FSC Brief No.30.indd - Food Security Center

FSC Brief No. 30
Fatty acid composition profile and minor components
like sterols and tocopherols of ghee
collected from direct cream method
Md. Abdul Alim, Akanksha Wadehra, Ashish Kumar Singh
1. Summary
Ghee was collected from cream direct method.
The yield percentage, its colour, fatty acid composition profile and minor components such as
sterols and tocopherols were determined in this
study. The yield percentage of ghee was 3.3%
although it is influenced by a number of factors
such as genetics, physiology, environment, nutrition levels, feed, stage of lactation and other animal husbandry practices. The colour values L*,
a* and b* (L* indicates the degree of lightness
or darkness: L* = 0 indicates perfect black and
L* = 100 indicates most perfect white; a* indicates the degree of redness (+) and greenness
(−); and b* indicates the degree of yellowness
(+) and blueness (−)) were 3.02, 0.3 and 1.56,
respectively. They indicated that ghee was brow-
nish-yellow in colour. The major fatty acid of
ghee was palmitic acid (16:0, 32.3%) followed
by oleic acid (18:1), stearic acid (18:0), myristic
acid (14:0), butryic acid (4:0) and caproic acid
(6:0) which constituted 18.8%, 13.7%, 11.1%,
8.9% and 6.1%, respectively. The sum of saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids were
79.8% and 20.2%, respectively. Ghee contained
191.61 mg per 100 g of sterols (total sterol
content), and the major sterol was cholesterol
(186.52 mg per 100 g). Furthermore, ghee contained 12.80 mg per 100 g of tocopherols (total tocopherol content) of which γ-tocopherol
amounted 9.71 mg per 100 g and α-tocopherol
3.09 mg per 100 g.
2. Introduction and background
Like any clarified butter, ghee is composed almost entirely of fat, 62% of which consists of
saturated fats and other 38% unsaturated fats.
Some households and Indian restaurants may
use partially hydrogenated vegetable oils such
as vanaspati, dalda or vegetable ghee instead of
ghee because of its lower cost, but e.g. vegetable
ghee may contain trans fat. Trans fats have been
shown to increase the risk of coronary heart disease (FNB 2005).
Every oil either vegetable or animal has its own
stability against oxidation, depending on its fatty
acid profile and its content of antioxidants, as well
as other minor components (Nogala-Kalucka et
al. 2005, Przybylski and Eskin 2006). According
to the health benefits, antioxidant compounds
such as tocopherols enhance oxidative stability
Anhydrous milk fat is called ghee in India. It
is also called the Indian clarified butter fat. It is
usually prepared from either cream or butter obtained from cow milk or buffalo milk or a combination thereof. It has a good pleasing and appetizing aroma. About 30-35% of produced milk
are converted to ghee in India every year (Varkey
2010). Ghee is the most widely used milk product in Indian sub-continents like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka,
and considered as supreme cooking and frying
oil. Shelf-life of ghee is considerably longer as
compared to other dairy products. It undergoes
oxidative degradation during storage resulting
in an alteration of major quality parameters such
as colour, flavour, aroma, and the nutritive value
(Pawar et al. 2012).
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FSC Brief No. 30
and shelf-life (Nogala-Kalucka et al. 2005, Vasanthan et al. 2007). In the same way, phytosterols are known to lower blood cholesterol le-
vels in humans (Ellegard et al. 2005, Normen et
al. 2004).
3. Main challenges
The main objectives of the present research were
to measure the yield and colour values of ghee,
to study the fatty acid composition profile and to
study the distribution and retention of the sterol
and tocopherol content using gas chromatography (GC) and high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC).
4. Main findings
Yield and colour parameters of ghee
Ghee is any pure butter-fat without any moisture
and any milk solid. It is most common cooking fat used in Indian cuisine. In this study, the
Gerber method was used for the determination
of the percentage of ghee (Table 1). The yield
percentage of ghee was 3.3%. The yield percentage of milk fat is influenced by a number of factors which could be genetic, physiological and
environmental. Nutritional levels, feed, stage
of lactation, time of milking, and other animal
husbandry practices also effect milk composition as well as the yield of milk fat. The milk
fat percentage were varied by breed and animal such as Jersey contained 5.2%, Zebu contained 4.7%, Brown Swiss contained 4.0% and
Holstein-Friesian contai-ned 3.6%, respectively
(McGee 2004).
The colour of ghee also was measured by using
a colorflex instrument (Table 1). The colour
values L*, a* and b* were 3.02, 0.3 and 1.56,
respectively. The colour of ghee is brownish-yellow. The yellow tinge is a result of beta-carotene
from grass fed to the animals. The brown colour
comes from milk-solids that were toasted. Beta-carotene is a precursor of vitamin A. The human body converts beta-carotene into vitamin A
(retinol). It needs vitamin A for healthy skin and
mucus membranes, immune system, good eyes
and vision. Beta-carotene, like all carotenoids,
is an antioxidant. It protects the body from free
radicals.
Fatty acid composition profile of ghee
In this study, cow milk ghee was analyzed for its
fatty acid composition with stereospecific number (Sn)/position such as total triacylglycerol
(TAG), Sn-2 and Sn-1,3 (Table 2). The major fatty acids of ghee were palmitic acid (16:0), oleic
acid (18:1), stearic acid (18:0), myristic acid
(14:0), butryic acid (4:0) and caproic acid (6:0)
which constituted 32.3%, 18.8%, 13.7%, 11.1%,
8.9% and 6.1%, respectively. Swaisgood (1996)
found that the major fatty acid compositions of
milk fat were palmitic acid (16:0, 43.7%), myristic acid (14:0,20.4%), stearic acid (18:0,11.3)
and oleic acid (18:1, 11.3%). Arora et al. (1986)
also reported that the major fatty acid of milk fat
was palmitic acid (16:0, 29.95%) followed by
oleic acid (18:1, 27.42%), myristic acid (14:0,
11.93%) and stearic acid (18:0, 10.07%), respectively. For total TAG, the sums of saturated fatty
acids and unsaturated fatty acids were 79.8% and
20.2%, respectively. The (omega (ω)-6)/(omega
(ω)-3)-ratio of ghee was 2:1. The Japanese government recommended a ratio of 4:1, while the
Swedish government recommended a ratio of
5:1, and the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Science in the United States recommended a ratio of 10:1 (Allport 2007). The
balance of the (ω-6)/(ω-3)-ratio is an important
determinant for decreasing the risk of coronary
heart diseases (Simopoulos 2002). Several sources of information suggest that human beings
evolved on a diet with a ratio of (ω-6)/(ω-3) of
approximately 1 whereas in Western diets the ratio is 15:1 to 16.7:1. Western diets are deficient
in omega-3 fatty acids, and contain excessive
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amounts of omega-6 fatty acids compared with
the diet on which human beings evolved and
their genetic patterns were established. A very
high (ω-6)/(ω-3)-ratio promotes the pathogenesis of many diseases, including cardiovascular
diseases, cancer, and inflammatory and auto-immune diseases. In the secondary prevention of
cardiovascular diseases, the (ω-6)/(ω-3)-ratio of
4:1 was associated with a 70% decrease in total
mortality. The (ω-6)/(ω-3)-ratio of 2.5:1 reduced
rectal cell proliferation in patients with colorectal cancer. The lower (ω-6)/(ω-3)-ratio in women
with breast cancer was associated with a decreased risk. A ratio of 2:1 to 3:1 suppressed inflammation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, and
a ratio of 5:1 had a beneficial effect on patients
with asthma, whereas a ratio of 10:1 had adverse
consequences. A lower ratio of (ω-6)/(ω-3) fatty
acids is more desirable in reducing the risk of
many of the chronic diseases of high prevalence
in Western societies (Simopoulos 2002).
At Sn-2 position, ghee contained higher levels
of palmitic acid (16:0, 37.2%), myristic acid
(14:0, 18.7%) and oleic acid (18:1, 15.1%), respectively. Among unsaturated fatty acids, ghee
contained only higher levels of oleic acid (18:1,
15.1%) at Sn-2 position. Nutritionally, the presence of a higher amount of unsaturated fatty
acids at Sn-2 position is important because it is
easily absorbed by the body (Quinlan and Moore
1993). The major fatty acid contents at the Sn1,3 position of ghee were palmitic acid (16:0,
29.9%), oleic acid (18:1, 20.7%), stearic acid
(18:0, 17.4%), butryic acid (4:0, 9.8%), myristic
acid (14:0, 7.3%) and caproic acid (6:0, 6.9%),
respectively. Such changes in the fatty acid composition at different positions lead to different
physical properties such as melting point, crystallization behavior etc.
Sterol and tocopherol content of ghee
The content of sterols and tocopherols (mg per
100 g) is presented in Table 3. Ghee contained
191.61 mg per 100 g of total sterols. The major
sterol in ghee was cholesterol (186.52 mg per
100 g). Milk of Hariana, Sahiwal and, Sahiwal
X Holstein-Friesian crossbred cows exhibited
averaged cholesterol values of 16, 15, and 15.5
mg per 100 ml of milk, respectively (Prasad
and Pandita 1990). The cholesterol content in
fore-milk was higher than in the strippings. No
seasonal differences in the cholesterol content of
Murrah buffalo milk were detected. Apart from a
slight increase during winter, there was no change in the value of cholesterol (Prasad and Pandita 1990). However, some reports have suggested
that the cholesterol content was higher in buffalo
milk during the spring season. Souring of milk
resulted in an increase of cholesterol, however,
with thermal treatment, the cholesterol content
decreased. Tocopherols are the most important
antioxidants which contain different types of
fat and oils. Ghee contained 12.80 mg per 100 g
of total tocopherols. The major tocopherol was
γ-tocopherol (9.71 mg per 100 g).
Table 1: Yield and colour parameters of ghee
Colour parameters/values:
L* indicates the degree of lightness or darkness: L* = 0 indicates perfect black, and L* = 100 indicates most perfect white
a* indicates the degree of redness (+) and greenness (−)
b* indicates the degree of yellowness (+) and blueness (−)
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Table 2: Fatty acid composition (% ± SD) profile of ghee
Sn: Stereospecific number; TAG: Triacylglycerol; nd: not detected; SFA: Sum of saturated fatty acids; UFA: Sum of unsaturated fatty acids; SD: standard deviation
Table 3: Sterol and tocopherol content (mg/100g) of ghee
5. Conclusions
Actually, the yield percentage of ghee was influenced by a number of factors and it varied from
species to species. The colour of ghee was brownish-yellow due to beta-carotene. In ghee, the
content of saturated fatty acids was four times
higher than that of unsaturated fatty acids. Ghee
also contained tocopherols and a higher amount
of cholesterol.
6. References
Allport S (2007). The queen of fats: why omega-3 fats were removed from the western diet and what we
can do to replace them. Berkeley: University of California Press, p.115.
Arora SP, Singhal KK, Chopra RC (1986). Fatty acid composition of fat in milk and milk replacer diets.
Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 39(4):495-497.
Ellegard L, Andersson H, Bosaeus I (2005). Rapeseed oil, olive oil, plant sterols, and cholesterol
metabolism: an ileostomy study. Eur J Clin Nutr 59:1374-1378.
FNB (Food and Nutrition Board), Institute of Medicine of the National Academics (2005). Dietary
reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino
acids (macronutrients). National Academies Press, pp.423,504.
McGee H (2004). Milk and dairy products. On food and cooking: The science and lore of the kitchen
(2nd ed.). New York, USA. pp.7-67.
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Nogala-Kalucka M, Korczak J, Elmadfa I, Wagner KH (2005). Effect of alpha- and delta-tocopherol
on the oxidative stability of a mixed hydrogenated fat under frying conditions. Eur Food Res
Technol 221:291-297.
Normen L, Frohlich J, Trautwein E (2004). Role of plant sterols in cholesterol lowering. In: Dutta
PC (Ed.). Phytosterols as functional food components and nutraceuticals. Marcel Dekker (NY,
USA), pp.243-315.
Pawar N, Arora S, Bijoy RR, Wadhwa BK (2012). The effect of Asparagus racemosus (Shatavari) extract
on oxidative stability of ghee, in relation to added natural and synthetic antioxidant. International
Journal of Dairy Technology 65(2):293-299.
Prasad R, Pandita NN (1990). Cholesterol content of milk and its fractionation
during processing. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 43(2):190-193.
Przybylski R, Eskin NAM (2006). Minor components and the stability of vegetable oils. Inform 17:187189.
Quinlan P, Moore S (1993). Modification of triacylglycerols by lipase: process technology and its
application to the production of nutritionally improved fats. Inform 4:580-585.
Simopoulos AP (2002). The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomed
Pharmacother 56:365-379.
Swaisgood HE (1996). Characteristics of milk. In: Fennema OR (Eds). Food Chemistry (3rd edition).
Marcel Dekkar Inc., New York, USA, pp.841-878.
Varkey TK (2010). Indian’s milk production rose to 112 m tonnes last fiscal. The Economic Times.
http//:articles.economictimes.indiantimes_news/275788221_milk-production-milk-pricescattle-feed, accessed on 26/04/2011.
Vasanthan T, Zhang HY, Wettasinghe M (2007). Enrichment of tocopherols and phytosterols in canola
oil during seed germination. J Agr Food Chem 55: 355-359.
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About the author:
Dr. Md. Abdul Alim is working as a Professor of the Deptartment of Food Technology and Rural Industries,
Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh-2202, Bangladesh. From July to September, 2014, he was FSC
Scholar at the National Dairy Research Institute, India. His major area of interests are food chemistry, food analysis and food technology.
About FSC Brief Series:
The FSC Brief Series shortly summarizes aspects of research from scientists linked to the Food Security Center
at the University of Hohenheim. These are scientists supported by one of FSC’s scholarship programs, FSC’s
partners or FSC members. Each FSC Brief is highlighting one specific issue related to global food security, its
problems and underlying causes as well as offering solutions and suggestions to overcome the specific chal-lenges. In doing so, each FSC Brief wants to contribute to the on-going discussion or to disclose a discussion on
topics related to global food security, outlining (policy) options and alternative courses of action in the debate.
The target audience of the FSC Brief Series comprises policy makers and advisors, decision takers, development
practitioners, journalists, donors and fellow researchers.
Research results and (policy) recommendations are based on work-in-progress and provide recommendations
for practical decisions serving as an impetus for action to promote the various aspects of global food security. As
on-going research, FSC and the authors are welcoming any reaction from the readers.
About the Food Security Center (FSC):
FSC is a center in development cooperation at the University of Hohenheim, Germany. FSC’s mission is to provide innovative and effective scientific contributions to reduce hunger and achieve food security, contributing
towards the progress of the Millennium Developmental Goal 1 and giving particular concern to gender equality
and sustainability of agricultural production. FSC engages in interdisciplinary teaching and training of PhDs
and PostDocs; demand driven and impact-oriented research; capacity building through short-term scholarships;
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