The Jesuits and the grand Mogul : Renaissance art at the Imperial

N
7302
.B34
1998
FREER GALLERY OF ART
ARTHUR
M.
SACKLER GALLERY
Occasional
Papers
The
Jesuits
and the
Grand Mogul:
Renaissance Art
at the Imperial
Court of India,
1580-1630
Gauvin Alexander Bailey
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
WASHINGTON,
D.C.
The
Jesuits
and the
Grand Mogul:
Renaissance Art
at the
Imperial Court
of India,
1580-1630
The
Jesuits
and the
Grand Mogul:
Renaissani^
at the
Imperial Court
of India,
1580-1630
Gauvin Alexander Bailey
Occasional Papers
1998/voi. 2
FREER GALLERY OF ART
ARTHUR
M.
SACKLER GALLERY
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
WASHINGTON,
D.C.
FT©5c>^' -Gill:
•/
CT
— ——
M
©1998 Smithsonian
Funding
Institution
was provided
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All rights reserved
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Aimed
established with a grant from the
Publications
.it
the speciaHst audience, the
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Endowment Fund,
W. Mellon Foundation and
tributions
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Andrew
generous con-
from private donors.
international scholars that advance art histor-
and conservation
ical
by
research. Ptiblished
M.
the Freer Gallery of Art and the Arthur
Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, the
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a revival
is
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of Art Occasional Papers. Contributions,
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broad range of Asian
draws
in
of works ol
art,
span the
in
centimeters; height precedes width.
Each publication
art.
primary emphasis from works of art
its
Note: Dimensions given throughout are
the Freer and Sadder collections.
Photo
credits:
Figs. (25)
©
Arthur M. Sackler Gallery,
Smithsonian Institution;
©
Edited by Joan Kelly
and
Designed by Virginia Ibarra-Garza
Smithsonian Institution;
Typeset
in
Printed by
29)
21,
frontispiece
(2, 11,
Freer Gallery of Art,
(i)
© Her
Royal
Garamond and Meta
Majesty Queen Elizabeth
C&R
by kind permission of the Trustees of the
Printing Inc.,
Chantilly, Virginia
II; (3)
Reproduced
Chester Beatry Library, Dublin;
(4, 8)
Courtesy, Santa Casa da Misericordia de
Cover:
detail. Ladies
See
ca. 1580.
Praying with a Child,
22.
fig. 12, p.
Frontispiece: Siizaiiiia at
Her Bath Surprised
anonymous Portuguese
by the Elders, by
painter, i^gs. See
fig. 21, p.
S.
Roque, Lisbon;
(6)
Museum
(7)
of Fine Arts, Boston;
Courtesy,
Musee National
(5)
Courtesy,
Courtesy,
MA;
Peabody Essex Museum, Salem,
(9)
29.
Museu de
Lisboa,
Photography by Michael Agee;
des Arts
Asiatiques-Guimet, Paris; (10) Courtesy,
The
Saint Louis Art
Museum;
(12, 17)
Library of Congress
Courtesy, private collection;
Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Courtesy, Free Library of Philadelphia;
Bailey,
The
Gauvin A.
Renaissance art
at the
India, 1580-1630
cm.
/
Bailey.
— (Occasional papers/
Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur
M.
Mogul
Art,
India
—
—
—
India
Exhibitions.
(19, 28)
Exhibitions.
influ-
Art
3.
Art,
— India—
—
—
— Missions— —
4.
Jesuit art
5.
Jesuits
Exhibitions,
Title.
11.
Series:
I,
Brussels; (23)
Museum;
Influence
Occasional
papers (Freer Gallery of Art: 1998); vol.
2.
N7302.B34 1998
709'.54'o74753
—ddc2i
Sackler
Museums,
Gift of John Goelet; (20, 22) Courtesy
Exhibitions.
India
i.
M.
University Art
(24)
Catherine and Ralph Benkaim Collection.
Exhibitions.
Influence
Courtesy of the Arthur
Courtesy, Cincinnati Art
Modern
By
(18)
British Library;
Royal Library of Albert
16th
lyth-iSth centuries
The
Museum, Harvard
— European
— century
2.
(15)
Houghton
Harvard University;
permission of
Sackler
Includes bibliographical references.
1.
of Art;
Collection; (16) Courtesy,
Library,
Gallery, Smithsonian Institution; vol. 2)
ences
Museum
Harvard University Art Museums, Private
Imperial Court of
Gauvin Alexander
San Diego
Courtesy of the Arthur M. Sackler Museum,
and the grand Mogul:
Jesuits
p.
(14)
26, 27)
(13,
98-31150
CIP
E
3 Smithsonian
Freer Gallery of Art
and
Arthur M. Sackler Gallery
Contents
7
Acknowledgments
8
The Author
9
The Encounter
Approach
13
The
Jesuit
15
The
Jesuits in
Portuguese India
19
The
First
Two
Missions and the Arts
(1580-1591)
27
The Third Mission
and the Arts
(1595-1630)
35
An Interpretation
41
Notes
49
Selected Bibliography
I
wish to thank Milo C. Beach and
to write this
book and
Thomas W. Lentz
curate the related exhibition
for the invitation
and
for their assis-
tance and encouragement. Other people at the Freer and SackJer Galleries
who
provided invaluable assistance throughout were Marjan Adib,
Karen Banks, Mary Cleary, Tara Coram, Vidya Dehejia, Elaine
Virginia Ibarra-Garza, Joan Kelly,
George Rogers, Karen
Rocky Korr, Johanna Richardson,
Lynne Shaner, Karen
Sasaki, Pat Sears,
and James Ulak. In Portugal
Maria da Concei^ao
S.
I
Gill,
Sagstetter,
was kindly helped by Concei^ao Coelho,
Borges de Souza, Pedro Dias, Jordao Felgueiras,
Antonio Hespanha, Jose Lico, and
Nuno
Vassallo e Silva.
edge the encouragement and friendship of John
W.
I
also
O'Malley,
acknowlS.J.,
Stuart Gary Welch, and the valuable assistance, at an early stage in
research, of Miroslava Benes,
Wheeler M. Thackston.
who
1
Norman
dedicate this
and
my
Bryson, Gtilru Necipoglu, and
volume
to
my wile,
Peta Gillyatt,
has been a support and source of inspiration throughout.
7
thor
Gauvin Alexander Bailey
Baroque
art at
in the art
articles
is
an assistant professor of Renaissance and
Clark University. Educated
at
Harvard, Bailey specializes
of the global missions of the Society of Jesus. In addition to
on the
arts
widely on Jesuit
of
Italy, Asia,
art in India.
Art on the Jesuit Missions
He
in Asia
and Latin America, he has published
has just completed
A
Global Partnership:
and the Americas, 1^42—ijy^, which
deals
with Jesuit cultural exchanges in Japan, China, India, Paraguay, and
elsewhere in Latin America.
8
—
The Encounter
In 1595 a Portuguese artist and three exhausted Jesuit missionaries traveled thousands of miles over sea
and sun-scorched
valley to the fortified
of the wealthiest Muslim nation on earth. As soon
capital
arrived in the city of Lahore, his hosts pressed
duce scores of small
oil
and
their evenings
into service to pro-
paintings of Christ and the
copies of the emperor's extensive collection of
religious pictures
him
prints.
Meanwhile,
expounding Christian
and mullahs of the world's
Madonna, including
European Renaissance
his Jesuit
tenets
as the artist
companions spent
and debating with
priests
religions in a special imperial debating hall;
they often used the emperor's paintings to illustrate their arguments.
This
is
not a
king said to
tale
from the legend of Prester John,
live in Asia,
of the Sun by
a mythical Christian
or a Utopian fantasy like that depicted in City
Tommaso Campanella
(1568-1639).'
It is
an episode from
one of the most remarkable cultural exchanges
in the history
West
Great Mughal Emperors
relations: the three Jesuit missions to the
of East-
Akbar (1542-1605; reigned 1556-1605) and Jahangir (1569-1627; reigned
1605-27).
When
European
(1581-1644) and the
travelers
Italian
—such
as
the Englishman Sir
Thomas Roe
adventurer Pietro della Valle (1586-1652)
entered the palaces and tombs of the
Mughal emperors of India between
1580 and 1630, they were astonished to find the walls covered with
Italian Renaissance-style
Christian saints (see
legions of
elry,
Mughal
figs,
murals depicting Christ, the Madonna, and
i,
artists at
2).
To
their delight, they also discovered
work on miniature
and sculptures featuring the same
subjects;
paintings, exquisite jew-
many
apparently even being used as devotional images.
derment quickly led
The Europeans' won-
to false reports of the emperors'
sion; governors, merchants,
and
hastened to forge alliances with
clerics
men
from
all
depictions were
imminent conver-
over the Catholic world
they perceived as Christendom's
newest heroes. Although their optimism was unfounded, their fascination
was
not."
What made
ferent
ties
the exchange between the
Jesuits dif-
from most missionary encounters of the period was that the par-
had reached
willing to learn
a
comparable stage of
and culture
intellectual florescence
from one another. True "Christian humanists,
Jesuits introduced the
art
Mughals and the
Mughal court
at their
to a
and were
"
the
wide spectrum of Renaissance
missions in Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, and Lahore
9
Figure
1.
Detail,
jahangir Presents Prince Khurram with
a Turban Ornament, by Payag
India,
(act.
1598-ca. 1640).
Mughal period. Shah )ahan period,
ca.
1640.
Opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 30.6 x
Royal Collection, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth
Religious imagery
in a
European
style
20.3.
II.
adorns the
frieze at top.
Figure 2. Detail.
m
lahangir and Prince
Khurram Feasted by
Nurjahan.
India,
Mughal period,
lahangir period, ca.
1617.
Opaque water-
color on paper, 25.2 x
14.2.
Smithsonian
Institution, Freer
Gallery of Art, Gift of
Charles Lang Freer,
7k
F07.258. Detail showing "Christian"
images
painted on a garden
pavilion.
10
beginning
sance
—
Mughal
a
in 1580.
They
also
encountered the Mughals'
own
renais-
chmate of creativity, experimentation, and tolerance that made
culture one of the
"Mughal,"
initially spelled
most sophisticated on
earth.
The name
"mogul" by Europeans, became synonymous
with grandeur.
Despite
this
mutual
subverting the other.
Jesuits' devotional
it
to Indian
cordiality,
The Mughal emperors openly
imagery
and Islamic
sanctioned kingship.
however, each side was
as a
form of
The
home
their
subtly
They
related
message of divinely
Jesuits, conversely, capitalized
11
work
appropriated the
royal propaganda.
tradition to drive
at
upon
the images'
affinities
Islam) to
with Islam, Hinduism, and Sufism (the mystical branch of
promote
their goals
of Christian salvation.
One
of the most
prominent aspects of the Jesuit campaign was the Jesuit missionary
Jerome Xavier's (1549— 1617) Persian-language Catholic
is
replete with
complex and subtle Indo-Islamic
Several of these works were lavishly illustrated
artists in a style
literature,
which
cultural allusions.'
by the emperor's own
usually reserved for royal poetry anthologies.
Fascinated by the perspective and modeling of the European prints
and paintings brought by the missionaries, Akbar's
mainstream Mughal painting. The
result, especially
was an extremely refined naturalism, an enthusiasm
portraiture,
and
a taste for
encouragement of Akbar and Jahangir, Mughal
1570-90) and
(active circa
Manohar
ed images of Jesus and Christian
figures
seems
to
demonstrate
identity of the subjects. This
tion with world religions
result
under Jahangir,
for psychological
dramatic gesture. But the emperors and their
painters were not simply interested in art lessons.
Das
quickly mas-
and eventually adapted Western conventions
tered the Renaissance style
to
artists
a
saints.
Under
artists
the active
—such
as
(active circa 1582-1620)
The
artists'
Kesu
—
intense focus
creat-
on the
sympathy with the devotional value and
development
and respect
reflects the
for Christianity.
emperors' fascina-
The most famous
of their spiritual leanings were the imperial interfiith debates
(1570S-1608) held at the royal palaces on Thursday nights and illustrated
in a
contemporary miniature painting
(see fig. 3). Initially
including
only Sunni (orthodox) and Sufi (mystical) Muslims, the debates by 1578
welcomed "learned men from Khorasan and
India,
Iraq
and Transoxania and
both doctors and theologians, Shi' ah and Sunnis, Christians,
philosophers and Brahmins
— indeed
lords of
all
nations."^
These
debates initially inspired Akbar to invite the Jesuits to his court in 1580
as representatives
of Western Christendom.
actively in these dialogues
The
Jesuits participated
and offered the Mughals
a perspective
of
Catholicism and the attitudes toward imagery that was formulated in
Europe following the Council of Trent
12
(1545-63).
Appr
Combining
work
rigorous scholarly training with an approach to mission
that privileged tolerance
their encounters
and accommodation, the
with non-Christian civilizations more
Jesuits treated
dialogue
as a
than a harangue. Inspired by the recommendations of the Jesuit Visitor
to the Indies Alessandro
Valignano (1539— 1606)
the work of Jose de Acosta
—who was influenced by
Peru—
(1539—1600), a Jesuit missionary in
the
Society of Jesus sought to adapt Catholicism to non-European cultural
traditions.'
nations
This policy brought the Jesuits remarkable success in Asian
—such
as
China, Japan, and Mughal India
target populations
method of give and
Jesuits'
the mission's
were not threatened by European military domina-
and could expel the missionaries
tion
—where
at will.
In
all
of these
areas, the
take fostered cultural exchanges of unprece-
dented depth and extent.
The
Mughal
the
Jesuits sent their best people to the overseas missions.
missionaries
— such
as
Rodolfo Acquaviva (1550-1583), son of
Duke of Atri, kinsman of the Gonzaga
nephew of Claudio Acquaviva
Jesus
—came from
Their
family ol Mantua, and
(1543-1615), the General of the Society of
the most influential European families. Jerome Xavier
was a scion of the Castilian noble house of Espeleta and grandnephew of
St.
Francis Xavier (1506-1552), co-founder of the order.
Romano,
finest
the Jesuit college in
education available in Europe
by the
Humanism
of Renaissance
as
and languages.
Tepotzotlan in
New
at the time.''
work
Jesuit colleges
received the
Profoundly influenced
instruction emphasized skills
Italy,
particularly appropriate for mission
nication,
At the Collegio
Rome, mission personnel
— including
debating,
founded overseas
Spain (Mexico) and
Goa
in India
in
commu-
such places
emphasized
teaching in the native languages of the region, and Jesuit scholars were
among
the
first
to publish literature in
such languages
as
Guaram',
Aymara, and Quechua.
From
of art
as a
the very beginning, Valignano recognized the importance
mission tool to serve the iconographic needs of the mission
communities.
He
saw
how
certain indigenous associations
and
attitudes
rendered some images useless or even repulsive to target populations.^
Valignano was convinced of the need for
satisfy these cultural
local schools to train artists to
requirements. Largely in response to his suggestions,
13
the Society of Jesus began to produce
the Jesuits
more
art at the
Asian missions;
employed native apprentices and incorporated techniques
that enabled
them
to develop a visual vocabulary
more
accessible to
the people.
The most famous and
Seminary of Painters
first visit,
— founded
in
Japan
in 1583,
under the leadership of the Neapolitan
Giovanni Niccolo,
was the
flotirishing mission art school
soon
after
artist
and engraver
S.J. (1560-1623).' Niccolo, a respected
teacher, trained a legion ot
Western techniques and
young Japanese and Chinese
Valignano's
and talented
artists in
by having them copy Western paintings
styles
and engravings. The seminary's paintings traveled widely and even
found
their
way
into Akbar's private collection.
founded from the Philippines
no exception. With
full-size oil
collection of engravings
artists a
under
to Paraguay.
'
Similar academies were
The Mughal
mission was
paintings and statuary and an extensive
and printed books, the
Jesuits provided
paper academy that enabled them to study European
their
own guidance and
14
that of their Portuguese artist.
Mughal
styles
—
The
Jesuits
Portuguese
in
India
The
had
Jesuits
enclave of
a special relationship
Goa had been
the location of the society's
1542 Francis Xavier arrived in
thirty years old
— and began
and the shores of China
nomic
capital
first
Goa
— then
Catholic order to
ishly decorated
that
many
legions of
as
make Goa
their
~
Japan
home, they soon became
monumental churches,
they built
projects
colleges,
—which were
lav-
artists.
painters, builders,
Goa were
and sculptors hired by the
Jesuits
Indians. Surviving documents, however, reveal
of them retained their
Christian devotional
ateliers
to
with paintings, statues, and church furnishings
Most of the
in
over
just
4). Goa, the administrative and eco-
and residences throughout the colony." Such
and others
boomtown
would take him
throughout the continent. Although the Jesuits were
one of the most prominent
demanded
mission. In
a bustling
the enterprise that
(see fig.
first
of Portuguese Asia, was a staging ground for religious and
cultural activities
not the
with India, since the Portuguese
art."
In
fact,
Hindu
faith
Goa was
even as they produced
a thriving center for the arts;
of astonishing productivity created ivory and wooden statues and
Figure 4. St. Francis Xavier Preaches in Goa. by
Andre Reinoso
(b.
1590). Portugal, ca. 1619. Oil on
canvas, 960 x 1620. Santa Casa da Misericordia de
Lisboa,
15
Museu de
S.
Roque, Lisbon
furnishings in a subtly hybrid style merging late Renaissance influences
and elements of
Hindu temple
local
art."
While most of the
from Flemish engravings of the Madonna, the Holy
urines derive
Family, and the
Good Shepherd
them according
to Indian
of
a rare standing Christ child in
this
period
size, it is
Buddhist
is
(see figs.
sensibilities.
5,
One
6),"
they often transform
of the most precious
rock
an object of stunning monumentality that
deities in
(see fig. 7).'^
ivory fig-
its
European
frontality,
artists also
relics
crystal; despite its
recalls
Hindu and
symmetry, and blocklike composition
worked
Flemish Jesuit sculptor Father Markus
in
Goa. They include the
Mach (known
as
Marcos
Rodriguez; died 1601) and the Portuguese Jesuit painter Manuel
Godinho
who specialized in reproducing miraculous
Mary supposedly painted by St. Luke (see fig.
(active 1580s),
images of the Virgin
16
8)."
Figure 7. Christ the
Savior. India or Sri
Lanl<a, ca.
Rock
1550-1650.
crystal, gold,
rubies,
and sapphires,
Peabody
13.7 X 4.3 X 3.7.
Essex Museum,
Museum
purchase with funds
donated anonymously.
AE85,219
Figure 8. Reliquary with the
Madonna and
St.
Child after
Luke. Portugal, i6-i7th
century. Ebony,
and painted
gilt
bronze,
glass, 101 x 73
X 17. Santa Casa da
Misericordia de Lisboa,
Museu de
S.
Roque, Lisbon
17
Figure g. St. Jerome, by Kesu Das (act. ca. 1570-90).
India,
Mughal period, Akbar period,
Opaque watercolor on
des Arts Asiatiques-Guimet, Paris
18
ca.
paper, 17 x 10.
1580-85.
Musee National
Most of Akbar's
ings
leading painters responded immediately to the engrav-
and paintings brought by the
them
—
tures.
primarily
Kesu Das
Hindus
— came
two missions, but four of
first
to specialize in European-style pic-
and Manohar
(see figs. 9, 10)
favor overtly Christian images, while
Basawan
(see fig. 24)
(active circa
and Kesu Khurd
(active circa 1580-1605) preferred
more
allegorical scenes
based on biblical figures
11,
and translated
and modeling
their spatial
technique. Other painters
(active
— including
1590-1600), and Husain
universal or
Kesu Das
14)."
effects into a painterly
La'l (active before 1590),
European
figures (see figs. 12,
Instead of copying directly from prints, they tended to
pastiches
from
a variety oi sources, a tradition
Islamic miniatures.
Complex
elaborate stage scenery
more than
real palace interiors
Some
Portuguese costumes, objects, and
Mughal
and with
men
Indo-
or townscapes,
brought to court by Akbar's
figs. 12, 13, 15).''
painters were especially fascinated with the
stimulate the emotions, and aid the
shared these notions and a
Catholic reformers,
Jesuits.'**
in earlier
motifs are inspired by the actual
their ability to depict the spiritual,
these ideas
common
make
architectural settings, often resembling
are the trademarks of this school.
embassies (see
Mani
(active circa 1584-98) created genre
scenes featuring Christian and profane
13, 15).
(see figs.
1560-1600)
reproduced the figures and compositions of the original engrav-
carefully
ings
tended to
it is
common
embody
power of images
abstract ideas,
memory. Since Mughal
culture
Neoplatonic cultural heritage with
not possible to determine
if
they developed
from Indo-Islamic tradition or learned them from the
Although many of these European-style pictures
are intended
purely as exotica, a significant portion appear to have had a devotional
function, as
is
corroborated by contemporary accounts.
By
the turn of
the century, paintings and drawings in which Christian devotional
images were the primary subject represented
Mughal
a significant division
of
artistic production.''
Kesu Das probably served
as Al<bar's specialist in the Occidentalist
19
—
mode.
It is
possible that he was subsequently
Salim (who would reign
own works from
reproduce the European images
as Jahangir) to
in Akbar's collection, since
commissioned by Prince
Kesu Das subsequently copied many of his
the early 1580s (see
fig. 10).'°
Kesu's Christian pictures
often express an understanding and appreciation of their subjects that
is
charged with a sense of affection and even pathos and suggests that the
A careful
picture carries devotional meaning.
number of engravings; he
himself to a small
draughtsman, Kesu limited
painstakingly mastered each
work's style before moving on to the next. Sometimes he produced a
version of the whole engraving,
from different sources.
He
and
other times he combined figures
at
always infused the image with his
own
per-
sonality through altering such elements as the angle of a head, the pose
of an arm, or the
fall
A signed copy
Sistine
Chapel
is
of an engraving of Michelangelo's
(see fig. 9)
by the
in reverse
of drapery.
Italian
— taken from
St.
Jerome
Noah from
(1564),
the
an adaptation
printmaker Mario Cartaro (active 1560s)
typical of Kesu's work."
The
nearly
nude
figure gave
Kesu
a rare
opportunity to practice muscular modeling, a feature entirely alien to
Indo-Islamic tradition.
of his image
is
He
excelled in this; in fact, the pulsating flesh
more Michelangelesque than the
much
copied. Typical of
of Kesu's
prints.
The prominence of the book
many Mughal,
figs. 13, 14, 24).
lies
as well as
Mughal
tree,
engraving he
horizon, and
repertory from Flemish
work
in this
is
characteristic of
other Asian, versions of Christian pictures (see
Kesu placed the book
on the ground
work, the
later
birds were incorporated into standard
Italian
in the original.
in the
man's hand even though
Books appear
it
to serve as an attribute
of sainthood. In Islamic tradition, Jews, Christians, and Muslims are
all
categorized as people of the
One
of Kesu's
artist (see fig. 10),
from Joseph
earliest
book
(ahl al-kitab).
works, shown here in a
reproduces in brilliant color
Interprets Pharoah's
Dream
(1544)
all
later
copy by the
of the main figures
by Georg Pencz
(circa
1500-1550); this was one of the earliest European prints to reach the
Mughal
modeled
spective
court.
Kesu subtly transformed the landscape by combining
Persian-style rock formations with Flemish atmospheric per-
and
birds."
He
changed the scene from an
or by turning the arched
becomes
window
added
a
window of the
study in linear perspective.
in the
The
device derived from Venetian painting
visual treat (see figs. 12,
13, 14).
20
—
—
archway
an
exteri-
original into a pavilion that
tiny figures seen through the
background return repeatedly
a billowing curtain in an
interior to
in Kesu's work.
a favorite
Kesu
Mughal framing
to the left of the picture as a
In the foreground Kesu introduced an
Figure 10. Joseph Interprets Pharoati's Dream, by Kesu Das
(act.
1570-1600)
India,
after
Georg Pencz (German, 1500-1550).
Mughal period, Akbar period,
ca.
1585-90. Album
page; opaque watercolor on paper, image: 21.4
folio:
42.2 X 26.5.
St.
Lionberger Davis
21
Louis Art
Museum,
Gift
of
x 10.8,
I.
Figure
11.
Female
allegorical figure in
the style of Basawan,
attributed to Nar
Singh. India, Mughal
period, Akbar period,
ca.
1585-90.
Ink
and
opaque watercolor
on paper, 8.8 x
Smithsonian
5.6.
Institution,
Freer Gallery of Art,
Gift of
Ruth and
Sherman
22
Lee, F1995.13
Figure 13. Holy Family, attributed to Mani
(act.
1590-1600). India, Muglial period,
Al<bar period, ca. 1595.
Album page;
opaque watercolor on paper, image:
16 X 10,
folio:
45.5 X 28. Free Library
of Philadelphia, Rare
Book Department,
John Fredericl< Lewis Collection of
Oriental Manuscript Leaves
23
M.70
24
Figure 16. "Antwerp
Polyglot" Bible (Biblia
Sacra Hebraice, Chaldaice,
Graece & Latine), by
Pieter van der
Heyden
(Flemish, act. 1500s) after
Pieter van der Borcht
(Flemish, act. 1500s),
Flanders, Antwerp, 1568.
Typeset
folio,
39.37
Houghton
28.12.
x
Library,
Harvard University (pur-
chased from lohn W.
Smith on 27 Nov. 1811)
intricately rendered
life,
Portuguese jug, which was probably drawn from
and he replaced the crutch of the main
figure to the right with a
rapier.
In striking contrast to
Kesu Das, the painter Basawan
tured beyond technical and
stylistic
rarely ven-
borrowings. Basawan's works in the
Occidentalist style are mostly variations on a single theme that particularly fascinated
Running
him: the
woman
as
devotional object (see
gamut from the Virgin Mary
the
fantasy studies of female religion
and
ascetics
very
much
— and
in
relate to
— including
reflect the artist's interest in
Basawan's
sheikhs, dervishes,
world
laiths,
which was
sympathy, perhaps not entirely coincidentally, with
Akbar's own. Basawan's favorite model
from the second
16 with figs.
to an idolatrous Sybil, these
and sainthood
other portraits of male religious figures
figs, ii, 14).
title
II, 15),
a
is
the Pietas Regia (Royal piety)
page of the "Antwerp Polyglot" Bible (compare
monumental work presented
to
Akbar by the
fig.
first
mission." In this series Basawan primarily used the grisaille (nim-qalam)
style.
Perhaps inspired by the absence of color in European engravings,
he introduced
this
method
into
Mughal
painting.'' In figure
11,
by a
fol-
lower of Basawan, the central figure, attended by a young boy, makes an
offering to the gods; in other versions, this
Akbar did not
Christian works of
same woman
is
the
limit his studio's artists to painting these
art.
From
the earliest days of the mission,
his artists into the Jesuit chapel to carve ivory copies
25
idol.'^
Euro-
Akbar sent
of the crucifixes
and other
statuary.
Some of the
sculptures
commissioned by Akbar and
subsequently Jahangir were monumental."' The
artists also
produced
small pieces of jewelry and stone plaques depicting Christian scenes for
the emperor's personal collection.
relief
sandstone carving
Herodhy ]osi
reverse
artists
and
Amman
in three
who had
just
One
(see fig. 17)
begun
this
fig. 18)
a
miniature bas-
— reproduces
its
model
was quite an accomplishment
to explore the
26
—
aher an engraving of The Feast of
(1539-1591; see
dimensions;
of the plaques
new
style.
in
for
The Third
Mission
and the Arts
(1595-1630)
The
was the most
third Jesuit mission (1595— 1773)
enterprise in
Indian
soil
Mughal
India in
its
and
day,
lasted even longer
it
than the British East India Company/^ Staffed
ning by three of the Society of Jesus'
European
influential
finest preachers
and
on
at the begin-
scholars,
it
was
strongly influenced by Valignano's reforms. Fathers Jerome Xavier and
Manoel Pinheiro (born
1544)
and Brother Bento de Goes (1562-1607)
were not only instructed to read and write Persian but were
also
accom-
panied by a professional Portuguese painter to serve the iconographic
needs of the Mughal court/ Reorganized and invigorated, the mission
'
placed renewed emphasis on ritual spectacle and display, as had the mission in Japan. Rich costumes
and
liturgical vestments, curtains, candles,
and exhi-
flowers, singing, organ music, theater, bell ringing, fireworks,
bition of pictures brought attention to the Christian liturgical calendar.'"
who
Prince Salim kept the Portuguese painter,
the sources, so busy painting his father's collection
images that the
works
—
survive
a
artist
had no time
Madonna and Child
from
(1552-1624)
this period;
ited palette
recognizable."
else."
a
much
artists traditionally
Portugal at the time; such sixteenth-century
used, his
Diogo Teixeira
all
viduals at the Jesuit headquarters in
artists as
the academy.'^
The
is
likely that
work
artist left
the
is
immediately
Caspar Dias,
own
creativity." Since
for cultural ones, indi-
realized that their painter's
used elsewhere, pastorally speaking.
him
we
Dom
—and
work
hear no
—
history
in
in 1595,
more about him,
he eventually succeeded in joining Niccolo's academy
27
Pedro
to service there to
Mughal mission
not even a year after he arrived; although
and more lim-
followed the basic composi-
Coa soon
Martins, the Jesuit bishop in Japan, called
figs.
standard practice in
was not achieving any conversions, except
services could be better
and the Elders-^
thicker brush
tions of the original prints but left the style to their
his art
Only two of his
(1553-1619) of Antwerp (see
The copying of engravings was
Francisco Venegas, and
in
and other Christian
with Angels and Suzanna
on paper with
than Mughal
named
both are copies of engravings by Antoon Wierix
and Hieronymus Wierix
19-22). Painted in oil
anything
for
never
is
it
in Japan.
28
Figure 21.
Suzanna
at
Her Bath Surprised by
the Elders, by anony-
mous Portuguese
painter after Antoon
Wierix. India,
Portuguese-Mughal
period, Ai<bar period,
1595.
Album page;
main image,
oil
paper, border,
on
opaque
watercolor and gold
on paper, 42.3
x 26.4.
Purchase— in honor of
the 75th Anniversary
of the Freer Gallery of
Art,
F1996.9
/
i
Figure 22.
and the
Suzanna
Elders, by
Hieronymus Wierix
(Flemish, 1553-1619)
after Martin
de Vos.
Flanders, ca. 1595.
Engraving. Royal
Library of Albert
Brussels
29
I,
—
A painting on copper of the
Repentant Magdalene
in
Osaka may
well be his
work; the treatment of the face and hands, slanted halo, and background are
reminiscent of his surviving two works from the
Mughal
mission.
"
Prince Salim had emerged as a fully fledged patron of the arts and
quickly dominated the production of European-style paintings
court.
Because of his connoisseurly insistence on
his obsession
with the identities of Jesus and Christian
even more than his father
late his eclectic artistic
more
—demonstrated
at
stylistic integrity
a
power of images
embodiments of the divine
as
Salim trained his
for the
less
and
settings.
who became Jahangir's
greatest painter
and earned the
and legions of less accomplished
age)
apprenticed in the European style by painting in color over actual
engravings.''
At
during Salim's heyday were
least three painters
(Nini, Nadira Banu,
reminds us that the
and Raqiya Banu
artistic enterprises
directed toward a female audience
the harem.'" Nearly
all
—
active
all
1
women
599-1 605), which
of the Mughal court were equally
and that
art instruction existed
within
the paintings are of explicitly Christian subjects.
A brightly tinted version
Two
—
be exacting and consistent. Abu'l-Hasan
artists to
name Nadir al-Zaman (wonder of the
of 77?^ Holy Family with Saint Anne arid
Angels (1593) by Aegidius Sadeler (1570-1629)
in the
at
be kept intact. His
— and he showed
concerned with pageantry and lavish architectural
artists
and
that the
narrative aspect. Akbar, in contrast, was increasingly
less interest in their
(1584— circa 1628),
demanded
concern for the iconic and talismanic
seems to have been
popu-
figures to
in a religious context
consistently
works' devotional meanings and
Salim
a passion for exact, direct
— times
— Salim
landscape
secular setting
accuracy and
saints,
Whereas Akbar allowed Christian
copies of engravings.
times in a
stylistic
at
manner of Abu'l-Hasan
(see fig. 23).
quite closely to the original,
and the
the artist an opportunity to
show
is
typical of the
The reproduction
works
adheres
figure of the Christ child provided
off his foreshortening.''
Even one of
Akbar's leading painters, Manohar, was influenced by the style of
Salim's academy, as can be seen in this intricate image of Christ as
Savior of the World, whose angels derive closely from a print by
Hieronymus Wierix
his favored position
Some works
(see fig. 24).
Perhaps
under Jahangir's
even go so
already anticipated
reign.
far as to imitate the
ings; this reflects the prince's fascination
his repeated requests for
Manohar
hatching of the engrav-
with the printing process and
engraved copper plates of his
them. The Virgin of the Apocalypse
after the
German
own.^"'
One
of
engraver Martin
Schongauer (1445-1491) imitates the hatching and stippling techniques
of the original (see
fig. 25).^'
Conversely, a nim-qalam drawing of
30
Figure 23.
Madonna and
Child, school of Abu'l-
Hasan (1584-ca. 1628)
after Aegidius Sadeler
(Flemish, 1570-1629).
India,
Mughal period,
Salim studio, Akbar
period, ca. 1599-1605.
Album page; opaque
watercolor and gold on
paper, 24 x 19.1.
Cincinnati Art
Museum,
Fanny Bryce Lehmer
Endowment, 1985.14
Figure 24. Christ as
Salvator Mundi,
attributed to
(act.
Manohar
1582-1620),
flanking figures after
Hieronymus Wienx
(Flemish, 1553-1619).
India,
ca.
Mughal period,
1595-1600. Album
page; opaque watercolor
and ink on paper.
Catherine and Ralph
Benkaim Collection
31
Figure 25. The Virgin
of the Apocalypse, after
Martin Sctiongauer
(German, 1445-1491).
India, IVlughal period,
Sallm studio, Akbar
period, ca. 1599-1605.
Album page;
ink
on
paper, image: 12.9 x
9.4, folio: 30.1 X 19.6.
Arthur M. Sackler
Gallery,
Smithsonian
Institution;
Purchase
S1990.57
Figure 26. The
Entombment of Christ,
after
Hieronymous
Wierix. India,
Mughal
period, Salim studio.
Akbar period,
ca.
1599-1605. Album page;
ink
on paper, image:
16.5 X
11,
folio: 31.5 X
20. Free Library of
Philadelphia, Rare
Book
Department, lohn
Frederick Lewis
Collection of Oriental
Manuscript Leaves M.92
32
Figure 27. The Birth of
the Virgin, after Cornelis
Cort (Dutch, 1500s).
India, Muglnal period,
Salim studio, Al(bar
period, ca. 1599-1605.
Album page;
ink
on
paper, image: 21 x 14,
folio:
34.5 X 21. Free
Library of Philadelphia,
Rare Book Department,
lohn Frederick Lewis
Collection of Oriental
Manuscript Leaves M.93
Hieronymus Wierix's
(1553-1619)
the hatching into wash (see
Entombment
fig. 26).^'
This technique
Cort's (active 1500s) print of a painting by
both use wash and hatching
tradition of
making
phases, the
later
first
circa
emperor's)
afiier
Cornelius
(1529-1566);
effects (fig. 27).^-
pastiches
found
its
ultimate expression in
fig. 28).^^
1598-1604 and the second circa 1608—9,
artists
1610)
The
earlier
In two
prince's
^^he
painted figural borders to adorn poetic
mostly inscribed by the great Safavid Persian calligrapher Mir
circa 1556).
two
also seen in
Taddeo Zuccaro
the margins (hdshiyas) of Salim's princely albums (see
(and
is
modeled drawings of The Birth of the Virgin
delicately
The
(1580s) expertly translates
'Ali
texts,
(died
group, directed by Aga Reza (active i58os-circa
and apparently including work by Basawan,*' combine Christian
and other European images with Islamic and Hindu
represent world religions.
Muslims but
period (see
One
nevertheless extremely popular in
fig. 28).
The
figures,
probably to
includes a Crucifixion, a scene instilting to
Mughal painting
of this
relationship of these border paintings to the
mystical love
poems they frame
a connection
between the meanings ol the verses and perhaps one or two
usually negligible; there
is
of the figures in the margins. This suggests that the figures
to
one another than
to the
text.^''
exception; the parallel, however,
deals with asceticism
The margin
is
likely
is
only rarely
relate
ol the Crucifixion,
more
is
only by chance. Here, the
an
poem
and withdrawal from the world: "Don't trouble
yourself chasing after morsels and robes/For your daily bread a hall-loaf
is
sufficient; for a lifetime old rags will do."''
This moralistic theme
consistent with the Mughals' understanding of Jesus.
33
is
Figure 28. Marginalia. India,
Akbar period,
(d. ca.
ca.
Mughal period, Salim studio,
1599-1604. Calligraphy by Mir
colors on paper, 42 x 26.5. Arthur M. Sackler
Harvard University Art Museums,
34
Ali
1556). Persia, Safavid period, ca. 1540. Ink and
Gift
Museum,
of John Goelet.
'
An
Interpretation
The Mughal
fascination with European-style art
the question as to
why
the
Muslim Mughal court was
supposedly Christian subjects.
sarily perceive the
on
own
their
imagery
and techniques
The answer
as Christian.
is
raises
so interested in
simple: they did not neces-
They
interpreted missionary art
terms and used images of Christian saints and angels to
proclaim a message based on Islamic, Sufi, and
Hindu symbolism and
linked with Persian poetic metaphor.
The
moved
"Christian" images that appeared so prolifically that they
the Jesuits to
fall
predominantly
to their knees in gratitude
depicted Jesus and Mary. Far from being alien to Indo-Islamic culture,
these figures carried a rich range of associations for their
Mughal
audi-
ence and communicated messages related to moral leadership, divine
guidance, and royal genealogy. Contemporary texts
panegyrists openly alluded to both figures in prose
mote
their leaders' right to rule.''
encoded the same meanings into
naturally follows that
It
that
Mughal
to pro-
Mughal
artists
portraits of these holy figures.
and Mary both play an important
Jesus
show
and poetry
role in the
Koran and
Islamic religious literature. Approximately ninety verses of the
Koran
deal with Jesus; sixty-four of them, with the Nativity. Koranic scripture
pays special honor to Jesus as the product ol a virgin birth and empha-
meekness and
sizes his
ages
—
piety.^"
The
literattu-e
of the Muslim middle
fueled partly by the presence of large indigenous Christian
munities in major
Muslim
Muslim
centers
and by the increasing
writers with Christian texts
— expanded
com-
familiarity of
the role of Jesus and
other Christian figures.'" Christian icons even appeared in Islamic
ture.
A
famous passage by the medieval writer Al-Azraqi (died
example,
tells
Mary and
how
Muhammad
the Prophet
Jesus for preservation
litera-
858), tor
singled out the portrait of
when he ordered
the destruction of
all
of the other murals that originally adorned the interior of the Ka'bah,
soon to be the holiest shrine of Islam,
in imitation
at
Mecca." Later Muslim
rulers,
of the Prophet, showed great respect for images of the
Virgin and Child.
In Islamic literature, Jesus
is
frequently associated with asceticism
and withdrawal from the world, and he often appears
sheikh, or spiritual elder,
who warns
as a
kind of
the worldly of their sins." This
35
is
—
the overriding sentiment in the writings of the great poet and philoso-
pher al-Ghazzah (1058-1111), whose long
list
of Jesus' sayings was
extremely influential in the Muslim world, including the Mughal court.
As
a moralistic hermit, Jesus
him
as a
was very popular among
protomaster and ultimate contemplative
tator at the turn of the seventeenth century
another very important role Jesus played
would descend
into the
as
This particular attribute of Jesus' was
the ideology of the
spec-
at least to the
the
Day
of the
ninth cen-
of
Judgment,
sovereign in Jerusalem."'
also
of prime importance to
Mughal emperors, who promoted themselves
as
mes-
Akbar, for example, harnessed Muslim enthusiasm tor the mil-
siahs."
lennial anniversary of the
and
Mughal
in Islamic legend: that
Holy Land on
and reign
slay the Antichrist (al-Dajjal),
A
saint."
revered
would have recognized
Messiah. According to a tradition dating back
tury, Jesus
who
Sufis,
initiated his
Muslim Era
own millennium
in 1591-92 for his
purposes
(the Ilahl) in 1584 using the Persian
and millennial imagery abounds
solar calendar. Cyclical
own
in the writings
of Mughal court panegyrists."' Cyclical ideology was also a very important aspect of fiindu kingship, as demonstrated by such ceremonies as
the ritual bathing
known
which was carried out every year
as abhiseka,
monsoons.
in medieval India before the
(1540/1-1604/5) openly draws
Jesus' killing the Antichrist:
parallels
'
The
court historian al-Badaoni
between Akbar's conquests and
"Thou would'st
say 'Isa (Jesus) has
come
forth to slay Dajjal."'"
The Koran
is
also
generous in
its
descriptions of Mary. She
is
the
woman mentioned by her proper name and is said to be exhalted
"above the women of the two (celestial and temporal) worlds" (3:42)
only
and, like Jesus, to be a "model
used
gyrists
Mary
as
"
for
Muslims
(66:10-12).
Mughal pane-
an explicit symbol of the divine right to
rule.
Abu'1-Fazl 'Allami (1551-1602), Akbar's historian, openly compared her
to a mythical
woman),
Mongol protomother
whom
Akbar and Jahangir
called
Queen Alanqoa (immaculate
— following Mongol precedent
considered their direct progenitor.'" According to
Alanqoa was impregnated by
a divine light
from
Mongol
God
legend,
while she was
sleeping in her tent, and she gave birth to the patriarch of the
"The cupola of chastity became pregnant
royal family. Abu'1-Fazl wrote:
by that
light in the
same way
Mongol
as
did her Majesty Mary.
.
.
It
did not
hurt that both Akbar's and Jahangir's mothers happened to have been
called
Mary (Maryam).
One
images
in
of the most
common
types of Christian-inspired devotional
Mughal painting was
adult Jesus was
on the
left side,
36
Jesus
and Mary
as a pair; usually the
and the Virgin was on the
right (see
fig. 2).
The prominence of this couple
—
directly over imperial thrones,
emperor's jewelry, and even on his royal
seal'"
—
on the
strongly implied a direct
reference to monarchy or to the actual person of the emperor. There
is
doubt that Jesus represented the emperor himself and that Mary
little
symbolized
his
from
ture portraits of Jahangir
One
this relationship.
depicts the
of them,
emperor holding
now
panion,
A
genealogy through his female lineage.
in the
of
circa 1614 provides further evidence
now
in the
a portrait
National
pair of minia-
Museum
Musee Guimet
of his
in
real father,
New
in Paris,
Akbar;
Delhi, shows
com-
its
him hold-
ing a portrait of his spiritual mother, the Virgin Mary.'"*
This pairing
relates to earlier Sufi
al-'Arabi (1165-1240) in his Bezels
The medieval
imagery.
of Wisdom,
mystic Ibn
example, uses the
for
Christian Annunciation to relate the celestial and earthly worlds to the
male and female
holy
spirit
sex, respectively.
God
with which
water.'"
This also closely
ship, in
which the king
and the earth
"
(Jesus
and mother of their
this divine pair
is
represents earth
and
an important Hindu symbol of king-
on
people.'*
his royal seal also
an old Islamic metaphor that referred to
Prophets
Mary
the husband of the earth; together the king
are the father
emperors' use of
created Jesus, and
parallels
is
Gabriel symbolizes heaven and the
Muhammad
a prophet in Islam). Later,
The Mughal
hearkens back to
as the "Seal
Muslim luminaries
of the
also
referred to themselves as seals; Ibn al-'Arabi, for example, boasted that
he was the "Seal of
Muhammadan
intended the pun raised by his
The
and often depicted
zling.
are
The
apostles
mentioned
Muslims
in
in
that are not
do have
mentioned
a place in Islamic tradition,
in the
Koran
however, and
medieval Islamic sources. They were revered by
and according
tradition, they converted to Islam retroactively.
It is
that Jahangir
groups suggesting Christ's apostles are more puz-
for their devotion to Jesus,
ored the apostles
It is likely
"Seal of the Prophets."
literal
Mughal painting
saints in
Sainthood."*^'
as role
models of
'**
many
to an old Islamic
Sufis in particular
hon-
own devotion to their elders.
and Mary appeared in Mughal
their
possible that the apostles, Jesus,
painting to serve as a paradigm of good behavior.
The male
half of the intended audience for these images consisted
of the royal family
itself
Dln-i Ilahr (the divine
Ilahr,
an
tor a
new
elite society
religion.
and the syncretic brotherhood known
faith).
Founded by Akbar
in 1583, the
as the
Dln-i
of the emperor's devotees, has often been mistaken
Combining Hindu and Muslim
practices with a phi-
losophy based on Sufism and Mongol ancestor worship, the group practiced devotion to the sun, abstinence,
members experienced
and
religious debating,
ecstatic visions. Its inspiration
37
and
came from
its
several
The DTn-i
popular syncretic religious movements of the period/''
Ilahl
consciously abandoned public prayer and other formal aspects ot ortho-
dox worship
as a
way of uniting men of various
of their leader/"
in the serv'ice
The
fraternity,
important members of the Mughal court, held
the
and
nationalities
its
meetings in
many of
rooms adorned with Christian-inspired murals.
Clearly, the Catholic-inspired imagery
is
faiths
which included the most
we have been
related to the ideology of the DTn-i Ilahi.
investigating
The imagery and
ideology
manifest the same blend of religious traditions, from esoteric Sufism to
genealogical symbolism.
emperor
in the celestial
and angelic servants
They
or's devotees.
and the semidivine
however,
tion,
was
also
directly
establish his saintly
models of personal obedience
for the
emper-
underscore the emperor's relationship with
status of his ancestors.
the depiction of Jesus
emperor was
— and hence
the emperor
head
(pFr),
and
—
The
relationship between Sufi elders
its
God
The most important connec-
central to the tenets of the Dln-i Ilahl.
modeled on the
their followers; the
the focal position of the
and temporal worlds and
as role
which was
Sufi sheikh,
ety
is
They emphasize
his devotees
as a
soci-
and
were
pupils (murids). Jesus, the ultimate pirWixh. his apostles as his murids,
was therefore
a
powerful and appropriate symbol for
which combined
fealty
The women of the
the DTn-i IlahT.
Under
this fellowship,
with religious devotion.^'
court formed a group ideologically parallel to
the leadership of such
women
as
Akbar's mother
Maryam Makani (first half of the sixteenth century) and Jahangir's
queen, Nur Jahan (1577-1645), the female community may have been
divided into hierarchies very similar to those of the male sector. The
Jesus-Mary motif symbolized the male and female elements of kingship.
This allowed the head of the harem to control and participate
same
royal iconography as her
male counterpart, the emperor.
Just as the DTn-i IlahT transcended ethnic
to unite subjects in the service of their
art,
a
which did not belong
medium
to
as universal
because of
intensely spiritual. Unlike Islam,
figurative devotional
iconography
cy. Pictures
and
religious boundaries
monarch. Catholic devotional
any of the subcontinental
of expression that was seen
was perceived
in the
faiths,
as culttirally neutral.
its
realism,
which had
and
virtually
it
was
provided
Catholic art
also seen as
no tradition of
imagery and could not compete with Hindu
effectively.
Catholic art possessed undeniable visual poten-
of saints provided a safe and powerful substitute for
Hindu
gods, which they could replace in the devotions of the court's largest
non-Muslim minority, and they
Islamic stories and parables.
38
related to a rich tradition of Indo-
Figure 29.
Emperor Aurongzeb
a
in
Shaft of Light, attributable to
Hunhar
India,
(act.
2d half 17th century).
Mughal period, Aurangzeb
period, ca. 1660.
Opaque watercolor
and gold on paper, 47.2 x
32.2.
Smithsonian Institution, Freer
Gallery of Art, Purchase, Fi996.ia
39
The
Jesuits' influence
on Mughal court
reign of Jahangir, soon gave
Holland. Cathohc
Mughal
tions,
art
art,
way
to usurpers
barely surviving the
from England and
however, had aheady penetrated mainstream
and even architecture so deeply
and symbols
art,
— minus
the saints
that
its
basic ideas,
— had become
fully
composi-
absorbed into
the artistic production of Shah Jahan (1592-1666; reigned 1628-66) and
subsequent rulers
(see fig. 29).
Catholic imagery
is
called the
"Dream
plainly visible in a series of allegorical royal portraits
Pictures" (circa 1618—25),
lived attempt to adapt the
al
portraiture."'
This "neutralized" perseverence of
experimental and short-
European Renaissance frontispiece
to imperi-
True hybrids, these works borrowed elements from
Catholic iconography and the newly arrived portraiture of the
Elizabethan Renaissance and remain one of the most sophisticated uses
of European imagery
in the entire
collages, especially those
elements on a
trait
produced
much more
Mughal
tradition.
However, these
after Jahangir's death, use
superficial level.
European
This can be seen in the por-
of Shah Jahan's successor Aurangzeb (1618-1707; reigned
1666-1707),
who
is
somewhat
genetically bathed in the light of divine
acceptance without the assistance of angels, saints, or specifically
Christian subjects (see
with
this
complex
mode
ideas,
fig.
29).
Jahangir and his successors experimented
of representation because
it
enabled them to express
such as moral choice, in a pithy, convenient package."'
These conceits offered Jahangir and
his successors a
more
expressive
immediate form of official propaganda, and the long legacy of these
symbols
attests to their success.
40
and
"
Notes
I.
of the Sun, or Civitns
Cit)i
Tommaso Campanella
was written during the years the Itahan philosopher
So/is.
spent in prison (1599-1626).
It
describes a Utopian state similar to
that of Plato's Republic.
I.
See Gauvin Alexander Bailey, "The Catholic Shrines of Agra," Arts ofAsia
(July-August 1993): 131-37;
n
Asian Studies
"A Portuguese Doctor
diss.,
Indian Conquest of Catholic Art:
Art Journal
Catechism and the Arts
1540-1773, ed.
The Mughals,
in
Mughal
Soitth
the
(1997): 95-108; "The
the Jesuits, and Imperial
Mural Painting,"
"The Truth-Showing Mirror:
57, no. 2 (spring 1998): 24-30;
4
Mughal
in
Harvard University, 1996); "The Lahore Mirat al-Quds
Impact of Jesuit Theater on Mughal Painting," South Asian Studies
in
23, no.
Maharaja of Jaipur's Court,"
"Counter Reformation Symbolism and Allegory
(1995): 51-62;
Painting" (Ph.D.
at the
Jesuit
and the Arts,
India," in The Jesuits: Cultures, Sciences,
John O'Malley, Gauvin Alexander Bailey, T. Frank Kennedy, and Steven
Harris (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, forthcoming);
the Jesuit Missions in Asia
and
J.
Global Partnership: Art on
(Toronto: University of Toronto
the Aniericas. 1^42—
Press, forthcoming).
3.
See Bailey, "Truth-Showing Mirror." Original manuscript copies of this Catholic
ture include
Abd
al-Sattar ibn
Qasim Lahori and Jerome
645/MSS-46, Lahore Museum, Lahore, and Ayine-ye Haqq Numa, Harley 5478,
London. For
Library,
treatises, see
a
thorough study of the theological (but not
litera-
M-
Mirat al-Quds,
Xavier,
British
content of these
artistic)
Arnulf Camps, Jerome Xavier Sf. and the Muslims of the Mogul Empire
(Schoeneck-Beckenried: Nouvelle Revue de Science Missionaire, 1957).
4.
Shaykh Nur al-Haqq, Zubdat al-Tavarikh, Ethe 290,
5.
On
Valignano see Andrew Ross,
A
6.
On Jesuit
misiones (Madrid:
education see John O'Malley,
Harvard University
7.
S.I. y las
The Chinese abhorred
On
Peinture
S.J.,
The
First Jesuits
et la
Revue
Societatis lesu, 1942).
(Cambridge, Mass.:
and mistook the Virgin Mary
Bailey, Global Partnership, chaps.
—erroneously
called
"The Academy of
Japan, see Bailey, Global Partnership, chap.
3.
3
Luke
St.
d'histoire des missions 12 (1935):
in
Japan,
"
The Japan
199-229; C. R. Boxer,
Society: Transactions
(1935-36): 13-64;
Maurice Prunier, "Des peintures
Franco faponaise
11
(1939): 1—4, 162-67;
a fouler
11
P.
"
— and
Pao.
"Some Aspects
"
33
Maison
Jesuit Art in the Far East,
Joseph
und Druckblatter, Archivum
Historicum Societatis lesu 9 (1940): 226—80; Georg Schurhammer,
41
ot
Bulletin de la
(1948): 45-69; 17 (1954): 39-54;
Schiitte, S.J., "Christliche Japanische Literatur, Bilder,
WW,
Matthieu
and Proceedings
aux pieds,
John McCall, "Early
Arti bus As iae 10 (1947): 121-37, 216-33, 283-301;
for
4.
Toung
"
Henri Bernard, "L'art chretien en Chine au temps du
Portuguese Influence
and
See also Paul Pelliot, "La
gravure Europeenes en Chine au temps de Mathieu Ricci,
series 2 (1921): 1-18;
Ricci,"
Archivum Historicum
the Crucifixion, for example,
the Seminary of Painters
Jesuit art in
Japan and China,
Acosta see Leon Lopetegui, S.].,.El
Press, 1993).
Guanyin, the bodhisattva of mercy. See
8.
On
London.
157a, British Library,
Vision Betrayed: The Jesuits in
1^42-1742 (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1994).
Padre Jose de Acosta
f.
"
S.J.,
"Die
a
Jesuitenmissionare des 16
und
17:
Jahrhunderts und ihr Einfluss auf die Japanische
Malerei," in Orientalia (Lisbon: Centra de Estudios Historicos Ultramarinos, 1963),
769-79.
9.
In 1596 Alessandro Valignano himsell", or his successor Nicolau
Mughal mission an image
to the
and
Jesus
Loyola
a portrait of Ignatius
Niccolo's academy (Goa
46L
36b,
f.
—
Pimenta (159S-1613), sent
as well as
another picture
of"
from Japan and almost certainly products of
all
Archivum
and Ignatius Loyola were given
tures of Jesus
Mundi,
of Jesus as Salvator
Romanum
Societatis lesu,
Akbar by Father Xavier;
to
Rome). The
pic-
Edward
see
Maclagan, "Jesuit Missions to the Emperor Akbar," Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
65 (1896): 76.
type
Other Japanese works of
on the handle;
cross
commonly produced by
Pinheiro in 1601 (Goa
55,
of Lorcto,
Niccolo's academy
Archivum
f 32b,
"Jesuit Missions," 74, 8s; Pierre
Du
Mughal court included
art at the
Our Lady
a painting,
Jarric,
on
a
copper panel
—was presented
Romanum
Akbar and
to
a dagger with a
(calaini
dourada)
—
Akbar by Xavier and
Societatis lesu,
Rome; Maclagan,
the Jesuits, trans. C.
H. Payne
[London: George Routledge and Sons, 1926], in; Edward Maclagan, The Jesuits and the
Great Mogul [London: Burns, Oates, and Washbourne, 1932], 226). Today one can see two
calaini
dourada pictures
in the State
Museum, Panjim;
they were donated by
Don
Martin
of Porvorim.
On Jesuit
10.
Mario T. Chico, "Algumas
architecture in Goa, see
observa(;oes acerca da
arquitectura da
Companhia de
(1956): 257-72;
David Kowal, "The Evolution of Ecclesiastical Architecture
Goa," Carl Jiisti Vereinigung'^
The
Jesus no distrito de Goa," Garcia de Orta: Niimero Especial
(i993): 1-22;
Jesuit Contribution to Architectural
Jesuits: Cultures, Sciences,
and
Portuguese
Development
in the
Portuguese Indies," in The
1540— 1773, ed. John O'Malley, Gauvin Alexander
the Arts,
Frank Kennedy, and Steven
Bailey, T.
in
David Kowal "Innovation and Assimilation:
J.
Harris (Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
forthcoming).
11.
As
late as 1588
church authorities
Christian (Hindu)
artists to sculpt
contamination ("Provisoes
a favor
tried to prohibit the
common
practice of hiring non-
or paint Christian religious imagery for fear of doctrinal
da cristandade [1595]," 9529, ff 53a— 54b,
Goa
State
Archives, Panjim).
See Kowal, "Innovation and Assimilation." Several recent publications have focused on
12.
Indo-Porruguese ivory
art; see
Van Gua naar Lisboa
1991); Portuguese Expansion Overseas
Foundation,
13.
Some
and
the
(Brussels:
Royal Library of Belgium,
Art of Ivory (Lisbon: Calouste Gulbenkian
1991).
most poptilar models
of the
devotional prints by
for
Indo-Portuguese ivories are
Hieronymus Wierix. For some
Mauquoy-Hendrikx,
Les Estan/pes des Wierix, vol.
i
late
sixteenth-century
of the original engravings, see
Marie
(Brussels: National Library of Albert
I,
1978-83), cat. nos. 459, 462, 471.
Portuguese Expansion, cat. no. 337. There are only three
14.
15.
Josef Schtitte,
S.J.,
Valignano's Mission Principles for Japan, trans.
Louis: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1980), 1:236.
"quite skillful at [making crucifixes], as
and Japan,
rest
etc., are
of Europe;
with them.
I
."
.
.
made by me.
have, to
The
known examples
my
Jesuits
.
.
my
.My
products
crucifixes are
much
42
his tools
all
J.
his
Coyne,
own
S.J. (St.
estimation
indeed, the best ones in Asia
testify;
great consolation, supplied
took away
John
Mach, or Maech, was by
in the world.
appreciated in Italy and the
the colleges and brothers here
because they wanted him to concentrate
on
his spiritual
1591
is
Goa
in
work and were concerned with
14, ff
395a-6b, Archivum
John Correia-Atonso,
16.
Letters
As Beach indicated
illustrations for
Pal,
Societatis lesu,
Rome.
fivm the Mughal Co//;r (Bombay: Heras
in the
atelier, since
On
letter
Godinho
of
see
Institute, 1980), 31, 60.
only article dealing with this enigmatic
held a secondar}' position within Akbar's
Mughal
image of poverty. The original
their
Romanum
artist,
Kesu Kliurd
he was most often assigned to paint
manuscripts designed by more prominent
See Milo C. Beach, "The
artists.
Painter Kesu Das," Archives ofAsian Art }o (1976-77), 46. See also Pratapaditya
Indian Painting (Los Angeles: Los Angeles
17. In 1573 ^
delegation from Portuguese
Museum
ot Art, 1993), 237.
Goa met with Akbar
town of Surat and presented him with "many
northwestern port
at the
and
ot the curiosities
rarities
of the skilled
craftsmen of [Portugal]." See Abu'1-Fazl "AJlami, Akbarndma, trans. H. Beveridge (Calcutta:
Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1902-39) 3:37, 207; Judice Biker, Colleccdo de Tratatos (Lisbon:
Arquivo Nacional,
ties
1887), 14:25-26;
Du Jarric,
Akbar, 219,
Akbar's appetite for curiosi-
n. 12.
was immediately whetted, and he responded by sending an embassy
group returned three years
later
with lavish
gifts, textiles,
instruments, as well as European musicians to play them.
to
Goa
in 1575; the
Portuguese costumes, and musical
One
of the instruments was a
fancy pipe organ with panels painted inside and out with devotional images of Jesus and
the saints; see
ed.
and
AbuTFazI, Akbarndma,
George
trans.
S.
3:207, 322;
and al-Badaoni, Muntakhdb ut-Taivarlkh,
A. Ranking (Calcutta: Asiatic Society ol Bengal, 1898), 2:299.
18.
See Bailey, "Truth-Showing Mirror."
19.
See Bailey, "Counter Reformation," and
A
Global Partnersliip, chapter
but thorough and readable discussion ot different "Christian" themes
see
Maclagan,
Jesuits,
chap.
Intercultiiral Influences in
20.
Fhis was
first
published in
painting,
ed.,
1995)-
Grand Moghul (Williamstown,
Mass.:
56.
Mughal Couit {New York: Abrams,
a 1515
For an outdated
Mughal Painting {Lshoix: National College of Arts,
See for example. Beach, "Mughal Painter Kesu Das," 38—39;
Miniatures of the
5.
Mughal
For a more recent assessment, see Khalid Anis Alimed,
suggested by Milo C. Beach, The
Clark Institute, 1978),
21.
is.
in
Amina Okada,
engraving by Agostino Musi (Veneziano); this identified the
Diogenes. Mario Cartaro identified another version in 1564
Moltedo, La Sistina Reprodotta (Rome: Electa,
Indian
.
1992), 97. Michelangelo's work was
1991), fig.
3.
as St. Jerotne; see
The
latter print
figtire as
Alida
was
also used
in (apan.
22.
fig.
Milo C. Beach,
(summer
23.
85,
Mughal and Rajput P/i/n ting {Ca.mhnds,c: Cambridge University
The Pencz print reached the Mughal court as early as the 1560s; see
"A European Source for Early Mughal Painting, Oriental Art 11, no. 2
See Milo C. Beach,
Press, 1987),
47.
"
1976): 180-86.
Amina Okada, "Cinq dessins de Basawan au Musee Guimet, Arts Asiatiques 4.1 (1986):
was the first to make this identification. For other works by Basawan based on the Pietas
"
Regia, see Bailey,
Counter Reformation,
figs.
60-70.
Amina Okada, "Basawan," in Master Artists of the Imperial Muglud Court, ed.
Marg Publications, 1991), 11. See also S. C. Welch, hidiaji
Draivings and Painted Sketches (New York: The Asia Society, 1976); Esin Atil, The Br/ish of
24.
Pratapaditya Pal (Bombay:
the Masters
(Washington, D.C.: Freer Gallery of Art, 1978); and Marie Lukens
43
Swietochowski and Sussan Babaie, Persian Drawings in the Metropolitan
(New
Museum
York: Metropolitan
25.
Published
26.
Many
in
Okada, Indian Miniatures,
fig. 85.
sculptures were freestanding and nearly
Perimahal Palace
visitors to the
in
Lahore
alabaster or marble statues of Jesus,
there in the previous century; see
Museum ofArt
of Art, 1989).
For example, two European
life size.
century saw a group of
in the early eighteenth
Mary, other
saints,
and angels
had been erected
that
Ketelaar, /o/^rwrt^?/ ('sGravenhage: Nijhoff, 1937),
J. J.
155;
Ippolito Desideri, Viaggi, ed. Luciano Petech (Rome: Libreria dello Stato, 1954), 158-59.
A single statue
Shrines," 133,
of this type survives at the
135. It
Old Cathedral
Agra; see Bailey, "Catholic
at
was found during mid-nineteenth-century excavations
Red
at the
Forr, Agra.
27.
Michael Brand and Glenn D. Lowry, Akbar
(New
York: Asia Society, 1986), 97,
von Bartsch, The lUustrated
Books, 1978-), no. 104
28.
14,
Add.MSS
A
is
Goa
9854, f 64b,
Akbar, 6j.
46I,
(.
30b,
and Add.MSS
Romanum
I
Maclagan,
/«///'«, 317;
32.
As the 1996 Andrew
14,
f 288b, and
I
Archivum
Goa
46I, f 30b,
W. Mellon
Fellow
its
Romanum
Society
we determined
Pintura Maneirista
em
in
Romanum
Conservation
pigments with
that the
as
Amy
letter
Mughal mission
is
(Maclagan, "Jesuit
mention
letters that
Societatis lesu,
Rome).
London; Goa 46L
S.J.,
of Bengal
"Mirza
zu-1-
no. 4 (1916): 158;
I
had
Societatis lesu,
at the
136.
See
oil
also
it
mentioned
McCall, "Early Jesuit Art,"
(.
museum
scientist.
based and that the image
originally thought.
Portugal (Lisbon: Comissao Nacional para as
in a letter
(Jap/Sin 46,
Rome.
Fiarvard University Art
1995), iio-ii, 238—39.
Bishop Martins was a strong promoter ol the Seminary of Painters
enthusiastically about
painting
Adam
Abaris
years, see
Snodgrass,
pigments were
Comemora(;6es dos Descobrimentos Portugueses,
35.
its last
Rome; Henry Hosten,
Archivum
was not painted directly over an engraving
34.
in
9855, f 43b, British Library,
Societatis lesu,
analyzed figure 19 and
other things,
A
published in
(New York:
"Lahore Mirat al-Quds."
Goa
See
is
(9)
Qim'^s, Jerome Xavier, 226-39; Bailey, "Catholic Shrines,"
31.
33.
I
City of Victory
Christian Grandee of Three Great Mughals with Notes on Akbar's Christian
also Bailey,
Among
20
have found two additional
Wife and the Indian Bourbons," Memoirs of the Asiatic
Museums,
Mughal
The engraved model
L. Strauss, vol.
only mentioned in one published
Du Jarric,
f 288a, and
f 78a-b, Archivum
Qarnain:
the
(365).
This anonymous painter
him (Goa
fro))i
Jesuits.
Missions," 67) and in
30.
Walter
India: Art
For a discussion of the importance of the mission even
Maclagan,
29.
cat. no. 60.
Bartsch, ed.
's
in
Japan and wrote
of 1596, the year after the Portuguese painter
283b,
Archivum
Romanum
in Schiitte, "Christliche
Societatis lesu,
left
the
Rome). The
Japanische Literatur," 263-64; and
133.
Michael Cooper, The Southern Barbarians (Tokyo: Weatherhill,
1971), 67. Oil paintings
on copper were among the most popular media of the Japanese Seminary of
44
Painters.
36. Salim's obsession
we have
also, as
with copying not only the Christian
estrangement from Akbar and the foundation of
37.
An example
Museum
in the British
V.
S.
Wilkinson and
Athar-e Iran
Time
no. 2 (1937):
no; Asok
fig.
Kumar
Das,
many
This same image was subsequently copied
Museum,
Painting [Brussels: National
and Oleg Alvimushkin, Album
1968), pis.
and David
The
40.
O.
46L
and
41.
A
school toward
Anatoli Ivanov, Tariana Grek,
Persian Miniatures (Leningrad: fiermitage
St.
Petersburg
2 vols.
from the Mughal mission include a
14,
f.
also for a
Muraqqa Album
:
(Lugano:
ARCH
very close copy
288a [20 August 1595] and
Romanum
in the India Office Libraiy,
is
litany of requests not only
copper plate to make engravings, for Salim was
64a [24 September 1607], Archivum
f.
Soustiel, Miniatures ori-
Sharma, Indian Miniature
P.
pi. 13, cat. 13;
1974),
of Indian
and engravings but
own one (Goa
anxious to
Burlington
I'lnde,"
pis. 2:90, 91.
Jesuit letters sent
tor paintings
Museum,"
Lucknow
tmies by the
of Indian and Persian Miniatures from the Sixteenth Century,
Foundation, 1996),
Persian
in a
Francesca von Hapsburg, ed.,
51, 52;
a
15.
the turn of the nineteenth century. See, for example,
Museum,
only halt painted by
Mughal Pahiting During Jahangir's
(Calcutta: Asiatic Society, 1978), 46; Jean Soustiel
entales de I'lnde (Paris: Soustiel, 1986),
39.
is
fig. 71.
Gray, "Indian Paintings
Basil
his
studio in Allahabad in 1599.
Yedda Godard, "Un album des princes timourides de
(1935): 174;
2,
own
executed. See Michael Rogers, Muglial
Miniatiirei (London: British Musetim, 1993),
38. J.
was already anticipating
of an engraving that
Mughal hand shows how such works were
Magazine 66
his
brought by the Jesuits but
art
seen, his hither's collection suggests that he
t.
344a
[18
August
Societatis lesu,
1597],
and Goa
Rome).
London. See Toby Falk and Mildred
Archer, Indian Miniatures in the India Office Library (London: India Office Library, 1981),
cat. no. 443. It
is
not clear
Grand Moghul,
42. Beach,
Estampes des Wierix,
why
cat. no. 55.
cat. no.
3:
the authors attribute this picture to the
Deccan
region.
For the original print see Mauquoy-flendrikx,
2262. Later copies were also made; see, for example.
Important Oriental Manuscripts. Miniatures and Qajar Lacquer. 8-9 December igjg (London:
Sotheby's, 1979), lot
Kumar,
35;
1983), cat. no.
Pratapaditya Pal, Court Paintings of India
M14; and
Malerei (Miinster: Aschendorffsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1958),
43.
The
14.687.
other, identified by
These were
also
Glenn Lowry,
copied
(New
York: Navin
Felix zu Lowenstein, Christliche Bilder in Altindischer
many
in the
is
Museum
pi.
44.
of Fine Arts, Boston, object
times in eighteenth-century Lucknow.
copies include Krishna Chaitanya, History of Indian Painting: Manuscripts,
Deccani Traditions
State
Museum,
44. Das,
(New
Delhi: B.I. Publications, 1979),
Mughal Painting,
Muraqqas of
European
45, describes these differences.
the
Mughal Emperor
figures have already
fig. i;
(New
in the
Lucknow
i
See also Yedda Godard, "Les
(1936): 11-33; 'ind
Hermann
Goetz, "The
Most of the
been identified by Goetz and by Nancy Graves Cabot; see
Boston. Bulletin 63, no. 332 (1965).
Courts
and one
Jahangir," East-West % (1957): 157-85.
Milo C. Beach, "The Gulshan Albimi and
Murakka',"
45;
later
object 47.35.
Marges du Murakka Gulshan," Athar-e Iran
Early
fig.
The many
Moghul and
its
Goetz, "Early Muraqqas,"
York: Rizzoli, 1992),
European Sources," Museum
The published
cat. nos.
of Eine Arts,
pages include Godard, "Marges du
pi. 10;
Aboulala Soudavar, Art of the Persian
28a-d; Ernst Ktihnel and
45
Hermann
Goetz,
Indische Buchmalereioi
am dem ]ahangir-Album
Scarabaeus Verlag, 1924),
der Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin (Berlin:
Milo C. Beach, The Imperial Image: Paintings from
pi. 39;
the
Freer Gallery o/"v4rf (Washington, D.C.: Freer Gallery of Art, 1981), 157, 163; Beach,
"Gulshan Album," 76,
4v Beach
on
ple
the only scholar to
is
in the
Golestan Library, Tehran (Beach, Grand
183, n. 6).
Album,"
46. Beach, "Gulshan
Author
47.
mention signed marginalia by Basawan; he noted an exam-
84b of the Gulshan album
tolio
MoghuL
fig. 5.
73.
translation.
s
48. In the panegyric poetry of
Abd
Nahavandi
al-Baqi
(active first quarter of the seven-
teenth century), one of Jahangir's laureates, the emperor's
own
breath
is
compared
to that
of Jesus; see Ebba Koch, "The Influence of the Jesuit Missions on Symbolic
Representations ot the
Delhi:
Manohar,
Mughal Emperors,"
1982), 1:27. This
is
bird with God's permission (Koran, 5:110); this image
example
in this line
which gave
became popular
[London: Khaniqahi NimatuUahi Publishers,
Denison Ross,
ed.,
The
and
Persia)!
Tiirki
life
poetry
]esiti in the
is
to a clay
—
for
someone
Eyes of the Sufis
former regent and poet
1983], 57). Akbar's
Bairam Khan, Khan-i Khanan, used the metaphor of Jesus' breath
(see E.
in
from the Persian poet Hafez (1325/6-1386): "Ah, where
inspired with Jesus's breath to inspire me?" (Javad Nurbakhsh,
poems
(New
in Islam in India, ed. Christian Troll
a reference to Jesus' breath,
in
one of
his Persian
Divans of Bairam Khan [Calcutta:
Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1910], 4).
Kenneth Cxn^g,
49.
Jesus
Geolfrey Parrinder,
Many
50.
and the Muslim (London: G.
in the Qur'aji
biblical stories
Allen and Unwin, 1985), 26, 43;
(London: Faber and Faber,
1965), 30-53.
concerning Jesus, Mary, and John found their way into the bio-
graphical and historical writings of Ibn Ishaq (died 768), al-Tabari (died 923), al-Mas'udi
(died 956), and Ibn al-Athir (1160-1234). The teachings of Jesus find a nK)re central place
and
his
explicit citation in the ninth-century writings of
Abu Abdallah
Harith al-Muhasibi
Kitdb al-Wasaya (Book of commandments), a work that coincided with the
lations of the
New
Testament into Arabic;
see
first
in
trans-
William Montgomery Watt, Muslim-
Christian Encounters (London: Routledge, 1991), 38-48].
51.
The
interior of the shrine
of the prophets
ture of Jesus,
— including
was decorated throughout; each column bore
a portrait of
and one of Mary
—
Ibrahim
as well as
an old
as
man
depictions of angels and
trees.
Al-Azraqi wrote:
The day of the conquest of Mekka, the Prophet entered the Ka ba and
ibn Abbas
who brought water from Zemzem, and he ordered him to
—
in
put
two hands on the picture of Tsa bin Miryam
Mother and
raised his
sent for al-Fadl
bring a rag
water and efface the pictures (suwar) which he did. They say that the Prophet
soaked
his
portraits (suwar)
divining with arrows, a pic-
said: "Efface all these pictures
hands from above
Isa
and
his
[jesus,
son of Mary] and His
except these under
my
hands."
He
then
Mother. (K. A. C. Creswell, Early Muslim
Architecture [Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1932-40], 1:2-3)
52.
This devotion was consciously echoed by
Emperor Mehmet
Virgin, and
Ahmet
II
I
(1432-81; reigned
later
Muslim
1444-46 and
(1590-1617; reigned 1603-17),
rulers
1451-81),
who
— including
who honored
ordered
all
of the
the
Ottoman
images of the
saints'
images
(except for the Byzantine mosaic of the Virgin and Child over the apsidal semidome,
46
which subsequently became the mihrab, the symbol of the direction
Hagia Sophia
Mehmed
ot prayer) in the
in Istanbul covered. See, for example, Julian Raby, "El
the C^onqueror as a Patron of the Arts of
Gran Turco:
Christendom" (Ph.D.
diss.,
Oxford
University, 1980), 103.
This
53.
an especially prominent theme
is
Zamakhshavi
See Cragg,
(i07';-ii44),
Jesiis
in the writings ot the
Koran exegete Al-
Al-Baidawi (died 1286), and Faldir al-Din al-Razi (1149-1209).
and the Musliuh
M.
47;
S.
H. Ma\sumi,
al-Akhlaq (Islamabad:
trans., Ilni
Islamic Research Institute, 1969).
mined many
Al-Ghazzali, especially prominent for his Jesus sayings,
54.
the Gospel of St.
John
(see
Cragg,
and the Muslim,
]esiti
46).
sources, including
Akbar himself ordered one
ot
Al-Ghazzali's quotations ot Jesus carved prominently onto the eastern side of the Buland
Darwaza
(great gate, 1601-2) at
One
of Emperor
Fatehpur Sikri
1:68;
Cragg, Jesus
and the Muslim,
56. Parrinder, /fj/w
Many
57.
/;/
Khan Program,
60.
scholars have stressed the
predominance of the messianic metaphor
Rizvi, for
how Akbar
example, shows
Muslim
tor the millennial anniversary ot the
harnessed
era (1591-92) tor his
in the
propa-
Muslim
own
purposes
A. A. Rizvi, The Wonder That Was India [London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1987], 2:196).
(S.
Subrahmanyam pointed out
ry
A
1985), 228.
the Qur'aii, 124.
ganda of Akbar and Jahangir;
enthusiasm
own commitment
ot Jesus Christ in
and Michael Brand and Glenn D. Lowiy, Fatehpur-Sikri:
Sourcebook (Cambridge, Mass.: Aga
55.
order to emphasize his
hlnunc Research Association Miscellany (London:
Al-:bar's Inscriptions," in
Cumberlege, 1949),
in
Henry Heras, "A Quotation trom the Words
to spiritual values. See
that millenarian expectations were a universal, sixteenth-centu-
development that cttected both Portugal and India (Sanjay Subrahmanyam, "Sixteenth-
Century Millenarianism from the Tagus
to the
Ganges," Workbig Papers
ui Early
Modern
History [Minneapolis: University ot Minnesota Press, forthcoming]).
58.
Ain-i Akbari (Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal,
by al-Badaoni, Muntakhab ut-Tawarikh,
which Akbar questioned him
the Judge,
and when
it
1:369.
One
i<^i-j—^<)).
Similar remarks were
made
Jesuit missionary records a session in
about "the Last Judgement, whether Christ would be
closely
would occur." He thus
details
Akbar's keen interest in Jesus'
timction as the Messiah. See Antonio Monserrate, The Comnientaiy of Father Monserrate
S.J.,
ed.
and
trans.
J. S.
Hoyland and
S.
N. Banerjee (London: Oxford University
Press,
1922), 129.
59.
Ronald Inden, "Ritual, Authority, and Cyclic Time
and Authority
in South Asia, ed.
J. F.
in
Hindu Kingship,"
in
Kingship
Richards (MacJison: University ot Wisconsin Press,
1978), 59-
60. Al-Badaoni,
61. J. F.
Kingship
Muntakhab ut-Tawarikh,
Richards,
"The Formulation
and Authority
Press, 1978), 265.
in
ot Imperial Authority
South Asia, ed.
J. F.
For a Timurid medallion
Thomas Lentz and Glenn D. Lowry,
Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, 1989), fig. 37.
see
1:369.
under Akbar and |ahangir,"
in
Richards (Madison: LJniversity ot Wisconsin
scroll
Tinnir
descending trom an image of Alanqoa,
and
the Princely Vision
47
(Washington, D.C.:
62. Abu'1-Fazl, Akhijniaiua, 1:179, 182.
The
63.
Jesuits reported that Jahangir pressed the
clamp
a pincerlike
that impressed pictures
of"
64.
The Guimet
65.
Ibn al-'Arabi, The Bezels of Wisdom, trans. R.
He
1980), 176.
painting
reproduced
is
Adam and
also uses an
mouthpiece of the divine Word, man
woman, come
forth
from Adam"
with
his official letters
Okada, Induvi Miniatures,
W.
Austin
|.
(New
fig.
27.
York: Paulist Press,
Eve metaphor: "As representative of Heaven,
as
man
is
is
male, while as representative of Earth,
Cosmos came
female, so that just as Earth or the
the
in
seahng wax onto
Jesus and Mary.
from
forth
God
the Creator, so did Eve,
(35).
66. Inden, "Ritual," 30.
67. Ibn
al-
Arabi, Bezels of Wisdom, 38.
Hodgson, The Venture of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago
68. Marshall
Press, 1974),
1:72.
69. Richards, "Formulations of Imperial Authority," 34.
70. Ibid., 267; Rizvi, Wo)ider That
71.
India, 195.
Subrahmanyam, "Sixteenth-
Richards, "Formulations of Imperial Authority," 48;
Century Millenarianism,"
72.
Was
The
literature
Choice," in
8.
on these paintings includes Richard Ettinghausen, "The Emperor's
De Artibiis
Opiisciila
Press, 1961), 98-120; Stuart
1978), 80-83; Das,
XT, ed. Millard Meiss
(New
York:
New
York University
Gary Welch, Imperial Mughal Painting (Hevj York:
Mughal Painting
Hasan and Some English Sources
213-28; Milo C. Beach,
for
Braziller,
"The Mughal Painter Abu'l-
His Style," Walters Art Galleij Journal }i (1980): 7-33;
Milo C. Beach, The Imperial Image (Washington, D.C.: Freer Gallery of Art,
1981),
167-72;
Koch, "Influence of the Jesuit Mission," 1:14-32; Robert Skelton, "Imperial Symbolism
Mughal
P.
Painting," in Content
and Context of Visual Arts
in
in the Islamic World, ed. Priscilla
Soucek (University Park: Pennsylvania State University
Press, 1988), 177-87;
Okada,
Indian Miniatures, 45-59.
73.
"In view of this mentality,
peror should
show
a reflective
it is
not surprising that
and
critical
depth. Thus, his court painters were the
at
times the court art of this
point of view; that he should
first
to
cope
in
come
Muslim painting with
moral choice and to reveal a deliberate consciousness of time and the limits
tal
man." (Ettinghausen, "Emperor's Choice,"
Mission," 19-21.
48
it
Em-
to see life in
the issue of
sets
on mor-
99). See also Koch, "Influence of the Jesuit
Selected
Bibliography
Archives
ArchivLim
Romanum
British Library,
Societatis lesu,
Rome
London
India Office Library,
London
Lahore Museum, Lahore
Goa
State Archives,
Panjim
Published Sources
Ahmed, Khalid
Mughal
Anis, ed. httercultiiral hifliiences in
Pabitbig. Lahore: National
College of Arts, 1995.
This new study ot the impact ot the Jesuits and European
rarely seen Pakistani material
—such
as the
Lahore
art
on Mughal painting includes
Mimt al-Qiids,
an illustrated
tract
by
Jerome Xavier.
Gauvin Alexander. "The Catholic Shrines
Bailey,
ot Agra." Arts
ofAsia
no. 4
23,
(July-August 1993): 131-39-
This work surveys the architectural legacy of the Mughal mission, including the "Old
Cathedral" (1599), the "Padres Santos" Chapel
large-scale
.
Mughal
(1611)
and Cemetery, and the only surviving
statue of a Christian subject.
"A Portuguese Doctor
at the
Maharaja of Jaipur's Coiu't." South
Asiein Studies
11
(1995): 51-62.
This
article looks at the cultural
early eighteenth century
Singh
II
.
exchange between the
and focuses on
fesuits
and the Mughals during the
a Jesuit-sponsored mission to
Maharaja Sawai
Jai
ot laipur.
"Counter Relormation Symbolism and Allegory
in
Mughal
Painting." Ph.D.
diss.,
Hai-vard University, 1996.
This catalogue raisonne of Mughal paintings inspired by European models (157OS-1630)
includes discussions of individual schools and artists
the Jesuit missions and their dialogue with the
.
"The Lahore Mirat
al-Qiids
Painting." South Asian Studies
1 his
is
the
Mughal
first
work
painters.
It
to
I'j,
and extensive
archival research.
^nA the Impact of Jesuit Theater on Mughal
(1997): 95-108.
propose that Jesuit theater and spectacle had
focuses on the only intact manuscript of
al-Quds. illustrated by
historical introductions to
Mughal court based on new
Manohar and
his school.
49
a direct
impact on
Jerome Xavier's Mirat
.
"The Indian Conquest of Catholic
Mural Painting." Art Journal
The Mughals,
Art:
the Jesuits, and Imperial
no. 2 (spring 1998): 24-30.
This survey of Mughal imperial mural paintings derived from European models
marily of Jesus, Mary, and saints
Fatehpur
.
—
new
includes
material
pri-
at
Sikri.
"The Truth-Showing Mirror:
In The Jesuits: Cultures, Sciences,
Catechism and the Arts
Jesuit
and the Arts,
i<;40—ijy}, eds.
Alexander Bailey, T. Frank Kennedy, and Steven
Press,
—
on Christian-inspired murals
J.
in
Mughal
India."
John O'Malley, Gauvin
Toronto
Harris. Toronto: University ol
forthcoming.
This textual study of two Persian works of Catholic literature by Jerome Xavier demonstrates the author's extensive use ot Islamic
on passages discussing the
.
A
and
especially Sufi
metaphor and concentrates
fine arts.
Global Partnership: Art on the Jesuit Missions in Asia and the Americas,
Toronto: University
ol"
Toronto
lorthcoming.
Press,
This comparative survey of Jesuit mission
outside of Europe and the response of non-
art
European cultures between 1542 and 1773 focuses on Japan, China,
and provides background material on
focuses
New
India,
and Paraguay
Spain, Philippines, and Peru. Chapter five
on the Mughal mission.
.
With Oleg Akimushkin,
et al.
The
Petersburg
St.
Muraqqa' Album oj Indian and
:
Persian Miniatures fivm the Sixteenth Century. 2 vols, ed. Francesca von Hapsburg. Lugano:
ARCH
Foundation, 1996.
Catalogue entries discuss some of the seminal European-style works of Manohar and
his
school and the development of the Salim studio style ot painting.
Beach, Milo C. "The Gulshan
Album and
European Sources." Museum of Fine
its
Arts,
Boston, Bulletin 63, no. 332 (1965): 63-91.
This work focuses on the Gulshan album
in
Tehran, the most important album collection
of Mughal paintings with Christian subjects, and includes a comprehensive identification
of engraved sources
.
by Nancy Graves Cabot that has been a model tor subsequent research.
"A European Source
tor Early
Mughal
Painting." Oriental Art ii, no. 2
(summer
1976): 180-88.
This work concentrates on Georg Pencz's Joseph Telling His Dream
the earliest and most influential European prints to reach
.
"The Mughal
Mughal
Painter Kesu Das." Archives of Asian Art
to
His Father, one of
India.
(1976-77): 34-5.
This pioneering study of the work of Kesu Das also introduces the equally fascinating but
mysterious figure of Kesu
.
Khurd and
includes
many works
after
European models.
The Grand Moghiil: Imperial Painting in India. Williamstown, Mass.: Clark
Institute, 1978.
This catalogue of one of the most important exhibitions of Mughal painting under Akbar
and Jahangir includes
tion to
a
number of the works
European models.
50
discussed here and looks at the
Mughal
reac-
The Imperial Image: Paintings from the Freer Galleiy ofArt. Washington, D.C.:
.
Freer Gallery of Art, 1981.
This catalogtie oi an important exhibition of the Mughal painting collection of the Freer
Galler)' of Art includes a chapter
on the impact of European
ing and important data on individual
religious art
Brand, Michael, and Glenn D. Lowry. Akbar's India: Art from the
New
on Mughal
paint-
artists.
Mughal
City
of Victory.
York: Asia Society, 1986.
This exhibition catalogue on the
art
the Jesuit missions and their impact
patronage of Akbar includes
on Mughal painting and
a scholarly discussion
of
sculpture, as well as an excel-
lent bibliography.
Camps, Arnulf Jerome Xavier
S.J.
and the Muslims of the Mogul Empire. Schoeneck-
Beckenried: Nouvelle Revue de Science Missionaire, 1957.
This little-known but important textual study of Jerome Xavier's Catholic literature
Persian draws on the Jesuit archives in
Rome. The author
in
also provides extensive historical
context.
Correia-Afonso, John. Letters fom the
Mughal
This work includes translations of twelve original
Mughals and
a historical
Das, Asok Kumar.
This
introduction based on
from the
European
Pierre.
prints
women
painters
and the impact of the
Akbar and
the Jesuits, trans. C.
Institute, 1980.
first
Jesuit mission to the
archival research.
Time. Calcutta: Asiatic Society, 1978.
work on Mughal painting of the Salim studio and
classic
Du Jarric,
letters
new
Mughal Painting During Jaliaiigir's
period includes Abu'l-Hasan, the
sion about
Bombay: Heras
Court.
the subsequent Jahangir
from the harem, and considerable discuslesuit mission.
H. Payne. London: George Routledge and
Sons, 1926.
This translation of a seventeenth-century history of Akbar's meeting with the Jesuits
based on original Jesuit
archives in
letters
now
Rome.
Ettinghausen, Richard. "The Emperor's Choice." In
Meiss.
New York: New York
This
the classic study of Jahangir's
is
.
"New
Pictorial
S.J.
De Artibus
Opuscula XL, ed. Millard
University Press, 1961.
Dream
Pictures.
Evidence of Catholic Missionary Activity
Seventeenth Century)." In Perennitas:
Rahner,
is
divided between the British Library and the Jesuit
P.
Thomas Michels
in
OSB zum
Mughal
India (Early
yo Geburtstag, ed. H.
(Minister: Aschendorffsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1963).
This study of the impact of the Jesuit missions on Mughal painting and furniture includes
several
album
Felix, Fr.,
pages.
O.C. "Mughal Farmans, Parwanahs and Sanads
Missionaries." Journal of the Punjab Historical Society
51
5
issued in favour of the Jesuit
(1916): 1-53.
This little-known but invaluable work translates Mughal mandates and grants to the Jesuits
over the two hundred years that the mission was in operation.
merly
in the
Guerreiro, Fernao. JaLiaiigir
and Sons,
and
tLie Jesuits,
based on original Jesuit
C. H. Payne. London: George Routledge
trans.
letters
now
hisror\'
of Jahangir
s
meeting with the Jesuits
Hosten, Henr)',
S.J.
"European Art
Historical Society}, no.
i
The main purpose of this
Shah Jahan
is
at the
Moghul Court."
Jo/in/ii/
of the United Provinces
(1922): 110-84.
study of European
artists at
the
Mughal court during
Despite
the reign of
to prove the author's lifelong assertion that an Italian designed the Taj
"Mirza zu-l-Qarnain:
A
Mahal.
Christian Grandee of Three Great Mughals with Notes
on Akbar's Christian Wife and the Indian Bourbons." Memoirs of the Asiatic
5,
is
divided between the British Library and the lesuit
Rome.
archives in
Bengal
for-
1930.
This translation of a seventeenth-centiny
.
The documents were
Agra Cathedral Archives; only two of them remain there now.
Society
of
no. 4 (1916): 115-94.
its
wandering
this
title,
work provides extremely valuable miscellany
of translated
archival material relevant to the Jesuit missions
under Akbar, Jahangir, and beyond.
Jennes, Jozef. Invloed der Vlaaynsche Prentkunst
m
China en Japan. Leuven:
Indie.
Davidsfonds, 1943.
This little-known Belgian book on the impact of Flemish engravings on Mughal India,
China, and Japan
is
useful in providing a
more
global context for the Mughal-Jesuit
encounter.
Koch, Ebba. "The Influence of the
Mughal Emperors."
Jesuit
Mission on Symbolic Representations of the
In Islam in India. Vol.
i,
ed. Christian Troll.
New
Delhi: Vikas
Publishing Fiouse, 1982).
This important interpretation of Jahangir
s
Dream
Pictures expands on themes raised by
Ettinghausen.
Lowenstein, Felix zu. Christiche Bilder in Altindischer Malerei. Mtinster: Aschendorffsche
Verlagsbuchhandlung,
This attempt
at a
1958.
complete survey of Mughal and other Indian paintings with Christian
themes includes many little-known examples from Jaipur and the Deccan.
Maclagan,
Sir
Washbourne,
The
classic
book
is still
Edward. The Jesuits and
the Great Mogul.
London: Burns, Oates, and
1932.
source on the Jesuit missions to India, this thorough, readable, and evenhanded
the best single introduction to the material.
It
includes a chapter on painting.
S.J. The Commentary of Father Monserrate, S.J.,
N. Banerjee. London: Oxford University Press, 1922.
Monserrate, Antonio,
Hoyland and
S.
This translation of the chronicle of one of the
in the
anecdote but
eminently entertaining.
is
also
first
52
and
Jesuit missionaries to the
ninteenth century. This work
was discovered only
ed.
is
not only
full
trans. J. S.
Mughal court
of insight and
Skelton, Robert. "Imperial
Symbolism
in
Mughal
Painting." In Content
and Context of
Visual Arts in the Islamic World, ed. Priscilla P. Soucek. University Park: Pennsylvania State
University Press, 1988.
Tills
eloquent study ot jahangir's
by one of the
greatest
minds
Dream
in the field.
ship and provided insight to his friends
Pictures
is
one ot the lamentably tew publications
Behind the scenes, Skelton has shaped the scholar-
and pupils
for decades.
53
\