c - Repositories

AMERICAN TELEVISION AM) SOCIAL STEREOTYPES
OF AÎ'IERICANS IN THAILAND
by
KULTIDA SUARCHAVARAT, B.A.
A THESIS
IN
ÍIASS COMnJNICATIONS
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
Approved
Chairperson of the Committee
Accepted
Dean /of the Graduate School
May, 1986
©1986
KULTIDA SUARCHAVARAT
All Rights Reserved
OOj^^ ^
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my appreciation to Dr, Alexls
Tan, my committee chairman, for his advice and encouragement during the writlng of this thesis.
to thank my graduate
I would also like
committee, Dr. Dennis Harp and
Dr. Hower Hsia, for their suggestions and consideratlon.
Furthermore, I would like to thank Piangjai Kiettisakajorn,
Phanuvit
Chumniankul, and
graduate
students
who
Suthida
Chamsai, the
dlstributed
questlonnaires in Bangkok, Thailand.
and
collected
Thai
the
Also, thanks is
extended to all Thai students at Texas Tech University In
Lubbock, Texas, for filling out the questionnaires and
taking care of the data.
In addition, I am profoundly
appreciative of my sisters and my frlend Dean Lewter for
thelr support.
Wlth all my love, I would like to dedlcate
this thesis to my parents who always understand
encourage me to pursue my future goals.
11
and
CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ii
LIST OF TABLES
v
I.
INTRODUCTION
1
Statement of Problems
1
How We Can Learn About the Perception of
II.
Social Realities
6
Objectives of the Study
7
LITERATURE REVIEW
10
Arguments For the Cultural "Mainstream"
. . 13
Arguments Against the Culturai "Mainstream".
15
United States Television Programs Abroad . . 18
Imported Television and Changes in Thailand.
27
Social Stereotypes in U.S. Programs
29
Hypotheses
III.
....
40
METHODOLOGY
41
Variables
41
Sampies
44
Procedures
45
Analysis
45
111
IV.
V.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
^7
Sample Demographics
^7
Descriptive Analysis
^8
Multiple Regression Analysis
55
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
151
Suggestions for Further Study
15^
REFERENCES
156
APPENDICES
163
A.
ENGLISH QUESTIONNAIRE
l63
B.
THAI QUESTIONNAIRE
171
IV
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1.
Frequency of Viewing Popular U.S. Television
Programs
82
2.
Rank Order of Social Stereotypes
84
3.
Ten Adjectives that Best Describe Americans
4.
Agreement Rates on Some Perceptions of the
United States
86
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Rankings and Predlctors
(Key Predictor is Total Number of U.S. Programs
Viewed)
87
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Rankings and Predictors
(Key Predlctor is Hours of Viewing Television in
a Day and Night)
90
5.
6.
...
85
7.
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Rankings and Predictors
(Key Predictor is Frequency of Viewing CHiPs) . . 93
8.
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Rankings and Predlctors
(Key Predictor is Frequency of Viewing Dallas) . . 96
9.
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Rankings and Predictors
(Key Predictor is Frequency of Viewing Dynasty). . 99
10.
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Rankings and Predlctors
(Key Predictor is Frequency of Viewing Fame) . . . 102
11.
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Rankings and Predictors
(Key Predictor is Frequency of Viewing Music
Programs)
V
105
12.
13.
14.
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Rankings and Predictors
(Key Predictor is Frequency of Viewing Love Boat)
108
Stepwise Regression: Soclal Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Rankings and Predictors
(Key Predictor is Frequency of Viewing Satellite
News)
111
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Rankings and Predlctors
(Key Predictor is Frequency of Viewing American
Football)
114
15.
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Interval Frequency Scale
and Predictors (Key Predictor is Total Number of
U.S. Programs Viewed)
117
16.
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Interval Frequency Scale
and Predictors (Key Predictor is Hours of Viewing
Television in a Day and Night)
120
17.
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Interval Frequency Scale
and Predictors (Key Predictor is Frequency of
Viewing CHlPs)
123
18.
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Interval Frequency Scale
and Predictors (Key Predictor is Frequency of
Viewing Dallas)
126
19.
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Interval Frequency Scale
and Predictors (Key Predictor is Frequency of
Viewing Dynasty)
129
20.
Stepwise Regression: Sociai Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Interval Frequency Scale
and Predictors (Key Predictor is Frequency of
Viewing Fame)
132
21.
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Intervai Frequency Scale
and Predictors (Key Predictor is Frequency of
Viewing Music Programs)
135
VI
22.
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Interval Frequency Scale
and Predictors (Key Predictor is Frequency of
Viewing Love Boat)
138
23.
Stepwise Regression: Social Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Interval Frequency Scale
and Predictors (Key Predictor is Frequency of
Viewing Satellite News)
1^1
24.
Stepwise Regression: Soclal Stereotypes of
Americans, as Measured by Interval Frequency Scale
and Predictors (Key Predictor is Frequency of
Viewing American Football)
144
25.
Stepwise Regression: Perceptions About U.S.
Advertisements and Products, and the Desire to
Visit the U.S., as Measured by Interval Frequency
Scale and Predictors (Key Predictor is Frequency
of Viewing U.S. Television Commercials)
147
Stepwise Regression: Perceptions About U.S.
Advertisements and Products, and the Desire to
Visit the U.S., as Measured by Interval Frequency
Scale and Predictors (Key Predictor is Total
Number of U.S. Programs Viewed)
149
26.
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problems
Two major directions are evident in current trends of
television programming.
First, there is one-way traffic
from the important exporting countries to the rest of the
world.
Second, the entertainment programs dominate the
flow (Varis, 1984, p. 143; Hamelink, 1983, p. 3). Therefore, there is no evidence of a free flow of information,
"an ideal system in which sovereign national networks
distribute the best programs from all over the world,
balanced by their own production (Varis, 1974, p. 102).
The United States is the leading exporter of programs
to the rest of the world (Varis, 1974; Tan, 1986; Varis,
1984; Dunham, 1983).
Other major originators of televislon
programs are the United Kingdom, France, and the Federal
Republic of Germany
(Varis, 1974, p. 103).
However,
certain countries are major producers of programs for
limlted distribution.
For example, programs originated in
Mexico are widely distributed throughout Latin America and
in Spanish-speaking regions of the United States.
Lebanon
and the United Arab Repubiic are the major exporters of
programs for the Middle East.
Also, programs produced in
socialist countries are used primarily in other socialist
countries (Varis, 1974, p. 103).
The Unlted States imports very few programs from
foreign countries.
It is noted that less than two percent
of all U.S. programming is imported from outside the United
States.
Most of these programs are imported from the
United Kingdom and are shown on public television.
The
remainder of the imported programs are from Mexico and
other Latin American countries (Varis, 1984, p. 147).
Varis (1984) examined the role of the United States as
the major distributor of U.S. television programs to other
countries.
For example, in Canada the United
States
provides the vast majority of imported programming except
in the area of educational network programs.
In Latin
America, United States television programs make up about
three-quarters of the imported materials.
In Western
Europe, forty-four percent of imported programs are from
the United States.
In Asia and the Pacific, U.S. programs
are thirty-six percent of the overall averages for imported
programs.
In Arab countries, the United States contributes
thirty-two percent of the non-Arabic imported programs.
In
Africa, more than fifty percent of imported programs are
from the United States (Varis, 1984, pp. 147-149).
Erdogan (1985) studied the children's use of media in
a Turkish town.
The findings showed that television is
the favorite medium among these children.
The United
States
programs
are
very
popular among
the
children
"because they occupy almost all the air time other than a
few local programs" (Erdogan, 1985, p. 198).
Why
do other nations have to
especially from the United States?
import
programs,
The reason is that the
production cost of television programming is expensive for
poor (developing) countries.
Where the production of a
local program may cost $1000, the local station may buy the
U.S. program for less than $500 (Hamelink, 1983, p. 3).
Therefore, client stations become heavily dependent on
imported materials (Varis, 1974, p. 106).
It is also
obvious that the developing countries usually have technological and professional limitations on production of
their own quality movies or television programs (Hsia,
1986, p. 12). In summary, most developing nations rely on
U.S. television programs as the main source of information
and culture (Tan, 1986, p. 1).
Moreover, there is evidence that U.S. television
programs can influence some social norms and value systems.
For example, in China, the Beijing audience study in 1982
showed a very high degree of television penetratlon among
both urban and rural audiences in the metropolitan area of
Beijing.
Ninety-two percent of those audiences watch
television.
This is surprising because the purchase of
teievision receivers by Chinese families began only at the
end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976 (Rogers e_t aJ^. ,
1985,
p. 179).
It would not be surprising to see on
Chinese television such U.S. programs as Man from Atlantls,
INTELSAT
sateliite
news, and U.S. advertisements
Marlboro, Rothmans, Coca-Cola, Kodak Film, etc.
for
This
development implies that Chinese television stations are
beginning to import programs from the West, especially from
the United States (Robinson, 1981; Anderson, 1981).
The
pervasiveness of imported television programs in China also
reflects changes in soclal values. The value of individualism is the norm in the West, and individualism and
emphasis upon social conflict are becoming a part of
television news (Robinson, 1981).
U.S. advertisement
programs in China are claimed to be the shapers of the
socially undesirable trait of greediness (Anderson, 1981).
In Thailand, imported television programs influence changes
in the Thai audlence's perception of religion, sex, and
violence (Virulrak, 1983). Imported television programs In
Thailand influence Thai traditional values in the areas of
rellgion, sex, and violence to become more like the values
of the origin countries of these programs.
A good
deal of evidence
in the "cultivation" or
"enculturation" research shows the influence of television
on the constructlon of social realities (Gerbner & Gross,
1976; Gerbner e_t al^. , 1977; Gerbner e_t a]^. , 1978; Gerbner
et al. , 1980; Hawkins & Pingree, 1981; Beeck & Sobal,
1980).
These researchers investigated partlcularly "how
television can influence our perceptions of the facts,
norms and values of society through selective presentation
and by emphasizing certain themes" (Tan, 1986, p. 1).
Varis (1974) indicated that the exporting corporations
usually emphasize the national images of the producing
countries (p. 102). Therefore, U.S. television programs
such as I_ Love Lucy, Dallas, or Charlie's Angels are chosen
not only for their entertainment value but also to show
"the ineptness of the American housewife, the bouncing
American girls, and the diabolical schemes of the American
businessman" (Hsia, 1986, p. 12).
Chern
(1984) also suggested
that
television
can
influence the viewer's image of the world, particularly in
situations in which the viewer has no direct experience.
"If we accept 'these media images as 'real,' then we are
more likely to learn from the media" (Chern, 1984, p. 3).
However, it is a complicated
process
for
television
audiences, particularly heavy viewers, to identify truth or
falsehood of information (Chern, 1984, p. 3 ) . People who
are heavily exposed to the media are more likely to use the
media as thelr major raw material for perceiving what the
external world is all about (Tunstall, 1977, p. 18).
Beeck and Sobal (1980) indicated the characterlstics
of heavy viewers as those who have pessimistic attitudes
toward their life circumstances and whose feelings are
anomalistic.
They tend to be socially removed from average
viewers; therefore, they are more likely to choose television over other activities.
How We Can Learn About the Perception
of Social Realities
Bandura's social learning theory indicates that our
perception of social realities can be learned from observation or modeling from mass media as well as from direct
experience.
The social learning theory explains the major
assumptions
on the relationship between the viewer's
perceptions and television viewlng.
First, viewers can and
do learn appropriate norms, values, and behaviors through
observation
of
Second, viewers
reinforcing,
models
without
reinforcement.
tend to maximize personal rewards by
imitating, or
(Bandura, 1977).
direct
identifying
with
a model
The social learning theory is applied to
mass communications because if "we generalize information
we have learned from television to our own social environment, then the medium has guided the construction of our
sociai reality" (Tan, 1982, p. 2).
As Katz (1977) stated, the "media are capable of
'openlng a window to the world,' even if the view is
distorted and, in the opinion of some, demeaning" (Katz,
1977, P. 118).
It is obvious that this is because of
modernization and development.
However, what is not clear
is whether the values and perceptions of social reallty by
foreign audiences are misrepresented by television pictures
of the social stereotypes of the United States and the
American people.
Objectives of the Study
As Walter Lippman (1922) noted over sixty years ago,
"the picture in our heads" of international reality are
likely to come from the media since television is one of
the main sources of information about our own social
environment as well as that of foreign countries. Television is one of the most influential forces concerning other
cultures.
world.
The influence of television extends all over the
In Thailand, the number of television sets is
increasing year to year.
In 1965, Thailand had 200,000
television sets, compared to 820,000 sets in 1981 (Unesco,
1982, p. 454). Also, Thai adolescent audiences rely mainly
on television as the major source of information.
Studies
investigating Thal adolescent viewing habits stated that
52.62^ of male and 57.08% of female adolescent audiences
watch prime time programs every day (Prayoonkiet, 1976).
Moreover, night time dramas are the most popular television
programs.
There is evidence that 68.5^ of the Thai
adolescent audiences watch
1982).
nlght time dramas (Kertsukhorn,
The major source of imported programs in Thailand
8
is the United States, followed by Japan (Katz, 1977; Varis,
1984).
The pervasiveness of U.S. television programs in
Thailand makes iikely the possibility that Thai audiences
draw sociai stereotypes of the United States and the U.S.
people through these programs.
Since Thai audiences,
partlcularly Thai undergraduate college students, have very
little direct experience with the United States and its
people, how do they learn or perceive these pictures?
Are
these pictures distorted from the real images of the United
States?
How do Thai undergraduates perceive American
culture, people, and products, as having positive or
negative characteristics?
The major purpose of this study is to examine the
relationship between exposure to U.S. television programs
in Thailand and U.S. social stereotypes among Thai undergraduates in major universities in Bangkok, Thailand.
The
types of U.S. programs examined are not only entertainment,
news, muslc, and sports programs.
commercials are also considered.
American television
The purpose of including
television commercials is that they are also important
parts of pictures which present U.S. products, styles,
consumption patterns, leisure, entertainment, music, the
arts, and iiterature (Tunstall, 1977, p. 18).
In this study, Bandura's social learning theory is
applied theoretically by explaining that people can
learn
from observation.
Therefore, it can be assumed that, after
we observe U.S. television programs, we create our perception
of U.S. social
stereotypes.
Practically,
this
research will help us understand how the United States is
perceived in Thailand.
Moreover, it will enhance the
strong international relationship and the cultural link
between the people of the United States and Thailand.
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
The omnipresence of a television set in the household
and its extensive use suggest that it may be much more
than a primary source of entertainment.
Television's
effects on a variety of behaviors, learning, and specific
political
and
social attitudes are all
controversial
subjects for both research and discussion
Pingree, 1981, p. 347).
(Hawkins &
This chapter wiil review the
research on the influence of television on individuals'
concepts of the world
(their social reality) and how
individuals process information in constructing
their
social realities.
Early research on television's influence on social
reality was done by the Surgeon General's
Advisory
(1972).
Committee
Scientific
on Television and Social Behavior
This research indlcated that societal values are
shaped by a great variety of environmental forces and
institutions; television programs may contribute a great
deal or only a small amount to the process.
The report
also discussed the future of the direct-effects model of
television's influence on society.
10
11
Greenberg and Reeves (1976) examined how children
perceived the reality of television.
The data coliected
from school children in grades 6 through 8 showed that:
1. The perception of the reality of television increases as the specificity of
content increases;
2. Interpersonal communication about television is a significant predictor of
children's reality perception; and
3. Television usage is positively related
to perceptions of reality while age and
IQ are negative predictors (Greenberg &
Reeves, 1976, p. 86).
Gerbner and his associates
(1971) indicated that
"'being' in the world of television cultivates conceptions
of its own conventionalized reality" (Gerbner ^t^ a]^. , 1970,
p. 174). With this assumption, the cultural indicators'
project was conducted in order to study television programming and the conception of social reality that viewing
cultivates in audiences.- The findings showed that heavy
viewers
tend to cultivate their conception of social
reality with television more than prople who view television less (Gerbner & Gross, 1976, p. 190). For example,
heavy viewers of violent programs tend to cultivate fear, a
sense of danger, and a feeling of distrust of other people
(Gerbner et^ âi* * Í976, p. 192). Television is also believed
by Gerbner, Gross, Morgan & Signorielii (1982) to be a
centralized system of storyteiling (p. 102). It provides a
12
strong cultural link and its function of socialization is
so significant that Gerbner e_t al. , describe it as "mainstreaming."
The "mainstream" can be thought of as a
relative commonality of outlooks and
values that exposure to features and
dynamics of the television world tends to
cultivate. By "mainstreaming" we mean the
expression of that commonality by heavy
viewers in those demographic groups whose
light viewers hold divergent views. In
other words, differences found in the
responses of different groups of viewers
. and political characteristics of
these groups, may be diminished or even
absent from the responses of heavy viewers
in the same groups (Gerbner ^t^ al^. , 1982,
p. 104).
Thus, the tendency of the television malnstream was to
"absorb the divergent tendencies that traditionally shaped
the polltical process and to contain its own cross currents" (Gerbner e_t aJ^. , 1982, p- 126).
Gerbner e_t al.
(1982) also suggested that heavy viewers of television do
not only create the perception of political orientations,
but also create the perception of economic classes and
concepts on social and economic topics.
Gerbner e_t a^. (I98O) summarized
their findings,
suggesting that:
, . . television viewing is related to a
cultural "mainstream" that tends to absorb
or assimilate groups that otherwise diverge
from it, and that the salience of certain
real-life circumstances is likely to boast
television's cultivation potential (Gerbner
et al., 1980, p. 26).
13
However, a large number of researchers argue for and
against the cultural "mainstream" assumption, as detailed
in the following sections.
Arguments for the Cultural "Mainstream"
In investigating the cuitivation effect of stereotypes
in soap opera viewing, Buerkel-Rothfuss and Mayes (I98I)
indicated that the amount of soap opera watching by a
sample of college students is positively related to the
higher estimates of doctors, lawyers, divorced persons,
illegitimate children, and criminals in the real world.
Also, the amount of soap opera viewing is negatively
related to certain measures of self-concept, such as
intelligence, superiority, confidence, and
competence
(Buerkel-Rothfuss and Mayes, I98I, p. 260).
Carveth and Alexander (1985) replicated the cultivation effects for soap opera vlewing by Buerkel-Rothfuss and
Mayes (I98I).
The results of the survey of 265 college
student soap opera viewers showed that the "relationship
between the amount of soap opera viewing and the cultivation estimates is contingent upon the type and ievel of
motivation being examined" (Carveth & Alexander, I985,
p. 269).
escape
The viewers who report a low motivation for
in viewing
soap
operas
will
show
significant
correlations between the amount of soap opera viewing and
cultivation estimates for male and female doctors, male
14
lawyers,
housewives,
police
officers,
and
criminals
(Carveth & Alexander, 1985, p. 269). This study supported
the idea that cultivation estimates are related to the
amount of television viewing, and that motivation is the
most important factor for this relationship.
Defleur and Defleur (1967) indicated that social roles
can be learned from television as follows:
Both knowledge about specific occupational
roles and ability to rank these roles in
terms of prestige increased with exposure
to portrayals of those occupations on
television. Children rated occupations
that were outside their dlrect experiences
but were prominent on television with
considerably greater consistency than those
known from direct experience or not
appearing on television with notable
frequency
(Defleur & Defleur, 1967,
p. 192).
Buerkel-Rothfuss
and
his
associates
conducted
a
questionnaire survey of 648 children in the fourth, sixth,
and eighth grades in Detroit, Michigan, San Jose, California, and South Berkeley, California, in 1982.
The
findings showed that children who frequently watch famlly
shows tend to believe that families in reai life show
support and concern for each other.
Also, children's
exposure to family programs which show affiliative communication among family members guide them to perceive that
real-life families are more affiliate (Buerkel-Rothfuss
et al., 1982, pp. 197-200).
15
Arguments Against the Cultural
"Mainstream"
A number of researchers disagree with the assumption
of the cultivation analysis and mainstreaming theory.
Doob
and
MacDonald
findings of Gerbner
(1979)
replicated
and his colleagues
the
basic
(1978).
The
findings seemed to confirm that people who watch a great
deal of television are more likely to show their fear of
environment.
However, this relationship is not signlficant
when other variables are controlled, including the actual
incidence
of
crime
in the neighborhood.
Therefore,
television itself is not a direct cause of fear of victimization (Doob & MacDonald, 1979, p. 177).
Hughes (1980) reexamined the cultivation analysis
offered by Gerbner and his associates.
He concluded that:
Cultivation theory may be a gross oversimplification of how teievision affects
behaviors through culture.
That is,
television in American society may be
related to the diffusion of cuiture and to
alterations in social structure, bo'th of
which affect the behavior of virtually all
persons in society regardless of how much
television they watch (Hughes, 1980,
p. 301).
Expanding the cultural indicator research of Gerbner
and his associates, Stromen and Seltzer (1985) indicated
that
television is not the only source which
viewers' perception of crime.
creates
Perceptions of the causes of
crime differ, depending on which new medium is used most.
16
Television news viewers were more likely to
view flaws in the court system as a major
contributory factor of crime, while poverty
was more likely to be cited by persons
relying on newspapers for information.
Moreover, those not relying on or using
television as a source of information were
more likely to cite environmental and
societal illness, as were those relying on
radio (Stroman & Seltzer, 1985, pp. 344345).
Robert (1981) suggested that parents' viewing behaviors and attitudes toward violence are related to the
viewing behavior and attitudes of their children.
The best
predictor of the amount of time children spent watching
television each week is the amount of time parents spent
viewing.
Also, children's expression of fear of walking
alone at night seems to reflect their parents' fear.
Children's perception of violence is best explained by
their age and sex.
Younger children are more likely than
older ones to think it is all right to hit someone when you
are angry at them, and girls are more likeiy than boys to
be afraid to walk alone at night (Robert, 1981, p. 564).
Hawkins and Pingree (1981) stated that "it would be a
considerable overstatement of the area to assign preeminence to television as a shaper of culture" (Hawkins &
Pingree, 1981, p. 361). They concluded that:
Television's
influence
on
individual
constructions of reality can be indirect,
but shall be watched as a complex process
that takes place within individual context.
The new focus should be on the viewing
situation itself as well as context of
17
viewing.
Are heavy television viewers
watching television in the same way as
light viewers?
Are they more or less
attentive, selective?
More attention
should be on how individuals use television
to construct social reality (Hawkins &
Pingree, 198I, p. 362).
Singer and Singer (1982) continued their longitudinal
study of the effect of television on the behavior of
chiidren.
school
They found that children of early elementary
age will
show
problematic
behavior
under
the
following conditions:
In
1.
a home in which television viewing of
an uncontrolled type is emphasized;
2.
heavy viewing of teievision in preschool years;
3.
more recent heavy viewing of violent
programming
4.
parents
who
themselves
emphasize
physical force as a means of discipline;
5.
parents whose self-descriptions or
values do not stress imagination,
curiosity, or creativity, traits that
might offer alternatives to the direct
imitation of the television content or
to reliance on television as a major
source of entertainment (Singer &
Singer, 1983, p. 830).
brief,
televislon
children
environment
in this
are more
combined
likely
family
to show
and
iess
progress cognitively, to be more frightened or suspicious
of the outside world, and to show less imagination and more
18
aggressiveness as well as poor behavior at school (Singer
& Singer, 1982, p. 830).
Rouner (1984) inferred that viewer activity is also
important for the cultivation hypothesis.
People may not always view television in
the same manner and total exposure may not
be as important in influencing one's social
reality as the activity one exerts while
viewing television" (Rouner, 1984, p. 174).
Hirsch (1980, 1981) disagreed with the inconsistencies in
classifying "light" and "heavy" television viewers, for
failures to control for source of extraneous varlances, and
for incapabilities to present the amount of variance.
Klapper (1978) stated that no child is exposed only to
television.
Every child has interaction and interrelation-
ship with various socializing agencies.
Therefore, a child
has a multitude of real-life experiences.
Moreover, every
child has an active role in the socialization process.
"It
is the chiid's perception which defines the stimulus—or,
as the Piagetians have it, helps create the environment"
(Klapper, 1978, p. 427).
United States Television Programs Abroad
Among the researchers who argue for and agalnst the
"cultivation analysis" and "cultural mainstream" are those
who have studied the influence of U.S. television on
foreign audiences (Tan, 1985, p. 3). Caron (1979) studied
19
the impact of first time exposure to television on Inuit
(Eskimo) children of ages eight to thirteen years.
focused
on their
cultural
images and
He
those of other
cultural groups, and provided both pretest and posttest.
Two prosocial series were selected for the experiment.
First, the "Big Blue Marble" series portrayed cultural
groups from different countries.
Second, the "Tuktu"
series portrayed various aspects of the traditional Inuit
way of life.
There was evidence that television may lead
to some changes in children's images of familiar and
unfamlliar cultural groups (Caron, 1979).
Those children
who watched the "Big Blue Marble" series significantly
identified in the posttest more with unfamiliar groups
appearing
on televislon
than
did
their
experimental
counterparts who continued to be unfamiliar with those
groups.
Also, the children who were exposed to the "Big
Blue Marble" series gave more information and expressed a
more positive appreciation of the unfamiliar group (Caron,
1979, P. 151).
Tsai (1970) indicated that "exposing Formosan children
to American programming did not affect children's images of
their
own
cultural
group,
but
it
did
significantly
influence their specific attitudes toward American culture"
(Tsai, 1970, p. 138).
Robert e_t al. (1974) indicated that the "Big Blue
Marble"
series,
designed
to
encourage
internationai
20
awareness in children, is successful in significantly
changing American children's attitudes toward a greater
awareness and a more positive view of unfamiliar cultural
groups (Robert £t al., 1974, p. 138).
Television plays an important role in the socialization process of U.S. chlldren.
Also, television should be
examined for its influence on minority children.
e_t a^.
Laughlin
(1980) studied the Puerto Rican children's percep-
tion of favorite
models.
television
characters as behavioral
The reason for thls concern is that:
Television programs designed for white
middle class children reflect the attitudes, values, and behavioral models deemed
appropriate to that social class to the
exclusion of other viewpoints.
Consequently, it is argued, minority children
often feel disenfranchized
from the
mainstream of American society. They are
provided few appropriate television models,
pride in their ethnic and/or racial origin
is not facilitated, and they have been
given no perspective of their ethnic
identity wlthin the context of American
society (Laughlin et al., I98O, p. 159).
The results showed that violent programs are the
favorite programs among both male and female Puerto Rican
children.
Their favorite television characters are closely
associated to the favorite programs.
Regardless of sex,
these children perceive that their favorite teievision
characters show more violence than any other behavior in
stressful situations.
Puerto Rican males are more likely
21
to identify themselves with their parents, best friends,
and televlsion characters than are females.
Females are
more likely to view their career aspirations as mother and
business woman because they see most of these roles from
television characters (Laughlin et al., 1980, p. 159).
Granzberg (1982) studied television in the role of
storyteller among the Algonkien Indians of Central Canada.
Data was collected from the pre-television period to the
seven-year post-television period.
The evidence then
showed that television decreased the tendency of Aigonkians
to select members of their in group as role players in
fantasy situations, particular the role of good person
(Granzberg, 1982, p. 45). The introduction of products on
television increased the purchase of products such as
frozen foods, presweetened children's cereals, cake mixes,
popcorn and potato chips, tolletries, beauty aids, and
household products (Granzberg, 1982, p. 45). The television characteristics quickly became a focus of communication and identity.
For example, a "Kung Fu" series
generated a trend of karate behavior; the Olympic telecast
generated a trend of athletic activity; and the favorite
actions and phrases of television heroes were fashionably
adopted by the youth.
Besides, children who immitated the
behavior of television characters were usually addressed by
those characters' names (Granzberg, 1982, p. 45).
After
exposure to television, fear and aggression increased in
22
children's play.
"The children fight more, use more
dangerous weapons, and do more damage to each other"
(Granzberg, 1982, p. 48). Moreover, children became less
shy and more assertive.
The children also became more
knowledgeable about English, geography, and science; in
general, they
became more worldly
(Granzberg, 1982,
p. 45).
Boyd and Najai (1984) conducted a study of adolescent
television viewing in Saudi Arabia.
results
showed
that more
programs than do females.
The interesting
Saudi males prefer Western
This implies that:
The high level of excitement in Western
programs and the roles played by male
characters are more popular with males than
females in Saudi Arabia because of the
social status of males—males assume a more
participatory role in the society than Is
permitted for females (Boyd & Najai, 1984,
p. 331).
Huesmann
and
his
associates
(1984) measured
the
relationship between television violence and aggression
among the children in the United States and Finland.
The
results showed that no single factors can make a child
aggressive, but the condltions under which exposure to
media violence seem likely to heighten aggressiveness.
In
both countries, the child most likely to be aggressive
would be one who:
1.
watches violent programs most of the
time they are on;
23
2.
believes these shows portray life just
as it is; •
3.
identifies strongly with the aggressive
charcters in the show;
4.
has frequent aggressive fantasies; and
5.
if female, prefers boys' activities.
In addition, such a child would be likely to:
1.
have a more aggressive mother;
2.
have parents with lower educational and
social states;
3.
show poor performance in school; and
4.
be unpopular with his or her peers
(Huesmann, £t al., 1984, p. 773).
Pingree and Hawkins
(1981) expected the imported
televislon to have a great impact on audiences' attitudes
and beliefs about what the United States is like.
assumed
that most
They
audiences who did not have direct
experience with the U.S. would create their attitudes and
beliefs about the U.S. largely from U.S. programming.
group sampled
Australia.
their
consisted
The
of 1280 children from Perth,
They were asked to complete questionnaires, and
parents
helped
to
complete
the viewing
diary.
Chlldren were asked about their opinions, media beiiefs,
habits, and knowledge.
The range of questions
extended to
"the children's 'television bias' in their beliefs about
violence in society, and generai 'meanness' in the world"
24
(Pingree & Hawklns, 1981, p. 99). The cultural indicator
format was used to measure the concept of violence in
society.
The findlngs suggested that U.S. television
programs seemed to be more influential to their concept of
social reality than locally produced programs or
programs
imported from countries other than the U.S. (Pingree
e_t al. , 1981, p. 104). This was believed to stem from the
high incidence of watching crime/adventure programs which
are almost always of U.S. production (Pingree and Hawkins,
1981, p. 104).
In summary, television viewing is related to audiences' conceptions of social reality.
not bounded by culture.
This relationship is
For example, the cultivation
belief about the world, in this case about violence and
crime, appeared when the programs were imported from
another country (Pingree ^t^ aJ^. , p. 104).
The
study
by Tan, Tan
& Tan
(1985) tested
the
enculturation hypothesis in high school students in the
Phllippines. This study explored the potentiai influences
of U.S. television programs on two manifestations of
culture: value system and aspirations (Tan e^ al.. , 1985,
p. 4 ) .
The value system measures in this study were
developed from Rokeach's conceptuaiization and aspirationalization of values (Rokeach, 1968; 1979).
conducted in the Philippines.
The survey was
Questionnaires were dis-
tributed to 225 seniors in three Philippine high schools.
25
The
questionnaires, which
were
in English, measured
general mass media use and frequency of viewing U.S. and
Filipino television programs.
The findings showed some support for the enculturation
hypothesis in the 225 Filipino seniors.
Respondents who
were heavy viewers of television in general were also heavy
viewers of U.S. television in particular.
The frequency
viewing of U.S. television programs led to an emphasis on a
nontraditional value (pleasure), and to a de-emphasis of
some traditional values (salvation, forgiving, and wisdom).
Nevertheless, most of the values not affected by U.S.
television were deeply anchored in the family, community,
and in previous socialization.
The frequent viewers of
American television were more probable than infrequent
viewers to express an intention to visit the United States.
This was because U.S. television emphasized the "good iife"
(e.g., pleasure, excitement) in the United States (Tan
£t al., 1985).
Tate and Surlin (1976) found significant differences
between adult Canadlan viewers and adult U.S. viewers in
the understanding of humor and the perception of reality in
the program All in the Family.
Canadian adult viewers
rated the show as less realistic than those in the United
States.
Also, Canadian vlewers saw less humor in the show
because much of the humor revolved around life in the
26
United States (Tate & Surlin, 1976, p. 210). This study
suggests that:
Persons in the culture into which the
foreign television show is imported do not
see as much humor or perceive the show as
being as realistic as do persons in the
same culture as depicted in the show (Tate
& Surlin, 1976, p. 203).
Cohen and his associates (1983) investigated Israeli
adolescents' differential perception of social conflict in
society and their presentation of television news.
They
assumed that television presented a distorted picture of
real social conflict.
The data was coliected from 492
ninth grade and 425 twelfth grade Israeli adolescents.
The
general findings showed that "adolescents are abie to
differentiate
between the social
conflicts and
their
symbolic representation in television news" (Cohen, Adoni &
Drori, 1983, p. 218). Moreover, the respondents perceived
conficts
in social
reality
as more
complex and more
difficult to solve than in television news.
In 1984 Adoni and his associates continued the study
of Cohen e_t a^. , (1983).
Thelr findings supported the
previous study and showed that social conflict in reality
was reported more complex, more difficult to solve, and
more
intense
than
television
news.
Contrary
to the
cultivation hypothesis by Gerbner e_t^ aA^, (1976), Adoni
et
ai. indicated
that the amount
of exposure
to the
27
television news is unrelated to the ability to differentiate between television
reality
and social
reality.
Therefore, Adoni et^ al. (1984) suggested that:
Television may indeed contribute to the
perceptlon of social reality, but the
extent and the scope of its contribution is
determined by the amount of direct experience with soclal phenomena in different
life areas (Adoni et^ al. , 1984, p. 48).
Imported Television and Changes in
Thalland
According to Virulrak (1985), mass media, particularly
television,
is
associated
with
several
positive
and
negative changes to Thai audiences in the areas of traditional values, attitudes, behavioral patterns, and t r a d i tional practices
(Virulrak, 1983, p. 102).
These changes
are shown in such areas as religion, sex, and violence, as
described in the following sections.
Religion
Television relates to the temple schedule preaching
style and the traditional medium for teaching (Virulrak,
1983, P. 102).
Buddhism is the major religion in Thaiiand, and 80^ of
Thai people are Buddhists.
Originaily, the monks taught
Buddhism at the temples during periods of a very full moon,
half moon, and no moon.
Today, some famous monks teach on
28
television on Sunday mornings as weli.
changed
their
vocal
expression
from
Also, they have
the
traditional
preaching form to that of a modern lecturer in order to
attract a larger audience (Virulrak, 1983, p. 102).
Sex
Traditionally, sex in Thailand is shown verbally
rather than physically, especially in folk songs, foik
ballads, and folk drama.
Today sex is more expressed in
print media, films, videotapes, and television.
The
younger generation is more exposed to sexual scenes in the
mass media.
A distinctive result shows that younger women
are more liberated in sex.
traditional belief.
Virginity is no longer the
Females are more open to approach by
males, as compared with their previously more reserved
attitudes.
changlng.
society.
The attitude toward homosexuality is also
In the past, to be gay was unacceptable in the
Today, the homosexual seems to be an essential
character on television or film.
"Transvestites and gays
in female costumes imitating Hollywood stars and Western
singers are shown in regular programs on television"
(Virulrak, 1983, p. 102). This has created the most recent
profession: male prostitution.
Many heterosexuals earn
their livlng by acting as male prostitutes (Virulrak, 1983,
p. 102).
29
Violence
Children and teenagers are viewing more and more
violence on television and on film.
According to Virulrak
(1983), violence through mass media arouses physical and
mental aggressiveness which is not a norm in Thai behavior.
Also, violence decreases the nature of certain Thai values
(Virulrak, 1983, p. 102).
Thai people are normally passive, and are
ready to forgive. The past two decades saw
the rejection of many corrupt politicians.
They are now forgiven and forgotten by the
public. But the younger generations seem
to develop a different mentality. Vindictiveness in the Chinese and the Japanese
television series is making an increasing
impression in their minds. 'The son must
take every measure to take revenge for the
sake of his parents.'
The traditional
value for forgiveness derived from Buddhism
and other religions seems to lose its
momentum (Virulrak, 1983, p. 103).
Social Stereotypes in U.S. Programs
Definitions of "social stereotypes" are stated below.
Social stereotypes are conceptually and operationally
defined as:
Conceptually,
social stereotypes are
generaiized
impressions
of
groups.
Operationally, a social stereotype is he
collection of traits assigned to the
members of a category.
When there is
consensus in the assignment of traits
within a given population of judges, then
the stereotype becomes a social norm for
describing recognized groups. A single
individual's assignment of traits to the
group is his or her personal stereotype.
30
regardless of whether there is consensus or
not among other judges (Karlin, Coffman &
Walter in Tan, 1986, pp. 2-3).
Other definitions of stereotypes are:
1.
A conventional, formulaic and usually
oversimplified conception, operation,
or bellef.
2.
A person, group, event, or issue
considered to typify or conform to an
unvarying pattern or manner, lacking
any
individuality
(The
American
Heritage Dictionary, 1982, p. 1195).
An early study on social stereotypes was done by Katz
and Brady (1933).
One hundred Princeton undergraduates
v/ere asked to number the flve key traits that best described ten different racial groups (American, Chinese,
English, German, Irish, Italian, Japanese, Jewish, Negro,
and Turkish).
The results showed that the unfamiliar
racial groups (Chinese, Jewish, and Irish) were described
as
having
more
negative
characteristics
familiar racial group (American).
than a more
Since most students had
no contact with members of many stereotyped groups, it was
obvious that they had generally perceived prevalent images
of their day and culture (Katz & Brady, 1933).
Many
researchers repeated the study done by Katz and Brady
(1933).
Por exampie, Karlins, Coffman, and Walters (1969)
found that the younger generations were more concerned
about ethnic generalization than those sampled in 1933.
31
Also,
Americans
were
listed
as having
less
positive
characteristics than before.
Social
stereotypes
are
learned
from
direct
and
indirect experiences with members of the stereotyped group
and through socialization from family, peers, and community, as well as television (Defleur & Defleur, 1967;
Tan, 1986).
Therefore, television's influence on social
stereotypes of the United States and Americans shouid be
examined.
Violence in television has been researched in several
studies.
For example, reports from the cultural indicators
projects by Gerbner e_t aJ^. since 1976 indicated that
violence is the major content of many television programmlng.
They measured the violence in programs by
prevalence, rate of incldents per program, and percentage
of major characters involved in violence.
Caplan (1985)
found that rock videos, like other forms of television
programming, were dominated by vioience.
There were 10 to
18 acts of violence each hour in music video programming
(Caplan, 1985, p. 146), or almost double the incidence of
violent acts in commercial television.
However, females
were not involved in violence as often as males.
These
findings were contrary to results of other research which
stated that females were more likely to be victims of
violence and were also found to be iess violent in commercial television (Caplan, 1985, p. 146).
Soley and Reed
32
(1985) indicated that violence and sex are predominant
factors of television program advertising, especially
network program advertising.
Sex has been the traditional soap operas' major
attraction for their audiences.
Soap opera contents are
almost all about infidelity, divorce, illegitimate birth,
and heavy petting.
Recently, however, there has been an
increase in preoccupation with crime by television programs.
In the fall 1984 season, the prime time television
schedule presented:
. . . nine new crime dramas, bringing the
total fare to a new high of 27 crimeoriented shows. This trend continued in
the 1984-1985 television season, which
featured such programs as award-winning
Miami Vice. The emphasis on crime appears
to be reflected in soap opera content as
well (Estep & MacDonald, 1985, p. 323).
Estep and MacDonald (1985) conducted a study of soap opera
content emphasizing the occurrence of murder and robbery.
They compared the depiction of suspects and victims in
daytime serials with images derived from officiai records.
nformation about crime in soap operas was collected both
from interviews with viewers and by coding Soap Opera
Digest from 1977 through 1984.
"Females and Whites are
represented more often as murder and robbery suspects and
victims than would be expected from official records"
(Estep 8c MacDonald, 1985, p. 323). Therefore, Estep and
33
MacDonald
(1985) were
concerned
that the differences
between televised and reai-life versions of crime could
affect some audlences' perception of both crime and the
legal system in society.
Greenberg and D'Alessio (1985) analyzed the quantity
and quality of sex in soap operas.
Three episodes each of
thirteen network daytime soap operas were recorded during
three weeks in late June and early July 1982. The analysis
showed that the representation of sex on soap operas was
more complex than before.
Talking about sex not only is far more
prevalent than engaging in it, but the talk
frequently consists of rejecting it,
fantasizlng about it, and desiring it, in
addition to consenting. The vocabulary of
sexual euphemism was also abstracted
(Greenberg & D'Alessio, 1985, p. 309).
Baxter, De Riemer, Landini, Leslie & Singletary (1985)
conducted a content analysis of 62 MTV music videos in 23
content categories.
Of those content categories analyzed,
frequent occurrences were shown respectively in visual
abstractlon, sex, dance, violence and crlme, celebration,
friendship, and isolation.
Consistent with other studies
of televised sexual content, music videos stressed sexual
content.
However, this content was understated, "reiying
on innuendo through clothing, suggestiveness, and light
physical contact rather than the more overt behaviors"
(Baxter et al., 1985, p. 336).
34
Thus, music video sexual content may have a
decidedly adolescent orientation, suited to
its audience; fantasy exceeds experience
and sexual expression centers primarily on
attracting the opposite sex.
Sexual
behavior, as portrayed in music videos, may
reflect actual or desired adolescent
courtship behavior, or the expression of
attraction impulses (Baxter et al. , 1985,
p. 336).
The frequency of violence and crime content were also shown
as foliows:
The most frequency coded content elements
were physlcal aggression, not the use of
weapons, murder, or sexual vioience.
Violént action in music videos often
stopped short of the fruition of the
violent act (Baxter et al.,1985, p. 336).
Rubenstein (1982) reviewed the research on television
and behavior, and Indicated that stereotypes of all kinds
are common.
This includes the age and occupational roles.
Television showed minority groups in demeaning roles,
females in excessively passive and subordinate positions,
older people as senlle and burdensome; also, there was an
overrepresentation of doctors, lawyers, police officers,
and other professionals (Rubinstein, 1982, p. 822).
Gerbner
and
his
associates
(1980)
examined
the
distribution of age roles in prime time and weekend daytime
(children's) network television drama.
The conceptions of
age among television viewers was investigated by a cultivation analysis based on data from the survey by the National
Council on Aging, "Myth and Reality of Aging," conducted by
35
Louis Harris and his associates in 1974.
significant result:
The data showed a
the more people—particularly young
people--watch television, the more they tend to perceive
older people In generally negative and unfavorable terms.
The results suggested that television cultivates a negative
image of the elderly.
Heavy viewers are more likely to
beiieve that older people are not "open-minded and adaptable, are not bright and alert, and are not good at getting
things done" (Gerbner et_ al. , 1980, p. 46).
Kalish and Kalish (1984) reported extreme levels of
both sexual and occupatlonal stereotyping in prime time
television from 1950 to 1980.
Television nurses were 99^
female and television physicians were 95^ male.
They also
commented that:
The cluster of sex and occupational role
characteristics, personality attributes,
primary
values,
career
orientation,
professional competencies, and the tone of
nurse-physician relationship converge to
yield an image of the female professional
nurse as totally dependent on and subservient to male physicians (Kalish & Kalish,
1984, p. 533).
Greenberg (1980) indicated that such characteristics
as ethnicity, occupations, sex roles, and age have proved
that television characters are systematically different
from the real worid (Greenberg, 1980, p. 35).
(1972) also supported this finding by stating that:
Katzman
36
The world of soap opera is populated by
male and female adults, mainly male
professionals, their wives and lovers, and
their female assistants and secretaries.
The males tend to be the same age as the
women, or older, and they are less likely
to have been married (Katzman, 1972,
p. 211).
Although females comprise slight raore than half the general
population, they represent a much smaller proportlon of the
population of prime time television characters (Greenberg,
1980, p. 30). Also, women's roles in television are less
than one-fourth of all major characters.
Female characters
generally have been younger than male characters, better
groomed, and more physicaliy attractive.
Female roles have
had a more limited scope than male roles (Greenberg, I98O,
p. 36). The status of women has generally been defined in
terms of their relationship with men (Levinson, 1973; Long
and Sisson, 1974).
that women's
McArthur and Resko (1976) indicated
roles
in television
commercials
are as
consumers, whereas males hold roles as authorities, even
for products used prlmarily by women.
Mamay
female
and Simpson (198I) cited three predominant
roles
in
television
commercials
as maternai,
housekeeping, and aesthetic.
Of 515 commercials sampled, 307 (59.6^)
involve maternal, housekeeping or aesthetic
role activities.
Of these 307, 52.1%
portray the maternal role, 21.2% the
housekeeping role, and 26.7% the aesthetic
role. Only 3 of 82 aesthetic role portrayals use women as sex objects to sell
37
products to men. The other 79 aesthetlc
commercials advertise feminine beauty
products including Inner and outer clothing
(Mamay & Slmpson, I98I, p. 1226).
Males are portrayed in far more occupational roles
than women (Carter, 1980, p. 36). Women are not usually
portrayed in adventure situations, but they are usually the
leading characters in sltuatlon comedies. Men dominate the
action/adventure series' and programs showing high-status
occupations such as law and mediclne (Cantor, 198O, p. 37).
The race most depicted in music videos is Caucasian
(by a 2 to 1 ratio), especially White adult males (96%).
However, Black, Oriental, Hispanic, and Native American
races are also represented (Baxter e_fc al^. , 1985, p. 340).
Minorities are more likely to be victims and less likely to
perform as killers than Whites.
than
Women's roles are worse
usual, except that no non-White women in the soap
opera were involved in any killings.
It is obvious that
very few non-White women were shown in drama (Cantor, 1980,
p. 36).
Also, the proportion of Blacks on television
programs and television commercials do not reflect the
proportion of Blacks in U.S. society.
Even though more
Blacks have been shown on television during the last twenty
years, Blacks are more iikely to portray roles of White
lifestyles; for example, Black-oriented comedies iike The
Jeffersons, That's My Mama, and Good Times (Pember, 1983,
D. 243).
38
Television
stereotypes.
commercials
can
also
reflect
social
Tan (1979) indicated that the perception of
the importance of beauty
in real-life roles could be
created by exposure to television beauty commercials.
In
the Brazilian city of Recife, advertising programs made
the starving children seem more likely to have a Barbie
doll than having food (Hamelink, 1983, P 2 ) . In South
Africa, skin cream was shown as being good for lightening
a Black complexion because advertising gives the perception
that Black cannot be the ideal of beauty (Hamelink, 1983,
p. 2).
Tan (1982) examined the relationship between television use and social stereotypes.
Television viewing and
interpersonal communications was measured among American
and Chinese college students in a major university in the
Southwest United States.
The findings suggested that
television use relates to many characteristics used by
American and Chinese college students to describe Americans.
Heavy television viewers described those character-
istics of Americans which are emphasized in television
entertainment, news, and advertising (Tan, 1982, p. 11).
Heavy
television viewers in Chinese samples described
Americans as pleasure loving and materialistic.
Those who
viewed television news frequently indicated Americans as
aggressive and pleasure loving (Tan, 1982, p. 10). Heavy
television viewers in American samples described Americans
39
as pleasure loving.
Those who were heavy viewers of
television entertainment indicated Americans as pleasure
loving, athletic, and wasteful (Tan, 1982, p. 10).
Li (1985) replicated Tan's study (1982) about social
stereotypes.
The study done by Li was conducted in Taiwan.
The results indicated that negative images of Americans
related to the exposure to U.S. television programs or
movies.
The overall image of America possessed by the
Chinese In Taiwan was also negative.
In Taiwan, Dallas was
rated as the most descriptive program about the United
States, while Three's Company was seen as the second most
descriptive
program.
The Chinese samples also rated
Americans as materlalistic, dishonest, and in pursuit of
pleasure and sex (Li, 1985).
Simpson (1985) also replicated Tan's study (1982)
about television use and social stereotypes.
Although
Simpson's study was conducted in Mexico, the results also
confirmed those previous studies (Tan, 1982; Li, 1985).
The findings showed that overall images of the United
States delivered by U.S. television programs were negative.
In Mexican samples, Dallas was seen to describe Americans
as aggressive, cruel, and dishonest; while Dynasty was seen
to describe Americans as individualistic, pleasure loving,
and dishonest (Simpson, 1985).
40
Hypotheses
Based on the literature review, this study attempts to
examine the relationship between the Thai college students'
perception about the overall images of the United States
and its people, and the amount of U.S. programs they watch.
Therefore, the hypotheses are stated as follows:
Hl:
The frequency of viewing U.S. television programs by Thai viewers will be
positively related to negative images
of the United States and the U.S.
people.
The major types of U.S.
television programs measured are
crime/adventure/ police, night-time
drama, music, situation comedy, news,
and sports.
H2:
The frequency of viewing U.S. teievision programs will be positively
related to the desire to visit the
United States in the future by those
Thai audiences.
Regardless of
negative images of the United States,
Thai audiences may want to visit the
U.S.; this is because Thai audiehces,
like most audiences from developing
countries, may believe in having an
"opportunity" or a "better life" in
the U.S.
H3:
A frequency of viewing U.S. television
commercials will be positively related
to the positive perceptions about U.S.
commercials and products.
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
The major purpose of this study was to examine the
relatlonship between exposure to U.S. television programs
and U.S. social stereotypes among Thai undergraduates in
Bangkok, Thailand.
The study also investigates
this
relationship through several types of programs such as
night-time drama, crime/police/adventure, news, music,
sports, situation comedy, and advertising.
A question-
naire was modifled based on previous studies (Tan, 1982;
Dubrisk, 1984; Simpson, 1985; and Li, 1985).
Variables
There was a total of 148 variables in this study, and
80 variables were dependent variables.
These dependent
variabies were classified into three types as follows.
First, nineteen
positive
and
seventeen
negative
adjectives were used to measure the Thai undergraduates'
attitudes toward the U.S. social stereotypes.
positive adjectives are:
Those
ambitious, artistic, athletic,
courteous, efficient, faithful, honest, individuaiistic,
industrious, inteliigent, kind, loyal to family ties,
musical, neat, practical,
quiet, scientifically minded,
straight-forward, and tradition loving.
41
The negative
42
adjectives are: aggressive, arrogant, conceited, cruel,
impulsive,
lazy, materialistic, mercenary, naive, ostenta-
tious, passionate, persistent, pleasure loving,
sensitive, sensual, and stubborn.
rude,
Respondents were asked
to indicate the extent to which each of these 36 adjectives
is descriptive of Americans, in general, on a five point
scale:
extremely = 5, very = 4, quite = 3, somewhat = 2,
and not at all = 1.
Respondents were also asked to choose
ten adjectives which they thought most closely described
Americans.
Those ten adjectives then were ranked on a ten
point scale, a ranking of one being the most descriptive
adjective, two being the second most descriptive, as so
forth.
The scores were then reversed for analysis:
the
most descrlptive adjective was given ten points, the second
most descriptive adjective was given nine points, and so
on.
Seven statements describing U.S. society, products,
and advertisements were also presented to the respondents.
Of these statements, three reflect positive attitudes:
"the products from the United States are of high quaiity,"
"you prefer to use the U.S.-made product than the product
made in your country," and "you perceive U.S. television
commercials as being more attractive and more creative than
Thai television commerciais."
negative attitudes:
Four statements reflect
"the United States seems to be a land
of crime and violence," "the products from the United
43
States
are high p r i c e d , "
"most U . S . products are
t i c a l o r u n n e c e s s a r y , " and " t h e U . S . t e l e v i s i o n
are
mostly
expressed
these
deceptive
their
or
agreement
seven statements
agree = 5,
unreliable."
or
The
disagreement
on a f i v e
point
imprac-
commerclals
respondents
with
each
scale:
of
strongly
a g r e e = 4 , no o p i n i o n = 3 , d i s a g r e e
= 2,
and
R e s p o n d e n t s were a s k e d a b o u t t h e i r d e s i r e t o v i s i t
the
s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e = 1.
United S t a t e s in the f u t u r e .
yes,
for
s u r e = 4; y e s ,
The s c o r e s were r e c o r d e d
probably
= 3; probably
as:
n o t = 2;
no = 1 .
Independent v a r i a b l e s
These a r e , f i r s t ,
the past
of
predictors.
t h e t o t a l number of U . S . m o v i e s s e e n
the degree
the
of
respondents
watch
i n one
month.
c o n t a c t w i t h Americans was measured
by r e p o r t i n g how o f t e n t h e r e s p o n d e n t s came i n c o n t a c t
Americans.
weeks) = 1 ,
often
The a n s w e r s
sometimes
were:
e v e r y week)
(more t h a n t w i c e a week) = 4 .
television
in
to
idicate
were:
Third,
Fourth,
time
with
in a
few
i n a week)
= 2,
= 3 , and v e r y
often
the average hours
were measured
of
by
t h e r e s p o n d e n t s were
how a c c u r a t e l y American programs
what t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
answers
(one
a day and n i g h t
i n d i c a t i n g the average hours.
asked
seldom
(one time or l e s s
( o n e o r two t i m e s
viewing
in
m o n t h , which was measured by t h e i n d i c a t e d number
American movies
Second,
c o n s i s t e d of s e v e r a l
reflect
i s l i k e and how Araericans a c t .
The
very a c c u r a t e i y = 5, q u i t e a c c u r a t e i y = 4,
44
somewhat accurately = 3, not too accurately = 2, not at all
accurately = 1.
Fifth, the frequency of viewing selected
programs was measured as:
every week = 5, almost every
week = 4, about once a week = 3, never or alraost never = 2,
never aired = 1.
The selected programs were:
CHiPs,
Dallas, Dynasty, Fame, Love Boat, music programs, Satellite News, Araerican football, and advertiseraents. Sixth,
the frequency of viewing total U.S. prograras listed in
this questionnaire wasraeasuredas:
every week = 5, alraost
every week = 4, about once a week = 3, never or alraost
never = 2, never aired = 1.
Finally, the deraographic
inforraation such as education, sex, and incorae were also
examined as control
variables.
Samples
The samples for this study were undergraduates in five
major universities and coileges in Bangkok, Thailand.
saraple size of 300 was selected for this study.
A
The 300
questionnaires were distributed araong the five institutions, 60 questionnaires to each institution.
Of those
five institutions, three are public institutions (Chulaionghorn University, Tharamasart University, and Rarakarahaeng
University) and two are private institutions (Assumption
Business Administration College and Bangkok University).
The details about the demographics of the samples are
oresented in Chapter IV of this thesis.
45
Procedures
The questionnaires were translated into Thal.
The
questionnaire was pretested before raailing to Thailand by
six raale and four
University.
feraale Thai students at Texas Tech
After the pretest, some revisions were raade.
In early Noveraber, 1985, questionnaires were raailed to
Bangkok, Thailand.
Several
graduate
students
helped
adrainister these questionnaires in many major public and
private
institutions
in
Bangkok,
Thailand.
These
graduate students collected the data by distributing the
questionnaires at the center spots of the institutions.
By
early Deceraber, 1985, a l l questionnaires were raaiied back
to Lubbock.
However, of those 300 questionnaires, only 279
questionnaires
were used.
The questionnaires
judged
unused had a great nuraber of incoraplete answers or were
corapleted by persons other than undergraduate students.
Analysis
There
were
148 variables
in this ques tionnaire.
Eighty variables are dependent variables.
Two types of
statistical analyses were used in this study.
(a)
Descriptive Analysis.
Each variable was corapared
for its raean, mode, median, standard deviation, range,
standard error, variance, and frequency in order to get
descriptive inforraation about each variabie.
46
(b)
Multiple Stepwise Regression Analysis. Each of
the 80 dependent varlables was regressed on the seiected
predictors in order to test the hypotheses.
this study confirmed
In addition,
the results by measuring the 36
adjectives in two ways:
(1) by ratings of the extent to
which each adjectlve was descriptive of Araericans (a
five-point interval scale), (2) by the rank order of each
of the ten adjectives judged raost descriptive of Araericans
(rank order data, 1 through 10).
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Saraple Deraographics
The saraples consisted of 279 undergraduates who vary
in age as:
0.4 percent are 13 years old, 0.7 percent are
16, 1.1 percent are 17, 9.3 percent are 18, l6.8 percent
are 19, 17.9 percent are 20, 18.3 percent are 21, 14.0
percent are 22, 11.5 percent are 23, 5.0 percent are 24,
1.4 percent are 25, 2.2 percent are 26, 0.7 percent are 27,
0.4 percent are 28, and 0.4 percent are 30 years old.
The
average age of the respondents is 20.882 years oid (raean =
20.882); 50.4 percent are feraales and 49.6 percent are
males.
The education levels are reported as:
18.5 percent of
the respondents are In the first year of college, 22.5
percent are in the second year, 22.5 percent are in the
thlrd year, 35.1 percent are in the fourth year, and 1.4
percent are in the fifth year.
The average year in college
is between the second and third year (mean = 2.786).
The institutions of the Thai respondents are reported
as:
24.5 percent of respondents study in Chulalongkorn
University, 24.5 percent study in Thammasart University,
4.3 percent study in Assumptlon Business Adrainistration
47
48
Coliege,
25.3 percent
study
i n Bangkok U n i v e r s i t y ,
p e r c e n t s t u d y i n Rarakarakaeng U n i v e r s i t y ,
study in other u n i v e r s i t i e s
The
percent
types
are
of
in p r i v a t e
of
studies,
are
huraanities,
percent
are:
8.8 p e r c e n t of
6.9
percent
19.8
percent
3.4
are
in
percent
are
4.6 p e r c e n t are i n f o r e i g n
are
in other
The r e s p o n d e n t s '
raajors.
annual
the
in
public
to 20,000;
incoraes
fall
arts,
10.7
governraental
and
of
(raean = 3 . 9 7 3 ) .
i n c o r a e s as shown a s :
earn
between
e a r n between $10,000
1 5 , 0 0 0 ; and 3 4 . 8 p e r c e n t e a r n u n d e r $ 1 0 , 0 0 0 .
faraily
percent
The a v e r a g e m a j o r s
faraily
27.8 percent
interna-
languages,
16.3 p e r c e n t earn over $20,000; 2 1 . 1 p e r c e n t
annual
in
respondents
are in
r e s p o n d e n t s a r e i n b u s i n e s s and h u m a n i t i e s
$15,000
31.9
68.1 percent are
3 8 . 2 p e r c e n t a r e i n b u s i n e s s , 6-5
in science,
administration,
1.1
as:
The a v e r a g e of s t u d e n t s a r e i n
study
tional
are
reported
institutions,
are in public a d m i n s t r a t i o n ,
percent
are
(mean = I . 6 8 I ) .
The m a j o r s
in
percent
colleges.
institutions
public i n s t i t u t i o n s .
institutions
or
and 7 . 9
13.4
between
those
The
to
average
a littie
over
$ 1 5 , 0 0 0 and t h o s e l e s s t h a n $ 2 0 , 0 0 0 .
Descriptive
During
reported
the
raonth
p r i o r t o t h e s t u d y , our T h a i
t h e number of U . S .
and o n e - h a l f
percent
Analysis
raovies
had n o t
samples
t h e y had s e e n .
s e e n any U . S .
raovies,
Twelve
11.5
49
percent had seen one, 10.0 percent had seen two, 14.3
percent had seen three, 10.8 percent had seen four, 12.2
percent had seen five, 4.3 percent had seen six, 2.9
percent had seen seven, 2.2 percent had seen eight, 5.7
percent had seen nlne, 6.8
percent had seen ten, 1.1
percent had seen twelve, 1.8 percent had seen fifteen, 0.4
percent had seen seventeen, 1.4 percent had seen twenty,
0.4 percent had seen twenty-three, 0.4 percent had seen
twenty-five, 0.4 percent had seen thirty, 0.4 percent had
seen thirty-five, 0.4 percent had seen forty-two, and 0.4
percent had seen fifty U.S. raovies. Therefore, the average
nuraber of U.S.raoviesseen by the Thai saraple group during
the past raonth is 5.093.
Moreover, the threeraostcoraraon
U.S. raovies the saraples had seen are Rambo, Back to the
Future, and Mad Max.
Out of 279 respondents, 113 watched
Rarabo (40.5%), 99 watched Back to the Future (35.48%), and
50 respondents saw Mad Max (17.92%).
Out of 279 respondents, 78.3 percent reported that
they have no U.S. friends, while 21.7 percent have U.S.
friends.
Of those who reported
that they have U.S.
friends, 6.8 percent have one U.S. friend, 5.0 percent have
two, 3.2 percent have three, 1.4 percent have four, 0.7
percent have five, 0.4 percent have six, 0.7 percent have
seven, and 2.9 percent have nine U.S. friends.
Contact with U.S. friends or acquaintances is relatively
liraited:
78.5 percent of the sampies have no
50
contact with U.S. people, 14.3 percent report seldora
contact (one tirae In a few weeks), 2.9 percent had contact
sometiraes (one time or less per week), 1.1 percent had
contact often (one or two times per week), and 3.2 percent
had contact with U.S. people very often (more than twice
per week).
According to the reports of the Thai respondents, 96.1
percent have a television set in their home, while 3.9
percent have no television set.
Of those who reported
having a television set at home, 97.0 percent have color
television sets and 3.0 percent have black and white
television sets.
The average number of hours the respondents watch
television during a twenty-four hour period is 3.52 hours.
The data showed that 10.2 percent watch television one hour
per twenty-four hour period, 19.2 percent watch two hours,
26.1 percent watch three hours, 20.5 percent watch 4 hours,
10.2 percent watch flve hours, 7.6 percent watch six hours,
2.3 percent watch seven hours, 1.1 percent watch eight
hours, and 2.3 percent reported watching television nine
hours per twenty-four hour period.
The U.S. prograras raost watched are Araerican football,
music, and other sports.
Twenty-two percent of respondents
reported the most watched prograras to be Araerican football
(n = 6i); 17.92 percent reported the second most watched
programs to be music (n = 50), and 11.83 percent reported
51
the third most watched programs to be other sports not
includlng American football (n = 33). It seems that sports
are the programs most watched araong Thai respondents.
U.S. prograras aired in the Thai language are 86.6
percent.
U.S. programs aired in the Thai language "some-
times" are 6.9 percent; 6.5 percent of U.S. programs are
not aired in the Thai language.
If a U.S. program is aired in English without transiation, 48.7 percent of respondents know English enough to
follow the story line, while 51.3 percent cannot follow the
story line.
Respondents were asked, "How accurately do the U.S.
programs reflect what the United States is like and how
Americans act?"
respondents
The answers were:
answered
"very
6.2 percent of the
accurately,"
47.1
percent
answered "quite accurately," 44.2 percent answered "somewhat accurately," 1.4 percent answered "not too accurately," and 1.1 percent answered
"not at all."
The
average scores of those prograras fall between somewhat
accurately and quite accurately (mean = 3.558).
Desire to visit the United States in the future was
rated:
7.7 percent have no desire to visit the U.S., 13.6
percent probably will not visit the U.S., 45.6 percent
probably will visit the U.S., and 33.1 percent v/ill visit
the U.S.
On the average, people said that they will
"probably" visit the U.S. in the future (mean = 3.040).
52
The respondents who have no desire to visit the U.S.
seem likely to visit the following countries:
20.8 percent
of respondents will visit the United Kingdora, 40.6 percent
will visit Japan, 7.7 percent wiil visit France, 9.7 will
visit Switzerland, 0.5 percent will visit the Philippines,
2.9 percent will visit West Germany, 3.4 percent wiii visit
Australia, 1.0 percent will visit the People's Republic of
China, 2.9 percent will visit Canada, 1.0 percent will
visit New Zealand, 1.0 percent will visit Italy, and 8.7
percent will visit other countries.
The programs which best depict the United States and
Americans were cited as being:
Dallas, Farae, and CHiPs.
Out of 279 respondents, 69 respondents (24.73%) chose
Dallas as the best depiction of the United States and
Araericans, while 40 respondents (14.35%) chose Farae and 40
respondents (14.35%) chose CHiPs.
Table 1 shows the frequency of viewing U.S. television
programs among the respondents.
Satellite News is the
program most often watched by the respondents:
66.6
percent of respondents watch it every week or almost every
week, and the raean score is 3.796.
program is cartoons:
The second most watched
55.2 percent of respondents watch
cartoons every week or almost every week.
is 3.567.
program:
The raean score
Dlfferent Strokes is the third raost watched
54.7 percent of respondents watch this prograra.
The mean score is 3.565.
Music programs are next in
53
popularity:
53.1
percent
of
p r o g r a r a s , and t h e mean s c o r e s
are
the
percent
score
46.6
fifth
of
is
raost
respondents
3.^75.
percent
score i s
watched
of
respondents
are
3.558.
type
watching
of
watch
Advertisements
prograra,
with
52.9
the prograras.
The
raean
CHiPs i s t h e s i x t h raost watched prograra:
r e s p o n d e n t s watch t h i s prograra.
3.^55.
It
is
noted
that
o f t e n w a t c h e d a r e of d i f f e r e n t
The raean
the s i x prograras
genres:
Strokes
is
rausic/entertainment
a fajnily
prograra,
rausic
p r o g r a r a s , and CHiPs i s a p o l i c e / c r i r a e / a d v e n t u r e
Araericans which i s
ordered
adjectives.
raeasurement
adjectives
1979)
The
is
based
a n d on t h e
ranked a d j e c t i v e
previous
tic"
"individualistic,"
The f o u r t h
rank
The f i f t h ,
sixth,
tic
" and
according
of
study
prograra.
s t e r e o t y p e s of
to the
positive
(Li,
raeans
and
is
seventh,
"musical,"
"intelligent,"
which a r e
"athleimages.
image.
ranks
minded,"
positive
first
negative
positive
and n i n t h
"scientifically
(1968,
The
which is a negative
eighth,
36
negative
The s e c o n d and t h i r d r a n k s a r e
"sensual,"
of
system
1985).
which a r e
are
coraraercial
i s " p l e a s u r e l o v i n g , " which i s a
the U.S.
"efficient,"
social
on t h e R o k e a c h v a i u e
i m a g e of
and
of
prograras,
programs
programs, advertiseraents are
T a b l e 2 shows a r a n k o r d e r
raost
S a t e l l i t e News i s a
n e w s / i n f o r m a t i o n prograra, c a r t o o n s a r e c h i l d r e n ' s
Dlfferent
music
are
"artis-
images.
In
summary, U . S . s o c i a i s t e r e o t y p e s seera l i k e i y t o be p o s i t i v e
in Thai
saraples.
54
Table 3 shows ten a d j e c t i v e s which describe Araericans
in g e n e r a l .
The Thai saraples chose " i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c "
the best d e s c r i p t i o n of Araericans.
The raean i s 4.219. This
t a b l e shows t h a t out of t e n a d j e c t i v e s ,
adjectives
d e s c r i b e Araericans:
seven p o s i t i v e
"individualistic,"
c i e n t , " " s c l e n t i f i c a l l y minded," " a t h l e t i c , "
" a r t i s t i c , " and " i n t e l l i g e n t . "
as
"effi-
"ambitious,"
"Pleasure loving," "sen-
s u a l , " and " a g g r e s s i v e " a r e the remaining t h r e e
negative
a d j e c t i v e s describing Americans.
Table 4 shows a d d l t i o n a l respondent perceptions of the
United S t a t e s .
Most r e s p o n d e n t s (47.1%) agree t h a t
the
United S t a t e s seems to be a land of crime and violence. For
the perception of U.S. a d v e r t i s e m e n t s and p r o d u c t s , most
respondents (62.7%) agree t h a t the products from the United
S t a t e s are of high q u a l i t y .
The m a j o r i t y of
respondents
(54.5%) a g r e e t h a t the products from the United S t a t e s are
highly
priced.
(36.2%)
However,
have no o p i n i o n
the
regarding
n e c e s s i t y of most U.S. products.
ents
raajority
The
of
respondents
the p r a c t i c a l i t y
raajority
of
or
respond-
(45.0%) have no o p i n i o n r e g a r d i n g the q u e s t i o n of
whether
U.S.
unreliable.
advertiseraents
AIso, the
raajority
are
raostly
deceptive
or
of respondents (34.4%) have
no opinion about whether they p r e f e r t o use p r o d u c t s raade
in the United S t a t e s over those raade in Thaiiand.
39.9% of
r e s p o n d e n t s a g r e e with the concept
However,
that
U.S.
55
television
coramercials
seem to be more a t t r a c t i v e
and
c r e a t i v e than Thai t e l e v i s i o n comraercials.
Multiple Regression Analysls
The h y p o t h e s e s
raultiple
of
the study were t e s t e d
regression a n a l y s i s .
by u s i n g
The raethod i s s t e p w i s e in
o r d e r t o e x p l o r e s e v e r a l s t e p s for a set of v a r i a b l e s to
obtain the best r e s u l t s .
Several p r e d i c t i v e v a r i a b l e s were
used in t h e equations:
(1) the nuraber of U.S. raovies seen
i n t h e p a s t month,
(2)
the frequency
of
contact
with
Americans, (3) a c c u r a c y of U.S. prograras, (4) education,
(5) sex, (6) incorae, (7) t o t a l viewing of U.S. prograras,
and (8) hours of viewing t e l e v i s i o n in a day and n i g h t .
Also, s e v e r a l t e l e v i s i o n programs were s e l e c t e d as i n d i viduai predictors.
For example, (1) CHiPs was selected to
r e p r e s e n t p o l i c e / c r i m e / a d v e n t u r e programs; (2) Dallas and
Dynasty
were
programs;
selected
to
represent
night-tirae
draraa
(3) Fame and music programs were s e i e c t e d
to
r e p r e s e n t m u s i c / e n t e r t a i n m e n t programs; (4) Love Boat was
s e l e c t e d to represent s i t u a t i o n comedy prograras; (5) S a t e l l i t e News was s e l e c t e d
to r e p r e s e n t news prograras; and
(6) Araerican f o o t b a l i was s e l e c t e d to r e p r e s e n t
sports
programs.
Tables 5 through 15 show the multiple regression
analysis by using the ranking scores of 36 adjectives from
56
the
most d e s c r i p t i v e
to
the
least
descriptive
as
the
dependent v a r i a b l e s .
Table 5 shows t h a t the nuraber of U.S. raovies seen in
the past month are p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to the d e s c r i p t i o n of
Araericans as "raercenary" (Beta = 0.288, P _< 0.001), "ostent a t i o u s " (Beta = 0 . 1 4 6 , P <_ 0.05), and negatively r e l a t e d
to
the
description
of
Americans
(Beta = - 0 . 1 9 2 , P _< 0 . 0 1 ) .
as
"straightforward"
The frequency of contact with
Americans i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to the r a t i n g of Americans
as " i n d u s t r i o u s " (Beta = 0.149, P <. 0.05) and " i n t e l l i g e n t "
(Beta = 0.176, P <_ 0 . 0 1 ) .
The accuracy of U.S. programs i s
p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to the r a t i n g of Americans as "sensual"
(Beta = 0 . 2 0 7 , P < 0.01)
0 . 1 8 0 , P <_ 0 . 0 ) .
and " s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d "
(Beta =
E d u c a t i o n i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to the
r a t i n g of Americans as " i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c "
(Beta = 0.261,
P _< 0 . 0 0 1 ) , and n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d to the d e s c r i p t i o n of
Americans as " l a z y " (Beta = - 0 . 1 8 7 , P <_ 0 . 0 1 ) .
Sex i s
p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e r a t i n g of Americans as "impuls i v e " (Beta = 0 . 1 4 7 , P <_ 0 . 0 5 ) , and negatively r e l a t e d to
the d e s c r i p t i o n of Araericans as "conceited" (Beta = - 0 . 1 7 3 ,
P < 0.01).
rate
Compared t o males, feraales are raore l i k e l y to
Araericans
as
" i r a p u l s i v e " and l e s s
Americans as " c o n c e i t e d . "
likely
to
rate
Incorae i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d
to
the r a t i n g of Americans as "pleasure loving" (Beta = 0.155,
P < 0 . 0 5 ) , and n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d to the d e s c r i p t i o n of
Americans as " c r u e l "
(Beta = - 0 . 1 8 8 , P <_ 0 . 0 1 ) . ' T o t a i
57
viewing of U.S. programs is positively related to the
rating of Araericans as "sensitive" (Beta = 0.247, P £
0.001) and "straightforward" (Beta = 0.026, P _< 0.001), and
negatively
related to the description of Araericans as
"conceited" (Beta = -0.220, P <_ 0.001) and "naive" (Beta =
-0.168, P <_ 0.01).
Table 5 also shows that the seven regression equations
provided significant explanatlon of their specific dependent variables with the percent variance explained ranging
frora 2.1 to 9.3 percent.
The results support the first
hypothesis that the total viewing of U.S. prograras will be
related to the negative images of the United States and
Americans.
tive."
Those negative images are "naive" and "sensi-
However, the total viewing of U.S. programs can be
related to the positive iraages of the United States and
Araericans as less conceited and more straightforward.
Frequency of contact with Americans and education seem to
relate to the positive iraages, while the rest predictors
are related to both positive and negative iraages.
Table 6 shows that the nuraber of U.S. movies seen in
the past month are positively related to the rating of
Americans as "mercenary" (Beta = 0.181, P _< 0.01), and
"rude" (Beta = 0.179, P 1 0.01), and negativeiy reiated to
the rating of Americans as "scientifically-minded" (Beta =
-0.137, P < 0.05).
is positively
The frequency of contact with Americans
related
to the
rating
of Americans as
58
"intelligent"
0.126,
(Beta = 0 . 1 9 2 , P <_ 0.01) and " q u i e t " (Beta =
P _< 0 . 0 5 ) .
The araount of hours viewing t e l e v i s i o n
i n a d a y and n i g h t
Americans
"quiet"
as
i s n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d to the r a t i n g of
"faithful"
(Beta = - 0 . 1 3 5 , P £ 0 . 0 5 ) .
programs i s p o s i t i v e l y
as
(Beta = - 0 . 1 2 7 ,
"sensual"
(Beta
"loyal
P <. 0 . 0 5 )
and
The accuracy of U.S.
r e l a t e d to the r a t i n g of Araericans
= 0.132,
to faraily
P _< 0 . 0 5 )
reiated
to
ties"
0.05).
Education is p o s i t i v e l y
A m e r i c a n s as " i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c "
and
negatively
(Beta = - 0 . 1 2 7 ,
P 1
r e l a t e d to the r a t i n g of
( B e t a = 0.176, P _< 0 . 0 1 ) ,
and n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o " c r u e l " (Beta = - 0 . 1 2 8 , P _< 0.05)
and " h o n e s t "
related
(Beta = - 0 . 1 6 5 , P <. 0 . 0 1 ) .
t o t h e r a t i n g of Americans as " p a s s i o n a t e " (Beta =
- 0 . 1 3 0 , P <_ 0 . 0 5 ) .
as
Sex i s n e g a t i v e l y
"passionate"
Males a r e l e s s l i k e l y to r a t e Araericans
compared
to
feraales.
Income
p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e r a t i n g of Araericans as
(Beta = 0 . 1 5 3 , P 1 0.01)
is
raore
"honest"
and "rausical" (Beta = 0.136, P _<
0.05).
Table 6 also shows that the seven regression equations
provided significant explanation of their specific dependent variables víith the percent variance explained ranging
from 1.6 to 4.1 percent.
accepted
According to this table, Hl is
because it explalns that the more hours the
samples spent watching television in a day and night, the
more negative images of the United States and Americans
were reported.
Those six predictors, except the frequency
59
of c o n t a c t w i t h Araericans and s e x , were a l s o r e l a t e d t o
negative
iraages.
T a b l e 7 shows t h a t
the past
month a r e
Americans
sionate"
as
to
tifically
contact
positively
p _< 0 . 0 5 ) .
(Beta = - 0 . 1 9 8 ,
(Beta = 0.146,
programs
are positively
"sensual"
as
is
and
0.01),
(Beta
"lazy"
to
to the
rating
0.199,
P 1
of
(Beta = - 0 . 1 5 5 ,
rating
related
= -0.173,
of
and
Araericans
Males a r e
cans as " c o n c e i t e d . "
raore
rating
to
as
and
Araericans
The f r e q u e n c y
the
rating
of
of
( B e t a = 0 . 1 2 8 , p _< 0 . 0 5 ) ,
P 1
( B e t a = - 0 . 1 8 0 , p <^
0.01),
and
"individualistic"
negatively
P 1 0.01).
"scien-
of U . S .
Education i s p o s i t i v e l y
Americans
0.001),
The a c c u r a c y
"courteous
( B e t a = - 0 . 1 3 5 , P <. 0 . 0 5 ) .
"pas-
F r e q u e n c y of
r e l a t e d to the
P <_ 0 . 0 1 ) .
of
negatively
r e l a t e d t o t h e r a t i n g of
"individualistic"
related
0.05).
);
p £ 0 . 0 0 1 ) and
p _<_ 0 . 0 5 ) .
positively
and n e g a t i v e l y
rating
( B e t a = 0 . 1 8 3 , P <. 0 . 0 1 )
(Beta = 0.153,
CHlPs
Americans
the
the
m i n d e d " ( B e t a = - 0 . 1 3 2 , p _< 0 . 0 5 ) .
A m e r i c a n s as " i n t e l l i g e n t "
viewing
to
( B e t a = 0 . 1 7 7 , P <. 0 . 0 1 ) ,
= 0.124,
"rude"
related
w i t h Americans i s p o s i t i v e l y
"quiet"
as
t h e number of U . S . movies s e e n i n
"mercenary"
(Beta
related
of
the
Sex i s
related
to
"naive"
related
(Beta =
"cruel"
positively related
as " c o n c e i t e d "
to
( B e t a = 0 . 1 2 3 , P <.
l i k e l y t h a n feraales t o r a t e Araeri-
Incorae i s n e g a t i v e l y
related
to
r a t i n g of Araericans as " l a z y " ( B e t a = - 0 . 1 2 6 , p .< 0 . 0 5 ) .
the
60
Table 7 also shows that seven of the regression
equations
provided
significant
explanation
of
their
specific dependent variables with the percent variance
explained ranging frora 1.5 percent to 6.0 percent.
The
results accept Hl because a high frequency of viewing
CHiPs
related to the describing of Araericans as iess
courteous and less naive.
However, a high frequency of
viewing CHiPs also related to the describing of Araericans
as less lazy.
The other predictors, except the frequency
of contact with Americans, education, and incorae, also show
negative images of Americans.
Table 8 shows that the number of U.S. movies seen in
the past month are positively related to the rating of
Americans as "raercenary" (Beta = 0.173, P <. 0.01) and
"rude" (Beta = 0.194, p _< 0.001), and negatively related to
"scientifically minded" (Beta = -0.127, p <. 0.05).
The
frequency of contact with Americans is positiveiy related
to the rating of Americans as "industrious" (Beta = 0.123,
p _<_ 0.05), "intelligent" (Beta = 0.186, p <_ 0.001), and
"quiet" (Beta = 0.147, P 1 0.01).
The accuracy of U.S.
programs is positively related to the rating of Araericans
as "sensual" (Beta = 0.145, P 1 0.01).
The frequency of
viewing Dallas is positively reiated to the rating of
Americans as "passionate" (Beta = 0.147, P 1 0.01) and
"sensitive"
(Beta = 0.123, P 1 0.05).
Education is
positively related to the rating of Americans as "individu-
61
alistic (Beta = O.196, p _< 0.001), and negatively related
to "cruel" (Beta = -0.155, p 1 0.01).
Sex is negatively
related to the rating of Americans as "conceited" (Beta =
-0.124, p _< 0.05) and "passionate" (Beta = -0.125, p £
0.05).
Males are less likely than feraales to rate Araeri-
cans as "conceited" and "passionate."
Incorae is positively
related to the rating of Americans as "honest" (Beta =
0.150, p _< 0.01) and "musical" (Beta = 0.128, p _< 0.01),
and negatively related to "courteous" (Beta = -0.126, p _<
0.05), "efficient" (Beta = -0.122, p <^0.05), and "lazy"
(Beta = -0.140, p _<_ 0.01).
Table 8 also shows that seven of the regression
equations provided significant explanatin of their specific
dependent variables with the percent variance explained
ranging from 1.5 percent to 3.8 percent.
The results
accept Hl when a high frequency of viewing Dallas is
related to the negative iraages of Americans as "passionate"
and "sensitive."
The other predictors, except the fre-
quency of contact with Americans and education, also show
negative iraages of Araericans.
Table 9 shows that the nuraber of U.S.raoviesseen in
the past raonth are positively related to the rating of
Americans as "mercenary" (Beta = 0.174, p <_ 0.01), "rude"
(Beta = 0.193, P 1 0.001), and negatively
related to
"scientifically minded" (Beta = -0.137, P 1 0.01).
The
frequency of contact with Araericans is positively related
62
to the rating of Araericans as "intelligent" (Beta = 0.195,
p _< 0.001) and "quiet" (Beta = 0.135, p < 0.05).
The
accuracy of U.S. programs is positiveiy related to the
rating of Araericans as "sensual" (Beta = 0.166, p _< 0.01),
and negatively related to "conceited" (Beta = -0.134, p <^
0.05).
The frequency of viewing Dynasty is positiveiy
related to the rating of Araericans as "sensitive" (Beta =
0.136, p <_ 0.05), and negatively related to "arrogant"
(Beta = -0.137, p < 0.05), "courteous" (Beta = -0.126, p _<
0.05), "persistent" (Beta = -0.177, p <. 0.001).
is positively
related
Education
to the rating of Araericans as
"individualistic" (Beta = 0.208, p _<_ 0.001), "faithful"
(Beta = 0.137, P <. 0.05), and negatively related to "cruel"
(Beta = -0.142, p _< 0.01).
Sex doesn't show any signifi-
cant relationship to those adjectives.
Incorae is posi-
tively related to the rating of Americans as "faithful"
(Beta = 0.151, P 1 0.01), and negatively
related to
"efficient" (Beta = -0.126, p _< 0.05) and "lazy" (Beta =
-0.141, p <_ 0.01).
Tabie 9 also shows that seven of the regression
equations
provided
significant
explanation
of
their
specific dependent variables with the percent variance
explalned ranging from 1.6 percent to 4.3 percent.
This
table accepts Hl because a high frequency of viewing
Dynasty
related
Americans
as
to the negative
less
"courteous"
images describing of
and
more
"sensitive."
63
However, a g r e a t e r frequency of viewing Dynasty i s r e l a t e d
t o t h e r a t i n g of Americans as l e s s
"persistent."
" a r r o g a n t " and l e s s
Also, t h e h i g h e r the frequency of
contact
with Americans and t h e higher the l e v e l of education, the
more the samples r e f l e c t p o s i t i v e iraages of Araericans.
Table 10 shows t h a t the nuraber of U.S. movies seen in
t h e p a s t month i s p o s i t i v e l y
Americans
as "raercenary"
related
to the r a t i n g
(Beta = 0 . 1 7 6 ,
p _< 0.01)
of
and
"rude" (Beta = 0.189, P <. 0.001), and negatively r e l a t e d to
"scientifically
rainded"
(Beta = - 0 . 1 2 6 , p <_ 0 . 0 5 ) .
The
frequency of c o n t a c t with Americans also shows a p o s i t i v e
image of Araericans, as u s u a l .
The frequency of
with Americans
related
is positively
Americans as " i n t e l l i g e n t "
"qulet"
contact
to the r a t i n g of
(Beta = 0.192, p <_ 0.001) and
(Beta = 0 . 1 5 1 , P <. 0 . 0 1 ) .
The accuracy of U.S.
programs i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to the r a t i n g of Araericans
as " s e n s u a l " (Beta = 0 . 1 7 4 , p _<_ 0 . 0 1 ) .
viewing Fame i s
related
The frequency of
to the r a t i n g of Americans
as
" a m b i t i o u s " (Beta = 0 . 1 3 3 , P 1 0.05) and " m a t e r i a l i s t i c "
(Beta
= 0.129,
"conceited"
P 1 0.05),
(Beta = - 0 . 1 5 0 ,
(Beta = - 0 . 1 2 8 , p <. 0-05).
and n e g a t i v e l y
p _<_ 0.01)
and
related
to
"courteous"
Education i s negatively r e l a t e d
t o t h e r a t i n g of Americans as "cruel" (Beta = -0.154, p _<_
0 . 0 1 ) and p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to " i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c " (Beta =
0.211, p < 0.01).
Sex i s negativeiy r e l a t e d to the r a t i n g
of Americans as " p a s s i o n a t e " (Beta = - 0 . 1 3 7 , P <. 0 . 0 1 ) .
64
Males are less likely than females to rate Americans as
"passionate."
Income is negatively related to the rating
of Americans as "lazy" (Beta = -0.144, p <_ 0.01).
Table 10 shows that seven of the regression equations
provided slgnificant explanation of their specific dependent variables with the percent variance explained ranging
from 1.6 percent to 4.4 percent.
The results also support
the first hypothesls that the frequency of viewing Fame is
related to the negative images describing Araericans as less
"courteous" and more "materialistic."
However, a greater
frequency of viewing Farae is positively related to the
rating of Araericans as more "ambitious" and less "conceited."
The frequency of contact with Americans, educa-
tion, and sex seem to relate to a positive iraage of
Americans, while the remaining predictors relate to a
negative image of Americans.
Table 11 shows that the nuraber of U.S.raoviesseen in
the past raonth is positively related to the rating of
Americans as "mercenary" (Beta = 0.179, P 1 0.001), "passionate" (Beta = 0.128, p <_ 0.05), and "rude" (Beta =
0.195, P 1 0.001); and negativeiy
related to "scien-
tifically minded" (Beta = -0.132, p < 0.05).
The frequency
of contact with Americans is positively related to the
rating of Americans as "intelligent" (Beta = 0.179, P 1
0.01) and "industrious" (Beta = 0.133, P 1 0.05).
The
accuracy of U.S. programs is positively related to the
65
rating
of
Americans
0.05),
"sensual"
forward"
(Beta
as
"practical"
(Beta = 0 . 1 3 1 ,
p _<
( B e t a = 0 . 1 5 0 , p < _ 0 . 0 1 ) , and " s t r a i g h t = 0.128,
p _< 0 . 0 5 ) .
The f r e q u e n c y
of
v i e w i n g m u s i c programs i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to the r a t i n g
of Americans as " i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c " (Beta = 0 . 2 2 9 , P <. 0.001)
and
"pleasure
negatively
0.05),
loving"
related
"conceited"
(Beta
= 0.150,
to "aggressive"
p _< 0 . 0 1 ) ;
( B e t a = - 0 . 1 4 8 , p <^
(Beta = -0.172, p <_0.01),
(Beta = - 0 . 1 4 5 , p 1 0 . 0 1 ) ,
and
"cruel"
"courteous"
( B e t a = - 0 . 1 6 2 , p j<
0 . 0 1 ) , and " n a l v e " (Beta = - 0 . 1 7 0 , p _<_ 0 . 0 1 ) .
Education i s
p o s l t i v e l y r e l a t e d to t h e r a t i n g of Americans as " i n d i v i d u alistic"
( B e t a = 0 . 1 9 3 , P <. 0.001) and n e g a t i v e l y
to "cruel"
(Beta = - 0 . 1 5 1 ,
P 1 0.01).
related
Sex i s n e g a t i v e l y
related
t o t h e r a t i n g of Americans as " c o n c e i t e d " (Beta =
-0.125,
p _< 0 . 0 5 ) .
rate
Americans
as
Males a r e l e s s
l i k e l y than females
"conceited."
Incorae
is
to
positively
r e l a t e d t o t h e r a t i n g of Araericans a s " c o n c e i t e d "
(Beta =
- 0 . 1 4 9 , p _< 0 . 0 5 ) , and n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d to "lazy" (Beta =
-0.144, p < 0.01).
T a b l e 11 shows t h a t seven of the r e g r e s s i o n
equations
p r o v i d e d s i g n i f i c a n t e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e i r s p e c i f i c
ent v a r i a b l e s
w i t h t h e p e r c e n t v a r i a n c e explained
from 1.6 p e r c e n t t o 9.0 p e r c e n t .
dependranging
The r e s u i t s a i s o
accept
Hl when t h e frequency of viewing rausic prograras i s
related
to
the
negative
iraages
describing
Araericans
as
" c o u r t e o u s , " l e s s " n a i v e , " and raore " p i e a s u r e l o v i n g . "
iess
The
66
frequency
of
contact
with Americans
and t h e e d u c a t i o n of
the samples are r e i a t e d to a p o s i t i v e
i m a g e of
while
related
the
remaining
predictors
are
Americans,
raostly
to a
n e g a t i v e iraage of A r a e r i c a n s .
Table
the
past
12 shows t h a t t h e number of U . S . movies s e e n i n
raonth
Araericans
as
is
positively
"raercenary"
related
(Beta
to
the
= 0.175,
rating
p <. 0 . 0 0 1 )
and
" r u d e " ( B e t a = 0 . 1 7 9 , P <. 0 . 0 0 1 ) ; and n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d
"scientifically
frequency
of
minded"
contact
(Beta = - 0 . 1 3 3 ,
P <. 0 . 0 5 ) .
w i t h Americans i s p o s i t i v e l y
t o t h e r a t i n g of Araericans a s " i n t e l l i g e n t "
p _< 0 . 0 0 1 )
and " q u i e t "
rating
0.01)
and
related
(Beta = 0 . 1 8 5 ,
( B e t a = 0 . 1 4 6 , p _<_ 0 . 0 1 ) .
Americans
related
(Beta
as
to
the
= -0.125,
v i e w i n g Love Boat
Americans
as
"straightforward"
negatively
ceited"
of
is
"sensual"
rating
P 1 0.05).
positively
related
of
to
( B e t a = 0 . 1 5 8 , p _<
( B e t a = 0 . 1 2 7 , p <. 0 . 0 1 ) ,
"individualistic"
and n e g a t i v e l y
to
The
The a c c u r a c y of U . S . programs i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d
the
of
Araericans
The
related
as
and
"con-
frequency
of
t o t h e r a t i n g of
(Beta = 0.147, P < 0.01);
t o " c o u r t e o u s " ( B e t a = - 0 . 1 7 8 , p _<
0.01),
"honest"
-0.138,
p 1 0 . 0 1 ) , and " n a i v e " ( B e t a = - 0 . 1 7 8 , p <. 0 . 0 0 1 ) .
Education
as
is
(Beta = -0.146, p <.0.01),
positively
"individualistic"
negatively
"honest"
"lazy"
r e l a t e d t o t h e r a t i n g of
(Beta
related to "cruel"
(Beta = - 0 . 1 4 8 ,
=
0.207,
P 1
(Beta =
Americans
0.001),
(Beta = - 0 . 1 5 5 , P 1 0.01)
p <_ 0 . 0 1 ) .
However, sex i s
and
and
not
67
shown as the predictors of any of these adjectives.
is positively
related
to the rating
Income
of Americans as
"honest" (Beta = 0.168, p <_ 0.05), "musical" (Beta = 0.135,
p <_ 0.01).
Table 12 also shows that seven of the regression
equations
provided
significant
explanation
of
their
specific dependent variables with the percent variance
explained ranging from 1.6 percent to 12.5 percent.
The
results accept the first hypothesis that a greater frequency of viewing Love Boat is related to the negative
images describing Americans as less "courteous" and less
"honest."
However, the frequency of viewing Love Boat can
be related to the positively images of Americans as being
raore "individualistic" and less "lazy."
The frequency of
contact with Americans is related to a positive image of
Americans, while
the
reraaining
predictors, with
the
exception of sex, are related to both positive and negative
iraages of Araericans.
Table 13 shows that the number of U.S. movies seen in
the past month is positively related to the rating of
Americans as "mercenary" (Beta = 0.177, P 1 0.01), "passionate" (Beta = 0.125, p <. 0.05), and "rude" (Beta =
0.192, p <. 0.01); and negatively related to "scientificaliy
minded"
(Beta = -0.137, p <. 0.05).
The frequency of
contact with Americans is positively related to the rating
of Americans as "industrious" (Beta = 0.145, P <. 0.01),
68
"intelligent" (Beta = 0.193, p < 0.001),
(Beta = 0.165, p <. 0.01).
and "quiet"
The accuracy of U.S. prograras is
positively related to the rating of Araericans as "quiet"
(Beta = 0.126, p <_ 0.05), "sensual" (Beta = 0.168, p <
0.01), and "straightforward" (Beta = 0.128, p £ 0.05); and
negatively related to the rating of Americans as "concelted"
(Beta = -0.137, p <_ 0.01).
The frequency of
viewing Satellite News is positively related to the rating
of Americans as "individualistic" (Beta = 0.137, p <. 0.05),
"materialistic" (Beta = 0.211, p _<_ 0.001), and "pleasure
loving" (Beta = 0.201, p _< 0.001); and negatively related
to "aggressive" (Beta = -0.157, p <. 0.01), "cruel" (Beta =
-0.209, P 1 0.001), "honest" (Beta = -0.209, P 1 0.001),
and "quiet" (Beta = -0.133, P <. 0.05).
Education is
positively related to the rating of Araericans as "individualistic" (Beta = 0.188, p <. 0.001), and negatively related
to "cruel" (Beta = -0.141, p .< 0.01), "honest" (Beta =
-0.132, p <. 0.05), and "lazy" (Beta = -0.138, p < 0.05).
Sex is not related to any of these adjectives.
Incorae is
positively related to the rating of Americans as "honest"
(Beta = 0.202, p <. 0.001 ).
Table 13 also shows that seven of the regression
equations
provided
significant
explanation
of
their
specific dependent variables with the percent variance
explained
ranging
from
1.6
percent
to
8.5
percent.
According to the results, Hl is accepted when the frequency
69
of viewing S a t e l l i t e News i s r e l a t e d to the negative iraages
of Americans as i e s s " h o n e s t , " more " m a t e r i a l i s t i c , " more
" p l e a s u r e l o v i n g , " and l e s s " q u i e t . "
However, the
fre-
quency of viewing S a t e l l i t e News i s also r e l a t e d to some
p o s i t i v e images of Araericans.
The frequency of
contact
with Americans and income seem to be r e l a t e d to a more
p o s i t l v e image of Americans, while the remaining p r e d i c t o r s
show both p o s i t i v e and negative iraages of Araericans.
Table 14 shows t h a t the nuraber of U.S. raovies seen in
t h e p a s t month i s p o s i t i v e l y
related
to the r a t i n g
of
Americans as "raercenary" (Beta = 0.179, P <. 0.001), "passionate"
0.176,
(Beta = 0 . 1 2 4 ,
p _< 0 . 0 0 1 ) ;
tlfically
rainded"
p _<_ 0 . 0 5 ) ,
and n e g a t i v e l y
and "rude" (Beta =
related
(Beta = - 0 . 1 3 3 , P 1 0.05).
to
"scien-
Frequency of
c o n t a c t with Araericans i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to the r a t i n g
of Americans as " i n t e l l i g e n t " (Beta = 0.186, p _< 0.001) and
"quiet"
(Beta = 0 . 1 5 6 , p <. 0 . 0 1 ) .
The accuracy of U.S.
programs i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to the r a t i n g of Americans
as " q u i e t " (Beta = 0 . 1 2 9 , P <. 0 . 0 5 ) , " s e n s i t i v e " (Beta =
0 . 1 4 9 , p <. 0.01) and " s e n s u a l " (Beta = 0.053, P < 0 . 0 5 ) .
The f r e q u e n c y of viewing Araerican f o o t b a l i is p o s i t i v e l y
r e l a t e d to the r a t i n g of Araericans as " f a i t h f u i "
(Beta =
0.148, p <. 0 . 0 1 ) , and negatively r e l a t e d to "cruel" (Beta =
- 0 . 1 4 1 , p 1 0.05) and " q u i e t " (Beta = -0.138, p <. 0 . 0 5 ) .
E d u c a t i o n i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to the r a t i n g of Americans
as
"individuaiistic"
(Béta
= 0.183,
P 1 0.001),
and
70
negatively related to "cruel" (Beta = -0.151, p _< 0.01).
Sex is not reiated to any of the adjectives.
Incorae is
positively related to the rating of Araericans as "rausical"
(Beta = 0.122, p <_ 0.05).
Table 14 also shows the nuraber of the regression
equation provided significant explanation of their specific
dependent variables with the percent variance explained
ranging from 1.5 percent to 5.4 percent. The results accept
Hl when the frequency of viewing Araerican football is
related to the negative iraage of Araericans as less "quiet."
However, positive images of less "cruel" and less "faithfui" are reported as well.
Moreover, both the positive and
negative adjectives are explained by the combination of the
six predictors, omitting sex.
Although raost results from Table 5 to Table 14 tend to
accept Hl, they are still inconclusive.
The explanation is
that U.S. television programs present not only negative
images of Americans, but positive images as well.
All
predictors are related to both positive and negative iraages
of Americans.
Americans
However, the frequency of contact with
and education seem to be the predictors of
positive images of Americans.
Therefore, Tables 15 to 25 are presented as the more
accurate tests of the hypotheses than Tables 5 to 14. This
is because we want to verify our findings with the raost
71
effective measurement.
The same predictors from Tabie 5 to
Table 14 are used, but the 36 adjectives are selected based
on the respondents' rating scores (five-point scales frora
"extreraely agree" to "not agree at ali"). The tables are
presented the sarae way as the previous tables. The numbers
2
represent the Beta, R
represents the percentages of
2
adjectives explained by the predictors, and R represents
only the significant predictor adjectives.
Since Tables 5
to 14 have too many predictors involved, the results from
Tables 15 to 25 will control for (1) the nuraber of U.S.
raovies seen in the past month, (2) frequency of contact
with Americans, (3) accuracy pf U.S. prograras, (4) education, (5) sex, and (6) income.
Table 15 shows that the greater the total viewing of
U.S. programs, the greater the negative images of Americans
as "aggressive" (Beta = 0.241, p _<_ 0.01), "arrogant"
(Beta = 0.233, P < 0.01), "irapuisive" (Beta = 0.172, p .<_
0.05), "raercenary" (Beta = 0.179, P 1 0.05), "pleasure
loving" (Beta = 0.292, p _< 0.001), "sensual" (Beta = 0.177,
p _< 0.05), "sensitive" (Beta = 0.308, p <_ 0.001), and
"stubborn"
(Beta = 0.252, p <_ 0.001).
However, the
positive images are shown also as "arabitious" (Beta =
0.249, p 1 0.001), "artistic" (Beta = 0.258, p <_ 0.001),
"athletic" (Beta = 0.3^9, P 1 0.001), "courteous" (Beta =
0.334, P 1 0.001), "efficient" (Beta = 0.226, p <. 0.01),
72
"faithful"
0.189,
= 0.224,
P <. 0 . 0 5 ) ,
0.001),
gent"
(Beta
p <_ 0 . 0 1 ) ,
"individualistic"
"honest"
(Beta =
(Beta = 0.244,
" i n d u s t r i o u s " (Beta = 0 . 2 6 7 , p .< 0 . 0 0 1 ) ,
p £
"intelli-
( B e t a = 0 . 2 8 3 , p <. 0 . 0 0 1 ) , "kind" (Beta = 0 . 2 6 5 , p <
0.001),
0.300,
" m u s i c a l " (Beta = 0 . 2 3 8 , p < 0 . 0 1 ) , " n e a t " (Beta =
p <^ 0 . 0 0 1 ) ,
"scientifically
minded"
"straightforward"
According
"practical"
( B e t a = 0 . 2 2 3 , p <_ 0 . 0 1 ) ,
(Beta = 0.279,
p <. 0 . 0 0 1 ) ,
and
(Beta = 0 . 2 4 2 , p _<_ 0 . 0 1 ) .
to the
results,
Table
15 e i t h e r
totaliy
t o t a l of
viewing
a c c e p t s or r e j e c t s Hl b e c a u s e a g r e a t e r
U . S . p r o g r a m s can be r e l a t e d to t h e r a t i n g of Americans as
having both p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e images.
Table l6 shows t h a t a g r e a t nuraber of viewing hours of
t e l e v i s i o n i n a day and n i g h t can be r e l a t e d t o t h e
rating
of Araericans as raore " p l e a s u r e l o v i n g " (Beta = 0 . 1 3 2 , p _£
0.05),
less
_< 0 . 0 1 ) ,
"quiet" (less unpretentious)
and l e s s
"sensitive"
( B e t a = - 0 . 1 4 2 , p .< 0 . 0 5 ) .
T h e r e f o r e , Hl i s only p a r t i a l l y
Table
17 a l s o
v i e w i n g CHiPs I s
shows
related
h a v i n g raore p o s i t i v e
"ambitious"
0.255,
"efficient"
0.244,
a greater
frequency
t o t h e r a t i n g of Araericans
iraages.
Those p o s i t i v e
P 1 0.05),
"courteous"
(Beta = 0.177,
p 1 0.001),
accepted.
that
(Beta = 0 . 1 5 1 ,
p 1 0.001),
(Beta = - 0 . 1 7 5 , P
"honest"
of
as
iraages a r e
" a t h l e t i c " (Beta =
(Beta = 0.177, P 1 0 . 0 1 ) ,
p <_ 0 . 0 1 ) ,
"faithfui"
(Beta = 0.140,
(Beta =
p <_ 0 . 0 5 ) ,
73
"indlvidualistic"
(Beta = 0.244,
P 1 0.05),
( B e t a = 0 . 2 0 5 , p <_ 0 . 0 1 ) ,
p £ 0.001),
"kind"
"intelligent"
(Beta = 0.156,
"industrious"
(Beta = 0.130,
p <_ 0 . 0 5 ) ,
"musical"
( B e t a = 0 . 1 5 3 , P 1 0 . 0 5 ) , " n e a t " (Beta = 0.180, p ;< 0 . 0 1 ) ,
and
"scientifically
According
to
accepted
the
because
presented
raore
minded"
results,
= 0.170,
the f i r s t
a greater
positive
(Beta
p _< 0 . 0 1 ) .
hypothesis
frequency
of
viewing
images of A m e r i c a n s .
n e g a t i v e image p r e s e n t e d was " s e n s i t i v e "
is
not
CHiPs
The o n l y
(Beta = 0 . 2 0 8 ,
p <_ 0 . 0 1 ) .
Table 18 shows t h a t t h e frequency of viewing D a l i a s i s
r e l a t e d to t h e p o s i t i v e images of Americans as " arabitious"
( B e t a = 0 . 1 4 3 , p <. 0 . 0 5 ) , " i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c " (Beta = 0 . 1 5 8 ,
p £ 0.05),
and " r a u s i c a l "
( B e t a = 0 . 1 5 7 , p <. 0 . 0 5 ) ;
and
r e l a t e d to t h e n e g a t i v e images of Americans as " a g g r e s s i v e "
(Beta = 0.240,
0.01),
and
p <. 0 . 0 0 1 ) ,
"lazy"
(Beta
"cruel"
= 0.177,
(Beta = 0.170,
P 1 0.01).
p <_
Dallas
p r e s e n t e d b o t h n e g a t i v e and p o s i t i v e images of Americans.
T h e r e f o r e , Hl i s a c c e p t e d only p a r t i a l l y .
T a b l e 19 a l s o s u p p o r t s
Dynasty
presents
Araericans.
positive
both
the previous findings
positive
and n e g a t i v e
because
iraages
T h e r e f o r e , Hl i s accepted only p a r t i a l l y .
of
The
iraages a r e " a t h l e t i c " (Beta = 0 . 3 0 1 , p <. 0 . 0 0 1 ) ,
"efficient"
(Beta = 0.190,
p _< 0 . 0 1 ) ,
"individualistic"
( B e t a = 0 . 1 2 9 , P 1 0 . 0 5 ) , " i n d u s t r i o u s " (Beta = 0 . 1 7 0 , p _<_
74
0.01), "practical" (Beta = 0.148, p _<_ 0.05), and "scientifically rainded" (Beta = 0.144, p <_ 0.05).
The negative
images are "aggressive" (Beta = O.I83, p <_ 0.01), "cruel"
(Beta = 0.158, p _< 0.05), and "pleasure loving" (Beta =
0.146, p <_ 0.05).
Table 20 shows that the frequency of viewing Fame is
related to both positive and negative iraages of Araericans.
Therefore, Hl is accepted only partially.
According to
Table 21, the positive images are "arabitious"
(Beta =
0.141, p <_ 0.05), "athletic" (Beta = 0.207, p 1 0.01),
"industrious" (Beta = O.I8O, p <_ 0.01), and "rausical"
(Beta = 0.160, p <_ 0.05).
However, the negative iraages are
reported as "aggressive" (Beta = O.I63, P <. 0.05), "pleasure loving" (Beta = 0.137, P 1 0.05), and "sensitive"
(Beta = 0.139, P 1 0.05).
Table 21 shows that the frequency of viewing rausic
prograras is related to both positive and negative iraages of
Americans.
Therefore, Hl is accepted only partially.
positive images are "artistic"
The
(Beta = O.I8O, p £ 0.01),
"athletic" (Beta = O.388, p _< 0.001), "courteous" (Beta =
0.210, p <_ 0.01), "efficient" (Beta = 0.162, p <_ 0.05),
"individualistic" (Beta = 0.247, P £ 0.001), "intelligent"
(Beta = 0.226, p <_ 0.001), "kind" (Beta = 0.157, P <. 0.05),
"musicai" (Beta = 0.302, p _< 0.001), "practical" (Beta =
0.184, p <. 0.01), and "scientificaliy minded" (Beta =
75
0.236,
p _< 0 . 0 0 1 ) .
"aggressive"
0.182,
Moreover,
negative
( B e t a = 0 . 1 9 1 , p <. 0 . 0 1 ) ,
p _< 0 . 0 1 ) ,
0.001),
the
"pleasure
"sensitive"
(Beta = 0.234,
p <_ 0 . 0 0 1 ) ,
"persistent"
loving"
(Beta = 0.162,
images
(Beta
and " s t u b b o r n "
(Beta =
= 0.246,
p _< 0 . 0 5 ) ,
are
p _<
"sensual"
(Beta = 0.202,
p .< 0 . 0 1 ) .
Table
Love B o a t
of
22 a l s o
is
related
Araericans.
0.243,
shows
0.230,
gent
(Beta
"efficient"
= 0.140,
"industrious"
p < 0.05),
"kind"
P < 0.001),
(Beta
P <. 0 . 0 5 ) .
= 0.203,
p _<_ 0 . 0 5 ) ,
P 1 0.01),
"neat"
iraages a r e
"materialistic"
(Beta
= 0.137,
0.169,
p 1 0.05),
p <. 0 . 0 5 ) ,
"pleasure
(Beta
(Beta =
(Beta = 0 . 1 3 3 ,
"persistent"
loving"
rainded"
"aggressive"
" r a e r c e n a r y " ( B e t a = 0 . 2 5 4 , p <_ 0 . 0 0 1 ) ,
tious"
(Beta =
"scientifically
and " s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d "
The n e g a t i v e
"intelli-
(Beta = 0.149, p 1 0.05),
P <_ 0 . 0 5 ) ,
p £ 0.001),
p 1
(Beta = 0 . 1 3 3 , P 1
0.249,
"practical"
(Beta =
(Beta = 0.283,
( B e t a = 0 . 1 8 5 , p <. 0 . 0 1 ) ,
P <_ 0 . 0 5 ) ,
(Beta = 0.143,
p < 0.01),
"honest"
"rausical" (Beta = 0.233, P 1 0.001),
0.159,
iraages
"courteous" (Beta =
0.05),
(Beta = 0.060,
viewing
( B e t a = 0 . 2 8 8 , p _<_ 0 . 0 0 1 ) ,
"individualistic"
(Beta = 0.153,
"qulet"
of
(Beta = 0.212,
( B e t a = 0 . 2 4 8 , p _<_ 0 . 0 0 1 ) ,
0.133,' p 1 0.05),
0.001),
frequency
t o b o t h p o s i t l v e and n e g a t i v e
"artlstic"
p <_ 0 . 0 0 1 ) ,
"faithful"
the
The p o s i t i v e iraages a r e " a r a b i t i o u s " ( B e t a =
p < 0.001),
"athletic"
that
"ostenta(Beta =
= 0.224,
p _<_
76
0.01),
"rude" (Beta = 0 . 2 5 1 ,
(Beta = 0 . 2 9 7 , p <. 0 . 0 0 1 ) .
P 1 0 . 0 0 1 ) , and " s e n s i t i v e "
According t o the r e s u l t s , Hl i s
a c c e p t e d only p a r t i a l l y i n t h i s
table.
Table 23 a l s o shows t h a t Hl i s a c c e p t e d oniy p a r t i a l l y
because the frequency
positively
Araericans.
0.192,
and n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d to the o v e r a i i iraages of
The p o s i t i v e
p <. 0 . 0 1 ) ,
"athletic"
of v i e w i n g S a t e l l i t e News i s both
iraages a r e " a r a b i t i o u s " ( B e t a =
"artistic"
( B e t a = 0 . 2 0 2 , p <_ 0 . 0 1 ) ,
(Beta = 0.209, P 1 0 . 0 1 ) ,
0.228, p < 0.001),
"individualistic"
"faithful"
"efficient"
(Beta =
(Beta = 0.195, P 1 0-01),
( B e t a = 0 . 1 9 1 , p <_ 0 . 0 1 ) ,
"intelligent"
( B e t a = 0 . 2 4 5 , P <_ 0 . 0 0 1 ) ,
"rausical"
0.001),
and " s c i e n t i f i c a l l y
minded"
0.001).
The n e g a t i v e images a r e " c o n c e i t e d " (Beta = 0 . 1 4 8 ,
p _< 0 . 0 5 ) ,
"materialistic"
(Beta
( B e t a = 0 . 2 7 5 , P <_
(Beta = 0.274,
= 0.140,
p <_ 0 . 0 5 ) ,
" o s t e n t a t i o u s " (Beta = 0 . 1 4 2 , p <. 0 . 0 5 ) , " p e r s i s t e n t "
= 0 . 2 0 5 , p <_ 0 . 0 1 ) ,
"pleasure
0.001),
(Beta = 0.144,
"sensitive"
( B e t a = 0 . 2 7 3 , P <_ 0 . 0 0 1 ) ,
p £
(Beta
l o v i n g " (Beta = 0 . 3 7 2 , p <^
p <. 0 . 0 5 ) ,
"sensual"
and " s t u b b o r n " (Beta = 0 . 1 4 8 ,
p <_ 0 . 0 5 ) .
Table 24 shows that the frequency of viewing American
football also can be related to both positive and negative
images of Americans.
partially.
Therefore, Hl is accepted only
The flndings show that the positive images are
"athletic" (Beta = 0.207, P 1 0.01), "faithfui" (Beta =
77
0.163,
p 1 0.05),
"neat"
(Beta
rainded"
(Beta = 0 . 2 2 6 , p _< 0 . 0 0 1 ) .
"conceited"
"musical"
= 0.240,
(Beta
(Beta
= 0.180,
p <_ 0 . 0 0 1 ) ,
= 0.169,
and
p _< 0 . 0 1 ) ,
"scientifically
The n e g a t i v e iraages a r e
P 1 0.05)
and
"sensitive"
(Beta = 0 . 1 3 6 , p _< 0 . 0 5 ) .
I n summary,
the
results
frora T a b l e 15 t o T a b l e 24
confirraed t h e r e s u l t s frora T a b l e 5 t o T a b l e 14 t h a t
g r e a t e r frequency
the
rating
negative
have
positive
of v i e w i n g U . S . prograras i s r e l a t e d to
positive
and
iraages, a l t h o u g h the o t h e r s i x p r e d i c t o r s
also
some
of
the
Araericans
influence
as
on
and n e g a t i v e
the
having
Thai
both
saraples
iraages of Araericans.
of v i e w i n g U . S . p r o g r a m s seems t o be t h e
to
indicate
The frequency
raost
effective
predictors.
Tables
frequency
25
and
greater
the
of v i e w i n g U . S . t e l e v i s i o n p r o g r a r a s , t h e
raore
they w i l l express
26
also
test
H2;
the
t h e d e s i r e t o v i s i t the United S t a t e s .
According t o Table 26, t h e r e s u l t s a c c e p t H2 when the t o t a l
viewing
of
U.S.
desire to v i s i t
0.164,
that
prograras
positively
the United S t a t e s
p _< 0 . 0 5 ) .
positively
is
related
in the future
Incorae i s a l s o a s i g n i f i c a n t
related
to
the
(Beta =
predictor
to t h e d e s i r e to v i s i t the United
S t a t e s , as shown i n Table 25 (Beta = 0 . 2 3 4 , p £ 0 . 0 0 1 ) , and
i n Tabie 26 (Beta = 0 . 2 1 0 , p <_ 0 . 0 1 ) .
78
H3 is tested in Tables 25 and 26; a greater positive
perception of U.S. advertisements and products is related
to a greater frequency of viewing advertisement prograras.
The results rejected H3 because there is no significant
relationship between the frequency of viewing advertisement
prograras and the perceptions as listed frora variable 133 to
variable 138.
However, the results in Table 25 shows that
the greater the incorae, the greater the preference for U.S.
television advertisements because of their greater attractiveness and creativity over Thai television advertiseraents
(Beta = 0.139, P 1 0.05).
The results show that only one
to nine percent of the positive perceptions about U.S.
television advertisements is explained by income.
Also, a
greater level of accuracy in the U.S. programs can be
related to the rating of U.S. products as being of high
quality (Beta = O.I6I, p _<_ 0.05).
Accuracy of the programs
accounts for 2.6 percent of the positive perceptions about
the U.S. products.
In Table 26, the results also confirra the finding in
Tabie 25 that the accuracy of U.S. programs, income, and
the total viewing of U.S. programs are the best predictors
of the positive perceptions about U.S. advertisements,
programs, and products.
The explanation is that the
greater the accuracy of the prograras, the less the perception that the products from the United States are highly
79
priced (Beta = -0.146, p <_ 0.05).
Also, the greater the
income, the greater the perception that the U.S. advertisements are more attractive and creative than Thai television
advertisements (Beta = 0.179, p <_ 0.01).
However, the
total viewing off U.S. prograras seems to be the strongest
predictor of the positive perceptions.
The greater the
total of viewing U.S. prograras, the greater the perception
that U.S. advertiseraents are more attractive and creative
than Thai television advertiseraents.
Tables 25 and 26 show that the greater the nuraber of
U.S. raovies seen in the pastraonth,the greater the belief
that the United States seems to be a land of crirae and
violence, as shown in Table 25 (Beta = 0.181, p <^ 0.01) and
Table 26 (Beta = 0.207, p <. 0.01).
However, the accuracy
of U.S. prograras is negativeiy related to the belief that
the United States seems to be a land of crime and violence,
as shown in Table 25 (Beta = -0.130, p _< 0.05) and Table 26
(Beta = -0.150, p _< 0.05).
In brief, the greater the
frequency of viewing U.S. movies, the greater the frequency
of the perception that the U.S. is not a peaceful, secure
place; but the more accurate the prograras, the less the
perception of negative qualities of the United States.
In summary, individual American prograras raost often
present positive and negative iraages as follows.
80
(1)
CHlPs presents the positive images of "athletic,"
"faithful," and "industrious;" and the negative
image of "sensitive."
(2)
Dallas presents the positive iraages of "arabitious," "indlvidualistic," and "rausical;" and the
negative images of "aggressive," "cruel," and
"lazy."
(3)
Dynasty presents the positive images of "athietic," "efficient," and "industrious;" and the
negatlve images of "aggressive," "cruel," and
"pleasure loving."
(4)
Farae presents the positive images of "athietic,"
"industrious," and "musical;" and the negative
images of "aggressive," "pleasure loving," and
"sensitive."
(5)
Love
Boat
presents
the
positive
iraages of
"efficient," "individuaiistic," and "neat;" and
the negative iraages of "raercenary," "rude," and
"sensitive."
(6)
Satellite News presents the positive iraages of
"intelligent," "rausical," and "scientificaliy
minded;" and the negative images of "persistent,"
"pleasure loving," and "sensual."
(6)
American football presents the positive images of
"athletic," "neat," and "scientificaliy rainded;"
81
and
the
negative
iraages
of
"conceited"
and
"sensitive."
I t i s noted t h a t CHiPs and American f o o t b a l l present raore
positive
iraages of Araericans than o t h e r prograras.
findings
show t h a t CHiPs presents only one negative iraage,
and Araerican f o o t b a l l p r e s e n t s two negative images.
The
82
Table 1
Frequency of Viewing Popuiar U.S.
Television Programs
Program
Sateilite News
Cartoons
Different Strokes
Music (Soiid Gold, etc.)
Advertisements
CHiPs
Love Boat
Dukes of Hazard
The Incredible Hulk
Hart to Hart
Movie Festival (Channel 7)
Sunday Movies
Three's Company
\/eekend T h e a t r e
American Football
Farae
Nova
Eight is Enough
Other Sports
F.B.I.
Fantasy Island
Dallas
Human Body
Quincy
Disney Show
Dynasty
4 P.M. Movies (Channel 7)
That's Holiywood
Magnum P.I.
Matt Houston
ri'^A'*S*H or AfterM*A*S*H
Tom Sawyer's Adventures
Other Documentaries
Trapper John, T .D.
"V" The Final Battle
Sugar Ray's Golden Gloves
The Greatest American Hero
Lou Grant
1 Frequency of
1 Viewing (%)*
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
66.6
55.2
54.7
53.1
52.9
46.6
44.0
44.0
41.6
38.4
37.9
37.4
35.2
35.1
33.7
33.5
32.4
31.4
28.7
28.5
27.8
27.6
26.3
25.6
25.2
25.0
24.7
23.0
22.6
21.8
20.4
19.5
19.3
18.8
18.6
17.5
16.7
14.3
Meant
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3.796
3.567
3.565
3.558
3.475
3.455
3.371
3.338
3.191
3.196
3.309
3.270
3.037
3.233
3.187
3.041
3.165
3.052
3.078
2.996
3.011
3.076
3.062
2.985
2.974
2.896
3.034
2.793
2.811
2.658
2.623
2.655
2.709
2.629
2.530
2.679
2.615
2.568
83
Tabie 1, Continued
Frequency of
Viewing (%)
Program
\/izards and \/arriors
Cagney and Lacey
Knots Landing
The Gangster Chronicies
Joan Loves Chachi
Seven Brides for Seven
Brothers
Heiter Skelter
Falcon Crest
Family Ties
King's Crossing
Galivan
1
1
Hean
14.1
11.3
10.6
9.7
9.4
2.424
2.477
2.519
2.332
2.166
8.7
8.1
7.7
7.5
7.4
6.1
2.294
2.191
2.346
2.249
2.214
2.214
*Column "Frequency of Viewing" is the percentage of respondents who watch the program every week or alraost every
week.
tMean is computed by the foiiowing scale:
5 = every v^eek
4 = alraost every week
3 = about once a v/eek
2 = never or almost never
1 = never aired
Note:
Movie Festival (Channel 7 ) , Sunday Movies, 'Jeekend
Theatre, and 4 P.M. Movies (Channei 7) are the U.S.
featured fiims shown on television.
84
Table 2
Rank Order of Social Stereotypes
Adjective
Pleasure Loving
Athletic
Individualistic
Sensual
Efficient
Musical
Scientifically Minded
Artistic
Intelligent
Materialistic
Persistent
Passionate
Ambitious
Industrious
Ostentatious
Practical
Mercenary
Stubborn
Conceited
Aggressive
Straightforward
Faithful
Rude
Impulsive
Arrogant
Neat
Sensitive
Loyal to Family Ties
Courteous
Honest
Cruel
Kind
Qulet
Lazy
Tradition Loving
Naive
Mean
1
1
1
1
1
3.885
3.853
3.766
3.765
3.667
3.630
3.516
3.498
3.308
3.233
3.211
3.200
3.197
3.186
3.176
3.146
3.094
2.968
2.871
2.860
2.839
2.802
2.776
2.749
2.584
2.545
2.544
2.518
2.51^
2.480
2.437
2.409
2.191
2.143
2.109
1.939
85
Table 3
Ten Adjectives that Best Describe
Amerlcans
Adjective
Individualistic
Pleasure Loving
Efficient
Sensual
Scientificaily Minded
Athletic
Arabitlous
Aggressive
Artistic
Intelligent
1
|
|
|
|
I
|
I
|
Mean
4.219
3.925
3.405
3.341
2.520
2.459
2.344
2.333
2.233
2.233
86
Table 4
Agreeraent R a t e s on Sorae P e r c e p t i o n s
of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
Perceptions
Var
Var
Var
Var
Var
Var
Var
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
1
2
3
4
5
{%)
{%)
{%)
{%)
{%)
24.1
14.7
9.3
36.2
45.0
34.4
17.6 1
47.1
62.7
54.5
21.1
10.4
25.8
39.9
14.7
15.4
33.7
5.7
1.4
6.1
20.5
0.4
0.4
—
1
1
1
1
3.6
6.5
7.5
4.0
13.7
6.8
2.5
33.3
36.7
26.2
1 18.0 1
Var 132 = The U n i t e d S t a t e s
c r i m e and v i o l e n c e
seeras
to
Mean
3.622
3.860
4.194
2.921
2.637
2.968
3.550
be a l a n d
of
Var 133
The p r o d u c t s frora t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
high q u a l i t y
Var 134
The p r o d u c t s
highly priced
Var 135
Most U . S .
unnecessary
Var 136
U.S. advertiseraents are
unreliable
Var 137
You p r e f e r t o u s e a p r o d u c t which i s raade i n
t h e U . S . A . t h a n i n your c o u n t r y
Var 138
You p r e f e r
U.S. t e l e v i s i o n
coraraercials
b e c a u s e t h e y a r e raore a t t r a c t i v e and raore
c r e a t i v e t h a n T h a i t e l e v i s i o n coraraerciais
from
products
the
United
are
a r e of
States
impractical
raostly
The d e g r e e s of a g r e e m e n t a r e c l a s s i f i e d
1 = strongly disagree
2 = dlsagree
3 = no opinion
4 = agree
5 = strongly agree
are
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The major purpose of this study was to examine
U.S.
social stereotypes held by Thal undergraduates and to
determine whether these images are related to exposure to
U.S. television programs.
hypotheses were tested.
Based on this purpose, three
Pirst, the frequency of viewing
U.S. television programs by Thai viewers was related to
negative images of the U.S. and its people.
Second, the
greater the frequency of viewing U.S. television programs,
the greater the frequency that the Thai viewers would
express the desire to visit the United States.
Finally, a
greater frequency of viewing advertisements was related to
more positive perceptions about U.S. advertisements and
products.
Three hundred questionnaires were maiied to fix groups
in five major public and private universities and colleges
in Bangkok, Thailand.
Then the graduate students in those
universities and colleges distributed and coilected the
data at the center spots of each institution.
After data
was collected, the questionnaires were returned to Lubbock,
Texas.
used.
Out of 300 questionnaires, 279 questionnaries were
The analysis used for this study was the multiple
151
152
stepwise
regression analysis.
Moreover, we used the
respondents' ranking scores and rating scores of those
adjectives as the two sets of dependent variables in order
to verify our findings wlth the most effective measurement.
The findings partially supported the first hypothesis.
Of the fifteen highest ranked U.S. social stereotypes, six
were negative adjectives (Table 2).
Out of ten adjectives
that best described Americans, only three negative adjectives were chosen (Table 3)^ However, the majority of the
respondents tended to agree that the U^S^ seems to be a
land of crime and violence (Table 4). Moreover, the total
number of U.S. movies seen in the past month were positively related to the respondents perception of the United
States as a land of crime and violence. However, this
perception was negatively related to perceptions about the
accuracy of U.S^ programs
(Tables 25 and 26) •
After
regressing these adjectives on the frequency of viewing
Amerlcan television, it was found that the total viewing of
U.S^ programs could be related to the rating of Americans
as having both positive and negative images (Tables 15-24).
The second hypothesis was supported that the total
viewing of U.S. programs were positively related to the
desire to visit the United States in the future.
Moreover,
income also seemed to be the strong predictor to the desire
to visit the United States (Table 26).
153
The third hypothesis was rejected because there was no
statistical significance between the frequency of viewing
only advertisement programs and the respondents' perceptions about U.S. products and advertisements.
However,
income, accuracy of U.S. programs, and total time spent
viewing U.S. programs seemed to be positively related to
these perceptions (Tables 25 and 26).
Other interesting findings were also reported.
The
program rated as best depicting the United States and
Americans was Dallas.
This finding was also confirmed by a
previous study (Li, 1985)^
Dallas presents both positive
and negative images of the United States ("aggressive,"
"cruel,"
"lazy,"
"ambitious,"
"individualistic,"
and
"musical").
Based on the results, the author agrees that American
television presents negative images as well as positive
images.
However, Thai audiences seem to perceive more
positive images of Americans than audiences from other
countries such as Taiwan (Li, 1985) •
Thailand
has maintained
a very
This is because
strong
international
relationship with America for more than four decades.
Therefore, most Thai people shouid have some experience
with Americans; especially Thai undergraduate students,
because they are well educated, they speak Engiish, and
they often have some American friends.
Also, Thai under-
graduate students have been influenced by American teie-
154
vision programs which present a picture of a "better life"
and "opportunity" In America.
Prom the American point of view, this thesis may
reveal how Thai undergraduate
audiences perceive
overall image of the U^S. and Americans.
distorted from reality?
the
Is that image
How can the image be improved
to reflect as objective a picture of American life as
possible?
This thesis may be helpful for Americans who
work in Thailand or study about Thailand, such as international politicians, professors, business people, and
people in religious work.
Prom the Thai point of view, particularly that of
undergraduate audiences, this thesis may show that Americans differ from the characters they have viewed regularly
on the television screen.
The images portrayed on televi-
sion can represent only one part of life; not the overall
picture of American life.
Suggestions for Purther Study
Although
this study provided
several
significant
findings, it was performed with several limitations.
Pirst
of all, this study lacked random sampling because data was
not collected from the overall Thai population. The survey
was distributed only to undergraduates; therefore, the
findings cannot be generalized to the entire population of
Thailand.
The resuits of the study represent only those
155
who have higher education.
However, those Thai undergradu-
ates who had higher education seemed to watch more foreign
television programs, especially U.S. programs,
The results
may have been different if the respondents had been older
or younger and had less education.
Therefore, future
research might focus on this group rather than undergraduate students.
Next, due to geographical limitations, the
researcher herself could not conduct the questionnaires in
Thailand.
Generally, the researcher would conduct the
questionnaires personally in order to record the respondents' reactions.
Purthermore, the list of U.S. social
stereotypes and the statements describing the United States
and its people might not be complete.
Due to the continu-
ing development of U.S. programs, several new U.S. stereotypes or trends should be observed as weil.
Finally,
studies of U.S. social stereotypes have been done in
several countries through the medium of television.
In the
opinion of the researcher, it would be helpful to study
this topic through other media such as newspapers, magazines, and radio.
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APPENDIX A
ENGLISH QUESTIONNAIRE
163
164
Thank you for helping me to fill out this questionnaire.
I'm a graduate student from the Department of Mass
Communications at Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas.
I am currently worklng on a master's thesis about the U.S.
teievision programs in Thailand.
The particular target
respondents are undergraduates in both private and public
universities in Bangkok, Thaiiand.
The responses wiil open
more understanding about how these programs influence their
perception of U.S. social stereotypes, including U.S.
products and advertisements.
16'
QUEST ONNAIRE
1.
In the past month, how many American movies have you
seen (including American movies on television)?
2.
What movies were they (name only three)?
3^
Do you have any American friends?
4^
If yes, how many American friends do you have?
5-
According to Question 4, how often do you contact or
communicate with Americans?
Seldom (one time in a few weeks)
Sometimes (one time or less in a week)
Often (one or two times every week)
Very often (more than twice a week)
^^^^^^^
6^
Do you have a television set in your home?
No
.
Yes
; No
Yes
'
!•
If you do, what kind of a television set is it?
Color
; Black and White
.
8.
On the average, how many hours do you watch television
In a day and night?
.
9.
Are
Yes
the
U.S.
; No
programs aired
; Sometimes
in your
.
language?
10.
If the U.S. program is aired in English without
translation, do you know enough English to follow the
story line? Yes
; No
.
11.
V/hat U.S. program(s) do you watch the most (name three
if possibie)?
12.
In your opinion, how accurateiy do American programs
reflect what the United States is like and how
Americans act (check one)? Very accurately
;
Quite accurately
; Somewhat accurately
; Not
too accurately
; Not at ail accurately
.
166
13.
How often do you watch the following U.S. programs or
how of ten DID you watch the program when it was beine:
aired?
Every
Week
The Greatest American
Hero
Cagney and Lacey
CHiPs
Dallas
Disney Show
Dynasty
Dukes of Hazard
Eight is Enough
Pame
Different Strokes
Falcon Crest
Family Ties
Fantasy Island
Hart to Hart
The Incredible Hulk
Knots Landing
Quincy
P.B.I.
Magnum P.I.
"V" The Pinal Battle
Wizards and Warriors
Tom Sawyer's
Adventures
Love Boat
Lou Grant
Trapper John, M.D.
Joani Loves Chachi
M*A*S*H or
AfterM*A*S*H
Three's Company
Helter Skelter
Galivan
King's Crossing
The Gangster
Chronicies
Seven Brides for
Seven Brothers
Matt Houston
V/eekend Theatre
Sunday Movies
Almost
Every
Week
About
Once
a Week
Never
or
Almost
Never
Never
Aired
167
Movie Pestival
(Channel 7)
4 P.M. Movies
(Channel 7)
Music (Solid Gold,
etc. )
Satellite News
American football
Sugar Ray's Golden
Gloves
Other sports
That's HoIIywood
Human Body
Nova
Other documentaries
Cartoons
Advertisements
14.
Below is a list of several adjectives ranking from the
highest degree of adjective to the least or non-degree
of each adjective. Please check oniy one for every
adjective.
Extremely
Aggressive
(attacking)
Ambitious (aspiring)
Arrogant
(authoritarian)
Artistic (creative)
Athletic (physically
strong, agile)
Conceited (thinks
s/he is better than
others)
Courteous (polite)
Cruel (can enjoy
watching others
suffer)
Efficient (gets
things done)
Paithful (keeps
promises)
Honest (full of
integrity)
Impulsive (acts
before thinking)
Very
Quite
Somewhat
Not
at
Aii
168
Individualistic
(prefers to do
things alone)
Industrious
(hard-working)
Intelligent (has an
active, able, and
acute mind)
Kind (gentle and
considerate)
Lazy (dislikes work,
suppresses his/her
energy)
Loyal to Family Ties
Materialistic (puts
worldly things
above spiritual
things)
Mercenary (does
things malnly for
money)
Musical (can create
music)
Neat (tidy and clean)
Naive (ignorant of
reality)
Ostentatious (likes
to show off)
Passionate
(excitable)
Persistent
(persevering)
Pleasure Loving
(pursues enjoyment)
Practlcal (realistic)
Quiet (unpretentious)
Rude (offensively
blunt)
Scientifically Minded
Sensitive (easily
affected by outside
influences)
Sensual
(sex-oriented)
Straightforward
(frank)
Stubborn (inflexible)
Tradition Loving
169
15.
Please choose ten adjectives from Question 14 that
best describe Americans in general and rank each
adjective from 1 to 10 (1 = the MOST descriptive, to
10 = the LEAST descriptive)•
I.
6.
7.
ZIIIIZIIIZIIIIIIIIIZ
3.
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Below is a list of several sentences which describe
the influence of some types of U.S. teievision
programs. Please indicate the extent to which you
agree with these descriptions.
2.
Strongly
Agree
Agree
No
Opinion
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
(1) The United States seems to be a land of crime and
violence.
(2)
Products from the United States are of high quality.
(3)
Products from the United States are high in price.
(4) Most U.S. products are impractical or unnecessary
(5) U.S. commercials are mostly deceptive or unreliable.
(6)
You prefer to use a U.S.-made product than a product
made in your own country.
(7)
You prefer U.S. television commercials because you
perceive them as being more attractive and more
creative than Thai television commerciais.
170
l^^^^ÍIr J^°"PLE^E THIS GENERAL DEMOGRAPHIC INPORtlATION ABOUT
xUUnoELF:
17^
How old are you?
years.
18.
If you are still in schooi, what year are you in?
19.
What is the name of your institution?
_
Is it private
; or public
; or female
?
20.
Are you male
?
21.
V/hat is your major?
22.
Please tell us your family annuai income (approximately):
Over $20,000
$15,000-20,000
$10,000-15,000
Under $10,000
23.
Do you think you will visit the United States in the
future?
Yes, for sure
Yes, probably
Probably not
No
~
24.
If not the U.S., which country?
25.
In your opinion, which of the programs listed in this
questionnaire best depict the United States and
Americans (name at least three)?
APPENDIX B
?HAI QUESTIONNAIRE
171
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