Journal of Knowledge and Human Resource Management

ISSN 1945-5291
Journal of Knowledge and Human
Resource Management
Volume 1, Issue 1
Published and Sponsored by: Intellectbase International Consortium
Journal of Knowledge and
Human Resource Management
Volume 1, Issue 1
Editor-In-Chief
Dr. David King, Tennessee State University, USA
Contributing Editors
Senior Advisory Board
Dr. William Carnes, Associate Editor
Dr. Kimberly Johnson
Metropolitan State College of Denver, USA
Auburn University Montgomery, USA
Dr. Gerald Marquis, Associate Editor
Dr. Avis Smith
Tennessee State University, USA
New York City College of Technology, USA
Ms. Karina Dyer, Managing Editor
Dr. James Williams
Intellectbase International Consortium,
Australian Affiliate
Kutztown University, USA
ISSN: 1945-5275 Print
ISSN: 1945-5291 Online
ISSN: 1945-5283 CD-ROM
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The Journal of Knowledge & Human Resource Management (JKHRM) addresses several and various
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Dynamic knowledge (implicit, transitional and explicit) analysis on strategic, operational and tactical levels is
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JKHRM seeks research innovation and creativity and presents original topics. The goal of the Journal of
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Reviewers Task Panel and Executive Editorial Board
Dr. David White
Roosevelt University, USA
Dr. Dennis Taylor
RMIT University, Australia
Dr. Danka Radulovic
University of Belgrade, Serbia
Dr. Harrison C. Hartman
University of Georgia, USA
Dr. Sloan T. Letman, III
American Intercontinental University, USA
Dr. Sushil Misra
Concordia University, Canada
Dr. Jiri Strouhal
University of Economics-Prague, Czech Republic
Dr. Avis Smith
New York City College of Technology, USA
Dr. Joel Jolayemi
Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Smaragda Papadopoulou
University of Ioannina, Greece
Dr. Xuefeng Wang
Taiyun Normal University, China
Dr. Burnette Hamil
Mississippi State University, USA
Dr. Jeanne Kuhler
Auburn University, USA
Dr. Alejandro Flores Castro
Universidad de Pacifico, Peru
Dr. Babalola J. Ogunkola
Olabisi Onabanjo University, Nigeria
Dr. Robert Robertson
Southern Utah University, USA
Dr. Debra Shiflett
American Intercontinental University, USA
Dr. Sonal Chawla
Panjab University, India
Dr. Cheaseth Seng
RMIT University, Australia
Dr. Jianjun Yin
Jackson State Univerrsity, USA
Dr. R. Ivan Blanco
Texas State University – San Marcos, USA
Dr. Shikha Vyas-Doorgapersad
North-West University, South Africa
Dr. Tahir Husain
Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada
Dr. James D. Williams
Kutztown University, USA
Dr. Jifu Wang
University of Houston Victoria, USA
Dr. Tehmina Khan
RMIT University, Australia
Dr. Janet Forney
Piedmont College, USA
Dr. Werner Heyns
Savell Bird & Axon, UK
Dr. Adnan Bahour
Zagazig University, Egypt
Dr. Mike Thomas
Humboldt State University, USA
Dr. Rodney Davis
Troy University, USA
Dr. William Ebomoyi
Chicago State University, USA
Dr. Mohsen Naser-Tavakolian
San Francisco State University, USA
Dr. Joselina Cheng
University of Central Oklahoma, USA
Reviewers Task Panel and Executive Editorial Board (Continued)
Dr. Mumbi Kariuki
Nipissing University, Canada
Dr. Khalid Alrawi
Al-Ain University of Science and Technology, UAE
Dr. Rafiuddin Ahmed
James Cook University, Australia
Dr. Natalie Housel
Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Regina Schaefer
University of La Verne, USA
Dr. Nitya Karmakar
University of Western Sydney, Australia
Dr. Ademola Olatoye
Olabisi Onabanjo University, Nigeria
Dr. Anita King
University of South Alabama, USA
Dr. Dana Tesone
University of Central Florida, USA
Dr. Lloyd V. Dempster
Texas A & M University - Kingsville, USA
Dr. Farhad Simyar
Chicago State University, USA
Dr. Bijesh Tolia
Chicago State University, USA
Dr. John O'Shaughnessy
San Francisco State University, USA
Dr. John Elson
National University, USA
Dr. Stephen Kariuki
Nipissing University, Canada
Dr. Demi Chung
University of Sydney, Australia
Dr. Rose Mary Newton
University of Alabama, USA
Dr. James (Jim) Robbins
Trinity Washington University, USA
Dr. Mahmoud Al-Dalahmeh
University of Wollongong, Australia
Dr. Jeffrey (Jeff) Kim
University of Washington, USA
Dr. Shahnawaz Muhammed
Fayetteville State University, USA
Dr. Dorothea Gaulden
Sensible Solutions, USA
Dr. Brett Sims
Grambling State University, USA
Dr. Gerald Marquis
Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Frank Tsui
Southern Polytechnic State University, USA
Ms. Katherine Leslie
American Intercontinental University, USA
Dr. John Tures
LaGrange College, USA
Dr. David Davis
The University of West Florida, USA
Dr. Mary Montgomery
Jacksonville State University, USA
Dr. Peter Ross
Mercer University, USA
Dr. Frank Cheng
Central Michigan University, USA
Dr. Van Reidhead
University of Texas-Pan American, USA
Dr. Vera Lim Mei-Lin
The University of Sydney, Australia
Dr. Denise Richardson
Bluefield State College, USA
Reviewers Task Panel and Executive Editorial Board (Continued)
Dr. Robin Latimer
Lamar University, USA
Dr. Reza Vaghefi
University of North Florida, USA
Ms. Alison Duggins
American Intercontinental University, USA
Dr. Jeffrey Siekpe
Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Michael Alexander
University of Arkansas at Monticello, USA
Dr. Greg Gibbs
St. Bonaventure University, USA
Dr. Kehinde Alebiosu
Olabisi Onabanjo University, Nigeria
Dr. Mike Rippy
Troy University, USA
Dr. Gina Pipoli de Azambuja
Universidad de Pacifico, Peru
Dr. Steven Watts
Pepperdine University, USA
Dr. Andy Ju An Wang
Southern Polytechnic State University, USA
Dr. Ada Anyamene
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria
Dr. Edilberto Raynes
Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Nancy Miller
Governors State University, USA
Dr. Dobrivoje Radovanovic
University of Belgrade, Serbia
Dr. David F. Summers
University of Houston-Victoria, USA
Dr. George Romeo
Rowan University, USA
Dr. Robert Kitahara
Troy University – Southeast Region, USA
Dr. William Root
Augusta State University, USA
Dr. Brandon Hamilton
Hamilton's Solutions, USA
Dr. Natalie Weathers
Philadelphia University, USA
Dr. William Cheng
Troy University, USA
Dr. Linwei Niu
Claflin University, USA
Dr. Taida Kelly
Governors State University, USA
Dr. Nesa L’Abbe Wu
Eastern Michigan University, USA
Dr. Denise de la Rosa
Grand Valley State University, USA
Dr. Rena Ellzy
Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Kimberly Johnson
Auburn University Montgomery, USA
Dr. Kathleen Quinn
Louisiana State University, USA
Dr. Sameer Vaidya
Texas Wesleyan University, USA
Dr. Josephine Ebomoyi
Northwestern Memorial Hospital, USA
Dr. Pamela Guimond
Governors State University, USA
Dr. Douglas Main
Eastern New Mexico University, USA
Dr. Vivian Kirby
Kennesaw State University, USA
Reviewers Task Panel and Executive Editorial Board (Continued)
Dr. Sonya Webb
Montgomery Public Schools, USA
Dr. Randall Allen
Southern Utah University, USA
Dr. Angela Williams
Alabama A&M University, USA
Dr. Claudine Jaenichen
Chapman University, USA
Dr. Carolyn Spillers Jewell
Fayetteville State University, USA
Dr. Richard Dane Holt
Eastern New Mexico University, USA
Dr. Kingsley Harbor
Jacksonville State University, USA
Dr. Barbara-Leigh Tonelli
Coastline Community College, USA
Dr. Joan Popkin
Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. William J. Carnes
Metropolitan State College of Denver, USA
Dr. Chris Myers
Texas A & M University – Commerce, USA
Dr. Faith Anyachebelu
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria
Dr. Kevin Barksdale
Union University, USA
Dr. Donna Cooner
Colorado State University, USA
Dr. Michael Campbell
Florida A&M University, USA
Dr. Kenton Fleming
Southern Polytechnic State University, USA
Dr. Thomas Griffin
Nova Southeastern University, USA
Dr. Zoran Ilic
University of Belgrade, Serbia
Dr. James N. Holm
University of Houston-Victoria, USA
Dr. Edilberto A. Raynes
Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Richard Dane Holt
Veterans' Administration, USA
Dr. Cerissa Stevenson
Colorado State University, USA
Dr. Rhonda Holt
New Mexico Christian Children's Home, USA
Dr. Donna Stringer
University of Houston-Victoria, USA
Dr. Yu-Wen Huang
Spalding University, USA
Dr. Lesley M. Mace
Auburn University Montgomery, USA
Dr. Christian V. Fugar
Dillard University, USA
Dr. Cynthia Summers
University of Houston-Victoria, USA
Dr. John M. Kagochi
University of Houston-Victoria, USA
Dr. Barbara-Leigh Tonelli
Coastline Community College, USA
Dr. Yong-Gyo Lee
University of Houston-Victoria, USA
Dr. Rehana Whatley
Oakwood University, USA
Dr. George Mansour
DeVry College of NY, USA
Dr. Venugopal Majur Shetty
Multimedia University, Malaysia
Reviewers Task Panel and Executive Editorial Board (Continued)
Dr. Peter Miller
Indiana Wesleyan University, USA
Dr. Carolyn S. Payne
Nova Southeastern University, USA
Dr. Ted Mitchell
University of Nevada, USA
Dr. Veronica Paz
Nova Southeastern University, USA
Dr. Alma Mintu-Wimsatt
Texas A & M University – Commerce, USA
Dr. Terence Perkins
Veterans' Administration, USA
Dr. Liz Mulig
University of Houston-Victoria, USA
Dr. Sue-Jen Lin
I-Shou University, China
Dr. Robert R. O'Connell Jr.
JSA Healthcare Corporation, USA
Dr. Kong-Cheng Wong
Governors State University, USA
Dr. P.N. Okorji
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria
Dr. Azene Zenebe
Bowie State University, USA
Dr. James Ellzy
Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Donn Bergman
Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Padmini Banerjee
Delaware State University, USA
Dr. Yvonne Ellis
Columbus State University, USA
Dr. Aditi Mitra
University of Colorado, USA
Dr. Elizabeth Kunnu
Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Myna German
Delaware State University, USA
Dr. Brian A. Griffith
Vanderbilt University, USA
Dr. Robin Oatis-Ballew
Tennessee State University, USA
Mr. Corey Teague
Middle Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Dirk C. Gibson
University of New Mexico, USA
Dr. Joseph K. Mintah
Azusa Pacific University, USA
Dr. Susan McGrath-Champ
University of Sydney, Australia
Dr. Raymond R. Fletcher
Virginia State University, USA
Dr. Bruce Thomas
Athens State University, USA
Dr. Yvette Bolen
Athens State University, USA
Dr. William Seffens
Clark Atlanta University, USA
Dr. Svetlana Peltsverger
Southern Polytechnic State University, USA
Dr. Kathy Weldon
Lamar University, USA
Dr. Caroline Howard
TUI University, USA
Dr. Shahram Amiri
Stetson University, USA
Dr. Philip H. Siegel
Augusta State University, USA
Reviewers Task Panel and Executive Editorial Board (Continued)
Dr. Virgil Freeman
Northwest Missouri State University, USA
Dr. William A. Brown
Jackson State University, USA
Dr. Larry K. Bright
University of South Dakota, USA
Dr. M. N. Tripathi
Xavier Institute of Management, India
Dr. Barbara Mescher
University of Sydney, Australia
Dr. Ronald De Vera Barredo
Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Jennifer G. Bailey
Bowie State University, USA
Dr. Samir T. Ishak
Grand Valley State University, USA
Dr. Julia Williams
University of Minnesota Duluth, USA
Dr. Stacie E. Putman-Yoquelet
Tennessee State University, USA
Mr. Prawet Ueatrongchit
University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce, Thailand
Dr. Curtis C. Howell
Georgia Southwestern University, USA
Dr. Stephen Szygenda
Southern Methodist University, USA
Dr. E. Kevin Buell
Augustana College, USA
Dr. Kiattisak Phongkusolchit
University of Tennessee at Martin, USA
Dr. Simon S. Mak
Southern Methodist University, USA
Dr. Reza Varjavand
Saint Xavier University, USA
Dr. Jay Sexton
Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Stephynie C. Perkins
University of North Florida, USA
Dr. Katherine Smith
Texas A&M University, USA
Dr. Robert Robertson
Saint Leo University, USA
Dr. Michael D. Jones
Kirkwood Community College, USA
Dr. Kim Riordan
University of Minnesota Duluth, USA
Dr. Eileen J. Colon
Western Carolina University, USA
Mrs. Patcharee Chantanabubpha
University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce, Thailand
Mr. Jeff Eyanson
Azusa Pacific University, USA
Dr. Neslon C. Modeste
Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Eleni Coukos Elder
Tennessee State University, USA
Mr. Wayne Brown
Florida Institute of Technology, USA
Dr. Brian Heshizer
Georgia Southwestern University, USA
Dr. Tina Y. Cardenas
Paine College, USA
Dr. Thomas K. Vogel
Stetson University, USA
Dr. Ramprasad Unni
Portland State University, USA
Dr. Hisham M. Haddad
Kennesaw State University, USA
Reviewers Task Panel and Executive Editorial Board (Continued)
Dr. Dev Prasad
University of Massachusetts Lowell, USA
Mrs. Donnette Bagot-Allen
Judy Piece – Monteserrat, USA
Dr. Murphy Smith
Texas A&M University, USA
Dr. Ya You
University of Central Florida, USA
Dr. Jasmin Hyunju Kwon
Middle Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Christopher Brown
University of North Florida, USA
Dr. Nan Chuan Chen
Meiho Institute of Technology, China
Dr. Yajni Warnapala
Roger Williams University, USA
Dr. Zufni Yehiya
Tree Foundation - London, USA
Dr. Brad Dobner
Tennessee State University, USA
Dr. Sandra Davis
The University of West Florida, USA
Dr. Ibrahim Kargbo
Coppin State University, USA
The Journal of Knowledge and Human Resource Management (JKHRM) is published semi-annually by
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TABLE OF CONTENT
PART I - THE FOUR FACTORS OF QUALITY: ACHIEVING THE CIRCLE OF ACCEPTANCE
AND SATISFACTION
Avis J. Smith ..................................................................................................................................1
THE CHANGING ACCEPTANCE OF BODY ART IN THE WORKPLACE
William. J. Carnes and Nina Radojevich-Kelley ..............................................................................7
THE CORRELATION BETWEEN CONFLICT AND JOB SATISFACTION WITHIN NURSE UNITS
Tina Y. Cardenas ......................................................................................................................... 16
FOUNDATIONS OF WORK MOTIVATION: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON WORK
MOTIVATION THEORIES
Kimberly Johnson and Christine W. Lewis .................................................................................... 31
TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCING APPLICANT RESPONSE DISTORTION: THEIR EFFECTS ON
MEASUREMENT EQUIVALENCE AND CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY
Brian Whitaker ............................................................................................................................. 47
PART II - THE FOUR FACTORS OF QUALITY: ACHIEVING THE CIRCLE OF ACCEPTANCE
AND SATISFACTION
Avis J. Smith ................................................................................................................................ 62
UNCERTAINTY AND THE IMPOSTOR PHENOMENON: TOWARD A REACTOR
ORGANIZATION FORM
William C. McDowell, W. Lee Grubb III and Andrew O. Herdman.................................................. 71
A. J. Smith
JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
PART I - THE FOUR FACTORS OF QUALITY: ACHIEVING THE
CIRCLE OF ACCEPTANCE AND SATISFACTION
Avis J. Smith
New York City College of Technology, USA
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this report is to present a theoretical approach to two concepts which the author defines
as, The Four Factors of Quality, and the second being The Circle of Acceptance & Satisfaction.
These concepts represent the active business process from the manufacturer to the professional
customer and social customers; it is part of the overall process to achieve customer acceptance and
satisfaction. It outlines the basic responsibilities of all areas of business and consumption in the
process, and how diligent sustainability of those responsibilities can help to perpetuate quality. The
concepts are those developed by the author, and apply to past and current research in the area of
customer satisfaction.
Keywords: Business Customer, Professional Customer and Social Customer.
LEVELS OF QUALITY ASSESSMENT
When communicating in business relations, many times we fail to visualize the big picture or the total
process from start to finish. It is very important to know and understand the steps of the total process
for the purpose of tracking and ensuring quality. The process in the general since of business (business
customer-professional and social customer) refers to the levels of manufacturing to the customers‘
acceptance and use of the product or service. This process is commonly referred to by the author as
Circle of Acceptance and Satisfaction. The factors of quality are those which include manufacturing,
distribution, sales and the customer (professional and social). There are however, many times when we
must reassess variable inputs at each level of the four factors, to avoid adverse affects in quality
relevant to the successful achievement of the ultimate goal, which reflects the completion of the Circle
of Acceptance and Satisfaction (Quality). Completion however, will vary depending on the type of field
or business one is involved in; whether it includes a product, service or a combination of the two. Every
goal must be properly met at each factor level in order for the business customer, and
professional/social customer to successfully complete the Circle of Acceptance and Satisfaction. The
goals of the four factor levels manufacturing, distribution, sales and the customer when successfully
achieved should equal the completed Circle of Acceptance and Satisfaction. Chart 1 displays the
significance of the process below.
1
Part І - The Four Factors of Quality: Achieving the Circle of Acceptance and Satisfaction
Chart 1: Circle of Acceptance and Satisfaction when goals of The Four Factors of Quality are met.
Manufacturing
Distribution/Distributor
Circle of
Acceptance
&
Satisfaction
Customer
Professional/Social
Sales
Department /Stores, etc.
Each description of the levels of The Four Factors of Quality begins with the existing purpose. Each
factor level has its reason for existence, which is rooted in the competitive priorities significant to each.
These competitive priorities are significant to each factor and help the business customer or
professional customer standout as a more favorable product or service than competitors. The purpose
when aligned with competitive priorities must be sustained in order to add value to the business
customer or professional customer; therefore the sustained purpose is linked to the achievement of
quality, and transfers into the Circle of Acceptance & Quality. By a business customer or professional
customer adhering to and sustaining its‘ purpose of competitive priorities, they perpetuate a sustained
quality.
BUSINESS CUSTOMER
The business customer refers to the tasks and processes which describe the chain of direction for
getting products to the market place. This chain starts with the manufacturing process, continuing with
the distributor/distribution process, followed by sales, and on to the professional and/or social customer.
The manufacturer is referred to as a business customer because they generally do business with other
businesses of larger scale. Larger scale businesses can include hospitals, car dealers, banks,
department stores, educational institutions, government and other similar large scale businesses.
Distributors and sales are also in the category of business customers, as they also generally do
business with larger scale businesses.
PROFESSIONAL/SOCIAL CUSTOMER
The professional customer is the smaller scale business such as private practicing doctors, dentists,
lawyers, accountants and other similar small scale professional customers. These small scale
customers generally depend on larger scale businesses in the business relationship to supply specific
needs. They are similar in many ways to the social customer and generally seek similar forms of
redress when there is a lack of quality or service. Together the professional customer and average
consumer are referred to as the social customer due to their reliance on the larger scale businesses.
What separates the professional and social customer is that the professional customer in its reliance on
larger scale business relies heavily on the social customer to patronize their functions. The professional
and social customers are primarily involved in a competitive selection process.
2
A. J. Smith
JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
MANUFACTURING LEVEL
Manufacturing can be very complex when reaching across the various business and professional
disciplines. A discussion of the manufacturing processes in various areas of business and professions
however, can reveal the generalization of the concept of The Four Factors of Quality across business
and professional disciplines. The first step in the manufacturing phase is to realize its purpose, and how
that purpose relates to its responsibilities in the overall process. Purpose is rooted in understanding the
competitive priorities of the manufacturer in its plans to carry out its mission. As an example, the
manufacturer must make guarantees in the parts that make up its product. The manufacturer must
express to its distributors the reasons that its product is competitively a better choice than its
competitors. What must be included also is a method of expressing and reviewing the purpose of the
manufacturing process within the organization and how to achieve overall success. In general
manufacturers must know all of the components of their product and arrange for the proper distribution
of their product. It is the manufacturer that has the social responsibility of product safety and the need
for continuous sustainability. This particularly refers to the manufacturers of toys, foods, drugs,
appliances, automobiles and various others types of equipment. When we investigate the sequence of
The Four Factors of Quality, there are specific tasks or sustainable responsibilities needed to maintain
competitiveness. Chart 2 below outlines the areas of major responsibilities for the manufacturer.
Chart 2: Sustainable Competitive Responsibilities.
Manufacturer
Safety, Quality,
Quantity, Timeliness
Manufacturing
Distribution
Sales
Customer
Once the manufacturer has sustained these three competitive areas, they are in a position to be
competitive in the business environment.
DISTRIBUTION
Distributors have a basic responsibility of making sure that the manufacturer‘s products are in sufficient
quantity and that all factors of timeliness are prepared and in place to be forwarded to sales vendors.
The distributors have a responsibility to ship items to the vendors in conditions of quality as sustained
by the manufacturer. They are responsible to the sales level to assure delivery of suitable quantity.
Chart 3 below represents the process.
3
Part І - The Four Factors of Quality: Achieving the Circle of Acceptance and Satisfaction
Chart 3: Required Sustainable Tasks For Distributors
Distributor
Quantity,
Timeliness, Quality
Distributor
Sales
SALES
The level of sales has the most visible responsibility due to the constant contact with the social
customer. The social customer has many resources available to them for redress when satisfaction is
not obtained through transactions. In order for sales to be competitive they must follow strict guidelines
of quality service, courteous service, timeliness and maintain sufficient quantity. Customers of sales can
include hospitals, doctors, dentists, stores, car dealers, various levels of government etc. The major
concerns or tasks for sales will exist in the areas mentioned in Chart 4.
Chart 4: Required Sustainable Tasks in Sales
Sales
Flexibility
Timeliness
Sustained Quality
Quantity
Customer Service
Sales
Customer
The area of sales is the most complex because it includes equipment, products and services. Hospitals,
doctors dentists, accountants and lawyers sale their services; while stores, car dealers and other sales
facilities sale the products of manufacturers. They are all customers in the sequence of The Four
Factors of Quality, with basic responsibilities that vary. All areas of business are legally responsible for
the contents it sales, or the quality of the services it renders. Table 1 below, displays an example of
some other business and social customers with their basic responsibilities listed. Table 2, further
displays defined areas in the four factors element and large, medium and small scale business
definitions.
4
A. J. Smith
JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
Table 1: Example list of some other responsibilities for the business customer and the social
customer.
1. Business Customer - Responsibility
2.
3.
4.
5.
Cleaners
Hospital
Toy Dealer
Educational
Institution
6. Lawyer
Bailer to Bailee
Patient Care
Strict Liability
State and Federal
Laws
Legal Representation
7. Government
Judicial/Social
MANUFACTURER
Client
Citizens
-
Responsibility
Accurate requests
Know patient rights
Understand consumer rights
Review student rights and
responsibilities
To understand lawyer/client
relationship
Social ethics of law
BUSINESS CUSTOMER PROFESSIONAL CUSTOMER
Manufactured Parts Distributors of products
Farm Products
Sales
Automobiles
Government
Toys, etc.
Note:
Social
Customer
Patron
Patient
Buyer
Student
SOCIAL
CONSUMER/CUSTOMER
Private offices rendering services General consumers
Doctors
Dentists
Lawyers, etc.
Large scale business is defined by the author as a business having not less 500.
Medium scale business is defined as a business having between 100 and 500.
Small scale business is defined as a business having less than 100.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The primary ethical considerations in the four factors of quality are outlined in the governmental
established laws which govern our society. What is important is that all elements of the four factors
have an ethical responsibility in their interactions with each other. These interactions when there is
conflict, creates the need to seek redress within the court systems. One of the major concerns in ethics
is that of product liability, which reflects the responsibility of the manufacturer. All products of
manufactured must be suitable for use or consumption by those who purchase them.
CONCLUSION
The Four Factors of Quality is the corner stone of assessment to use in the overall evaluation of the
interrelated process of business. It helps to perpetuate a conscious evaluation of the total process that
transfers into the Circle of Quality, which makes a society improves on it current standards and
prepares for a better future. There is no area of the business process that it excludes.
SOURCES
Steiger, Darby., Keil, Linda and Gaertner, Greg; "Mode Effects in Customer Satisfaction
Measurement" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association For
Public Opinion Association, Fontainebleau Resort, Miami Beach, FL, <Not Available>.
2009-08-13 http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p15954_index.html.
Buxton, K.V. and Gatland, R. (1995) Simulating the effects of work-in-process on customer
satisfaction in a manufacturing environment, Simulation Conference Proceedings, Winter
Volume, 3-6 Dec 1995, pp. 940 – 944.
5
Part І - The Four Factors of Quality: Achieving the Circle of Acceptance and Satisfaction
Gustafsson, Anders, Johnson, Michael D., Ross, Inger, (2005), ―The Effects of Customer Satisfaction,
Relationship Commitment Dimensions, and Triggers on Customer Retention,‖ Journal of
Marketing, Vol. 69, Issue 4, Business Source Elite.
Homburg, Christian, Koschate, Nicole, Hoyer, Wayne D., (2005), ―Do Satisfied Customers Really Pay
More? A Study of the Relationship Between Customer Satisfaction and Willingness to Pay‖,
Journal of Marketing, Vol. 69, Issue 2, Business Source Elite.
Levine, David M., Stephan, David; Krehbiel, Timothy C.; Berenson, Mark L., Statistics for Managers
Using Microsoft Excel, 4th Edition, Prentice Hall, 2005.
Mithas, Sunil, Krishnan, M. S., Fornell, Claes, (2005), ―Why Do Customer Relationship Management
Applications Affect Customer Satisfaction?‖ Journal of Marketing, Vol. 69, Issue 4, Business
Source Elite.
Morgan, Neil A., Anderson, Eugene W., Mittal, Vikas, (2005), ― Understanding Firms‘ Customer
Satisfaction information Usage‖, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 69, Issue 3, Business Source Premier.
Seiders, Kathleen, Voss, Glenn B., Grewal, Dhruv, Godfrey, Andrea L., (2005), ―Do Satisfied
Customers Buy More? Examining Moderating Influences in a Retailing Context‖, Journal of
Marketing, Vol. 69, Issues 4, Business Source Elite.
CONTACT:
Avis J. Smith, Assistant Professor
New York City College of Technology
Restorative Dentistry (P409)
300 Jay Street
Brooklyn, New York 11201
Phone: 718-260-5137
Fax: 718-254-8557
6
W. J. Carnes and N. Radojevich-Kelley
JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
THE CHANGING ACCEPTANCE OF BODY ART IN
THE WORKPLACE
William. J. Carnes1 and Nina Radojevich-Kelley1
Metropolitan State College of Denver, USA
ABSTRACT
In many cases today, body art seems to be becoming more acceptable throughout society in general.
However, the same connection does not seem to be occurring in the workplace. In this paper, the
authors address three perspective questions of body art; 1) Although corporate culture changes over
time, does it necessarily change as often as it should? 2) Have corporate dress codes been affected by
body art in the workplace? 3) Is it discrimination if employers do not hire applicants with visible body
art? For the purpose of this article, the authors define body art as any tattoos, brands or piercings not
natural to the human body that individuals add as a decoration or statement. Although sometimes
synonymous with the younger generation, body art is a practice among all generations. In fact, some
older people are using body art as a means of applying permanent beauty procedures. One clear
indication of a cultural shift in attitudes about body art is the increased prevalence of body art made for
children. Currently, there are a number of temporary tattoos available for children in a number of
popular characters, such as famous cartoon and children’s movie characters. In addition, the authors
explore some of the legal cases and religious accommodations surrounding body art. The authors
conclude the article by suggesting some guidelines for managers and potential employees regarding
favorable dress code policies pertaining to body art.
Keywords: Body Art, Tattoos, Discrimination, Generations, Workplace
INTRODUCTION
Body Art—is it a fad, or a cultural shift? Historically, body art was visible among select demographic
subgroups of society. However, today, body art is no longer restricted to one particular demographic
group; instead, it has become mainstream in modern culture (Wohlrab, Stahl & Kappleler, 2007). Due to
this phenomenon, it is important for managers to acknowledge and understand the changing cultural
needs of the workforce; more specifically, in the area of changing attitudes toward body art in relation to
dress code standards in the workplace. The intent of this article is to address the following research
questions: 1) Although corporate culture changes over time, does it necessarily change as often as
necessary? 2) Have corporate dress codes been affected by body art in the workplace? 3) Is it
discrimination if employers do not hire applicants with visible body art? For the purpose of this article,
the authors define body art as any tattoos, brands or piercings not natural to the human body that
individuals add as a decoration or statement.
1
Author’s Note: We would like to express our appreciation to Dr. Lynn Hoffman for introducing us to the topic of body art in the workplace.
His passion for the topic was inspirational to our researching and writing this paper.
7
The Changing Acceptance of Body Art in the Workplace
THE BODY ART MOVEMENT
From an early age, people learn to differentiate between others by assessing their appearance. People
perceive some aspects of appearance as acceptable, while objecting to other aspects. Although the
intent of learning to differentiate is not to create biases, people do create biases as part of the maturing
process. ―Unfortunately, many of us tend to believe that there is an objective reality and that all of our
perceptions are accurate in understanding that reality‖ (Hoffman, Krahnke & Bell, n. d.). As a result,
people make decisions about others using preconceived, and sometimes stereotypical, ideas that they
develop. For example, when individuals observe body art on others, they may stereotype them as risk
takers, carefree, risqué, socially marginal, using poor judgment, impulsive, subject to peer pressure,
fashion forward, cool or trendy (Armstrong, Roberts, Owen & Koch 2004). These perceptions can lead
individuals to draw inaccurate assumptions and conclusions about others.
Historical Perspective
Body art, such as tattooing and body piercing, dates back thousands of years (Armstrong, 2005).
―Humans have in fact been adorning themselves with tattoos, piercings, paint, scars and other forms of
permanent and semi-permanent ornamentations for tens of thousands of years‖ (LaFee, 2006). In
1991, in the Austrian Alps, archeologists discovered a 5000-year-old Iceman who had at least 57
tattoos covering his body (LaFee, 2006). Ancient Celts permanently painted their bodies with extracts
from the mustard plant family. In the South Pacific, tattooing is a common practice among Tahitian
cultures. In fact, many believe that the word ―tattoo‖ was derived from the Tahitian word ―tatau‖,
meaning ―to mark something‖ (LaFee, 2006; www.designboom.com). Various artifacts indicate that the
Japanese culture was practicing body art as far back as 3000 BC. Throughout history, people displayed
body art for various reasons and its use had the support of many cultures around the world. Historically,
we know that ―every known culture has pursued some kind of body ornamentation‖ (LaFee, 2006).
Today, society observes an increase in the number of people practicing some form of body art.
Some people believe that the increase in body art is a result of the Punk movement during the latter
part of the 20th century (Wojcik, 1995). Punks used tattooing, body piercings and other adornments to
display their disaffiliation with mainstream society. Much like previous youth subcultures, the exotic use
of body art soon became more acceptable by other groups and assimilated into the more dominant
cultures, making it fashion more than fad (Wojcik, 1995).
Motivation Behind Body Art
The motivation behind why someone would partake in body art varies from person to person and
among different cultures. Perhaps the most common reason is self-expression and aesthetical reasons.
―A 2004 Harris poll found 34 percent of Americans thought tattoos made them appear sexy and 29
percent thought they made them attractive‖ (LaFee, 2006). In some cultures, the use of piercings in the
nose, ears and lips portray social rank, wealth and importance. Other cultures carve out symbols,
numbers and designs in their skin to display social status, tribal relations and the number of enemies
killed in battle. In the past, aristocrats in Britain used tattoos to differentiate themselves from the lower
class.
Historically, cultures were more accepting and encouraged the use of traditional tattoos to display
spiritual beliefs, norms and values. However, recent motivations behind body art differ vastly from those
of the past. For example, today a young teen may select an intricate tattoo of an ancient Celt symbol
8
W. J. Carnes and N. Radojevich-Kelley
JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
simply because it is cool, instead of displaying a spiritual belief or displaying the belief that it reflects the
complexity people experience in life. Today‘s youth seem to embrace body art to show that they have
control of their own personal body (Forbes, 2001). In addition, individuals today use body art because
they like the look or the design of the tattoo (Forbes, 2001). In contrast, older surveys found rebellion as
a common and strong motivation behind the use of body art. According to a recent study conducted by
Armstrong et al. (2004), the most common reason cited for using body art was to portray uniqueness,
self-expression, and to feel more attractive.
Body Art and the Youth
There is a strong prevalence of body art among young individuals. According to a recent study, 51
percent of college students have piercings and 23 percent have tattoos (Mayers & Chiffriller, 2008). In
fact, a recent study concluded that piercing and tattooing were ―mainstream‖ among the 18-23 year old
population (Mayers, Judelson, Mortiarty & Rudell, 2002). The consensus seems to be that the
prevalence of body art is among young people. Another study, conducted by Pew Research Center,
found that 36 percent of 18-25 year olds and 40 percent of 26-40 year olds have at least one tattoo
(Osburn, 2007). They also found that 30 percent of 18-25 year olds and 22 percent of 26-40 year olds
had at least one piercing other than in their ear lobe. Colbert (2008) cites, ―the National Education
Association reports that 15-20 percent of school-age students are tattooed, or pierced, or both…‖ and a
2007 report by Kloppenburg and Maessen, found that an estimated, ―51 percent of college-age
individuals in the United States have multiple ear piercing or other forms of body piercing or tattoos‖
(Colbert, 2008).
Interestingly, the reasons why individuals use body art may be changing. While previous studies
mentioned rebellion or rejection of social standard as a key motivator, the most common reasons given
for using body art currently are to display control over one‘s body, to decorate, or make ones self more
attractive or sexy (Forbes, 2001; Armstrong et al., 2004). This is another clear indication that society is
more accepting of body art among the youth, which more than likely will spill over into society as a
whole.
Body Art and Beauty
Since people in the US have an exorbitant fascination with beauty and appearance, it may be some
other aspect about an individual that causes us to form our positive or negative opinion about that
individual. Baby Boomers, Gen Xers and Gen Yers all use self-expression in different ways and body
art is one of those self-expressions (Brooks, 2006). ―More females, middle-class, and educated
individuals participate in tattooing as compared to previous generations, when prisoners, thugs,
soldiers, freaks, and gangs were clumped together as the dominant users of tattoos (Colbert, 2008).
Specifically, it appears as though women are more inclined to participate in tattooing and piercing than
are men (Schulz, Karshin & Woodiel, 2006). An estimated 40 percent of males and 60 percent of
females have piercings and 23 percent of both groups have tattoos (Armstrong et al., 2004). One study
found that after the youth, the fastest growing groups of people with tattoos are women over the age of
50 (LaFee, 2006).
Appearance does make a difference to some, whether in the private sector, in the military or in some
other public sector employment. Advertisements are on television and other media on a daily basis that
tell the public how they should look. People are too fat or too thin, they have too much hair or too little
hair, they have too many wrinkles or they need to purchase a specific product to make them look older.
9
The Changing Acceptance of Body Art in the Workplace
Add that to the advertisements for cosmetic tattooing, or permanent makeup for personal beautification
(Armstrong, 2005), and it is no wonder that teens and young adults are increasing their body art
practices. In addition, there are television shows and movies that portray body art as a good thing.
Although they may not come right out and say that body art is good, the fact that the hero or heroine
has body art implies that it is good; especially, when the professional reviewers make comments about
how sexy or attractive the hero or heroine looks in the film. In addition, ―the public media tends to
portray body art procurement as risqué and carefree behavior‖ (Armstrong et al., 2004), which adds to
the desirability of body art. An increase in the use of body art by Hollywood stars, top athletes and other
opinion leaders whom the media scrutinizes and promotes as desirable, beautiful and hip also adds to
the dilemma (Wohlrab et al., 2007) . The increased use of body art has also infiltrated and spilled into
the general population and more importantly into the workplace, as workers tend to consider tattoos
and piercings as hip or trendy (Colbert, 2008).
CHANGING ATTITUDES ABOUT BODY ART
As explained earlier, tattoos and other forms of body art went from being taboo, to being trendy, then
widely accepted and finally to being desirable (Forbes, 2001; Armstrong 1991; Mayers & Chiffriller,
2008, Wohlrab et al., 2007). Historically, body art participants were thought to be perverts,
psychopaths, prostitutes, psychotics, rebels, anti social, aggressive, deviants, risk takers, gang
members, military people, educationally marginal, someone with poor judgment, impulsive, intoxicated,
unhealthy and unwanted people (Wohlrab et al., 2007; Carrol, Riffenburgh, Roberts & Myhre, 2002;
Forbes, 2001). Today, people do not view body art with such negativity. In fact, ―…traditional
stereotypes that body modifications are indicators of social or personal pathology does not describe the
contemporary…‖ views (Forbes, 2001). Beginning in the late 1960‘s, popular stereotypes and attitudes
about body art began to shift (Sanders, 1989). Today, more people tend to view body art participants as
―artists,‖ trendy, ―not just for bikers,‖ not associated with alcohol, but are planned in advance and are
rarely motivated by rebellion; they view them as a fashion accessory, as attractive expressions of
individuality, and to distinguish one‘s self from others (Wohlrab et al, 2007; Armstrong & Pace, 1997;
Bell, 1999). However, even though the majority has a more favorable view of body art, some individuals
who participate in body art may regret it later in life.
Another clear indication of a cultural shift in attitudes about body art is the increased prevalence of body
art made for children. Currently, there are a number of temporary tattoos available for children in a
number of popular characters, such as famous cartoon and children‘s movie characters, such as
Popeye with anchor tattoos on his forearms. In addition, well established toy manufacturers are using
body art to revitalize and extend the product life cycles of their aging toys. For example, Mattel
launched a new Spring 2009 Toy Line that includes a ―Totally ‗Stylin‘ Tattoos‖ Barbie. Apparently, the
ever-popular Barbie has a new look that includes a permanent butterfly tattoo on her shoulder and
comes with a tattoo gun that enables children to stamp new washable tattoos on the Barbie or
themselves. This is a new look for the 50 year old Barbie and is yet another indicator of a mainstream
acceptance of body art in society, which Mattel appears to be capitalizing on (http://cbs5.com).
Furthermore, the fact that our children‘s toys are sporting new looks that include body art is indicative of
the tremendous cultural shift in acceptance of body art. Lastly, the fact the Mattel refers to the new
Barbie as the ―Totally ‗Stylin‘ Tattoo Barbie‖ clearly establishes that tattoos are no longer taboo in our
culture, but are now stylish. As a side note, Mattel has had early success with the new Barbie and the
toy has sold out in various stores nationwide (http://cbs5.com).
10
W. J. Carnes and N. Radojevich-Kelley
JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
The question then is whether the acceptance of body art by mainstream society is an indication that
employers should also accept the same body art. After all, employers see the need to maintain a
certain image for the organization, and body art may contradict that image. People often judge
professionalism on appearance. Therefore, employers who hire employees with body art may find that
customers deem the company unprofessional. For example, customers may have a different view of an
employee with body art depending upon whether the individual is working in a fast-food restaurant or in
a more professional setting such as a bank. It may result in either an acceptance or rejection of the
person‘s appearance and the business itself. In turn, the company may lose customers with negative
views of body art. If a customer views body art as mainstream within the culture, he or she may be
more prone to purchase the company‘s products if their employees display body art. On the other hand,
a customer who opposes body art may refrain from purchasing the company‘s products if employees
display body art. In the long-term, body art may positively or negatively affect the organization.
Tolerance of Body Art in the Workplace
Although researchers can trace body art to ancient times, and it has been common among certain
groups for many years (Armstrong, 2005), the latter part of the twentieth century brought about a
significant increase in the use of body art in American culture (Mayers & Chiffriller, 2008, Colbert, 2008;
Osborn, 2007; Wojcik, 1995). As a result, the face of American youth is changing and the workforce
may need to change with it. According to recent findings (Armstrong, 2005), more than half of American
youth have some form of body art. As a result, employers are starting to consider their dress code
policies more carefully (Thier, 2007). For example, some employers are starting to relax dress code
policies to accommodate the new trend and to target younger workers (Deseret Morning News, 2006).
However, other employers are tightening their dress codes to limit visible body art in the workplace.
The question that arises is should employer dress codes follow suit with the increasing acceptance of
body art by American society. Edgar Schein (1999, p. 12) postulates that within organizations, there is a
―…need to identify those cultural elements that may be increasingly dysfunctional as external
environmental conditions change.‖ Business leaders and small business owners need to consider
whether the increased occurrences of body art are an indicator that culture is changing. If that is the
case and the organization‘s external environment—in this case, the culture‘s wider acceptance of body
art—is changing, should the manager‘s view of body art change as well?
―While managers are entitled to expect their staff—especially those who are seen by clients—to adopt
smart business dress, heightened sensitivity over inadvertent religious or cultural discrimination can
make rigid dress codes a minefield for the unwary HR professional‖ (Matthews, 2007). Even though
there is a desire to have and create a diverse workforce, many companies are drawing the line when it
comes to diversity in appearance, such as body art. The question that a business faces is where the
law falls. Historically, businesses had very loose and general dress code policies. Today, more
businesses are creating formal dress code policies and adding new rules to keep body art covered up.
Employers feel they need to be very, very specific when it comes to dress codes, specifically dress
codes dealing with body tattoos and piercings. Even with the prevalence of body art becoming
mainstream among our youth, it is still not widely accepted in the workplace. Nearly 85% of
respondents on Vault.com felt that body art impedes an individual‘s chance of finding a job (Osburn,
2007). In addition, nearly 16% of employers have established some type of body art policy for the
workplace (Osburn, 2007). The consensus is that even though body art is gaining in popularity,
culturally, and especially among the youth, it is still not widely accepted in the business world. This is
indicative that corporate culture is not changing at the same rate as society‘s culture is changing. This
11
The Changing Acceptance of Body Art in the Workplace
could cause long-term problems in the corporate world because our society and culture is changing
while the workforce‘s attitudes, values and beliefs remain constant and dated. Eventually, more and
more of the youth will infiltrate upper level management and their attitudes and beliefs may force
corporate culture to shift and accept new norms, values and standards that are more in harmony with
society‘s views.
As do private sector employers, the US Army has its own brand of appearance standards. Army
regulations (AR) address both weight and body art in the discussion of appearance. For example, ―the
Army is a uniformed service where discipline is judged, in part, by the manner in which a soldier wears
a prescribed uniform, as well as by individual personal appearance‖ (AR 670-1, 2005). The regulation
goes on to discuss appearance expectations, but does make some exceptions for religious practices.
The regulation prohibits tattoos and brands on the head, face and neck (above the dress uniform collar
line), as well as tattoos and brands that are derogatory in nature or may symbolize gangs or extremist
groups (AR 670-1, 2005). If a soldier has a tattoo or brand that is inappropriate for good order and
discipline, Commanders will ensure the soldier understands the Army policy and will provide guidance
to the soldier to seek medical advice for the removal or alteration of the tattoo or brand. Although
Commanders cannot force a soldier to remove or alter an inappropriate tattoo or brand, a soldier‘s
refusal to comply with the Army policy will result in discharge from the service (AR 670-1, 2005). This is
an example of intolerance of certain inappropriate types of body art in the workplace, but displays an
acceptance of body art in general.
When is it Discrimination?
The third question posed by the researchers asks, is it discrimination if employers chose not to hire
applicants who display body art. Currently, no legislation protects individuals with body art from
discrimination. ―…Tattoos are generally regarded as personal self-expression and not the type of
speech or expressive conduct that would warrant first amendment protection‖ (Baker, 2007, p. 28), nor
does body art, by its self, fit the criteria for protection under the fourteenth amendment (Baker, 2007). In
fact, if an employer asks employees to cover their body art during work hours it is not considered
discrimination unless the company makes a difference between sexes or does not make reasonable
accommodations due to religious beliefs or for health reasons (Jesperson v. Harrah, 2006; Burger
Chain, 2005). As younger workers attain management level positions there may be a demand for looser
policies on body art and dress codes. This is simply because more youth participate in body art, hold
vastly different views about it and are more comfortable with it. The younger workers do not have the
same stereotypes in regards to body art, as do older generation workers. Thus, in the future the
younger management teams may not feel the need to demand that the workforce cover up body art or
feel that body art is an issue to be concerned with when hiring future employees.
Religious Accommodation
From a more practical perspective, body art may have some religious or other protections under Title
VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. ―Title VII requires an employer, once on notice that a religious
accommodation is needed, to reasonably accommodate an employee whose sincerely held religious
belief, practice, or observance conflicts with a work requirement, unless doing so would pose an undue
hardship. Under Title VII, the undue hardship defense to providing religious accommodation requires a
showing that the proposed accommodation in a particular case poses a ‗more than de minimis‘ cost or
burden‖ (EEOC). Although there are no specific ties to body art and religion, some religious practices
do include the use of body art. Additionally, the EEOC does not require an individual to be a member of
12
W. J. Carnes and N. Radojevich-Kelley
JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
an organized church to use the protections of Title VII with religious beliefs (Zachary, 2005). Employers
will need to deal with reasonable accommodation on a case-by-case basis because there are too many
variables to consider before providing a list of what is or is not reasonable.
Guidelines for Employers
Organizations create dress codes to establish professionalism in the workplace. When creating dress
codes, managers need to be aware of discrimination, religious accommodation and the growing
acceptance of self-expression through body art. The following are suggestions to consider when
creating a dress code:










Beware of your target customers and their generational perspectives on body art when establish
dress codes
Establish a clear and concise dress code and make employees aware of the dress code at the
beginning of their employment
Include a list of what the organization considers acceptable and unacceptable forms of body art
Publish existing dress codes and any changes to the policies in a manner that makes them
easily accessible to all employees and easily understood
Have new employees read and sign the dress code during employee orientation and stress
compliance with the dress code
Apply the dress code in a uniform and consistent manner
Address all requests for religious and other accommodations on an individual basis, keeping the
organization‘s image in mind.
A reasonable accommodation may be to require that the employee cover or remove the body art
while at work, unless that is a violation of their religious practice
Avoid being vague in the dress code, as it can lead to more problems in the future
Thoroughly explain the importance of dress code policies and why employee image is crucial to
the organization.
Guidelines for Employees
Potential employees need to understand business needs and the reason behind dress codes when
applying for positions. Therefore, it is imperative that individuals understand the adverse affects body
art may have on their job potential. Below is a list of things to consider when participating in body art:






The employer may have a dress code policy that addresses body art specifically
The employer may require you to cover or remove your body art while at work
Some employers may equate body art with a lack of professionalism
When attending a job interview, be aware of the industry in which you are applying, as well as
their customer base
A more conservative industry may require a more conservative appearance; err on the side of
caution
Try to review and comply with the current standard of dress when attending an interview
CONCLUSION
This article provides some useful insight for management practitioners in helping them to understand
the complexities of corporate policies, especially in regards to body art. Having an understanding of the
13
The Changing Acceptance of Body Art in the Workplace
historical significance of body art, along with the current trends and views, better prepares managers for
creating non-discriminatory policies concerning body art in the workplace. The authors define body art
as any tattoos, brands or piercings that are not natural to the human body, which individuals add to their
bodies as a decoration or statement.
Conducting research for this article brought about other questions on this topic and areas to study in the
future. Primarily, 1) how long will the lack of tolerance for body art in the workplace last; and 2) as the
new generations (X‘s and Y‘s) gain managerial roles, will there be a more relaxed view on body art in
the future? The authors are currently conducting further qualitative and quantitative studies concerning
the issue body art and its acceptance in the workplace.
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11&Fmt=3&clinetId=5728&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
15
The Correlation between Conflict and Job Satisfaction Within Nurse Units
THE CORRELATION BETWEEN CONFLICT AND JOB
SATISFACTION WITHIN NURSE UNITS
Tina Y. Cardenas
Paine College, USA
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to determine if a relationship existed between conflict types (task and
relationship) and job satisfaction, anticipated turnover, and performance among nurses. Interest in
conflict has increased because leaders are spending a significant amount of time addressing conflict
within the workplace and because conflict is thought to have both positive and negative affects on the
organization. Therefore, healthcare leaders should be interested in how much conflict is occurring and
how it may impact other important job factors. The challenge for leaders of all industries appears to be
managing conflicts so that the negative affects are minimized and that positive affects are maximized.
Four hundred and thirty one staff nurses employed at a Veterans medical facility in the southeast were
surveyed for perceptions of overall conflict occurring, which type of conflict was occurring most (task or
relationship), along with their perceptions of their job satisfaction, anticipated turnover intentions and
performance. Of the 194 surveys that were collected, 181 surveys were used in the actual study (a
response rate of 45%). The population consisted mostly of older nurses who were highly trained
(registered nurses), most had been with the medical facility over eight years, and most worked in
geriatric and acute care settings. The population definitely mirrored national trends of nurses soon to be
leaving their fields, and many retiring all at once.
This article focuses only on the levels of conflict (task and relationship) and job satisfaction and the
relationship between these job factors. The results regarding these job factors showed slightly
moderate levels of total conflict with higher levels of relationship conflict, and a moderate level of job
satisfaction. A significant negative relationship was also found between both types of conflict and job
satisfaction.
Additional research is needed to better understand the dynamics of conflict in healthcare organizations,
and to assess the affects that conflict may have on health care institutions and eventually on patient
care. Practical implications are outlined for nurse managers as it relates to conflict, in particular
monitoring it and managing it constructively, and future research ideas are outlined as well.
Keywords: Organizational Conflict, Conflict Types, Job Satisfaction, Interpersonal Conflict, Intragroup
Conflict
INTRODUCTION
Organization leaders of all industries make every effort to manage organizational factors thought to
impact or impede effectiveness and efficiency. Management of these factors is also important because
of the need to remain competitive, and to achieve identified goals and objectives (Klunk, 1997).
However, conflict is a factor that is thought to have multiple affects on other organizational factors, but
is often not discussed openly even though it is considered an inevitable facet of all work environments
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(Berstene, 2004; Fernberg, 1999; Janssen, van de Vliert, & Veenstra, 1999; Kolb & Putnam, 1992).
Research has shown that conflict may have both positive and negative affects on the organization
(Amason, 1996; Bacal, 2004; Barclay, 1991; Baron, 1985; Jehn, 1994). Generally, the type of conflict
(positive or negative) determines this affect. Jehn (1995) proposes that task conflict is generally thought
to have positive affects on organizations, while relationship conflict is generally thought to have
negative affects on organizations. Despite the possibility of conflict having a negative impact on other
organizational factors, Bodtker and Jameson (2001) propose that conflict is healthy for organizations
with Berstene (2004) suggesting that conflict is necessary for organizational development. Other
authors have expressed a more stronger position and state, ―The absence of conflict is not harmony,
it‘s apathy‖ (Eisenhardt, Kahwajy, and Bourgeois, 1997, p.1). Research of this factor has increased
because of a desire to better understand and manage conflict. Subsequently, interest in conflict has
also increased because managers have reported spending a significant amount of time managing
employee conflicts (Caudron, 1998; Cox, 2001; Kolb & Putnam, 1992; Moberg, 2003). More specifically,
Cochran and White (1981) also note that conflict has increased significantly in healthcare as a result of
its complex structure. Therefore, healthcare managers are also interested in how conflicts may impact
other organizational factors (Cox, 2001; Gardner, 1992).
Leaders within the healthcare industry are concerned about managing organizational factors believed to
be linked to the delivery of quality patient care, which may in some instances have life or death
implications (Aiken, et al., 2002;). In addition to conflict, other organizational factors thought to impact
effectiveness, efficiency, and patient care within the healthcare industry include job satisfaction,
turnover, and performance (Cox, 2001; Gardner, 1992; Kunaviktikul, et al., 2000). More specifically, job
satisfaction and turnover are key factors to healthcare leaders because of their affiliation with quality
and achieving quality accreditation status, known as magnet status (Bliss-Holtz, Winter, & Scherer,
2004; Buchan, 1999; Lopopolo, 2002). Additionally, conflict and all of these factors (job satisfaction,
anticipated turnover, and performance) appear to be influenced by the environment indicating possible
factor correlation. Since conflict is believed to have both positive and negative affects within the
organization, the challenge for leaders within the healthcare industry appears to be determining how to
manage conflict so that the negative affects are minimized and the positive affects are maximized
(DeChurch & Marks, 2001; Freidman, Tidd, Currall, & Tsai, 2000). Proper management of conflict will
also allow leaders to eliminate costs associated with unresolved conflicts (Forte‘ 1997). It appears
important for healthcare managers to be able to identify what impact conflicts have on other
organizational factors of interest in the healthcare industry such as job satisfaction, and how to
effectively manage these factors in order to produce desired organizational outcomes. When this is
accomplished, leaders can hopefully achieve organizational goals and objectives which include
retaining satisfied, productive nursing staff (DiMeglio, et al., 2005). Therefore, organizational conflict,
and how it may be related to job satisfaction appears to be important to examine further.
The objective of this study is to identify the level (amount) and type (task or relationship) of conflict and
job satisfaction, anticipated turnover and performance within the units of the medical center, and to
investigate whether a relationship exists between conflict and these organizational factors. However,
this article will only discuss the levels of organizational conflict and job satisfaction among hospital
nurses, the correlation between these two variables and the significance of this relationship.
17
The Correlation between Conflict and Job Satisfaction Within Nurse Units
LITERATURE REVIEW
Organizational Conflict
Organization conflict can be defined as a recognizable disagreement that occurs because of personal
or work issues existing between supervisors and subordinates, colleagues, or other individuals who are
interdependent regarding resources, functions or daily operations. Organization conflict has always
been a part of work environments mainly because conflict is a product of continuous employee
interaction (Kolb & Putnam, 1992). Pondy (1967) highlighted that early conflict literature appears to
focus on understanding conflict and its role in organizations. Decades later, Wall and Callister (1995)
still agree with this belief and note that conflict has been a literary topic of interest for an extensive
period of time in an attempt to better understand its complexity.
Several researchers have created labels to identify the various types of conflict. Some of these labels
are task and relationship (Jehn, 1994; Jehn 1995), cognitive or affective (Rahim, 2002), and functional
and dysfunctional (Amason, 1996). These types of conflict may occur at different levels of employee
interaction, and take place in the work environment within or between individual(s) or groups (Rahim,
2001). Based on this foundation, the four general levels of conflict discussed in conflict literature are
intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup. Conflict at all of these levels may have different
causes which vary based on the workplace situation or work environment. Specific causes of conflict
that occur in healthcare organizations include stress (Klunk, 1997), scarce resources (Redman & Fry,
2000), incompatible goals (Sportsman, 2005), interdependency (Cochran, Schnake, & Early, 1983), and
miscommunication (Barney, 2002).
Conflict Within Nurse Units
The affect that conflicts have on organizations may vary depending on the organization. Healthcare
organizations have undergone significant changes over the last decades in order to respond to
subsequent industry changes and to compete (Curtright, Stolp-Smith, & Edell, 2000; Hart, 2005). Heinz
(2004) proposes that these changes have affected organizational factors and patient outcomes. Some
of these changes include: a) an increased focus on improving quality (Curtright, Stolp-Smith, & Edell,
2000), b) an increased focus on cutting costs (Rotarious & Liberman, 2000), c) an aging workforce
(Heinz, 2004), and d) restructuring (Baker, 1995; Jones, et al., 1993). Some authors have even
highlighted that these changes may have contributed to increased levels (amounts) of conflicts within
healthcare facilities (Baker, 1995; Gardner, 1992; Jones, Bushardt, & Cadenhead, 1990, Kunaviktikul,
et al., 1996; Nelson, 1995). Mostly, it is thought that interpersonal conflict is more prevalent in
healthcare facilities because of the level of interdependency, specialization, and levels of authority
(Cochran, Schnake, &Earl 1983). However, utilization of teams has also led to an increase in nurses‘
roles in patient care decision making, known as shared governance (Kennerly, 1996). Several authors
are also of the opinion that shared governance leads to increased conflicts because of increased levels
of interaction and disagreements (Baker, 1995, Prescott & Bowen, 1985). Gerardi and Morrison (2005)
propose that hospitals‘ complex clinical work cultures may produce conflicts as well. Earlier researchers
believe that physician-nurse relationships are the main source of conflict (Prescott & Bowen, 1985).
Other researchers support this claim, and further state that, ―The reason for the prevalence of conflict in
hospitals relates to power, authority, and status of organizational members‖ (Cochran, Schnake, & Earl,
1983, p. 442). This type of conflict is believed to be dysfunctional leading to negative outcomes if not
properly managed, with some of these types of conflict situations being irreconcilable (Deutsch &
Coleman, 2000; Jameson, 2003). The impact of these conflicts within healthcare environments, when
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not managed, are often believed to be costly to organizations (Forte‘, 1997; Jones, Bushardt, &
Cadenhead, 1990). These costs may include staff replacement (Curtin, 2003), a decrease in the quality
of patient care (Forte‘, 1997), patient mortality (Adams & Bond, 2000; Aiken, et al., 2002), and legal
fees (Mitchell, 2001).
Based on this research, it appears clear that managers within healthcare facilities will need to assess
conflict within their workforce (Jones, 1993; Siders & Aschenbrener, 1999) and make every attempt to
manage conflicts (Rahim, 2002) so that the consequences of conflict are not detrimental to the
performance of employees, which is directly related to patient care. Additionally, since interdependency
is thought to increase potential occurrences of conflict, and harmonious work teams are often needed to
provide patient care, then it appears important for healthcare employees and managers to have the
ability to manage expected conflicts (disagreement) within these work teams (Nelson,1995).
Managing Organizational Conflict
Researchers in this area have differing views regarding which strategies should be used to assess
and/or manage conflict. Some researchers are of the opinion that managers should confront workers to
identify the problem and the preferred outcomes and include the employees in this process (Jones,
1993). Other researchers suggest that a practical diagnostic tool for assessing conflict be used to
identify critical conflict information, issues and interests of participants, and then act on the information
received from these participants. Some researchers have utilized conflict scales to measure the amount
and type of conflict within the work units (Jehn, 1995; Amason, 1996). However, as stipulated earlier,
even though conflict is a serious issue, in some cases conflict is not addressed even when it is reported
especially if it involves employees at different levels such as conflict between physicians and nurses
(Nelson, 1995). Aschenbrener and Siders (1999) further state, ―All too frequently busy physicians and
physician executives avoid such conflicts in hopes that they will go away; indeed conflict avoidance
may be part of the culture of the healthcare organization‖ (p.44). A study conducted by Redman and Fry
(2000) showed that only 25% of ethical conflict occurrences regarding decisions related to patient care
were favorably resolved. However, only a limited amount of empirical studies have directly linked
conflict to patient care, but when these cases have been discovered the affects were generally found to
be negative.
Assessment and management of conflict also appears to be necessary, regardless of the work
environment, because of the multiple consequences and/or outcomes associated with conflict (positive
and negative). It is also believed that the management of conflict will have an impact on these
consequences. Sportsman (2005) states, ―A healthcare organization‘s success may depend on
effective conflict management‖ (p. 34). Other researchers believe management of conflict is important
in healthcare facilities and further include that it is extremely important to exhibit effective operations
and is necessary in order to achieve favorable conflict situations (Kunaviktikul, et al., 2000). Some of
the skills organization leaders need to achieve successful conflict management include strong
communication and interpersonal skills (Jameson, 2003). The focus of conflict management should also
be on how to achieve positive organization outcomes which may include organization development and
addressing stakeholder needs (Rahim, 2002).
As a result of the nature of conflict and the impact (both positive and negative) that it may have on the
organization, it also appears important to understand how conflict may influence or affect other principle
job factors. More specifically for this article, how does conflict impact job factors of interest to healthcare
leaders such as job satisfaction (Cox, 2001; Gardner, 1992; Lopopolo, 2002).
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The Correlation between Conflict and Job Satisfaction Within Nurse Units
Job Satisfaction
Employees‘ levels of satisfaction are of interest to healthcare leaders and managers because of the
impact satisfaction may have on employee behavior and patient care (AbuAlRub, 2004). Satisfaction is
also of interest because it is a common belief that happy workers are better workers. Spector (1985)
further states, ―The attitudinal nature of satisfaction implies that an individual would tend to approach (or
stay with) a satisfying job and avoid (or quit) a dissatisfying job‖ (p. 695).
Job satisfaction refers to how employees perceive that their needs are being met by an organization
based on their overall opinion of their jobs. George and Jones (1996) describe satisfaction as a type of
attitude that involves feelings and thoughts about actual work experiences related to a specific job.
Similarly, Adams and Bond (2000) define job satisfaction as ―the degree of positive affect towards a job
or its components‖ (p. 538). This definition will also be used here because it appears to more concisely
present the meaning.
Spector (1985) created a job satisfaction scale used to measure levels of job satisfaction based on nine
facets of satisfaction. Blau (1999) utilized this instrument to measure influences on professional
commitment of medical technologist with job satisfaction as a control variable. The results showed that
professional organization memberships and routine tasks had positive effects on professional
commitment after controlling for other variables thought to affect commitment which included job
satisfaction.
Aiken, et al. (2002) note that nurse dissatisfaction is four times higher than other professions, with 25%
of nurses expressing intent to leave their current jobs. In their study of approximately 200 hospitals,
these researchers found that high patient nurse ratios were strongly associated with higher levels of job
dissatisfaction, again supporting the influence of work environments on satisfaction levels. Rowe, de
Savigny, Lanata, and Victora (2005) also found in their review of performance literature that job
satisfaction was considered a determinant of healthcare worker performance because of its link to
motivation, which is believed to have a major influence on worker performance. Murphy (2004)
conducted a study of nursing home administrators which supported these findings that job satisfaction
can be an indicator of many work-related behaviors. McNeese-Smith and van Servellen (2000) also
note that satisfaction is thought to affect productivity with satisfied employees usually being more
productive.
Additional factors believed to affect satisfaction include interpersonal relationships (DiMeglo, et al.,
2005) and stress (Parikh, Taukari, & Bhattacharya, 2004). Interpersonal relationships and stress are
also considered causes and sources of organizational conflict. Moreover, a previous study showed that
healthcare employees experience high levels of stress and have intense interpersonal relationships
because of higher levels of interdependency required for quality patient care (Kunaviktikul, et al., 2000).
Thus, does conflict within healthcare settings influence levels of job satisfaction? The answer to this
question appears important in expanding managers‘ knowledge regarding the factors that may be
related to improved hospital unit and organizational efficiency and effectiveness.
Conflict and Job Satisfaction
Possessing knowledge of major job factors, along with understanding how complex this work
environment can be, are important issues for healthcare leaders and managers to consider. Of similar
importance is knowledge regarding how these variable relate to each other and to conflict in particular
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because of its inevitability within work environments. Few studies have examined conflict and its
correlation to job satisfaction, turnover and performance with results consistently indicating a correlation
between conflict and satisfaction. However, results vary as it relates to the correlation between conflict
and the other two job factors (turnover and performance).
Gardner (1992) conducted a study to examine the relationship of conflict to job satisfaction,
performance, and turnover of new graduate nurses. The results of this study did show moderate levels
of conflict, but no indication of whether the conflict was positive or negative; however, conflict was
correlated with job satisfaction, but it was not directly correlated with performance and turnover. Cox
(2001) also conducted a study of nurses that examined all of these factors (conflict, job satisfaction,
anticipated turnover, and performance effectiveness) as they related to employee morale. Some of the
results of this study supported Gardner‘s (1992) findings; showing no correlation between conflict and
anticipated turnover, but correlations between conflict and satisfaction. However, different
measurements were used in this study.
Kunaviktikul, et al. (2000) also conducted a study to examine conflict, job satisfaction, and intentions to
stay (anticipated turnover). This study examined the relationships among these factors with conflict
management styles and actual turnover. The findings of this study included that there were moderate
levels of conflict within hospital units with a negative correlation between conflict and satisfaction.
Therefore, based on the limited amount of studies in this area, more research is needed to expand the
healthcare literature regarding the correlation of these job factors. Clearly the implications of knowing
more about nurses‘ perceptions of conflict and how they are related to job satisfaction levels (as well as
other job factors of interest) are self evident.
THE STUDY
The purpose of this study was to determine whether a relationship exists between conflict and job
satisfaction, anticipated turnover, and performance among hospital nurses, with these article focusing
on the results of the correlation between conflict and job satisfaction. This researcher hopes to gain a
better understanding of the level (amount) and type of conflict (task or relationship) among nursing
personnel and how this conflict relates to these principal job factors. Ultimately, it is thought that if
hospital administrators are more aware of how high (or, for that matter, in fairness how low) the conflict
levels might be in healthcare complex work situations, and the variables that might relate to these
conflict levels, some remedial efforts might be directed toward these issues if necessary.
A survey descriptive research design using correlational statistics was utilized to examine conflict types,
job satisfaction, anticipated turnover, and performance within the healthcare setting for nurses. A crosssectional approach was also used here. The Intragroup Conflict Scale (Jehn, 1995) was used to
measure the level (amount) of conflict and the type (task or relationship) of conflict within hospital units.
The Job Satisfaction Survey (Spector, 1985) was used to measure general job satisfaction. The
psychometric properties of these scales are included in the instrumentation section below. A
demographic questionnaire was also used to obtain information about the participants‘ ages,
educational backgrounds, tenure, and clinical specialty areas (acute care, geriatric, mental health,
rehabilitation, and spinal cord).
Nurses from all educational backgrounds (certified nursing assistants, licensed practical nurses, and
registered nurses) are the population used for this study. A Veteran‘s medical center in the southeast
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The Correlation between Conflict and Job Satisfaction Within Nurse Units
with two divisions, employing approximately 480 nurses was used to obtain the sample information for
this study. A nonprobability convenience sampling approach was also utilized. Special clearance was
required to conduct research at this medical facility with part of that clearance requiring a nurse
manager employed at the medical facility to serve as the mentor for the study in order to ensue that
guidelines were followed throughout the study.
The survey packets were administered to every unit, in both divisions, after conducting brief ―in service‖
sessions (training) regarding the variables and purpose of the study. Additionally, emails were
forwarded to the nurse managers of each unit and flyers were posted on key information boards
soliciting their participation in the study. The survey packets (and sealable envelopes) were
administered at the meeting with additional packets being placed in nurses‘ unit mail boxes and were
collected at a later date. The approximate time to complete the survey packet was 15 minutes. This
procedure was thought to not cause unit disruptions or intervene in providing patient care. Additionally,
participants were informed that the results would be presented in an aggregated and summary format
at the end of the study.
Instrumentation
A demographic questionnaire was used to assess the following subgroup variables: age, educational
background, tenure and clinical area. Age was divided into three levels: 18-28 years of age, 29-39
years of age, and 40 years of age or more. Educational/training background was divided into three
levels: Certified nursing assistant or health technician, licensed practical nurse, and registered nurse
(categorical). Tenure was also divided into three levels: 0-3 years of employment, 4-7 years of
employment, and 8+ years of employment. The clinical areas were divided into five levels: Acute care,
geriatric, mental health, rehabilitation, and spinal cord (Appendix B). The researcher hopes this
additional information will be useful in making further determinants concerning occurrences and types
of conflict as relates to satisfaction levels.
As mentioned above, the Intragroup Conflict Scale was developed by Dr. K. A. Jehn (1995) and is
based on eight items measuring the amount of conflict (low, moderate, and high), and the type of
conflict (task or relationship). Task conflict is conflict related to aspects of the job and employee
responsibilities, and relationship conflict is conflict related to interpersonal issues only. These items are
measured based on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from ―1‖ none, to ―5‖ a lot. Items 1 through 4 identify
the amount of relationship conflict and items 5 through 8 identify the amount of task conflict. The total
scores for this scale can range from a low of 8 to a maximum of 40. Overall, higher scores represent ―a
lot‖ (high amounts) of conflict and low scores represent ―low‖ amounts of conflict, with specific
sections(items 1-4 measuring relationship conflict and items 5-8 measuring task conflict) indicating the
perceptions of the amount of each type of conflict (task or relationship) present.
The Intragroup Conflict Scale (Jehn, 1995) has been used by several researchers in various work
environments (DeChurch & Marks, 2001; Pearson, Ensley, & Amason, 2002) including healthcare
(Friedman, et al., 2000) and is considered a reliable (Jehn, 1995; Amason, 1996) and valid (Jehn, 1995;
Amason, 1996) measure of intragroup conflict. Jehn (1995) conducted a study of approximately 580
individuals comprising approximately 105 management teams in the freight and transportation industry
utilizing this instrument to measure conflict. Analysis of the scale showed eigenvalues above 1.0 and a
scree plot that suggested a two factor solution (relationship and task conflict) based on the factor
analysis. Cronbach‘s alpha analysis showed coefficient alphas for each conflict type with a coefficient
alpha of .92 for relationship conflict and a .87 for task conflict. Amason (1996) also utilized a seven item
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version of Jehn‘s (1994) Intragroup Conflict Scale to conduct a study to determine the effects of
functional (task) and dysfunctional (relationship) conflict on top team decision making among
manufacturing workers. This author assessed the scale using exploratory factory analysis that also
produced a two-factor solution (Amason, 1996). Affective (relationship) conflict produced a subscale
reliability coefficient of .86, and cognitive (task) conflict produced a subscale reliability coefficient of .79
here (Amason, 1996). De Dreu and Weingart (2003) also conducted a meta-analysis study to assess
over thirty conflict studies measuring task and relationship conflict. These authors state, ―Task and
relationship conflict in these studies was most often assessed with a scale developed by Jehn‖ (De
Dreu & Weingart, 2003, p. 743).
The Job Satisfaction Survey (Spector, 1985) was developed to measure general job satisfaction and is
based on 36 items. The scores for this survey can range from 36 to 216. The higher the scores
obtained on the survey, the higher the levels of job satisfaction. The Job Satisfaction Survey instrument
has nine facets coming from the 36 items which are measured using a 6-point Likert scale ranging from
―1‖ Disagree very much, to ―6‖ Agree very much. The facets include pay, promotion, supervision,
benefits, contingent rewards, conditions, coworkers, the work itself, and communication. For the
purposes of the present study, only overall job satisfaction was examined, which was computed by
totaling all item scores (after reversing negatively worded items). Although originally developed to
measure social service providers levels of satisfaction, this survey is commonly used to measure job
satisfaction in various work environments, including healthcare (Blau, 1999), and various groups (Corte
& Morgan, 2002). This instrument is considered a reliable and valid measure of job satisfaction with
Cronbach‘s alpha analysis showing internal consistency reliability for the overall scale being a high
score of .91 (Spector, 1985). The subscale internal consistency reliability scores in this study ranged
from .75 for pay, .73 for promotion, .82 for supervision, .73 for benefits, .76 for contingent rewards, .62
for operating procedures, .60 for coworkers, .78 for the nature of work, and .71 for communication.
Individual items on the scale were also analyzed using principal components with varimax rotation and
the results showed nine eigenvalues greater than 1.0 supporting the existence of the nine subscales.
Spector (1985) assessed convergent validity through comparison of the Job Satisfaction Survey with
the Job Descriptive Index (another instrument that may be used to measure satisfaction and other
aspects of jobs). The correlations between the same subscales of each instrument were larger than
zero ranging between .61 and .80, suggesting convergent validity. Additionally, measures of distinct
facets of job satisfaction were shown based on lower correlations among differing subscales ranging
from .11 to .59, suggesting discriminant validity. The Job Satisfaction Survey subscales were also
analyzed for discriminant validity through variable correlations. Some of the variables assessed
included employee characteristics, turnover, and absenteeism (Spector, 1985). Employee characteristic
age was correlated with the subscale nature of work (r= .24) and pay (r= .21). Turnover was correlated
with the benefits subscale (r= -.16) and the contingent rewards subscale (r= -.36). Absenteeism was
correlated with total satisfaction (r= -.12). These results also suggest validity of the scale.
There are several limitation and assumptions for this study. The convenience sample for this study was
limited to nurses employed at this medical center, which may minimize the ability to generalize the
findings to the total nursing population. There may also be some self-serving biases (organizational
pressures, self protection biases, etc.) and/or social desirability issues in the self-reported responses
given by the participants (Nauta & Kluwer, 2004). Additional response issues may include recency
effect concerns (occurs when individuals assess only based on recent experiences or incidents), and/or
halo effect concerns (occurs when positive information in one category tends to distort multiple
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The Correlation between Conflict and Job Satisfaction Within Nurse Units
categories) (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2004). General apprehension may also be an issue, which is specifically
related to conflict studies (Nauta & Kluwer, 2004). Apprehension may also occur because conflict is
often a sensitive issue, and some individuals may be hesitant to admit the presence of conflict because
of the negative connation sometimes associated with conflict in general (Nauta & Kluwer, 2004). The
assumptions of this study include the following: a) the participants will understand the questionnaires
and particular items, b) the participants will give honest responses to questions, and c) the participants
have work experiences related to the variables included in the study. Additionally, it is also assumed
that the variables are normally distributed in this study, which is required to produce valid statistical test
results.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
The research questions that were addressed in this study included the following: a) What is the level
(amount) of conflict within the units of the medical center?, b) Is task conflict (thought to be positive by
Amason, 1996; De Dreu & van Vianen, 2001; Jehn, 1995) more prevalent than relationship conflict
(thought to be negative by Amason, 1996; De Dreu & van Vianen, 2001; Jehn, 1995) within units of the
medical center?, and c) Is there a relationship between conflict types (task and relationship) and
satisfaction?
From these research questions the following hypotheses were generated:
H10: There is a low level (amount) of total conflict within the units of the medical center.
H1a: There is a moderate level (amount) of total conflict within the units of the medical center.
H20: There is no difference in the level (amount) of task conflict and relationship conflict within the
units of the medical center.
H2a: There is more task conflict prevalent than relationship conflict within the units of the medical
center.
H30: There is no relationship between task conflict scores and general job satisfaction scores.
H3a: There is a significant negative relationship between task conflict scores and general job
satisfaction scores.
H40: There is no relationship between general job satisfaction scores and relationship conflict
scores.
H4a: There is a significant negative relationship between general job satisfaction scores and
relationship conflict scores.
Data Processing and Analysis
The purpose of this study was to determine the levels (amount) of conflict and type of conflict
(relationship and task) within the nursing groups and to examine whether relationships exist between
these conflict measures and the self-reported job satisfaction, anticipated turnover intentions and the
performance levels of these nurses. The SPSS software package 12.0, was used to conduct the
statistical analyses of the data. These analyses included descriptive statistics of frequency distributions
and measures of central tendency, and comparisons of the major variables (t-tests). Correlational
statistics was also used to examine the relationships between the independent variables (task and
relationship conflict) and the dependent variables (job satisfaction, anticipated turnover, and
performance) examined in the study. All of these analyses were conducted using a .05 level of
statistical significance.
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JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
Findings
The sample for this study was comprised of in-patient unit nurses employed at a Veteran‘s medical
center in the southeast. The total population reported for the study was approximately 480 nurses. This
total included full time and part time in patient nursing staff as well as on call nurses. Nurses included in
the study were certified nursing assistant/health technicians, licensed practical nurses (LPNs), and
registered nurses (RNs). Out of the total 480 nurses only 431 nurses were surveyed for the study as the
researcher only had access to those nurses with mailboxes on the units, which eliminated some parttime and on call nurses. A total of 194 nurses responded to the survey. Out of these 194 surveys only
181 were usable due to missing data in some cases. Therefore, the overall response rate for the study
was 45% for the 431 nurses actually initially surveyed during the study. The descriptive statistics were
calculated for each job factor (total conflict, task and relationship conflict, and general job satisfaction)
examined in the present study.
Descriptive statistics and frequency distributions showed that the nurses perceived slightly moderate
levels of total conflict within the medical units with a mean score of 3.18 (on a 5 point scale, with 3
being slightly moderate), that they felt there was a slightly moderate level of task conflict with a mean
score of 3.13 and a slightly moderate level of relationship conflict with a mean score of 3.24. In general
the nurses were also moderately satisfied with a total mean overall job satisfaction score of 128.85
(maximum 216 points and a norm mean score of 133.1 as reported by Spector, 1985). Frequency
distributions were also computed for the sample demographic profiles as well. These demographic
profiles included age, education (training level), tenure, and clinical area of work.
The age of the nurses that presented usable survey packets showed that the majority of the nurses
were 40 years of age or older (77.9%), which supports analyses conducted by the United States
Department of Human Services (United States Department, 2004). The various education levels
reported included certified nursing assistant/health technician, licensed practical nurse (LPN), and
registered nurse (RN). The majority of the nurses in this study were registered nurses (RN) (48.6%)
with licensed practical nurses (LPNs) being the next largest group. The number of years the nurses was
employed at the medical center, or tenure, was also examined. The findings showed that 47 (26%)
were employed 0-3 years, 35 (19.3%) were employed 4-7 years, and 99 (54.7%) were employed eight
or more years with the medical center. Finally, the majority of the nurses in the present study worked on
the acute care and geriatric units. There were 49 (27.1%) nurses on the acute care units, 50 (27.6%)
nurses working on the geriatric units.
Hypotheses
H10: There is a low level (amount) of total conflict within the units of the medical center. Descriptive
statistics were used to determine the level (amount) of total conflict within the units of the medical
center. The results showed a slightly moderate level of total conflict with a mean score of 3.18 (on a 5
point scale) however, this level is lower than the mean moderate conflict level of 4.0 that was predicted.
The null hypothesis was rejected. These findings appear consistent with the literature review that
conflict does exist within healthcare organizations (Cox, 2001, Gardner, 1992; Kunaviktikul et al., 2000).
However, the level (amount) of conflict found in previous studies varied with Cox (2001) reporting low
levels, and others reporting moderate levels (Gardner, 1992; Kunaviktikul, et al., 2000).
H20: There is no difference in the level (amount) of task conflict and relationship conflict within the units
of the medical center. A paired sample t-test was conducted to compare the mean levels (amounts) of
25
The Correlation between Conflict and Job Satisfaction Within Nurse Units
each type of conflict being examined in the present study (task and relationship). The data suggests
that relationship conflict is slightly higher than task conflict with a mean score of 3.25 for relationship
conflict and a mean score of 3.13 for task conflict (t, df 180=1.645 p < .05; one-tailed test).
Subsequently the null hypothesis was rejected; however, the results are in the opposite direction than
anticipated. The findings here are inconsistent with the majority of the literature review that suggests
that conflict within healthcare organizations generally relates to tasks and responsibilities (Baker, 1995,
Prescott & Bowen, 1985; Bell, 2003) and roles (Adams & Bond, 2000). However, Kunaviktikul et al.
(2000) did find that in healthcare the most frequent causes of conflict were characteristics of coworkers.
H30: There is no relationship between task conflict scores and general job satisfaction scores. A
Pearson bivariate correlational statistic was used to determine if a relationship exist between task
conflict scores and general job satisfaction scores. A significant moderate negative correlation was
found between task conflict scores and general job satisfaction scores with a correlation coefficient of r=
-.546, p= .000 (see Table 6 below). Therefore the null hypothesis was rejected. These findings appear
to be consistent with the literature review findings that conflict regarding tasks will reduce job
satisfaction levels of nurses (Cox, 2001; Gardner, 1992). These findings also appear to be consistent
with the literature review regarding employees of other industries as well (Jehn, 1995).
H40: There is no relationship between general job satisfaction scores and relationship conflict scores. A
Pearson bivariate correlational statistic was used to determine if a relationship existed between
relationship conflict scores and general job satisfaction scores. A significant moderate negative
correlation was found between relationship conflict scores and general job satisfaction scores with a
correlation coefficient of r= -.488, p= .000 (see Table 7 below). Therefore, the null hypothesis was
rejected. These findings appear to be consistent with the literature review that conflict regarding
personal issues is thought to reduce satisfaction levels (Cox, 2001; Gardner, 1992).
The Pearson bivariate correlation coefficients as relates to the types of conflict varied. A significant
moderate negative correlation coefficient (r= -.546) was found between task conflict and general job
satisfaction and a significant moderate negative correlation coefficient (r= -.488) was found between
relationship conflict and general job satisfaction. These findings seem to support the idea that higher
levels of either type of conflict (task or relationship) are associated with negative job satisfaction levels
for nurses (Jameson, 2003; Nelson, 1995). In general, the nurses were of the opinion that slightly
moderate levels of conflict existed within their setting that more relationship conflict existed than task
conflict and that as conflict (either type) increases satisfaction levels tended to go down.
CONCLUSION
Conflict is a part of all organizations today. Therefore, it is important that healthcare managers not
overlook or downplay conflict, and its importance, when assessing nurse work environments in general
and how it may be correlated to other job factors. The findings of this study suggest that conflict did
exist within this setting (slightly moderate levels), that more relationship conflict existed in this hospital
setting (believed to be negative in nature), and that both types of conflict (task and relationship), were
correlated to job satisfaction. Hopefully, these results will lead to a better understanding of the
dynamics of conflict situations, and a better understanding of the relationships between conflict and job
satisfaction. The ultimate goal, of course, should be better management of conflict situations. It is
thought that if nurse managers and nursing staff are aware of how conflict may influence other aspects
of their work, they may be more motivated to manage conflict situations when they occur and to
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JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
minimize the negative affects of this conflict. As was demonstrated here, the negative affects may
include less satisfied nurses which may impact performance and thus patient care. Additionally, this
information may be used to determine what actions, if any, need to be taken to address issues that
affect overall patient care (Albaugh, 2005) and thus customer satisfaction (Koys, 2001). These
improved customer satisfaction may also lead to an improved company image, which may have positive
impacts in the community. A better understanding of the levels and types of conflicts within an
organization may lead to less dysfunctional conflicts, leaving conflicts that are ultimately more
functional.
It is hoped that the information gained from this research project will motivate healthcare leaders to
create cultures that do not label conflict as always negative or bad. Also, it is hoped that these leaders
will promote cultures that foster good interpersonal relationships and effective communications; both of
which appear to be important in having better employee collaboration, efficiency, and eventually
improved patient care. However, it is evident that more research is needed to better understand and
manage its affects on employees and the organization in general. More specifically, future research
should also include a qualitative approach in an attempt to present a complete set of findings in studies
investigating these factors.
In conclusion, providing quality health care is a serious issue in this country. The present study is a
good beginning at understanding the dynamics of conflict and its effects on nurses in providing quality
patient care.
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K. Johnson and C. W. Lewis
JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
FOUNDATIONS OF WORK MOTIVATION: AN HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE ON WORK MOTIVATION THEORIES
Kimberly Johnson and Christine W. Lewis
Auburn University Montgomery, USA
ABSTRACT
Motivating employees is one of the primary responsibilities of a manager (Moorhead & Griffin, 1998).
Companies want motivated employees because they want increased productivity, profits, and satisfied
workers. Therefore, interest in work motivation began as early as the 1930’s (Klein, 1989). Numerous
theories influence researchers’ perception of work motivation; consequently, the concept of work
motivation does not have one underlying theory. Work motivation is an intangible concept and cannot
be measured directly (Ambrose & Kulik, 1999). Although thorough, this paper is not an exhaustive
review of the literature. The research focus was limited to articles published in English journals and
articles focusing on adults. Moreover, articles were excluded if work motivation was not the primary
focus. This paper focuses on the seven traditional work motivation theories: Motives and Needs Theory;
Expectancy Theory; Equity Theory; Goal-Setting Theory; Cognitive Evaluation Theory; Job Design
Theory; and Reinforcement Theory, and will detail some of the latest research on each of these
theories.
Keywords: Work Motivation; Content Theories; Process Theories
INTRODUCTION
Work motivation is composed of internal and external forces, and these forces influence work-related
behavior in terms of form, direction, intensity, and duration (Pinder, 1998). Work motivation is essential
to an organization because work motivation influences an employee‘s behavior. Theories of work
motivation can primarily be divided into two categories: content theories and process theories (Work
Motivation Theories). Content theory focuses on the exact factors that motivate people and determines
what factors influence people‘s behavior (Content Theory).
However, process theory tries to show why people‘s needs alter in terms of motivation. Simply stated,
process theory seeks to give an explanation as to how motivation occurs (Process Theory). Articles
centered on other variations of motivation, such as motivation to attend, training motivation, motivation
to learn, inspirational motivation, and test-taking motivation were excluded from this paper (e.g., Smith,
Jayasuriya, Caputi, & Hammer, 2008). This paper will begin with a discussion of content theories
beginning with needs theory.
CONTENT THEORIES
Needs Theory. The needs theory is comprised of three prominent theories, all of which were developed
in the 18th century. The first theory developed on needs is very well-known. The hierarchy of needs
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Foundations of Work Motivation: An Historical Perspective on Work Motivation Theories
theory developed by A.H. Maslow in 1943 attempts to explain an individual‘s motivation. Maslow
identified a total of five need hierarchy levels, and he divided those into two categories: lower-order
needs and higher-order needs. He defined lower-order needs as basic physiological needs: safety and
security. Lower-order needs are primarily satisfied through economic rewards (Moorhead & Griffin,
1998).
Maslow delineated that lower-order needs must be met in the order he stated them. Also, he wrote that
these needs must be satisfied first before an individual will try and fulfill a higher-order need. The
higher-order needs are belonging and social needs, esteem and status, plus self-actualization and
fulfillment. Higher-order needs are met differently than lower order needs and can often be satisfied
through psychological and social rewards. He further avowed that higher-order needs also had to be
met in the order he established them. His theory suggests that different factors can motivate individuals
depending on their position on the hierarchy of needs pyramid (Davis, 1981).
While his concepts were interesting, Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs has limitations. First, the hierarchy of
needs expresses the views of the typical American; yet, the hierarchy of needs may differ in other
cultures. Furthermore, studies have also shown that individuals do not always respond in the order
suggested by the hierarchy of needs (Davis, 1981). A contemporary of Maslow, Viktor Frankl, a
Holocaust survivor, wrote a bestselling book about Frankl‘s efforts in a concentration camp to find
meaning through suffering. The 1956 book, Man's Search for Meaning detailed his theory of
logotherapy. Frankl asserted that man found meaning through everyday living regardless of the
circumstances which was contrary to Maslow‘s assertions (Boeree, 2006). According to DeVita (2008),
a fundamental flaw in the hierarchy of needs theory is people tend to always want more, resulting in an
ever-increasing pyramid.
The second needs theory, which was developed by D. McClelland (1961), identified three types of
needs: need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power. Need for achievement describes
the degree an individual focuses on goals and desires to demonstrate competency. If an individual has
a high need for achievement, he or she will place a large degree of his or her energy on accomplishing
a task or job. On the other hand, the need for affiliation indicates the degree to which an individual
values social interactions. An individual with a high need for affiliation prefers to spend time maintaining
social relationships and joining groups. For example, research indicates that women are less driven by
power and money and more driven by connection and quality (Gershman, 2008). Finally, the need for
power reflects an individual‘s desire to influence or encourage others to achieve but this has a positive
and a negative side. A person with a high positive need for power enjoys working and is concerned
about discipline and self-respect. However, an individual with a high negative need for power is more
selfish in nature and is neither group nor company-oriented. He or she has the ―I win, you lose‖
mentality. Consequently, the need for power alone may or may not be beneficial to an employer.
The ERG theory, which is the final need theory, was developed by C. Alderfer (1972). The ERG theory
provides an alternative theory about needs, and this theory is simpler than Maslow‘s (1943) hierarchy of
needs. The ERG theory states that there are three types of needs, specifically the need for existence,
need for relatedness, and need for growth. The need for existence corresponds to Maslow‘s
physiological and safety needs, and the need for relatedness coincides with Maslow‘s social needs.
Finally, the need for growth corresponds with Maslow‘s esteem and self-actualization needs. Unlike
Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs; however, the ERG theory states that any need could occur at any time.
Nonetheless, no empirical or theoretical research utilizing the ERG theory was currently found.
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K. Johnson and C. W. Lewis
JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
Motives Theory. F.I. Herzberg (1966) developed the motivator-hygiene theory (i.e., two-factor theory).
Herzberg thus created, the main motives theory in Organizational Behavior. The motivator-hygiene
theory has two components but it does not revolve around how often an individual washes. Hygiene
refers to maintenance factors and the second factor deals with motivational factors. Herzberg believed
that both motivator and hygiene factors impact an individual‘s motivation. The motivator-hygiene theory
focuses on which job conditions impact satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
The theory affirms that employees will be dissatisfied if the hygiene factors on their jobs are poor. Yet,
the presence of hygiene factors does not necessarily create employee satisfaction; it simply causes an
employee not to be dissatisfied. Examples of hygiene factors are company policy and administration,
pay, job security, working conditions, status, peer relations, and quality of supervision. Generally,
hygiene factors center around job context factors, or extrinsic motivators (Moorhead & Griffin, 1998).
On the other hand, motivational factors primarily center on job content factors, which are intrinsic
motivators, but their lack does not necessarily cause job dissatisfaction. Examples of motivator factors
are recognition, advancement, the type of work performed, responsibility, and the possibility of growth
(Moorhead & Griffin, 1998). Hence Herzberg‘s two-factor theory, as both hygiene factors and
motivational factors must be taken into account.
IMPACT OF CONTENT THEORIES
The interest in motives and needs peaked during the 1970‘s and 1980‘s. However, since the 1980‘s,
little empirical and theoretical research has been done (Ambrose & Kulik, 1999). The decline of
research in this area may indicate the maturity of this subfield of motivational theory. As a result, as
previously stated, few articles were found that utilized motives and needs theories. Nonetheless,
despite the lack of recent empirical and theoretical research on motives and needs, this section will
describe the foundation theory for each and the latest research on the same.
In 2005, Donavan, Carlson, and Zimmerman studied the influence of personality traits on sports fan
identification with the sports team they supported. The study examined several personality traits such
as extraversion, agreeability, need for arousal, and need for materialism and the moderating effect of
need for affiliation. Study results reveal that need for affiliation did positively influence the level of fan
identification with their team. Additional studies examined need for affiliation (Tsung-Chi & Chung-Yu,
2008) and the need for affiliation and power (Kuhl & Kazen, 2008).
A study by Daugherty, Kurtz, and Phebus (2009) examined both McClelland‘s need for achievement
and need for affiliation theories. The study examined 120 participants to determine if personality
influenced need for achievement and need for affiliation. A unique aspect of this study was the
comparison between how participants evaluated themselves and how close acquaintances rated them.
Study results revealed that ratings of acquaintances on conscientiousness significantly helped to
predict need for achievement; whereas, self-ratings and acquaintance ratings did not predict need for
affiliation. Several studies other studies were done based on McClelland‘s (1961) need for
achievement, also known as achievement striving (Lee, 1995).
Achievement striving was the focus of a study by Bluen, Barling and Burns (1990). Insurance
salespersons were viewed to determine if their work performance, work attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction),
and signs of depression could be predicted by their levels of Achievement Striving (AS) and
Impatience-Irritability (II). AS is a construct used to describe the degree to which an individual is active,
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Foundations of Work Motivation: An Historical Perspective on Work Motivation Theories
works hard, and takes their work seriously. A construct that describes an individuals‘ degree of
intolerance, obsession with time, anger, and hostility is II. The authors acknowledged Type A as a
global construct composed of AS and II components. When controlling for biographical differences and
II, results indicate that AS positively influenced job performance (measured by the number of insurance
policies sold) and had a positive effect on job satisfaction. However, depression was not related to AS
when biographical differences and II were controlled. In the second part of the Bluen et al. (1990) study,
the authors controlled for biographical differences and AS. The results demonstrated that although II
was positively linked to depression and negatively influenced job satisfaction, it was unrelated to job
performance (the number of insurance policies sold). This study confirmed Type A behavior is
comprised of at least two components, AS and II.
Further AS research was conducted by Barling, Kelloway, and Cheung (1996) who studied how a car
salesman‘s performance was influenced by the interaction between time management behaviors and
AS. Results indicated time management behaviors (i.e., short-range and long-range planning) had
different effects according to the car salesman‘s motivation level. More specifically, short-range
planning is defined as those tasks performed daily or weekly, whereas, long-range planning is
performed over a quarter. Barling et al. (1996) suggested that if effective methods of increasing time
management behaviors are identified, then the job performance of highly motivated individuals should
improve. Additionally, results indicate a significant interaction exists between short-range planning and
AS. Therefore, increasing short-term planning by employees should improve performance.
Several studies have utilized Herzberg‘s motivator-hygiene theory to determine how certain job
attributes influence an employee‘s motivation. For example, Maidani (1991) compared how public
sector and private sector employees rated the importance of fifteen job attributes. Although the results
of the study indicated that both sectors of employees were more motivated by intrinsic job attributes,
extrinsic factors were more highly valued by public sector employees. Gabris and Simo (1995) studied
twenty motivational needs to determine how each need motivated the employees of public, private, or
non-profit organizations. Although no difference was detected between public and private sector
employees, employees of non-profit organizations had a lower need for competitiveness and autonomy.
Not surprisingly, however, they had a higher desire to serve the community.
Another aspect to the motives theory which has been studied is the Protestant Work Ethic (PWE),
which symbolizes the degree to which an individual makes his or her work the center of their life
(Ambrose & Kulik, 1999). PWE is viewed as a type of motive that influences work motivation. Ali and
Falcone (1995) studied work ethic in the United States and Canada to determine whether a relationship
existed between work-related measures, such as individualism, work involvement and work ethic. The
authors suggested that the historical background of a country (i.e., persistent social and economic
conditions) needed to be considered when discussing PWE. Ali and Falcone (1995) found that the
United States and Canada share similar political systems and social diversity, but differences may exist
in work-related attitudes. Specifically, the results of this study indicated that United States‘ employees
are more committed to PWE, contemporary work ethic (i.e., CWE -- workers expect more receptiveness
from their employers and greater personal growth from their work), and work-related individualism.
Two years prior to the Ali and Falcone (1995) study, a group of researchers, Stein, Smith, Guy and
Bentler (1993) conducted a longitudinal study on the impact of achievement on job satisfaction for
adults. The study dealt with factors previously found in an individual‘s life which influences their
behavior as adults. They found that low levels of adolescent achievement resulted in low job
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satisfaction and negative job behaviors in adults. Another interesting finding was that children, under
the age of three, who received achievement pressure from their parents, had a higher need for
achievement and earned higher incomes as adults.
Each of the content theories studied have provided not only researchers but practioners as well insight
into what motivates people. Despite the valuable insight gained from content theories, process theories
are equally important. Knowing ―what‖ motivates someone is only one part of the equation; then the
next step is determining ―how‖ you motivate them. The second half of this paper will specifically focus
on the following process theories: Expectancy Theory, Equity Theory, Goal-Setting Theory, Cognitive
Evaluation Theory, Job Design, and Reinforcement Theory.
PROCESS THEORIES
Expectancy Theory. The expectancy theory as developed by V.H. Vroom (1964) states that this
motivation theory is a product of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Expectancy is the belief that
effort will result in the desired performance (i.e., effort-performance expectancy). Faith that one‘s
performance will be rewarded is instrumentality (i.e., performance-outcome expectancy). Valence is the
perceived value of the reward to the individual (e.g., a promotion). The expectancy theory proposes that
motivation is a multiplicative function of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence (Davis, 1981). The
multiplicative nature of the expectancy theory indicates that if all three components are high, then
motivation must be high and vice-versa. However, if one component is missing, then the motivational
level of the individual will be zero. Another well-known process theory is equity theory.
Equity Theory. J.S. Smith (1965) conceptualized the equity theory, which states that people are
motivated to maintain fair (equitable) relationships with other people. Once the relationship is perceived
to be unfair, it is no longer equitable. To determine whether a relationship is equitable, people compare
their perceived inputs and outputs to the same inputs and outputs of other peoples, but not limited to,
fellow employees, persons in another organization, or himself or herself. Inputs are those things that an
individual contributes to a job, such as amount of time worked, amount of effort, and qualifications.
Outputs are those things that an individual receives from his or her job, such as pay and fringe benefits.
When an individual compares his or her inputs and outputs to another individual‘s inputs and outputs
three outcomes can occur. Specifically, an individual can perceive that overpayment inequity,
underpayment equity, or equitable payment has occurred. If a person perceives that there is an
overpayment inequity (i.e., one is receiving greater output, although he or she has given input that is
comparable to others), he or she will feel guilty and seek to increase his or her input or reduce his or
her output. On the other hand, if a person perceives that there is an underpayment inequity (i.e., one is
receiving less for his or her input than others), then he or she will become angry and seek to reduce the
inequity. He or she may choose to decrease his or her input (e.g., increase tardiness) or increase his or
her output (e.g., request a raise). Because the equity theory deals with perceptions of fairness, an
individual may choose to alter his or her perception of an inequitable state by altering his or her
perception of the circumstances. Although several studies have been conducted using expectancy and
equity theories, by far, one of the most studied process theories is goal-setting theory.
Goal-Setting Theory. E.A. Locke and G.P. Latham (1990) conceptualized the goal-setting theory as a
means to describe how setting goals is an important motivational force. Establishing a goal enables an
individual to compare his or her current state to a future desired state. If someone feels they have the
ability (i.e., self-efficacy) to accomplish a goal, then they will work towards that goal. However, failure to
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achieve the desired goal will cause dissatisfaction. But, the person will work harder at achieving that
goal because they feel the goal is obtainable. Once the goal is reached, the individual will feel more
competent and successful. This is based on the belief that a goal provides a clear illustration of the type
and level of performance needed for achievement of that goal. In addition, goal commitment is the
degree to which a person accepts and strives to attain a goal. If a person wants to reach a goal and
believes he or she can reach the goal (i.e., self-efficacy), then that person becomes more committed to
the goal. It then follows that if desire to obtain a goal and self-efficacy do not exist, a person will be less
committed to the goal. The goal-setting theory states that an individual‘s beliefs about self-efficacy and
goal commitment can influence task performance. However, Cognitive Evaluation Theory not only
focuses on extrinsic motivation but intrinsic motivation as well.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory. In 1971, E.L. Deci developed the Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)
which stated that an individual can be motivated extrinsically and intrinsically. An individual who is
motivated extrinsically believes that he or she is motivated by outside forces; thus he or she seeks
extrinsic rewards, such as a pay raises or promotions. On the other hand, an intrinsically motivated
individual believes that he or she is motivated by internal desires; as such, he or she seeks intrinsic
rewards, such as self-esteem (Deci & Ryan, 1980). Another aspect of CET is the work environment and
its influence on employees‘ intrinsic motivation. The intrinsic motivation of an employee has been found
to decrease if that employee works in a controlling environment. However, if an employee receives
constructive feedback instead of being controlled, the intrinsic motivation of the employee will not be
affected (Deci & Ryan, 1980). Research on CET peaked during the 1970‘s and 1980‘s (Ambrose &
Kulik, 1999). Although several meta-analyses of CET have been conducted (i.e., Cameron & Pierce,
1994; Tang & Hall, 1995), little research has been conducted where CET is applied to work motivation.
However, researchers have also explored how to motivate workers by redesigning their actual jobs.
Job Design. In 1911, the concept of job design was introduced by F.W. Taylor, the Father of Scientific
Management. According to George and Jones (2002), scientific management is ―a set of principles and
practices designed to increase the performance of individual workers by stressing job simplification and
specialization‖ (p. 214). They also stressed that job design is the method used to link specific tasks to
specific jobs, while determining the necessary tools and procedures to accomplish those jobs. Job
simplification is the subdivision of work into the smallest, most identifiable tasks. Job specialization
involves assigning workers to those tasks. Although an interesting concept, workers became bored with
the monotony of their jobs. In an effort to reduce the monotony, advances, such as job enlargement, job
enrichment and job rotation were made in job design.
Job enlargement is a tool used to expand the scope of a job by adding more variety and tasks at the
same skill level. Proponents of job enlargement state that it can improve employee satisfaction,
motivation, and quality of production. However, critics believe job enlargement does not have a longterm impact on job performance. In the 1960‘s, a tool was introduced to overcome the limited effects of
job enlargement on work motivation. Job enrichment was designed to give employees a higher degree
of control over their work with respect to planning, design, implementation and evaluation. Job
enrichment involves performing tasks at higher levels of skill and responsibility. Another unique process
theory is Reinforcement Theory, which focuses on motivating people through encouraging or
discouraging certain behaviors.
Reinforcement Theory. B.F. Skinner (1953, 1972) is generally associated with reinforcement theory.
The reinforcement theory encourages desirable behavior or discourages undesirable behavior through
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reinforcement. The four types of reinforcements that exist are positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, extinction, and punishment. Positive reinforcement consists of giving rewards or
feedback for desirable behavior. One example of positive reinforcement is when a manager commends
an employee for his or her punctuality. Negative reinforcement involves encouraging an individual to
avoid undesirable behaviors or removing an individual from an undesirable situation when he or she
engages in desirable behaviors (Davis, 1981). For example, a salesperson may choose to works long
hours in lieu of being relocated to an undesirable territory. When undesirable behaviors are eliminated
by withholding positive reinforcement, this is known as extinction. An example of extinction is when an
employee consistently works overtime, but his or her supervisor fails and/or refuses to acknowledge his
or her extra efforts. Punishment, the final reinforcement theory, results in the end of undesirable
behaviors by having a negative event follow the undesirable behaviors. For example, if an employee is
late to work, his or her supervisor may openly reprimand them.
IMPACT OF PROCESS THEORIES
Expectancy and Equity Theories. Advances to the expectancy theory were accomplished by L.W.
Porter and G.E. Lawler (1968). They attempted to (1) identify the sources of an individual‘s valences
and expectancies and (2) link effort with performance and job satisfaction. They found a person must
have sufficient opportunities to perform his job and skills, abilities, role perceptions, and a person‘s
belief of what is expected of him can influence his ability to successfully perform his job. The
relationship between compensation package, work motivation, and job performance was studied by
Igalens and Roussell (1999). Expectancy and discrepancy theories were used to examine how the
components of a total compensation package might influence work motivation and job satisfaction. The
results of the study indicated that under specific conditions, individualized compensation of exempt
employees can be a factor of work motivation. However, flexible pay (nonexempt employees only) and
benefits (both exempt and nonexempt employees) neither motivates nor increases job satisfaction. The
next process theory examined is equity theory.
Three studies in the early 1990‘s all revolved around baseball. Harder (1991) examined the equity
theory in comparison to the expectancy theory by studying major league baseball free agents. He
believed these theories produced different results under identical conditions (e.g., perceived under
reward and strong performance-outcome expectancies). For example, free agent nonpitchers from
1977-1980 baseball seasons were compared to a random sample of nonpitchers. The author declared
that free agents were more likely to feel under rewarded before entering the free agent market, but they
had a higher expectation of an increased salary after becoming free agents. Both motivations were
believed to impact the players‘ performances. Equity theory suggests that performances would decline
if an individual felt under rewarded, but the study results also indicated that performances that were
strongly linked to future salary (e.g., home run ratios for free agents) did not decline. However, batting
average has a weak relation to salary outcome; as such, it declined in the year before free agency. This
finding suggests that the expectancy effect had a greater impact than the equity effect. The study
further found that both direct and indirect equity effects rose. When participants were faced with
inequitable under reward, their performance decreased if it was not strongly linked to future salary (e.g.,
batting average). Furthermore, under conditions of inequitable under reward, performance did not
increase if it was strongly linked only to future rewards (e.g., home run ratios).
The second study by Bretz and Thomas (1992) studied major league baseball position players to
determine the influence of perceived equity, motivation, and final-offer arbitration on performance and
mobility. Generally, all players increased their performance before arbitration. The results of the study
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showed that a player‘s pre-arbitration performance significantly predicted the outcome of arbitration.
Specifically, those players who were successful in arbitration had greater increases in performance
prior to arbitration. After arbitration, performance declined for both arbitration winners and losers.
However winners, with large gaps between their demands and their actual offers, suffered higher rates
of post-arbitration performance decline than those players with smaller differentials. Bretz and Thomas
(1992) suggested that the post-arbitration decline was due to the players‘ regression to their career
averages. Additionally, the study showed a significant relationship between losing the arbitration and
post-arbitration performance. Those players who were unsuccessful at arbitration suffered a decrease
in performance, and they were significantly more likely to change baseball teams or retire from
baseball. In studying pay equity in professional baseball, (i.e., underpayment, equitable payment, and
overpayment), one additional study was conducted.
The third study by Howard and Miller (1993) utilized Data Envelopment Analysis, which can provide
managers with information concerning the format and levels of compensation that are appropriate for
their organizations. Furthermore, this system enables managers to objectively estimate pay equity, and
it provides them with a reliable defense for future reward allocations. Additionally, Data Envelopment
Analysis allows a manager to systematically evaluate the organization‘s compensation policies. Howard
and Miller (1993) suggested that this tool will equip managers with those instruments that are
necessary to make consistent equitable adjustments to programs and systems.
Van Eerde and Thierry (1996) conducted a meta-analysis which integrated the correlations of seventyseven studies based on Vroom‘s (1964) original expectancy model and work-related criteria. Findings
of the meta-analysis indicated average correlations of the studies evaluated were slightly lower than
Vroom‘s (1964) expectancy model and work-related criterion variables. However, the components of
the models studied had higher effect sizes than Vroom‘s model which supports that this finding has a
lack of validity. Specifically, they believed that several studies were performed incorrectly from the
original, intended theoretical viewpoint of Vroom‘s (1964) expectancy theory and lack of proper data
analysis. The flaws in the models studied suggested that the original components of the expectancy
model (i.e., valence, instrumentality, and expectancy) should be used as opposed to other modified or
suggested models. They further emphasized the use of precautionary measures when considering
potential differing interpretations of the expectancy model theory utilized in prior research. Van Eerde
and Thierry (1996) reiterated that the techniques used in prior research on the expectancy theory are
often incorrect. Thus, the proper choice of criterion variables can make a difference.
Finally, Wheeler and Buckley (2001) used the expectancy theory as a suggestion on how to motivate a
large segment of U.S. employees (i.e., contingent workers). Several differences exist between
contingent workers and permanent employees. Generally, contingent workers are hired solely to reduce
payroll or work a job that is isolated from other workers; temporarily fill a position while permanent
employees are on vacation, long-term disability leave, or maternity leave; and given less pay and fewer
(if any) benefits. They argue that the expectancy theory does an excellent job of examining how
contingent workers determine what job to choose. According to Wheeler and Buckley (2001), ―[t]he
attractiveness of each organization (valence), the amount of effort required to join each company
(instrumentality) and the expectation that the company will offer employment (expectancy)‖ (p. 349)
cause many contingent workers to choose a specific company for employment (Wanous, Keon, &
Latack 1983).
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Goal Setting. Several studies took place in the early 1990s involving goal theories. Staw and Boettger
(1990) studied the impact of task revision on work performance and stated that goal-setting can be
used to energize behavior, and it is an influential method of guiding an individual‘s behavior. Task
revision is an action implemented to correct a faulty procedure, an inaccurate job description, or a role
expectation which is not beneficial to the organization. The study‘s results indicated that goal-setting
inhibited task revision. For example, participants instructed to ―do their best‖ outperformed those
participants who were given a specific goal. However, if a supervisor attempts to implement goals that
are counterproductive to the organization, his or her influence can effectively limit the chances for task
revision. Conversely, Erez, Gopher and Arzi (1990) examined the effects of goal difficulty, the origin of
a goal (self-set versus assigned) and monetary rewards (present versus absent) on the simultaneous
performance of two tasks. Self-set goals irrespective of whether moderate or difficult, without monetary
rewards, resulted in the highest performance level. However, a combination of self-set goals and
monetary rewards negatively influenced performance.
Varying the spotlight, in 1993, Tubbs addressed the issue of degree of commitment to assigned goals
as a moderator of the effectiveness of the goal-setting procedure. He reviewed three studies that
recommended a moderating assumption was valid; however, it was only relevant for one of three
closely-related motivational concepts – pre-choice attitudes, subsequent choice of a personal goal, and
maintenance of the personal choice. In past research, all three motivational concepts had been
discussed under the over-arching title of goal commitment. However, for future research, Tubbs (1993)
suggested that researchers distinguish between the three different aspects of goal commitment.
According to Gostick and Elton (2009), authors of the best-seller The Carrot Principle, rewards should
be personal and designed to meet the needs (i.e., interests and lifestyle) of the employee. However,
this will take a manager who is concerned enough to find out this information about their employees.
Steele-Johnson, Beauregard, Hoover and Schmidt (2000) conducted two studies to assess the joint
effects of goal orientation and task demands on motivation, affect (i.e., satisfaction with performance),
and performance. The first study examined whether goal orientation interacted with task difficulty in its
effect on performance, affect, and intrinsic motivation. Individuals with performance-goal orientations
were more satisfied with their performances on simple tasks rather than difficult tasks. The second
study examined the effects of task consistency in goal orientation on performance, motivation, and
affect during skill acquisition. In this study, task consistency moderated the effect of goal orientation on
self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. Individuals with performance-goal orientations reported higher
levels of self-efficacy on consistent tasks.
Erez and Judge (2001) studied how core self-evaluations were related to goal setting, motivation, and
performance. A newly -- developed personality taxonomy suggested that self-esteem, locus of control,
generalized self-efficacy and neuroticism form a broad personality trait termed core self-evaluations.
The authors hypothesized that this broad trait was related to motivation and performance, and their
findings supported the same. Erez and Judge (2001) found that, in a laboratory setting, the core selfevaluations trait was related to task motivation and performance. Additionally, the trait was related to
the four core traits - task activity, productivity as measured by sales volume, the rated performance of
insurance agents, and goal-setting behavior.
When these core traits were investigated as one broad concept (i.e., core self-evaluations), they proved
to be more consistent predictors of job behaviors than when used in isolation. The individual core traits
were related to motivation and performance; however, the core self-evaluations factor displayed higher
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correlations with motivation and performance, in both a lab and a field study. The previous process
theories primarily focus on motivating people extrinsically (i.e., people are motivated if they receive
something in return).
Cognitive Evaluation Theory. In an interesting study, Juniu, Tedrick and Boyd (1996) examined amateur
and professional musicians‘ perceptions of rehearsals and performances. The results indicated that
amateur musicians were intrinsically motivated to participate in rehearsals and performances. Amateur
musicians viewed rehearsals and performances as a leisure activity and, therefore, were motivated by
intrinsic factors, such as pleasure and relaxation. To the contrary, professional musicians viewed
rehearsals and performances as work. Consequently, professional musicians were motivated by
extrinsic factors (i.e. income), that they could receive as a result of rehearsing and doing performances.
A two-study experiment by Erez and Isen (2002) evaluated the impact of positive affect on expectancy
motivation. The first study resulted in three major findings: (1) positive affect increases a participant‘s
performance; (2) positive affect impacts a participant‘s perceptions of expectancy and valence; and (3)
positive affect had no impact on a participant‘s perceptions of instrumentality. In the second study the
link between performance and outcomes were specified; whereas in the first study, the outcomes
depended on pure chance. The results of the second study showed that positive affect impacted
expectancy, valence and instrumentality. They argued both studies demonstrate how positive affect
interacts with task conditions in influencing motivation. Also in 2002, Judge and Ilies conducted a metaanalytic review of the relationship between personality traits (specifically, the Big-5 personality model)
and performance motivation, according to goal-setting, expectancy, and self-efficacy theories. First, the
authors‘ results indicated that neuroticism was negatively related to performance motivation with
respect to all of the aforementioned theories. To the contrary, conscientiousness was positively related
to the theories on performance motivation. Generally, extraversion, openness to experience, and
agreeableness shared a weak relationship to the three theories on performance motivation. They
affirmed that this study clarifies the literature because using the Big-5 personality model to analyze
work motivation is more efficient rather than utilizing random personality traits.
Huang and Van De Vliert (2003) conducted a study that examined the national characteristics that
moderate the individual-level relationship between job characteristics and job satisfaction. The objective
of the study was to determine where intrinsic job satisfaction fails to work. The results suggested that
the link between intrinsic job characteristics and job satisfaction is stronger in wealthier countries;
countries with better governmental, social welfare programs; more individualistic countries; and smaller,
power distance countries. Additionally, intrinsic job characteristics tend to produce motivating
satisfaction in countries with good governmental, social welfare programs, irrespective of the degree of
power distance. However, intrinsic job characteristics often do not work in countries with poor
governmental, social welfare programs and large, power distances. By contrast, extrinsic job
characteristics are stronger and more positively related to job satisfaction in all countries. How to
motivate people, whether intrinsically or extrinsically has received a considerable amount of attention in
the literature, as is evident with the previous process theories discussed.
Job Design. The job characteristics theory (JCT) developed by J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham‘s
(1976, 1980) built on the work of job enlargement and job enrichment. They tried to identify the specific
job characteristics which intrinsically motivate employees‘ to perform their jobs such as skill variety, task
identity, task significance, feedback, and autonomy. JCT states the higher a job scores on each of the
five job characteristics the higher the level of an employees‘ intrinsic motivation. To measure a workers‘
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perception of each of the five job characteristic dimensions, they developed the Job Diagnostic Survey.
Furthermore, Wall, Corbett, Martin, Clegg and Jackson (1990) studied the impact of two alternative
work designs of stand-alone advanced manufacturing technology (AMT) on job performance which
indicated that those operators who worked under the operator-controlled system improved downtime
statistics, had less perceived job pressure, and had higher levels of intrinsic job satisfaction.
Additionally, it reduced the demands placed on the specialist staff, and specialist-controlled work design
is most frequently utilized in the manufacturing industry.
However, an interdisciplinary examination of the costs and benefits of enlarged jobs was conducted by
Campion and McClelland (1991). Overall, enlarged jobs resulted in a better motivational design (e.g.,
increased variety, autonomy, and task significance). The enlarged jobs seemed to increase employee
satisfaction, lessen mental overload for employees, increase the probability of catching errors, and
improve customer service. Interdisciplinarily enlarging jobs could but did not necessarily result in
increased costs of training, the need for additional skills, and increased compensation. Furthermore,
Wong and Campion (1991) studied ways in which to design a motivational job. Specifically, they
focused on the motivational value of tasks, task interdependence, and task similarity on creating a
motivational job. There were differing results for each of the variables studied. Task design shared a
positive relationship with motivational job design which suggests that the motivational level of tasks is
important when implementing a motivational job design. Unlike task design, task interdependence had
an inverted-U relationship with motivational job design, which indicates that task interdependence
should be increased until the break-even point. In other words, task interdependence should not be
increased to the point of creating a negative relationship with motivational job design. Task similarity
had a negative relationship with motivational job design. This finding reiterated earlier job design
research that demonstrated that simplification and specialization of jobs decreased motivation. The
results of Wong and Campion‘s (1991) study also indicated that job design mediated the relationship
between task design and affective outcomes.
Meanwhile, Spector and Jex (1991) studied the relationship between job characteristics obtained from
multiple sources and employee affect, absenteeism, intention to turnover, and health. According to
them, traditional research, utilizing the JCT, only collected reports of job characteristics from
incumbents. They argued that incumbents may not be the best source for obtaining job characteristics
information; consequently, they obtained information regarding job characteristics from three
independent sources -- incumbents, ratings from job descriptions, and the Dictionary of Occupational
Titles. Findings of the study showed that incumbent ratings only slightly correlated with the other two
sources of job characteristics. Of the three job characteristic sources evaluated, only incumbent ratings
correlated with employee outcomes such as job satisfaction, work frustration and turnover intentions. In
sum, the results indicated that incumbent ratings did not accurately reflect actual work environments
and thus should not be used solely to measure JCT.
In a study conducted by Dodd and Ganster (1996), three specific job dimensions -- (i.e., objective
autonomy, task variety, and objective feedback) were manipulated to determine their impact on
participants‘ perception of job characteristics (e.g., job satisfaction) and job outcomes (e.g., job
performance). Manipulations of objective autonomy and task variety impacted job satisfaction. More
specifically, if a task had a large amount of variety, increased amounts of objective autonomy resulted
in increased job satisfaction. However, if a participant was given increased objective autonomy over a
task with little variety, small increases in job satisfaction resulted. When evaluating the impact on job
performance, increased levels of objective autonomy resulted in an increase in job performance for high
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Foundations of Work Motivation: An Historical Perspective on Work Motivation Theories
variety tasks by 16 percent. Increased objective autonomy for low variety tasks had little impact on job
performance. Objective autonomy also interacted with objective feedback. Specifically, increased
objective feedback in an environment of high objective autonomy resulted in a 16 percent increase in
job performance. However, increased objective feedback and low objective autonomy had a small
impact on job performance. Job design, in comparison to the other process theories is unique because
this theory focuses on the workers job not just on the worker.
REINFORCEMENT THEORY.
Organizational Behavior Modification (OBMOD) is the systematic administration of operant conditioning
for teaching and managing those organizational behaviors that the organization has deemed important.
Organizational behavior modification consists of five basic steps (Drucker & Associates, 2007). The first
step is to identify the behavior to be learned. The identified behavior should then be measured for
frequency of occurrence before any intervention takes place. In step three, a functional analysis should
be performed. A functional analysis is a method used to determine what antecedents or factors caused
the identified behavior. Next, one must develop a strategy to change the frequency of the behavior. As
part of the strategy, employees affected by the behavior should understand the change that is
requested, and the change should be applied fairly and uniformly to affected employees. Finally, one
must measure the frequency of the behavior after the previously mentioned steps have been
implemented. According to George and Jones (2002), operant conditioning has successfully improved
important organizational behaviors, such as productivity, attendance, punctuality, and safe work
practices.
A study by Ball, Trevino and Sims (1994) examined the impacts of just and unjust punishments on
subordinate performance and citizenship behaviors. Contrary to conventional wisdom, punishment can
have a positive effect on subordinates‘ behavior, if the punishment is administered in a particular way. If
an employee believes that he or she has a high level of control over punishment procedures and
imposed punishments (i.e., subordinate control), he or she will be more likely to engage in citizenship
behaviors. Perceived harshness, a distributive characteristic of the punishment process because it
impacts perceptions of equity and severity appropriateness, impacted subsequent supervisor
perceptions‘ of the subordinates‘ job performance. Butterfield teamed up with Trevino and Ball (1996)
and studied punishment from a manager‘s perspective showing that managers received pressure
regarding punishment from various sources, such as punished employees, organizations, work groups,
and themselves. Although, managers influence these sources, the converse is also true. Managers
understood that long-range consequences could result from administering punishment to subordinates;
these long-range consequences extend beyond changing the behavioral problems of those
subordinates. As a result of the study, Butterfield et al. (1996) were able to develop an inductive model
of punishment from a managerial perspective. The model noted the key relationships, variables,
processes, and outcomes that enable one to understand punishment from a manager‘s perspective.
Stajkovic and Luthans (1997) conducted a meta-analysis of the effects of OB MOD on task
performance from 1975-1995. The meta-analysis revealed that employees who were involved in OB
MOD groups generally improve their performances by 17 percent as opposed to employees who were
not involved in OB MOD groups. The study also showed that type of organization can impact the effect
of OB MOD on employee performance. More specifically, the survey results suggested that improved
employee performance after an OB MOD intervention is generally greater for manufacturing
organizations than service organizations. Research further indicates that when people are able to
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participate in changes made, they are more motivated to abide by those changes because they had
were persuaded not threatened (56 Clev. St. L. Rev. 111).
CONCLUSION
Work motivation research, with a history extending back to the 18 th century, has provided varying
explanations as to what factors motivate employees. Although, several of the work motivation subfields
such as motives and needs have been extensively researched, the field of work motivation is still
continually evolving.
This evolution of the work motivation field is apparent in newer work motivation topics such as culture,
groups, and creativity (10 U. Pa. J. Bus & Emp L 958). Even as these new work motivation topics
emerge, research is continually performed on older work motivation theories such as work design and
reinforcement theory. As organizations continue to change and compete in a world defined with fewer
boundaries and influenced by factors such as new technology, differing compensation systems, and
flexible work schedules, the field of work motivation will continue to redefine itself.
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TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCING APPLICANT RESPONSE
DISTORTION: THEIR EFFECTS ON MEASUREMENT
EQUIVALENCE AND CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY
Brian Whitaker
Morehead State University, USA
ABSTRACT
A challenge to the use of non-cognitive tests in selection is the possibility that applicants might distort
their responses. Several techniques have been suggested to reduce response distortion, including the
provision of warnings that faking is detectable, and the requirement that respondents elaborate on their
answers to increase the difficulty of lying. In this study, the provision of warnings and requests for
elaborations on responses were assessed for their potential impact on the factor structure, means, and
criterion-related validity of a performance predictor. Results indicate that warnings improve criterionrelated validity relative to a control condition, but that elaborations distort factor structure. More
specifically, participants appeared to interpret personality assessment items equivalently between the
warning and control conditions, their scores were lower for those in the warning condition, and criterionrelated validity was significantly improved by the use of warnings. These results are promising for
practitioners who use warnings in order to reduce faking on non-cognitive tests. In contrast, this study’s
results suggest that elaboration manipulations should be used with caution. Elaboration requirements
resulted in disrupted factor form/factor structure, which prevented the interpretation of mean differences
between the experimental and control conditions.
Keywords: Applicant Faking, Response Distortion, Selection, Warnings, Elaborations, Validity
INTRODUCTION
Over the last ten years or so, personality testing has piqued the interest of personnel psychologists
(Behling, 1998; Mount & Barrick, 1998). As such, the use of non-cognitive tests (eg, personality
measures, integrity tests, biodata measures, etc) for selection purposes has garnered much attention
from researchers and practitioners alike. This phenomenon is not at all surprising given that these types
of measures have been shown to predict a number of behaviors relevant to and valued by
organizations (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Barrick & Mount, 1996; Cunningham, Wong, & Barbee, 1994;
Hough, Eaton, Dunnette, Kamp, & McCloy, 1990; Hurtz & Donovan, 2000; Ones, Viswesvaran, &
Schmidt, 1993; Salgado, 1997; Schmitt, Gooding, Noe, & Kirsch, 1984; Tett, Jackson, & Rothstein,
1991). For example, several meta-analyses have indicated that job performance is routinely predicted
by the personality traits neuroticism and conscientiousness (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Hough et al., 1990;
Hurtz & Donovan, 2000; Salgado, 1997; Tett et al., 1991), with conscientiousness generally
demonstrating stronger criterion-related validity (Barrick, Mount, & Judge, 2001). Furthermore, interest
in non-cognitive measures as selection devices is particularly high in organizations as these types of
instruments have been shown to lead to less adverse impact against minorities than more traditional
and popular cognitive ability tests (Ones et al., 1993; Ones & Viswesvaran, 1998A; 1998B). Overall,
these studies suggest that personality dimensions such as conscientiousness may be useful in
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Techniques for Reducing Applicant Response Distortion: Their Effects on Measurement Equivalence and Criterion-Related Validity
predicting performance in domains where the use of cognitive ability tests preferentially disrupts
applicant opportunity for consideration (Schmidt & Hunter, 1998).
However, despite the literature indicating that non-cognitive ability tests predict important organizationrelevant outcomes and other literature demonstrating that the use of these types of selection methods
may reduce adverse impact, a particular danger inherent in the use of non-cognitive ability tests is the
ease with which they may be faked, which may ultimately disrupt the utility of these types of instruments
for selection purposes (Snell, Sydell, & Leuke, 1999). An ongoing issue with the use of non-cognitive
ability tests is that the organizationally-preferred, job-related answer to a particular item is usually
transparent to the applicant. Furthermore, during most hiring situations the stakes are high, motivating
applicants to fake responses to these measures.
The research literature clearly indicates that applicants routinely distort responses on selection devices
in order to cast themselves in the most favorable light (Bartlett & Doorley, 1967; Becker & Colquitt,
1992; Birkeland, Manson, Kisamore, Brannick, & Liu, 2002; Dunnette, McCartney, Carlson, & Kirchner,
1962; Ellingson, Smith, & Sackett, 2001; Furnham, 1990; Furnham, 1997; Hough et al., 1990). Indeed,
Viswesvaran and Ones (1999) found that applicants who engage in response distortion may enhance
personality scores by as much as three quarters of a standard deviation. Furthermore, Donovan,
Dwight, and Hurtz (2003) directly asked respondents whether they faked responses during an
application process and found that almost half of all respondents admit to consciously and purposefully
distorting responses during selection procedures.
The impact to the organization as a result of applicant response distortion is not trivial as response
distortion may dramatically influence which applicants are selected. For example, Dwight and Donovan
(2003) found that participants who have been given an incentive to fake have a tendency to top the list
when rank-ordered and are subsequently selected at a greater rate in a top-down selection system than
those who do not distort responses. Similarly, of great interest to selection researchers is the degree to
which applicant faking disrupts criterion-related validity. While some argue that faking has no
observable, detrimental affects on the predictive validity of non-cognitive measures (see Barrick &
Mount, 1996; Christiansen, Goffin, Johnston, & Rothstein, 1994; Hough et al., 1990), several
researchers have found that faking does negatively impact criterion-related validity (Douglas, McDaniel,
& Snell, 1996; Dunnette et al. 1962; Frei, 1997; Frei, Snell, McDaniel, & Griffith, 1998; Graham,
McDaniel, Douglas, & Snell, 2002).
Typically, researchers measure the degree to which an applicant distorts responses using impression
management and/or social desirability scales and use scores on these measures to control response
distortion. However, Ones, Viswesveran, and Reiss‘s (1996) meta-analytic investigation found no
evidence to support statistical corrections of this sort. Thus researchers have recently begun to devise
other methods by which to reduce applicant faking. Specifically, recent empirical work has been
conducted investigating the extent to which the use of warnings (Dwight & Donovan, 2003) and
elaborations (Schmitt & Kunce, 2002) may serve to reduce response distortion.
While research into these techniques for reducing applicant faking is still in its infancy, and although
proactive approaches seem reasonable, two critical issues remain under-examined. First, while these
techniques have been shown to reduce mean levels of response distortion, an investigation into the
degree to which these strategies may disrupt the factor form and factor structure of existing measures
remains unexplored. If modifications to selection measurement devices disrupt the factorial validity of
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JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
the measure, means analysis is impossible to interpret. Second, the degree to which these strategies
serve to ultimately increase criterion-related validity is open to question. The sections below will expand
upon these issues and culminate in hypotheses designed to test the impact of warnings and
elaborations requirements on measurement equivalence and criterion-related validity of applicant
responses to a selection instrument.
THE MEASUREMENT EQUIVALENCE OF RESPONSE DISTORTION
REDUCTION TECHNIQUES
In the context of personnel selection, proactively warning applicants that response distortion can be
identified and providing the consequences for faking (typically disqualification from the selection
process) has been shown to be an effective strategy for reducing mean levels of faking (Doll, 1971;
Kluger & Collella, 1993; Paulhus, Bruce, & Trapnell, 1995; Schrader & Osburn, 1977). Warnings seem
to reduce predictor scores by encouraging those who initially planned to fake to instead answer
honestly by increasing the complexity of the items embedded within the personality scale. For example,
using Tetlock‘s (1992) contingency model, Vasilopoulos, Cucina, & McElreath (2005) hypothesized that
warnings increase the cognitive difficulty of the response decision by forcing applicants to develop more
complex decision strategies in order to present themselves more favorably without being detected. In
other words, the applicant is aware that his/her responses will be seen by others, which will be linked to
their identity and evaluated against some standard, and he/she will be required to defend the veracity of
those responses. Their results indicated that accountability for response veracity ultimately decreases
mean levels of applicant responding. These effects are mirrored by Dwight and Donovan‘s (2003)
review of the warning literature which found that warnings do tend to have a small impact on responses
(d = 0.23), with warned applicants receiving lower predictor scores than unwarned applicants.
Similarly, researchers have shown that requiring applicants to elaborate on biodata responses has
demonstrated some promise in reducing faking. Based on the social cognition literature demonstrating
that individuals report elevated levels of competencies when they believe their answers to be
unverifiable (Fiske & Taylor, 1991), and Becker and Colquitt‘s (1992) finding that applicants inflate
responses to a greater extent when application blanks are subjective, Schmitt and Kunce (2002)
developed the elaboration method – a technique requiring applicants to elaborate on the answers to
some of the biodata items in an application packet. Their results demonstrated that this requirement
led to a 0.7 to 0.8 standard deviation decrease in responses relative to those items for which no
elaboration was required. Furthermore, in a replication and extension of this study, Schmitt, Oswald,
Kim, Gillespie, Ramsay, and Yoo (2003) found that elaborated responses result in scores that were
much lower than nonelaborated responses to the same items by an independent sample.
However, despite the studies demonstrating that these types of selection device modifications result in
a reduction of obtained scale means, disruption in measurement equivalence resulting from purposeful
device alterations would preclude the use of means analysis as an indicator of modification strategy
utility. Measurement is often defined as the systematic assignment of values on constructs to represent
characteristics of persons, raters, or events (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000). Measurement equivalence
indicates that the instrument means and functions the same across these entities (Cheung, 1999;
Vandenberg & Lance, 2000). Measurement equivalence is most often tested using multi-group
confirmatory (MGCFA), which takes place over a number of successive steps involving a series of
nested models. At each step, an additional constraint of invariance is added to subsets of parameters
(i.e., factor loadings, error variances) and the fit of the resulting model is assessed to determine if the
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Techniques for Reducing Applicant Response Distortion: Their Effects on Measurement Equivalence and Criterion-Related Validity
forced invariance has worsened the fit of the model (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000). Ultimately,
measurement equivalence means that, at a minimum, raters must agree on the item loadings and factor
structure of an instrument (i.e., the instrument ‗‗means‘‘ the same thing to the raters in differing
conditions). Only when measurement equivalence has been established are mean differences
interpretable, thus, measurement equivalence is a prerequisite to making meaningful comparisons
across respondent groups (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000).
To date, researchers and practitioners have examined measurement equivalence over several types of
organizationally-relevant grouping conditions including multisource performance appraisal ratings
sources (Cheung, 1999; Woehr, Sheehan, & Bennett, 1999) and employee attitude survey
administration mode (Whitaker & McKinney, 2007). More relevant to the selection domain, researchers
have investigated the measurement equivalence of selection devices over incumbent and applicant
samples (Smith, Hanges, & Dickson, 2001) and differing frames of reference (Robie, Schmit, Ryan, &
Zickar, 2000). However, no one has investigated the extent to which the differing proactive response
distortion reduction techniques impact the measurement equivalence of a selection device. This study
seeks to investigate the influence of these modifications on the factorial validity of one of the most
heavily-researched and well-documented constructs in the selection context, namely,
Conscientiousness. Because no research exists to indicate that factorial validity will be influenced by
warnings or elaborations manipulations when compared to a baseline control condition, the following
hypotheses are proposed:
Hypothesis 1: Conscientiousness ratings will be invariant across Control and Warnings conditions.
Hypothesis 2: Conscientiousness ratings will be invariant across Control and Elaborations conditions.
Following the establishment of measurement invariance across the Control condition and the Warnings
and Elaborations conditions, respectively, means analysis will be conducted. Given that the proactive
response distortion reduction techniques employed in the present study have already been shown to
lead to lower scale means (Dwight & Donovan, 2003; Schmitt & Kunce, 2002), the following
hypotheses are proposed:
Hypothesis 3: Conscientiousness ratings will be lower for respondents in the Warnings condition than
those in the control condition.
Hypothesis 4: Conscientiousness ratings will be lower for respondents in the Elaborations condition
than those in the control condition.
CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY AND PROACTIVE RESPONSE
DISTORTION REDUCTION TECHNIQUES
Of particular interest to selection researchers and practitioners is whether warnings or elaboration
requirements improve the criterion-related validity of selection tests. If these types of selection device
modifications reduce response distortion, applicants‘ responses should more accurately represent their
true scores and better predict their performance. However, very little research has been carried out
examining the criterion-related validity of warnings and elaborations strategies on performance
outcomes.
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JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
Within the warnings literature, only three studies have included a control group for comparison
purposes while collecting performance data for criterion-related validity assessment (Fox & Dinur, 1988;
Haymaker & Erwin, 1980; Mock, 1947). The results of these studies are contradictory; Fox and Dinur
(1988) found no predictive utility for warnings, Haymaker and Erwin (1980) found partial support, and
Mock‘s (1947) results indicate that warnings do improve the criterion-related validity of selection tests.
Even less research has examined the degree to which elaboration requirements influence criterionrelated validity. In the sole study investigating this issue, Schmitt and Kunce (2002), using a sample of
undergraduate students, found no evidence that elaboration affects criterion-related validity in a
practically significant way. However, rather than employing a non-biased, objective performance
measure, the authors relied on GPA and self-ratings of performance.
Overall, the results of the studies investigating warnings as a response distortion reduction technique
have led to contradictory and unclear results while the only study examining the effects of elaborations
on criterion-related validity employed the use of biased outcome variables. We are thus interested in
evaluating the impact of warnings and elaborations on the criterion-related validity of an objective
measure of performance. Due to the lack of guidance in the extant literature regarding direction and
magnitude of the influence of response distortion reduction techniques on performance, we hypothesize
the following:
Hypothesis 5: Items from the Warnings condition will correlate no differently with a performance
measure than those from the Control condition.
Hypothesis 6: Items from the Elaborations condition will correlate no differently with a performance
measure than those from the Control condition.
METHOD
Participants
Participants were 377 undergraduate students at a large Midwestern public university who received
extra credit for their participation. The mean age for participants was 22.8, and the sample was 73.5%
female and 84.7% Caucasian, 11.8% African American, and 3.5% categorized themselves as either
Asian, Hispanic, Native American, or Other.
Procedure
Participants were asked to play the part of an applicant interested in obtaining a position at a fictitious
organization in the area and complete an online application packet for the job. The motivation of
participants to answer carefully was of high importance to this study and several precautions were
taken to ensure thoughtful responding. First, participants were advised that the names of all those
providing completed applications would be placed in a $200 lottery at the conclusion of the study.
Second, the focal Conscientiousness measure used in the study was part of a larger package of
instruments to which the applicants were to respond, however, the Conscientiousness items were the
first items to which they responded, lessening the effects of fatigue. Third, the website hosting the
online survey offered a feature whereby the time taken to complete the survey was recorded. The data
from those respondents who took an inordinately short or long period of time to respond were omitted
from analyses. Fourth, in order to maximize applicant attraction and interest in this position, a pilot
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Techniques for Reducing Applicant Response Distortion: Their Effects on Measurement Equivalence and Criterion-Related Validity
study was conducted prior to focal study initiation. For the purpose of the pilot study, a separate sample
from the same population (N = 76) was presented with eight fictitious positions differing on job tasks,
necessary skills, organizational culture, salary, and benefits and asked to rate each on its
attractiveness. The position that ranked highest among the pilot study sample (M = 6.7 on a 7-point
scale) was employed for use in the focal study. Lastly, participants in the focal study were told that the
purpose of the project was to develop a selection instrument for an actual position at an authentic areabased organization. This was done as a means to increase the valence of the position, however, during
debriefing participants were informed that the both the position and the organization were fictitious.
Participants for the focal study were randomly assigned to one of the three conditions under study. In all
conditions, participants were emailed a link to the online application where they were first asked to
complete a consent form. Once this was signed and completed, they were then linked to the job
description (including essential functions and skills, salary, and benefits), which then linked to the
selection device measures. There are three advantages to using an online service for this study: First, it
allows applicants to complete the measure at a convenient time, which increases the response rate.
Second, it provides situational fidelity as more organizations are using the Internet to administer initial
screening devices. Third, and most important for this study, online administration provides a means of
control to the researcher. For this study, the web pages constituting the application materials were set
up in such a way that participants were not permitted to backtrack. This feature allowed us to administer
a job knowledge test to the participants once the application materials had been filled out and
submitted. The test items consisted of information embedded within the job description the applicants
read prior to filling out the selection measures. As participants were not allowed to simply hit the back
button on the browser to retrieve the correct answer to the job knowledge test, the items making up this
test served as an objective performance measure.
Participants were asked to fill out a 45-item selection application composed of a number of personality
measures within which the Conscientiousness measure was embedded. Those in the Warnings
conditions were advised that the items making up the application were designed to identify those who
attempt to fake responses. Participants in the Elaborations condition were asked to describe instances
of conscientious behavior, depending on item wording, when responding to the Conscientiousness
measure. Those in the Control condition received no such manipulations to device instructions.
Measures
Conscientiousness Biographical Data Questionnaire (CBDQ)
The CBDQ (Gee & Snell, 1998) is a 64-item biodata form developed for personnel selection that
measures eight sub-facets of conscientiousness (dependability, planfulness, organization, selfdiscipline, rationality, high standards, attention to detail, and particularity). In order to minimize test
length and respondent fatigue, this study employed only the sub-facets of dependability, planfulness,
and self-discipline. These sub-facets were chosen because they have been shown to have the highest
criterion-related validity (Gee & Snell, 1998). Altogether, 15 items were used to measure
Conscientiousness, seven of which were reverse-coded. These items are responded to on a 5-point
Likert scale (Not at all, Seldom, Sometimes, Frequently, Very Frequently). A sample item reads ‖ If
there was a big project or task coming up, such as writing a report for school or work, how likely are you
to wait until the last minute rather than spacing the work out over time?‖ A sample reverse-coded item
reads ―In the past, how often have you failed to accomplish a list of tasks because you didn‘t plan
enough time for each one?‖
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JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
Job Knowledge Test
A job knowledge test served as the criterion for this study. Once participants electronically submitted
their application measures, they were presented with a fill-in-the-blank test which assessed the extent
to which participants attended to details embedded within the job description. This test was an eightitem measure asking participants to recall details such as the name of the organization to which they
applied, the types of services it sells, the level of experience necessary to get this job at this
organization, and items regarding salary and benefits.
Results
Means, standard deviations, and alpha coefficients are presented in Table 1. To represent the
measurement model while minimizing the influence of error in the model, we followed the
recommendations of Williams and Anderson (1994) and Hall, Snell, and Foust (1999) by creating
parcels that share a secondary factor to serve as indicators of the latent variables for some of the items.
Thus, whereas seven of the items pertaining to the Conscientiousness construct were left to serve as
indicators of the latent construct, two parcels were formed from the scale‘s negatively worded items (4
items for each parcel).
Hypotheses 1 stated that Conscientiousness ratings would be invariant across a Control and Warnings
conditions. Following accepted practice (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000), the fit of the factor model within
each condition was first assessed to ensure that the same form of factor structure was present in each
model. This test produced a relatively good fit to the data once minor modifications were made to the
model (two error variances across the conditions were allowed to covary). Although the chi-square
value was significant (χ2(49) = 66.59, p < .05, see Model 1 in Table 2), the other fit indices were
indicative of acceptable model fit (CFI = .94, SRMR = .06, RMSEA = .06).Following this, we tested the
degree to which the factor loadings were invariant across conditions by setting the factor loadings to be
equal across conditions (Model 2 in Table 2) and comparing it to Model 1. The more restrictive model
with invariant factor loadings did not produce a significant decrease in fit in terms of the chi-square
difference test (Δ2(9) = 10.26, p = ns), nor any change in any of the practical fit indexes.
Table 1: Means, standard deviations, and alpha coefficients for study variables.
Condition
Control
Conscientiousness
Job Knowledge
Warnings
Conscientiousness
Job Knowledge
Elaborations
Conscientiousness
Job Knowledge
M
SD

3.91
4.82
0.53
2.21
.77
-
3.64
4.73
0.87
2.12
.78
-
3.67
4.52
0.54
2.03
.80
-
Note: All analyses for the carried out on N = 100 for the control condition, N = 132 for the warnings condition, and N = 145
for the elaborations condition. * p < .05.
53
Techniques for Reducing Applicant Response Distortion: Their Effects on Measurement Equivalence and Criterion-Related Validity
Table 2: Results of tests of measurement equivalence/criterion-related validity across conditions
df
2
Δdf
Δ2
CFI
1. Baseline Model
49
66.59*
-
-
.94
.06
.06
2. Equal Factor Loadings
58
76.85*
9
10.26
.94
.05
.07
3. Equal Factor Loadings, Equal error
variances
67
97.42*
9
20.57*
.90
.06
.09
4. Equal Factor Loadings, Equal error
variances, 1 freed error variance
66
87.34*
8
10.49
.93
.05
.08
5. Equal Factor Loadings, Equal error
variances, 1 freed error variance, free
latent means
72
90.70
-
-
.94
.05
.08
6. Equal Factor Loadings, Equal error
variances, 1 freed error variance, equal
latent means
73
109.32*
1
18.62*
.91
.06
.09
62
231.10
-
-
.68
.15
.11
1. Validities free
-
-
-
-
1.00
.00
.00
2. Validities constrained to be equal
1
7.28*
1
7.28*
.71
.23
.11
Model
RMSEA SRMR
Control vs. Warnings: Measurement
Control vs. Elaborations: Measurement
1. Baseline Model
Control vs. Warnings: CR validity
Note: All analyses for the carried out on N = 100 for the control condition and N = 132 for the warnings condition. CR
validity = criterion – related validity; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean squared error of approximation;
SRMR = standardized root mean square residual. * p < .05
Next, we tested whether there were differences in the indicator error variances across the two
conditions. This model (Model 3 in Table 2) produced a significant decrease in model fit in terms of the
chi-square difference test (Δ2 (9) = 20.57, p < .05) compared to the model in which the error variances
were allowed to be free across groups (i.e., Model 2 in Table 2). The change in CFI of .04 also
indicated a decrease in model fit according to the guidelines of Cheung and Rensvold (2002). The
change in the SRMR and RMSEA values further indicated that this model fit less well than the previous
model.
We then examined the indicator residuals across the two conditions to test for the possibility of partial
invariance, as suggested by Vandenberg and Lance (2000). To determine the source of invariance
across groups, we looked for the indicators with the largest difference in residuals across the two
conditions. We determined that one indicator had a relatively large difference across the two conditions
when compared to the rest of the indicators. Thus, we tested a model (Model 4 in Table 2) in which this
error variance was allowed to be free across conditions. This model was compared to a model in which
all error variances were allowed to be free (i.e., Model 2 in Table 2). The partial invariance model
(Model 6) produced an increase in chi-square that did not reach significance (Δ2 (8) = 10.49, p = ns),
and the practical fit indices all indicated acceptable model fit (CFI = .93, SRMR = .05, RMSEA = .08).
Additionally, the change in CFI of .01 did not exceed the guidelines set forth by Cheung and Rensvold
(2002) to assess model fit decrement. These results suggest that factor loadings were invariant across
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B. Whitaker
JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
the Warnings and Control conditions, indicating that respondents interpreted and used the rating scales
with a similar metric, thus providing support for Hypothesis 1.
Hypotheses 2 postulated that Conscientiousness ratings would be invariant across a Control and an
Elaborations condition. Following the same procedure outlined above (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000), we
failed to establish a baseline model. In assessing whether the same form of factor structure was
present in each model, this test produced a poor fit to the data according to the chi-square goodnessof-fit statistic (χ2(62) = 231.10, p < .05) as well as the other fit indices (CFI = .68, SRMR = .15, RMSEA
= .11). These results indicate that the factor structure does not remain consistent across Control and
Elaborations conditions and suggest that respondents do not use the same metric when responding to
measures across this type of response distortion reduction technique. As such, Hypothesis 2 was not
supported. Given that factor form does not remain invariant across Control and Elaborations conditions,
these results obviate the rationale for examining mean differences or changes in criterion-related
validity resulting from elaborations (Hypotheses 4 and 6, respectively).
As such, we proceeded to Hypothesis 3, which stated that Conscientiousness ratings would be lower
for respondents in the Warnings condition than those in the Control condition. We tested this by adding
the means to the model and conducting a test for the differences in latent means by comparing a model
in which they were allowed to be free (Model 5 in Table 2) to a model in which they were constrained to
be equal (Model 6 in Table 2). This model produced a significant decrease in chi-square (χ2(1) = 18.62,
p < .05) as well as a decrease in CFI of .03, indicating that latent means differed significantly across the
conditions. Inspection of the latent means indicated that Conscientiousness ratings for the Warnings
condition (M = 3.55) were lower than those obtained in the Control condition (M = 3.93), providing
support for Hypothesis 3. Of note, a t-test conducted independently also confirmed that the means
differed significantly across groups and in the same direction.
Hypothesis 5 postulated that items from the Warnings condition would correlate no differently with a
performance measure than those from the Control condition. To test for differences in criterion-related
validity across the conditions, multiple group path analysis was conducted because the data are at the
scale level without corrections for measurement in the predictor. To begin with, validities were first
allowed to be freely estimated across samples. Because this model estimates all paths, it represents a
saturated model, and as such, model fit is perfect (See Table 2).
The paths were next constrained to be equal across the conditions to test whether they are the same.
The results of this constraint led to a severe decrement in model fit (Δ2 (1) = 7.28, p < .05; CFI = .71,
SRMR = .23, RMSEA = .11, Table 2), indicating that the validities were significantly different across the
conditions (this was independently confirmed by testing the differences in regression coefficients as
well). Figure 1 shows that only the criterion-related validity associated with the Warnings condition were
significant and positive (the validity in parentheses is from the Control sample; the validity in bold is
from the Warnings condition).
(-.07)
Conscientiousness
*
Performance
.40
Figure 1: Multiple group path analysis of criterion-related validities.
Note: Parameter estimates are based on standardized solution. The path coefficient in parentheses are from the Control
condition, that in bold is from the Warnings condition. * p < .05.
55
Techniques for Reducing Applicant Response Distortion: Their Effects on Measurement Equivalence and Criterion-Related Validity
DISCUSSION
Despite the recent research literature suggesting that manipulation of the test environment through the
use of warnings and elaborations might serve to lessen the deleterious effects of response distortion
(Dwight & Donovan, 2003; Schmitt & Kunce, 2002), the organizational literature has little to say about
the effects of such manipulations on the resulting invariance of ratings and criterion-related validities.
The findings from this study suggest that requiring applicants to elaborate on personality items
negatively affects the measurement properties of personality measures. However, proactively warning
applicants against response distortion had no effect on measurement properties and, in this dataset,
improved the criterion-related validity of the personality measure employed. We hope this study draws
attention to these important, disparate findings and provides some guidance for future research and
practice.
Overall, Hypotheses 1, 3, and 5 pertaining to the warnings condition were all supported. These findings
indicate that the warning manipulation resulted in measurement invariance between the warning and
control conditions, and thus provide some evidence that self-reported Conscientiousness ratings are
psychometrically equivalent across conditions. Establishing that invariance exists is a critical step from
a measurement perspective. Only when raters‘ responses are invariant with respect to factor structure
are mean differences interpretable (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000).
The current study replicated those studies in the extant selection literature demonstrating significantly
lower means responses for warned applicants (e.g., Dwight & Donovan, 2003). These results indicate
that warning an applicant of the consequences of faking may dissuade those initially planning to distort
responses to instead answer honestly to selection devices and make it more difficult for the applicant to
discern the ―correct‖ response, and may result in reduced numbers of fakers in an applicant pool
(Dwight & Donovan, 2003).
Although it appears clear from the results of this study that warnings may successfully deter response
distortion, the primary reason so many researchers and practitioners are concerned with faking is its
negative impact on criterion-related validity. Despite this concern, as noted by Pace and Borman (2006)
there is a distinct lack of research investigating and comparing the criterion-related validity of noncognitive applicant predictors across warnings and control conditions. Of particular importance to
practitioners and researchers, the current study demonstrated that criterion-related validity was greatly
improved with the provision of a warning against faking. These results help nullify the threat of hiring
poor performers based on erroneous, faked predictor information.
The findings of the current study, combined with McFarland‘s (2003) findings that the perceived fairness
of the selection system was positively influenced by the provision of a warning, indicate that proactively
informing applicants of the possibility of detection and the resulting consequences result in several
beneficial outcomes without changes to the underlying factor structure of the scale.
In contrast, we found no support for Hypotheses 2 pertaining to the elaboration manipulation. The
resulting measurement non-invariance between the two conditions preclude the logic for further
psychometric comparison; consequently Hypotheses 4 and 6 were not analyzed as comparison of
mean differences and changes in criterion-related validity would be inappropriate from a measurement
perspective. These results suggest that requiring an elaboration on Conscientiousness biodata items
changes the fundamental way applicants either perceive or respond to these items.
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JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
For example, it may be that elaborations require applicants to re-conceptualize and cognitively process
these items in such a way as to modify the underlying construct or change the way personal
experiences are interpreted and evaluated. On the other hand, when they are required to expend effort
responding and believe their answers to be verifiable, applicants may evaluate their competencies in
the same manner, yet simply overcompensate in their responding out of fear of detection. In this case,
applicants might report competency levels so skewed as to lead to disruption in psychometric
equivalence across elaborations and control conditions. It might me be helpful for future research to
ascertain whether modifications to elaboration requirements might be made in order to establish
measurement equivalence to existing selection measures (e.g., an optimal number of elaborated items
or crafting language in such a way as to minimize non-invariance).
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
Although non-cognitive tests have the potential to be useful predictors of performance (Barrick & Mount,
1996), response distortion is a pertinent concern for their use. The results of the current study indicate
that the use of warnings as a means to minimize faking shows promise. Specifically, applicants seemed
to interpret conscientiousness items equivalently between the warning and control conditions,
conscientiousness ratings were not as elevated in the warning condition, and criterion-related validity
was greatly improved by their use. Thus, these findings indicate that practitioners can use warnings
when concerns about faking on non-cognitive tests are pertinent.
In contrast, the current study‘s results suggest that elaboration manipulations should be used with
caution. Elaboration requirements resulted in measurement non-invariance between the elaboration
and control conditions. This differing factor structure prevented the interpretation of mean differences in
conscientiousness between the two conditions, which means that any conclusions that we could draw
about the effectiveness of elaboration as a means to reduce faking would be highly questionable.
In summary, both practitioners and researchers stand to benefit from increased attention to reducing
response distortion on non-cognitive tests. Although much more research is needed in this area, the
current study‘s results demonstrate that warnings in particular show promise as a useful way to reduce
distortion without altering respondents‘ perceptions of selection devices.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS & LIMITATIONS
Despite this study‘s contributions, some important limitations of this study should be noted and
addressed by future research. Clearly, the first limitation concerns the potentially limited generalizability
of the results obtained in this study to actual application contexts. We employed a student sample of
mock applicants that may not have approached the selection device like an applicant for an actual job.
However, we did attempt to increase applicant motivation in a variety of ways; for example, we pilot
tested multiple job descriptions to develop one that was found to be highly attractive to this study‘s
sample. Nevertheless, future research should attempt to replicate these findings with different applicant
pools. It may be that the motivation levels of the mock applicants, compared to that of actual job
applicants, was reduced, in turn reducing the amount of faking in this study. In this event, the results of
this study might be viewed as attenuated estimates of the impact of proactive warnings on applicant
response distortion.
Another potential limitation was the choice of predictor and criterion measures. We chose to use a
conscientiousness measure to predict a job knowledge criterion so that we could assess changes in
57
Techniques for Reducing Applicant Response Distortion: Their Effects on Measurement Equivalence and Criterion-Related Validity
criterion-related validity that occurred due to the manipulations. However, the effects of warnings and
elaborations on criterion-related validity may differ if alternate predictor tests are used or if different
criteria are examined (such as job performance). Future research should attempt to replicate this
study‘s findings with different patterns of predictors and criteria.
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Paper presented at the 144h Annual Conference of the Society of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, Atlanta, GA, April, 1999.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Brian G. Whitaker, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in Morehead State University's Department of
Management. He received his doctorate in Industrial/Organizational Psychology from the University of
Akron and his BA from the University of Louisville. His research interests include performance
appraisal, feedback seeking, Machiavellianism in the workplace, and measurement issues.
61
Part II - The Four Factors of Quality: Achieving the Circle of Acceptance and Satisfaction
PART II - THE FOUR FACTORS OF QUALITY: ACHIEVING THE
CIRCLE OF ACCEPTANCE AND SATISFACTION
Avis J. Smith
New York City College of Technology, USA
ABSTRACT
Part II of The Four Factors of Quality: Achieving The Circle of Acceptance and Quality, is a continued
discussion explaining views of the author, and articles obtained from other sources. The information
pertains to the business areas of manufacturing, distribution, sales, and professional/social customer.
Much focus is given to the areas of concern with respect to the internal and external factors that can
create greater efficiency or adversity in the efforts to achieve acceptance and satisfaction, as well as
profit and value; depending on one’s approach. It explains the need for divisional analysis of the Four
Factors of Quality and the internal and external factors. It is suggested by the author, that to investigate
these areas separately would be best as an analytical tool because of the attention to detail it can
provide. It is believed that when the areas suggested for analytical investigations are properly
performed, that the results will equal the achievement of the circle of acceptance and satisfaction. The
approach also serves as a logical approach to study customer satisfaction surveys.
Keywords: Divisional Analysis, Internal Factors, External Factors, Business Variation, Divisional
Process.
INTRODUCTION
The social economic environment of business rules as the primary determinant for success and
acceptance in all levels of the Four Factors Of Quality. There must however, be diligent observance
and assessment of the internal and external factors, which are the avenues towards helping businesses
to obtain success. These avenues towards success must be ventured into separately (divisional
process) in an effort to develop detailed strategies, which will coincide with the benefits of overall
performance for achieving success in the business process. The primary factors of internal and external
implementation are cross-sectional and include the various areas of business fields previously
mentioned (manufacturing, distribution, sales, professional/social customer), but are not always specific
to each area of business variations covering the four factors. Further studies into The Four Factors of
Quality, reveals opinions of others who have written on related subjects. For example, in one report it
was noted that a significant change in the manufacturing phase of business had taken place. This
change particularly reflects the changes taking place from manufacturing to the service sector; it also
reveals information about how technology has affected manufacturing trends. It continues to explain
how the service sector has increased in size, while the manufacturing sector (the foundation of a strong
economy), has decreased in size; a trend which affects the overall economy of the United States.
Because of the significant change in manufacturing, it is important to examine all of the factors which
are common to the Four Factors of Quality, manufacturing, distribution, sales, and the
professional/social customer. It is also necessary to assess those factors, which can adversely affect
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the achievement of goals at each level of the various phases in the assessment of the Four Factors of
Quality. There are major factors that can have an adverse or positive effect on the success of strategic
planning, solutions planning, inventory control and planning around economic conditions. The divisional
process for assessing these factors in efforts to work towards success, and development, are common
for all areas from manufacturing to the professional/social consumer.
FACTORS AND CONCERNS FOR MANUFACTURING
A recent assessment based on a poll taken to determine the major causes for declines in
manufacturing turned up very interesting results. The assessment was done by polling/surveys of
executives, and was performed by the Fabtech International & AWS Welding Show, and included a
company by the name of Metalform. (http://www.qualitymag.com/copyright/BNP-GUID-9-5-2006-A10000000000000452788... viewed on 8/27/2009). As an explanation for the increase in the service
industry and decreases in the manufacturing industry, the results from executives polled determined the
following to be the cause:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Lack of employee skills
Oil prices
Taxes
Weak dollar
Iraq (financial commitment)
Credit crisis
Total:
63%
20%
11%
10%
9%
7%1
100%
Chart 1 below, depicts a graphical picture of the responses from the executives who were
polled/surveyed. These executives expressed their opinions as to why there is a decrease in
manufacturing. As a result of the polling/surveys suggestions, which serve to give a greater focus of
how to increase the interest of future generations in manufacturing was also determined. It was
suggested that an increase in parental involvement, might help to encourage young people to go into
the field of manufacturing. At the educational level, it was suggested that teachers get involved to
encourage students to seek employment, and careers in manufacturing. It was also felt that greater
offerings of compatible math and science programs at the level of high school and college would be
used to serve, and support an increased interest in manufacturing. Technology programs that help to
facilitate greater knowledge in high-tech and computer skills could also serve as an investment, which
in turn would help to develop a greater interest in manufacturing as well.
(http://www.qualitymag.com/copyright/BNP-GUID-9-5-2006-A-10000000000000452788..., viewed on
8/27/09. The final results from those polled, determined that 58% of the respondents felt that
competitive salaries would increase interest in manufacturing, while 27% felt that parental/teacher
involvement would increase interest. Also of those surveyed, 23% supported the idea of more relevant
math and science courses in high school and college, while 22% supported the need for increased
computer and high-tech skills. The pie chart in Chart 2, shows the percentage of those respondents
who expressed possible solutions for increasing future generational interest in manufacturing.
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Part II - The Four Factors of Quality: Achieving the Circle of Acceptance and Satisfaction
Chart 1: Explanation for decreased manufacturing.
Chart 2: Solutions to support future generational interest in manufacturing.
Taking another look into these concerns, it is also useful to assess the various planning processes
which can help to support manufacturing by investigating supportive internal and external possibilities.
The author has found based on articles published by others, which although not directly stated;
supports the following as internal factors for supporting quality in manufacturing and increasing the
infrastructure of the companies and industry itself. Table 1, is a list of some of the internal factors, which
support improving manufacturing, and is followed by Table 2, which displays the external factors.
Table 1: Internal Factors
1.
Invest in infrastructure
7.
Human resources system
2.
Resource allocation
8.
Quality control system
3.
Human resource system
9.
Process development
4.
Quality control system
10. Product development
5.
Measurement analysis system
11. Information processing
6.
Six Sigma Training
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JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
Table 2: External Factors1.
Market based strategy
4.
Product based strategy
2.
Capability based strategy
5.
Price based strategy
3.
Changing markets
FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION
The major factors affecting distributors is the continuous increase and improvements in technologies
such as those, which are inspired by ecommerce. Generally it is believed that the larger the distribution
company size, the greater the need exists for investment into ecommerce. It is also believed that
ecommerce is responsible for the increasing profits and value in distribution. It is assumed that larger
scale distribution companies are more financially stable allowing the affordability for more advanced
technology to support their operations. If true, this may create a competitive disadvantage for small
scale distributors, as indicated in the article ―How Much Are Small-to-Midsized Distributors Losing
When They Ignore eCommerce?‖ authored by Cheyne Rood. It is also noted in this article, that the
capacity of larger size distributors creates the need to develop departments within their companies
which are dedicated to handling ecommerce as a means to increase profits and value on a consistent
level in their functions; (www.distisuite.com/articles/distisuite-ecommerce-stats), viewed on November
1, 2009).
The Distisuite Company provides web-sites for distribution companies to facilitate the ecommerce
process. They have found that the benefits out way the cost, but can differ based on the difference
between their non-installation and installation processes. The following revenue costs/profits, were
determined by the Distisuite Company: a. for the non-installation year where clients are only paying
their monthly rate, average revenue to cost ratio of 91:1 was achieved, which indicates an average $91
dollars of revenue for every $1.00 spent on the DistiSuite system annually. The installation revenue
cost ratio was 21:1, or $21 dollars of revenue for every $1.00 spent. The DistiSuite Company
determined that the average lowest performing clients of the Distisuite system investment, produced
revenue to cost ratios of 20:1 for the non installation year, and 7:1 for an installation year. They also
determined that top performing clients average about 400 new customers each year;
(www.distisuite.com/articles/distisuite-ecommerce-stats,viewed on 1 November 2009). The findings
indicate that ecommerce can obviously put a distributor of large scale, at a greater advantage than that
of a midsize or smaller size distributor; however it is the balance sheet in any business that tells the
final story. What is important however is that distributors assess the internal and external factors, which
help to facilitate progress in efforts to improve profits and value. The article Distributors Search For
Bright Spots, Industrial Distribution, March/April 2009, viewed on 11/01/2009, indicates the following
internal factors that can help to add profits and value to distributors; and external factors that should be
assessed to develop strategic planning in support of the internal factors for establishing profits and
value as seen in Tables 3 and 4:
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Part II - The Four Factors of Quality: Achieving the Circle of Acceptance and Satisfaction
Table 3: Internal factors for adding profits and value for distributors.
1.
Develop new growth strategies
6.
Consolidation
2.
Facility closings
7.
Create full service warehouses
3.
Enhance catalog offerings
8.
Seek alternative energy sources
4.
Suspend salary increases
9.
Reduce work hours
5.
Reduce staff
10. Layoffs
Table 4: External factors
1.
Mergers and acquisitions
2.
Geographical territories
3.
Seek new external business opportunities
4.
Find new markets
5.
Find new customers
6.
Nationwide highways
FACTORS AFFECTING SALES
As for any major factors having affects on sales activity, issues surrounding economy and employee
training are paramount to understand. As it has been previously stated in the article, ―Survey: Lack of
Skilled Workers Hurts Economy Most‖, unskilled workers create a trickle down affect which is a
hindrance to sales potential. Employers must establish internal procedures to perpetuate significant
training of employees, however they must also make full use of their investment into employees by
determining the variety of skills those employees may poses, which can add to their value
(http://www.qualitymag.com/copyright/BNP-GUID-9-5-2006-A-10000000000000452788... viewed on
8/27/2009).
As sales represent the consistent purpose of the company‘s strategic goals and objectives (value and
profit), it is understandable that if workers (for example), in a dental company which sales complete
dentures, and not partials dentures; that company would be considered as a single aggregate company
despite the fact that various workers may possess skills in the partial denture process. A company in
this situation could be in a position to explore and develop workers skills by establishing methods for
identifying such skills for the purpose of making full use of their investment in their employees. This can
help to increase the flexibility of sales output and add value to both the company and the economy. The
ability of a company to develop training as a creative marketing approach is necessary to increase
sales. There are internal and external strategies for general use by sales facilities that are needed to
enhance specific employee related training skills, and methods that help to increase sales goals
(value/profit), as seen in Table 5.
Table 5: Internal factors which help to promote sales.
1.
Training and training up-dates
2.
Establishing of research of consumer markets
3.
Brand focus
4.
Analysis of social networks
5.
Developing methods to continuously address
consumer needs.
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JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
Table 6: External factors that help to promote sales.
1.
Relationship building
2.
Invest in customers
3.
Set focus on customer success
4.
Open communication
5.
Maintain a professional relationship
FACTORS AFFECTING THE PROFESSIONAL
The greatest factor which can have a serious impact on the professional is the location of choice. As
distributors and manufactures generally depend on a variety of transportation means, the professional
commonly establishes local relationships. This is particularly true for individual professionals such as
doctors, dentists, podiatrist, lawyers, accountants etc. The geographical locations of such professionals
are important due to the potential to select a location, which is overcrowded or much of the time
selected based on the popularity of a state or city; or selection just based on what they like. There must
be analysis made by these professionals to determine the population ratio which they intend to serve.
There may be concerns for age variations within a population, as particular professional services to be
offered may better serve a particular age group population or other qualitative population. In dentistry
for example a prosthodontists who specializes in dentures, and seek an area where there is an older
population assuming the restorative needs of older patients‘. It has been assumed by many dentists,
that the state of Florida is a state where dentures may sale more, due to an elderly population that
prefers warm weather year round.
Using the field of dentistry again as an example, the New York State Dental Association, is a
professional organization which supports more than 13,000 dentists in New York State. Members have
special access to clinical, education and business resources. NYSDA is one of the largest state
constituents of the American Dental Association, and is dedicated to ensuring the highest standards of
dental care for the State of New York.‖ (newyork.citystar.com/mall/dentists01.html; viewed on 6
November 2009). This organization is a valuable resource for dental professionals, as it can assist in
their decision of locations within the state. Decisions both internal and external which are commonly
used in the process of the professional, which work to develop profits and value, are those which are
stated in Tables 7 and 8, and are also listed as internal and external factors.
Table 7: Internal factors supporting value and profits for the professional.
1.
Establish methods of consumer courtship
2.
Web-based planning
3.
Limited social networking
4.
Accounting and record keeping
5.
Establishing methods of sales courtship
6.
Pricing
7.
Quality assurance
Table 8: External factors which can affect the professional.
1.
Geographic selection
2.
3.
Review and up-dates of professional organizational
information
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Demographic selection
Part II - The Four Factors of Quality: Achieving the Circle of Acceptance and Satisfaction
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SOCIAL CUSTOMER
The social customer has an array of choices, consumer information and redress in the business
process. The orientation of their satisfaction and choices primarily reflects the quality of the
manufacturer, the ability of the distributor to manage transportation of goods, the professionalism of
sales personnel and consumer knowledge. The social customer is ruled by economic conditions, which
influence by the decision making of manufacturing, distributions, sales and the professional as a result
of the economy. It is this that sets the social customer apart from the rest. It is the ability of the social
customer to maneuver in the ever changing currents of the economy, which determines their economic
survival. The ability to separate needs from wants under specific economic conditions determine their
longevity, and the longevity of their offspring. The dynamics for the social consumer are quite different
from those of the manufacturing, distribution and the professional customer, but all are participants in
the Four Factors of Quality, areas and are all social consumers in their daily lives; having commonly
shared concerns that back track from professional services to manufacturing. One would assume that
the unified experience at the social customer level would create a greater determination on the part of
all to ensure quality and service based on their empirical experience. This however leads into ethical
issues, which must be continuously addressed. The social customer must be aware of the following
internal and external factors relevant to their survival in all economic conditions as listed in Tables 9
and 10.
Internal: factors supporting the social customer.
1.
Education
2.
Earning capacity
3.
Life style
External: factors needed for the social customer to be aware of.
1.
Economic awareness
2.
Social awareness
ANALYSIS ASSESSMENTS COMMON TO ALL FACTORS
When assessing The Four Factors of Quality, there are specific methodologies used in each area for
evaluating processes, values and quality. Most of the methods are common to all areas however; the
variation in the size of a business does influence the need to use particular methods. This helps to
distinguish between primary and secondary methodologies used. For example, it seems more common
for manufactures to spend a significant percentage of time focusing on process analysis to maximize
quality in the production process as a primary method. They are more likely to use methods such as the
simulation methods used in the Monte Carlo simulation for making decisions significant to production.
Various production factors require the need for evaluating time and time cycles, which directly relate to
equipment used. There are also defects that may occur in the production process as a result of
machinery or equipment used, where established parameters for calculating making assessments of
the overall value of the production process can be made. With such information obtained, manufactures
can use a simulation process for the following reasons: a) variable relationships indicate a lack of linear
relationship (outliers), or a situation that involves too many variables, b) a simulation experiment where
processes can be performed without interrupting an actual process. This method is used as a cost
control factor, and helps to perfect timing and quality in the manufacturing process.
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JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Ethical considerations in today‘s business world include an increased concern about the environment,
and ways to preserve life on our planet. Aside from this increased concern, the business world has also
been devastated by corruption which has affected the economy; having an impact on every level of the
Four Factors of Quality from manufacturing to the social customer. Ethics is something that must be a
part of every society, and must serve society for the better. How well it is understood or institutionalized
in society is still in question. There was once someone who said, ―Every man is a gentleman and a
saint, depending on the expediency of the moment,‖ (Parrish, P. (2009, October 18). Napoleon Hill
Review - The Law of Success in Sixteen Lessons. Retrieved November 17, 2009, from
http://ezinearticles.com/?Napoleon-Hill-Review---The-Law-of-Success-in-SixteenLessons&id=3113317), viewed on November 17, 2009. The expediency of the moment can be seen
clearly in how we respect the need for adhering to the principles related to the achievement of
acceptance and satisfaction.
CONCLUSION
There are many ways to make greater strides towards the achievement of perfection in the areas of
manufacturing, distribution, sale and the professional/social consumer. The divisional process of
breaking down these business functions can provide the most detailed means for investigating each
area, with correlations made to determine interdependent relationships. What is very clear, is that the
sum of all of the four factors, manufacturing, distribution, sales, professional/social customer and the
internal and external measures taken in support of progress to make improvements; all equal the efforts
to achieve quality and satisfaction.
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Buxton, K.V.; Gatland, R., (1995), ―Simulating the Effects of Work-in-Process on Customer Satisfaction
in a Manufacturing Environment,‖ Simulation Conference Proceedings, 1995. Winter Volume,
Issue, 3-6 Dec 1995 Page(s):940 – 944 Digital Object Identifier.
Festus O., and Hsu, M. (2007) An Investigation of Customer Experience with Professional Services;
―Service
Marketing
Quarterly‖,
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7,
2009
from
http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=3&hid=11&sid-50c742d2-b49e-487e-80952e...
Gustafsson, Anders, Johnson, Michael D., Ross, Inger, (2005), ―The Effects of Customer Satisfaction,
Relationship Commitment Dimensions, and Triggers on Customer Retention,‖ Journal of
Marketing, Vol. 69, Issue 4, Business Source Elite.
Homburg, Christian, Koschate, Nicole, Hoyer, Wayne D., (2005), ―Do Satisfied Customers Really Pay
More? A Study of the Relationship Between Customer Satisfaction and Willingness to Pay‖,
Journal of Marketing, Vol. 69, Issue 2, Business Source Elite.
Hutson, K., (2004) 10 Things every promotional products salesperson should know, Retrieved
November 3, 2009 from http://www.empirepromos.com/promote-huston1004.php
Kickham, V., (2009) Distributors search for business bright spots, ―Industrial Distribution‖, Retrieved
www.inddist.com
Levine, David M., Stephan, David; Krehbiel, Timothy C.; Berenson, Mark L., Statistics for Managers
Using Microsoft Excel, 4th Edition, Prentice Hall, 2005.
McKenna, M. Distributors play a critical role in the supply chain, Retrieved November 2009 from
www.adhesivesmag.com.
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Part II - The Four Factors of Quality: Achieving the Circle of Acceptance and Satisfaction
Mithas, Sunil, Krishnan, M. S., Fornell, Claes, (2005), ―Why Do Customer Relationship Management
Applications Affect Customer Satisfaction?‖ Journal of Marketing, Vol. 69, Issue 4, Business
Source Elite.
Morgan, Neil A., Anderson, Eugene W., Mittal, Vikas, (2005), ― Understanding Firms‘ Customer
Satisfaction information Usage‖, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 69, Issue 3, Business Source Premier.
Reilly, T (2009).Strictly for sales, the power of business relationships. Industrial Distribution, Retrieved
from http://www.inddist.com.
Seiders, Kathleen, Voss, Glenn B., Grewal, Dhruv, Godfrey, Andrea L., (2005), ―Do Satisfied
Customers Buy More? Examining Moderating Influences in a Retailing Context‖, Journal of
Marketing, Vol. 69, Issues 4, Business Source Elite.
Steiger, Darby., Keil, Linda and Gaertner, Greg; "Mode Effects in Customer Satisfaction
Measurement" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association For Public
Opinion Association, Fontainebleau Resort, Miami Beach, FL, <Not Available>. 2009-08-13
http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p15954_index.html.
Economy: The rapid change in both manufacturing and service sectors, Retrieved November 27, 2009
from http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/freight/theme-papers/final-thm2-v3.htm.
http://www.ask.com/bar?q=how+should+historical+data+be+used_research&page=1&qsr...
CONTACT
Avis J. Smith, Associate Professor
New York City College of Technology
Restorative Dentistry (P409)
300 Jay Street
Brooklyn, New York 11201
Phone: 718-260-5141
Fax: 718-254-8557
70
W. C. McDowell, W. L. Grubb III and A. O. Herdman
JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
UNCERTAINTY AND THE IMPOSTOR PHENOMENON: TOWARD A
REACTOR ORGANIZATION FORM
William C. McDowell, W. Lee Grubb III and Andrew O. Herdman
East Carolina University, USA
ABSTRACT
The imposter phenomenon has been used to describe feeling of inadequacy or phoniness in the
workplace. This study develops a theoretical framework for studying the relationship between top
management uncertainty, the emergence of the impostor phenomenon and the consequent effects on
organizational configuration. Specifically, we propose that feelings of uncertainty will be positively
associated with the development of the imposter phenomenon among managers. Using decisionmaking types, threat, and threat rigidity, this growth in the imposter phenomenon among senior
leadership, will result in a “reactor” type of organizational form. Opportunities for future research and
limitations of the current study are both presented.
Keywords: Impostor Phenomenon, Strategy, Uncertainty
INTRODUCTION
Top management, especially CEO‘s, greatly impact the direction an organization takes in response to
the environment. Strategy is crafted, plans are developed, and organizations gamble their future
through the implementation of these plans (Mintzberg, 1987). Unfortunately, the business world is not
an exact science, and a host of contingencies can hinder even the best-laid plans. While there are
various types of strategy, it continues to be a growing area of research in the management literature
(Huff & Reger, 1987; Mintzberg, 1978; Herbert & Deresky, 1987).
Miles and Snow (1978) offer a typology of strategic organizational styles. The argument is that
organizations will take on a specific strategic style that is most appropriate for them within their unique
business environment. They argue that there are three successful types of organizational styles –
defenders, analyzers, and prospectors. Defenders, they assert, desire to defend their position and
protect their market. They strive to control their niche with relatively little or no new product
development. Prospectors are organizations which are almost opposite of the defenders in that they
seek out opportunities through new products, directions, or markets. These organizations do not simply
try to defend an already strong position, but rather use their innovativeness and skill to move into these
new areas. Somewhere in between the defenders and the prospectors lie the analyzers. Analyzers are
typified by organizations that strive for balance between defending their position and seeking new
products or markets which can positively impact profits with minimal risk (Miles, Snow, Meyer &
Coleman, 1978; Hambrick, 1983). Each of these organizational forms can and often are effective for
organizations if they fit with the organization structure, system, and environment.
71
Uncertainty and the Impostor Phenomenon: Toward a Reactor Organization Form
The fourth type of organization that has been identified by Miles and Snow (1978) is the reactor. The
reactor is an unstable and inconsistent organizational form which is considered a strategic failure
(Segev, 1987). Instead of pursuing stability, growth, or balance, the reactor responds to the changing
business environment with a reactive type of stance (Miles & Snow, 1978). As the authors point out,
these reactions are generally inappropriate and tend to result in poor performance. In many instances,
the reactor strategy is chosen because of failure through the previous use of one of the other types of
strategy. The specific reasons given by the authors for an organization becoming a reactor organization
will be examined later on in this paper.
Strategy is crafted through examining the environment, understanding the organization, and making
decisions based on this analysis that are expected to improve performance for the organization
(Mintzberg, 1987). At the core of this process is the decision-making ability of top management. Top
management, the CEO in particular, is often entrusted with this task (Hambrick, 2005, 2007; Hambrick
& Mason, 1984). However, many factors can influence the decisions these powerful individuals make.
Several factors have been identified within the literature that impacts this decision-making ability by top
management. Leaders and the type of leader that this individual is can change the types of decisions
that are made (Bass, 1990). Previous performance on the part of these CEO‘s can drastically affect
their self-efficacy or confidence in their ability to carry out a set of directives with a desired result (Miner,
2002). Closely related to this aspect is the impostor phenomenon which is believed to go beyond just a
basic perception of ability and dives into the self-perception of these individuals (Clance & Imes, 1978).
The impostor phenomenon (IP), the feeling of phoniness in high achievers, can influence the decision
making of the individual (Clance & Imes, 1978). Clance and Imes (1978) found that many successful
individuals attribute their success to luck or interpersonal skills and do not believe they deserve their
current position. This impostor phenomenon in individuals creates a fear of failure, fear of success
(Fried-Buchalter, 1992), guilt about success (Clance & O‘Toole, 1988) neuroticism, and feelings of
incompetence (Bernard, Dollinger & Ramaniah, 2002).
Intertwined with both reactor style organizations and IP is top management uncertainty. Many attributes
may lead to a perceived uncertainty on the part of the top manager, such as failure and even other
perceptions of the individual. However, this uncertainty may in fact lead to IP within top management
that can lead to reactor style strategy decision making.
This paper seeks to understand the impact that uncertainty has in producing the impostor phenomenon
in individuals in addition to understanding the impact this individual level attribute has on the strategy
and form of an organization. This study will demonstrate that uncertainty may lead to feelings of IP as
well and that IP in top management leads to reactor type organizations. We argue that because of the
inability to make developmental decisions and because of threat rigidity, the IP sufferer will continue
with a previous course of action and strategy and not produce the required decisions to lead the
organization toward greater performance. This rigidity in response will create only reactions to the
surroundings rather than developing a strategy for success.
INSTABILITY WITHIN ORGANIZATIONS
Many factors can lead to a manager‘s sense of instability within an organization. One such factor may
be a recent failure within an organization. Valikangas, Hoegl and Gibbert (2009) found that failure of a
major project within an organization may lead to innovation trauma. Innovation trauma has been
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W. C. McDowell, W. L. Grubb III and A. O. Herdman
JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
defined as ―an inability to commit to new innovations due to severe disappointment from previous
innovation failures‖ (Valikangas et al, 2009: In Press). Immediately after this failure, there is a possibility
that organizations will hold off on initiatives or innovative practices due to the fear of continued loss or
failure. Their analysis states that the negative emotions the organization‘s members experience can
drastically affect future performance.
The authors state that this post-failure trauma can lead to several problems including disillusionment, in
which individuals doubt a possibility of success, cynicism, in which others doubt their ability, and
motivation. Kahn (2003) states that in these times of organizational trauma, individuals tend to pull
away from others as they experience feelings of shock and even guilt from not preventing the problem
or failure. As Kahn states, it is in these times that individuals tend to become stuck. Miller and Shamsie
(1999) add to this by stating that in the midst of uncertainty, the individual‘s drive is tends to focus on
work and a market that they better understand. They are, in this state, less likely to attempt to be
innovative.
Thus, failure within an organization has the potential to be a very disrupting for the manager. These
times can be not only disappointing, but may also cause a high degree of perceived instability on the
part of the manager. This previous failure is just one potential cause of a feeling of instability within an
organization.
In addition to recent failures in an organization, negative self-image confirming feedback can lead
managers to question their abilities and decisions. The negative feedback can take the form of formal
performance reviews or casual comments from peers or superiors. Self-consistency theory posits that
people are more likely to consider feedback to be more accurate when it is consistent with their own
self-concept (Lecky, 1945). When things are going well managers are less likely to be impacted by
negative feedback than when things are not going well and they are already questioning their abilities.
When managers begin to question their abilities, the negative self-image confirming feedback may
appear to be more realistic to them.
Using theories that help explain how people react to negative feedback, we are able to follow a pattern
that may fuel a downward spiral that leads from a negative self-image and imposter phenomenon.
When people are in a state of low self-esteem, negative feedback is perceived to be more accurate and
people are willing to accept more responsibility for the negative consequences than when they are in a
state of high self-esteem (Jussim, Yen & Aiello, 1995). In addition, when the feedback lacks
suggestions or further developmental information, individuals are more likely to react behaviorally and
experience further negative affective consequences (Murphy & Cleveland, 1995). As the negative
feedback continues to eat away at an individual‘s weak self-esteem, the individual will likely begin to
take the negative feedback personally and begin to experience the imposter phenomenon.
THE IMPOSTOR PHENOMENON
Clance and Imes (1978) introduced the impostor phenomenon (IP) to capture the feelings of
inadequacy in high achieving women. What they found was that IP leads to the fear of success as well
as a fear of failure (Fried-Buchalter, 1992), a dread of evaluation, and even guilt about success.
Multiple studies since have indicated that this feeling of phoniness is not just held to women, but applies
to both genders, all ages, and can be found in just about anyone (Kolligian & Sternberg, 1991,
September, McCarrey, Baranowsky, Parent, & Shindler, 2001; Bernard, Dollinger, & Ramaniah, 2002;
Clance & O‘Toole, 1988). Until now, most of the research on IP has centered on the problem and
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Uncertainty and the Impostor Phenomenon: Toward a Reactor Organization Form
treatments, but more work is being done to demonstrate the effects of IP on other aspects of
organizations such as personality (Bernard et al., 2002). This paper examines the impact it may have
on organizations through top decision makers.
Some researchers have examined such antecedents of IP through such HR constructs as over reward.
It has been proposed that those individuals who feel they do not deserve their current position within an
organization may experience IP (McDowell, Boyd, & Bowler, 2007). It also seems plausible that those
who feel guilt resulting from a perception of high compensation may also experience IP (Gilliland,
1993). Recently, there has been a great deal of research on CEO salary (Miller, Wiseman, & GomezMejia, 2002; Shen 2003) and there are many individuals who find themselves in the position of
president or CEO who may not feel qualified or adequate for the job due to excessive pay.
Compensation has been shown to have a broad range of consequences for CEO‘s (Finkelstein & Boyd,
1998). They may have been promoted from within the company or hired from another organization with
great hopes and aspirations on the part of the board of directors that they will lead the organization to
new heights. In some instances, the individual may be following a strong predecessor or may be
brought into a troubled company to turn the company around. Whatever the situation, these feelings of
inadequacy and the fear of being recognized as an impostor are indicative of IP in an individual (Clance
and Imes, 1978).
Clance and O‘Toole (1988) identify several key elements of the IP sufferer which need to be addressed.
They stated that the IP sufferer fears the employee evaluation process. This is due to the fear that their
phoniness will be discovered. Also, there is the fear of failure and the fear of looking foolish (FriedBuchalter, 1992; Clance & O‘Toole, 1988). These authors also suggest that guilt about success is
another characteristic feeling of these individuals because they feel they are not responsible for the
success. In addition, these individuals tend to overestimate the strengths and abilities of others while
underestimating their own.
Therefore, when examining IP in relationship to the stability of a manager, it is expected that lower
levels of stability as perceived by the individual will result in higher levels of perceived IP. Thus, the
following proposition is posited in regards to the perceived stability experienced by the manager and the
perceived impostor feelings.
P1: Lower levels of stability lead to greater levels of the impostor phenomenon in top management.
Figure 1: Managerial Instability, Impostor Phenomenon, and the Reactor Organizational Form
Managerial Instability
Impostor Phenomenon
Reactor Organizational Form
REACTOR ORGANIZATIONS
Miles and Snow (1978) identified a typology of strategies that organizations may adopt to maximize
their value creation process. The intuitive feel of these four strategic responses – defenders,
prospectors, analyzers, and reactors – assist researchers and practitioners in better understanding the
direction of an organization. While defenders, prospectors, and analyzers represent successful types of
strategic orientations, reactors represent the failure of strategic planning and direction (Segev, 1987).
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JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
The Miles and Snow (1978) typology is centered on the necessity for strategic adaptation in a changing
environment. Defender, prospector, and analyzer organizations each have a unique type of response
that differentiates it from the others. In the reactor adaptive style, there is not a standard or consistent
response to the changing environment. Rather, this organization adjusts in ways that indicate instability
and lead to lack of performance.
Reactors are reluctant to make organizational changes unless environmental pressures force them to.
Unfortunately, the reactor naturally has no response mechanisms set in place to draw from in this
uncertain environment. Therefore, these organizations are less likely to take risks and more likely to
move in uncertain directions (Miles and Snow, 1978). There is a risk averseness within these
organizations which is really risk averseness on the part of the top management or decision makers.
When crisis situations arise from the environment, the reactor organization will react in confusion with
little or no effectiveness. These organizations are normally aware of this ineffective and inconsistent
reaction, but there is a tendency to become even more confused about the correct direction to take as
the crisis situation escalates (Collins, Holzmann, & Mendoza, 1997).
Miles and Snow (1978) suggest three main reasons why organizations become reactors. These three
reasons are very important to this study because they deal with failings on the part of top management.
It helps to establish a link between individual level attributes and the reactor style organization. The
following are the three reasons, according to Miles and Snow, an organization may become a reactor
organization. First, there is a belief that top management or the decision maker and leader may not
have clearly articulated the organization‘s strategy. Second, top management does not create a fit
between the organizations structure and processes with the chosen strategy. Third is a tendency on the
part of top management to maintain the current relationship between the strategy and the structure
despite environmental reasons to change. The authors go on to state that unless the organization is in
a protected environment, the reactor strategy will not succeed (Miles & Snow, 1978; Miles, Snow,
Meyer, & Coleman, 1978). Each of these reasons is based not on the organization as a whole, but on
the decision-making and leading of those in authority within the organization. For this reason, it is
necessary to look at what may cause decision-making in top management to move the organizational
form into organizational failure rather than organizational success.
LINKING IMPOSTOR PHENOMENON AND REACTOR ORGANIZATIONS
Decision Making
Mintzberg (1978), in his discussion on strategy crafting and development, indicates that there are two
main types of strategy decision-making. There is intended strategy, that strategy that is planned and
developed by top management with the hopes of greater performance, and there is realized strategy,
the actual strategy that occurs within the organization. Regardless of the type of strategy that unfolds
within the organization, decision-making is vital to strategy. In the case of realized strategy, this often
occurs as a result of no planning or inadequate planning and strategy development. It is generally
believed that strategy development enables organizations to be more effective than not developing
strategy (Mintzberg, 1987).
Mintzberg indicates that a great deal of decision-making must be accomplished for a strategy to be
crafted. However, two types of decisions are involved in strategy formulation (Nutt, 2001.) The first type
of decision is the non-developmental decision. This type of decision is one which can be made when
the organization‘s strategy and environment is stable and the organization seems to be fine. There is
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Uncertainty and the Impostor Phenomenon: Toward a Reactor Organization Form
stability in the environment and no real threat exists for the firm. In this case, decision-making consists
of making decisions based on what the organization has been doing with no additional direction
needed. As Nutt points out, however, in an unstable environment, these non-developmental decisions
can lead to organizational failure. He gives three main reasons for these occurrences. First, the
decision maker tends to make premature commitments, often jumping on the first idea that arises.
Second, the decision maker may make an inappropriate investment and misuse vital resources. Third,
the decision maker could employee failure-prone practices, indicting the decision maker for not being
aware of the failure rate of these same decisions made in past situations.
The second type of decision that is vital for organizations in uncertain or unstable environments is the
developmental decision. The developmental decision requires a vision of how to change products,
markets, alliances, or other aspects of the organization that contribute to its core competencies (Nutt,
2001).
Developmental decisions are the basis for organizational success in environmental uncertainty (Nutt,
2001). However, due to the fear of failure and inability to believe that they are successful (Clance &
Imes, 1978; Fried-Buchalter, 1992), it is believed that IP sufferers will not be capable of making
developmental decisions. These individuals underestimate their own abilities while overestimating the
abilities of others. In the context of the environment, the individual will overestimate the magnitude of
the problems facing the organization while underestimating his or her own abilities to lead and will
continue to make the non-developmental decisions based on previous directions or decisions because
of these feelings of uncertainty.
Threat Rigidity
Another aspect highly related to decision-making is the issue of threat rigidity. Threat rigidity has been
found to be a significant hindrance to organizational success (Staw, Sandelands, & Dutton, 1981). The
authors point out that in situations of high uncertainty, information is sometimes restricted within the
organization on the part of top management due to prior expectations or their own hypotheses about
the environment. In these cases, individuals tend to continue in the same or similar courses of action
that may have worked before. As a result, when threatening situations occur, they are unable to make
the proper decisions.
A similar pattern arises within organizations. In situations of high threat, information within the
organization intended for decision makers is lessened and the number of alternative options is limited.
In these cases, there is a tendency to go with previously made styles of decisions only with more
information now added in. There is rigidity within the organization due to the threat or threatening
environment or situation that the organization is facing (Staw, Sandelands, & Dutton, 1981).
Mintzberg, Raisinghani, and Theoret (1976), in their discussion on decision making, indicate several
stages of the process. These processes are even more important when the environment is unstable
and threat or risk is apparent. One stage is the search routine. Search indicates the scanning of
available resources – the organization, memory, or others – for information that may be pertinent to the
decision process and may uncover other alternatives.
Unfortunately, in high threat situations, the search process can be ineffective. As Staw et al. (1981)
indicates, often times the search for information can yield too much information which can result in the
wrong decision may be made. And, regardless if this is the correct decision, the search continues but
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JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
only with the purpose of confirming the already made decision, not with the purpose of determining if it
is the correct decision or finding a better alternative.
Another aspect of threat that Staw et al. express is that there is a tendency to centralize authority in
highly threatening situations such as the presence of environmental uncertainty. When decisions which
need to be made increase in importance, the accountability and responsibility to make those decisions
rise to the top of the organization. This places the final direction of the organization in fewer hands, and
ultimately in the hands of the CEO or president. Therefore, the organizational strategy, or the direction
of the organization, is determined by an individual, and this individual‘s personal attributes or
characteristics can directly effect the direction of the organization.
IP to Reactor Organizational Forms
Applying this organizational level effect of threat with the individual effect of threat has significant
implications for the organizational form. In order to fully understand these implications, it is necessary to
look at the three reasons organizations may move towards a reactor type strategy. Doing so will
demonstrate how a decision maker suffering from IP can influence the direction of an organization.
To begin, the first reason for an organization moving toward a reactor type strategic organizational form
is that there is not a clearly articulated strategy (Miles & Snow, 1978). As discussed earlier, it is
believed that individuals suffering from IP are not able to make developmental decisions. In unstable
environments, there is a risk associated with the decisions that the CEO or president must make. These
risks, for the IP sufferer, constitute a threat due to the fear of failure (Fried-Buchalter, 1992). Therefore,
threat rigidity will be a prominent factor in this individual. And, because of threat to the organization,
control and direction will be moved up throughout the organization and be placed in the hands of the
CEO or president (Mintzberg, Raisinghani, & Theoret, 1976). Because of the lack of ability to make
developmental decisions and because of threat rigidity, or the desire to continue a previous course of
action in the face of a changing environment, the IP individual will transform the organization into a
reactor organization form.
The second reason given by Miles and Snow for moving toward a reactor type of organization form is
the inability by management to fully shape the structure and processes to fit the chosen strategy. Threat
within an organization as previously mentioned is shown to cause information search problems
(Mintzberg, Raisinghani, & Theoret, 1976). Too much information may be given at first, and once a
decision is made, the search is only continued with the goal of confirming the previous decision. For the
IP sufferer, there is a great fear of evaluation. Therefore, instead of examining the organizational
capabilities and continuing to hone them with the strategy, the decision will be made with follow-up work
consisting of validating the current response. There will be a continuance along that course of action
without reevaluation to examine the overall fit.
The third cause of instability within an organization offered by Miles and Snow is the tendency for
management to maintain the organizations current strategy structure relationship rather than adapting
to the changing environment. As Staw et al. (1981) point out, threat rigidity in individuals results in a
tendency to remain in well-learned courses of action. IP sufferers, who underestimate their own abilities
and overestimate others and the effects of the environment (Clance & O‘Toole, 1988), will feel a great
sense of threat in the unstable environment and thus will not be able to make the necessary
developmental decisions to move the organization to success in the midst of environmental instability.
77
Uncertainty and the Impostor Phenomenon: Toward a Reactor Organization Form
Instead, non-developmental decisions will be made which conform to the previous direction of the
organization despite the lack of positive results. Therefore, it is posited that,
P2: Greater levels of the impostor phenomenon in top management are positively related to a
reactor style organization strategy.
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
The purpose of this paper is to develop a framework for understanding how individual level attributes of
top management affect strategic organizational forms. The impostor phenomenon (Clance & Imes,
1978) is examined in light of the Miles and Snow (1978) strategy typology. It is believed that individual
levels of the impostor phenomenon can significantly impact the organization form.
In developing this framework, the impostor phenomenon was examined in light of decision-making
(Nutt, 2001) and the use of developmental and non-developmental decisions by top management. It
was posited that IP sufferers tend not to make developmental decisions that are necessary for
organizations in uncertain or unstable environments. In addition, threat and threat rigidity (Staw et al.,
1981) was introduced as a reason for IP sufferers to lead their organizations toward reactor type
strategies.
This framework is important for understanding that organizations are led by the decision-making of
individuals, and multiple factors within the top management, not just the environment or general
capabilities of the firm, are important to determine success or failure of the organization. Through
greater understanding of some of the individual aspects of top management, more attention can be
given toward understanding strategy crafting (Mintzberg, 1987). If strategy is so important for
organizational success, which research does indicate, then understanding the antecedents of both
good and bad strategic forms are important.
A limitation of the current study could be in the ability to measure these constructs. Access to top
management or CEO‘s would be a must, and the organizations would need to be evaluated by external
raters to determine what strategic type of organization it is. In addition, it may be difficult to obtain valid
information on those at the top of their organization. There may be a tendency to overstate themselves
due to the fear of being found out as an impostor.
There is much future research which should be examined in this area. To begin, the dimensions of IP
need to be clearly identified concerning top management. Because much of the literature on this
subject deals with individuals at lower levels of the organization, these dimensions need to be
specifically developed for those in major decision making capacities within organizations. This will aid
be important for further testing of this model.
Following this, several relationships need to be empirically established. The relationship between IP
and a reactor style organization should be examined first. Second, the relationships between IP and the
antecedents offered by Miles and Snow (1978) need to be established. Third, the entire model from IP
to the antecedents to the reactor organizational form needs to be empirically established. It does need
to be stated that this model is just a beginning framework this research direction. This research will
evolve over time as various aspects are changed or found significant, and new revelations concerning
IP and reactor organization should be embraced to develop a more comprehensive view of reactor
organizational forms and what leads to this type of organizational failure.
78
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JKHRM - Volume 1, Issue 1
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Nashville, TN, 37208, USA
Tel: +1 (615) 944-3931; Fax: +1 (615) 739-5124
www.intellectbase.org
All e-mail enquiries should be sent to: [email protected]
For information about the following Journals, please visit www.intellectbase.org
JIBMR-Journal of International
Business Management &
Research
IJSHIM-International Journal of
Social Health Information
Management
JAGR-Journal of Applied Global
Research
JGIP-Journal of Global
Intelligence and Policy
RHESL-Review of Higher
Education and Self-Learning
JWBSTE-Journal of Web-Based
Socio-Technical Engineering
IJEDAS-International Journal of
Electronic Data Administration
and Security
JKHRM-Journal of Knowledge
and Human Resource
Management
JOIM-Journal of Organizational
Information Management
IJAISL-International Journal of
Accounting Information
Science and Leadership
RMIC-Review of Management
Innovation and Creativity
IHPPL-Intellectbase Handbook
of Professional Practice and
Learning
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