include a programme of replanting, exchange of germplasm and the conservation of the genetic resources of the species. A similar conservation strategy for sandalwood in Fiji and Tonga was prepared under the SPRIG Project in consultation with the respective forestry departments. These conservation strategies advocate replanting using local germplasm (Thomson et al., 2000). The lack of resources and political will has adversely affected the implementation of the conservation plans and strategies as envisaged. Conservation, management and sustainable use of forest and tree genetic resources The supply and exchange of tree germplasm plays a vital role in the conservation, management and utilisation of forest genetic resources (FGR) in Pacific Island countries and territories. Thus, the efficient and safe exchange of priority germplasm within and between PICTs is critical to sustaining genetic diversity within the Pacific and at the same time enhancing the livelihoods and food security of PICT communities. The supply and exchange of appropriate tree germplasm will become an increasingly important component of the regional strategy for adapting to climate change, especially for the rehabilitation of degraded forest lands, coastal and watershed protection and food security. With limited resources and capacities available among small island countries in the Pacific, regional cooperation could provide an effective solution towards a successful implementation of the strategy and action plan on forest genetic resource conservation and management in the Pacific. It is, therefore, vital that a regional approach is adopted, such that information and genetic resources can be readily exchanged among PICTs. In April 1999 a regional action plan was developed to address practical actions that could be taken at the international, regional, national and local levels to curb the loss of forest and tree genetic resources in PICTs. The said action plan was reviewed and updated in a regional workshop held in June 2007. The updated action plan was formally endorsed by the Heads of Agriculture and Forestry Services and approved by the Ministers of Agriculture and Forestry at a regional meeting held in Apia, Samoa in September 2008 as an expression of support and commitment among member PICTs. This action plan will serve as a framework for planning and implementing the conservation, management and sustainable use of forest and tree genetic resources within PICTs. 44 It sets priorities for implementation over the next eight years based on previous works and incorporates new knowledge and changes in priorities. It will guide PICTs in developing and implementing relevant activities and policies within their own regional, national and local policies and action plans, thus, contributing to the security and development of their forest and tree genetic resources for present and future generations. Establishment of a regional tree seed centre Facilitating the regional exchange of tree germplasm among the small island countries through the establishment of a regional tree seed centre at SPC’s Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT) is one of the major recommendations under the 2007 Regional Strategy and Action Plan for the Conservation and Management of the Forest Genetic Resources in the Pacific. The purpose for the new regional forest tree seed centre which the SPC is now tasked to establish is to assist PICTs to collect and share germplasm of timber, fruit/nut tree and shrub species of high regional importance. Species of particular importance for their resistance to cyclones, coastal protection and atoll environments will be a focus for the Centre . It is also envisaged that the centre will act as a centre-of-excellence for the provision of technical support, training, information and advice to member PICTs. This role will cover fields such as seed technology, propagation techniques and establishment of seed production areas for priority species that are hard to collect from the wild. It will develop a Materials Transfer Agreement for exchange of tree germplasm and inform member countries and territories on access and benefit sharing and related IPR matters to provide a regional focal point for coordination and implementation of priority germplasm collection, storage, distribution and research. Through effective conservation, management and utilisation, a dynamic and sustainable resource management can be achieved that will reduce poverty, increase food security and assist in the protection of the environment from the adverse effects of climate change. 45 5 TECHNICAL PRESENTATIONS ON SANDALWOOD RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT 5.1 CONSERVATION STRATEGY FOR SANDALWOOD (SANTALUM INSULARE) IN FRENCH POLYNESIA AND FINDINGS AFTER 10 YEARS OF ITS IMPLEMENTATION Jean-François BUTAUD a,b with the collaboration of foresters from the Rural Development Service (SDR),a Consultant in Polynesian botany and forest management, POBox 52832 – 98716 Pirae – Tahiti, French Polynesia,b Laboratory of Terrestrial and Marine Biodiversity (BIOTEM – EA 4239), University of French Polynesia (UPF), POBox 6570 – 98702 Faaa – Tahiti, French Polynesia. This paper provides a summary of diversity studies and provenance definition for Santalum insulare, followed by an overview of sandalwood planting efforts in French Polynesia. It also constitutes a follow up to the paper on plantations presented at the 2005 sandalwood workshop (Butaud and Malet, 2007). Diversity and provenances of Santalum insulare Polynesian sandalwood (Santalum insulare) is divided into nine botanical varieties in South-eastern Polynesia (Fosberg and Sachet, 1985): 1 in Cook Islands, 1 in Pitcairn Islands and 7 in French Polynesia (Figure 1). In the latter, it is known as native on 10 islands covering 3 archipelagos. It may have previously disappeared from several other islands (Butaud and Defranoux, 2007). Figure 1. Distribution Of Santalum Insulare in South-Eastern Polynesia 46 In order to sustainably manage this natural resource, studies of its ecological, morphological, genetic and chemical variability were conducted from throughout the species natural range (Butaud, 2006). Ecology and morphology Polynesian sandalwood is found growing from sea level to an elevation of more than 2200 m, on volcanic or coralline soils and among different vegetation types. Seed morphology is highly variable according to archipelagos / islands, elevation and fruit-dispersing birds. For example, average seed length varied between 9 and 34 mm in different populations. Figure 2. Seed morphology of Santalum insulare Genetic diversity Genetic studies by chloroplast and nuclear microsatellite markers (Figure 3) showed a high clonality (60%) and a differentiation in four metapopulations (evolutionary significant units – Figure 4) corresponding to archipelagos separated by large oceanic barriers. Clonal clusters are explained by vegetative multiplication through root suckering. Figure 3. Neighbour-joining tree with nuclear microsatellites Figure 4. Evolutionary significant units 47 Taxonomical revision These morphological and genetic studies have led to a revision of the taxonomy of the species in French Polynesia (Table 1) which will be published in the near future. Thus, in the Marquesas, var. deckeri will become a synonym of var. marchionense. In this archipelago, two new varieties will be described: one endemic to the high elevations of Nuku Hiva (commonly known as Toovii) and perhaps Hiva Oa, and the other one endemic to the isolated island of Fatuiva. TABLE 1. PROPOSED SANTALUM INSULARE TAXONOMY IN FRENCH POLYNESIA Archipelago Society Islands Society Islands Society Islands Marquesas Islands Marquesas Islands Marquesas Islands Austral Islands Austral Islands Variety S. insulare Bertero ex A. DC. var. insulare S. insulare var. alticola Fosberg and Sachet S. insulare var. raiateense (J. W. Moore) Fosberg and Sachet S. insulare var. marchionense (Skottsb.) Skottsberg S. insulare var. nov 1 S. insulare var. nov 2 S. insulare var. margaretae (F. Brown) Skottsberg S. insulare var. raivavense F. Brown Distribution Tahiti, low elevation Tahiti, high elevation Raiatea, Moorea Nuku Hiva, low elevation Ua Pou, Hiva Oa, Tahuata Nuku Hiva, high elevation; Hiva Oa ? Fatuiva Rapa Raivavae Chemical variability The diversity of sesquiterpenoid composition of heartwood oil obtained by solvent extract is organized in two chemotypes (Figure 5) characterized by distinct carbon backbones as their main constituents: a typical santalol chemotype (santalane backbone) and a new (Z)-nuciferol chemotype (bisabolane backbone). The santalol chemotype is the commonest on each island whereas the (Z)-nuciferol chemotype is restricted to three populations on two islands of the same archipelago. Moreover, some minor variations exist within the santalol chemotype and help to differentiate several provenances linked with geographical distribution (Figure 6 and Table 2). Figure 5. Chemotypes of Santalum insulare 48 Figure 6. Ascendant hierarchical classification of sandalwood provenances based on heartwood oil composition TABLE 2. CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF S. INSULARE HEARTWOOD OILS BY PROVENANCE Provenancesα-santalolβ-santalol ISO Standard (S. album) (Z)-nuciferol 41-55 16-24 - 12 4 25 6 2 37 Nuku Hiva Santalols 49 19 2 Ua Pou 51 22 2 Hiva Oa Santalols and Tahuata 49 19 4 Fatu Hiva 38 18 4 Tahiti low elevation 40 16 5 Tahiti high elevation 51 22 2 Moorea 44 18 4 Raiatea 39 14 8 Raivavae 35 13 5 Rapa 46 21 1 Nuku Hiva Nuciferol Hiva Oa Nuciferol 49 Conclusion The synthesis of these diversity patterns shows a congruence of genetic and chemical structure, leaving aside the rare (Z)-nuciferol chemotype. A tight relation is also observed between seed morphology and ecological conditions. Whereas the existence of the (Z)-nuciferol chemotype remains unexplained by ecological or genetical considerations, the variability among the santalol chemotype is linked with the genetic differentiation and to a lesser extent with soil conditions. Expression of diversity varied according to traits showing that natural selection and genetic drift do not have the same impacts. The low variation between populations for chemical traits suggests a stabilizing selection while the strong variation between populations for morphological traits suggests a local adaptation related to variation in biotic and abiotic factors. Conservation strategy The strategy implemented for the conservation and the utilization of the diversity of Polynesian sandalwood is the creation of seed orchards /conservation stands throughout French Polynesia. Indeed, natural populations are scarce and often difficult to reach. Seed collection has then been done on several islands despite the impacts of introduced rats which are major seed predators (Meyer and Butaud, 2009). The aim is the establishment of seed orchards for each of the identified provenances. These orchards will furnish seed for future production plantations by the Forest Department and private owners, and will constitute an insurance conservation strategy if sandalwood poaching persists in the natural stands. 1. Sandalwood plantations – current situation By the end of 2010, conservation stands have been established for 5 provenances on 4 islands in French Polynesia (Table 3): two varieties on Nuku Hiva, one on Hiva Oa, one on Moorea, and one on Tahiti. A mixture of varieties has been introduced on Ua Huka where native sandalwood is considered to be extinct. In December 2010, more than 50 sandalwood plants of var. raiateense from Raiatea will be planted on Tahaa, the sister island of Raiatea. TABLE 3. SANTALUM INSULARE PLANTATIONS IN FRENCH POLYNESIA Archipelago Island Variety Date Site / Block Ua Huka nov. and 2001 Manihina marchionense Ua Huka nov. and 2001 Manihina marchionense. Nuku Hiva nov. (Toovii) 2001 Hakapehi Nuku Hiva marchionense 2001 Terre-Déserte Nuku Hiva nov. (Toovii) 2002 Terre-Déserte Nuku Hiva nov. (Toovii) 2003 Teavaiti 26 Nuku Hiva nov. (Toovii) 2004 Teavaiti 39 Nuku Hiva nov. (Toovii) 2005 Teavaiti 42 Marquesas Nuku Hiva nov. (Toovii) 2007 Teavaiti 44 Nuku Hiva nov. (Toovii) 2008 Teavaiti 48 Nuku Hiva nov. (Toovii) 2008 Teavaiti 24 Nuku Hiva nov. (Toovii) 2009 Teavaiti 78 Nuku Hiva nov. (Toovii) 2009 Teavaiti 79 Hiva Oa marchionense 2007 L'Herbier 19 Hiva Oa marchionense 2008 L'Herbier 20 Hiva Oa marchionense 2010 L'Herbier Moorea raiateense 2004-5-6 Opunohu 58 Moorea raiateense 2009 Opunohu, belvedere A Moorea raiateense 2009 Opunohu, Society belvedere B Tahiti insulare 2007 Taravao A Tahiti insulare 2007 Papeiti Tahiti insulare 2009 Taravao A Tahiti insulare 2010 Taravao B French Polynesia 5 islands 4 varieties 2001-10 21 blocks 50 Area (ha) 0.27 Number Spacing (m) 26 5x10 0.11 10 5x7 0.74 1.05 0.41 0.28 0.38 0.09 0.41 0.37 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.48 0.82 0.52 0.50 0.14 210 192 73 107 170 51 135 108 67 74 65 104 227 210 139 42 4x8 6x10 6x10 4x6 3x6 3x4 3x4 8x8 6x6 4x3 5, 5x3 6x6 6x6 5x5 5x6 5x6 0.40 137 5x6 0.74 0.10 0.14 0.28 205 39 40 78 6x6 6x6 6x6 6x6 8.61 ha 2509 - Thus, 8.6 ha of Polynesian sandalwood plantations have been planted in French Polynesia over a 10 year period. Together with several hundred isolated trees sold or given to local communities, these constitute the only plantations of Santalum insulare in the country. 2. Growth of sandalwood plantations The results of planting efforts, all carried out by the Rural Development Service (SDR) on public land, are presented below by archipelago and by island. No plantings have been carried out in the Austral Islands, neither on the islands of Ua Pou, Tahuata and Fatuiva in the Marquesas. On the Leeward Islands of Society archipelago, the first plantation will be done in December on Tahaa using seeds gathered in 2001 or 2002 and germinated in 2009 (70% of germination after 7 years in a fridge at 4oC). The measurements carried out on Moorea and Tahiti in the Society Islands and on Nuku Hiva in the Marquesas are described in detail in the following section. a. Sandalwood plantations on Moorea, Society Islands Between 2002 and 2006, SDR staff collected several hundred seeds from the natural sandalwood (Santalum insulare var. raiateense) population on Mount Rotui on Moorea. These seeds were used for the creation of several plantations on the public land of Opunohu. The first plantation with 29 saplings was done in October 2004 using seeds germinated in January 2003. In 2005 and 2006, this block was increased through the planting of 110 new sandalwoods. Tree heights were measured on 3 March 2005, 30 October 2005 and 9 November 2010. Tree diameters at 50 cm above ground were measured on 9 November 2010. The results are given in Table 4. The first flowering occurred in mid-July 2006. TABLE 4. HEIGHTS (M) AND GROWTH (M/YEAR) IN THE INITIAL OPUNOHU SANDALWOOD PLANTATION 3/03/05 30/10/05 9/11/10 9/11/10 Date of plantation 2004 2004 2004 2004-5-6 Number of trees 29 28 28 104 Mean height (m) 1.5 1.9 3.6 2.9 Range 0.9-2.1 1.3-2.6 1.9-4.7 0.2-4.7 Height growth (m/year) 0.82 0.59 0.34 x Mean diameter (cm) x 1.2 7.4 5.4 Range x 0.9-1.6 4.1-11.8 2.2 -11.8 Diameter growth (cm/year) x 0.48 1.24 x Trees with flowers (%) 0 0 96 85 Trees with fruits (%) 0 0 75 66 Thus, more than 7 years after the germination, the trees of the first planting have reached an average of about 3.6 m with a diameter of 7.4 cm at 50 cm above the ground. Mortality has been very low with one tree dying during this period. Whereas the height growth decreased with age, it is interesting to see the increase in diameter growth in the same period. Moreover, most of the trees are now fruiting which permit an easy gathering of seeds for new plantations since 2008. This plantation acts now as a seed orchard for the variety raiateense from Moorea thereby achieving the original aim. No host plants have yet been planted inside this plantation, sandalwood presumed to be hosted onto weeds, herbs, ferns and the few residual trees present before the plantation. In 2010, 2 new plantations were established in Opunohu with seeds from the 2004 seed orchard (Table 5). 51 TABLE 5. HEIGHTS (M) IN THE 2010 OPUNOHU SANDALWOOD PLANTATIONS 9/11/10 9/11/10 Site Belvedere down Belvedere up Number of trees 40 104 Mean height (m) 1.0 1.1 Standard deviation 0.3 0.4 Maximum 1.6 2.1 Minimum 0.2 0.3 This recent plantation is a success with good growth of most of the plants attaining at least 50 cm in height. The only problem is the presumed theft of several individual plants. b. Sandalwood plantations on Tahiti, Society Islands On Tahiti, Santalum insulare var. insulare is restricted to two sites: Papeiti and Taravao. The oldest plantation at Taravao plateau was done in 2007 with at least 205 saplings planted from 2 natural populations on Tahiti (Tiapa and Pic Vert). The Taravao plantation was measured once in December 2009 (Table 6). TABLE 6. SANDALWOOD HEIGHT (M) IN THE 2007 TARAVAO PLANTATIONS 16/12/09 Site Taravao Number of trees 202 Mean height (m) 1.6 Range 0.7-3.3 Trees with flowers 5 Trees with fruit 2 The mortality was very low with no problems of theft or rats chewing bark. No host plants were used, as potential hosts in the form of weeds and residual trees were common. The growth is somewhat less than observed on Moorea for the 2010 plantations (Table 5). This could be due to more weed competition on Tahiti than on Moorea and less weeding on the former island. In 2010, more than 10 trees were observed to be fruiting. Fruits are now able to be gathered to establish new plantations of this endangered variety on Tahiti. c. - - Sandalwood plantations on Nuku Hiva, Marquesas islands On Nuku Hiva, plantations have been established on 3 sites for both varieties existing on the island : Hakapehi, Taiohae village: var. nov from the high elevation plateau of Toovii in 2001, Terre-deserte, close to the airport: var. nov and var. marchionense (Vaiteheii stand) in a single block in 2001 and 2002, - Teavaiti (sometimes called Teavanui) saddle: several blocks of var. nov. Of these plantations (4.11 ha), those in Hakapehi (0.74 ha) and Terre-deserte (1.46 ha) have been measured for height and diameter growth over several years. Monitoring has recently commenced on some plantations in Teavaiti. Hakapehi Plantation This plantation was created in February 2001 from plants germinated in March 2000, and has been regularly assessed (Table 7). Initially, diameter was not taken as the trees were too small. In recent years, the height was not taken as this measurement was not informative. 52 Although some of the sandalwood trees that died were replaced and despite the recurrent dryness on the island, mortality has been very low (less than 10%). Ten years after planting, the sandalwood trees had a mean height exceeding 4 m with some specimens reaching 5 or 6 meters. The mean diameter is about 6 cm with some trees exceeding 11 cm. It is interesting to note that the height growth decreased whereas the diameter growth increased around 5 years after the planting. In 2010, around 75% of the trees were flowering and 25% were fruiting. These proportions are still growing, indicating that the fertility is highly variable between trees and attaining reproductive maturity can take a long time. The best criterion for fruiting is stem diameter, with the thicker stemmed trees being the earliest to flower. Candidate plus trees can be selected on the basis of those that have attained 10 cm diameter after 10 years. TABLE 7. ASSESSMENTS OF SANDALWOOD TREES IN THE HAKAPEHI PLANTATION 27/12/01 7/02/03 4/04/04 28/10/05 18/07/06 26/12/08 28/01/10 Number 210 209 207 209 208 211 211 Mean height (m) 1.03 1.70 2.19 3.01 3.28 x x Range 0.41-1.77 0.55-2.8 0.80-3.5 0.70-4.7 0.75-5.18 x x Height growth (m/year) 0.62 0.60 0.43 0.55 0.38 x x Mean diameter (cm) x x 2.42 3.41 4.14 5.35 5.83 Range x x 0.6-5.0 0.3-7.2 0.0-8.53 0.54-11.6 0.48-11.6 x x 0.54 0.66 1.02 0.50 0.44 0 0 10 21 71 124 146 x x 2.54 3.32 3.56 x x x x 3.64 4.72 5.12 6.09 6.50 0 0 0 5 26 47 55 Trees with fruits : Height x x x 3.12 3.59 x x x x 4.46 5.15 6.02 6.53 Diameter growth (cm/year) Trees with flowers : Number Trees with flowers : Height Trees with flowers : Diameter Trees with fruits : Number Trees with fruits : Diameter x 53 Captions to the horizontal axis in French? Figure 7. Height and diameter growth on sandalwood plants in the Hakapehi plantation Terre-Deserte plantations This stand was created in two stages, first, in February 2001, with the planting of sandalwood trees from var. marchionense provenance (low altitude Vaiteheii on Nuku Hiva) and then, in January 2002, with trees from var. nov. provenance (high altitude Toovii on Nuku Hiva).Table 8 gives the measurements taken at 3 occasions. Mortality was high 5 or 6 years after planting, with a rate of 63% mortality among low altitude (var. marchionense) trees and 75% mortality among high altitude (var. nov) trees. This was to be expected as the ecological and technical conditions are more difficult at Terre-Deserte: severe dryness, lack of watering, grazing by horse and cattle due to damage to fencing. Nevertheless, the growth rate increased between 2004 and 2007, probably because of higher rainfall and the improved growing conditions for the scattered surviving trees. The growth of the two varieties seems to be generally similar, considering their difference in planting dates (one year). On the other hand, the mortality rate differs between these varieties, with the high elevation variety being less well adapted to the harsh ecological conditions of Terre-Deserte. The comparison between Hakapehi and Terre-Deserte plantation shows similar growth rates; this is probably due to the death of the smallest and weakest trees in the Terre-Deserte plantation. TABLE 8. ASSESSMENTS OF SANDALWOOD PLANTS IN TERRE-DESERTE PLANTATION Varieties Number of trees Mean height (m) Range Height growth (m/year) Mean diameter (cm) Range Trees with flowers: Number 11/02/03 var. marchionense 146 1.02 0.4-2.4 11/02/03 var. nov. 57 0.78 0.45-1.25 7/04/04 var. marchionense 102 1.56 0.15-3.9 7/04/04 var. nov. 37 1.04 0.50-2.05 19/07/07 var. marchionense 70 3.71 0.4-5.6 19/07/07 var. nov. 18 2.64 0.7-4.9 x x x x x x 0.47 1.20 0.1-3.7 0.23 0.86 0.4-2.1 0.65 3.96 0.2-9.5 0.49 2.57 0.2-6.4 0 0 1 0 32 2 54 Trees with flowers: Height Trees with flowers: Diameter Trees with fruits: Number Trees with fruits: Height Trees with fruits: Diameter x x 3.50 x 4.55 3.7 x x 3.6 x 5.82 4.4 0 0 0 0 10 2 x x x x 4.77 3.7 x x x x 6.43 4.4 This plantation has been fully-fenced in 2009 in order to prevent damage by horses or cattle and to complete the var. marchionense lines. Col Teavaiti plantations Among the 8 blocks of sandalwood planted since 2003 on public land at Teavaiti, 4 were measured in 2008. A single block was measured before, the block 39 in 2006. This last block was planted in 2004 with replacement of dead trees in 2008. We can see important difference of mean height between the oldest plantation of 2003 (block 26 – 1.1 m) and the one of 2004 (block 39 – 2.0 m). This can be explained by damage during maintenance with injuries to the stem by the weed trimmer. Teavaiti sandalwoods planted at 600 m elevation in a wetter area show a similar or slightly lower growth compared with other plantations of Hakapehi and Terre-Deserte planted at lower elevation on drier sites. This might be due to the lack of good host plant before the planting and/or the delay of growth of planted host plants. TABLE 9. ASSESSMENTS OF SANDALWOOD PLANTS IN TEAVAITI PLANTATION Block 26 39 42 48 April 2008 25 July 2006 Date of plantation 2003 2004 April 2008 April 2008 April 2008 2004 2008 2005 2008 Number of trees 59 Mean height (m) 1.1 126 108 36 23 107 1.4 2.0 0.7 1.1 0.7 Range (m) 0.2-3.0 0.6-2.4 0.6-4.0 0.4-1.5 0.2-2.0 0.4-1.1 (20 mths) x x 0.36 x x x Mean diameter (cm) x 1.4 2.9 x x x Range (cm) x 0.0-3.1 0.0-6.7 x x x Trees with flowers 0 3 9 0 0 0 Trees with fruits 0 0 3 0 0 0 Height growth (m/year) Conclusion Ten years after the beginning of sandalwood plantings, more than 8.6 ha of Polynesian sandalwood plantations have been created in 21 blocks, on five islands. A total of more than 2500 saplings have been planted on public land. Foresters working in different islands in different archipelagos remain enthusiastic about promoting this slow growing species. Their continuing efforts will provide a much better chance for this species to continue to survive. The older plantations of Nuku Hiva (Hakapehi) and Moorea (Opunohu) fulfil their role as seed orchards/ conservation stands. Indeed, SDR workers are now gathering seeds in these plantations for seedling production in nurseries. In a few months, the Tahiti (Taravao) plantation could act also as a seed orchard with increased fruiting trees. Sandalwood plants could then be promoted for plantations on private property and sold to the general public. This is also the time of risk of mixture of provenances with several known transfers of seedlings between archipelagos for business or gift purposes. To limit that, a note (but not a legal rule) was circulated by the head of SDR on the 20 October 2006 (n°3713/SDR/FOGER), asking for a control of the movement of sandalwood plants and seeds between islands. 55 The growth of the plantations can be considered satisfactory despite the dryness in the Marquesas, poor weed maintenance in several islands and other problems which could be eliminated in the future. On the Marquesas, we can expect a minimum growth of 10 cm diameter in 10 years whereas in the Society 15 cm in 10 years is expected. We still need more time to draw any conclusions about the appropriate diameter and the age for utilization. In the near future, we expect to be able improve the management of host plants (species, density, date of planting relatively to sandalwood) as several plantations have no intermediate or long term host plants. We should also develop sandalwood seed orchards as a matter of priority for the last evolutionary significant units lacking this ex-situ conservation measure, viz. the Austral archipelago. It could be done more easily on Raivavae island with easy gathering of mature fruits on sandy islets that are not home to ship rats. Some efforts could also be done in Ua Pou and Fatuiva in the Marquesas but seed collection is more difficult on these two islands Acknowledgements The author would like to thank the enthusiastic SDR agents working on the conservation and propagation of sandalwood: Silvio on Moorea, Olive, Tommy and Mataiki brothers on Hiva Oa, Lucien Bonno and Jean-Pierre Malet on Nuku Hiva, Joël Hahe on Tahaa, Léopold Stein, Maxime Taerea, Clayton Taerea and Laurent Georges on Tahiti. Merci also to Frederic Jacq, Tamara Maric and Matai Depierre for some measurements. Thanks to Lex Thomson for correcting the English and to Cenon Padolina for organizing the workshop. References Butaud J.F. 2006. Contribution à la connaissance d'un arbre insulaire en voie de disparition, le santal de Polynésie française (Santalum insulare): études écologique, morphologique, génétique et chimique. PhD. Thesis. Université de la Polynésie française, 1-457. Butaud J.F. and Defranoux S. 2007. Sandalwood (Santalum insulare) programme in French Polynesia. In: Thomson L., Bulai S., Wilikibau B. (eds.) Proceedings of the regional workshop on sandalwood research, development and extension in the Pacific islands (28 November – 1 December 2005, Nadi, Fiji): p 73-79. Butaud J.F. and Malet J.P. 2007. Sandalwood (Santalum insulare) planting efforts in French Polynesia. In: Thomson L., Bulai S., Wilikibau B. (eds.) Proceedings of the regional workshop on sandalwood research, development and extension in the Pacific islands (28 November – 1 December 2005, Nadi, Fiji): p 73-79. Fosberg F.R. and Sachet M.H. 1985. Santalum in Eastern Polynesia. Candollea 40: 459-470. Meyer J.Y. and Butaud J.F. 2009. The impacts of rats on the endangered native flora of French Polynesia (Pacific Islands): drivers of plant extinction or coup de grâce species? Biological invasions 11 (7): 1569-1585. 56 5.2 PLANTED SANDALWOOD DEVELOPMENTS IN VANUATU Tony Page,1 Hanington Tate, 2 Anna Potrawiak,3 Alick Berry,4 Clement Bled 5 Cook University, Cairns, Australia 2 Department of Forests, Port Vila, Vanuatu 3 AP Consultancy, Perth, Australia 4 Vanuatu Chamber of Commerce, Port Vila, Vanuatu 5 Institut Polytechnique LaSalle Beauvais, Beauvais, France 1James Abstract The Vanuatu sandalwood industry has a very promising future, where for the first time in its recorded history the resource is expanding. Recent planting activity has resulted in the establishment of between 270 and 550 ha of smallholder plantings and 150 ha of commercial plantings since 2000. While volumes harvested from wild sources are likely to decline over the immediate future the increased sandalwood planting may conservatively result in a sustainable annual yield of approximately 300 tonnes by 2030. At current prices the production of sandalwood by smallholder farmers is economically feasible and perhaps offers the highest returns of any agricultural activity in Vanuatu. With such smallholder sandalwood planting expected to continue, the future harvest of this resource is likely to improve export volumes resulting in improved balance of trade and government tax revenues, but importantly it will also stimulate the local cash economy and ultimately improve ni-Vanuatu livelihoods. Introduction Sandalwood (Santalum austrocaledonicum) provides high-value, low-volume, non-perishable products that are in demand on the international market. Although only small volumes are harvested from wild sources in Vanuatu (80–120 tonnes annually representing ~1-2% of world supply) it has contributed significant export revenue and proved lucrative for harvesters. Wild-harvested sandalwood remains the basis of the Vanuatu sandalwood industry, but the natural populations are now severely depleted (Gillieson et al. 2008). While reducing harvest quotas can assist in making the industry more sustainable (Gillieson et al. 2008) another option is to establish a planted resource. Active promotion of sandalwood planting was undertaken by the Vanuatu Department of Forests (VDoF) during the 1990s and later formalised in the first objective of the department’s Sandalwood Policy (2002) where it stated: to ‘increase sandalwood stock through replanting’. This policy also proposed that future sandalwood purchasing licenses would only be issued to ‘applicants who have ... actively participated in sandalwood reforestation.’ (Page et al. 2012) undertook a study to quantify the level of sandalwood planting across Vanuatu to determine the effectiveness of government promotion. This report summarises the main findings of this study, with respect to (a) recent activity in planting sandalwood in Vanuatu, (b) constraints to further industry expansion and (c) commercial feasibility of smallholder sandalwood production. Extent of sandalwood plantation estate in Vanuatu Smallholders in Vanuatu currently demonstrate a preference for establishing sandalwood and whitewood woodlots (Page et al. 2012). The interest in these species is largely due to the strong international demand combined with local processing and export, which stimulates a local demand for smallholder-produced trees. The two species are adapted to contrasting environments with whitewood adapted to areas of high rainfall, and sandalwood adapted to drier areas of Vanuatu. These differing environmental preferences gives most smallholders the opportunity to plant either of the two main commercial forestry species. Sandalwood occurs naturally on eight main islands of Vanuatu (Santo, Malekula, Efate, Erromango, Aniwa, Tanna, Futuna and Aneityum), but the climatic and edaphic conditions of eight other islands (Malo, Aore, Ambae, Pentecost, Ambrym, Epi, Paama and Shepherd) are also suitable for its production (Gillieson et al. 2008). While the latter eight islands have little to no sandalwood plantings, their suitability represents an opportunity for the industry to increase production over a wider geographical area, which will increase the volumes as well as mitigating the impact of natural disasters such as cyclones. Smallholders in Vanuatu often plant sandalwood within newly established garden areas with the trees persisting after the garden has been abandoned and adjacent forest trees recaptures the site. This method of establishment is preferred over plantings established in older (3–4 year old) garden areas since the growth of sandalwood trees in the former is invariably greater than in the latter. Sandalwood seedlings are also being established in native forests as enrichment plantings and within the village as ‘specimen’ plantings. 57 An annual planting rate of 14,270 sandalwood trees (99,890 trees) was found between 2000 and 2006, which was significantly (P < 0.05) greater than the rate of 478 trees (3,346 trees) per year for the period between 1993 and 1999 (Page et al. 2012). Sandalwood farmers participating in a plastic planter bag initiative of the Chamber of Commerce established an average of 327 trees between 2000 and 2006 inclusive. Some smallholder farmers around the country are taking a lead in this area and despite not participating in the planter bag initiative have established an average of 886 trees each. The two licensed sandalwood merchants in Vanuatu combined have planted approximately 150 ha in Efate. Furthermore, recent foreign investment in smallholder sandalwood has resulted in the establishment of 16 joint venture plantings in Erromango and Tanna. The mean number of trees planted (4,000) under these arrangements is 12.5 and 4.5 times the number measured in the 2007 survey and 2008 interviews, respectively. The increase in sandalwood planting rates since 1999 is likely to have been affected by the combined effects of: • active promotion of tree planting in general, and sandalwood planting in particular (VDoF 2002), helped by research and extension activities of AusAID/SPRIG and ACIAR-funded sandalwood projects (Page et al. 2008) • the distribution of planter bags free of charge through the Vanuatu Chamber of Commerce • a decreasing wild resource (Gillieson et al. 2008) • increasing prices paid to landowners for sandalwood at an annual rate above that of the Vanuatu consumer price index. Projected industry size. The medium- to long-term prospects for the industry are considered good due to the projected high value of sandalwood in world markets, the level of sandalwood planting currently being undertaken and the resulting increase in the size of the Vanuatu resource from 2020, as planted stocks begin to mature. In making projections of the annual harvest volume we used a conservative estimate of heartwood content (18 kg at both 15 and 20 years) in planted sandalwood established after 2000 and a projection that wild resources will decline to approximately 30 tonnes by 2015. It is likely that part of the planted resource will start to be harvested from 2014 and combined with a 30 tonne wild harvest will bring production up to approximately 80 tonnes in 2015. This additional planted resource will gradually build over the next decade where the industry may be able to sustain annual production at around 120–150 tonnes between 2020 and 2025 and possibly over 300 tonnes by 2029–30. By this time the planted resource would therefore represent about a fourfold increase in annual harvesting rates and subsequent value of the industry, when compared with the current 80 tonne annual quota. With a continuation of the current planting activity, the Vanuatu industry can consolidate and improve its position as a small, niche producer within the international marketplace. Impediments to the expansion of a planted sandalwood resource While seed supply has been a major impediment to increasing the planted sandalwood estate (Lui and Smith 2007), it is likely that this will recede as the seed from plantations becomes increasingly available. Sandalwood seed supply in Vanuatu comes primarily from the southern islands province of Tafea (Tanna, Aniwa, Futuna, Erromango and Aneityum). Most smallholders in the province are able to access enough seed to satisfy their demands for planting. This however, is not the case for the northern islands where there are few natural populations and potential growers find it very difficult to locate sandalwood seeds. The limited availability of planter bags, particularly for smallholders, is also an important constraint to industry development. Boxes of planter bags (~6,000 units) are often not available in the major centres of Luganville and Port Vila, since they are often pre-sold before importation to relatively wealthy urban wage earners, who have planting interests in their home village. Although this interest is encouraging, further competition in the planter bag market is required to ensure people of all demographics have the opportunity to participate in this potentially lucrative agroforestry industry. Opportunity exists for greater competition to meet the high demand for planter bags. Risks to sandalwood cultivation The current marketing duopoly operating in Vanuatu does not discourage smallholders from investing their time in establishing sandalwood woodlots; however, it is likely to limit larger scale planting investments in the country and thus the opportunity for the government and domestic economy to benefit from new employment opportunities and increased revenues from the export of product generated from such investments. This policy area requires further review to ensure a balance between the protection of natural populations and open competition can be met. • Cyclones represent the greatest threat to sandalwood plantings attaining a full rotation. The impact of lower category cyclones can be limited by planting in more sheltered areas, and establishing effective vegetative wind-breaks. 58 In such protected situations, cyclones may damage the trees without a complete loss, and some salvage may be possible. For an individual farmer there is limited capacity for mitigating the effects of high intensity cyclones. On an industry basis however, spreading the plantings across the many suitable islands in Vanuatu will reduce the risk of outright loss of the sandalwood estate from an individual event. • The greatest biological threat to sandalwood is the fungal disease Phellinus noxious (navwun) which can kill trees of all ages, and if left unchecked in a planting can kill a large number of sandalwood trees. While no chemical control agents have been registered for use against this disease, a number of traditional methods of control (Page et al. in press) are effective in limiting the spread of the disease within a planting. • The possibility of sandalwood tree theft is quite real in Vanuatu, particularly for larger plantings and those established in isolated areas. Establishing plantings in areas that are regularly visited and also fencing them will help to reduce the incidences of theft. Some respondents cited that jealousy and subsequent vandalism may be an issue; however, as more people establish small woodlots these issues are likely to be isolated. Productivity of planted sandalwood The value of a sandalwood tree is largely determined by the weight of its heartwood and the concentration and composition of the oil contained within it (Doran et al. 2005). Determining the rate of heartwood development in a sandalwood tree is important, since it will largely determine the length of its commercial rotation. The weight of the heartwood is invariably limited by or dependent on the size of the tree. Very little information has been published regarding the rate of growth in S. austrocaledonicum. Growth rates and heartwood development Given the prevalence of both enrichment and new garden plantings, the number of trees measured in these two categories constituted 84% of the trees sampled. No statistical difference in the mean annual basal increment was found between these two planting types with a basal diameter growth rate of 1.08 cm per year. Sandalwood grown under commercial conditions was found to have significantly greater growth (~1.8 cm/yr) rates than all other management regimes, largely due to the attention to host tree planting and fertiliser additions. Trees planted in old garden areas were found to have (~0.8 cm/yr) significantly slower growth rates than all other management regimes. Heartwood development The regression between tree age and heartwood weight indicates that the beginning of heartwood development may occur at 7.5 years, and increase at a rate of approximately 2.5 kg per year thereafter. It is important to note that significant variation in the timing of heartwood induction and rate of development is expected between sites due to differences in genotype and local edaphic and/or climatic conditions. When grown under suitable conditions (Page et al. in press) heartwood production at age 15 has been conservatively calculated at 18 kg which increases significantly to approximately 59kg at age 30 (Page et al. 2012). These authors also reported that heartwood development in S. austrocaledonicum may also develop earlier and with greater volumes than similar aged trees of S. album. Socioeconomics of sandalwood production Using the conservative estimates of heartwood yield at both 15- and 20-year-old S. austrocaledonicum the profitability of standard sandalwood planting models can be compared. Sandalwood agroforestry (1 ha planted at 833stems/ha with a rotation of 15-20 yrs), which combines a food garden with sandalwood, is significantly more profitable than producing sandalwood or food garden alone. This sandalwood agroforest had the highest Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR) (2.14) and Net Present Value (NPV) ($21, 785.64) of all 1 ha planting scenarios at a rotation of 15-20 years. The return to labour for the 1 ha sandalwood agroforest is US$4.70/hour, which is equivalent to the average hourly rate for a Technician (CS2.2) employed by the Vanuatu Government. Such a position typically requires an education equivalent to that of a technical college diploma, and therefore sandalwood production represents potential earnings for farmers that is much greater than that of the minimum wage (US$1.40/hr). The production of sandalwood on a shorter rotation (7 years) for sapwood is not economically competitive with sandalwood agroforestry (15-20 years). Given the ambitious stocking rate of 2,500/ha and the low current farm gate sapwood prices (US$0.49/kg) the short rotation production of sandalwood is marginal when considering it as an option to improve cash flow. The commercial production of sandalwood within smallholder agroforestry provides an asset, which could be used as collateral to secure microfinance and improve economic development. Sandalwood production is often referred to as the only long-term saving option for smallholders that can improve financial security and ultimately their livelihoods. On a national scale the production of sandalwood may help to alleviate the harvesting pressures of contracting wild stands while providing a source of foreign exchange and government revenue. 59 Acknowledgments The implementation of the project also depended on the cooperation of Joseph Tungon, Michael Tabi, Jeffery Lahva, Ioan Viji, Mesek Sethy, Dick Tomker, Toufau Kalsakau, Simon Naupa, Samuel Lokre and Johnny Saman. References Doran JC, Thomson L, Brophy JJ, Goldsack B, Bulai P, Faka'osi T, Mokoia T (2005) Variation in heartwood oil composition of young sandalwood trees in the south Pacific (Santalum yasi, S. album and F1 hybrids in Fiji, and S. yasi in Tonga and Niue). Sandalwood Research Newsletter 20, 3-7. Gillieson D, Page T, Silverman J (2008) 'An inventory of wild sandalwood stocks in Vanuatu.' Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Publication number: 2008-08 [FST/2006/118]. ISBN: 978 1 921434 36 5, Canberra. http://www.aciar.gov.au/node/8439 Lui WJ, Smith AM (2007) Country Papers: Vanuatu. In 'Proceedings of the regional workshop on sandalwood research, development and extension in the pacific islands'. Nadi, Fiji, 28 November - 1 December 2005. (Eds L Thomson, P Bulai and B Wilikibau) pp. 63-70. (Secretariat of the Pacific Community) Page T, Leakey RRB, Tate H, Viji I, Robson K, Dickinson G (2008) 'Identification of optimum genetic resources for establishment of local species of sandalwood for plantations and agroforests in Vanuatu and Cape York Peninsula.' Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research., Project No. FST/2002/097, Canberra. Page T, Tate H, Bunt C, Potrawiak A, Berry A (2012) Opportunities for the smallholder sandalwood industry in Vanuatu. Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR): Canberra Page T, Tate H, Tungon J, Tabi M, Kamasteia P (in press) Vanuatu Sandalwood: Growers guide for sandalwood production in Vanuatu. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research: Canberra 60 5.3 PRIVATE SECTOR: SWOT ANALYSIS OF THE VANUATU SANDALWOOD INDUSTRY Jonathan Naupa, CEO, Tropical Rainforest Aromatics Limited, PO Box 7114, Port Vila, Vanuatu Strengths 1. The industry is regulated and controlled. 2. The local species has flourished for millennia, blends well with other crops and does not require much land 3. There are no major disease risks in Vanuatu and the geographic isolation and biosecurity checks will help ensure that no new diseases enter. 4. TRA has detailed knowledge of the local species including through detailed research over several years – certain chemotypes of S. austrocaledonicum produce an essential oil which meets the ISO 3518 standard for Santalum album. 5. More than 30,000 Santalum seedlings are planted each year whilst only 3000 are harvested - the people of Vanuatu are natural growers and momentum is growing. Well-established plantations are excellent resources and sources of local information. 6. The processed annual quota of 80MT will begin to rise in 2015 and is projected to reach 300MT (plantations) by 2020. 7. Sandalwood prices in Vanuatu have increased steadily over the past 10 years and were unaffected by the global financial crisis. 8. Vanuatu sandalwood oil is readily accepted by European and Arab countries: we are now on the radar of markets which deal in regularly analysed, consistent and quality products. 9. An incredibly rich history of sandalwood exploitation, organic certification and excellent traceability can be used in the marketing of our oil. Weaknesses 1. An unrealistically high expectation of prices and performance of our sandalwood on the global stage. 2. Political interference which has negatively impacted private sector partners. 3. Legislation that needs improving to protect investors - the largest investors are ni-Vanuatu landowners. 4. Lack of funds that are committed to the planting of sandalwood by the government - used to subsidise the land-consuming and low-yielding copra industry. 5. A lack of suitable land as most is leased out to others / Land tenure disputes. 6. Cyclones 7. Introduced foreign species (S. album) and a lack of genetic diversity in the better chemotypes. 8. Lack of standards (ISO for S. austrocaledonicum is required) and protocols that are regulated by the government. 9. High local cost of processing and shipping in Vanuatu and limited and expensive international shipping for low grade product. Changes in foreign exchange rate are also a concern in Vanuatu with local prices increasing against a falling USD. 10. Insufficient awareness in the remote locations of Vanuatu. Opportunities 1. Collaboration within the private sector and with the government to establish internationally recognised standards. 2. Investigating hybridisation of S. album and S. austrocaledonicum. 3. Good chance of establishing niche markets through ethical certifications (Fairtrade). 4. Other essential oils to complement sandalwood plantations. 5. Carbon credit farming. 6. Research and development of best planting, distilling and blending processes (fractionating). 7. Collaboration with other Pacific Island neighbours to co-ordinate and share information to establish the Pacific region as the second largest producers of sandalwood (after Australia). 8. Funding programmes that are geared towards grassroots/communities/companies, environmentally friendly and ethical - research grants (ACIAR) seeking best genetic materials. 9. Tourism projects integrating sandalwood oil (wellness resorts) and that also respect the environment. 61 Threats 1. Farmers losing land to leases (as happens when the Government signs in their place as leasee). 2. Disease arriving, especially in populations with limited genetic diversity. 3. Other crops that take up valuable sandalwood growing land (oil palm). 4. Politicians and unscrupulous and influential individuals which place personal gain ahead of wider industry development. 5. Theft of young sandalwood trees and seedlings. 6. Mass felling and clearing of natural sandalwood land by developers. 7. Poor planting practices, removal of topsoil and erosion. 8. Lack of standards and poor marketing strategies that ruin the reputation of certified oil. 9. Black marketing of sandalwood that encourages lawless practices, and with impacts on replanting. 10. Well financed corporations with investments that do not consider the "Pacific way" and chase a balance sheet over enhancing local livelihoods. 62 5.4 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF SANTALUM YASI IN FIJI AND TONGA: A COMBINED ECOLOGICAL AND GENETIC APPROACH Ryan Huish1, Tevita Faka’osi2, Heimuli Likiafu2, Joseva Mateboto3, Lex Thomson4 Hollins University, Virginia USA1; Tongan Ministry of Forests2; Fiji Department of Forestry3; Secretariat of the Pacific Community4 Abstract Valued internationally for the aromatic oil found within its heartwood, sandalwood (Santalum, Santalaceae) is one of the most heavily exploited groups of plants across its range. While historically, most oil has been harvested from Santalum album in Southeast Asia and India, the decrease of S. album sources has caused a widening gap between supply and demand, which creates profitable market opportunities and increasing harvest pressure for alternative sandalwood oil sources. Santalum yasi, a quality alternative, has been harvested extensively in Fiji and Tonga, yet this species has received limited attention. The absence of basic data on population dynamics and genetic variation for remnant populations remains a major constraint to the sustainable management of this culturally and economically valued resource. This study focused on the ecological and genetic data and analyses that can aid in developing sustainable management strategies for this important species. Population size-class structure data was collected using transects in the three densest natural populations of S. yasi. Population dynamics, current species distribution, and ecological threats were investigated to find that the few remaining wild stands display discontinuous size class structures, are under regenerative stress and that the natural distribution has diminished significantly, even to local extinction in some areas. Some of the ecological threats affecting regeneration may include invasive species such as pigs and introduced plants. Also premature harvesting seems to have an impact on the population structure. Using a nuclear microsatellite analysis, genetic variability within and between populations was investigated. Results suggest that there is no significant genetic variation between populations, and that most of the genetic variation lies within populations. This suggests that there is a significant level of gene flow between populations, most likely through human induced dispersal, showing a more panmictic trend than previously supposed. This may provide molecular evidence confirming the Western documentation and traditional oral history of extensive interaction between Fiji and Tonga and their trade of plants and culture. Based on the dwindling S. yasi population size and unstructured genetic variation in Fiji and Tonga, further enumerations and resource surveys may not be practical to conduct at this time. Rather, forestry and governmental efforts can focus on promotion of local involvement in assisted natural regeneration of wild stands through in situ, community-mediated conservation. 63 5.5 SANDALWOOD PLANTINGS IN ROTUMA, FIJI Vilisoni Nataniela1 and Lex Thomson2 1 Contractor, SPC EU-FACT, Fiji 2 Team Leader, EU-Facilitating Agricultural Commodity Trade, Land Resources Division, SPC, Narere, Fiji Rotuma • Small – land area of 43 sq. km located 12o 30’S of Equator • Ethnically Polynesian - with own unique language, culture and traditions • Isolated - separated by 430 km of sea from Fiji • Volcanic origin with high soil fertility • Hot, tropical, humid climate with periodic cyclones • Average daily minimum of 24oC and maximum of 30oC • Rainfall is evenly distributed with total of 3,358 mm • Farming is the main activity Previous work on Sandalwood on Rotuma • Introduced to Rotuma in 1990 by the Fiji Department of Forestry • Original introduction was on one farm at Saukama, in the district of Juju. • Grew exceptionally quickly, especially the F1hybrid between Santalum yasi and S. album • High early survival but after 4-5 years there was significant sandalwood mortality. Sapling death was due to lack of maintenance and fungal attack (and associated with premature mortality of Calliandra hosts). • AusAID-SPRIG Project undertook drilling and evaluation of heartwood • Showed that F1 hybrid plants began forming high quality heartwood (rich in santalols) from a young age (about 6 years) • Limited extension until assistance reported here by SPC EU-FACT Sandalwood on Rotuma • Mr Vilisoni Nataniela was contracted by SPC to work with Rotuma Island Council and districts to plant sandalwood in all parts of the island. • Programme started in November 2009 with first visit and identification of lead farmers in the island’s seven districts. Propagation and planting of Sandalwood • For biosecurity reasons, it is not permitted to transfer seedlings with soil from mainland Fiji to Rotuma. • Accordingly nursery stock was established using seed from Viti Levu. • 20 demonstration agroforestry plots established • Only one plot failed due to pig damage and seedlings in another plot disappeared – presumed to have been transplanted to another location. Progress to date • Before recent SPC EU-FACT initiative there were only 5-6 farmers with limited plantings of sandalwood on the island. • From December 2009 to July 2010 the number of sandalwood smallholder growers increased to more than 100 growers across all villages. • There are now 27 sandalwood nurseries in different villages. • Survival in the new plantings is high, ranging from 70 to 100%, with the tallest plants reaching 1 m at six months of age. • Current field stock is 1458 plants and nursery (potted) stock is 3137 plants. • A highlight is the Oinafa district in which all 45 families have planted at least three sandalwood seedlings. Key considerations • Development of new sandalwood plantings is contingent on available planting materials from the island. • Need to identify and mark candidate plus trees • Aim to increase local seed production once the selected plus trees start bearing fruits • Need to monitor maintenance of plantings and plant development • Develop grafting as a way of rapidly multiplying better individuals • Need to identify and increase production of host trees including Citrus • Investigate development of sandalwood oil production (in future) Future plans • Continue development of sandalwood to cover all households on the island • Plant sandalwood in non-farmed areas and in well-designed agroforestry systems • Manage sandalwood in a sustainable manner including ongoing replanting • Investigate local processing options on the island. 64 5.6 AN INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY FOR SANDALWOOD (SANTALUM ALBUM L.) IN WEST TIMOR, INDONESIA Yudhistira Ardhyana Nugraha Rua Ora Kupang State Agricultural Polytechnic, P.O Box 1125, Kupang, East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia 85011. Abstract Sandalwood is perhaps the only natural resource in West Timor with such a long history of control over trade, emphasising the significance of the trade’s economic importance. Surprisingly, there have been no major efforts directed towards management of sandalwood in West Timor. Up until now, production has dominated all aspects of the sandalwood industry with no consideration of the sustainable and long-term survival of the species. The aims of this review are: first, to assess the current status of management and conservation of sandalwood in West Timor; secondly, to identify issues and debates on the management of sandalwood; and, thirdly, to propose a conservation strategy for better management of the species. The main reason why previous attempts at sustainable utilisation of this species in West Timor have failed is because of the extension of state control over this resource. This control is enforced through the implementation of several policies that disadvantage the people of West Timor and leave few opportunities for them to be involved in and benefit from sandalwood management. A significantly larger share of the benefits is taken by the government. Thus, in linking up with the East Nusa Tenggara provincial government’s wish to regain its former status as the ‘Sandalwood Province’, an integrative sandalwood management and conservation strategy is needed for better management and future development of this valuable resource. With regard to management aspects, the legal frameworks (in this case regulation and policies regarding sandalwood) should be more supportive of the people. Thus, current policy should be reviewed and adjusted so that sandalwood becomes more attractive and of increased benefit to the people of Timor. This approach should be combined with continuing efforts to build awareness of sandalwood management, capacity building, setting up a competitive market through cooperatives, and moving towards an integrative sandalwood resource management. On the conservation side, the first action should be to undertake a thorough inventory of the remaining sandalwood throughout West Timor. This will provide a better understanding of the current status of the natural population, identify suitable seed stands and allow limits for harvest to be set so that management of the resources can be planned with a focus on sustainability. The availability of good quality seed will better ensure successful reforestation and conservation. Identification and conservation of seed sources should be of highest priority. A sandalwood working plan should be established in each district of West Timor which would incorporate simple management plans for areas designated for conservation and development, sustainable harvesting, replanting and a local nursery. Lastly, an on-going effort should be made to fill the gaps in the knowledge base of sandalwood which have led to constraints in the development of this species in West Timor. The ecology of this species is complex and many aspects are still not well-understood. More resources are required locally in support of sandalwood research to address this problem. This combination of activities should result in reliable and achievable approaches for better management and conservation of sandalwood in West Timor. Introduction Sandalwood (Santalum spp) is a shrub or small tree of great social, religious and economic importance in many parts of the world. For example, in India, sandalwood is fully assimilated into all aspects of the philosophy, culture and religion of the people who have been using this species for at least 2500 years (Weiss, 1997; Rai, 1990). People in Timor refer to this plant as hau meni referring to the fragrant wood which has a significant place in their social and cultural ethos. It is also referred to as pah in balun (essence products of nature), meaning the plant is considered as sacred and, as a consequence, traditional rituals should be conducted prior to the harvest of the tree (Pae et al., 2004). 65 The oil extracted from the heartwood of sandalwood is of high economic value. At present, it is used mainly in cosmetics, scent for soap, aromatherapy oil, perfumery and medicines (Rahayu et al., 2002; Doran et al., 2002; CABI, 2000; Weiss, 1997; Coppen, 1995). The fragrant wood is the raw material for a range of products such as sculptures, fans, carvings, rosaries and furniture (Rahayu et al., 2002), while the powdered wood is used for incense sticks (Doran et al., 2002; Rahayu et al., 2002). One of the most widely known species of sandalwood is the East Indian Sandalwood (Santalum album L.); this is native to India, Timor and its surrounding islands, and possibly far northern Australia. Extensive studies on East Indian Sandalwood have been largely conducted in India (e.g., Rao et al., 2007; Suma and Balasundaran, 2003; Rai, 1990). Thus, the status of the sandalwood in this region is relatively well understood. However, in West Timor information about this species is patchy and not readily accessed. The history of natural resource management in West Timor is the story of the control and trade of high quality sandalwood (McWilliam, 2005). However, sandalwood, like other natural resources, has its limits in continuously supporting a demanding market. Forestry officials of Indonesia’s East Nusa Tenggara Province conducted a survey in West Timor in 1998 and estimated that the population of sandalwood comprised 250,940 trees, a 53% decrease from the 1987-1990 figures (Rahayu et al., 2002). It is believed that the current figures are far below the 1998 figures. The decline of the population of sandalwood reflects the decline of sandalwood production (oil and wood) in West Timor. According to official figures, the contribution of value-added sandalwood products to export earnings declined from a substantial 30% in 1992 to zero in 1997 (McWilliam, 2005; Rahayu et al., 2002). Fox (1977) even argues that for West Timor, ‘sandalwood now stands as a symbol of its past not its future’. However, although in declining quantities, West Timor has continued to supply the world sandalwood market (McWilliam, 2005). Sandalwood still maintains its position as the key export commodity from East Nusa Tenggara and contributes significantly to the income of the people of West Timor and of the provincial and district governments. The history of the management of sandalwood reflects a long story of abandonment in ecological terms, in which the resources were utilised without any consideration for the long-term survival of the species. Common threats to this species are habitat loss, overexploitation, lack of regeneration due to periodic fire and excessive grazing, and pests and diseases (Rughkla et al., 1997; Radomiljac, 1998; Rahayu et al., 2002; Suma and Balasundaran, 2003). These threats have motivated the IUCN to include this species in its Red List of threatened species with the conservation status of vulnerable (IUCN, 2009). To date, there has been no activity aimed at the development of an effective management and conservation strategy for sandalwood in West Timor. Its high value and demand in the international market call for a national strategy for its management (Rimbawanto and Haryjanto, 2005). Moreover, Doran et al. (2002) also emphasise the urgent need to develop a reliable conservation strategy for the sandalwood of West Timor in order to save the scarce existing genetic resources of this species; in order to ensure its long term survival and continuing contribution to income generation and sustainable rural livelihoods through better management practices. Thus, this paper aims, firstly, to assess the current status of management and conservation of sandalwood in West Timor; secondly, to identify some of the issues and debates on the management of sandalwood; and thirdly, to propose a strategy for management and conservation of sandalwood in West Timor. Santalum album: its occurrence and ecology in the Indonesian region Santalum album grows naturally in Timor and on several neighbouring islands including Sumba, Flores, Adonara, Alor, Solor, Wetar, Lomblen and Roti (Rahayu et al., 2002; Coppen, 1995; McKinnell, 1990). These islands are all within the province of East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia (Figure 1). Rimbawanto and Haryjanto (2005) suggest that it has also a restricted range of occurrence in the upland of Sulawesi, Moluccas and eastern tip of Java particularly in the district of Bondowoso. 66 Figure 1. East Nusa Tengarra Province which is a principal area of natural occurrence of S. album L. in Indonesia. This species is also found in Timor Leste (East Timor) (Source: Biyu Nasak Gallery) Factors that limit the distribution of S. album include the occurrence of suitable host plants and habitat as it is a site-specific, parasitic species (Rimbawanto and Masripatin, 2005). Sandalwood has adapted to the hot/ dry climate of West Timor (short wet season of 2-3 months, average annual rainfall of 900 mm and average daily temperature of 31°C) and grows on well-drained often rocky sites with poor nutrient status, calcareous (pH 8-9) soils which are common on the island (Radomiljac, 1998, Rimbawanto and Masripatin, 2005). S. album adapts to this very poor environment for tree growth by building a shallow horizontal root system and being a root parasite. Rahayu et al. (2002) report that the horizontal roots of S. album can reach up to 30m in length. The roots grow horizontally so that the plant can reach other plants surrounding it and parasitise them through their roots. Rahayu et al. (2002) note that there are more than 300 recorded host species for S. album in Timor. The host plants provide some nutrients and water essential to S. album survival and growth. In West Timor, mature plants of S. album are scattered throughout the landscape, especially in open areas and at the edges of forests. Common associates in the monsoon forests of West Timor include Psidium guajava, Tamarindus indica, Acacia villosa, Casuarina junghuhniana and Timotius timon (Rahayu et al., 2002). Seedlings, on the other hand, are usually found under stands of Eucalyptus urophylla, E. alba and Acacia leucophloea. Sometimes, the seedlings are found under a tree where a bird nested or under thorny bushes, where birds that feed on its fruits have dropped them on the ground (Rahayu et al., 2002). Mature plants rarely occupy closed forests because at this stage the plants need direct exposure to the sun. Mature trees are found in small disjunct populations (Rimbawanto and Masripatin, 2005). Values, price and markets Values Sandalwood has been a lucrative resource for East Nusa Tenggara Province. This can be seen from the Total Regional Revenue (PAD – Pendapatan Asli Daerah) of the East Nusa Tenggara Province during the 1990s (Table 1). In the early 1990s, sandalwood contributed almost 50% of the PAD of East Nusa Tenggara Province. The figure decreased dramatically in the late 1990s to just 13% of PAD. This dramatic decline in revenue followed a decrease in the total production, from 7,465,917 kg in the nine years 1987 to 1997 to just 2,178,697 kg of sandalwood timber in the six years 2001 to 2007 (Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi NTT, 2006). 67 TABLE 1. THE ANNUAL CONTRIBUTION OF SANDALWOOD TO THE TOTAL REGIONAL REVENUE (PAD) OF EAST NUSA TENGGARA PROVINCE, 1989 TO 2000 No Year Pendapatan Asli Daerah (PAD) Total Regional Revenue (In IDR) Contribution to PAD (In IDR) Percentage (%) 1 1989/1990 6,182,087,300 2,739,250,000 44 2 1990/1991 8,162,081,300 3,829,113,870 47 3 1991/1992 10,395,764,896 3,385,750,000 33 4 1992/1993 11,783,248,087 3,660,325,750 31 5 1993/1994 13,128,757,319 4,781,554,690 36 6 1995/1996 15,995,385,266 3,104,042,700 19 7 1996/1997 31,010,872,600 7,772,548,900 25 8 1997/1998 29,053,660,441 4,170,436,500 14 9 1998/1999 19,950,917,000 2,761,834,000 14 10 1999/2000 18,136,400,000 2,383,172,786 13 Source: Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi NTT, 2006. Notes: IDR is Indonesian Rupiah Nevertheless, sandalwood is still considered an important commodity export from West Timor. The wood and oil from the sandalwood harvested in West Timor are valued for handicrafts, medicines and religious purposes. East Nusa Tenggara Province participated in all these industries except for handicrafts as this is a traditional industry in Bali (Rimbawato and Masripatin, 2005). However, almost no activities are being conducted in the industries now since the raw materials became scarce. Price and Markets Sandalwood products (wood, sawdust or chips, and oil) generally generate a high price (Doran et al., 2002) reflecting the high quality of the raw material and its limited supply. The wood from sandalwood is one of very few woods which are sold based on the weight of the wood not on its volume. The Department of Industry of the Republic of Indonesia has set four main quality classes for sandalwood (McWilliam, 2005; Rahayu et al., 2002). These are classes of dried and cleaned timber. Moreover, the set prices for sandalwood can only be legally gained by selling through a formal auction process which is controlled by the Provincial and District Governments through the District’s Forestry Bureau. The prime classes are shown in Table 2. TABLE 2. QUALITY CLASSES OF WOOD OF SANDALWOOD AND PRICES No Wood Classes Price 1 Class A Rp 18,000 / kg ($A 3.80) 2 Class B Rp 15,000/ kg ($A 3.00) 3 Class C Rp 9,000/ kg ($A 1.90) Source: McWilliam, 2005; Rahayu et al., 2002) The fourth class is unprocessed or fresh-cut timber known as Kayu gubal which is sometimes sold at a discount which appears to range from just Rp1,000 to as much as Rp13,000 per kg depending on the source of information (Rahayu et al., 2002). The recording of sandalwood oil prices started pre-World War II, when the oil was traded for A$ 3.8 to A$ 4.2 per kg (Padmanabha, 2008). Since the 1990s, the price for naturally-sourced sandalwood oil has soared. Top grade sandalwood oil is now valued at more than A$2,000 per kg; while the lowest quality is sold for about A$1,500 per kg. Since at present there is a world shortage of supply of at least 100 tonnes of oil annually, so it must be very tempting for fragrance houses to seek alternatives or develop synthetic replacements. India and Indonesia supply 70% and 30% of sandalwood to the international market, respectively (Oyen and Dung, 1999; Harisetijono and Suriamihardja, 1993), but production data are varied and unreliable (Coppen, 1995). Therefore, consumption is also difficult to estimate. It is assumed that the world’s annual production or consumption of sandalwood is of the order of several hundred tonnes annually (Coppen, 1995). 68 India consumes about 50% of the world’s sandalwood products (Padmanabha, 2008). Apart from India, China, with no natural resources of sandalwood of its own, is the main market for the wood of sandalwood (Doran et al., 2002). Other large importers of sandalwood oil include the United States, France and the Middle East (Coppen, 1995). The USA, in particular, is the main destination of sandalwood exports from Indonesia (Coppen, 1995). Current threats to sandalwood in West Timor Because of the high economic importance of this species, it faces a high risk of extinction (Tennakoon and Cameron, 2006; McWilliam, 2005; Rahayu et al., 2002; Radomiljac, 1998). Common threats to this species are habitat loss, overexploitation, and lack of regeneration due to periodic fire and excessive grazing and, so far restricted to India, the spread of spike disease caused by the insect-carried, and sandal spike phytoplasma (IUCN, 2009; Suma and Balasundaran, 2003; Rahayu et al., 2002; Radomiljac, 1998; Rughkla et al., 1997). Throughout the history of sandalwood management in Timor some obvious threats contributing to the depletion of sandalwood in natural stands can be highlighted. Firstly, there have been extensive logging activities leading to over-exploitation of this species in natural stands. Unsustainable harvesting, combined with several disadvantaging regulations to control the sandalwood trade (see below), are actually the main threats to sandalwood in West Timor. In addition, most people in Timor are subsistence farmers who have been practising shifting agriculture for centuries. Fire is the main tool in subsistence agricultural land clearing and development. Uncontrolled fires have reduced the regeneration of sandalwood in natural stands because they change the structure of the stands (UNEP-WCMC, 2007). People in Timor have also been practising a wild foraging system for livestock, whereby domestic animals are released freely into the forests. The foliage of sandalwood is palatable to grazing animals such as rabbits, sheep, goats, cattle, pigs and horses (Rahayu et al., 2002). The wild forage system is also considered to be a contributing factor to the depletion of land cover, and impacts on the more fragile and highly erodible soil structure. This eventually leads to failure of the regeneration of sandalwood in natural stands. Lastly, over the past ten years Timor has been experiencing high rates of deforestation because of the conversion of forests to agricultural land and for human settlements. The high rates of deforestation have also caused the loss of some of the main hosts of sandalwood. Besides the threats caused by agricultural activities, the failure to protect and develop this species during the 1990s was due to a large extent to several past policies imposed by the local government that have disadvantaged the community of West Timor. For example, the policy of East Nusa Tenggara Province Regulation Number 16 1986, stated that the government had 85 % control and rights over the species in any stands, natural or plantation, even on people’s lands or farms. This law strongly discouraged the community from planting and conserving this species (Rahayu et al., 2002). Moreover, in many cases, farmers have preferred to cut down the trees and dig up seedlings that grow in their farms or yards, rather than tending them and benefiting the government (Rahayu et al., 2002). It is also important to maintain the supply of sandalwood from natural sources to ward off the threats from substitutes and particularly the threat of synthetics taking over from natural oils (Chawla, 2008). This would result in a lost opportunity to develop a viable and sustainable industry. Current management and conservation position Control over trade of sandalwood When talking about natural resources management in West Timor, the discussion inevitably turns to sandalwood. However, while much attention has been given to its exploitation, little effort has been expended on its maintenance, conservation and protection for sustainable resource management. Therefore, when discussing sandalwood management in West Timor, one can confidently argue that there has been no actual management of this resource so far. Efforts to control the trade of the species in Timor can be traced back to pre-colonial times (see Appendix 1 for a chronological account of the early regulations). This historical interest in the plant emphasises the highly significant economic benefits able to be derived from the trade. Fox (1977; 2002) and McWilliam (2005) provide in-depth background to the history of the trade of sandalwood in Timor. 69 However, it was the Indonesian administration following independence in 1945 that brought about a major shift in resource management policies and stricter control over sandalwood. The government of Indonesia adopted some of the existing colonial regulatory frameworks, resulting in significant social impacts on the people of Timor (Fox, 2002). The government claimed ownership over sandalwood through the implementation of state and provincial policies and regulations, all under the guise of protection and resource conservation (McWilliam, 2005). Although state intentions seemed appropriate at the time, the people were still left out of the trade and management; they still benefited little from what they saw as their own natural resources. Moreover, there were many controversial cases where rights over sandalwood were given to certain individuals and institutions; these allocations highlighted the lack of transparency in sandalwood management and trade. Several subsequent changes in the policies have served only to draw attention to the government’s continuing struggles to maintain effective management and control over this rich resource. Policy changes applying to sandalwood since Indonesian independence After Indonesian independence in 1945, some of the existing regulatory frameworks regarding sandalwood inherited from the Dutch colonial authorities were retained by the government of Indonesia. The regulatory frameworks then became district regulations. The summary of the policy changes during this period, translated and adapted from Pello (2000) as cited in Rahayu et al. (2002), are given in Appendix 2. Thus, it took at least until 1999 for farmers to get full ownership of sandalwood growing on their lands. Until this time, provincial government regulations severely restricted timber cutting by smallholders who had sandalwood trees growing on their land. The provincial government would decide when and how much to harvest, a decision, the government said was based on inventory surveys of stock (Fox, 2002; Rahayu et al., 2002; McWilliam, 2005). A larger proportion of income generated from harvest went to the government while the smallholders only received a comparatively small payment for cutting and gathering their own timber. The payments to smallholders were supposed to be a percentage of the timber value. However, the nominal prices set by the government were lower than market prices. Farmers were also expected to protect all sandalwood seedlings that germinated in their fields and conserve the trees to maturity for the benefit of the government harvest. As a consequence of this regulation, the appearance of sandalwood in a cultivated field was an unwelcome sign that threatened dire consequences for smallholder farmers. This is illustrated by Fox’s experience in West Timor: I once happened to be with a farmer in Amarasi who discovered a shoot of sandalwood growing in his dry field. Imploring me not to tell the ‘government’, he immediately uprooted the stalk and systematically traced its roots through his garden, pulling them up as he went” (Fox, 2002). The role of “Adat” or custom in sandalwood management For the Timorese, sandalwood holds a high social value. Many rituals, for example the ritual for exorcism of vengeful spirits and all activities related to the welfare of families and villages, incorporate sandalwood (Pae et al., 2004). Moreover, the pulpy red inner bark of the tree is often substituted for areca nuts in their betel quids (McWilliam, 2005). In Timor, vetor (kings) and noblemen used to play prominent roles in the activities surrounding the planting of sandalwood and they determined when the harvest of sandalwood could take place. Thus, the management of sandalwood was controlled by local indigenous institutions headed by the kings (Pae et al., 2002). However, for the past years the functions of the kings and the local institutions have been progressively reduced because of the implementation of the new type of government structure of villages (Pae et al., 2004). As a result, the control, maintenance and development of sandalwood by the people have been gradually weakened. Pae et al. (2004) in their study of sandalwood in Timor point out that within their project villages, local institutions were still in charge of the management until 1994, but their roles were less strategic since they had no legal foundations, although they were still respected. 70 Until recently, the people felt that they were often neglected in the management of sandalwood (Pae et al., 2004). The Timorese call this species hau plenat or ‘the government’s wood’; they thus perceive that management should only be carried out by the government (Pae et al., 2004). Progress on management and development of sandalwood in West Timor in recent times ACIAR was the first agency to initiate a project to re-establish and regenerate sandalwood in West Timor commencing in 1990 (Rimbawanto and Masripatin, 2005). One of the activities of this project was to identify seed trees. Fifty-five seed tree sources were identified in this project and later four seed production areas (SPA) were established. However, it is not known if these SPAs still exist (Rimbawanto and Masripatin, 2005). Efforts focussed on rehabilitation of sandalwood resources have been mainly conducted by forestry agencies such as Forestry Services and the Forestry Research and Development Centre in Kupang. Approximately 2400 ha have been planted with sandalwood but with a low rate of success (Rimbawanto and Masripatin, 2005). This is due to poor silviculture practices, limited facilities, continuous shifting cultivation and uncontrolled grazing. In the light of the threats to the sandalwood genetic resources in West Timor, active and focussed management is now required for its conservation and utilisation. The latest regulation, Provincial Regulation Number 2 1999, states that the management authority for sandalwood is the district governments through their forestry offices (Rahayu et al., 2002). The tasks of the ENT Forestry Office in sandalwood management are to undertake inventory, distribution of seedlings, monitoring, and planting of sandalwood in coordination with the district forestry offices. Although the management has been handed over to the districts through their forestry offices, much of the money for the management of sandalwood has been given to the province as the representative of the central government. Thus, districts depend entirely on ENT Province to allocate monies for sandalwood development in their region. It is extremely important that this process be transparent to boost people’s confidence in the process and counter any negative acts like corruption. In 2009, the government of ENT Province set in place a new programme called Anggaran untuk rakyat menuju sejahtera (Budget for the people – for prosperity), in which one of the main activities is planting sandalwood. It is a part of the government’s decision to regain the glory and ‘aroma’ of sandalwood in ENT Province. The goal of this programme is to bring about successful and efficient sustainable management of sandalwood that could provide work opportunities and entrepreneurial activities in order to improve income generation, the independence of farmers groups, and improvements in environmental quality (Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi NTT, 2009a). The first period of this management programme will last for four years, from 2009 to 2013. It targets private and communal land, customary land and forest areas and especially areas or regions where sandalwood is found naturally, a total area of 3,500 ha. Based on studies conducted by several consultants, three strategic actions need to be implemented to ensure sandalwood development in East Nusa Tenggara. They are (a) to review and reassess policy and regulations regarding sandalwood and to make them more pro-people and pro-farmers’ groups through the implementation of provincial and district regulations; (b) protection and conservation of the remaining natural trees or stands to ensure that they continue to provide genetic resources and seed trees; and (c) planting and development of 4,750,000 seedlings of sandalwood during the four-year period (750,000 seedlings in 2009 and one million seedlings every year between 2010 and 2013) (Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi NTT, 2009a). Moreover, the government of ENT Province also plans to establish several sandalwood forests in the form of community forests on state, private and communal land. In 2010, the government plans to establish a 500 ha area of sandalwood forest and this will be continued through the development of another 750 ha area of sandalwood forest (Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi NTT, 2009b). The Department of Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia is also supporting this sandalwood development by supplying seeds and initiating other planting programmes including the ‘One Man One Tree’ programme. This programme, being implemented throughout Indonesia, was first proclaimed in Ponain Village, District of Kupang in February 2008 (Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi NTT, 2009b). 71 During the first period of development (2009-2013), an inventory of sandalwood will be carried out to understand the real potential for better management of the remaining sandalwood resources. Simultaneously, a survey and investigation of potential planting areas, and preparation of seedlings will be carried out. After that, planting will be conducted in partnership with communities and other relevant stakeholders such as NGOs, universities and governmental institutions. Current position regarding conservation of sandalwood in West Timor The history of the management of sandalwood in West Timor is a long story of ecological negligence and misuse, in which the resources were utilised without any consideration for the long-term survival of the species. Considering that it has been threatened with extinction, IUCN put this species onto its red list of threatened species with the global conservation status ‘vulnerable’ based on an assessment made in 1998 (IUCN, 2009). Moreover, in 1984, FAO noted that sandalwood should be given a high priority for in situ conservation action (UNEP-WCMC, 2007). Some focussed and determined conservation efforts and measures are therefore needed in order to maintain its existence. In West Timor, efforts on protection and conservation of sandalwood were undertaken by imposing a temporary ban on logging. The first ban on harvesting was instructed by the senior district administrator of South-Central Timor District as a response to the unsustainable and illegal logging of mature trees (McWilliam, 2005). Using a customary banning mechanism known as a banu, the population of the district agreed ‘to guard and protect sandalwood’ or panat ma ampa loli haumeni (McWilliam, 2005). This was a successful ban because the people respected it, as it contained spiritual as well as social sanctions. However, it was the government itself that ignored the ban with the excuse that the sustainable yield of the sandalwood was 350 tonnes per year (McWilliam, 2005). Moreover, a provincial government project known as ‘Operation friendship’ (Operasi bersahabat) collected all dried sandalwood old logs that were thought to be secreted in villages across the district of South-Central Timor. The reason behind this action was unclear but what was obvious was that it initiated extensive felling of the remaining sandalwood trees to boost the dried stocks which were offered up (McWilliam, 2005). The total sandalwood timber obtained from this project was twice as much as the total production of the district for the previous five years. Eventually in 1997, the governor of East Nusa Tenggara Province declared a complete ban on harvesting sandalwood for at least five years, from 1997 to 2003 (McWilliam, 2005). However, this latest ban has actually led to an even more dramatic decline in the sandalwood population as it has encouraged illegal logging. This was due to the suspicions by the community about the government over management and policing practices and the fact that the price of sandalwood increased dramatically during this time. Thus, people were tempted to cut their trees illegally and sell them on the black market. Although sandalwood is now rarely found in its natural distribution, to date there have been no real efforts to protect this species nor its natural habitat in West Timor. This situation highlights the underlying intention of the government to promote this species commercially without any regard to its long-term survival. Main issues in management and conservation Policy Although the current regulation (Provincial Regulation Number 2 1999) guarantees people’s ownership of sandalwood, the present situation of sandalwood in West Timor can be taken as an indication of a tendency that began in the colonial period and one that has greatly increased since Indonesia’s independence in 1945. The state has intervened to control and regulate a natural resource without fully understanding the social ecology of the resource it is trying to manage, nor has it understood the implications for smallholders of the policies that it is applying. Thus, factors that really impede further development and management of sandalwood in West Timor are less to do with the technical aspects and more to do with the social aspects of management. These policies plus stricter control over sandalwood have caused significant social issues and difficulties in West Timor. There is also a continuing failure of law enforcement to control illegal harvesting, under-reporting and the smuggling of the timber. 72 Since it was recognised that sandalwood has a significant economic value, its management in Timor has been under several sets of central and district government regulations, each with their own agenda. The regulations have put even more pressure on the people resulting in some negative actions. Firstly, the Timorese people have been afraid, for obvious reasons, to plant sandalwood within their gardens and farms (Rahayu et al., 2002). Until recently, people still regarded sandalwood as hau malasi or the source of ‘problem wood’ (Rahayu et al., 2002; Pae et al., 2004) because, according to past government policy, people had no effective rights over the sandalwood growing within their farms and gardens (McWilliam, 2005). All sandalwood belonged to the government, even if it grew within people’s lands or farms. Moreover, there have been numerous cases where people were sent to prison because they had harvested their sandalwood without officially informing the government (Rahayu et al., 2002; Pae et al., 2004). As a result, they intentionally annihilated all the sandalwood which was growing spontaneously within their lands (Pae et al., 2004; McWilliam, 2005) rather than risk official fines or censure if the trees were damaged or deemed to be neglected (McWilliam, 2005). Secondly, the system for sharing benefits set down in the district government regulations was seen as unfair since it gives a larger proportion of the sale price to the government with the growers only getting 40% of any sandalwood products (Rahayu et al., 2002; Pae et al., 2004; McWilliam, 2005). This has led to illegal logging after which the wood is sold on the black market where often a better price is offered. In many cases, people not only take the wood but also take the roots, where the highest quality oil is located (Rahayu et al., 2002). This places more pressure on the regeneration of sandalwood as this kind of harvesting precludes natural vegetative propagation. District Regulation Number 2 1999, which replaced the old District Regulation Number 16 1986, is seen as a belated government effort to better manage the remaining resources (Pae et al., 2004; McWilliam, 2005). The government’s intention is to prevent the extinction of sandalwood in West Timor by providing larger management and utilisation spaces to the people. This has been seen as a belated effort because the population of sandalwood has already become so severely depleted. Many districts in West Timor, once prominent sources of sandalwood, can no longer supply the sandalwood market. The remaining sandalwood resources can only be seen growing on a very few farms and in a few gardens with little maintenance effort. Land and property rights One of the biggest sources of confusion in sandalwood management is over land tenure. This, in turn, then leads to confusion over property rights. The government of Indonesia has set aside large areas of its national territory as state forests (FAO, 2005). However, it is often the case that the people or the communities living in or around the forests are neglected or ignored in the process of forest designation for ownership and management. Local land uses, therefore, frequently vary from the national legal framework and the state’s legal framework is often at odds with local traditions and adat or customary rights (Safitri, 2005). Moreover, the national laws and regulations are often understood, or misunderstood, in particular ways by certain government representatives and forest agents who deal directly with communities surrounding the contested forests (Kusters et al., 2007) but the communities may understand the laws and regulations differently. The forest agents usually have nothing to achieve in confronting locals when the concept of state ownership of land is at stake. In such situations most communities ignore the contested status of the land because it may have little impact on the communities’ perception of land tenure security. However, this situation inevitably leads to increased conflicts when government-supported projects claim land already used or controlled by local communities (Kusters et al., 2007). This leads further to a growing feeling of insecurity among local communities regarding land tenure and the resources within the land and a growing unwillingness to be further manipulated. Land tenure is also one of the major concerns of individuals and communities in West Timor. One example is the ongoing dispute over land ownership in some parts of the Mount Mutis Nature Reserve in the district of South-Central Timor (Lentz and Mallo, 1998). South-Central Timor is an area where some major concentrations of sandalwood are still found, and near Mount Mutis natural stands of sandalwood still occur. The lack of clarity over the reserve boundaries surrounding Mount Mutis has resulted in disputes over the ownership of the forest and natural resources (Lentz and Mallo, 1998). 73 Confusion over land tenure leads to the people’s confusion over who has ownership of or rights over sandalwood. Like in other parts of Indonesia, the natural forest area in West Timor is controlled by the Ministry of Forestry with the local district government implementing many activities within the local forest area. Indonesia’s forests are divided into four functional areas: conservation forest, protection forest, production forest and other land uses. The Timorese people also have private or communal land that is owned by a family or a clan. Since the government seeks control over land and forests which have been managed traditionally by the people and their communities near and around the forests, it is the case that all sandalwood belongs to the government even if it grows on people’s lands. Species decline In the history of the management of sandalwood, much attention has been given to how sandalwood could yield as much economic benefit as possible without considering the ecological limits of the species. It is the combination of long-term historical neglect and short-term economic opportunism which has caused the ecological depletion of sandalwood resources across the island of Timor (McWilliam, 2005). These factors and others such as the lack of regeneration due to fires, shifting cultivation and uncontrolled cattle grazing, have been the causes of the serious decline in sandalwood in Timor (Coppen, 1995; Rahayu et al., 2002). According to surveys done by ENT Forestry Office, during the 11-year period 1987 to 1997 there was more than a 50% reduction in the number of trees and seedlings of sandalwood in West Timor (Table 3). The combination of long-term historical neglect and short-term economic opportunism is exacerbated by the fact that replanting activities have not been so successful. This is due to sandalwood’s complex silvicultural requirement and people have not been attracted to plant sandalwood again in their gardens or farms due to the disadvantageous policies implemented by the provincial government. TABLE 3. NUMBER OF TREES AND SEEDLINGS OF SANDALWOOD IN FOUR DISTRICTS IN WEST TIMOR BASED ON INVENTORIES CONDUCTED IN 1987 AND 1997 No District Number of trees Number of seedlings Year Year 1987 1997 1987 1997 1 Kupang 10,521 2,230 17,069 10,952 2 South-Central Timor 80,655 16,968 193,365 95,742 3 North-Central Timor 42,266 16,090 85,235 17,988 4 Belu 43,507 16,129 92,334 74,841 182,933 51,417 502,584 199,523 Total Source: Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi NTT, 2006 Lack of coordination in management and conservation The promulgation of Regional Government Law marks a momentous change in Indonesian governmental structure and organisation, from being one of the most centralised countries in the world to one of the more decentralised ones (Palmer and Engel, 2007). Decentralisation is interpreted by many districts in Indonesia as a way of exerting greater control over livelihoods and gaining greater share of natural resources, arising from cultural and structural reinforcement of the districts (Palmer and Engel, 2007; Saptomo, 2006). This leads to a full or partial transfer of natural resources rights from the central government to local user groups or communities and to the district government. These changes within the Indonesian government and the relations between the central and district governments, civil society and the private sector are opening up new spaces for negotiation as well as conflicts (Thorburn, 2004). As decentralisation forces the districts to become more self dependent in terms of finance, automatically, as a way of gaining more income, the first intention is to exploit their natural resources within their jurisdiction, including sandalwood. Sandalwood has attracted the interest of the central government and now the provincial and the district governments. Each government has different interests and can now set their own policies and regulations regarding sandalwood. This only brings confusion to the local people as different messages are received. This increases people’s lack of confidence in managing and utilising sandalwood. 74 Furthermore, most agencies involved in their sandalwood programmes often work individually. According to Rimbawanto and Haryjanto (2005), sandalwood rehabilitation can only be successful if all stakeholders who are engaged in efforts of sandalwood redevelopment are working together in a coordinated manner. Proposed integrative management and conservation strategy An integrative management and conservation strategy that is likely to be feasible for West Timor is given below. This strategy takes into account the earlier discussion of the factors leading up to the current disastrous state of sandalwood in the region as well as recommendations of scientists (e.g. Rimbawanto and Haryjanto, 2005; Rimbawanto and Masripatin, 2005). It establishes programmes for both in situ and ex situ conservation of the genetic resources, mass propagation of sandalwood seedlings, and development of model plantations. Before coming to the actual management and conservation strategy, consideration is given to several national programmes that are currently underway in Indonesia. These programmes have the potential to contribute significantly to the management and conservation strategy, as seen from the objectives of the programmes. National strategy: current programmes that would benefit from adoption of a national strategy Current central government programmes that could support the conservation and management of sandalwood in West Timor are described below. According to Rimbawanto and Haryjanto (2005), it is crucial to adopt a national programme for sandalwood redevelopment and rehabilitation in West Timor. The first two programmes come from the Land Rehabilitation and Social Forestry Directorate of the Department of Forestry, Republic of Indonesia. Both these programmes emphasize rehabilitation, reforestation and development as well as community-based forestry activities, all of which can be integrated into a sandalwood development programme. In contrast the third programme, ‘One Man, One Tree’, is a presidential programme that is a programme that is personally supported and promoted by the President of Indonesia, and is being executed by the Department of Forestry in co-operation with and through all provincial governments in Indonesia. In this programme, sandalwood is also a target species. The government’s seriousness in incorporating sandalwood into rehabilitation and planting programmes can be seen from the large amounts of money that have been given to the provincial government of the ENT for rehabilitation and regreening programmes in the region. Critical lands reforestation and regreening programme ‘Critical land’ refers to a portion of degraded land that has lost its vegetation cover (MoF-RoI, 2008). As a consequence, some of the land’s ecological functions such as water retention, erosion control, nutrient cycling, micro-climate regulation and carbon retention, have been significantly reduced or completely destroyed. Critical land is further classified as very critical, critical, slightly critical, potentially critical and normal condition based on the condition of its vegetation. Critical land can be found inside forest areas or watersheds as well as outside forest areas. Restoration or rehabilitation of critical lands inside forest areas or watersheds is called ‘reforestation’ or ‘forest rehabilitation’. The aim of reforestation or rehabilitation is to restore the ecological and hydrological functions of the degraded land in the forests or watershed areas (MoF-RoI, 2008). The reforestation activities are to be conducted with the active participation of local communities living near the target areas. Regreening, on the other hand, is an effort to rehabilitate critical lands outside forest areas by planting trees and implementing soil conservation practices (MoF-RoI, 2008). It aims to improve land productivity and hydrological function. The regreening activities may be implemented as part of a number of other related schemes, such as a community forest and village nursery development programme. A community forest activity is carried out with the cooperation of communities near degraded areas located outside forest areas. The main species used for planting in such areas are multi-purpose tree species, fruit trees, and fuel woods. The objectives of this scheme are to facilitate economic improvement and bring about sustainable forest production for the community while improving soil fertility and restoring good environmental conditions. Between 2004 and 2008, the Ministry of Forestry managed to revitalize community forests of approximately 968,974 ha (MoF-RoI, 2008). The programme achieved an additional area of 227,584 ha in 2008 (MoF-RoI, 2008). 75 A village nursery is a temporary nursery that is developed by farmer groups throughout villages in response to their demand for seedlings for regreening activities. During 2004 to 2008, 512.157 million seedlings were raised in various village nurseries across the country (MoF-RoI, 2008). In 2008 the programme achieved an additional 25.78 million seedlings (MoF-RoI, 2008). The total area categorised as critical lands in East Nusa Tenggara Province is 4,391,767 ha, consisting of 1,171,956 ha of slightly critical land, 2,234,587 ha of critical land, and 985,224 ha of very critical land (MoF-RoI, 2008). Within the forest area, total critical land in East Nusa Tenggara is 299,291 ha, while it is much higher outside the forest area, a total of 1,057,466 ha (MoF-RoI, 2008). One of the characteristics of sandalwood is that the species performs best under a degree of environmental stress (McWilliam, 2005) such as dry conditions and hot climate. This characteristic is a strategy the species has used to adapt itself to Timor’s very poor environment. The nature of sandalwood and its parasitic habit present an opportunity for sandalwood to be incorporated into the programme as one of the rehabilitation species to support the management and ex-situ conservation programme of sandalwood. The sandalwood rehabilitation programme in East Nusa Tenggara Province through the two programmes mentioned above was originally begun by the Ministry of Forestry in 2006. Forestry agencies such as the Provincial Forestry Offices and the Forestry Research and Development Centre in Kupang have also been actively implementing sandalwood resources rehabilitation programmes. Another institution which has been active in developing suitable technology for sandalwood cultivation is the Indonesian Science Institute (LIPI) (Rimbawanto and Haryjanto, 2005). These activities have also been carried out by local NGOs, especially in supporting local communities in planting activities (Rimbawanto and Haryjanto, 2005). Development of community-owned forest and community forest A ‘community-owned forest’ is a forest area that is owned traditionally by a community as it has been passed on through generations (MoF-RoI, 2008). Such forest area has a minimum size of 0.25 ha and has a canopy of woody trees or other plants with more than 50 % tree crown cover or other plants that are planted in the first year at a minimum density of 500 trees per hectare (MoF-RoI, 2008). The ‘community-owned forest management programme’ is implemented through various management units. A unit consists of several farmer groups with total area of at least 900 ha. Under the programme, community-owned forest management can be developed on lands with customary ownership rights or other rights outside the forest area all needing to meet the requirements for community-owned forest development. In order to meet the increasing domestic demand for timber and non-timber products for construction and industrial purposes, the government has promoted the development of community-owned forests by promoting a special incentive through access to low interest bank loans since 1997 (MoF-RoI, 2008). This programme, called Kredit Usaha Hutan Rakyat (KUHR) or ‘Community-owned Forest Development Credit’, is also intended to accelerate the rehabilitation of critical lands that will eventually lead to community welfare improvement and an enhanced environment. ‘Community forests’, on the other hand, are state forests managed by local communities for the purpose of economic empowerment and improvement without undermining their forest functions (MoF-RoI, 2008). The management of such forests conforms to the principles of sustainable forest management and can be implemented throughout Indonesia’s forests. Given the fact that sandalwood has been managed traditionally by Timorese communities, the Community Forest Programme may meet the criteria for a community forest for sandalwood management in West Timor. Moreover, current sandalwood trees mainly occur on private and communal land, giving a broad hint that community-based management programmes are likely to be more suitable for better management and conservation programmes for sandalwood. 76 ‘One Man, One Tree’ programme Indonesia plays a significant role in climate change and global warming issues by providing environmental services through carbon sequestration. With an area of 120.3 million ha, Indonesia’s forests could sequester carbon significantly (Republik Indonesia, 2008). However, deforestation is a major threat to these forests and deforestation rates show no signs of abatement in that deforestation contributes to carbon emissions itself at it releases carbon into the atmosphere. One way to slow global warming is by increasing the absorption of greenhouse gases through tree planting activities. ‘One Man, One Tree’ is a programme initiated by the President of Indonesia in 2009 as a response to global warming issues. The programme aims to improve environmental quality, especially to improve the capacity of carbon sequestration through community-based planting programmes (Republik Indonesia, 2008). The Ministry of Forestry has been appointed as the government institution in charge of the implementation of this programme. The ‘One Man, One Tree’ programme, being implemented throughout Indonesia, was first proclaimed in Ponain Village, District of Kupang on 12 February 2008 (Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi NTT, 2009b; Republik Indonesia, 2008). Ponain was deliberately chosen as the first area to carry out this planting programme as part of the support that the central government gives to the successful establishment of sandalwood in East Nusa Tenggara province, especially in West Timor. The government hopes that by facilitating such a community-based forestry development programme it can encourage further commitment from community institutions to maintain, manage, utilise and preserve natural resources, especially sandalwood and host plants for sandalwood. International initiatives There are at least two international initiatives currently underway that are offering assistance for sandalwood development in West Timor. The first is a programme undertaken by CSIRO and funded by AusAID called ‘An intervention to the sustainable management of natural resources in West Timor Indonesia’; the collaborating agency is the Institute of Forest Research and Development (IFRD) in Kupang. This programme aims to improve forest conservation and natural resources management in West Timor (AusAID, 2009). The objectives of this programme are integrated in three areas: building capacity of IFRD to improve its functions in forest conservation and resource management, participatory activities employing rural communities, public sector institutions and other relevant stakeholders, and the development of tree planting models including on farms and in natural forest areas (AusAID, 2009). It is hoped that this programme will help lessen the pressure on the remaining natural forests in West Timor to enable them to recover. Thus, the activity is designed as an intervention to support tree planting programmes. It will promote tree planting on community land to further decrease people’s dependency on the natural forest for their livelihoods. In addition, it also hoped that the participatory activities will bring an improved understanding of the social issues regarding sandalwood management in order to encourage positive change. In this collaboration, sandalwood is one of the main tree species to be planted. The other programme is being implemented by ITTO (the International Tropical Timber Organisation); ITTO PD 459/07 is called ‘Improving the Enabling Conditions for Sustainable Management of Sandalwood Forest Resources in East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia’. The project is being executed by Indonesia’s Directorate General of Production Forest Management in collaboration with the Forestry Office of East Nusa Tenggara Province. The aim of the programme is to provide assistance to the provincial government of East Nusa Tenggara in an effort to support and sustain sandalwood in that area (ITTO, 2008; MoF-RoI, 2010). Two teams of experts will work on two aspects of sandalwood management: policy analysis and economy (M0F- RoI, 2010). The specific objectives of this programme are to explore and obtain an understanding of the perceptions of various stakeholders regarding policies and economic aspects of sandalwood management in East Nusa Tenggara (MoF-RoI, 2010). Furthermore, the Forestry Research Centre in Kupang, working in partnership with ACIAR (Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research), is currently preparing for a sandalwood genetic conservation programme. In addition, the Forestry Research Centre (FORDA) is developing a sandalwood Master Plan which will be used as a guideline for formulating activities for sandalwood management at provincial and district levels. 77 All the programmes mentioned above are providing support to the management and conservation of sandalwood in West Timor, either directly or indirectly. These programmes emphasise planting activity, policy and economic analyses, the conservation of genetic resources, and community-based activities. Criteria and indicators for sustainable integrative management and better conservation strategy for sandalwood A set of criteria and indicators needs to be developed to provide guidelines for sandalwood management. Criteria and indicators are set up to periodically describe, assess and monitor the development of sustainable forest management (SFM) over a period of time within a country or in a particular forest area (The Montreal Process, 2007; Lindenmayer and Burgman, 2005; DAFF, 2006; FAO, 2008). The critical part of implementing these criteria and indicators lies in the attempt to achieve a common understanding of what is intended by SFM (The Montreal Process, 2007; Lindenmayer and Burgman, 2005; Wijewardana, 2008). The objectives of criteria and indicators are to endorse improved forest management practices over time, and to further develop a more productive forest estate by considering the social, economic, environmental and cultural aspects of various stakeholders involved in the management process (FAO, 2008). Adapting the criteria and indicators established by UNCED (The Montreal Process, 2007), a set of criteria and indicators for better, more sustainable management and conservation of sandalwood in West Timor is developed here. Issues to consider when building the criteria and indicators for sandalwood management are that there has previously been no adequate conservation effort for this species. Other aspects to consider are attempts to regain the productive capacity of sandalwood in Timor and the implementation of a policy to encourage people to plant and conserve the species. The criteria and indicators are shown in Table 4. TABLE 4. CRITERIA AND INDICATORS FOR THE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF SANDALWOOD IN TIMOR No Criteria Indicators 1. Legal, institutional and economic frameworks for the conservation and sustainable management of sandalwood 1. Extent to which the legal frameworks support the conservation and management of sandalwood (property rights, public involvement, human resources skills, etc); 2. Non-discriminatory trade policies for sandalwood products; 3. Adjustment in policies and in benefit redistribution system; and 4. Research and development. 2. Transfer production of sandalwood from natural forests to plantations or agroforestry systems 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Areas available and ready for plantations; Areas available for agroforestry systems; Identifying issues in the market; Market opportunities; and Training of farmers. 3. Conservation of the natural distribution of sandalwood 1. 2. 3. 4. Number of sandalwood in natural stands; Areas of natural habitat; Number of hosts; and Status of on-site and off-site efforts focused on conservation of the genetic diversity of sandalwood The management and conservation strategy for sandalwood discussed below expands what has been set out in Table 4, supplemented by additional understanding, analysis and implementation practices so that the programme integrates the important aspects reviewed so far. 78 Management strategy Management objectives Clear goals for sandalwood management must first be set up to guide its management and conservation. Based on the assessment of the ecology and current status of sandalwood, the ecological, economic and social aspects of management need to be seriously considered together to achieve sustainable and integrated management of sandalwood in West Timor. The proposed management goals of sandalwood in West Timor are: • Ecological 1. Support the natural processes of life occurring in the natural stands of sandalwood (e.g., climate, landscape, hydrology, water and air quality and aesthetic qualities, presence of host plants) so that the environmental context for re-establishment of sandalwood will support this goal; 2. Conserve the natural distribution of sandalwood in the region; 3. Maintain the structure of the natural distribution of the species; and 4. Support any in-situ or ex-situ conservation efforts regarding sandalwood. • Economic 1. Regain the volume and productive capacity of sandalwood; and 2. Develop a viable and stable marketing strategy for sandalwood through assessing the sandalwood resource, reviewing the current market situation, identifying issues, exploring market opportunities and developing a marketing strategy that also adequately rewards farmers for their efforts. • Social 1. Support training, education and scientific research on sandalwood; 2. Distribute to farmers any relevant technical information for the management and conservation of existing stands and raising and expansion of new stands; 3. Support strong community involvement in the development of sandalwood; and 4. Maintain the cultural and historical values of sandalwood. Extent to which the legal frameworks support the conservation and management of sandalwood in West Timor In linking up with the provincial government’s decision to develop East Nusa Tenggara Province as the ‘Sandalwood Province’ (Provinsi Cendana), one of the ‘must do’ actions is to review and re-develop policies for the sustainable management and utilisation of sandalwood. Legal frameworks in the form of district or provincial regulations should take the side of the community, of farmers, and other smallholders. There are four aspects of the legal frameworks that must be properly thought through: benefit sharing, land tenure and property rights; public awareness; and public involvement. The aim of these policy changes is not only to make sandalwood development more attractive to local communities and farmers but also to encourage village-based tree planting of sandalwood. Current regulations on sandalwood in West Timor (East Nusa Tenggara Provincial Regulation Number 2 1999) have granted individual ownership of sandalwood growing within farmers own lands to the farmers. The benefit share set down in the provincial regulations should be reviewed meaning that there should be a clear statement on how much the farmers can get and how much the government would take. The government should receive only a reasonable percentage from sales of the timber, in the form of royalty. The royalty can be about 10-15% of the sale price of sandalwood. The royalties can then go to the district revenue agencies and be treated as district revenue. Regarding land tenure and property rights, any new regulations should ensure that there are clear boundaries between areas the government controls and properties that are owned by people themselves. Steps to be taken include re-visiting and re-adjusting boundary demarcation of permanent state forests and re-mapping of state forests to gain a better insight into land-use patterns. This action should be conducted in coordination with the local communities surrounding the forest. 79 Often the Timorese people simply do not know about the actual regulations that are being implemented because there have been so many changes in the regulations. One example is that many people still think that District Regulation Number 16 1986 is being implemented and this regulation can disadvantage them when applied to cultivation, which then discourages them from growing sandalwood. Thus, it is very important for the government to raise public awareness of any new regulations to ensure that there will be no more confusion over ownership or rights in regard to sandalwood. Awareness raising about any new regulations should aim to build better communications between the government and the Timorese people about any sandalwood management programmes, regulations and policy in order to support the acceleration and successful development of sandalwood. Based on my own personal experience, many people are still quite unclear about the regulations in relation to tree ownership because of the many changes in policy that have occurred over time and the different policies put in place by different agencies, including districts. Thus, a public awareness programme is the key to successful management of sandalwood and this can be done through workshops and seminars; optimization of the use of existing religious and traditional institutions or other professional institutions as channels of information; optimisation of formal institutions such as schools and universities to conduct environmental education on sandalwood; and expanding information through the intensive use of local media such as newspapers and radio broadcasts. Since sandalwood has been traditionally managed by the Timorese communities in the past, any new management strategy should be embedded in community-based management. The government’s decision that East Nusa Tenggara should aim to regain its status as the ‘Sandalwood Province’ through programmes for sandalwood promotion points to the need to achieve a strategic effort by districts or provincial and national interests. Therefore, such a programme of development should be directed as a synergetic, coordinated and integrated approach which involves a number of related stakeholders, including the government, the private sector and the communities through effective and efficient planning and strategy. In addition, in the implementation of such programmes it is hoped that the public and the people will be involved as far as possible so that the programme can be run transparently. Moving towards an integrated sandalwood resources management system An integrated approach is needed in sandalwood policy and management reform. An integrated resource management programme involves a process that puts forward development and resource management through coordination in order to maximise the balance between economic and social welfare returns without affecting vital ecosystem sustainability (Helmi, 2003) and the loss of a species through unsustainable practices. There are two aspects to consider in such an integrated approach to sandalwood resources management: the natural system and the human system. In the human system component, especially, there are at least two aspects essential to the integration of the system for sandalwood resources management. Firstly, there should be a cross-sectoral integration in the development of policy regarding sandalwood. This implies that sandalwood policy or law should be integrated with and supported by economic, social and other sectoral development policies. Alternatively, policies regarding social and economic development should also consider their implications for sandalwood resources so that conflicts of interest can be avoided (Helmi, 2003; Smits et al., nd). This imperative also dictates that sandalwood management requires regular exchanging of information between all related sectors and coordination between the sectors. Secondly, in planning and decision making processes regarding sandalwood, every stakeholder should be engaged in creating a balance and achieving sustainability. This aspect should be considered because in reality, each stakeholder holds different interests that could potentially be in conflict with each other. In relation to stakeholder engagement, operational tools may be developed to handle and resolve any conflict and to evaluate trade-offs between various objectives, planning and actions. The issue regarding this point is that the responsibilities for sandalwood management and conservation in Indonesia are still fragmented in several governmental institutions, such as the Department of Forestry, the district government and other stakeholders. Thus, a provincial coordination framework should be developed in engaging and coordinating these stakeholders. A single universal policy across all levels of government can ensure that message is understood across agencies and the people become more confident in developing and establishing sandalwood in their own properties. 80 Building awareness of sandalwood management Building awareness of sandalwood management should target not only the Timorese communities but also government officials. This constructive action can be divided into three main goals. The first is to improve both the government’s and the people’s awareness of the status, function and important values of sandalwood. The district and the provincial governments, which together have authority over land and the region, should take full responsibility for sandalwood management. Government officials should be the primary agents who initiate, facilitate and encourage any sustainable management efforts for sandalwood. Secondly, real efforts should be made to allay people’s deep-seated trauma and fears concerning sandalwood management arising from past policies and actions. The community as the subject of the sustainable management of sandalwood should become the central point because nowadays most of the remaining sandalwood resources grow on both private and communal lands. If people are no longer fearful, it is hoped that there will be a marked increase in the participation of people in all aspects of sandalwood management. The third point is to improve the coordination and communication between government institutions, and between the private sector and the communities. Successful coordination and communication can be used as tools to improve control by the communities over any sandalwood management action implemented by the government. Moreover, the relevant government agencies, such as Department of Forestry, Forestry Offices in districts and universities should work together towards creating a common policy and sending a consistent message and implementation support out to the people. An on-going extension programme should be set up; this would also strengthen the capacity for the message to be understood. Villagers, then, will become confident to plant sandalwood in the knowledge that the trees will be theirs to sell. Capacity building In line with the government’s decision to redevelop sandalwood forests and plantations and improve communities’ participation in sandalwood management, the government should prepare all the technical and practical matters regarding the silvicultural aspects of sandalwood. Pae et al. (2004) argue that one of the main causes of the failure of more recent attempts to develop sandalwood in Timor is the lack of training of people in the silvicultural aspects of sandalwood such as nurseries, land preparation, and planting. Any extension or capacity building for tending and management of sandalwood trees should be welcomed, assisted and supported. Local or aid agencies should be encouraged to take the initiative to provide technical training on sandalwood. Currently, CSIRO through a project titled ‘An intervention to the sustainable management of natural resources in West Timor, Indonesia’, is trying to address this issue in cooperation with the national, provincial and district governments, the private sector, universities and NGOs. Transfer production from natural stands to plantations or agroforestry systems Production of sandalwood should be done through plantation and agroforestry systems since the natural stands have been severely depleted. McWilliam (2005) argues that sandalwood has the potential to be grown in plantations because the time needed to get mature heartwood equals approximately a human’s life time. Thus, the government decision to recreate plantation forests of sandalwood (Dinas Kehutanan Provinsi NTT, 2009b) is achievable. However, it is unlikely that such plantations are going to be a dense monoculture of sandalwood because the parasitic habit of sandalwood necessitates that the plant depends on a host throughout its life and so a mixed planting of sandalwood and host species is needed. A farmer-based system, on the other hand, needs only to have the existing system of agroforestry facilitated and expanded where sandalwood has traditionally provided a long-term domestic investment within an economically diversified agricultural asset base in Timor. Researchers strongly suggest the possibility of incorporating one or more high value timber species within a sandalwood silvicultural system to act as long-term hosts for sandalwood (e.g., Rahayu et al., 2002; McWilliam, 2005). Farmers could also plant annual crops such as corn, chilli and beans. A biodiverse farm forestry system, producing two or more high value timber products appears not only possible but also the most likely to be successful. The rate of success will improve if sandalwood growers also receive a higher proportion of the financial benefit from selling the sandalwood. 81 Within such agroforestry systems, farmers can obtain better economic benefits while also helping to maintain ecological functions. Economically, farmers could derive additional income from hedgerow trees and the annual crops planted within their sandalwood gardens. Within these systems, the diversification of the income base, which is an important attraction to farmers, is achieved and farmers can depend on the other plants when their sandalwood trees are not yet ready for harvesting. To make the planting even more attractive, perhaps, in the first years of development of this farmer-based system, the government should provide incentives for tree planting. Marketing Since sandalwood depends on other plants surrounding it to survive (i.e., it is parasitic), it can be developed together with other commodities in order to support other primary agricultural programmes such as corn and green animal feed. This intercropping method is also a means to seek support from farmers for sandalwood management and to adopt a management and marketing system through cooperatives for promoting and selling sandalwood. Cooperatives are the most appropriate intervening measure or marketing system that the government can implement for all sandalwood growers through which sandalwood can be sold so that people can benefit directly from the sale. However, there should be a standard way of doing this in terms of management and, most importantly, in setting the price and share of benefits. It is the government that is determined to redevelop sandalwood and has the management programmes; thus, it is the government’s job to protect and create a safe marketing environment that benefits all stakeholders but especially smallholder farmers. Moreover, farmers in West Timor are experienced in marketing their farm products through cooperatives. Therefore, setting up sandalwood cooperatives would not be a foreign process to them.The motto of cooperatives is ‘from the people, to the people and by the people’. It means that the cooperatives are managed by the people themselves for the welfare of the members. Such an environment can ensure transparency in the industry. Conservation strategy Undertake a thorough inventory of the remaining sandalwood trees or natural stands throughout West Timor During the first period of development, an inventory of sandalwood should be carried out to understand the real natural distribution and potential of sandalwood for better management and conservation actions. Moreover, an inventory is needed on which to base harvesting regimes to ensure more planned and sustainable sandalwood utilisation. GIS-based (Geographic Information System) tools should be used in this inventory to precisely locate and map the trees and stands. A GIS-based inventory would also be helpful in determining the habitat area and would aid further analysis of the ecological range, such as habitat type, community structure and climatic factors as the exact information about the ecological range varies a great deal amongst the many sources. Encourage conservation of potential good seed sources Potentially good seed sources will comprise of multiple mature trees in reasonable proximity to one another to facilitate cross breeding. The availability of good seed sources would significantly enhance successful redevelopment and conservation of sandalwood in West Timor. The activity should also include re-identification of the fifty five seed tree sources and four seed production areas (SPA) identified during the 1990s. It is best again to use a GIS-based approach for this conservation measure to identify and map the best seed source areas. Factors to be considered when identifying sites for potential good seed sources include accessibility, population pressure, and other development activities. Forest officers, especially the district forestry officers, should meet regularly with the customary owners of these areas and trees to explain the importance of conserving the trees as a source of seed. Moreover, the officers should maintain ongoing contacts with the landowners to strengthen the rationales behind the protection of the area or the trees and raise awareness on the importance of such trees. The landowners should then be given incentives for protecting the trees and for the seeds collected. 82 Research should also be carried out on the storage, shelf-life, viability and vigour of seeds collected, to ensure a continuing supply of seeds for future planting. Importing good-quality seeds from a plot of West Timor origin S. album in Thailand could be considered should local supplies be limited (J. Doran pers. comm. 2010). Development of community-managed sandalwood conservation and development areas Sandalwood Managed Conservation Areas should be established by forestry district offices in coordination with the communities and customary landowners. This coordination should also prepare simple management plans for each conservation and development area. This will include a plan for the sustainable harvesting of the sandalwood and replanting with the establishment of a local nursery. This would include the undertaking of a detailed inventory of sandalwood in each proposed managed conservation area to aid in the development of respective management plans, locating good seed sources and placing nurseries in appropriate locations. Each conservation area is different in terms of local factors and management objectives. Therefore, management plans will vary between areas. Corrigan et al. (2000) propose guidelines and specifications for the following activities for each conservation area: a. Volume and magnitude of sandalwood exploitation, e.g., limiting the annual sandalwood harvest to an assessed sustainable level following an inventory of sandalwood stocks; b. Planning on sandalwood regeneration activities, e.g., replanting and direct seeding of sandalwood in areas where it has been harvested; c. Agricultural activities – e.g., restricting the clearing of forest areas for agriculture to existing plantation sites or utilization of agroforestry as a system to re-establish sandalwood; d. Improvement and development of alternative income-generating activities, to provide additional incomes other than from sandalwood products; e. Development of local awareness and understanding about the sustainable management of sandalwood through education programmes; f. Assist in bringing sandalwood growers together in cooperatives in order to ensure good coordination and marketing outcomes and the best financial returns to growers. Conclusions Sandalwood of the genus Santalum is a tree species with great social, religious and economic importance attached to it in many parts of the world. Sandalwood has a long history of trade, but it has also lacked any management. This has resulted in the uncontrolled destruction of the natural sandalwood for short-term self interest. The historical record emphasises the highly significant economic benefits able to be derived from the trade in this valuable commodity. This study began with a question about what the best strategy is for management and conservation of sandalwood in West Timor. This question was addressed by looking at information on the ecology, values, threats, management and conservation status of this species in West Timor. When discussing sandalwood management in West Timor, one can confidently argue that there has been no actual management of this resource so far. This is because much attention has been given to its exploitation with little effort expended on its maintenance, conservation and protection for sustainable resource management. Efforts to control the trade of the species in Timor can be traced back to pre-colonial times. This historical interest in the plant emphasises the highly significant economic benefits able to be derived from the trade. However, it was the Indonesian administration following independence in 1945 that brought about a major shift in resource management policies and stricter control over sandalwood. The government of Indonesia adopted some of the existing colonial regulatory frameworks, resulting in significant social impacts on the people of Timor. The government claimed ownership over sandalwood through the implementation of state and provincial policies and regulations, all under the guise of protection and resource conservation. Efforts to re-establish and regenerate sandalwood in West Timor began in 1990 by ACIAR. Currently, these efforts have been mainly conducted by forestry agencies such as Forestry Services and the Forestry Research and Development Centre in Kupang. However, these have shown a low rate of success due to poor silviculture practices, limited facilities, continuous shifting cultivation and grazing. Through the government of ENT Province’s programme called Anggaran untuk rakyat - menuju sejahtera (Budget for the people – for prosperity) the government is taking steps to regain the glory and ‘aroma’ of sandalwood in ENT Province. Several sandalwood forests in the form of community forests on state, private and communal land have been established. 83 Considering that this species has been threatened with extinction, IUCN put sandalwood onto its Red List of threatened species with the global conservation status ‘vulnerable’ based on an assessment made in 1998. In West Timor, efforts on protection and conservation of sandalwood were undertaken by imposing a temporary ban on logging. However, this latest ban has actually led to an even more dramatic decline in sandalwood production as it has encouraged illegal logging. This was due to the suspicions by the community about the government’s management and policing practices and the fact that the price of sandalwood increased dramatically during this time. Thus, people were tempted to cut their trees illegally and sell them on the black market. Thus, issues that impede further development, management and conservation of sandalwood include policy and regulations that disadvantage the people. This policy has resulted in many negative actions including illegal logging and people’s reluctance to plant and conserve sandalwood. Moreover, there are also issues relating to land ownership in West Timor arising mainly because the government’s legal frameworks for land are often in conflict with the customary laws which eventually also involve sandalwood ownership. Furthermore, the sandalwood population has been depleted as a result of unsustainable exploitation and threats such as lack of regeneration due to uncontrolled grazing. Another issue is the un-coordinated manner of management because agencies working on sandalwood-related projects often work in isolation. This only brings confusion as different messages are heard by the people. This adds further to the people’s lack of confidence in utilising sandalwood. The current sandalwood situation in West Timor calls for a new, integrated conservation and management strategy. This is backed up by the fact that many national programmes on planting activities consider sandalwood as a target species and much encouragement has been given to the government of East Nusa Tenggara province to redevelop and conserve sandalwood. Moreover, two international initiatives targeting sandalwood management and conservation in West Timor are currently underway. In order to link up with the East Nusa Tenggara provincial government’s wish to regain its status as the ‘Sandalwood Province’, integrative sandalwood conservation and management strategies are proposed here. With regard to the management aspect, the legal frameworks (in this case regulation or policies regarding sandalwood) should be supportive of the people. It means that all current policy should be reviewed and redeveloped so that sandalwood cultivation can become more attractive and of increased benefit to the people of Timor. This approach should be combined with continuing efforts to build awareness of sandalwood management, in capacity building, in setting up a competitive market through cooperatives, and moving towards an integrative sandalwood resource management. On the conservation side, the first action should be to undertake a thorough inventory throughout West Timor to build a better understanding of the current status of the natural population and to work out and set limits for harvesting so that the management of the resources becomes more planned, integrated and sustainable. Moreover, the availability of good seed sources would support more successful redevelopment and conservation of sandalwood in West Timor. Therefore, some activities should be aimed at conservation of seed sources. A sandalwood conservation area should be established in each district of West Timor. The conservation area should be managed in accordance with a simple management plan which incorporates guidelines for the management of conservation and development areas, sustainable harvesting schedules, replanting programmes and establishment of a local nursery. Lastly, an on-going effort should be made to fill the gaps in the knowledge base of sandalwood. It is hoped that this combination will result in reliable and achievable approaches for a better management and conservation of sandalwood in West Timor, as well as more sustainable base for livelihoods development and support for the West Timorese people. Acknowledgements This paper is based on a major research essay I prepared as part of the requirements for the degree of Master of Forestry, Australian National University. I would like to thank AusAID for awarding me the opportunity to study in Australia through the Australian Partnership Scholarship, my supervisors, Dr. Hartmut Holzknecht and Brian Gunn, for their guidance, The Fenner School ANU and Professor Janette Lindesay, Professor Peter Kanowski and Professor Stephen Dovers for giving me the chance to complete my study at the School and Dr. Sue Holzknecht for her valuable inputs and tireless editing of this essay and other assignments. 84 Last but not least, I offer my deepest appreciation to my family who had to sacrifice a lot in order that I could continue my study. Thanks especially to my mother, who always mentions my name in her prayers and my beloved father, Alexander Benediktus Ora, who passed away on 21 November 2009. References AusAID, 2009. 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Wijewardana, D., 2008. Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management: the road travelled and the way ahead, Ecological Indicators, 8: 115-122. APPENDIX 1. EARLY HISTORY OF POLICY AND POLICY CHANGES APPLYING TO SANDALWOOD IN WEST TIMOR 1. Pre-colonial period (Before the 16th Century) People of West Timor had a customary law (adat) regarding sandalwood management and trade called ‘Banu Haumeni’. Two precepts were set out in this law: a. Whoever harvests or cuts, burns or destroys any sandalwood trees deliberately would be fined one buffalo or goat. The extent of the fine depended on the age of the destroyed trees; the older and bigger the trees, the bigger the fine. b. Commoners were forbidden to directly trade their sandalwood to traders from China, Arab and Europe before the kings, nobles and their families had met the traders. 2. Under the Portuguese and the Dutch Colonial Trade Company (VOC) (16th Century – 1906) There was a consensus between the kings of Timor and the Portuguese and the VOC traders about share of benefits from sandalwood trading. Portuguese and VOC traders were allowed to harvest and trade sandalwood themselves but had to give 1/3 of the money generated from trading to the kings or nobles. 3. During the Dutch Colonial Period (1906-1945) During this period the Dutch colonial authority’s strict regulatory and control measures over sandalwood were put into practice. These regulations and controls placed pressure and burdens on people because the people had to take care of and maintain all sandalwood trees or seedlings that grew within their land or farms. If the Dutch authorities knew that the seedlings or trees were dead or intentionally or unintentionally destroyed by the people, then the people would be punished. The punishments applied during this time included: a. A fine of Rp 10 or silver money (traditional money) and imprisonment for a maximum of three years for those who caused big sandalwood trees to die as a result of fire and for those who conducted illegal harvesting or theft of big sandalwood trees. b. A fine of Rp 5 or silver money and three years imprisonment for those who were caught destroying sandalwood seedlings within their gardens, farms or yards. c. One ringgit (silver money) fine and three years imprisonment for those who burnt the bushland or savannah and caused the fall of sandalwood leaves. d. One ringgit (silver money) fine and three months imprisonment for those who were caught cutting or pruning twigs or branches of sandalwood intentionally. (Adapted from Pello (2000) edited in Rahayu et al. (2002) 87 APPENDIX 2. POLICY CHANGES APPLYING TO SANDALWOOD SINCE INDONESIAN INDEPENDENCE Timor’s District Regulation Number 4 1953 about sandalwood After Indonesian independence in 1945 and until 1958, the region of East Nusa Tenggara (ENT) Province including West Timor was under the one administration of Nusa Tenggara (formerly known as the Lesser Sunda Islands) together with Bali and West Nusa Tenggara Province. Timor was then one of the districts. In Timor’s District Regulation Number 4 1953 it was stated that: a. All sandalwood dead or alive within the District of Timor was fully owned by the government of the District of Timor. b. The share of benefits was stipulated by the government; under this rule the Timorese people who had to maintain and harvest sandalwood received a payment of only Rp 40 per kg of sandalwood they gathered. c. Those who cut, destroyed, owned, traded and transported sandalwood without written permission from the government would be imprisoned for at least three months and receive a maximum Rp. 100 fine. All the sandalwood related to this wrongdoing would be confiscated. 1) Provincial Regulation Number 11/PD/1966, East Nusa Tenggara’s Provincial Regulation on sandalwood This Provincial Regulation experienced three changes, becoming Provincial Regulation Number 8 1968 and then Provincial Regulation Number 17 1974 and lastly Provincial Regulation Number 7 1980. The content of the Provincial Regulation Number 11/PD/1966 included: a. All sandalwood growing inside or outside state forests within ENT Province belonged to the government through the forestry offices of all districts within the East Nusa Tenggara Province. b. A fine of up to Rp 10,000 or six months imprisonment for a person who cut, harvested and stored wood of sandalwood without permission from the forestry officers. c. A fine of up to Rp 5,000 or three months imprisonment for anyone who destroyed a living or dead sandalwood tree. d. A fine of up to Rp 500 for a person who did not possess a permit letter when transporting sandalwood wood. e. All sandalwood confiscated from all violations mentioned above was forfeited to the government. 2) a. b. East Nusa Tenggara Provincial Regulation Number 17 1974 The content of this provincial regulation was basically the same as Provincial Regulation Number 11/PD/1966. Some changes included the setting up of a market price and a higher amount of fines: Marketing and price of sandalwood were defined by the governor of ENT Province. A fine of up to Rp 50,000 or six months imprisonment for a person who cut, harvested or stored sandalwood without the permission of the head of the districts’ forestry offices. c. A fine of up to Rp 25,000 or three months imprisonment for a person who destroyed a living or dead sandalwood tree. d. A fine of up to Rp 2,500 for a person who did not possess a permit letter when transporting sandalwood. e. All sandalwood confiscated from all violations mentioned above became the government’s property. 3) a. b. c. d. East Nusa Tenggara Provincial Regulation Number 16 1986 This provincial regulation contains several points about sandalwood ownership and fines including: All sandalwood growing inside or outside state forests within the ENT Province belonged to the government through the forestry office of the ENT Province. Implementation of sandalwood management which includes planting, maintenance, protection, harvesting, exploitation, transport and control was organised by the government. Cultivation and maintenance of sandalwood were to be carried out by forestry offices. Production, allowable cut, market price and exploitation fee were defined by the governor of the ENT Province based on inventories conducted by forestry offices. e. The share of the benefit from sale of sandalwood that came from farmers’ land was defined by the government. The proportion was 15% for the farmer and 80% for the government. f. A fine of up to Rp 50,000 or six months imprisonment for those who cut, harvested and stored sandalwood without permission from the head of the district forestry offices. g. A fine of up to Rp 25,000 or three months imprisonment for those who destroyed any living or dead sandalwood trees. 88 4) Governor of East Nusa Tenggara Decree Number 2 1996 This ‘governor decree’ was a revision of Provincial Regulation Number 16 1986 in the share benefit aspect. The share benefit for farmers was raised to 40%, with the government received the remaining 60%. 5) Governor of East Nusa Tenggara Instruction Number 12 year 1997 This governor’s instruction called for a ban on sandalwood harvesting from 1997 to 2003. The aim of this ban was to conserve and protect sandalwood from illegal logging. 6) East Nusa Tenggara Provincial Regulation Number 2 1999 This is the regulation currently in force, and was issued to replace the ENT Provincial Regulation Number 16 1986. The provincial government then handed over sandalwood management to the district governments within the ENT Province. This latest regulation regarding sandalwood also ensures that farmers can harvest and sell their sandalwood growing on their land without having to ask for permission from the government. On the other hand, the government manages sandalwood within its own land under a subsequent government decree. 89 5.7 TROPICAL FORESTRY SERVICES CORPORATION: A SANDALWOOD PLANTATION MANAGER Peter Kimber The Company Tropical Forestry Services Corporation (TFS) is a West Australia Company founded in the late 1990s by Mr Frank Wilson, who still heads the company. Mr Wilson’s family has had a long association with commercial forestry, sawmilling and timber sales. The company was listed on the Australian Stock Exchange in 2004. The company’s purpose was to become a sandalwood plantation manager in support of the Australian government’s managed investment scheme (MIS). The scheme was introduced to assist in the development of forestry and agricultural plantations to be funded largely by small investors who were offered very substantial tax concessions for their involvement. TFS both establishes and manages sandalwood plantations up to harvest on behalf of the investors. Two or three years ago, the company anticipated a decline in the demand from small investors interested in the plantation industry and changed their investor profile to include large corporate investors. This was a highly successful move and has contributed to the success of the company amid the recent demise of most companies involved in the MIS industry. TFS still encourages and accommodates small investors in its plantation schemes. TFS has adopted a policy of vertical integration in the sandalwood industry, aiming to be involved in planting, maintaining and harvesting the trees and in processing the timber into the various products demanded by the market. In this respect TFS purchased a West Australian Company, Mount Romance, with a long history of distilling oil and marketing raw materials for incense production using the native West Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum). Mount Romance has since adjusted its processing procedures for the production of Indian sandalwood products as well as the native sandalwood. Company Managed Plantations Up to the present all TFS’ Indian sandalwood plantations are situated in the far north of Western Australia in the east Kimberley Region. The majority of plantations are located in the Ord River Irrigation Area, a prominent farming area centred on the town of Kununurra. The company has also started to develop plantations on its own private estate with a substantial water supply dam located 70 kilometres east of Kununurra. Climatically the east Kimberly region is tropical monsoonal with a wet season lasting for about four months. Average annual rainfall is between 700 and 800 mm; and open pan evaporation exceeds 3,600 mm per annum. These conditions are far too dry and harsh to grow dryland plantations and irrigation is necessary throughout the dry season. The plantations programme has increased year by year and the company now manages a plantation estate exceeding 4,000 hectares in area, of which more than 1,000 hectares were planted in 2010. Points of Silvicultural Interest The tree seedlings are planted mainly by hand in the cooler part of the dry season. Irrigation water is applied within a few hours of planting. The majority of plantations are furrow irrigated, water being allowed to flow down furrows between the rows of trees for 24 hours. Tailing water is recycled on some of the Ord River Irrigation Area plantations. Under difficult conditions, particularly where water supply is limited, the tree rows are irrigated with trickle tape throughout the life of the plantation. Some furrow irrigated areas where soil tends to dry out quickly are trickle irrigated for the first dry season after planting, and then revert to furrow irrigation. The sandalwood has three stages of hosts. The seedlings in the nursery are provided with a small herb 3 to 4 months before planting out in the field. At planting, a short- term host is planted in the same row as the sandalwood, generally one host to two sandalwood trees. This host gives the sandalwood a tremendous boost in growth but is killed by the sandalwood after 2 or 3 years. Long term hosts are planted adjacent to the sandalwood but in separate rows. Two or three long-term host species are used to boost the growth of the sandalwood, but with a capacity to survive the parasitism. All hosts are leguminous trees apart from the pot host established in the nursery. Seed is collected from the company’s plantations and raised in a company nursery at Kununurra. Due to the large areas now being planted, the nursery is unable to supply enough planting stock. Two Kununurra nurserymen raise seedlings on contract to help meet the demand. 90 The number of seedlings planted varies little from site to site. Generally between 500 and 550 sandalwood seedlings are planted per hectare and long-term hosts are planted in numbers that provide a ration of between 0.7: to 1:1 hosts per sandalwood tree, the number depending on the vigour of the various hosts species. This amounts to between 350 and 500 long-term hosts per hectare. The majority of the sandalwood begins to develop scented heartwood during the fourth or fifth year after planting, and the heartwood continues to expand until the trees are harvested at age 14 or 15 years. At harvest age the trees average around 8 meters in height and 20 to 24 cm basal diameter over bark (measured at 200 mm above ground level.) The company has a tree breeding programme that started four years ago with the development of seed orchards. Once the sandalwood reaches 5 years of age the best trees are selected for inclusion in the seed orchard. Selection is based on evidence of the formation of scented heartwood (checked by boring and oil analysis of the core), vigour, and fine branching. The later trait is desirable in order to facilitate pruning to develop a clear bole. Scions from selected trees are grafted onto seedling stock and planted on a standard seed orchard pattern to ensure an equal chance of every pair of trees interbreeding. The seed orchard location is remote from other sandalwood trees. Seed production commences at age 2 from planting and is considerable by age 3. Plantation Maintenance To achieve an acceptable level of seedling survival (90% plus), rigorous weed control is practised for the first two years after planting. Weed control entails a combination of cultivation, manual hoeing and herbicide applications using shrouded sprayers to avoid spray drift. By the time the tree canopy has closed, between ages of 5 and 7 years, weed control is reduced to mechanical slashing at the end of the wet season, and the manual removal of climbers from affected trees. Pruning is an important operation. The short-term hosts have their lower branches removed in the first year after planting to allow light into the plantation. Some of the long-term hosts may display excessive vigour threatening to shade out the sandalwood. These are topped and the side branches reduce mechanically using a mango-hedging machine. The sandalwood trees are form-pruned in their first year to remove any double leaders. In the second, third and fourth years they are pruned annually raising the length of clear bole up to two and a half meters at age 4. This operation is to ensure that the vigour of the tree is directed into increasing the size of the extremely valuable lower bole. Irrigation is carried out throughout the dry season, extending from about April to December. 91 6 TECHNICAL PRESENTATIONS ON SANDALWOOD RESEARCH 6.1 IMPACT OF HEARTWOOD ROTS ON SANDALWOOD (SANTALUM ALBUM) OIL PRODUCTION Barbour L1 , Norris L2 and Burgess T3. 1 Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley WA 6009 Australia. 2 Forest Products Commission, Locked Bag 888, Perth BC WA 6849 Australia 3 Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch WA 6150 Australia Abstract The presence of heartwood rot fungal diseases in S. album in Australia is recorded. Possible fungal candidates were isolated and identified, four species being from the Ascomycetes and five different genera from the Basidiomycetes. The latter group contains the wood rotting fungi and are thus of the greatest interest. All the isolated Basidiomycetes were fungi that had not previously been described. The possible impact of such diseases on sandalwood oil production is investigated. Heartwood containing the valuable alpha and beta santalol sesquiterpenes of sandalwood oil developed around wood rot zones and encapsulated infected areas. Greater production of sesquiterpenes was correlated with fungal infection from the base of the tree compared to fungal infection entering from damaged bark. Intact or undamaged bark was a major factor in protecting trees from fungal damage. Heartwood rot fungi that entered via bark wounds caused the most damage and appeared to challenge tree disease resistance mechanisms via the synthesis of sesquiterpenes and the resultant sandalwood oil production was lower. Introduction Sandalwood (Santalum album) is a hemi-parasitic tropical tree valued for the sesquiterpenes held within its heartwood. High demand for the heartwood and sandalwood oil product has led to increased pressure on native stands, and this together with the onset of the bacterial wilt disease in India, created a world shortage. Plantation S. album systems were developed in the Ord River Irrigation Scheme (ORIS), North Western Australia to alleviate the pressure on wild sources and produce a sustainable supply of sandalwood oil to meet increasing world market demands. Tropical environments, due to high relative humidity and warm temperatures, encourage tree growth as well as fungal diseases. The parasitic nature of S. album encourages the close proximity of neighbouring host trees which are also potentially susceptible and can harbour fungi allowing for opportunistic crossinfection. Fungal disease management in these multi-species plantation systems has a new level of complexity not historically explored in single species plantations or agriculture systems. Sporadic S. album deaths have occurred throughout the Forest Products Commission trials at the Frank Wise Institute in the ORIS. These deaths are attributed to termite attack or die-back infection through the soil borne mould Phytophthora cinnamomi. The presence of wood rotting fungi has been masked by the challenge to develop a reliable host system to support continued sandalwood survival and growth. There have been few reports of fungal diseases in S. album. Ganoderma, a white wood rot, was identified from a leguminous host but not from S. album (Smith, pers. comm.). During destructive harvests by the Forest Products Commission (Barbour et al., 2011) wood rot was noted and this project quantifies these observations. Methodology All samples used in this study were provided by the Forest Products Commission from the Frank Wise Institute in the ORIS on the outskirts of Kununurra, North Western Australia. To identify the fungi, wood samples adjacent to the rot were collected from S. album and the presence of fungal fruiting structures was noted. For isolation, a clean transverse cut was made and a samples from the margin of the rot taken. Three media were used to express the fungi: • PDA ( Potato Dextrose Agar), • Basidiomycete selective media and • water agar 92 Over 100 fungal isolations were obtained from these three media and matched based on colony morphology. Isolates of known contaminants such as Alternaria, Aspergillus and Penicillin were excluded and approximately 50 fungal samples remained. DNA was extracted from 35 representative isolates. Wood rot and heartwood formation within sandalwood boles was assessed during the destructive harvest of 30 trees aged 8 years, and 40 trees aged 15 years. The bole length of each tree was measured and 4 discs, 4 to 5 cm wide, were cut from the base, 1st third, 2nd third, and top of the bole. Each disc was labelled and photographed with a scale set at the disc surface. Imaging software (Image J, V1.41) was then used to calculate total disc, wood rot, and heartwood area after each component was manually outlined on the digital image. Simple linear regression between wood rot and wood parameters was completed using XLStat (2006). For sandalwood oil analysis, a sub-sample of 16 discs from 7 trees aged 15 years of age, representing three stem positions were selected. From each disc a total of 5 samples were taken, 3 in the heartwood surrounding the wood rot, one from the sap wood and one from the wood rot area. The sample was taken using an 8 mm drill piece, the shavings collected and placed into a 25 ml flask for ethanol extraction and volume standardisation. Oil quantity and composition were determined by gas chromatography using the method as described by Jones et al. (2007). Results Two groups of fungi, Basidiomycete genera and Ascomycete species, were isolated from the S. album tree boles. All the Basidiomycetes isolated were from genera of known rot fungi causing diseases of woody plants world-wide, namely Ceripora, Irpex, Fomes, Ganoderma, Phellinus and Peniophora. Most of these wood-rotting fungi have a wide host range and are capable of causing wood rot in any available tree if they obtain entry through a wound. Consequently their isolation and identification from S. album coupled with the presence of fruiting bodies is irrefutable evidence of them causing rot within the wood. None of the fungi isolated were an identical match for any known species with sequences available on the public sequence database Genbank. In the case of identifications of Ceripora or Irpex and also Fomes or Ganoderma, it was not possible to identify the exact genus. In both cases the two genera are closely related to each other and often confused with the possibility of being mis-named on Genbank. Northern Australia is an unexplored area in terms of fungal diversity and hence their endemic nature is a possibility. Studies on botryosphaeriaceous fungi associated with boabs in the Kimberley resulted in the description of seven fungal species that were new to science (Pavlic et al., 2008) The Ascomycetes identified, Fusarium solani, Lasiodiplodia, Neoscytalidium dimidiatum and Pseudofusicoccum adansonia are commonly found associated with cankers of woody trees (Dakin et al., 2010, Taylor et al., 2009, Pavlic et al., 2008). The latter three are common tropical species in the Botryosphaeriaceae which have been isolated from boabs and mangoes in the Kimberley and can in themselves cause cankers in stressed trees (Sakalidis et al., 2010a, Sakalidis et al., 2010b). In sandalwood, these fungi are more likely to be secondary pathogens entering after the rot fungi infection. In conjunction with the rot fungi they will produce a more severe canker and do more damage to the branches than either group of organisms alone. TABLE 1 DISCS EXTRACTED FROM AN 8 YEAR OLD S. ALBUM BOLE SHOWING THE SAMPLE NUMBER, DISCS WITH ROT, DISCS CONTAINING ROT ONLY IN THE CENTRE, DISC AREA (CM2, MEAN ± STD.DEV.), AND PERCENTAGE OF THIS AREA DIFFERENTIATED INTO HEARTWOOD AND WOOD ROT. Disc position Discs (#) Discs with rot (#) Discs with Disc area centre rot (#) (cm2) Heartwood (%) Wood rot (%) top bole 30 11 4 53.89 (20.71) 4.22 (7.76) 3.13 (6.67) upper 3rd 30 11 4 57.46 (15.02) 3.03 (6.72) 3.45 (7.23) lower 3rd 30 14 3 77.63 (19.47) 3.15 (4.49) 3.57 (6.54) base 30 10 9 124.98 (22.75) 11.17 (12.97) 3.01 (5.80) 93 The occurrence of wood rot within the bole of 8-year-old S. album trees was highly variable (Table 1). Between 37 and 47 % of the discs taken from each third of the bole showed signs of fungal rot. The majority of this wood rot was a result of bark damage and fungal entry via the damaged cambium and sap wood (Table 1). Fungal attack from the base of the tree entering the bole via the juvenile core occurred in between 10 and 30 % of discs (Table 1). The infection source, tree base or via damaged bark areas, changed up the bole of the tree. At the base of the tree, there was a higher incidence of centre wood rot and a lower incidence of sapwood rot. This changed from the first third disc, which was approximately 60 cm above ground level, where the incidence of sap wood rot infection increased and became the dominant means of wood rot entry. The disc area decreased from the base (125 cm2) up the top of the bole (54 cm2) as did the area of heartwood. The base disc had an average heartwood area of 11 cm2 (9 %) whereas the top of the bole contained 4 cm2 (7 %). On average, discs contained 3 % of wood rot across the length of the tree bole (Table 1). Longitudinal assessment of wood rot along the S. album bole was modelled through consecutive cross sectional discs and it was found that 23.3 % of the trees were healthy. The pattern of wood rot in the remaining trees differed with no trend apparent with 7 trees having rot in a single disc, 1 tree with rot in two non-consecutive discs, 8 trees had rot in two consecutive discs, 4 trees had rot in three consecutive discs, and 2 trees had rot in all four discs. The highest mean proportion of rot area of the 4 discs within an individual tree was 20 (± 12) %. Each wood rot was encapsulated by a darkened ring which was hypothesised to be a deposit of sesquiterpenes and thus referred to as heartwood. The presence of wood rot appeared to stimulate heartwood production and thus the relationship of the two different fungal entry points on heartwood production was investigated. Figure 1. The relationship between the proportion of wood rot and heartwood within disc for, A) all discs, and B) for discs with heartwood rot originating in the disc centre (♦) and originating from bark damage (■) for S. album. The correlation between area of wood rot infection and heartwood production is weak but significant with a positive linear relationship (P= 0.008, R2=0.209). This supports the observation that when wood rot enters S. album, the tree responds by increasing the development of heartwood (Figure 1A). This heartwood appears to encapsulate and isolate the wood rot infection from healthy tissues. When the entry point of the wood rot was separated into two different groups, those with heartwood rot originating from the centre of the disc compared to fungal rot originating from the outer regions of the bole, a clear division existed (Figure 1B). The relationship between heartwood production and the two types of wood rot infection were highly significant (P < 0.001) and account for a high proportion of the variation in the data (R2 < 0.75). It was evident by separating these two infection entry points, infection initiated from the base of the tree through the juvenile wood in the centre of the bole stimulated greater heartwood production. Infection that enters where the bark and often the cambium was damaged, via the sapwood, did not stimulate heartwood production to the same extent (Figure 1B). 94 TABLE 2. DISCS EXTRACTED FROM A BOLE OF 15-YEAR-OLD S. ALBUM TREES SHOWING THE SAMPLE NUMBER, ALL DISCS WITH ROT, DISCS ONLY CONTAINING ROT IN THE CENTRE, MEAN DISC AREA (CM2 ± STD.DEV.), PERCENTAGE OF THIS AREA DIFFERENTIATED INTO HEARTWOOD AND PERCENTAGE WOOD ROT. Disc position Discs (#) Discs with Discs with Heartwood Wood rot centre rot (#) Disc area (cm2) rot (#) (%) (%) top bole 40 16 4 62.4 (29.6) 7.2 (8.4) 6.1 (11.3) upper 3rd 40 16 10 65.5 (24.0) 12.0 (11.3) 5.2 (11.2) lower 3rd 40 17 9 87.4 (33.3) 17.5 (12.6) 5.5 (13.3) base 40 17 10 142.5 (55.6) 30.6 (12.4) 1.5 (2.4) The pattern of wood rot in the 15-year-old trees changed. In the upper bole, heartwood rot occupied approximately 11 % of the discs (Table 2) which was an increase from the 8-year-old trees at 3 % (Table 1). What was significant in the 15-year-old trees was the decline in wood rot at the base of the tree (1 %) where heartwood proportion was at its highest (30 % of the disc). Disc area decreased from the base (143 cm2) up the bole (62 cm2) as did the heartwood, the base disc having 31 cm2 (21.7 %) and the top disc 7 cm2 (11.3 %) (Table 2). It is important to note that the increase in heartwood was greater from 8 to 15 years of age compared to the overall wood growth of the bole. This indicates that once that heartwood is initiated, it is progressively filling the bole volume of the tree. Figure 2. The relationship between the proportion of wood rot and heartwood within discs taken from the base, first third, second third and top of the bole of S. album. The amount of wood rot measured at the base of the bole was on average 1.5 % but this increased up the bole to approximately 5.5 % (Table 2), well above levels detected in the 8-year-old trees. Discs with a higher proportion of heartwood had less wood rot present (Figure 2) although no statistical relationship could be found. In the sample of 40 15-year-old trees, only 9 trees were healthy. Of the remaining 31 trees, 12 had wood rot in a single disc, 1 in two non-consecutive discs, 9 in two consecutive discs, 3 in three consecutive discs and 6 in all four discs. Of the trees with rot in all discs, the highest mean proportion of rot was 37 (± 24) % of disc area. 95 Figure 3. The relationship between the proportion of wood rot and heartwood within disc from a 15-year-old tree for, (A) for discs with heartwood rot originating in the disc centre (B) and originating from bark damage. When the entry point of the wood rot was separated into two different groups, those with infection originating from the centre of the disc compared with those originating from the outer regions, the relationship was not as clear as had been seen in the 8-year-old tree harvest. Wood rot initiated in the centre of the bole showed no distinctive linear relationship (P =0.139, R2= 0.072) (Figure 3A). Where rot originated in other regions of the disc, there was a significant moderately positive linear relationship (P = 0.004, R2= 0.362) inferring that discs with higher proportions of rot generally had higher proportions of heartwood (Figure 3B). TABLE 3. SANTALUM ALBUM OIL ANALYSIS OF 15-YEAR-OLD TREES SHOWING OIL CONTENT FROM HEART WOOD, SAPWOOD AND WOOD ROT (MG/G) AND THE ALPHA AND BETA SANTALOL PROPORTION (%) WITHIN THE OIL Wood sample Sandalwood oil (mg/g) Alpha santalol (%) Beta santalol (%) Heartwood surrounding the wood rot 29.93 + 31.34 47.74 + 13.12 18.95 + 5.41 Sapwood 4.81 + 10.06 52.26 ± 25.54 14.55 + 7.93 Wood rot 6.38 ± 8.67 44.13 ± 21.93 17.10 ± 8.43 The dark aromatic areas surrounding the wood rot referred to as heartwood were hypothesised to contain sandalwood oil (sesquiterpenes). Wood samples taken from 15-year-old S. album trees from the heartwood area surrounding the wood rot, sapwood and within the wood rot showed that the highest levels of sesquiterpenes (sandalwood oil) were in the heartwood zone (Table 3). The overall mean extractable sandalwood oil (sesquiterpenes) from the heartwood surrounding the wood rot was 30 mg/g or 3 % of sandalwood oil per wood dry weight. This contrasts with the sapwood which only contains 5 mg/g and the wood rot 6.5 mg/g of sandalwood oil. The levels of alpha and beta santalol do not significantly change at any of these locations (Table 3). Figure 4. The total extracted sandalwood oil (mg/g) and proportion of alpha- and beta-santalol within this oil (%) at a height of 60, 90 and 120 cm above the base of a 15-year-old S. album tree. 96 The total sandalwood oil extracted from the heartwood declined with increasing height up the bole of the tree. This was reflected in the amount of alpha- and beta-santalol produced (Figure 4). Discussion This project confirmed that wood rots have infected S. album trees at the Frank Wise Institute in the ORIS, North Western Australia. Fungus identity has not been confirmed but candidates identified include Ceripora or Irpex, Fomes or Ganoderma, Phellinus or Peniophora. It is noted that whatever the species, these isolates will be a newly identified species as their DNA cannot be correlated to known fungi registered on the Gene Bank. This suggests that these fungi are local in origin and have opportunistically moved across on to S. album. This movement of wood rot fungi is a common occurrence and whilst there is a lack of wood rot reports on S. album in the literature, their presence has been observed in photographs of wood sections taken from East Timor (Haffner, 1994). There are no chemical treatments that suppress or stop the spread of wood rot fungi. The project recognised and quantified the ability of S. album to isolate fungal infection by depositing sandalwood oil (sesquiterpenes) around the wood rot. It is hypothesised that wood rot fungi are unable to grow in these sesquiterpene deposits and this may be the primary role for their synthesis. In a healthy tree, sandalwood oil deposits initiate around the senescing juvenile wood in the tree base and this slowly radiates upwards and outwards as the tree ages. The observation that sesquiterpenes are deposited via radial parenchyma (Jones et al., 2006) suggests that the sesquiterpene synthesis process may be initiated in the cambium. Various precursors are translocated via the radial parenchyma to remain locked in a sesquiterpene form in the ray parenchyma at the tree centre. This project produced supporting evidence for this concept. During the 8-year-old S. album harvest, it was clearly shown that with bark damage, often associated with damage to the cambium, sesquiterpene synthesis was lower than when infection occurred in the centre of the tree. Cambium damage may have disabled the tree to produce sesquiterpenes and thus render the tree unable to isolate the wood rot effectively. In contrast, diseases that occurred via the base of the tree and travelled up the juvenile wood positively stimulated sesquiterpene production. The tissues and system required to synthesise sequiterpenes appear to be unaffected by core infection from the base of the tree. Mechanisms that stimulate a disease-defence response in S. album are unknown and yet this knowledge is vital to create natural protection. Further investigation into temporal and spatial regulation of oil biosynthetic genes, and ultimately changes in oil composition in response to fungal attack will provide key information. Other specialized metabolic pathways may be initially involved prior to sesquiterpene production. This could be relevant in young trees ( 5 years old), which do not have a high capacity for oil production. It is clearly evident that any damage to S. album bark breaks the trees protection barrier against fungal infection. The tree has expended energy in creating this bark, and once gone, mechanisms for compensating for this loss are not as well developed. It appears that the greatest protection to fungal diseases is at the base of the tree, as related to the highest production of sesquiterpenes. As sesquiterpene levels decline up the tree, fungal infection from the bark-protected perimeter becomes a greater threat. Silvicultural practices need to ensure that tree bark is not damaged. A number of management practices increase the risk of bark damage. These include host pruning, pruning of S. album, chipping for weed control on the mounds and mechanical weeding and spraying using tractors. Successful hosts were shown to grow at a similar rate to S. album (Barbour, 2008) indicating that a host’s role maybe to ensure that the sandalwood bole is protected from sun-scald. Recognition that S. album can isolate fungal disease infections through the synthesis of sesquiterpenes has important implications for the manipulation of tropical tree fungal disease resistance. Understanding this mechanism may have far reaching ramifications, with the opportunity to develop new tools for fungal resistance in many tropical and water-logged environments. Acknowledgements This work was funded by the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC Publication No. 10/179) and the Forest Products Commission of Western Australia. 97 References Barbour, E.L (2008) Analysis of plant-host relationships in tropical sandalwood (Santalum album). RIRDC publication No. 08/138, Barton, ACT Barbour, E.L., Plummer, J.A. and Norris, L. (2011) Flood irrigated tropical timber trials in the North of Western Australia. RIRDC publication No. 11/xxx, Barton, ACT. Haffner, D.H. (1994) The quantity and quality of heartwood in two species of sandalwood. Masters of Forestry Science, University of Melbourne, Vic. Jones, C.G., Ghisalberti, E.L., Plummer, J.A. and Barbour E.L. (2006) Quantitative co-occurrence of sesquiterpenes; a tool for elucidating their biosynthesis in Indian sandalwood, Santalum album. Phytochemistry, 67: 2463–2468. Dakin, N., White, D., Hardy, G.E.S.J., Burgess, T.I. (2010) The opportunistic pathogen, Neofusicoccum australe, is responsible for crown dieback of peppermint (Agonis flexuosa) in Western Australia. Australasian Plant Pathlogy, 39: 202-206. Sakalidis, M.L., Hardy, G.E.S.J., Burgess, T.I. (2010a) Endophytes and potential pathogens of the baobab species Adansonia gregorii; a focus on the Botryosphaeriaceae Fungal Ecology. (accepted with changes). Sakalidis, M.L., Ray, J.D., Lanoiselet, V., Hardy, G.E.S.J., Burgess, T.I. (2010b). Botryosphaeriaceous pathogens associated with Mangifera indica in the Kimberley Region of Western Australia. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science. (submitted). Slippers, B., Burgess, T.I., Pavlic, D., Ahumada, R., Maleme, H., Mohali, S.R., Rodas, C.A., Wingfield, M.J. (2009) A diverse assemblage of Botryosphaeriaceae infect Eucalyptus in native and non-native environments. Southern Forests, 71: 101-110. Taylor, K., Barber, P.A., Hardy, G.E.S.J., Burgess, T.I. (2009) Botryosphaeriaceae from tuart (Eucalyptus gomphocephala) woodland, including the description of four new species. Mycological Research, 113: 337-353. Pavlic, D., Wingfield, M.J., Barber, P.A., Slippers, B., Hardy, G.E.S.J., Burgess, T.I. (2008) Seven new species of the Botryosphaeriaceae discovered on baobabs and other native trees in Western Australia. Mycologia, 100: 851-866. 98 6.2 SEMPIT’S TREE, EXTREME VARIATION OF OIL COMPOSITION AND QUALITY IN A SINGLE SANTALUM AUSTROCALEDONICUM TREE Peter Murphy, Jonathan Naupa, Ben Brookman and Sempit Naritantop Tropical Rainforest Aromatics Ltd In this presentation, an attempt was made to give a very brief account of the investigations into the variation in sandalwood oil composition in Vanuatu. In a factory-scale and laboratory-scale distillation programme over the last 11 years it became obvious that there were large variations in oil composition of Santalum austrocaledonicum, firstly on a geographic basis, and then tree-to-tree variation within a population. However, there were very noticeable differences within individual trees. This presentation will report results that confirmed this phenomenon - but also turned up some unexpected results. Differences in composition of sandalwood oil from different parts of an individual tree are well known. In 1997, Piggott et. al reported this phenomenon in Western Australian Santalum spicatum. Unlike the oil from S. austrocaledonicum, the major constituent in this oil is epi-alpha-bisabolol. However, one can still see that the levels of alpha and beta santalol are highest in buttwood and roots and decrease ascending the tree. This is important since the “quality” (and therefore the commercial value) of sandalwood oil is usually measured in terms of “santalol” content. Also well known is the variability of oil composition of S. austroacaledonicum, the sandalwood species indigenous to Vanuatu and New Caledonia. Page and collaborators observed large variations in santalol content along the Vanuatu island chain, with the highest levels of santalols being in sandalwood from the northern islands of Santo and Malekula. Figure 6. Variation in 4 essentail oil contents of S.austrocaledonicum heartwood, across 6 islands of Vanuatu. Horizontal lines indicate the levels for α- ( 41%) and β-santalol (16-24%) to meet the international standard (ISO 2002). Verticale bars represent standard errors A. Initial Investigations into Oil Composition in Different Parts of Santalum austrocaledonicum Trees We took some initial steps to determine if, and to what extent, oil composition varied in individual trees of S. austrocaledonicum. We carried out lab-scale water distillations on root and high branch material from a single tree from Pango on Efate. The extent of the disparity in oil composition surprised us. There was a huge difference in composition between wood at the top and bottom of this tree. 99 Root Heartwood High Branch Heartwood To fill the gap between branch and root we took 4 samples from different parts of another single tree, this time from North Tanna. Once again the same trend could be observed with significant differences in santalol content between upper and lower parts of the tree. We had the opportunity to harvest an individual tree on Ifira Island in a more tightly controlled experiment with more samples taken to fill in the gaps. Unfortunately this tree yielded oil at the lower end of the “quality” range. The differences between top and bottom of the tree were small, but with a bit of imagination the general trend was still observable. Oil yields were difficult to interpret. Overall this tree was a poor specimen to test our hypothesis. It was growing in extremely poor soil under a large mango tree. With what has become known as “Sempit’s Tree”, we thought we had all the bases covered in controlling the experiment and to overcome problems and inadequacies in our previous studies. Importantly we had a complete life history of the tree. Sempit’s Tree • Aniwa seed but grown on Erromango • 17 years old at harvest • Suffered storm damage at 3 years old • Harvested, cut into transportable pieces, debarked and reassembled at TRA factory in Port Vila The first five samples chosen for laboratory-scale water distillations were selected as being representative of different parts of the tree. The analytical results delivered some surprising results, so much so that I asked Wollongbar to recheck their GC charts to see if there was any mistake. There was none. So how to explain the anomalies? • • • The trend of decreasing “santalol” content in ascending the tree supports our previous observations for S. austrocaledonicum. Excluding, for the moment, the result for the diseased root sample RD1, the compositions of the factory-scale distillation and the individual tree parts did not seem consistent. – Why was the bulk distillation so high in santalols? The composition of the oil from the diseased root RD1 had much enhanced levels of santalols and much reduced levels of the curcumenol/nuciferol/lanceol group. – Could this be a defensive response to the presence of disease in the wood? • Note that there is visual evidence of disease in butt B1, root R1 and diseased root RD1 Clearly, it was necessary to look more closely at these and the other samples to find the explanations. In the time available, I will not be able to look at the results of each part in detail, so I will skim through the experiments comparing wood from the different locations, using the composition of the main fraction from the factory distillation as the reference standard. 100 With buttwood, there was an obvious enhancement in santalol levels in B2 which was contiguous with root R1. Both displayed evidence of disease. B1 was a sizeable slice which enabled us to look at oil compositions going from surface to centre. From the surface to point Y there was an insignificant amount of oil so no analysis was done. From Y to X, there was a lower proportion of santalols than from X to the centre. From X to the centre included wood that was obviously diseased. However there was nearly 3 times the concentration of oil from X-Y as there was from X-Centre. The original sample of B1 in the initial group assessed incorporated very little X-C, much more Y-X, and a lot of sapwood. The analysis is consistent with this mix. Going up into the trunk of the tree, the levels of santalols are low and the curcumenol/nuciferol levels are high. Interestingly at position T2 the level of lanceol is higher than the curcumenols+nuciferol. One could speculate that in S. album the oil with high levels of santalols was an optimum composition to fight and contain the fungal infection. In contrast, in S. austrocaledonicum with low santalol content, the tree fights the infection by directing the biosynthesis down the pathway on the right, raising the santalol content towards that of the optimum composition, as in S. album. Conclusion • This Sempit’s Tree study has validated our previous observations that there can be a large variation in oil composition (and consequent quality) within an individual S. austrocaledonicum tree. • Furthermore it has confirmed previous observations that levels of alpha- and beta-santalol are generally highest in the lower parts of the tree and decrease in ascending through the trunk up to the branches. The reverse is true for the curcumenol/nuciferol/lanceol group of compounds. • It appears that infection in the tree, probably introduced when it was damaged in its third year, has had a profound effect on the oil composition. Samples where infection was evident had raised levels of alpha- and beta-santalols. This had the desirable effect of markedly improving the oil quality, pulling it up into TRA’s mid-quality Premium Grade. This effect is most likely enzyme mediated. • The intriguing results of an abrupt drop in santalol content and large rise in lanceol content in going down a root from R2 to R3 might also be explained by absence of infection in the extremity of the root at R3. • One could speculate that, but for the boost from the infection, this tree would have produced oil of low Standard Grade quality. Instead, the commercial, factory-scale steam distillation of undifferentiated combined tree parts produced a higher, mid-quality Premium Grade oil, better than would otherwise have been obtained. References Piggott, M.J., Ghisalberti E.L. and Trengrove, R.D. (1997). Western Australian sandalwood oil; extraction by different techniques and variation of the major components in different sections of a single tree. Flavour and Fragrance Journal 12: 43-46. 101 6.3 BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THREE SANDALWOOD SPECIES (SANTALUM ALBUM, S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum) Tony Page1, Hanington Tate2, Clement Bled3 1. School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, 2. Department of Forests, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 3. Institut Polytechnique LaSalle Beauvais, Beauvais, France, Abstract This study demonstrates that no reproductive barriers exist between three tropical sandalwood species (Santalum album, S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum) suggesting they have low genetic divergence between them. The high level of cross-compatibility between these three species increases the germplasm available for breeding programmes to develop cultivars suitable for commercial production. Each species could potentially contribute characters to a breeding programme, with the superior oil qualities of S. album, the early heartwood formation in S. austrocaledonicum and the straight form and fire tolerance of S. lanceolatum. The production of hybrids between these species under natural conditions has conservation implications. Recent introductions of S. album in the southern part of Cape York means they can now hybridise with natural populations of S. lanceolatum. In Queensland it is unclear whether such hybrid progeny would have an advantage in these quite arid environments to persist beyond 1 or 2 generations. The planted resource of S. album occurs as one planting on a single property, in which monitoring of the surrounding areas could easily detect any issues with uncontrolled introgression between S. album and natural populations of S. lanceolatum. In Vanuatu where S. album has also been recently introduced, spontaneous hybridisation between it and S. austrocaledonicum is also likely. In contrast with Queensland, there is little control over planting of S. album and many plantations have been established over Efate and are continuing in other islands. It is likely that hybrids between S. album and S. austrocaledonicum in Vanuatu are going to be competitive with pure forms of Vanuatu sandalwood, as has been demonstrated in Fiji hybrids between S. album and S. yasi. While it is recognised that S. album generally produces heartwood oil of superior quality in the marketplace, the source and therefore the quality of the Vanuatu S. album introductions is unclear. The introduction of S. album also represents a concern for the future identity of Vanuatu Sandalwood, which currently occupies an international market niche. It is looking increasingly likely that New Caledonia will emerge as a refuge for pure forms of S. austrocaledonicum. Introduction Santalum (sandalwood) is a genus of hemi-parasitic tree species occurring throughout south and southeast Asia, Australia and the Pacific. The heartwood of several species produces valuable aromatic oil widely used in perfumery, medicines and incense. Throughout the world, sandalwood products are being sourced from declining natural stands and the international price for natural sandalwood products continues to increase. Therefore significant opportunity exists to establish commercial sandalwood agroforests, to reduce pressure on wild stands, improve consistency of product supply and increase economic outcomes for smallholder farmers. The development of sandalwood species as significant agroforestry crops will depend on the development of forms suited to commercial production, with high growth rates yielding high volumes of heartwood containing concentrated oils with high levels of - and -santalol. The implementation of a successful breeding programme for any sandalwood species will depend upon knowledge of its breeding system and its cross-compatibility with related species that are a source for potentially useful characters. Given also the continued exploitation of many sandalwood species a knowledge of their breeding systems will assist those developing strategies aimed at conserving current wild populations and establishing new plantings within their natural distributions. Information on the breeding system and patterns of gene flow are important for planning germplasm collection, designing and managing seed orchards and for maintaining genetic diversity in breeding populations. This study includes information published in Tamla et al. (2011), with additional data related to S. album and S. austrocaledonicum, and updated on the original presentation to the Vila workshop. The objectives of the present study were to determine levels of (i) self- and (ii) cross-compatibility within Santalum lanceolatum, S. album and S. austrocaledonicum and (iii) cross-compatibility between these three sandalwood species. 102 Materials & Methods Controlled pollination Grafted clones of S. lanceolatum, S. album and S. austrocaledonicum were grown in 300mm-diameter pots in a soil-less potting medium in an insect-proof greenhouse with drip irrigation. Flowers were emasculated during anthesis using pointed forceps. The anthers removed during this process were either placed in small plastic vials and placed in a desiccator with silica gel or used immediately for pollination. All pollinations were made using pollen collected during the day (i.e. pollen was not stored and used on subsequent days). Pollinations were carried out by applying the pollen-shedding anther to the stigma until pollen grains had adhered to the stigma. Individual inflorescences were pollinated with a single pollen source and each was tagged with details of pollen donor. Three genotypes of S. album (E5, E7 & E8) originating from two Indian seedlots, one genotype of S. austrocaledonicum (T1) from Vanuatu and 13 genotypes of Santalum lanceolatum (accessions 0, 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, 14, 16, 25, 27, 29, 30 and 31) from Cape York Peninsula (Queensland) were used to examine self- and intraspecific-compatibility within, and interspecific compatibility between them. Seed production was recorded across 2732 different controlled pollinations (Table 1). TABLE 1: THE NUMBER OF GENOTYPE COMBINATIONS (UNIQUE ‘POLLINATIONS’) AND TREATED/POLLINATED FLOWERS FOR SEVEN DIFFERENT POLLINATION TYPES. Pollination Type Genotype Combinations Flowers 'Treated' S. album self-pollinated 4 332 S. album intraspecific 4 279 S. lanceolatum self-pollinated 10 234 S. lanceolatum intraspecific 13 241 S. austrocaledonicum self 1 16 S. album x S. austrocaledonicum (reciprocal) 4 144 28 1250 5 236 69 2732 S. album x S. lanceolatum (reciprocal) S. lanceolatum x S. austrocaledonicum (reciprocal) Total Pollinations were carried out on three separate flowering events during September 2007, December 2007 and February 2008. Flowers were left on the plants for approximately 8-10 weeks from pollination to fruit harvest. Fruits from each pollination category were collected, the flesh was removed and the seed air-dried before storing in a sealed plastic containers at 4oC. Germination of seed resulting from controlled pollination was undertaken in a seed raising mix with a 1:1 ratio of medium grade perlite and vermiculite. Seeds were placed under 50% shade and were watered through an automatic irrigation system for 15 minutes per day. Seeds were considered germinated after they had been pricked into pots and survived for a period of 3 months. Differences in the (i) proportion of pollinated flowers developing into seed and seedlings between pollination types (i.e. unpollinated, self-pollinated, intraspecific out-cross pollinated etc.) and (ii) the proportion of unique pollinations developing seed and seedlings were evaluated using an equality test of two binomial proportions (Ott and Longnecker 2001) calculated by: 103 y1 y πˆ 2 = 2 n1 The two binomial populations are denoted by and where by and where y1 seeds / n2 πˆ1 = seedlings are recorded for the random sample of n1 pollinations from population 1, and y2 seeds/seedlings are recorded for the random sample of n2 pollinations from population 2. The null hypothesis was rejected where the absolute value of the statistic z was greater than z0.05 = 1.645. This statistical approach was used because, although a sufficient number of pollinations per pollination type were performed, in some cases a low number of replicates or genotype combinations did not permit evaluation by two-way ANOVA Results Unpollinated flowers No signs of fruit development were observed in any of the unpollinated flowers in this experiment. Flowers of all species in this treatment were shed towards the end of their expected ‘life’ (S. album 7-9 days, S. austrocaledonicum 24-48 hours and S. lanceolatum 12-24 hours). No floral-tube abscission, indicating fruit development, was observed and no seeds were set from any flowers of this treatment. Self pollination in S. album, S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum The percentage of self-pollinated S. lanceolatum flowers developing into seed (1.3%) was significantly (P < 0.05) lower than for all other pollination types except that of self-pollinated S. album (3.1%). Seeds were produced following self pollination in 50% of S. album and 20% of S. lanceolatum genotypes tested. The percentage of self-pollinated S. lanceolatum flowers that developed into seedlings (0.7%) however, was not significantly different from intraspecific crosses among S. album (0.6%) and S. lanceolatum (1.8%) genotypes. No seedlings were recorded from self-pollinated S. album flowers. A comparatively higher level of self-pollinated flowers developed into seed (12.5%) and seedlings (6.25%) for S. austrocaledonicum when compared with self-pollinated S. album and S. lanceolatum flowers (Figure 1). Figure 1: Number of seed and seedlings per pollinated flower for self and intraspecific pollinations in S. album (‘album self’ and ‘album intra’ respectively) and S. lanceolatum (‘lanc self’ and ‘lanc intra’ respectively), self pollination in S. austrocaledonicum (‘aust self’) and reciprocal interspecific pollinations between these three species (‘album x aust’, ‘album x lanc’, ‘aust x lanc’). Vertical bars represent standard errors. Cross types sharing lower case letters are not significantly (P < 0.05) different within either the seed or seedling response variable. * Calculation of standard error and significance values not possible because of low sample size. 104 Intraspecific pollination within S. album and S. lanceolatum Of the 241 intraspecific crosses made between S. lanceolatum genotypes only 9.0% and 1.8% of pollinations resulted in the production of seed and seedlings, respectively. For those crosses representing greater than 10 pollinations the seed set ranged from 0% in 3 different genotype combinations (averaging 16 pollination for each) to 14.2% in crosses between accessions 16 (♀) and 29(♂) (totalling 14 pollinations). A similar difference in seed production compared with seedlings was recorded for intraspecific crosses within S. album, where 13.2% of flowers developed seed but only 0.6% of flowers pollinated resulted in successfully growing seedlings. Variation within of the four genotype combinations with greater than 10 pollinations the seed set ranged from 3% (‘E8’ x ‘E5’ totalling 56 pollinations) to 56% (‘E5’ x ‘E8’ totalling 50 pollinations) indicating that some genotypes might have a greater compatibility in one direction of a reciprocal cross. Within S. lanceolatum only accession number 25 was used in over 50 intraspecific cross-pollinations each as a pistillate and pollen parent with at least 3 different genotypes. The mean percentage of seed set per pollination in this accession was not significantly different between pistillate (4.8%) and pollen (5.4%) parent. No other accession had a sufficient number of pollinations or was crossed with at least 3 different genotypes to permit such evaluation of differences in fecundity between its use as either a ‘female’ or ‘male’ parent for intraspecific crosses. Interspecific pollination between S. album, S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum S. album x S. lanceolatum Variation among the interspecific crosses between S. lanceolatum (♂) and S. album (♀) was found in the percentage of seed set per pollinated flower, ranging from 0–23% and from 0-16% in its reciprocal crosses (S. album (♂) and S. lanceolatum (♀) for those crosses with greater than 10 pollinations. Interestingly 38% of the seeds that developed from the former interspecific cross type resulted in 2 seedlings following germination. In crosses involving S. album (♂) and S. lanceolatum (♀) the percentage of seed producing 2 seedlings was 7.5%. No other cross type in this study had seed that produced 2 seedlings. A significantly (P < 0.05) greater number of seeds per pollinated flower were found following intraspecific pollination among S. lanceolatum genotypes (9.0%) compared with reciprocal interspecific crosses between S. album and S. lanceolatum (4.6%). However the number of seedlings per pollinated flower was significantly (P < 0.05) greater among reciprocal crosses between S. album and S. lanceolatum (4.2%) compared with S. lanceolatum intraspecific pollinations (1.8%). S. lanceolatum x S. austrocaledonicum In the present experiment only one genotype of S. austrocaledonicum (T1) flowered during the period of controlled pollinations. The flowering of this genotype coincided only with the flowering of five genotypes of S. lanceolatum (accessions 2, 5, 14, 16, and 29). Therefore in the evaluation of the compatibility between S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum only reciprocal crosses between T1 with each of accessions 2, 5, 14, 16, and 29 were possible. Variation among the crosses between S. lanceolatum (♂) and S. austrocaledonicum (♀) was found in the percentage seed set per pollinated flower, ranging from 4–23% and from 0-18% in the reciprocal cross (S. austrocaledonicum (♂) and S. lanceolatum (♀). No significant differences in the number of seed per pollinated flower were found between S. lanceolatum intraspecific crosses and each of the reciprocal interspecific crosses between S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum. Number of seedlings per pollinated flower for S. austrocaledonicum (♂) x S. lanceolatum (♀) cross was significantly (P < 0.05) greater than both self- and intraspecific crosses within S. lanceolatum. The reciprocal interspecific cross (S. lanceolatum (♂) and S. austrocaledonicum (♀) however, was not found to differ from these self- and intraspecific crosses. S. album x S. austrocaledonicum Interspecific compatibility was also found between S. album and S. austrocaledonicum with a substantial percentage of flowers producing seed (12.1%) and seedlings (8.0%). This result contrasts with that found in intraspecific pollinations among S. album genotypes, where a significant (P < 0.05) reduction was recorded between the percentage flowers producing seed (13.3%) and seedlings (0.6%). 105 Discussion and Conclusions Unpollinated flowers In this study, no fruit or seeds were set following isolation of flowers and restricting pollination of all three species in this study. This result suggests that these species do not possess a capacity for the development of parthenocarpic fruit or clonal seed. This result is similar to that found in S. album in China, where no seeds were found in flowers isolated from open pollination by bags (Ma et al. 2006). Self compatibility in Santalum The mean seed set per pollinated flower in both S. album and S. lanceolatum was significantly greater following outcross- compared with self-pollination. This result indicates a possible self-incompatibility mechanism(s) operating in these species. Rugkhla et al. (1997) proposed that both pre- and post- fertilisation self-incompatibility mechanisms were operating in S. album and S. spicatum. This study however, found that putative self-incompatibility mechanism(s) in these species, may either be incomplete, or subject to genetic variation between accessions, given that seed set was affected following self pollination in 50% and 20% of genotypes tested for S. album and S. lanceolatum respectively. Two self-pollination derived seeds in S. lanceolatum were successfully germinated and have continued to grow for a period of 2 years without indication of any deleterious effects of inbreeding. In contrast none of the self-pollinated seed in S. album successfully germinated to produce a seedling. The percentage of self-pollinated flowers that produced seed and seedlings for S. austrocaledonicum was substantially greater than that of S. album and S. lanceolatum. Given that the measures in S. austrocaledonicum are based on only one genotype, this result cannot be generalised across the species since often the degree of self-compatibility can vary between genotypes. It does however suggest that individual trees of S. austrocaledonicum can be self compatible, which supports anecdotal reports of isolated trees producing good quantities of seed. These results are similar to those found by Muir et al. (2007) for S. spicatum, where one family showed a high level of inbreeding, which was contradictory to the high mean outcrossing rate (95.2%). These authors proposed that flowering of this family was non-synchronous with many other families, resulting in higher inbreeding. This flexibility in breeding strategy would be of advantage in continental Australian species dispersing and colonizing many islands in south-east Asia and Pacific (Harbaugh and Baldwin 2007). In Santalum album Ma et al. (2006) reported 24% of flowers with geitonogamous (same plant and different flower) self-pollination set seed. While the results of this present study are indicative of the incomplete nature of self-incompatibility in these three species of Santalum further work is required to determine the extent of genetic variation in this trait. In this study all cross types (self-, intraspecific and interspecific) were carried out on a given individual ramet. Therefore it is possible that the reduced selfing rate recorded in this study could be due to competitive interactions between flowers with ‘outcross’ and those with ‘self’ pollen and preferential maternal resource allocation to those most competitive. It would be of interest to evaluate the percentage seed set between these three cross types, where each type is restricted to an individual ramet of a given genotype. This would remove any interaction effects that may have been operating in the present study. Intraspecific pollinations The mean level of seed set per pollinated flower varied between the intraspecific crosses within S. album (13.3%) and S. lanceolatum (9.0%). No intraspecific pollinations were possible for S. austrocaledonicum in this study, since only one genotype flowered during the experimental period and therefore we are not able to make comparisons of intraspecific pollination success between each of the three species. The rates of seed set in intraspecific pollinations in this present study are similar to those found in other studies of reproductive biology in Santalum. For instance fruit set (and thus seed set, given a fruit is generally single seeded) from open pollinated S. album trees was less than 2-3% in China (Ma et al. 2006) and 5.2% in India (Sindhu Veerendra and Anantha Padmanabha 1996). Rugkhla et al. (1997) reported a final fruit set of 1.3% in controlled intraspecific outcross pollination of S. spicatum in Western Australia. These authors also found a 10% fruit set in controlled outcrosses of S. album, which was similar to the 9.4% found by Kulkarni and Muniyamma (1998) in India. While Ma et al. (2006) found that 2-3% of open pollinated S. album flowers set seed, this was increased to 14% during artificial outcross pollinations. The results of this and other studies suggest that while improved seed set may be achieved using controlled pollination, several Santalum species produce an abundance of flowers but less than 10% of these typically develop into viable seed. 106 The significantly greater (i) number of seeds set per intraspecific outcross and (ii) percentage of unique intraspecific pollinations (genotype combinations) developing seed compared with self-pollinated flowers suggests a putative self-incompatibility mechanism. However the low germination rate (40%) for intraspecific outcross derived seed resulted in no significant difference in the number of seedlings between intraspecific and self-pollinated flowers. Further replication of this work is likely to reveal the exact nature of the low germination rate among ‘intraspecific seeds’. Interspecific crosses between S. album, S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum Despite total geographic isolation and significant morphological divergence between the three species of this study, no reproductive barrier appears to exist between them. We demonstrated equivalent or greater seedling production in all three reciprocal interspecific pollinations compared with the two intraspecific crosses. Seed producing two seedlings were found in crosses between S. album (♂) and S. lanceolatum (♀), and although this is not unusual, the level (7.5% of seed) was elevated compared with all other crosses in this study and with S. album intraspecific crosses in controlled crosses in China where the frequency was 2.5% (Ma et al. 2006). The results of this study reflect similar findings with spontaneous hybridisations between S. album and S. yasi in Fiji, with no apparent reproductive barrier or hybrid breakdown (Bulai and Nataniela 2005; Doran et al. 2005). Bulai (2007) further reported that open pollinated hybrids between S. album and S. yasi are now being produced in clonal seed orchards, and these hybrids appear to have higher vigour, wider environmental tolerances and are less dependant on forming host associations. Rugkhla et al. (1997) found that no seeds developed after 1930 reciprocal controlled pollinations between S. album and S. spicatum, and reported that strong incompatibility mechanisms operated between pollen and style, and possibly in the developing zygote. Doran and Brophy (2005) proposed that interspecific hybrids may provide the opportunity to improve the planted form of sandalwood particularly given the good vigour of F1 hybrids between S. album and S. yasi observed in Fiji. Hybridisation between S. album, S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum may be used to incorporate important characters from each of these species into a cultivar for use in commercial plantations. Combining characters such as high heartwood oil concentration and quality (% α - and β-santalol) from S. album, precocious heartwood development from S. austrocaledonicum and straight form and fire tolerance from S. lanceolatum in cultivars may be possible provided additive genetic effects predominate in the characters of interest. The high level of cross-compatibility between these three species indicates the likelihood that they are not widely divergent genetically and chromosomally (few chromosome structural differences) and thus the transfer of characters, even those under quantitative genetic control, would appear to be feasible from interspecific crosses. While the high cross-compatibility between these three species indicates the likelihood that they are not widely divergent genetically, it would be necessary to evaluate the fertility and seed production level of both their F1 hybrid and F2 progeny, because it is possible that genetic divergence between the two species may not be significantly manifest until these post-hybridisation stages. The apparent lack of interspecific barriers between S. lanceolatum with each of S. album and S. austrocaledonicum also has implications for the conservation of their natural stands. Given the low relative value of S. lanceolatum it is unlikely that it would be introduced into areas of natural populations of S. album or S. austrocaledonicum. Commercial plantings of S. album have however, already been established in some areas of Queensland with existing natural populations of S. lanceolatum. It is likely that gene flow will occur between the S. album plantings and adjacent S. lanceolatum populations. It is unclear whether such hybrid progeny would have an advantage in these more arid environments and persist beyond 1 or 2 generations. These considerations however may need to be evaluated by those responsible for (a) management of S. lanceolatum wild stands and (b) improvement of S. album germplasm for commercial production. The genetic purity of S. austrocaledonicum appears to be under threat in Vanuatu, where S. album has been introduced in recent years (Page et al. 2012). Given the cross compatibility between these species, this development is of concern in terms of the long-term preservation of the genetic variation in this species. While it is recognised that S. album generally produces oil that is of superior quality in the marketplace, the heritage and therefore the quality of the Vanuatu introductions is unclear. Page et al. (2012) also reported that heartwood production in S. austrocaledonicum may be more precocious compared with S. album and therefore producers of hybrids in the future may need to consider increasing the length of the production rotation. 107 The introduction of S. album also represents a concern for the ongoing identity of Vanuatu Sandalwood, which currently occupies an international market niche. It is therefore looking increasingly likely that pure forms of S. austrocaledonicum may only persist New Caledonia. There may however be opportunity to preserve the identity of Vanuatu sandalwood in isolated parts of the country including the regions of Malekula and Santo, where forms of S. austrocaledonicum exist that have superior oil quality (Page et al. 2010). References Bulai P (2007) Research, Development, and Tree Improvement of Sandalwood in Fiji. Proceedings of the regional workshop on sandalwood research, development and extension in the pacific islands, 27-33. Bulai P, Nataniela V (2005) Research, Development, and Extension of Sandalwood in Fiji – A New Beginning. In 'Regional workshop on Sandalwood Research, Development and Extension in the Pacific Islands and Asia'. Noumea, New Caledonia, 7-11 October 2002. (Eds L Thomson, S Bulai and L Sovea) pp. 83-91. (Secretariat of the Pacific Community) Doran JC, Brophy JJ (2005) Sandalwood - a global perspective. In 'Regional workshop on Sandalwood Research, Development and Extension in the Pacific Islands and Asia'. Noumea, New Caledonia, 7-11 October 2002. (Eds L Thomson, S Bulai and L Sovea) pp. 29-49. (Suva, Fiji: Secretariat of the Pacific Community) Doran JC, Thomson L, Brophy JJ, Goldsack B, Bulai P, Faka'osi T, Mokoia T (2005) Variation in heartwood oil composition of young sandalwood trees in the south Pacific (Santalum yasi, S. album and F1 hybrids in Fiji, and S. yasi in Tonga and Niue). Sandalwood Research Newsletter 20, 3-7. Harbaugh DT, Baldwin BG (2007) Phylogeny and biogeography of the sandalwoods (Santalum, Santalaceae): repeated dispersals throughout the Pacific. American Journal of Botany 94, 1028–1040. Kulkarni HD, Muniyamma M (1998) Floral biology and breeding systems in sandal, Santalum album L. In 'Sandal and Its Products: Proceedings of an International Seminar'. Bangalore, India 18-19 December 1997(Eds AM Radomiljac, Annanthapadmanabho, RM Welbourn and K Satyanarayana Rao) pp. 135-146. (ACIAR, Canberra) Ma G-H, Bunn E, Zhang J-F, Wu G-J (2006) Evidence of Dichogamy in Santalum album L. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology 48, 300-306. Muir K, Byrne M, Barbour EL, Cox MC, Fox JED (2007) High levels of out-crossing in a family trial in Western Australia Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum). Silvae Genetica 56, 222-230. Ott LR, Longnecker M (2001) An Introduction to Statistical Methods and Data Analysis. Duxbury: California Page T, Southwell I, Russell M, Tate H, Tungon J, Sam C, Dickinson G, Robson K, Leakey RRB (2010) Geographic and phenotypic variation in heartwood and essential oil characters in natural populations of Santalum austrocaledonicum in Vanuatu. Chemistry and Biodiversity 7, 1990-2006. Page T, Tate H, Bunt C, Potrawiak A, Berry A (2012) Opportunities for the smallholder sandalwood industry in Vanuatu. ACIAR Technical Reports No 79. Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR): Canberra Rugkhla A, McComb JA, Jones MGK (1997) Intra- and inter-specific pollination of Santalum spicatum and S. album. Australian Journal of Botany 45, 1083-1095. Sindhu Veerendra HC, Anantha Padmanabha HS (1996) The breeding system in Sandal (Santalum album L.). Silvae Genetica 45, 188-190. Tamla HT, Cornelius J, Page T (2011) Reproductive biology of three commercially valuable Santalum species: development of flowers and inflorescences, breeding systems, and interspecific crossability. Euphytica. 108 6.4 THE VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION OF SANDALWOOD SPECIES, SANTALUM YASI, S. ALBUM AND F1 HYBRID Maloni Havea, Technical Officer, Forestry Department, Tonga Abstract The genus Santalum belongs to the Santalaceae, a family in the Order Santales. Santalum comprises 16 species. Santalum taxa are hemi-parasites, and the availability of appropriate host plants is crucial to their successful establishment. The economic and cultural values of Santalum species are attributed to the fragrant oils present in its heartwood. Santalum taxa have considerable cultural and economic importance to many communities in Pacific Island countries and territories. This study investigated vegetative propagation of three sandalwood taxa, viz: Santalum yasi, S. album and their hybrid (S. yasi x S. album). Experiments were undertaken to induce root suckering in mature sandalwood plants growing in the field in two locations in southeast Viti Levu (Vunimaqo and Colo-i-Suva), Fiji. The technique employed for root sucker induction was to partially or fully sever larger near-surface roots. Root suckers were produced on the segment of damaged or cut root, which is positioned away from the trunk, suggesting that chemicals from the tree inhibit the development of root suckers. Substantial differences in the number of shoots produced were observed between roots which had been partially cut (primary lateral root) and those that were fully cut through or severed (secondary lateral root). Induction of root suckering was most successful for the hybrid plants: on average 3.7 ±0.6 shoots were induced on fully cut secondary lateral roots, while 1.20 ±0.18 shoots were produced on partially cut primary lateral root roots. For S. yasi, averages of 0.61 ±0.18 shoots were induced on fully cut roots and 0.15 ±0.11 shoots on partially cut roots. For S. album, averages of 0.96 ±0.65 shoots were induced on fully cut roots and 1.2 ±0.34 shoots on partially cut roots. The optimal root diameters of severed lateral roots for stimulating shoot production was 1.40 ±0.10 cm for hybrids, 1.98 ±0.11 cm for S. album and 1.60 ±0.11cm for S. yasi. The optimal root diameters for stimulating shoot production in partially cut larger roots was 5.03 ±0.90 cm for hybrids, 4.78 ±0.35 cm for S. album and 4.77 ±0.57 cm for S. yasi. The distance from the trunk at which the root is cut has a strong influence on shoot induction. The optimal distances from the trunk for stimulating shoot production were 56 ±4 cm for hybrids, 33 ±3 cm for S. album and 32 ±2 cm for S. yasi for completely severed or cut through secondary lateral roots. However, for half-cut through primary lateral roots the optimum distance from the trunk was 20 ±4 cm for hybrids, 19 ±5 cm for S. album and 9.1 ±2.5 cm for S. yasi. In addition, this investigation confirmed that complete severing of roots was more effective than partial severing of roots for stimulating shoot production for cuttings material of Santalum taxa. An investigation was undertaken to identify effective treatments for propagating Santalum taxa through stem cuttings. Five factors were investigated for their effect on rooting success of the cutting. These factors were Indole Butyric Acid (±), root promoting hormone Naphthalene Acetic Acid at concentrations of (0, 0.5 and 1.0 mg L-1), seedling age (6-12 and 12-24 months), cutting type (root sucker shoots or seedlings) and cutting position (apical or basal). The rooting percentage and number of roots formed was increased by Indole Butyric Acid application in interaction with 30:70 sand:peatmoss, and apical shoots. Under these conditions, the average number of roots formed on S. yasi was 2.8 ±0.3: corresponding numbers of roots were 2.6 ±0.2 for S. album and 3.6 ±0.3 roots for hybrids. The average length of roots formed on S. yasi cuttings was 2.1 ±0.2 cm, 2.2 ±0.2 cm for S. album and 2.9 ±0.3 cm for hybrids. The application of 1.0 mg L-1 Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) in 30:70 sand:peatmoss medium, and originating from the apical portion further enhances rooting success: root number and length for S. yasi were 2.5 ±0.2 roots and 2.7 ±0.2 cm, for S. album 2.5 ±0.3 roots and 1.8 ±0.3 cm and for the hybrid 3.1 ±0.2 roots and 2.9 ±0.2 cm. Younger seedling age (i.e. 6-12 months) in a 30:70 sand: peatmoss medium, and originating from the apical portion further enhances rooting success: root number and length for S. yasi were 1.9 ±0.2 roots and 2.0 ±0.2 cm, for S. album 1.5 ±0.2 roots and 1.3 ±0.2 cm and for the hybrid 2.8 ±0.3 roots and 2.2 ±0.2 cm. The result revealed that cuttings taken from apical positions gave much higher rooting percentages than those taken from basal positions. Rooting of cuttings was improved (i.e. more and longer roots) in a 30:70 sand:peatmoss medium compared with mahogany compost. Application of rooting hormone (Naphthalene Acetic Acid 1.0 mg L-1 or Indole Butyric Acid) increased the numbers of roots and root length. 109 Cuttings from younger seedlings (aged 6-12 months) produced more and longer roots than did cuttings from older seedlings (aged 12-24 months). The results revealed that Santalum hybrid is the most suitable of the three investigated taxa for conventional vegetative propagation. The final experiment was an investigation of the development and survival of treated cutting-derived plants following transplanting. The aim of this work was to investigate the survival of apical and basal stem cuttings following transplanting. Transplanted rooted cuttings derived from younger seedlings (6 to 12 months old) and treated with Naphthalene Acetic Acid (1.0 mg L-1) in interaction with 50:50 sand:peatmoss media developed longer roots in all three taxa (1.4 ±0.1 cm in S. yasi, 1.3 ±0.1 cm for S. album and 1.5 ±0.1 cm for hybrid). However, rooted cuttings that had been propagated in 30:70 sand:peatmoss with hormone (1.0 mg L-1 Naphthalene Acetic Acid ) application produced longer roots after transplanting indicating the importance of the media used. The most successful treatment in terms of root length was with transplanted rooted cuttings taken from the apices of younger seedlings (6 to 12 months old) and treated with Indole Butyric Acid in interaction with 30:70 sand:peatmoss media (1.5 ±0.1 cm for S. yasi, 1.5 ±0.1 cm for S. album and 1.1 ±0.0 cm for hybrid. Based on the experiments reported in this study, higher percentages of successful cutting-derived plants of Santalum species can be attained by taking apical cuttings from younger seedlings (up to age of 12 months), treating them with Indole Butyric Acid and Naphthalene Acetic Acid (1.0 mg L-1 concentration) and rooting them in a 30:70 sand:peatmoss medium (rather than in media derived from local compost). References Havea, M. (2007). Vegetative Propagation of Santalum species (Santalum yasi, Santalum album and Santalum hybrid). M.Sc. Thesis. University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 110 6.5 MICROPROPAGATION OF SANDALWOOD (SANTALUM SPP) Sainimili Baiculacula, Laboratory Technician, CePaCT, SPC Introduction Santalum is a genus of woody flowering plants, commercially valuable because of its highly valued fragrant heartwood, which contains sandal oil that is used in perfumes, cosmetics, medicines and also in incense sticks industries (Srinivasan e.al, 1992). Most members of this genus are either trees or shrubs and are root parasites which photosynthesize their own food but tap the roots of other species for water and inorganic nutrients (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santalum). Brand (2005) stated that the best hosts are nitrogen fixing trees because the growth of sandalwood is dependent on the amino acid availability. In addition, the host should not be competitive to sandalwood in terms of nutrients. Santalum belongs to the family Santalaceae that has over 30 genera and 400 species in the tropical and temperate parts of the world. The fruit is produced after three years and the viable seeds are mostly available after five years. Like most forest tree species, seed propagation is common to Santalum, however, seedlings are extremely heterozygous due to outcrossing. Vegetative propagation via grafting, air layering and with root suckers can be used but the production of clones is inefficient and time consuming (Shrimati et al., 1995). For centuries, sandalwood has been an important commercial industry in the Pacific. Sandalwood species are grown in specific island countries like: Papua New Guinea (S. macgregorii), New Caledonia and Vanuatu (S. austroledonicum) Fiji and Tonga (S. yasi). Santalum album, however, is also planted and grows well in most Pacific countries from New Caledonia to French Polynesia and the Cook Islands. Sandalwood has been over-exploited over the years and the regeneration of trees in the field using conventional methods is often difficult to achieve. An effective micropropagation protocol would support the development of the sandalwood “industry” and increase productivity. This protocol would address establishment in tissue culture, multiplication and rooting. Sandalwood is recalcitrant to in vivo and in vitro propagation for which limited success has been achieved so far (Sanjaya et.al, 2003). The previous reports on in vitro propagation have focused on adventitious bud regeneration from in vitro grown seedling explants: hypocotyls (Bapat et al., 1978); endosperm (Sita et al., 1979); zygotic embryo (Rai and McComb, 2002); and somatic embryogenesis through a callus phase (Sita et al., 1980). With all these reports only small numbers of plants have been regenerated and the methods require optimization. As stated by Beck and Dunlop (2001), plant tissue culture based biotechnology has been employed to generate quality planting material with many forest tree species. In 2006, Sanjaya et.al were able to establish an in vitro clonal propagation of a candidate plus tree (CPT) of S. album using axillary buds. Shoot establishment, multiplication and in vitro rooting were all investigated in this research. Materials and Methods Juvenile nodal segments Sandalwood explants used for this research were taken from S. album, S. yasi and hybrid seedlings established in the Colo-i-Suva screen house and brought to the Centre of Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT) nursery. The sandalwood seedlings held in the CePaCT nursery were watered and treated with the fungicide Benlate (Du Pont, New Zealand Ltd) 0.5g L-1 on a monthly basis. Pesticides Mavrik (Yates) 10ml L-1 and ATTACK (Crop Care) 2ml L-1 were used alternately on a monthly basis. NPK fertilizers were added every three months. Nodal segments were used for initiation. Mature nodal segments Sandalwood explants were sourced from the S. yasi, S. album and hybrid tree species grown at Vunimaqo Forestry Research Station, Serua. Side branches 10 - 15cm long were trimmed from the trees, which were 10 to 12 years old. Collection was carried out after cyclone Thomas and during the flowering (January) and fruiting (May- June) period of sandalwood trees. 111 Sterilization protocol for juvenile nodal segments Sandalwood explants were decontaminated using a modified breadfruit decontamination protocol (Tuia et al., 2007). The bleach used in the decontamination process is locally purchased and contains 2% active chlorine. Juvenile nodal segments of 5 -7cm long were cut into 1cm nodal segments 0.5cm above and 0.5cm below the nodes so that the leaf nodes were obtained. These nodal segments were gently placed in a beaker containing tap water with a few drops of both detergent and White King bleach (containing 4.2% sodium hypochlorite) and stirred. The explants were treated individually, brushed using a clean toothbrush and rinsed well with tap water, followed with sterile distilled water to ensure the bleach was thoroughly removed. The rest of the decontamination protocol took place in the laminar air flow cabinet. Explants were sterilized in 70% ethanol, followed by immersion in White King with 2-3 drops of tween. Explants were then dipped in a solution of 100mg/L citric acid for a few minutes to minimize browning and finally sterilized in White King (containing 4.2% sodium hypochlorite) solution containing 2-3 drops of tween. The tissue was trimmed if bleaching was obvious, sterilized again in White King containing 2-3 drops of tween, rinsed with sterile distilled water several times and finally inoculated on the culture medium in McCartney 2 or polycarbonate tubes. The cultures were placed in a growth room at a temperature of 250C under a light intensity of 30μmolm-2s-1 radiance (cool white fluorescent lamps) with a daylength of 16 hours. Culture establishment Two methods were followed in the establishment of Santalum spp in tissue culture These two methods were from groups of researchers that were able to micropropagate their native species that have high commercial potential in their regions and a need for clonal propagation of elite genotypes by tissue culture. TABLE 2. SANDALWOOD SPECIES ON MULTIPLICATION MEDIUM Species Date of initiations Date of 1st subculture Date of 2nd subculture No of To no. explts of explts Album (D) 10.11.08 06.07.09 01.06.10 1 20 MS Album (C) 10.11.08 07.07.09 01.06.10 1 10 MS Album (C) 10.11.08 07.07.09 01.06.10 1 2 MS Album (B) 10.11.08 06.07.09 01.06.10 1 12 MS Album (A) 10.11.08 08.07.09 01.06.10 1 16 MS Album (E) 10.11.08 07.07.09 03.06.10 1 24 MS Album (F) 24.10.08 08.07.09 03.06.10 1 6 MS Yasi (A) 10.11.08 03.06.10 1 20 0.01µM NAA +2.50µM BAP MS34 MS23 Yasi (C) 24.10.08 03.06.10 1 20 MS MS34 5 From media To media MS2 MS2 MS23 MS23 MS23 MS34 In any given tree population it is mostly possible to find individuals which are better than the rest in terms of height, yield, branching or any other desirable trait. Selected trees are often referred to as candidate plus trees. They are often used to establish base populations for future breeding. 2 McCartney bottles are a set of thick, clear & wide mouth glass bottle, aluminium screw cap and rubber liner. These bottles along with the cap and rubber liner can be autoclaved easily and can be sterilized with medium present inside it. The aluminium screw cap has a special coating which is compatible with 70 % IP spray and the rubber liner is available in different grades like silicon rubber, bromo butyl rubber, natural rubber, etc. 112 Root induction In vitro S. album shoots of 3.0 – 8.0 cm in length were used for in vitro rooting induction. Three methods were evaluated for root induction. They were as follows: • Pulse treated on 98.4µM indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) for 48 hours and then transferred to ¼ MS with vitamins of B5 medium (Gamborgh et al, 1968), sucrose 20.0g/l and agar 7.0g/l and incubated in the dark for a week before transfer to 16hrs photoperiod and a temperature of 28±10oC.(Sanjaya et al., 2003?) • Pulse treated on 1230µM IBA for 30mins and then transferred to 400ml cultured bottles containing autoclaved moist 75% sand, 25% potting mix and incubated at 28±10oC with a 16 hr photoperiod light (Sanjaya et al, 2006). • Explants subcultured on ½ MS with 32.2µM IBA for 7 days and transferred to ½ MS with 10µM riboflavin for 30 days. (Narendra et al., 2004) Sanjaya et al (2003) successfully micropropagated endangered Indian sandalwood (S. album) at the Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore India. The methods of establishment, multiplication and rooting are mostly followed in this research with some modifications. Narendra et.al (2004) successfully micropropagated two Australian native fruit species, Davidsonia pruriens and Davidsonia jerseyana. Only in vitro root growth method was followed in this research. The medium investigated for nodal segments establishment was Murashige and Skoog - MS (1962) supplemented with different concentrations of BAP and NAA as listed in Table 1. The medium was adjusted to pH 5.7 with 1M NaOH and HCl and dispensed into Mc Cartney or polycarbonate tubes. These tubes were autoclaved for 20minutes at 1210oC and kept in a cool place ready for use. TABLE 1. PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS BY TYPE OF MEDIUM SD-1 MS basal medium without plant growth regulators SD -2 MS + 0.05 μM NAA and 1.25 μM BAP SD -3 MS + 0.02 μM NAA and 2.00 μM BAP SD -4 MS + 0.01 μM NAA and 1.05 μM BAP SD -5 MS + 0.01 μM NAA and 2.50 μM BAP Shoot multiplication The following shoot multiplication experiment has recently been established. Nodal shoot segments of S. yasi and S. album were isolated from in vitro grown shoots that had been cultured on establishment medium and cultured on three different treatments; MS2 (control), MS23, MS34 as shown in Table 2. The composition of these three treatments have been described in footnotes (2), (3) and (4). For S. yasi, only two treatments were used because of the limited availability of in vitro grown shoots. They will be subcultured at intervals of four weeks and data recorded for each subculture. TABLE 2. SANDALWOOD SPECIES ON MULTIPLICATION MEDIUM Species Date of initiations Date of 1st subculture Date of 2nd subculture No of To no. of explts explts Album (D) 10.11.08 06.07.09 01.06.10 1 20 MS Album (C) 10.11.08 07.07.09 01.06.10 1 10 MS Album (C) 10.11.08 07.07.09 01.06.10 1 2 MS Album (B) 10.11.08 06.07.09 01.06.10 1 12 MS Album (A) 10.11.08 08.07.09 01.06.10 1 16 MS Album (E) 10.11.08 07.07.09 03.06.10 1 24 MS Album (F) 24.10.08 08.07.09 03.06.10 1 6 MS Yasi (A) 10.11.08 03.06.10 1 20 0.01µM NAA +2.50µM BAP MS34 MS23 Yasi (C) 24.10.08 03.06.10 1 20 MS MS34 113 From media To media MS2 MS2 MS23 MS23 MS23 MS34 Root induction In vitro S.album shoots of 3.0 – 8.0 cm in length were used for in vitro rooting induction. Three methods were evaluated for root induction. They were as follows: • Pulse treated on 98.4µM indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) for 48 hours and then transferred to ¼ MS with vitamins of B5 medium (Gamborgh et al., 1968), sucrose 20.0g/l and agar 7.0g/l and incubated in the dark for a week before transfer to 16hrs photoperiod and a temperature of 28±10C.(Sanjay et al., 2003) • Pulse treated on 1230µM IBA for 30mins and then transferred to 400ml cultured bottles containing autoclaved moist 75% sand, 25% potting mix and incubated at 28±10C with a 16 hr photoperiod light (Sanjay et al., 2003). • Explants subcultured on ½ MS with 32.2µM IBA for 7 days and transferred to ½ MS with 10µM riboflavin for 30 days. (Narendra et al., 2004) There were 10 replicates for each treatment. The different rooting medium is represented as R01, R02 and R03 respectively as shown in Table 3. TABLE 3. ALBUM SPECIES ON DIFFERENT ROOTING MEDIUM S.Album Date CODES of initi. Ini. Root S.Album Date hgt media CODES of (cm) initi. Ini. Root S.Album Date hgt media CODES of (cm) initi. Ini. hgt (cm) Root media 30a(1) 10.11.8 4.0 R01 40a 10.11.8 4 R02 20a 03.04.8 6.5 R03 30a(2) 10.11.8 6.0 R01 41a 10.11.8 4 R02 20a 03.04.8 5.0 R03 30a(3) 10.11.8 5.5 R01 42a 10.11.8 5.4 R02 21a 10.11.8 5.0 R03 31a(1) 10.11.8 6.0 R01 43a 10.11.8 3.6 R02 22a 10.11.8 5.0 R03 31a(2) 10.11.8 4.5 R01 44a 10.11.8 4.0 R02 23a 03.04.8 4.5 R03 31a(3) 10.11.8 3.5 R01 45a 10.11.8 6.2 R02 23a 03.04.8 4.5 R03 31a(4) 10.11.8 5.0 R01 46a 10.11.8 5.0 R02 23a 03.04.8 5.5 R03 32a (1) 10.11.8 5.0 R01 47a 10.11.8 3.0 R02 23a 03.04.8 5.5 R03 33a (1) 10.11.8 3.5 R01 48a 10.11.8 4.5 R02 24a 10.11.8 8.0 R03 33a(2) 10.11.8 6.0 R01 49a 10.11.8 5.0 R02 25a 10.11.8 7.0 R03 50a 10.11.8 5.0 R02 Results Shoot Initiation The combined use of BA and NAA exhibited bud break. The majority of explants that had survived the establishment experiment were derived from the 60 S. album and 60 S. yasi juvenile nodal explants that had been initiated on the 10.11.08. For each treatment 12 replicates were used. Explants cultured on SD1 media had an average growth of 3cm – 5cm long, whilst shoots from explants cultured on the other media showed a growth of 1cm-1.5cm long. 2-3 new shoots were produced from the buds of all the explants across the range of different medium but only those cultured on SD1 showed good healthy growth; those cultures on SD2, SD3, SD4 and SD5 were dwarfed and retarded in growth. Even though most of the explants had retarded and dwarfed growth, they were kept because they were clean and had clumped side shoots which will be used for multiplication research. After 8 months on establishment medium, plants were subcultured to MS. Previous preliminary experiments had shown that subculturing sandalwood plantlets too soon leads to very low survival. The 52 S. yasi juvenile nodal segments that were established on 07. 01. 10 on MS media only, had 13.5% survival rate. They were then subcultured on 10.02.10 on MS and further multiplied on MS2 and 3 on 24. 06. 10. These treatments are still under observation. Shoot multiplication After four weeks on multiplication medium, it was observed that explants on MS2 and 3 produced clumped shoots as compared to the other two treatments (see in Figure 1). This experiment is still in progress. Explants will be subcultured and placed on the same treatments for further multiplication and root induction research. 114 Root induction The recent root induction experiment is still under observation. Data will be available in the next progress report. On the 1st July, 2010, 6cm root length was observed in a culture of S. album that was initiated on the 10th October, 2008. On this date, a total of 61 juvenile S. album was established in 5 different treatments with 12 replicates/treatment. From this experiment, only 19.1% survived. MS2 MS 23 MS 34 The culture showing rooting had been initiated on Treatment 3 (MS supplemented with 0.02µM NAA + 2.00µM BAP), and subcultured on MS media on 15. 07. 09. There was no further subculture. It was noted that most of the media had dried out with this culture because of the length of time it had been in the same container (see Fig 2). The rooting response could be a stress response, an indication that rooting is favoured by a well-aerated environment and/or a nutrient-poor environment. As sandalwood in the field prefers a sandy loam soil it is likely that these same conditions are required in vitro. Figure 1. Comparison of explants on three different medium Rooting was also observed with 25 other S. album explants and in all cases, the medium had dried out, as with the culture described above. These rooted cultures will be subjected to three different treatments to determine which method bests supports further rooting. Figure 2. Examples of rooting S. album explants Multiple shoots of S. yasi, S. album and their hybrid were induced from nodal shoot segments derived from adult trees sourced from Vunimaqo, Serua and juvenile explants excised from seed-derived plants held in the Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT) nursery. Both explants taken from the adult trees and the nursery plants were established on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with different concentrations of α-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and 6-benzylaminopurine (BA). The in vitro shoots were multiplied on four different media: MS (control), MS 2 and MS 3 medium. Three different treatments were investigated for root establishment, namely: pulse treatment of explants followed by soil planting, culturing explants on MS medium supplemented with host plant extracts; culturing explants on MS medium. 1 “For hybrids, the female parent is named first. In the case of the Santalum hybrid either species can have provided the female. In practice it is usually S. yasi that is the female parent as it is easier to spot hybrid progeny among the seedlings derived from yasi fruits (broader leaves), whereas album seedlings may naturally have a broad range of leaf widths (so hybrids derived from album fruit can be hard to spot in the nursery). Correct name would be Santalum yasi x album or Santalum album x yasi (if the album was the female) as by convention the genus is left out for second named species of the hybrid combo.” 2 MS medium consists of 76g/l KNO3, 66g/L NH4NO3, 17.6g/l CaCl2.2H2O,6.8G/l KH2PO4, 14.8g/l MgSO4.7H2O, 0.89g/l MnSO4.H2O,1.72g/l ZnSO4. 7H2O, 1.24g/l H3BO3, 0.166g/l KI, 0.005 CuSO4.5H2O, 0.05g/l Na2MoO4.2H2O,0.005g/l CoCl2.6H2O, 26.1g/l (EDTA) di sodium salt, 24.9g/l FeSO4.7H2O, 30g/l sucrose, 7.8 g/l agar. (Murashige and Skoog, 1962) 3 MS medium supplemented with 0.1mg/l NAA, 1.0mg/l BAP, 50mg/l ascorbic acid, 22.70 mg/l citric acid, 23.02mg/l cystine, 50.0mg/l glutamine and 10% w/v coconut milk (Sanjaya et.al., 2006) 400g/l NH4NO3, 96g/l CaCl2.2H2O, 170g/l KH2PO4, 556g/l Ca (NO3)2. 4H2O, 990g/l K2SO4, 370g/l MgSO4.7H2O,22.3g/l MnSO4. H2O, 8.6g/l ZnSO4.7H2O,6.2H3BO3,0.25g/l CuSO4. 5H2O, 0.25g/l Na2MoO4.2H2O,22.78g/l FeSO4.7H2O,37.3g/l Na2EDTA,0.1g/l myo-inositol, 1ml of 1.0mg/ml T-HCl, 0.1mg/l BAP 115 Bulai S., Thomson L., Sovea., Leba., (2005) Proceeding of the regional Workshop on Sandalwood research, Development and Extension in the Pacific Island Bapat V.A., Rao P.S. 1978: Vegetative propagation of sandalwood plants through tissue culture. Can J.Bot 56:1153-1156 Beck S.L., Dunlop R.W. 2001: Micropropagation of Acacia species – a review. In vitro Cell Dev Biol Plant 37:531-538 Brand. J., 2005: WA Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) establishment guide for farmland in the Wheatbelt. Forest Products Commission, Locked Bag 888, Perth WA 6849 Bule L., Daruhi G. 1990: Status of sandalwood resources in Vanuatu. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech Rep. PSW 122:79-84 Conrad.C., Eugene., Hamilton., Lawrence., (1990) Proceedings of the symposium on sandalwood in the Pacific. A state of knowledge synthesis and summary from April 1990 symposium, 9-11 April 1990. Honolulu, Hawaii. Gen. Tech.Rep. PSW-GTR-122.Berkeley,CA: Pacific Southwest Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1 -11 pp Channel.S., Thomson L., (1999) Development of a sandalwood conservation strategy for Vanuatu. Forest Genetic Resources 27: 67-72 Department of Forestry., (2005) Growing Yasi or Sandalwood (Santalum yasi) in Fiji http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9065451/sandalwood Hirano. R.T. 1990: Propagation of Santalum Sandalwood Tree, USDA Forest Service Gen Technical Rep. http://www.finegardening.com/plantguide/alternanthera-dentata-purple-knight-calicoplant.aspx Jiko.L.R., (2000) Status and Current Interest on Sandalwood in Fiji. Sandalwood Research Newsletter, 10, 1-3pp Mckinnell.F.H. (1990) Status of Management and Silviculture research on Sandalwood in Western Australia and Indonesia. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech Rep. PSW 122:19-25pp Murashige, T., and Skoog F., (1962) A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco tissue culture. Physiologia Plantarum 15: 473 – 497. Narendra N., Roderick A.D., Sarah. A., (2004) Micropropagation of two Australian native fruit species, Davidsonia pruriens and Davidsonia jerseyana G. Harden and J.B. Williams. Plant Cell Tissue Culture and Organ Culture; 77: 193 – 201 Robson. K., (2004) Experience with sandalwood in plantations in the South Pacific and North Queensland. Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Horticulture and Forestry Science, Walkamin, Queensland,4872, Australia, 1-9pp Rai R.V., McComb J. 2002: Directembryogenesis from mature embryos of sandalwood. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult 69:65-70 Sanjaya B.M., Ananthapadmanabha H.S., Rai V.R. 2003. In vitro and in micrografting of Santalum album shoot tips. J Trop Forest Sci 15: 234-236. Sanjaya B.M., Rahore T.S., Rai V.R.. 2006. Micropropagation of an endangreded Indian sandalwood (Santalum album L.). J Forest Research 11: 203-209 Srimati R.A., Venkateshan K.R.,Kulkarni H.D. 1995: Guidelines for selection and establishment of seed stands and seed production areas, plus trees and clonal seed orchards for sandal (Santalum album L.) in India.Associated, Delhi, pp 281-299 Srinivasan V.V. et al. 1992: Sandal (Santalum album L.).Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Nanglore, India pp 1-60 Sita L.G., Raghava N.V.,Vaidyanathan C.S. 1979: Differentiation of embryoids and plantlets from shoot callus of sandalwood. Plant Sci Lett 15:265-270 Thomson, L.A.J (2006) Species Profile for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Santalum austrocaledonicum and S.yasi (sandalwood). Holualoa, Hawaii: 1-17pp Tuia.V.S., Taylor. M.B., Ragone. D. 2007: Studies of in vitro culture of breadfruit cultivars in the Pacific. Breadfruit meeting proceedings Wikipedia, The free encyclopaedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santalum 116 7 TECHNICAL PRESENTATIONS ON SANDALWOOD MARKETS AND TRADE 7.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES, RECENT SANDALWOOD TRADE AND FUTURE PROSPECTS FROM THE PACIFIC ISLANDS Lex Thomson1 and John Doran 2 Historical trade in sandalwood There has been an ancient and continuing history of exploitation and trade in sandalwood. Since the 6th century, merchants have traded sandalwood from India and Indonesia/ Timor Leste to China. Indeed China has historically been the greatest export market for sandalwood. European explorers found sandalwood on Pacific Islands in 1760 (Shineberg, 1967). In early 1800s there were major trade imbalances developing between China and Great Britain and its young colony Australia. The Pacific Islands sandalwood trade developed because of the need for Great Britain and Australia to find a suitable commodity to trade with China in return for tea. For example, China exported £70 million of tea to Great Britain in the period 1811-19 and £200,000 of tea in five years to Australia. It was observed that all exports to China from Australia failed with the exception of sandalwood, which was paid for handsomely. From Shineberg (1967): The Pacific scramble for sandalwood started in Fiji, with Santalum yasi, in the early 1800s with commercial resources cut out by 1816. A small load of sandalwood was obtained from Fiji as late as 1825 (but not in commercial quantities). The Marquesas (French Polynesia) were stripped of sandalwood (S. insulare) in only three years from 1814-17. In Hawaii the boom lasted from 1811 to 1828. The last major wave of early Pacific sandalwood exploitation was for S. austrocaledonicum in Erromango (Vanuatu), Loyalty Islands and Isle de Pins (New Caledonia) from 1820-55. For example, between 1840 and 1855, an average of at least 1,300 tonnes per year of sandalwood was exported from Vanuatu and New Caledonia – a total of more than 20,000 tonnes. A late discovery of sandalwood on Santo (Vanuatu) revived the wilting trade in the 1850s but trade from south-west Melanesia was already finished by 1865. In volume terms this annual level of trade from Vanuatu and New Caledonia was at least five times that of the annual amount harvested over the past ten years for the whole of Pacific Islands (approximately 270 tonnes/year). Exploitation of sandalwood (S. macgregorii) in Papua New Guinea was later and most intense in the early decades of the 20th century. There have been periods of boom and bust in the trade of sandalwood from various Pacific Islands ever since the early 1800s. These periods may be separated by long intervals, as native sandalwood populations take about 40 to 80 years to recover from intensive harvesting. This is mainly due to the removal of large, mature specimens which act as the main seed sources for regeneration. Sandalwood heartwood and oil have increased in price throughout the entire trade history, and have escalated in recent times (Padmanabha, 2008). For example between 1990 and 2008 the price of Indian sandalwood (Santalum album, the industry standard) heartwood showed a compound increase of 21%, with the price of Indian Sandalwood oil doubling in early 2005, due to imbalances in supply and demand. Current official supply of Indian Sandalwood is about 500 tonnes per year from the annual auction held in Tamil Nadu, India in November of each year. The current consumption of Indian Sandalwood is 3000 tonnes per year based on amount of product released each year into the market. The demand for sandalwood is expected to remain high due to its broad range of high value uses, including medicines and perfumery. Sandalwood has been used for medicinal purposes throughout India and Asia since 2000BC. There are many uses in personal hygiene, such as chewable mouth fresheners that are popular in India and Pakistan. A fairly recent use is in aromatherapy where sandalwood is believed to have calming qualities. Sandalwood oil has also been found to contain cancer fighting qualities and a cream is in the final stages of development at John Hopkins Institute in the USA. There is also interest in the use of sandalwood in treatment of human papillomavirus but there might be other cheaper and more effective products available such as virgin coconut oil. 1 Team Leader, EU-Facilitating Agricultural Commodity Trade, Land Resources Division, SPC, Narere, Fiji 2 Research Fellow, Australian Tree Seed Centre, CSIRO Plant Industry, Black Mountain Laboratories, Canberra, ACT, Australia 117 Perfumes account for 10% of market for sandalwood product. Since 1750, there have been 7,000 classified fragrances of which 3212 (or 46%) contain sandalwood notes (Choueiri, 2008). Approximately 200 new perfumes or fragrances containing sandalwood are released each year. There is also an increasing use of synthetic substitutes, but the market would prefer authentic sandalwood oil if there were: an assured and consistent supply, an affordable price and it could be proven to be from legal and ethical sources. Tropical Forestry Services, who have major sandalwood plantations in north-western Australia, have pre-sold 40% of its first five years of sandalwood oil supply to Lush (handmade cosmetics manufacturer) and Albert Vielle (a firm specialising in supply of essential oils). Recent trade in Pacific Islands sandalwood There has been limited trade in Santalum yasi from both Fiji (505 tonnes) and Tonga (404 tonnes) over the past decade (Figs. 1 and 2). In Fiji the trade picked up in 2006, sharply peaking in 2008 at 306 tonnes of heartwood with a declared value of $F6 million and has declined since due to dwindling availability. The principal export markets for Fiji’s sandalwood have been Vanuatu (for conversion to oil), People’s Republic of China, Taiwan, Australia and Middle East (Dubai). Aromatic Oils (Fiji) Ltd have a modern sandalwood steam distillery in Lautoka, but due to lack of sandalwood supply, have only been able to produce and supply a little over 100 kg of oil to India. In Tonga exports peaked in 2007 at 204 tonnes. The declared value at export for sandalwood is from 4 to 8 Tongan pa’anga per kg (or about 1.6 to 3.2 Euros per kg). This price is considerably lower than in neighbouring Fiji (8 to 22 Euros per kg in 2008-9), perhaps reflecting a lack of appreciation of its export market sale price, and also that some of the wood is sold to intermediaries/ exporters and has been illegally harvested. There is no value adding of sandalwood in Tonga. There are very few mature S. yasi trees remaining in Fiji and Tonga, and the species can be considered on the verge of commercial extinction until planted trees attain maturity. Fig 1. Exports of Santalum yasi from Fiji between 2000 and 2009 118 Fig 2. Exports of Santalum yasi from Tonga between 2001 and 2009 There has been a reasonably sustainable and consistent trade in Santalum austrocaledonicum products (oil and heartwood) from New Caledonia and Vanuatu over the past decade. From 2003–2008, between 45 and 53 tonnes per year of heartwood was harvested in New Caledonia by traditional landowners. This heartwood was sold to two distilleries, one on Maré (Loyalty Islands) and the other on the Isle of Pines. The Maré distillery produces 500-600 kg of essential oil per year and the Isle of Pines distillery produces 900-1,000 kg of essential oil per year. Depending on market and quality, the essential oil is sold for 880-900 Euros per kg (in 2009) in Europe, mainly France, and North America. This oil is used principally in high quality perfumery, aromatherapy, and beauty care products. In Vanuatu 953 tonnes of sandalwood were harvested between 2000 and 2009, with 73 and 123 tonnes being harvested annually (Table 1). The average export market prices in 2009 for sandalwood products from Vanuatu were 600 to 750 Euros per kg for essential oil; 40 Euros per kg for carving logs and pieces; 360 Euros per tonne for spent charge (after oil removed) and 730 Euros per tonne for sapwood. TABLE 1. MASS OF SANTALUM AUSTROCALEDONICUM HARVESTED IN VANUATU FROM 2000 TO 2009 Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Mass (MT) 73 76 73 121 123 114 112 112 76.1 73 Between 1997 and 2008, 360 tonnes of sandalwood (S. macgregorii ) were exported from PNG (Fig. 3). The quantity of heartwood exported has fluctuated from 73 tonnes in 2003 to 2 tonnes in 2006 . Fig 3. Exports of Santalum macgregorii from Fiji between 1997 and 2008 119 The declared export values are very low (equivalent to 0.7 to 1 Euro per kg from 2003-8) compared with other Pacific Island sandalwood species. The main issues of concern related to current exploitation and trade from Pacific Islands are: • • • • • • Unregulated and/or non-enforced regulations Overexploited - commercially extinct in wild Resource owners being duped by middlemen and/or having their trees stolen Low declared values at customs (Governments not collecting rightful amounts of customs and excise duties and taxes) Lack of value adding e.g. essential oil production Lack of natural regeneration and replanting (until quite recently) Summary and future prospects Over the past 10 years, trade of sandalwood and its products has fluctuated between 200 and 500 tonnes per year from all Pacific Islands. The quantity has been stabilised by relatively consistent, regulated production from Vanuatu and New Caledonia. This traded quantity equates to only about one-tenth of production during the first wave of sandalwood exploitation in the Pacific in the early to mid 1800s. Extraction from native stands will remain low over the next 20 years (maximum of 150-200 tonnes per year for entire Pacific Islands region), until resources can be re-established through protection, management of natural regeneration and enrichment plantings. Future production in Pacific Islands will be dominated by planted sandalwood (home gardens, agroforestry, plantations) and natural regeneration in areas adjacent to new plantings. Planted sandalwood from Pacific Islands will only begin to come onto the international market in larger volumes ( > 500 tonnes per year) from about 2018 – 2025. This will be predominately S. austrocaledonicum from Vanuatu and S. album, S. yasi and hybrids from Fiji, Samoa and Tonga. Factors that have limited replanting until relatively recently are lack of quality germplasm and knowledge of silviculture; long rotation period (with islanders unable to tie up resources for 20 years); and lack of secure land titles. Major threats to sandalwood production are considered to be: theft; poor management (weeds, shade, lack of appropriate hosts); butt and root rot fungi (in high rainfall zones), cyclones; drought and fire (in dry and intermediate rainfall zones) and termites. The major risks to Pacific Island sandalwood prices and trade are likely to be: • Large scale plantations in Australia, China and India and possibly elsewhere (e.g. Thailand and Sri Lanka). These pose a risk to future prices which are likely to be paid for sandalwood but will reduce pressures to develop improved and cheaper synthetics. • Biotechnological developments – metabolic pathways and enzymes for santalenes production in sandalwood have recently been identified, and could be transferred into yeasts/microbes with the prospect of Santalum-like oils being mass produced cheaply in bioreactors. These developments are likely to be at least 5 -10 years away and unlikely to be a major competitor due to genetic modification concerns and a clear market preference for natural products in cosmetics and fragrances. • Synthetic substitutes for the santalols of sandalwood oils are increasingly competing with the natural product in perfumery and cosmetics uses. This trend will continue, at least in the short term, given that the supply of sandalwood cannot keep up with demand and that it is possible that sandalwood prices will continue to increase over next 3-5 years. References Choueiri, A. 2008. Sustainable ingredients in the fragrance industry and the use of Indian Sandalwood in L’Oreal products. Paper presented to a conference “Revolutionising the Global Indian Sandalwood Supply – creating a sustainable supply of Indian Sandalwood Oil and Wood”, Kununurra, Western Australia. Padmanabha, A. 2008. Indian Sandalwood – the history, the uses and the future of supply. Paper presented to a conference “Revolutionising the Global Indian Sandalwood Supply – creating a sustainable supply of Indian Sandalwood Oil and Wood”, Kununurra, Western Australia. Shineberg, D (1967). They came for Sandalwood – A study of the sandalwood trade in the south-west Pacific 1830-1865. Melbourne University Press, Carlton, Victoria, Australia. 299 pp. 120 7.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SANDALWOOD PLANTING AND PRODUCTS IN CHINA Mr. Chan Kamwah, President, Dragon Pearl Island Sandalwood Industry Tech Ltd, Guangdong China OUTLINE 1. Area map of Chinese sandalwood planting. Currently, sandalwood grows well in Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, and in parts of Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan in southern China . 2. The development of Chinese sandalwood planting and industries from 1962 to 2002. 3. The rapid development of Chinese sandalwood planting and industries from 2003 to 2010. 4. The development of new sandalwood products in China. DPI has started to analyse the composition of sandalwood's leaves, buds, fruits, branches and cortices and has developed lots of sandalwood products since 2005. 5. The market potential and demand for Chinese sandalwood. In the past 6 years, over 10,000 customers have come to DPI every year. 6. Chinese sandalwood industry is looking forward to mutual aid and cooperation to increase sandalwood’s development and business opportunities. 121 7.3 AMRUQUA’S ESSENTIAL OIL TRADE FROM PNG AND PLANS FOR SANDALWOOD Sharmayne Ryan, Organic Production/Assurance Manager, FOLLYWELL No. 6 Limited Trading (Amruqa), Papua New Guinea Established in 1997 as Pacific Spices, due to structural changes to enable expansion, now operating as “AMRUQA”, the Qaqet name for the Rosewood tree meaning regeneration or rebirth. Amruqa offers a range of organically certified spices, essential oils and tropical nut oils. Our essential oils are distilled to the highest international and organic standards at our Vunakanau Plantation. Amruqa based its development plans around four key needs: • • • • Gain market recognition On site value adding Select new processing technology Source quality plant material to meet market standards Amruqa's main constraints are: • • • • • Lack of knowledge and experience in essential oil quality requirements Lack of market links No traditional knowledge of growing aromatic plants at farmer level Lack of a working examples of essential oil production in the Pacific Lack of research and data of farming aromatic plants in the region Amruqa’s work with sandalwood has been with: • • • • Santalum macgregorii Found mainly in the southern region of PNG Over harvesting, and lack of planting has made it an endangered species in PNG Urgent need for conservation and sustainable management practices In summary; essential oil production is an effective means to: • • • • • Increase value for farmers products Increase marketability Diversification Increase value of second grade products Enable isolated communities to do onsite value adding In conclusion; Amruqa will: • Increase plantings of essential oil crops • Continue trials on selected and potential essential oil plants • Undertake R&D into essential oil production 122 8 GROUP DISCUSSIONS, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 8.1 GROUP DISCUSSIONS AND FINDINGS After the technical presentations, group discussions were held on the final day to discuss major issues on sandalwood resource development, research and markets/trade. The following findings and recommendations were made by the groups: a. Sandalwood Resource Development: 1. Development of appropriate legislative requirements for each country based-on/following countries with existing legal framework, taking into account natural populations and plantations. 2. Develop or compile procedures for management of sandalwood woodlots (seed collection, nursery practices, plantation establishment, maintenance and harvesting) by farmers. These procedures to include extension and awareness programmes, and regular exchange of information through meetings. 3. Support the sandalwood industry to develop sandalwood products. Also support farmers to plant improved sandalwood and expand on existing resources. 4. Countries need to develop management strategies to conserve wild populations and to map reserves to enable future development and maintenance of genetic diversity of sandalwood species in the region. There is a need also to maintain the identity and uniqueness of country species so as to protect their niche markets. 5. Conduct a national resource inventory of all wild populations and set up seed orchards. Continue to distribute better quality seeds to farmers for their planting programmes. 6. Document and manage the occurrence of invasive species including pest and diseases in sandalwood plantations. Identifying the most efficient and adaptable host plants could help alleviate the potential disease risk associated with larger scale plantings. b. Sandalwood Research: 1. Seed handling and processing a. Review of current technology - background • Seed collected when red, not fully ripened fruit. Flesh must be seen to ensure freshness • Remove pulp immediately as inhibits germination. • For S. album: Mix seed in sand and place in the sun for three days and then place in the fridge for 30 days. Germination occurs quickly and evenly. • Some seed needs the coat cracked before it will germinate. Some people nick the seed coat, other scarify, whilst another technique is to soak and dry the seed until the coat cracks. The seed can also be added to silica gel for drying rather than using the sun. • Seed not used is dried and stored. • Check viability by cutting seed in half and looking for embryo. Some people soak the seed and remove the floaters as non-viable. • Seed viability drops with storage and seed germination becomes more erratic. • S. album seed responds to GA3 treatment • Seed must not have any fungal contamination when sown – clean with bleach or hydrogen peroxide prior to sowing. b. Research on seed storage including lowering moisture content • Information is lacking on optimum storage conditions for sandalwood seed. • What moisture content should the seed be held at to maintain optimum viability? c. Studies of GA on seed germination • It is known that S. album and S. spicatum respond to GA3 to improve germination performance. • Does this chemical hormone work with the other Santalum species? • Can this chemical be used to improve the performance of stored seedlots? 123 2. Seedling Production a. Media – Common attributes to good seedling growth • Good drainage • Organic matter in the media • Do not add fertilisers (too expensive – pig manure as alternative) • Host added at various times depending on vigour of host. Host needed for root-binding so seedling can be easily extracted from the pot. • Pot host provides early protection of seedling in the field b. 3. Planting a. Research to develop general rule of selecting long term host plants • Wide variety of plants, sandalwood: host ratios and spacing used. The choice may be influenced by soil nutrition. • What parameters need to be known to select the species of host? • What host characteristics need to be taken into account for the planting design? b. Pricking-out of seedlings • Seed pre-germinated – always uneven • Follow Sempit’s advice, transfer seedlings into pots when shoot curled, too late if leaves expanded and auxiliary roots developed. Silviculture • Plant ground cover of a legume to reduce weed control and add nitrogen to the system • Good host selection should reduce amount of silviculture management of host • The host should not over-shade the sandalwood • The host should not be in numbers that creates competition for space with the sandalwood • Sandalwood pruning needs to be done early and regularly • Branches that can only be pruned with secateurs should be removed, or reduced in size to maintain a leading shoot and a clean lower bole • No pruning with bush knives • Leave at least half of the canopy 4. Genetics a. Establish progeny trials for genetic parameter estimates for oil characteristics and growth Superior sandalwood trees are selected for the following traits • Growth vigour (which can be influenced by host) • Apical dominance and small branching • Oil quantity (can be influenced by fungal attack) • Oil quality (early information suggests quality can be influenced by fungal attack) The establishment of progeny trials will confirm the benefits of selecting for these traits and thus are recommended wherever selection has occurred. b. 5. Heart wood formation a. Non- destructive measurement method of heartwood • Drilling methods to assess sandalwood heartwood have the risk of introducing disease • Drilling does not estimate the amount of heartwood, only its presence • Drilling is required for analysing oil quality • What method could be developed where heartwood quantity could be assessed in a non-destructive manner? Establish archives of the genetic variation from each island on each island. • A breeding programme is only as good as the genetic variation captured and utilised • The traits (particularly oil quality traits) may change with changing market requirements, disease outbreaks etc. • Genetic conservation • Archives (seedlings or grafted plants) should be established to preserve the genetic variation of each species 124 6. b. Establishment clonal trials (cutting, tissue culture and grafting) • Heartwood can be affected by many different physical aspects: host, light, stress, fungal diseases etc. • Clonal trials will allow the understanding of the influence of these parameters on the sandalwood genotype • Clonal trials should be established in as many environments as possible to understand environmental influences on the genome Harvesting and Processing a. Research into oil yield and quality with the distance of the heartwood from the base. • Oil yield and quality can change as the heartwood develops up the bole of the tree. • Understanding this change may allow for the harvested tree to be divided into different grades of oil or carving logs to optimise value. • How does the oil quality change in each species within the heartwood of the tree? c. Sandalwood Markets and Trade a. Products - Findings: • Oil • Carving/artifacts • Spent charge and sapwood b. Recommendations: • Eco-tourism – nature based (maintain basic cash flow/early cash flow) • End products – tea • Medicinal • Traditional/Religious significance products e.g. incense sticks • Sandalwood honey • Animal feed • Showcase Pacific Islands sandalwood products in China (DPI) or internationally a. Comparative Advantage - Findings • People in the Pacific heavily depend on fast growing species. • Indian sandalwood is internationally recognized • Sandalwood - connected with the people, history and tradition b. Recommendations: • Sandalwood needs to be cultivated with short term crops for livelihood • Further research is required on the oils of Pacific Island sandalwood species to enhance their recognition/profile in international markets. • Formulation of Pacific Islands Sandalwood Association for setting marketing and trade standards a. Actual Size of the Market – Findings • A lot of the trade is done illegally • Hard to predict future prospects of sandalwood markets – trade in the Pacific is not well documented and not transparent • The overall cost of certification and marketing the product needs to be considered • Certification – useful way of value adding, organic, fair trade and sustainable production b. Recommendations: • Development of standards for sandalwood for the major Pacific Islands species (S. yasi and S. austrocaledonicum) • Determine and develop niche markets for organic sandalwood products • Geographical labelling 125 8.2 RECOMMENDATIONS The workshop further agreed that: • Sandalwood is a high value, non-perishable export product, which can be grown to provide substantial cash income in order to improve the standard of living of farmers and their families living in remote islands and with very limited income generating opportunities. • Sandalwood needs to be prioritised in government forestry policy, research and development, extension, rural development and trade. • National sandalwood extension programmes need to be established in each current and aspiring producer country. In order to optimise extension benefits, these are to be led by a full-time sandalwood extension officer, and include extension materials, demonstration plots, media and awareness programmes, and sandalwood farmer networks. • Poorly regulated and unsustainable exploitation of sandalwood has resulted in its commercial extinction in some places. Pacific countries can learn from the sandalwood regulations and policies of New Caledonia and Vanuatu which have enabled continued, sustainable production of sandalwood from native populations. Furthermore, regulations ensuring the conservation of core natural populations need to be implemented. • The introduction and development of exotic sandalwood species needs to be assessed in relation to the need to preserve the specificity and uniqueness of the Pacific Islands sandalwood populations and production. Investigation and conservation of the genetic resources of Santalum insulare in French Polynesia serves as an excellent model for other endangered Pacific sandalwood species. • There is an urgent need for replication of the detailed inventories undertaken for S. austrocaledonicum and S. insulare to other sandalwood species in the Asia – Pacific region; coupled with plantings to conserve vulnerable genetic resources and replanting with appropriate genetic materials including especially superior local selections. • An expanded and well resourced Pacific regional research and development programme aimed at optimising sandalwood growth, heartwood formation and oil quality is needed to increase the economic benefits to the region. • Sandalwood provides considerable opportunities and linkages for biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration and eco-tourism which warrant development, including through public-private partnerships. • SPC shall consult its member countries, private and NGO stakeholders on the establishment and articles of association for a sandalwood association for the Pacific Islands, and seeks resources for its establishment and initial operations. • SPC, through its EU-FACT project, organise a study tour for Pacific Islanders to southern China in first half of 2011 to exchange information on production and development of value-added sandalwood products, better understand the China market place and help develop markets for Pacific Islands sandalwood. • Endorse the establishment of the regional tree seed centre by SPC to facilitate the exchange of sandalwood, among its 22 member countries and territories in the Pacific, to be facilitated under a Materials Transfer Agreement (which is currently under development). • The next Regional Sandalwood Meeting is held in French Polynesia (or New Caledonia) in 2013. • SPC, through its EU-FACT project, undertakes market intelligence and reports back via the sandalwood research newsletter and the proposed Sandalwood Association. 126 9 APPENDICES 9.1 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS AUSTRALIA Dr. John Doran Australian Tree Seed Centre, CSIRO Plant Industry Black Mountain Laboratories – Bldg 65 Clunies Ross Street, ACT 2601, Australia Tel: (612) 6246 4833 Fax: (612) 6246 E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Tony Page School of Tropical Biology James Cook University P.O. Box 6811 Cairns, 4870 Australia Tel: (617) 40421673 Fax: (617) 40421319 E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Liz Barbour Research Development Officer Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Science University of Western Australia 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley WA 6009 Perth Australia Tel: (617) 6488 7738 Fax: (617) 6488 1002 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Peter Kimber Expert Consultant Forester TFS Corporation Ltd 169 Broadway, Nedlands, WA 6009 Australia Tel: (618) 835 7141 Fax: (618) 85357141 E-mail: [email protected] COOK ISLANDS Mr. Teuanuku Koroa Agriculture Manager Mangaia Island Administration Ministry of Agriculture Mangaia, Cook Islands Tel: (682) 34 337 Fax: (682) 34337 E-mail: [email protected] 127 FIJI ISLANDS Mr.Maleli Belo Nakasava Forest Guard Department of Forestry Ministry of Primary Industries Box 2218, Government Buildings Suva, Fiji Islands Tel: (679) 332 0211 Fax: (679) 332 0957 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Binesh Dayal Forestry Officer – Tree Improvement Department of Forestry Ministry of Primary Industries Box 2218, Government Buildings Suva, Fiji Islands Tel: (679) 332 2389 Fax: (679) 332 0380 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Vilisoni Nataniela Consultant, EU-FACT Pilot Project Suva, Fiji Islands Tel: (679) 332221 FRENCH POLYNESIA Mr. Léopold Stein Chef du département de la Forêt et de la gestion de l'espace rural (FOGER) Service du dévelopement rural BP 100 , 98713 PAPEETE POLYNESIE FRANCAISE Tel :(689) 423 460 ou (689) 42 81 44 , Fax: (689) 420 831 E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Jean-Francois Butaud Researcher BP 52832 Pirae 98716 Tahiti French Polynesia Tel: (689) 82648 E-mail: [email protected] NIUE Ms. Terrianne Vaine Leki Mokoia Forestry Officer Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries P O Box 118, Vaimilo ALOFI CENTRAL Tel: (683) 4185 Fax: (683) 4185 E-mail: [email protected] NEW CALEDONIA Mr. Philippe Bourgine Responsible Forestier Department of Rural Development Province Sud-New Caledonia Tel: (687) 272674 Fax: (687) 270577 E-mail: [email protected] 128 PAPUA NEW GUINEA Mr Robert Kiapranis Programme Leader, Forest Biology Programme PNG Forest Research Insititute Papua New Guinea Forest Authority P.O. Box 314, Lae, Morobe Province Papua New Guinea Tel: (675) 472 4188 Fax: (675) 472 4357 E-mail: [email protected] Ms. Sharmayne Ryan Organic Production/Assurance Manager FOLLYWELL No. 6 Limited Trading (Amruqa) P O Box 1593, Rabaul, East New Britain, 611 Papua New Guinea Tel: (675) 9406412 E-mail: [email protected] PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Mr. Chan Kamwah President, Gaoyao Dragon Pearl Island Sandalwood Industry Tech Ltd Jinlong Reservoir, Jiao Tang, Gaoyao City Guangdong China Post Code:526113 T:86-755-8123688 F:86-755-8123638 E-mail: [email protected] Ms. Yang Lijun General Manager, Gaoyao Dragon Pearl Island Sandalwood Industry Tech Ltd Jinlong Reservoir, Jiao Tang Gaoyao City, Guangdong, China Post Code:526113 T:86-755-8123688 F:86-755-8123638 E-mail: [email protected] SAMOA Mr. Tito Alatimu Principal Forester – Forest Management Forestry Division Min.of Natural Resources and Environment P O Box 487, Apia, Samoa Tel: (685) 58116 Fax: (685) 58257 E-mail: [email protected] SOLOMON ISLANDS Mr. Fred Pitisopa Director, National Herbarium and Botanical Garden Ministry of Forestry and Research P O Box G24, Honiara Solomon Islands Phone: (677) 24215 Fax: (677) 24660 E-mail: [email protected] 129 KINGDOM OF TONGA Mr. Ketoni Akau‘ola Technical Officer, Forestry Division Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Forests and Fisheries P. O. Box 14, Nuku’alofa Tonga Tel: (676) 29502 Fax: (676) 30040 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Maloni Havea Forestry Officer Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Forests and Fisheries P. O. Box 25, Neiafu, Vavau Tonga Tel: (676) 70164 Fax: (676) 70400 E-mail: [email protected] VANUATU Mr. Tate Hanington Tamla Principal Forestry Officer – Policy and Projects Department of Forests Ministry of Agriculture, Quarantine, Forestry and Fisheries Private Mail Bag 9064, Port Vila, Vanuatu Phone: (678) 23171 Fax: (678) 23856 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Ioan Viji Vutilolo Principle Forest Officer - Technical Department of Forests Ministry of Agriculture, Quarantine, Forestry and Fisheries Port Vila, Vanuatu Phone: (678) 23856 Fax: (678) 25051 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Channel Sam Botanist – French Interpreter Department of Forests Ministry of Agriculture, Quarantine, Forestry and Fisheries Ministry of Agriculture, Quarantine, Forestry and Fisheries Port Vila, Vanuatu Phone: (678) 23856 Fax: (678) 25051 Mr. Jude Tabiwusu Department of Forests Ministry of Agriculture, Quarantine, Forestry and Fisheries Port Vila, Vanuatu Phone: (678) 23856 Fax: (678) 25051 E-mail: [email protected] 130 Mr. Joseph Tungon Department of Forests Ministry of Agriculture, Quarantine, Forestry and Fisheries Port Vila, Vanuatu Phone: (678) 23856 Fax: (678) 25051 Mr. Valua Job Department of Forests Ministry of Agriculture, Quarantine, Forestry and Fisheries Port Vila, Vanuatu Phone: (678) 23856 Fax: (678) 25051 Mr. Joe Sel Department of Forests Ministry of Agriculture, Quarantine, Forestry and Fisheries Port Vila, Vanuatu Phone: (678) 23856 Fax: (678) 25051 Ms. Ruth Nalau Secretary – French Interpreter Department of Forests Ministry of Agriculture, Quarantine, Forestry and Fisheries Port Vila, Vanuatu Phone: (678) 23856 Fax: (678) 25051 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Jonathan Naupa Director Tropical Rainforests Aromatics Port Vila, Vanuatu E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Peter Murphy Tropical Rainforests Aromatics Port Vila, Vanuatu E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Ben Brookman General Manager Tropical Rainforests Aromatics Port Vila, Vanuatu Phone: 678 5547099 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Jim Batty General Manager Far North Oils Port Vila, Vanuatu E-mail: [email protected] 131 Mr. John Salong General Manager VANWODS Port Vila, Vanuatu E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Benuel Tarilongi Director Department of Livestock and Quarantine Ministry of Agriculture, Quarantine, Forestry and Fisheries Port Vila, Vanuatu E-mail: [email protected] SECRETARIAT OF THE PACIFIC COMMUNITY Dr. Lex Thomson Team Leader, FACT Pilot Project Forests and Trees/Forestry and Agriculture Diversification Teams Land Resources Division Secretariat of the Pacific Community Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji Islands Tel: (679) 3370733 Mobile: (679) 999 1198 Fax: (679) 3370021 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Cenon Padolina Regional Forest Genetic Resource Officer Forests and Trees Team Land Resources Division Secretariat of the Pacific Community Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji Islands Tel: (679) 3370733 Fax: (679) 3370021 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Vinesh Prasad Information Technology Assistant Forests and Trees Team Land Resources Division Secretariat of the Pacific Community Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji Islands Tel: (679) 3370733 Fax: (679) 3370021 E-mail: [email protected] Ms. Sainimili Baiculacula Laboratory Technician Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees Land Resources Division Secretariat of the Pacific Community Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji Islands Tel: (679) 3370733 Fax: (679) 3370021 E-mail: [email protected] 132 9.2 WORKSHOP PROGRAMME Date Time Activities Responsible DAY 1 08:00 – 09:00 Registration Organisers Opening Ceremony • Devotion • Welcome Address (Forestry Dept. Vanuatu) • Welcome Address (SPC) • Keynote Address • Introduction of participants, Workshop Programme and Housekeeping • Rapporteurs Pastor Mr.Hanington Tate Forestry Department, Vanuatu Monday, 09:00 – 10:30 22 November Mr Cenon Padolina, LRD - SPC Hon. Stephen Kalsakau, Minister, MAFF, Vanuatu Mr. Cenon Padolina, SPC, Workshop Facilitator Vinesh Prasad, Hanington Tate, Ruth Nalau and Ioan Viji 10:30 – 11:00 Group Photo, Coffee/Tea Break 11:00 – 12:30 Session 1a. Country Reports/Presentations: • Cook Islands (Teaunuku Koroa) • Fiji Islands (Binesh Dayal) • French Polynesia (Leopold Stein) • New Caledonia (Philippe Bourgine) • Niue (Terry-Anne Mokoia) 12:30 – 13:30 Lunch 13:30 – 15:30 Session 1b. Country and Regional Reports/ Presentations: • Papua New Guinea (Robert Kiapranis) • Samoa (Tito Alatimu) • Tonga (Ketoni Akau’ola) • Vanuatu (Hannington Tate) • SPC Regional Report (Cenon Padolina/ Vinesh Prasad) 15:30 – 16:00 Coffee/Tea Break 16:00 – 17:00 Session 1d. Plenary Discussions on country and regional reports 133 Dr. Tony Page, JCU, Workshop Facilitator Mr Ioan Viji, Forestry Department, Vanuatu Dr Lex Thomson, SPC Workshop Facilitator, 17:00 End of Day 1 Date Time Activities Responsible DAY 2 08:30 – 08:45 Review of Activities on Monday 15 March. Outline of Programme for the Day Cenon Padolina, SPC, Workshop Facilitator Tuesday, 08:45 – 10:15 23 November Session 2. Technical Dr Tony Page, JCU, Workshop Facilitator Presentations on Sandalwood Resource Development: • Conservation Strategy of Sandalwood (Santalum insulare) in French Polynesia and 10 Years of Implementations by J.F. Butaud with the collaboration of SDR Foresters • Economics and silviculture of smallholder sandalwood production in Vanuatu by Tony Page, JCU • Development of Sandalwood Plantations by the Private Sector in Vanuatu by Jonathan Naupa of Tropical Rainforests Aromatic Ltd. • The Sustainable Management and Conservation of Santalum yasi in Fiji and Tonga: A Combined Ecological and Genetic Approach by Ryan Huish, et al. • Sandalwood Plantings in Rotuma, Fiji Islands by Vilisoni Nataniela, Consultant, EU-FACT Pilot Project and Lex Thomson • An Integrated Management and Conservation Strategy for Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) in West Timor, Indonesia” by Yudhistira Ardhyana Nugraha Rua Ora presented by Dr. John Doran, CSIRO 134 Dr Tony Page, JCU, Workshop Facilitator 10:15 – 10:30 Session 2a. Discussions regarding technical reports/presentations on Sandalwood Resource Development 10:30 – 11:00 Coffee/Tea Break 10:30 – 12:15 Session 3. Technical Mr Tito Alatimu, Forestry Division, Samoa Reports/Presentations on Sandalwood Research: • The Impact of Heartwood Rot on Sandalwood Oil Production by Dr. Liz Barbour, University of Western Australia • “Sempit’s Tree” Extreme Variation of Oil Composition and Quality in a Single Santalum austrocaledonicum Tree by Peter Murphy, Ben Brookman, Jonathan Naupa and Sempit Naritantop of Tropical Rainforest Aromatics Limited • Breeding Biology of Santalum by Tate Hannington of Forestry Department, Vanuatu • 'The Vegetative Propagation of Sandalwood Species, S.yasi, S. album and F1 hybrid S. hybrid (yasi x album) by Maloni Havea of Tonga Forestry Division • Micropropagation of Sandalwood (Santalum yasi) by Sainimili Baiculacula CePaCT, SPC 12:15 –12:30 Session 3a. Group Discussions Regarding Technical Reports/Presentations on Sandalwood 12:30 – 13:30 Lunch 135 Dr John-Francois Butaud, French Polynesia Date 13:30 – 15:00 Session 4. Technical Dr John Doran, CSIRO, Workshop Facilitator Reports/Presentations on Sandalwood Trade/ Markets • The Development of Sandalwood Planting and Products in China by DPI Sandalwood Industry Tech Ltd, • An Overview of Sandalwood Markets/ Trade in the Pacific by Dr. Lex Thomson of SPC and Dr John Doran of CSIRO • Amruqa's Essential Oil Trade from PNG, and Plans for Sandalwood by Ms. Sharmayne Ryan, Amruqa, PNG 15:00 – 15:30 Coffee/Tea Break 15:30 – 16:30 Session 4a. Group Discussions Regarding Technical Reports/Presentations on Sandalwood 16:30 End of Day 2 Time Activities Responsible • Visit to the Forestry Department Nursery • Visit to Plantations • Lunch at Far North Oils • Visit to plantations/ agroforestry areas • Visit to Distillation Plant Mr. Tate Hannington and Forestry Department Staff 08:30 – 17:30 DAY 3 Wednesday, 24 November FIELD TRIP DAY 4 Dr.John Doran, CSIRO, Workshop Facilitator 17:30 End of Day 3 08:30 – 08:45 Review of Activities on Wednesday 24November. Outline of Programme for the Day Workshop Facilitators 08:45 – 10:15 Group discussions of findings and recommendations Workshop Facilitators 10:15 – 10:30 Coffee/Tea Break 10:30 – 12:30 • Presentation of Draft Findings and Recommendations Thursday, 25 November 136 Workshop Facilitators Date Time Activities Responsible 12:30 – 13:30 Lunch 13:30 – 15:15 • Final discussion/adop- Workshop Facilitators tion of findings and recommendations 15:15 – 15:30 Coffee/Tea Break 15:30 – 17:00 Summaries of Main Observations by Groups, and Finalise an Accepted Version of the Draft Findings and Recommendations • Evaluation of the Workshop • Closing Remarks • Closing Prayer 17:00 End of the Workshop 137 Workshop Facilitators 9.3 MINISTER’S OPENING SPEECH Opening of Regional Sandalwood Workshop Distinguished guests, country representatives/participants from the Pacific Island countries and territories and the Asian region, the Sandalwood industry representatives, resource persons and workshop facilitators, ladies and gentlemen, welcome to Vanuatu. Today marks the history for the Regional Sandalwood Workshop to be finally held in Vanuatu. The government and people of Vanuatu would like to thank the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, EU, AusAID, GTZ, APAFRI and JCU for making it possible for this workshop to be held in the “Happiest Place on Planet Earth”. As we all know, sandalwood is an important tree crop that has supported the people of the Pacific for many years. Sandalwood also has the potential to contribute to the improvement of the living standards of the people in the Pacific Islands. However, for this to happen, it needs critical assessment, research and improved management practices. The use of sandalwood in the Pacific has a long history, some of which could drag on for many years, such as Samoa still blaming Tonga for depleting their sandalwood. Having said that, please allow me to briefly detail the history of sandalwood trade in Vanuatu. It was detailed in a book called “They Came for Sandalwood” that trading in Vanuatu sandalwood started in 1830, making it the first commodity to be exported out of Vanuatu. In that year, it was noted that sandalwood grew from the mountains right down to the beach on some islands in the Southern part of Vanuatu. However, due to heavy harvest by the Europeans, I won’t mention which countries assisted the Europeans, sandalwood on Erromango and Aneityum islands were reduced to a very low level. Sandalwood continued to be harvested and exported out of Vanuatu without any control or management measure. In 1996, realizing the potential of developing sandalwood into an industry, the government enacted the Sandalwood Order to regulate and manage sandalwood operations in Vanuatu. In 2003, the government issued the Sandalwood Policy which gives direction to the development of the sandalwood industry to the stage it is today. Sandalwood is an important crop in Vanuatu as well as in many Pacific Island countries. The income generated from sale of sandalwood trees have contributed significantly to the livelihood of rural people, some of which are in the most remote areas. For instance, in 2007, 2008 and 2009, the total income earned by sandalwood owners in royalty payments is estimated at VT 233 million; all of which goes into the rural areas. This value has generated a huge interest among many ni–Vanuatu to participate in replanting. Industry The sandalwood industry has played a significant role in bringing sandalwood to where it is today. The establishment of onshore processing facilities in Vanuatu significantly increased royalty rates from the minimum of VT 300 in 2003 to VT 1,000 per kilogram in 2010. However, the average of VT 1,500 per kilo of wood paid by the industry becomes an incentive for farmers and landowners to invest in sandalwood planting. The plantings you will visit on Wednesday are owned by the industry. The industry has also been involved in sandalwood planting and conducts sandalwood awareness among communities. Extension The sandalwood extension programme in Vanuatu has proceeded positively, with collaborative efforts from the government, the sandalwood industry and other agencies. During the last one to two years, there has been an increased participation in planting as well as an increase in establishment of home sandalwood nurseries by individuals. These activities are important because it shows that sandalwood planting is now taken up by the general public. One issue though that needs to be addressed is the information on silviculture and management of planted trees. This is important to ensure that farmers get the best value for their trees. 138 Research Research is important for continuous development of the sandalwood industry, and I believe each country has made progress in this area. In Vanuatu, sandalwood research is very important and several efforts have been made into this area by different participants in the sector. I understand that the industry has invested immensely into product and processing research to ensure that market requirements are continuously met. This is important for continuous development of the industry. The government has also put a lot of efforts into research and development of sandalwood. With financial assistance from donor partners, and in collaboration with research institutions, Vanuatu has made a lot of progress into sandalwood research. An example of this work is the identification and collection of elite genetic material from the wild stands and its establishment in a grafted orchard, which the participants will visit on Wednesday. The next activity currently underway is to deploy these materials into grafted seed orchards to the islands for providing of seeds. Another activity will be the control hybridization for selected traits among individuals. We believe that continuous work in this area could lead us to become more competitive with other sandalwood species in the next two decades. Having said that, there are some challenges ahead that need to be addressed, two of which I would like to make special mention of; 1. Information – because a lot of stakeholders have participated in reforestation awareness, it is very important that the awareness materials are standardized, to ensure only one message is delivered by all participants. This will limit conflicting information to growers; 2. Germplasm exchange – I understand that there has been exchange of germplasm of different materials between some Pacific Island countries. One particular example is the recent importation and growing of Indian sandalwood in Vanuatu. While Indian sandalwood has been known as the best sandalwood species, I understand that it is aggressive and hybridizes very well with Vanuatu sandalwood, and could have the potential for eliminating Vanuatu sandalwood as a single species. I won’t speculate on any potential effect on the future market of Vanuatu sandalwood, but I suppose it to be of a challenge. Having said that, I believe that you will have an enjoyable and constructive workshop. There are several issues and challenges that affect sandalwood throughout the region, and I urge that these four days be taken to investigate ways in addressing that. As host of this important workshop, the Government of Vanuatu will be looking forward to the recommendations of the workshop to further the development of the sandalwood industry. While your schedule may be very tight, please allow time to explore Port Vila, and also time to drink Vanuatu kava. Having said that, I would like to take this opportunity to wish you all every success, and also declare the “Regional Sandalwood Workshop” open. Thank you 139 140 142