Architecture in London - Vol.4 Issue 1
Transcription
Architecture in London - Vol.4 Issue 1
Editors’ welcome It is with great excitement that this year’s commi ee introduces to you the first online edi on of the Queen Mary Undergraduate History Journal for the 2014/15 academic year. Established in 2011, the History Journal con nues to publish brilliant essays from undergraduates month a er month, year a er year, a fact that pays testament to the high standard of work expected by the School of History, and of which our undergraduates are capable. This year has been no different and, on behalf of our fi een essay-editors, we would like to thank all of the undergraduates who submi ed their essays for this edi on; it was an absolute pleasure reading them and pu ng them forward for peer review. The History Journal would also like to congratulate those of you whose submissions were successful. A special thank you must also be given to the School of History; without their unwavering support, the transi on from last year’s commi ee to the incumbent would not have been Architecture in London Volume 4. Issue 1. nearly as smooth. Furthermore, without their generous funding, we would have been unable to organise the successful social launch at the beginning of this new academic year. Queen Mary University of London boasts the largest self-contained student campus in central London and is minutes away from some of the capital’s most famous landmarks and ins tu ons. It was with this in mind that the History Journal commi ee chose this month’s theme of ‘Architecture in London’. We hope that this edi on serves to intrigue and enlighten you, and that next me you find yourself wandering around the capital, you look around that li le bit more. Graciously yours, Shabbir Bokhari (Editor in Chief) and Catriona Tassell (Commissioning Editor) Sam Allen Queen Mary History Journal Contents Sir John Soan’s architectural designs What was the effect of aesthetic theories of the sublime and the picturesque on Sir John Soane’s architectural designs? What was the effect of aesthe c theories of the sublime and the picturesque on Sir John Soane’s architectural designs? 4 Sam Allen Sam Allen The designs of Pitzhanger Manor, Ealing and The Soane Museum at Lincoln Why the name brutalism? Discuss the theore cal origins of the English movement by analysing three key projects in London. 15 Inn Fields are the most expressive representa ons of Sir John Soane’s poe c and idiosyncra c architectural style. Designed and constructed as personal projects, the Hannah Askari two sites show Soane working without the curtailments of private financiers or the public authori es and offer compelling demonstra ons of Soane’s personal, How is the Classical style expressed in St Paul’s Covent Garden 29 and Christ Church Spitalfields? architectural “principles”. Soane drew from a variety of styles; Roman, Greek, Italian, Gothic, all of which he sought to subvert in some manner. However, it is the effects Sam Allen of aesthe c theories, namely the picturesque and the sublime, that make Pitzhanger Manor and the Soane Museum unique. This essay will examine the effect of these An examina on of All Saints and Margaret Street. 38 theories. A er a brief delinea on of these aesthe c principles I will examine Soane’s Charlo e Herrington treatment of space in both buildings and how these are complimented by his manipula on of light in rela on to contrast and fragmenta on. The exteriors of the buildings will then be analysed, ending with a considera on of the buildings as “ruins”. It will be argued that while the picturesque plays a more dominant influence in the buildings through Soane’s emphasis on variety and ‘the unexpected,’ 3 4 Architecture in London Issue Sam Allen Soane’s unique manipula on of the observer’s “experience” of his buildings invokes sensa ons closer to the aesthe c principle of the sublime. Sir John Soan’s architectural designs These aesthe c principles are par cularly evident in the manipula on of space in The Soane Museum and to a lesser extent in Pitzhanger Manor. While the While Soane’s early works demonstrated a preoccupa on with neo-classical Soane Museum appears to be based on a basic axial plan (fig. 1), the ways in which forms, by the late eighteenth century he had begun to develop a more dis nc ve space is u lised within this framework is highly inven ve. Robin Middleton observes style, one that was partly informed by a contemporaneous interest in aesthe c that Soane created “what appear to be perfectly regular, symmetrically framed theory.1 The aesthe c theories of the sublime and the picturesque emerged in the spaces but wraps layers around skeletal frameworks and subverts geometry by eighteenth century as Roman cism superseded accepted no ons of enlightened dematerialising the architecture.”4 This is demonstrated by a sec on of the whole ra onalism in art and literature. With Roman cism came new concep ons of building (fig. 2). Soane created a “labyrinth of space”5 in which the observer aesthe cs and the classical concep ons of beauty in art and architecture were encountered unexpected views, further complicated by mirrors. The building challenged. Edmund Burke’s A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of cannot be apprehended as a whole but rather experienced in a very individual the Sublime and Beau ful published in 1756 stands as the most influen al account of sense. the sublime. Burke sought to dichotomise the sublime on the one hand the beau ful on the other.2 The sublime, according to Burke, related to the awe-inspiring effect of a scene o en drawing shock or horror from the observer. Indeed, Burke described the sublime in physiological terms which emphasised the emo onal experience of the observer; hence tension playing a significant part in its effect. The picturesque emerged later in the eighteenth century and it related to the pictorial value of art and architecture. This o en related to nature and landscape and thus emphasised variety, irregularity and lack of symmetry.3 Both theories thus deconstructed the Figure 1. Plan of the Soane Museum. classical concep on of beauty that emphasised order and symmetry and implied the Ostensibly the building is designed on a basic axial plan but the several openings of each room provide a mul plicity of passages subjec on of humans to the natural world. 5 6 Sam Allen Architecture in London Issue Sir John Soan’s architectural designs This manipula on of internal space and light ostensibly demonstrates Soane’s preoccupa on with the aesthe c principle of the picturesque. The “labyrinth of spaces” invokes a sense of the unexpected as the visitor moves through the museum further reinforced mul plicity of viewing points and employment of mirrors. Indeed, Soane reflected upon these picturesque effects when he described the breakfast parlour: Figure 2. Sec on of the Soane Museum. The museum is built on two floors connected by a spiral staircases. There is no clear route for the visitor hence the sense of a ‘journey’. “The view from this room into the Monument Court and into the Museum, the mirrors in the ceiling and the looking glasses, combined with the variety of outline and general arrangement in the design and deco- Furthermore, the manipula on of space works on two levels: first within the ra on of this limited space, present a succession of those fanciful rooms themselves, and secondly as a series of connec ng spaces. Richard Lorch has highlighted the Breakfast Room as a ‘space within a space’ (fig. 3). The dome of the room provides an addi onal enclosure within the room thus playing with the feeling of interior and exterior. effects which cons tute the poetry of architecture..”6 However, Soane’s “poetry of architecture” effects can be seen to induce a more profound experience in the observer with closer es to the sublime. As Lorch argues, the contras ng character of the rooms, the mul plicity of visions, the strong Figure 3. The Breakfast Room, The Soane Museum. The domed ceiling of the breakfast room gives a sense of enclosure within an enclosed space. However, this is compromised by the opening in the centre of the ceiling and the spaces between the ceiling and the walls. Hence Soane plays with the concept of space to invoke a peculiar spa al awareness in the observer. contrasts of light and dis nct lack of order all serve to build up to an immense experience that connotes the sublime rather than the picturesque.7 Lorch suggests that the incomprehensibility and unpredictable aspects of the differing and connec ng spaces works to leave the viewer “astonished through the unexpected interrup on.”8 Hence the power of these ‘picturesque’ effects essen ally invokes a sense of the sublime in that they bring about sensa ons and sen ments of awe in the observer. 7 8 Architecture in London Issue Sam Allen Sir John Soan’s architectural designs Soane also manipulates internal space and light in Pitzhanger Manor and plays with the no on of enclosed space and implicit routes through his building. Indeed, a similar use of ceilings in the Breakfast room (fig. 4) and library (fig. 5) focus the rooms inwards giving the sense of enclosure which is then undermined by the openings of the walls.9 According to Ptolemy Dean the starfish vault ceiling of the library emphasises “enclosure and release.”10 Fig. 5. The Library, Pitzhanger Manor. Enclosure and release defines the space in the library at Pitzhanger manor. The vegeta on detail of the ceiling nods to the Picturesque principles of nature, while the various openings lead to a feeling of disorienta on that can be associated with the sublime. The exteriors of the buildings also invoke effects of the sublime and the picturesque. In both the Soane Museum and Pitzhanger Manor, Soane subverts Fig. 4. The Breakfast Room, Pitzhanger Manor. Soane’s use of light, the several openings and the domed ceiling serve to give a similar effect as that invoked in the Soane Museum’s breakfast room. classical forms to create unique facades. Indeed, the front façade of the Soane Museum demonstrates a toying with the classical triumphal arch form (fig. 6). The loggia and por co protrude outwards announcing the building to the street and giving it a pronounced status. Anthony Jackson has argued that the unique façade breaks with the uniformity of the surrounding Georgian terraces and thus nods to picturesque values of variety and the unexpected 11. 9 10 Architecture in London Issue Sam Allen Sir John Soan’s architectural designs Fig. 7. Front Façade of Pitzhanger Manor. Soane plays with classical forms in the front façade of Pitzhanger. The fluted ionic columns invoke a classical Greek por co which is then mocked in the ruins connected to the Western part of the building. Fig. 6. The Front Façade of the Soane Museum. The façade immediately draws the observer’s a en on to the museum giving it a marked status compared to the conven onal Georgian town houses. Notes 1. David Watkin, English Architecture: A Concise History (London: Thames & Hudsonm 1997), p. 143. 2. Edmund Burke, A philosophical enquiry into the origin of our ideas of the sublime and beau ful: and other pre-revolu onary wri ngs (London New York: Penguin Books, 1998). balustrading all nod to classical Greek architecture. However, the building is 3. Dabney Townsend, “The Picturesque” in The Journal of Aesthe cs and Art Cri cism, Vol. 55, No. 4 (Autumn, 1997), pp. 365-376. decorated in yellow paint giving it an appearance that evokes a picturesque taste for 4. Robin Middleton, “Soane’s Spaces and the Ma er of Fragmenta on” in John Soane: Architect, Master of Space and Light, eds. by Margaret Richardson and MaryAnne Stevens (London, Royal Academy of Arts, 1999), pp. 29-30. 5. Ibid p. 29. 6. Sir John Soane, Descrip on of the House and Museum, Lincoln Inn Fields, London, 1830, 1832, 1835-6, p. 13. 7. Richard Lorch, “The Architectural Order of Sir John Soane’s House,” in Interna onal Architect, No. 9, vol. 2, issue: 1/1982, pp. 43-48. Similar observa ons can be made of the front façade of Pitzhanger Manor (fig. 7), with Soane playing with classical forms. Four fluted ionic columns and the variety. The landscape design of the surrounding grounds seem to be directly influenced by the picturesque with the front gate cons tu ng a triumphal arch which offers a glimpse to a winding path leading to the façade. The false ruins at the eastern side of the building complete the effect of the “unexpected”, while also evoking a 8. Ibid p. 45. scene of melancholic decay. This offers a picturesque landscape view of the grounds 9. Ptolemy Dean, Sir John Soane and the Country Estate (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Company, 1999), p. 95. from the house while also hin ng at grandeur and fragmenta on, which can be 10. Ibid p. 95. a ributed to the sublime in a similar vein to the fragments of an quity in the Soane 11. Anthony Jackson, “The Façade of Sir John Soane’s Museum: A Study in Contextualism” in Journal of Society of Architectural History, Vol. 51, no. 4, (Dec 1992) p. 424. Museum. 11 12 Architecture in London Issue List of Illustrations Sam Allen Sir John Soan’s architectural designs Bibliography Middleton, Robin, “Soane’s Spaces and the Ma er of Fragmenta on” in John Soane: Architect, Master of Space and Light, eds. by Margaret Richardson and MaryAnne Stevens (London: Royal Academy of Arts, 1999). Figure 1. Plan of the Soane Museum: h p://www.soane.org/john-soanes-diary/archive/august_10th_1812. Figure 2. Sec on of the Soane Museum: h p-//archsoc.westphal.drexel.edu/New/ArcSocIIISA7 Figure 3. The Breakfast Room, The Soane Museum: h p://omelo.co.uk/2012/10/light-in-the-dark Soane, John, Descrip on of the House and Museum, Lincoln Inn Fields, London, 1830, 1832, 1835-6. Stroud, Dorothy, “Sir John Soane and the Rebuilding of Pitzhanger Manor” in In search of modern architecture: a tribute to henry-Russell Hitchcock, eds by Helen Searing, (New York: the architectural history founda on, 1982), pp. 38-51. Townsend, Dabney, “The Picturesque” in The Journal of Aesthe cs and Art Cri cism, Vol. 55, No. 4 (Autumn, 1997), pp. 365-376. Figure 4. The Breakfast Room: The Times: h p://www.the mes.co.uk/ o/arts/visualarts/architecture/ar cle3071497.ece Figure 5. The Library, Pitzhanger Manor: h p://allthingsruffnerian.blogspot.co.uk/2010/11/world-of-sir-john-soane.html Figure 6. The Front Façade of the Soane Museum. The Soane Museum: h p://www.soane.org/museum Bibliography Burke, Edmund, A philosophical enquiry into the origin of our ideas of the sublime and beau ful : and other pre-revolu onary wri ngs (London New York: Penguin Books, 1998). Dean, Ptolemy, Sir John Soane and the Country Estate (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Company, 1999). Jackson, Anthony, “The Façade of Sir John Soane’s Museum: A Study in Contextualism” in Journal of Society of Architectural History, Vol. 51, no. 4, (Dec 1992) pp. 417429. Lorch, Richard, “The Architectural Order of Sir John Soane’s House,” in Interna onal Architect, No. 9, vol. 2, issue: 1/1982, pp. 43-48. 13 14 Architecture in London Issue Hannah Askari Brutalism in London architecture architecture. Robin Hood Gardens (fig. 1), completed in 1972, is a residen al estate Why the name Brutalism? Discuss the theoretical origins of the English movement by analysing three key projects in in Poplar, East London. It pioneered the idea of ‘streets in the sky’, highligh ng their devo on to combining amicability and prac cality in social housing. London. The Smithson’s denounced Le Corbusier’s architectural philosophy that towns Hannah Askari and ci es should be segregated into specific areas of residen al, occupa onal, and The term Brutalism spread throughout England a er the Second World War leisurely. Their ideal city coalesced a mul tude of ac vi es within one area. Thus, describing ‘a programme or an a tude to architecture’.1 Although it has come to be Robin Hood Gardens gives the tower block complex, ‘streets in the sky’, a large iden fied with brutality, it does not advocate anything linked to brutality. It is ‘an garden space and wide balconies on each level (fig. 2). This was an a empt to ethic, not an aesthe c’; Brutalism has an impera ve role in recognising the everyday, encourage the residents to feel as though they belonged to a community, similar to the ordinary and the mass culture rather than projec ng a vision of high culture.2 those on a conven onal street. Peter and Alison Smithson have gone a step further The three Brutalist London projects: The Barbican Complex, Royal Fes val Hall and in building social housing by thinking about crea ng a social ethos through Robin Hood Gardens differ slightly in func on, yet all embrace socio-poli cal ideas architecture that would not usually be found in social housing. It is a housing estate crucial to post-war urban planning. Aesthe cally, Brutalist architecture asserts itself like no other, recognising that no ma er what class one belongs to, all have a right to in an una rac ve and threatening way, but ethically Brutalism champions a Welfare peaceful, healthy and harmonious living, which begins with the structural design of State ideology and seeks to encapsulate a utopian dream. one’s home. Peter and Alison Smithson, the most obs nate pair of Brutalist architects, Similarly, the Royal Fes val Hall (fig. 3), built in 1951 for the Fes val of Britain, demanded that this movement ‘tries to face up to a mass-produc on society and asserts itself as a democra c hall in a number of ways. When it was first built, drag a rough poetry out of the confused and powerful forces which are at work’.3 everyone passed through the same door upon entering, wandered around the cen- They resisted the simplis c viewing of Brutalism as merely Béton brut (raw concrete) tral foyer space, had equal vision of the stage and access to fine acous cs wherever and stand firm on the fundamentally ethical nature of the architectural movement. one was sat; due to the fairness which infiltrates the Royal Fes val Hall, it is a The couple were commi ed to a post-war Welfare State ideology in their ‘monument to the Welfare State’.4 Nikolaus Pevsner described the Royal Fes val Hall 15 16 Architecture in London Issue Hannah Askari as ‘a freedom and intricacy of flow in their own way as thrilling as what we see in the Welfare State ideology. However, it is arguable that despite being built a er the war, Baroque churches of Germany and Austria’.5 This is a telling associa on not just when the country was commi ed to consensus poli cs and seeking regenera on, because of the reference to historicism (something that is rarely found in Brutalist the Barbican Estate is an estate that does not have the inten on of providing for architecture), but because it is a direct reference to the way one encounters space those who depended upon the Welfare State. ‘Chamberlain, Powell and Bon (fig. 4), no ma er what the building type. One can argue that, whether religious or recognised that only upper and middle-class housing would provide the required not, feelings of peace, approval, awe and social harmony are just some senses to return for the area’.7 Therefore, the Barbican Estate cannot be regarded as a success describe to social housing. Despite the capitalist no ons, one can not deny the posi ve sense encounters with some religious loca ons. These are similar feelings one acquires when entering the Royal Fes val Hall, especially for the first building me. The creates a sense of space and draws one to think about how we feel about of Brutalism in London architecture community it seems to have provided amongst residents: ‘re red people - doc- tors, lawyers, lords and ladies - love it. They join its socie es, hold compe ons for the space. Similarly to a church or cathedral, the sense of hierarchy is broken down the best window boxes and generally fuss over the place as they do over deliberately and cleverly. Therefore, the comparison draws impera ve reference to a grandchildren’ (fig. 6).8 Ul mately, Brutalist architecture does aim to have a Welfare welfare ideology; in religion everybody is equal in the eyes of God and, similarly, State ideology, which Robin Hood Gardens and Royal Fes val Hall manage to exert. Royal Fes val Hall gives the feeling that everyone is equal in the eyes of a Welfare Whilst the Barbican Estate is only a ainable as housing for a select elite, it does State. Consequently ‘its significance as architecture, its aesthe c or poli cal being, manage to achieve a utopian dream, arguably more superior than the other two does not reside in its concrete, steel, glass and marble elements, nor in their buildings. combina on but in the minds of those who have gone into it’.6 Therefore, to argue this building is democra c, one must think about the experience not its material features, emphasising that Brutalist architecture is ‘an ethic, not an aesthe c’. The Barbican Estate (fig. 5) was built in an area of London that had been almost completely devastated by the Blitz bombing in 1940 during the Second World War. It should therefore encompass the idea of rebuilding Britain from scratch with a 17 The Barbican Complex succeeds in ‘providing an experience that mixes exhilara on with hesita on’.9 It is a concrete complex that exposes rawness and brings new life to the city, flaun ng its concrete utopia. The rough, exposed concrete is dis nctly six es and as one enters the estate it feels as though they are walking back in me; at first glance the concrete is punishing to fresh eyes, yet through explora on of the Estate, one discovers lakes, gardens and waterfalls which clash 18 Architecture in London Issue Hannah Askari beau fully with the sinister concrete (fig. 7). Furthermore the Barbican Complex it is not as tall as the tower blocks that encircle it. As one gets closer and recognises represents a mood of hope and creates an insight into the Brutalists utopian dream the drab and abandoned aura (fig. 10) the concrete transfers the sense that ‘the 40- which, in turn, makes it an incredible success story for the aggressive Briutalist year-old building is having a mid-life crisis’.11 However, it is simple to discover that aesthe c. Equally, as one gets tangled up in this utopian dream it is incredibly hard flats under social housing are not made like this anymore. Robin Hood Gardens is to pry yourself away from its magne sing concrete (fig. 8.). successful as ‘streets in the sky’(fig.11) but the Smithsons’ housing clearly differs to The Royal Fes val Hall in 1951 had the similar quali es: Bernard Levin Brutalism in London architecture social housing today which suggests that the higher the tower block, the be er. reminisces that ‘at the end of a concert, the audience could not bear to leave, to go The demoli on of Robin Hood Gardens signifies the end of an era for a part of from this beauty and opulence into the drab world of postwar Britain’.10 This Britain’s housing history; it represents the end of democra c housing that provided describes the powerful impression that the Royal Fes val Hall had on its visitors, one for the masses whilst simultaneously considering harmonious living. Equally, if we that portrays a utopian dream and outside of it lays a postwar nightmare. Today, compare Robin Hood Gardens to Park Hill in Sheffield (fig. 12), a Brutalist housing although the Fes val Hall has given in to consumerist requirements, it s ll has a estate opened in 1961, which by the 1980s had ‘descended into dilapida on and was se ling atmosphere, a place where one can just be without needing an excuse or no longer a place people wanted to live in’.12 Park Hill has now been listed as a Grade reason to be there (fig. 9). Compare this to the recep on Robin Hood Gardens has II building and has thus been the recipient of some much needed admira on, yet s ll recently received; crime, decay and social deteriora on encroach the Brutalist has almost ‘gone to rack and ruin’.13 There is a clear difference in the management masterpiece to the extent that Tower Hamlets Council believe its fate is in to fulfil the Brutalist utopian dream between the Barbican Estate, Royal Fes val Hall demolishment. Thus, unfortunately, Robin Hood Gardens has ceased to realise the and Robin Hood Gardens; possibly because of the different amount of care and Brutalist utopian dream even though it is a pioneering piece of architecture. In a en on each has experienced since its construc on. This emphasises that Brutalist ques oning why this has happened, one could argue that it is a social problem, not social housing tends to go unno ced and is o en disregarded. Many do not care for an architectural one. However, the ominous concrete mass that is Robin Hood Brutalist architecture because it asserts itself in an ugly, confronta onal and fierce Gardens does not render its survival to some. As one approaches Robin Hood way (fig. 13). However unsightly brutalism is for some, ‘the problem was not the Gardens ( see fig. 1 again), the first reac on is that of surprise. Although it is very big, fabric of the houses, but the depriva on of the people who lived in them’.14 19 20 Architecture in London Issue Ul mately, Brutalism is ‘an ethic, not an aesthe c’ and I would argue that it is Hannah Askari Brutalism in London architecture 7. Elain Harwood and Andrew Saint, London: Exploring England's Heritage, (Sta onery Office Books, 1991), p. 125. 8. Jonathan Glancey , The Guardian, "A great place to live.", 2002. h p:// www.theguardian.com/educa on/2001/sep/07/arts.highereduca on (accessed 24 Mar 2014). 9. Ken Allinson, London’s Contemporary Architecture, (Architectural Press, 2006) p. 44. 10. Bernard Levin, Enthusiasms, (Jonathan Cape, 1983), p. 176. In Adrian Forty, The Royal Fes val Hall – A Democra c Space? p. 206. In eds. Iain Borden, The Unknown City, p. 206. 11. Chris Beanland, The Independent. "Robin Hood Gardens: An estate worth saving?." 2012. h p://www.independent.co.uk/property/house-and-home/ robin-hood-gardens-an-estate-worth-saving-7440094.html (accessed 24 Mar 2014). 12. David Sillitoe, the Guardian, "The utopian estate that's been le to die." 2014. h p://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/the-camera-eye/2014/mar/05/ park-hill-sheffield-utopian-estate-le -to-die (accessed 24 Mar 2014). 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid. 15. Jonathan Meads, ‘Bunkers, Brutalism, Bloodymindedness: Concrete Poetry', BBC4, February 2014. because of this, that it has o en been overlooked because of its unusual beauty. Jonathan Meades claimed that ‘something that is universally tolerated is likely to be pre y boring. Anything that's any good, and original, is going to incite hatred as much as it does adora on – because of the very fact that it's so unfamiliar’.15 Arguably, this is true of Brutalism. The beauty is in the ethics it yields: a Welfare State ideology and its aspira ons for a utopian dream for the people. Robin Hood Gardens (fig. 14), the Barbian Estate and the Royal Fes val Hall are all fundamental buildings of the Brutalist movement and encapsulate these ethics; however some of them are less successful in impar ng the ethics in today’s individualist society. Notes 1. Reyner Banham, The New Brutalist: ethic or aesthe c?, (The Architectural Press, 1966), p. 10. 2. A term introduced by Reyner Banham. 3. Alison Smithson and Peter Smithson, "The new brutalism." MIT Press (2011). 4. Adrian Forty, The Royal Fes val Hall – A Democra c Space?, p. 206. In eds. Iain Borden, The Unknown City: Contes ng Architecture and Social Space (MIT Press, 2002) pp. 200-212. Allinson, K. London’s Contemporary Architecture, (Architectural Press, 2006) p. 44. 5. Susie Harries, Nikolaus Pevsner: The Life, (Random House, 2011) p. 514. Banham, R. The New Brutalist: ethic or aesthe c?, (The Architectural Press, 1966). 6. Adrian Forty, The Royal Fes val Hall – A Democra c Space? p. 206. In eds. Iain Borden, The Unknown City: Contes ng Architecture and Social Space (MIT Press, 2002) p. 204. Bibliography Beanland, C. The Independent. "Concrete buildings: Brutalist beauty." 2014. h p:// www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/concrete-buildingsbrutalist-beauty-9057223.html (accessed 26 Mar 2014). Beanland, C. The Independent. "Robin Hood Gardens: An estate worth saving?." 2012. h p://www.independent.co.uk/property/house-and-home/robin-hoodgardens-an-estate-worth-saving-7440094.html (accessed 24 Mar 2014). 21 22 Architecture in London Issue Hannah Askari Brutalism in London architecture Image collection Bibliography Fig. 1.Robin Hood Gardens. Image by author. Forty, A. The Royal Fes val Hall – A Democra c Space?, p. 206. In eds. Iain Borden, The Unknown City: Contes ng Architecture and Social Space (MIT Press, 2002). Glancey , G. the Guardian. "A great place to live." 2002. h p:// www.theguardian.com/educa on/2001/sep/07/arts.highereduca on (accessed 24 Mar 2014). Harries, S. Nikolaus Pevsner: The Life, (Random House, 2011). Harwood, E. and Saint, A. London: Exploring England's Heritage, (Sta onery Office Books, 1991), p. 125. Meads, M. ‘Bunkers, Brutalism, Bloodymindedness: Concrete Poetry', BBC4, February 2014. Rose, S the Guardian. "Don't knock brutalism." 2008. h p://www.theguardian.com/ artanddesign/artblog/2008/jun/26/dontknockbrutalism (accessed 26 Mar 2014). Fig. 2 Balconies on every level, because everyone deserves a balcony! Image by author. Sillitoe, D. the Guardian. "The utopian estate that's been le to die." 2014. h p:// www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/the-camera-eye/2014/mar/05/park-hillsheffield-utopian-estate-le -to-die (accessed 24 Mar 2014). Smithson, A and Smithson, P. "The new brutalism." MIT Press (2011). Fig. 3. Royal Fes val Hall from the south east. Image by author. 23 24 Hannah Askari Architecture in London Issue Image collection Brutalism in London architecture Image collection Fig. 4.The democra c foyer of the Royal Fes val Hall Image by author. Fig. 7. The utopian dream. Image by author. Fig. 8. Raw concrete and raw edges at its finest. Image by author. Fig. 5. Picture of a map of the whole of the Barbican Complex. Image by author. Fig. 9. Mothers and mee ngs; a contrast of people taking advantage of the ‘se ling atmosphere’. Image by author. Fig. 6. Very well kept homes from the outside. Image by author. 25 26 Hannah Askari Architecture in London Issue Image collection Brutalism in London architecture Image collection Fig. 10. Abandoned Image by author. Fig. 11. A street in the sky! Image by author. Fig. 13. ‘ugly, confronta onal and fierce’ (and stunning) Image by author. Fig. 12. Park Hill, ‘framed by itself’. Image by Davis S lli- 27 28 Architecture in London Issue How is the Classical style expressed in St Paul’s Covent Garden and Christ Church Spitalfields? Sam Allen Sam Allen St Paul’s Covent Garden and Christchurch Spitalfields analysis Jones employed the basic port and lintel system with four widely spaced Tuscan columns suppor ng the trabea on. This forms the un-ornamented architrave and the base of the large pediment that together with the columns makes up the church’s Roman inspired por co. The widely spaced Tuscan columns If we are to define classical style as one that derives its decora ve elements from the architectural canon of Greek and Roman an quity1, a comparison of Inigo (fig. 3), each with squared plinths, and the plain architrave work to give the por co a primi ve and func onal appearance. The wall on the inside of the por co is Jones’ St Paul’s Church Covent Garden (1630-1633) and Nicholas Hawksmoor’s Christ dominated by a large doorway that is flanked by arched windows on each side (fig. Church Spitalfields (1714-1729) offers significant insight into how the interpreta on 4). This is mirrored on the West-facing façade, the primary entrance to the church. and appropria on of this ‘architectural language’ changed and developed during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Constructed nearly a century apart, both Much has been wri en about the adop on of the Tuscan temple as the buildings display an adop on and manipula on of the classical style to project church’s architectural template, resul ng in widespread agreement that it was an contras ng concep ons of the Anglican Church. Whilst Jones opted for the primi ve a empt to emphasize the austere mentality of the Protestant religion, which was grandeur of the Tuscan temple, Hawksmoor evoked towering authority through also a demand made by the financier of the project.2 Giles Worsley advances this Baroque crea vity. theory by contending that Jones a empted to architecturally restore the church building to its early Chris an age by alluding to late pagan and early Chris an Both Jones and Hawksmoor give their church facades an austere appearance through their use of minimal decora ve ornamenta on and choice of the plain Tuscan order to define their exteriors. However, as one of the earliest examples of classical architecture in England, Jones’ faithful adapta on of the Roman temple keeps St Paul’s piazza-facing façade strictly within the parameters of Roman classical style (Fig. 1). architectural forms, such as the Prostyle temple plan (fig. 2).3 St Paul’s Covent Garden was one of the first churches built in London following the establishment of the Anglican Church and it was highly likely Jones’ was cognizant of the growing debate concerning the appropriate character of the Protestant church.4 While it is almost impossible to postulate Jones’ true objec ve, it is clear that his employment basic and func onal classical elements reflected a par cular concep on of the Anglican 29 30 Architecture in London Issue Church. Sam Allen St Paul’s Covent Garden and Christchurch Spitalfields analysis Hawksmoor’s inclusion of large pedestals suppor ng the Tuscan columns, Whilst Hawksmoor also used Tuscan columns to evoke an austere mood in aided by the large set of steps leading up to the front façade of the church, helps the West-facing façade of Christ Church Spitalfields (fig. 5), his inversion of many augment the feeling that the observer remains below the structure if observing classical conven ons gave Christ Church a very different impression compared to from the front. Indeed, this works to establish Christ Church as a towering that of St Paul’s. The front façade can be divided into three stages. The first incorpo- structure raised above the level of the surrounding area. While the financing and rates two sets of Tuscan columns suppor ng separate por cos joined by an arched construc on of Jones’ St Paul’s was a private undertaking, Christchurch on the pediment which shelters the entrance to the Church (fig. 6). While Jones elected for other hand, was commissioned by the government following an Act of Parliament a plain architrave for the por co at St Paul’s, the pediments at Christ Church are in 1711. The state commissioning of the church certainly influenced the manner in more sophis cated and nuanced (fig. 8). Indeed Hawksmoor embellishes the entab- which Hawksmoor designed the building. The imposing structure would have lature through the installment of a frieze and a pronounced cornice that is cyma- stood as a beacon of Anglican authority reflec ng contemporary efforts to combat bracketed.5 The por co resembles a Vene an window that features in truer form in the growing religious non-conformity in the surrounding area.7 the rear façade of the church (fig 7.). The round arch features as a mo f throughout the rest of exterior and in par cular the upper two levels of the front façade. A comparison between St Paul’s Covent Garden and Christ Church Spitalfields simultaneously charts the changing appropria on of the classical style in English architecture, as well as the development and changing conceptualiza on These upper levels feature more inven ve manipula on of classical elements with Hawksmoor experimen ng with round and linear shapes such as arch headed openings that would come to define the English Baroque as well as porthole windows that feature on all four sides of the church. The installment of the steeple of the Anglican Church. While Jones strived to evoke grandeur by communica ng through ancient simplicity and austerity, Hawksmoor crea vely combined the classical and the gothic to highlight the poli cal and religious superiority of the Church of England. completes the progression from the classical to gothic and gives the church its disnc ve and towering presence (fig. 9).6 31 32 Architecture in London Issue Sam Allen St Paul’s Covent Garden and Christchurch Spitalfields analysis Images Notes Figure 4: Plan of St Paul’s Covent Garden (Allen, Samuel, 2013) 1. John Summerson, The Classical Language of Architecture (London: Thames andHudson, 1980), p. 8. 2. John Summerson, Inigo Jones (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000). 3. Giles Worsley, Inigo Jones and the European Classicist Tradi on, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), pp. 134-135. Figure 6: (Allen, Samuel, 2013) 4. Ibid. Figure 7: (Allen, Samuel, 2013) 5. ’Christ Church: Architectural descrip on’, Survey of London: volume 27: Spitalfields and Mile End New Town (1957), pp. 169-177. URL: h p:// www.bri sh-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=50166 [Date accessed: 12 November 2013]. 6. Pierre de la Ruffiniere Du Prey, Hawksmoor’s London Churches: Architecture and Theology (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000), p. 104. 7. Ibid., p. 99 Figure 5: (Allen, Samuel, 2013) Figure 8: (Allen, Samuel, 2013) Figure 9: (Allen, Samuel, 2013) Image collection Figure 1: The East facing façade of Inigo Jones’ St Paul’s Church Covent Garden. The pediment is supported by four Tuscan columns to form the structure’s por co. Bibliography John Summerson, The Classical Language of Architecture (London: Thames and Hudson, 1980). John Summerson, Inigo Jones (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000). Giles Worsley, Inigo Jones and the European Classicist Tradi on, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007). ’Christ Church: Architectural descrip on’, Survey of London: volume 27: Spitalfields and Mile End New Town (1957), pp. 169-177. URL: h p://www.bri shhistory.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=50166 [Date accessed: 12 November 2013]. Pierre de la Ruffiniere Du Prey, Hawksmoor’s London Churches: Architecture and Theology (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000). Figure 2: Plan of St Paul’s. The Church is based on the Roman Temple plan which takes the form of a Prostyle temple. Images Figure 1: East-facing façade of St Paul’s Covent Garden (Allen, Samuel, 2013) Figure 2: Tuscan columns of St Paul’s Covent Garden (Allen, Samuel, 2013) Figure 3: (Allen, Samuel, 2013) 33 34 Architecture in London Issue Image collection Sam Allen St Paul’s Covent Garden and Christchurch Spitalfields analysis Image collection Figure 5: The front façade of Christ Church Spitalfields. Figure 3: Two of the four Tuscan columns that support the pediment of St Paul's East-facing facade. The outer columns are squared contras ng with the two round central columns. All four columns have squared plinths. Figure 6: Christ Church Spitalfields’ arched por co supported by Tuscan columns and large pedestals. Figure 4: The doorway, which is mirrored in the Western entrance to the Church, cons tutes the only decora ve detail. Figure 7: The rear of the church features a Vene an Window with an emphasised cornice. This mirrors the design of the por co at the front of the church. 35 36 Charlo e Herington Architecture in London Issue Image collection All Saints and Margaret Street analysis An examination of All Saints, Margaret Street, with a focus on its architectural style and the relationship between this and the key material employed; brick. Figure 8: The entablature of Christ Church’s arched por co. Charlo e Herington Designed by architect William Bu erfield the construc on of All Saints, Margaret Street, began in 1850 and, with it, the High-Victorian phase of the Gothic revival emerged.1 Built of brick, All Saints’ is one of the first major buildings to make Figure 9: The steeple tops the frontfaçade of Christ Church Spitalfields. It was originally decorated with chains of acanthus. use of colour through construc onal polychromy; a crucial characteris c which is present throughout the church. In this piece I will look more closely at the Gothic style of the church and the way in which this is expressed. As well as focusing on the employment of its key material – brick. By analysing the material and construc onal details, I will explore their links to the architectural style, and the more general context, of the church in High-Victorian London. The origins of All Saints is closely linked with the Ecclesiological society because Alexander Beresford-Hope – one of the founders of the society - funded its construc on. The society sought to rekindle Anglican ardour by encouraging a return to the glories of medieval architecture. It was quickly iden fied with Tractarianism. Which sought to restore tradi onal Catholic teachings and ceremonies within the Church of England following the Catholic Emancipa on Act of 1829.2 37 38 Charlo e Herington Architecture in London Issue All Saints and Margaret Street analysis When the Ecclesiological society proclaimed its desire to erect a model church the Fig. 1. Photograph of parish rooms which flank All Saints to the le . Red circles highlight the recurring gable mo f which is also apparent on the entrance archway. decision was soon made that Margaret’s Chapel – originally located on the site of All Saints – would be rebuilt for this purpose. However, the chapel had a Tractarian congrega on and as such was unfit for Anglo-Catholic ceremonial.3 The Herrington, C., 10/02/2014. Ecclesiologists decided that Middle-Pointed – otherwise known as fourteenth century Gothic – would be the style for its model church.4 When facing the façade of All Saints from Margaret Street Bu erfield’s Fig. 2. Photograph of All Saints southern façade from Margaret Street. The Gothic lancet creates the entranceway to the courtyard and shapes the clerestory windows. masterful exploita on of a limited space is striking. He accommodates not only the church, but also a choir school and a clergy house. The seemingly individuated components are situated around a small entrance courtyard which is dominated by the church’s overbearing tower and steeple. Gothic embellishment is evident in the lancet arch entrance, in the recurring gable mo f of the buildings that flank the church, and in the arched clerestory windows (1,2). Furthermore, the bu ress, which is constructed in stages and terminates in a pinnacle, appears to be typical of fourteenth century Gothic buildings. Notable amongst these Gothic elements is the widespread use of brick throughout. This choice of material seems prac cal for the sooty atmosphere that permeated London at the me of the church’s development. It also connotes a strong sense of modernity and urban character at a me when brick was being mass produced. Herrington, C., 10/02/2014 For a deeper understanding of the use of brick and its relevance to Gothic ,revival though we must turn to the influences of architectural theorists. For instance, Augustus Pugin and John Ruskin. As a Catholic, Pugin proclaimed Gothic’s superiority. Its architecture, he believed embodied the Chris an faith. For him it was impera ve that a building’s style fi ed its purpose and he saw the revival of medieval architecture as linked to the revival of Catholicism. For the Ecclesiologists and Tractarians however, it signified the poten al for the much needed Anglican resurgence. John Ruskin published his Seven Lamps of Architecture in 1849, coinciding with Bu erfield’s designs for All Saints, and much of it is based upon 39 40 Charlo e Herington Architecture in London Issue All Saints and Margaret Street analysis Pugin’s principles. Most importantly, Ruskin advocated the natural use of colour as The journey made through the courtyard to inside the church creates a sense seen in the polychrome architecture of Italy. Although he, among others, s ll viewed of being progressively drawn into the most important holy area. Light pours in stone as superior his influence and the search for coloured materials seems to have through the western stain-glassed window to illuminate the construc onal led to a new evalua on of brick under Bu erfield. Influenced by Ruskin and the brick polychromy which suffuses All Saints from floor to ceiling with ornate detail. churches of Italy and northern Germany All Saints displays the characteris cs Consequently, on a dull day the colours are not highlighted to their full poten al. admired in medieval buildings. However, it expresses this through the materials of Nevertheless, when stood within the nave, confronted by the rich colour and decora- the modern industrial age. The exposed red brick of the church’s exterior includes on you might mistakenly think you were in a Catholic church. As we have seen, bands and zigzags of black brick. In addi on to, the inser on of broad bands of stone however, this was the whole idea of the Anglo-Catholic movement; the colour is an which great an extraordinary contrast that highlights the arched windows and asser on of Catholicism in the Protestant church. The polychroma c effect of the doorways (3). This polychrome pa erning is confronta onal to some extent but the exterior con nues internally but is much richer and more strident. Brick is s ll appar- sober colouring prevents the structure from capturing the eye. Perhaps crucial given ent but the materials and pa erns vary remarkably. Decora on is linked with sepa- its already hidden nature? Chris Brooks has argued that Bu erfield’s use of rate construc onal parts of the church and so the boundaries of different pa erns polychromy reinforces the honest and expressive values of Gothic principles meet abruptly; brick encountering stone, coloured le, granite and marble. This is highlighted by both Pugin and Ruskin.5 apparent in the contrast between the predominantly brick wall of the bap stery Fig. 3. Photograph showing the structural polychrome pa erning of All Saint’s street-facing façade. The black zig zags of black brick injected into the red brick is circled. The bands of stone stand out in contrast to the brick, highligh ng the window and the door into the bap stery. which is more muted in its colour and design, and the elaborately pa erned marble Herrington, C., 10/02/2014 diaper and black check. These different classes of material - rare and common, and le spandrels of the nave arcade (4). The construc onal polychromy is even present in the pulpit which is constructed of various types of marble which create a geometrical colour mosaic. Furthermore, Bu erfield’s led floor exhibits polychrome design, the nave featuring a deep red background with white stone expensive and cheap - are placed in juxtaposi on. Represen ng the openness of the 41 42 Architecture in London Issue Charlo e Herington church at a me when the Anglo-Catholic movement was trying to reinforce the faith Anglican ritual. Overall, All Saints marked a new stage in the Gothic revival. Indeed, of the masses. Paul Thompson has claimed that the influence of the widespread and excessive use All Saints and Margaret Street analysis of construc onal polychrome became the hallmark of High-Victorian church gothic.8 Fig. 4. Photograph depicts the contrast in the colour and pa erning of the predominantly brick polychromy of the northern wall with the elaborate and mul -coloured spandrels of the nave arcade. These pa erns alter abruptly. Herrington, C., 10/02/2014 With regard to the interior, All Saints suffers from a chequered history. It took many years to complete, with altera ons made to original aspects of Notes 1. See number of sources for arrival of High-Victorian Gothic with construc on of All Saints’, including: Brooks, C., The Gothic Revival, (London: Phaidon, 1999), p.309 and Curl, J. S., Victorian Churches, (London: B.T. Batsford, 1995), p.66. 2. Curl, Victorian Churches, pp.27-29. 3. Thompson, P., ‘All Saints’ Church, Margaret Street, Reconsidered’, Architectural History, vol.8, (1965) p.74 . 4. McIlwain, J., All Saints Margaret Street, (London: Jarold, 2005) p.4 5. Brooks, The Gothic Revival, p.301. 6. McIlwain, J., All Saints Margaret Street, pp.16-17. 7. Curl, Victorian Churches, p.67. Bu erfield’s design. This includes the grand ‘re-redos’ of the chancel; originally completed by William Dyce in 1853-9, it was reproduced in 1909 by Ninian Comper.6 Bu erfield’s inten ons are s ll very apparent in All Saints however. He Bibliography Brooks, C., The Gothic Revival, (London: Phaidon, 1999). was clearly influenced by Ruskin and his endorsement of construc onal polychromy. But what Bu erfield has managed to do, according to James Steven Curl, is create a percep on of the medieval architecture so yearned for, combining the differing Curl, J. S., Victorian Churches, (London: B.T. Batsford, 1995). McIlwain, J., All Saints Margaret Street, (London: Jarold, 2005). influences at the me to produce his own original design.7 Bu erfield, with the prac cality of brick, which was mass produced and weathered well, created a modern church. The inser on of lavish colour and decora on, as well as the large Thompson, P., ‘All Saints’ Church, Margaret Street, Reconsidered’, Architectural History, vol.8, (1965) pp.73-94. Thompson, P., William Bu erfield, (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971) p.349. size of the chancel, despite the restricted space, fulfilled the demands of revived 43 44 Queen Mary History Journal Committee 2014/15 Editor-in-Chief Shabbir Bokhari Commissioning-editor Sub-editor Catriona Tassell Becky Adkins Head of Design Design-editor Sandip Kana Nirah Knight Social Secretary Phoebe Cousins Essay-editors Contributors Essay-editors Mamataj Begum Sam Allen Sebas an Lowe Lisa Bull Hannah Askari Anna Macaninch Pearce Branigan Charlo e Herrington Lauren Macaskill David Clements Vivan Nabukenya Rhiannon Doran Lucrezia Raggio Kieran Jones Amy Sinclair Carl Lentz Jake Stephen Vo Poppy Waring ISSN 2049-3134 45