Antiquities of Zhang Zhung - Tibetan and Himalayan Library

Transcription

Antiquities of Zhang Zhung: A Comprehensive Inventory of Pre-Buddhist
Archaeological Monuments on the Tibetan Upland
Volume I: Archaic Residential Monuments
by John Vincent Bellezza
Edited by Geoffrey Barstow and Mickey Stockwell
Copyright © 2010.
Reproduced with permission of the author
under the THL Digital Text License.
John Vincent Bellezza, Antiquities of Zhang Zhung
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Acknowledgements
This scholarship was compiled by John Vincent Bellezza through a fellowship for East Asian Archaeology and Early History
from the American Council of Learned Societies with funding from the Henry Luce Foundation. The technical work, design,
copy editing, and editing to conform to the digital format was done by the University of Virginia with a grant from the Luce
Foundation and the US Department of Education TICFIA Program.
In particular, I salute the outstanding technical expertise of the following individuals involved in the technical work and
editing. To have their time and resources directed towards the creation of this publication is an exceptional endowment. They
are in alphabetical order:
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Geoff Barstow, editing
Tom Benner, map preparation
Quentin Devers, editing and map preparation
Mark Ferrera, web-design
Nathaniel Grove, technical support
Dan Haig, technical support
David Newman, technical support
Mickey Stockwell, editing
Steve Weinberger, editing
Since 1994, this inventory of pre-Buddhist archaeological sites in Upper Tibet has been made possible through the friendship
and cooperation of many fine people. I warmly thank the more than 5000 residents of Upper Tibet who helped guide me to their
archaeological heritage and who patiently tried to answer my many questions about them. I cordially acknowledge the assistance
and guidance of numerous Tibet Autonomous Region provincial, prefectural, county, and township authorities. Their help was
indispensable in the pursuance of my work. Moreover, I could not have comprehensively explored sites throughout the region
without the active and sustained sponsorship of the Tibetan Academy of Social Sciences and the Ngari Xiangxiong Cultural
Exchange Association. These institutions and the people who work for them command my deep admiration. I also want to thank
the crews of drivers, guides, cooks and assistants who accompanied me on most expeditions. They performed in an exemplary
fashion in what were challenging circumstances.
The organizations and institutions that financially supported my work over the last 12 years deserve my greatest appreciation
and special credit. I simply could not have done my work without their support. I list those who have awarded me grants and
fellowships in alphabetical order:
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American Council of Learned Societies in conjunction with the Henry Luce Foundation (New York)
Asian Cultural Council (New York)
His Holiness the Dalai Lama and the Dalai Lama Trust (Dharamsala)
Kalpa Group (Oxford)
National Geographic Expeditions Council (Washington D. C.)
Shang Shung Institute (Merigar)
Shelley & Donald Rubin Foundation (New York)
Spalding Trust (Stowmarket)
Tibetan Medical Foundation (Weslaco)
Trust for Mutual Understanding (New York)
Unicorn Foundation (Atlanta)
I express profound gratitude to my Tibetan Bon teachers of history and literature: His Holiness Menri Trizin Ponse Lama,
Lopön Tenzin Namdak and Yungdrung Tenzin. It is also with much pleasure that I extend my thanks to Gene Smith (Tibetan
Buddhist Resource Center), Ernst Steinkellner (Universität Wien), David Germano (University of Virginia), and Charles Ramble
(Oxford University) for their academic support and friendly encouragement. Finally, I am delighted to acknowledge the goodwill
and assistance of John Bellezza (Southampton), Mickey Stockwell (Boulder), Mary Lanier (New York), and Karen Harris
(Trinidad). Without the moral support and practical aid of these very fine individuals, my exploratory and scholarly endeavors
could not have come to fruition.
Introduction
1. The Archaic Archaeological Sites of Upper Tibet
The upper portion of the Tibetan Plateau, a land of large lakes, lofty peaks, interminable plains, and deep gorges, stretches north
and west of Lha sa for 1500 km. Bound by high mountain ranges on all sides and averaging 4600 m above sea level, Upper
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Tibet gave rise to an extraordinary civilization in antiquity. Beginning about 3000 years ago, a chain of mountaintop citadels,
temples, and intricate burial complexes appeared in this vast region of some 600,000 square kilometers. These monuments were
part and parcel of a unique human legacy, which flourished until the Tibetan imperium and the annexation of Upper Tibet by
the spu rgyal emperors (btsan po) of Central Tibet. Gradually the unique beliefs, customs and traditions of archaic Upper Tibet
yielded to a pan-Tibetan cultural entity that arose in conjunction with Vajrayāna Buddhist teachings.
A millennium ago, Buddhist domination of Tibet spawned a new civilization, one in which the celebrated Lamaist religions
of Bon and Buddhism came to hold sway. The inexorable march of time and the ascent of the new religious order slowly but
surely clouded the memory of the earlier cultural heritage. As a result, many of the ancient achievements of the Upper Tibetan
people were forgotten, only to be preserved in the impressive monumental traces of the region. Antiquities of Zhang Zhung
attempts to reclaim these past glories by systematically describing the visible physical remains left by the ancient inhabitants
of Upper Tibet.
The residential and ceremonial monuments of Upper Tibet, established by what can be termed the ‘archaic’ cultures of the
region (Zhang zhung and Sum pa of the literary records), strongly contrast with those built in the central and eastern portions
of the Plateau in the same span of time. There are also very substantial differences between the archaeological makeup of the
archaic cultural horizon (circa 1000 BCE to 1000 CE) and that of the Lamaist era (circa 1000 CE to 1950 CE) in Upper Tibet.
The unique monumental assemblage of Upper Tibet delineates the bounds of a paleocultural complex squarely based in the
uplands of the Plateau. The special physical hallmarks and highland homeland of this ancient culture set it apart from other
Bodic cultures, which arose in the central and eastern parts of the Tibetan Plateau. The paleocultural world of Upper Tibet is
also readily distinguished from those civilizations that appeared in adjoining lands to the south, west and north. In the archaic
cultural horizon the Upper Tibetans constructed highly durable all-stone elite residences, temples and castles, developing stone
working techniques particularly suited to their extremely harsh natural environment. They also designed and built elaborate
burial complexes containing many types of ritual structures made entirely of stone. The use of stone corbelling for the construction
of roofs and the erection of pillars in peculiar configurations for ceremonial purposes reached a very high level of proficiency
in Upper Tibet. The eminently practical qualities of this architecture have helped to insure that the remains of a surprising
number of monuments have endured to the present day.
Although the design and construction of the monumental assemblage of archaic Upper Tibet is highly distinctive, affinities
with other archaeological cultures of the Plateau and steppes do certainly exist. During the first millennium BCE and first
millennium CE a tremendous amount of cross-fertilization occurred throughout Inner Asia. These manifold cultural links are
explored in depth in my last book, Zhang Zhung: Foundations of Civilization in Tibet. This monograph furnishes the analytical
framework and data necessary to begin to comprehend the chronological, economic and cultural dimensions of the sites surveyed
in the present work.
Antiquities of Zhang Zhung systematically describes the physical remains of 388 Upper Tibetan monumental sites documented
since 2001.1 It is an inventory of archaic or prospective archaic archaeological sites; those that differ from Lamaist monuments
in terms of morphology, function, mythology, and geographic orientation. This catalogue of archaeological sites should prove
useful to scholars working in a variety of disciplines. As a reference work, it is well suited to provide a perspective for subsequent
studies devoted to better understanding the archaic physical and cultural environment of Upper Tibet and other regions of Inner
Asia. It presents uniform sets of physical and cultural data for each of the sites surveyed to produce a coherent view of the
monumental vestiges scattered across the Upper Tibetan landscape. As a compendium of archaeological sites, this work is
primarily quantitative (descriptions of the remaining physical evidence) in nature. To a lesser degree, it also provides qualitative
information (analyses of the ideological groundwork underlying the physical manifestations) in order to elucidate various abstract
aspects of the monuments. This methodological approach, borrowing from archaeological, literary and ethnographic sources of
information, permits an integral picture of ancient Upper Tibetan archaeological assets to emerge. By bringing Upper Tibet’s
fascinating past into clearer focus, we better acquaint ourselves with formative elements in the development of Bodic civilization.
In turn, this permits us to move one step closer to understanding the Tibetan Plateau’s place in the Eurasian cultural mosaic of
yore.
An inspection of the sites surveyed opens a window onto a remarkable Tibetan heritage. Rather than a cultural backwater,
upland Tibet emerges as a nexus of technological and cultural brilliance. A chain of citadels circumscribing the region reflects
the existence of a vibrant social order in which agriculture played a vital role. From the first millennium BCE onwards, a warrior
and priestly elite appears to have founded and occupied these citadels. The sheer number of fortified sites built on summits
shows that martial struggle was a prominent preoccupation (which is also mirrored in the Tibetan literary record). The top strata
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For the findings of my earlier expeditions see: Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet; John Vincent Bellezza, “Gods, Hunting and Society: Animals in the
Ancient Cave Paintings of Celestial Lake in Northern Tibet,” East and West 52 (2002): 347-396; Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet; John Vincent Bellezza,
“Bon Rock Paintings at gNam mtsho: Glimpses of the Ancient Religion of Northern Tibet,” Rock Art Research 17, no. 1 (2000): 35-55; John Vincent Bellezza,
“A Preliminary Archaeological Survey of Da rog mtsho,” The Tibet Journal 24, no. 1 (1999): 56-90; John Vincent Bellezza, “Notes on Three Series of Unusual
Symbols Discovered on the Byang thang,” East and West 47, nos. 1-4 (1997): 395-405; Bellezza, Divine Dyads.
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of ancient Upper Tibetan society also constructed all-stone temples and residences in which the cultural life of the region reached
a crescendo. Troglodytic communities sprang up wherever there were natural caves or where it was possible to excavate earthen
formations. In the cultural hothouse environment of first millennium BCE and early first millennium CE Inner Asia, Upper
Tibet appears to have been one of several regions with superior intellectual and military capabilities. The legendary status
accorded Zhang zhung in Tibetan literature buttresses the archaeological record, indicating that Upper Tibet had indeed reached
a considerable level of human attainment before the spread of Buddhism.
The existence of intricate burial rites is echoed in the many tombs and necropoli that dot the entire region. These architecturally
diverse funerary sites allude to sophisticated eschatological concepts and practices prevalent in early Upper Tibet. The mortuary
archaeological evidence also records yawning divisions in wealth and social status, a sign that the region possessed a hierarchical
society with deep social, economic and political divisions. This puts the highland variant of Bodic civilization in line with
surrounding civilizations of the Iron Age and the classical period, where social stratification, economic diversification and
warfare were rampant. While many linkages between the empirical and textual perspectives remain hypothetical, the intellectual
profundity of matters related to death in both the literary and archaeological records is unmistakable and very significant. In
Zhang Zhung: Foundations of Civilization in Tibet, I examine the interconnections between the mortuary sites of Upper Tibet
and the archaic funerary beliefs and rituals of the Tibetan texts.2
So much still needs to be discovered before we can find answers to even basic questions concerning the polity and people
of ancient Upper Tibet. Nevertheless, the good news is that step-by-step an understanding of the region’s archaeological character
is being secured. This increase in our knowledge should pave the way to new insights into the origins and development of
Tibetan civilization, as well as to a more refined appreciation of the ancient cultural complexion of Inner Asia. It is in the service
of such aims that the present work has been composed.
2. An Introduction to the Author’s Archaeological Exploration of Upper Tibet and Survey Methodology3
I began my travels in Upper Tibet (Byang thang and Stod) in the mid-1980s, a golden period in the exploration of the Plateau.
This was an exciting time for discovery in Tibet, a time when a small group of explorers (curiously, they were mostly from
English-speaking countries) reached places never before visited by foreigners. During my initial years of peregrination in Upper
Tibet, I began to notice unusual manmade formations and ruins but did not pay much attention to them. In the early 1990s,
having acquired the requisite cultural and linguistic skills, I turned much of my scholarly energy to the documentation of
archaeological remains and the elucidation of the ancient cultural history of Upper Tibet. In the course of fieldwork, I have had
the good fortune to visit every county and virtually every township in the great Tibetan upland north and west of Lha sa. These
archaeological surveys in the region have therefore proven geographically all-inclusive.
On earlier visits to Upper Tibet, an immense region of approximately 600,000 km², I spent a great deal of time on foot and
solo. On more recent expeditions, I have depended on motor vehicles and crews to expedite reaching highly remote places and
the process of documentation. Despite having vehicles, fairly long distances still had to be hiked or ridden on horseback due to
the rugged nature of the terrain. Many sites located on mountaintops and escarpments, or in gorges and caves are only accessible
on foot. The physical rigors of these expeditions should not be underestimated. Upper Tibet is a tough environment in which
to work and the pace of study has been intensive.
List of Archaeological Survey Expeditions:
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1992: Four Fountains of Tibet Expedition (FFTE)
1994: Divine Dyads Expedition, year one (DDE1)
1995: Divine Dyads Expedition, year two (DDE2)
1997: Changthang Phase II Expedition, year one (CPE1)
1998: Changthang Phase II Expedition, year two (CPE2)
1999: Changthang Circuit Expedition (CCE)
2000: Upper Tibet Circumnavigation Expedition (UTCE)
2001: Upper Tibet Antiquities Expedition (UTAE)
2001: Shang Shung Institute Expedition (SSI)
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Another crucial archaeological asset of Upper Tibet is rock art, which provides a rich record of the archaic way of life in the region. Dozens of sites in
which petroglyphs and pictographs document social, religious and economic facets of early life are distributed over much of Upper Tibet. This graphic evidence
also reveals the existence of a distinctive paleoculture, one with strong affinities to surrounding peoples but with it own idiosyncratic qualities, setting Upper
Tibet apart from the steppes and more eastern regions of the Plateau. Rock art, a prime indicator of esthetic values, defines the uniqueness of early Upper Tibet
as much as does its monumental assemblage. The rock art tableaux spectacularly depict the vitality, resourcefulness and stamina of the past inhabitants of the
region. This is certainly something that modern day Tibetans can take pride in and something in which the rest of the world can marvel. A comprehensive
inventory of Upper Tibetan rock art was also conducted and will constitute the contents of another volume in the present series in due course.
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Much of this section of the work was taken from the text of Bellezza, Zhang Zhung.
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2002: High Tibet Circle Expedition (HTCE)
2003: High Tibet Antiquities Expedition (HTAE)
2004: High Tibet Welfare Expedition (HTWE)
2005: Tibet Upland Expedition (TUE)
2006: Tibet Ice Lakes Expedition (TILE)
2006: Tibet Highland Expedition (THE)
2007: Wild Yak Lands Expedition (WYLE)
In 2001, I launched the four-month long Upper Tibet Antiquities Expedition (UTAE), which clocked around 8500 km in
vehicles and significant distances on foot and on horseback. On the UTAE, 90 archaeological sites were documented in Bar
yangs, Pu rang, Khyung lung, Gu ge lho smad, Chu gsum, Rgod tshang, northern Ru thog, Nag tshang rong dmar, and Dang ra
g.yu mtsho. In 2002, I set off on the High Tibet Circle Expedition (HTCE), which was of four months duration as well.4 This
expedition yielded information on more than 100 archaeological sites, the overwhelming majority of which had never been
documented. On the HTCE, I covered 13,200 km by motor vehicle, and trekked considerable distances on foot and on horseback.
The main thrust of exploration included Bar yangs, La snga mtsho, Gangs rin po che, Za rang, Ru thog, northern Sger rtse,
Ngang la ring mtsho, Mtsho chen, Dang ra g.yu mtsho, the Rta rgo range, and Bar tha. In 2003, I conducted exploration on the
High Tibet Antiquities Expedition (HTAE), which lasted just 48 days.5 On the HTAE, around 40 archaeological sites were
documented by traveling more than 8000 km by motor vehicle. The geographic focus of exploration was the border areas situated
in Ru thog, Rtsa mda’ and Spu rang, the first access to many of these sectors by an outsider in 60 years.
In 2004, I launched a three-month mission to Upper Tibet called the High Tibet Welfare Expedition (HTWE). The HTWE
was carried out with the purpose of reconnoitering areas of Upper Tibet not previously visited or where more inquiry was
required. The main areas for research and exploration included ’Dam gzhung, G.yag pa, southern Mtsho gnyis, Dang ra g.yu
mtsho, Mtsho chen, Bse ’khor, Gzhung pa, Ru thog, Sgar, and Rtsa mda’. In 2005, I embarked on the 45-day long Tibet Upland
Expedition (TUE), in order to survey sites across the breadth of much of Upper Tibet not reached on earlier campaigns. By
continually making forays, I have been able to close the gaps in the geographic coverage of the region. Slowly but surely, I have
now visited most of the major basins and valleys of Upper Tibet south of the 33rd parallel.
In the winter of 2006, I conducted the four-week long Tibet Ice Lakes Expedition (TILE) in order to reach six islands in four
different lakes. By traversing the frozen surfaces of the lakes, I was able to survey Se mo do (Gnam mtsho), Do rta sga and Do
dril bu (Da rog mtsho), Mtsho do (Ngang la ring mtsho), and Do ser and Do smug (La ngag mtsho). In the spring of 2006, I
completed the basic survey work, a 12-year long enterprise. Known as the Tibet Highland Expedition (THE), the object of this
46-day 2006 excursion was to carry out reconnaissance in the northern Byang thang, and to visit a few outstanding archaeological
sites. In 2007, on the Wild Yak Lands Expedition (WYLE) (45 days in length), I reconnoitered parts of the northern Byang
thang and documented a handful of archaic sites in Gu ge and other locations.
In surveys conducted since 2001, I have endeavored to expand and strengthen the methodological tools at my disposal. It
has been necessary to further systematize the collection of data and to articulate these in forms that make it accessible to a wider
range of Tibetologists, archaeologists and cultural historians. The survey data thus compiled have permitted the various types
of archaeological assets present in the region, their patterns of distribution, environmental context, and structural qualities to
be elucidated in greater clarity. Another vital component of this appraisal of Upper Tibetan archaeological sites has been the
compilation of chronometric data derived from the radiometric and AMS assaying of organic samples. To date, 20 samples have
been submitted for chronometric testing and analysis, permitting the initial direct dating of a few documented sites. This
augmented methodological approach to the survey work has enabled the positioning of the sites chronicled within a more refined
chronological context, opening the way to new perspectives in the study of Tibetan textual sources. Generally speaking, these
breakthroughs in the study of Upper Tibetan cultural development pertain to temporal controls, which encompass both the
prehistoric and historic epochs.
The methodological regimen applied to the survey of monuments (residential and ceremonial) can be summarized as follows:
1. The pinpointing of the geographic coordinates, elevation and administrative location of each site. The determination
of latitude, longitude and elevation was accomplished with the use of a GPS. In locating sites, reference is made to
toponymic nomenclature employed in both historical (traditional) and Communist (modern) political geography.
2. A description of the geographic and ecological settings of archaeological sites. In order to understand the physical
environment shaping the function and placement of monuments, attention has been paid to slope gradients, general soil
conditions, prominent landforms in the proximity, geomorphologic changes, and the endowment of natural resources.
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On the autumn phase of this expedition, I was accompanied by don ’grub lha rgyal, a highly skilled researcher at the Tibet Academy of Social Sciences.
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On this expedition, I had the good fortune of being accompanied by Dkon mchog rgya mtsho, a research scholar at the Tibet Academy of Social Sciences.
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3. The identification of the monumental types found at each archaeological site. This is carried out using a comprehensive
typology of above-ground archaeological resources devised for Upper Tibet (see Section 5).
4. An analysis of the morphological, design and constructional traits of each structural component of an archaeological
site. A study of how monuments were built and the types of materials that went into their construction is vital in
differentiating the various typologies. The investigative focus has been directed towards determining ground plans,
wall fabrics, the rendering and presentation of structures, patterns of usage, and the spatial arrangements of the various
structural components making up a site.
5. The measurement of site dispersals and the dimensions of constituent structures. The overall extent of sites (measured
in square meters), and the length, width, height, and girth of monuments and their respective components.
6. The mapping of monuments (plans and topographic settings). Save for sketches of a few ground plans, the cartographic
dimension has thus far been limited to overview and typological maps of archaeological sites.
7. The photography of the general settings of sites, all visible archaeological remains, and the current cultural scene.
8. The compilation of folklore, myths, legends, and historical accounts surrounding archaeological sites. I have endeavored
to collect the local oral traditions attached to the monuments surveyed in order to gain a firmer understanding of the
chronology, function and significance of sites as conceived by indigenous sources.
9. The collection and translation of Tibetan textual sources pertinent to the function, cultural make-up, political affiliation,
and chronology of monuments and the physical sites in which they are located. This facet of study defines the interface
between empirical and traditional historiographic approaches to understanding Upper Tibet’s archaeological heritage.
10.An assessment of contemporary anthropogenic and environmental risks to the continued survival of archaeological
monuments. This proactive component of research concerns issues related to the conservation and sustainability of
archaeological assets.
The interrelated methodological regimen used in the surveys of rock art can be summarized as follows:
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8.
The pinpointing of the geographic coordinates, elevation and administrative location of each rock art site.
A description of the geographic and ecological settings of rock art sites.
An analysis of the physical characteristics, relative locations and techniques of manufacture of rock art.
The measurement of rock panels and individual compositions.
The mapping of rock art sites (geographic locations).
The photography of the general settings of rock art sites, individual compositions and the current culture-scape.
The compilation of folklore, myths, legends, and historical accounts surrounding rock art sites.
The collection and translation of Tibetan textual sources pertinent to the function, cultural orientation, political affiliation,
and chronology of rock art sites and individual compositions.
9. An assessment of contemporary anthropogenic and environmental risks to the continued survival of rock art.
I have undertaken to document every visible archaeological site of the archaic cultural horizon on the vast Tibetan upland
and, while falling short of this ambitious goal, more than 600 monumental sites and 50 rock art sites have been surveyed
throughout the region. How many other archaic sites with visible above-ground footprints exist in Upper Tibet remains to be
determined. In particular, there must be many dozens of ancient burial grounds that have yet to be charted. This is indicated by
the sheer number of tombs already documented, the oral tradition that holds that tombs are distributed all over Upper Tibet, and
the practical difficulties in locating structures with little or no protrusion above the ground surface. The geographical thoroughness
of the survey work, however, indicates that a statistically significant cross-section of monument types and rock art has been
documented.
Over 90% of the sites chronicled in this inventory have not been identified or studied by other research teams. Rather than
the application of remote sensing tools and aerial surveys to identify archaic cultural horizon archaeological assets in Upper
Tibet, I took upon myself the laborious and time-consuming task of comprehensive field inspections. Visible detection of sites
was facilitated in most places in Upper Tibet by poorly developed alpine and steppe soils, sparse vegetation cover, and high
rates of surface erosion. As in any region, a percentage of the total number of Upper Tibetan archaeological assets is not amenable
to surface detection. The percentage of sites that were overlooked because of the lack of visual apprehension, however, appears
to be relatively low in the Byang thang (given its prevailing topographic and vegetative features). Conversely, in the badlands
of Gu ge, a region of thick alluvial deposits and the regular occurrence of landslides, a much higher percentage of archaeological
remains are probably obscured from view. A significant number of archaeological sites may have been overlooked in the still
active agricultural communities of far western Tibet and Lake Dang ra. In these regions it is plausible that successive layers of
human occupation have been hidden from view by the structural overlay of contemporary settlement.
The field inspection of archaeological remains has the advantage of furnishing positive identification and the procurement
of definitive empirical information. The field surveys entailed visiting virtually every one of the approximately 250 townships
(reckoned according to the number of townships existing prior to the 1999-2001 period of administrative consolidation in the
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TAR) in the 17 counties that comprise Upper Tibet west of Nag chu city. During this twelve year campaign, I have spent nearly
four years in the field, and covered more than eighty thousand kilometers by vehicle, and at least another eight thousand
kilomerters on foot and on horseback. In order to locate archaeological sites, individual and collective interviews were conducted
in all county seats, as well as in many township headquarters, monasteries, local villages, and pastoral settlements. In the course
of interviews with over 5000 people, I have met with a wide range of civil officials, monks, lay practitioners, farmers, and
herders. Special emphasis was placed on allocating time to speak to those locally recognized as the most knowledgeable in their
respective communities. The meticulous geographic coverage of the surveys, accomplished by canvassing large swathes of
territory upwards of three to seven times each, has proven invaluable in understanding the geographic distribution of the various
types of archaic cultural horizon archaeological assets in Upper Tibet.
3. Criteria Used in the Determination of Archaic Archaeological Sites6
Before presenting an analysis of the various types of monuments, it is crucial to revisit what constitutes an archaic cultural
horizon archaeological site in Upper Tibet. In brief, these are structures exhibiting physical and cultural qualities that predate
the introduction and spread of Lamaism (systematized Bon and Buddhism) in Tibet. The establishment and particularly the
usage of these archaeological sites, however, may have persisted for centuries after Buddhism gained a foothold in imperial
Tibet (early seventh century to mid-ninth century CE). The term ‘archaic’, therefore, is employed to describe archaeological
sites that exhibit non-Lamaist cultural and architectural characteristics, and not to refer to a specific time period as such.7
The provisional identification of archaic monuments in Upper Tibet is made on the basis of the following physical and cultural
criteria using inferential means:
1. Sites in Bon literature attributed to personages, events, facilities, and locations associated with the Zhang zhung and
Sum pa kingdoms
2. Monuments attributed in local oral traditions to the ancient Bonpo, the mon, personalities in the gling ge sar epic, and
the pantheon of genii loci
3. Monuments exhibiting early design, constructional and morphological features
4. The siting of monuments in now abandoned environmental niches
5. Monuments and rock art comparable to those documented in other regions of Tibet
6. Monuments and rock art comparable to those documented in other Inner Asian territories
7. Art and artifacts that exhibit primitive stylistic and fabrication traits
1) Sites in Bon literature attributed to personages, events, facilities, and locations associated with the zhang zhung and
sum pa kingdoms
Especially when used in conjunction with other archaeological criteria, Tibetan literature is a precious indicator of the location
and identity of archaic monuments. Bon (and to a lesser degree Buddhist) texts are an excellent and extensive source for mythic
and quasi-historical accounts relating to places in Upper Tibet supposed to have been important centers of the ancient Zhang
zhung and Sum pa kingdoms. These texts also provide biographical data about the lives of Zhang zhung and Sum pa saints,
including information regarding their residences and political dealings with local potentates and foreign enemies. These literary
accounts are framed in both the prehistoric epoch and early historic period, but their historicity remains obstinately difficult to
corroborate. For the most part, Bon literary sources postdate the eleventh century CE (centuries after the historical events they
purport to chronicle) and are heavily colored with mythic and hagiographic content, significantly limiting their value as prosaic
historical documents. This literature names geographic locations, some of which can be confidently correlated to the contemporary
toponymic picture (places such as Ma mig, Pu rang, Gu ge, Dang ra, Rta rgo, Ti se, Gnam mtsho, Thang lha, etc.), while the
identity of others has either not been established or only tentatively so. As the chronology of Bon mythic and quasi-historical
materials pertaining to Zhang zhung and Sum pa is uncontrolled (by associative events such astronomical phenomena, natural
disasters, cross-cultural references, calendrical lore, etc.), it limits their use as indexes of time, except in the broadest sense.
Moreover, Bon sources have been subjected to an ongoing process of textual revision, altering the portrayal of early historical
events. This modification of contents expresses itself in two major ways: the idealization of past patterns of settlement and
cultural achievement, and the reconfiguration of the archaic cultural heritage using the language and concepts of Buddhism.
Nonetheless, Bon literature furnishes us with valuable contextual information on major centers of early settlement and their
cultural and religious complexion. For one thing, a comparison of textual-based geographic lore related to Zhang zhung with
the patterns of archaic monumental distribution in Upper Tibet reveals a strong positive correlation.
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This section of the work was derived from Bellezza, Zhang Zhung.
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Bellezza, Zhang Zhung
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2) Monuments attributed in local oral traditions to the ancient Bonpo, the mon, personalities in the gling ge sar epic,
and the pantheon of genii loci
The oral traditions surrounding the archaic monuments of Upper Tibet tend to contrast with those accounts connected to Buddhist
monuments, in which piety and otherworldliness prevail. Since the domination of Lamaism in Upper Tibet, circa 1000 to 1250
CE, religious attitudes developed that altered perceptions of the earlier cultural heritage of the region. Generally speaking, this
recasting of history led to the archaic past being viewed with a considerable sense of fear and denial. As Buddhism and
systematized Bon gradually took hold in Upper Tibet, transforming its culture and ethos, the push to reinterpret history gained
momentum in society. The major effect of this historical reformulation has been to make the ancient past increasingly resemble
Lamaist thought and practice. In the contemporary sociocultural setting, the archaic monumental wealth of Upper Tibet has
been compressed into just four major themes. This thematic compression involves the reduction of the ancient cultural legacy
into stereotypic narratives, which now stand as supposed factual representations of the past. This has led to the loss of much
historical information once associated with the archaic archaeological assets in the oral tradition of Upper Tibet. The cognitive
and affective forces enmeshed in this cultural transformation were not directed at highland archaeological sites alone, but came
to express themselves in manifold social and political ways across the Tibetan world.
It is within four simplistic legendary themes that cues pointing to the identification of archaic monuments must be sought:
the ancient Bonpo, the mon, the ge sar epic, and the pantheon of local spirits. These legendary and mythic attributions are
generally applied to sites that do not fall under the architectural ambit of Lamaist culture. They function as convenient intellectual
categories to relegate awkward bits of early heritage (which by their very physical presence cannot be simply brushed aside) to
a safe and distant ideological realm. While the oral tradition provides associative evidence of early settlement, it is not well
suited to the collection of archaeological facts concerning archaic monuments and rock art. The oral tradition therefore is best
applied as a non-specific and broadly inclusive interpretive anthropological tool.
3) Monuments exhibiting early design, constructional and morphological features
An excellent indicator of the archaic status of archaeological monuments in Upper Tibet is the presence of distinguishing features
in substance and form. These physical properties reflect different architectural conceptions and modes of execution than those
exhibited by familiar Lamaist monuments. Of special note are the various funerary pillars (menhirs) and necropoli of Upper
Tibet. These types of monuments embody distinctive forms of abstraction and construction, the likes of which do not appear to
have been adopted by Lamaist adherents. A different religious ethos required an alternative assemblage of monuments: rather
than large burial complexes, Buddhism and systematized Bon saw fit to cover the landscape with mchod rten (a type of shrine)
and walls with inscribed plaques, which are of a different order of architectural magnitude. In the domain of residential monuments,
great structural contrasts are seen between the all-stone corbelled edifices of early times and Bon and Buddhist buildings built
with high walls and wooden rafters. Aside from the very different methods and materials used in construction, the former
structures are small-chambered, windowless and semi-subterranean, while Lamaist halls and temples have larger rooms and
frequently windows or skylights, and are set prominently above the ground.
4) The siting of monuments in desolate environmental niches
The specific geographic setting of archaeological sites provides some clues to their cultural identity. Many archaic residential
monuments were built at high elevation and in special environmental niches that have long since been abandoned. These sites
were not the objects of sustained sedentary settlement in any way associated with the Lamaist cultural milieu of later times. A
significant number of archaic sites are concentrated in defunct agricultural enclaves in far western Tibet, and on headlands and
islands across the breadth of the Upper Tibetan lake belt. Archaic residential sites are also found on lofty, inherently defensible
summits and ridges, or at the heads of valleys at elevations sometimes exceeding 5000m. Environmental degradation and changed
cultural realities appear to be the motive forces behind the geographic shift from these specialized locations to the patterns of
population distribution witnessed in more recent centuries. For the most part, the Lamaist religions chose lower-elevation valleys,
basins and valleys for their major residential sites. Even when escarpments and mountain slopes were selected for the establishment
of religious and political edifices, these are consistently located at a lower elevation than their archaic counterparts. Gangs ti se
is an excellent case in point: all around this sacred mountain one must climb well above the existing Buddhist sites in order to
reach those established in earlier times. The same patterns of settlement hold true for Dang ra g.yu mtsho where the archaic
cultural horizon fastholds and religious centers loom over the contemporary Bon villages.
5) Monuments and rock art comparable to those in other regions of Tibet
Comparative study of Upper Tibetan archaeological assets with their counterparts in Central Tibet and Eastern Tibet is another
tool for ascertaining relative age and cultural affiliations. Unfortunately, very little reliable chronometric data has yet been
assembled for archaic residential and ceremonial sites located in other regions of Tibet. Moreover, comprehensive archaeological
surveys have yet to be launched outside Upper Tibet. The poorly organized archeological data compiled in other regions of the
9
Plateau impedes studies based on cross-referenced archaeological comparisons. As a result, the extent and nature of paleocultural
affinities between Upper Tibet and Central Tibet and other regions of the Plateau have not been adequately determined.
In Upper Tibet and Central Tibet, quadrate burial tumuli with inwardly sloping walls were built in the early historic period
and most probably in the prehistoric epoch as well. However, the all-stone corbelled residential edifices and pillar monuments
that define the Upper Tibetan paleocultural territory are not represented in Central Tibet. Khams and A mdo also have varying
assemblages of monuments (these are still not well catalogued). Nevertheless, the pastoral regions of A mdo were host to a rock
art tradition that is thematically and stylistically related to that of Upper Tibet. The areal variability marking archaeological
assets is acknowledged in the Tibetan historical tradition, which assigns prehistoric Central Tibet and mdo khams to different
proto-tribal or quintessential groupings. Central Tibet is recorded as being dominated by bod, Khams by mi nyag, and A mdo
by a zha.
6) Monuments and rock art comparable to those in other Inner Asian territories
Cross-cultural Inner Asian study is a fecund methodological approach for the determination of the identity and chronology of
Upper Tibetan archaeological assets. This method has proven best suited to the interregional comparison of funerary sites that
possess substantial above-ground structural elevations. Archaic funerary pillars and slab wall structures are a case in point,
where comparisons between the Upper Tibetan, Mongolian, Altaian and south Siberian types have borne good results. These
basic monumental forms are dispersed throughout Inner Asia. As in other spheres where the technologies and cultural traditions
of Inner Asia disseminated widely, chronological and cultural parallels between the funerary monument traditions of Upper
Tibet and adjoining regions are indicated. The comparative study of Inner Asian rock art is also useful in delineating the
amalgamative processes that brought Upper Tibet into functional and aesthetic congruity with its northern neighbors. The biggest
drawback to cross-cultural analyses remains the general shortage of good chronological controls for sites in Upper Tibet. This
will be remedied only when chronometric studies gain sufficient ground.
7) Art and artifacts that exhibit archaic stylistic and fabrication trait:
The aesthetic and technical analysis of art and artifacts is best used in conjunction with collateral archaeological data, but even
alone it is a helpful method for estimating chronological values. The rock art record provides one of the best indexes of cultural
evolution from the archaic to the Lamaist denomination. The prehistoric Upper Tibetan rock art tableaux are rich in compositions
that depict economic, environmental and cultural matters related to the way of life in the region. These petroglyphs and pictographs
are largely unrelated to Buddhist-inspired art and design as they developed in Tibet. Rock art exhibiting archaic themes (such
as hunting scenes, the isolated portrayal of wild animals, and iconic motifs) continued to be produced well into historic times.
This suggests that there was a good deal of cultural continuity between the prehistoric and historic epochs in Upper Tibet.
Nonetheless, analogous subject matter reveals different modes of manual execution and stylistic presentation, valuable evidence
in any attempt at chronological differentiation. As compared to rock art made in the prehistoric epoch, the later variants exhibit
their own set of production qualities and aesthetic refinement. Rock art of the historic epoch is either cruder or more polished.
This inferred chronological progression is also discernable in other spheres of material culture. Copper alloy artifacts such as
amulets, implements and weaponry possess aesthetic and technical features indicative of relative age and cultural affiliation as
well.
In addition to these indirect means of assessing archaic cultural status, the radiometric and AMS assaying of organic remains
recovered from sites constitute the direct approach to dating. The criteria outlined above are all dependent on inferring
chronological information from evidence that does not intrinsically lend itself to scientific verification. For these criteria to be
validated, the conclusions drawn from the cultural identity, appearance and location of monuments and rock art must ultimately
stand the test of chronometric verification. Over the last four years, I have begun the process of independent corroboration of
the suppositions set forth above. I am intent on presenting the identification of the corpus of archaic structural and aesthetic
forms in Upper Tibet in a more objective and reproducible fashion. In pursuance of this goal, 20 samples have been submitted
for radiometric and AMS analysis (derived from both residential and ceremonial sites). The recovery and archaeometric assaying
of far more samples from many more sites is demanded to definitively chart the chronology (and other objective values) of the
Upper Tibetan archeological assemblage. Archaeometric inquiry is also essential in weeding out those sites surveyed that may
not actually have an archaic cultural horizon status. It is on a good footing that chronometric data assembled thus far have begun
to corroborate the presumptions made concerning the temporal orientation of the sites surveyed.
10
4. The Chronology of Archaic Archaeological Sites8
The assembled chronometric and collateral data indicate that Upper Tibetan archaic monuments and rock art were produced
over a wide spectrum of time, in both the prehistoric and historic settings. Two major epochs, each with two cultural phases,
are provisionally indicated. The archaic cultural horizon spans both the prehistoric epoch and the early historic period:
1. I) Prehistoric epoch
1. i) Iron Age
2. ii) Protohistoric period
2. II) Historic epoch
1. i) Early historic period
2. ii) Vestigial period
I) Prehistoric epoch (early first millennium BCE to seventh century CE)
The first phase of the prehistoric epoch includes those sites that were founded in the early Iron Age (first half of first millennium
BCE) and the developed Iron Age (middle and late first millennium BCE) of Inner Asia. Possibly late Bronze Age (circa 1200
to 800 BCE) affiliations are also indicated in the first phase of prehistoric Tibetan civilization, but this remains difficult to
corroborate.9 A treatment of more remote prehistoric epochs (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) falls outside the purview of the
current study.10 The second or later phase of the prehistoric epoch corresponds to an anachronistic extension of the Iron Age
marked by the Central Tibetan line of kings (late first millennium BCE to the seventh century CE). This second phase of the
prehistoric epoch can be termed the protohistoric or legendary monarchal period due to the many Tibetan literary records that
refer to the Central Tibetan kings of that time. There are also Bon texts purported to have been written in this timeframe, though
solid evidence for this allegation is lacking. These literary records include some assumed to have been first written in the zhang
zhung and sum pa languages, which came to be translated into Tibetan during the imperial period. According to the Tibetan
historical tradition, the Plateau of the Iron Age was divided into a number of petty states and governed by a succession of
demigod chieftains. The protohistoric period in turn, is marked by the rise of the yar lung or spu rgyal dynasty beginning with
King gnya’ khri btsan po (traditional chronologies place him in the circa 200 BCE period).
II) Historic epoch (early seventh century CE to present)
This first phase of the historic epoch, the early historic period, chronologically corresponds with the Tibetan empire or imperial
period and its troubled aftermath (seventh century to the end of the tenth century CE). It was in the imperial period that the
definitive introduction of Buddhism (bstan pa snga dar) into Tibet, the development of the Tibetan system of writing (bod yi
ge), and the expansion of Tibetan political power across the entire Plateau and beyond occurred. The Upper Tibetan proto-states
of Zhang zhung and sum pa were absorbed into the pan-Bodic polity of this period as well. The vestigial period includes all
archaic style monuments and rock art that continued to be founded in Upper Tibet (late tenth century to mid thirteenth century
CE). The production of some archaic cultural horizon archaeological assets appears to have continued for some centuries after
the collapse of imperial Tibet. Certain surveyed tombs, strongholds and religious edifices are likely to fall into this category.
These architectural anachronisms seem to have been a cultural counterpoint to the inexorable process of Lamaist transformation.
This period in Tibetan history is characterized by political reconsolidation, such as the formation of the Buddhist gu ge state in
western Tibet in the late tenth century CE, and the ascendancy of the sa skya pa in the early thirteenth century CE.
At this juncture, the chronological values proposed above remain largely hypothetical, and with the exception of those few
sites where chronometric data have been forthcoming, inexact and open to amendment. Nevertheless, this provisional chronology
indicates that archaic cultural horizon archaeological monuments in Upper Tibet are a highly diverse group in terms of age and
composition. By virtue of straddling the prehistoric and historic divide, the sites surveyed represent a heritage of varying
8
This section of the work is also derived from Bellezza, Zhang Zhung.
9
At present the scant chronometric data do not demonstrate that any of the archaeological sites surveyed date to the late second millennium BCE or earlier.
I suspect, however, that this current age limitation will be overcome as the pace of archaeological research intensifies and Bronze Age (especially late Bronze
Age) structures can be positively identified. As in Central Tibet, some Upper Tibetan monuments may even prove to date to the Neolithic. An earlier periodization
is particularly likely for tombs, because in all adjoining regions where chronometric and collateral archaeological data have been assembled, there are burials
that predate the first millennium BCE. Another possible exception to an early Iron Age chronological basement are certain Upper Tibet rock art sites and
compositions, which in terms of the techniques of manufacture and style conform to what some Central Asian rock art specialists would consider to be Bronze
Age schema.
10
For reviews of these earlier epochs see Aldenderfer, “The Prehistory of the Tibetan Plateau”; Chayet, Art et Archéologie du Tibet. Sites attributed to the
Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic have been discovered in Upper Tibet, but far more research is needed to determine when the high Plateau was first peopled
and how these earlier occupations contributed to the later course of civilization in the region.
11
environmental dimensions, social forces, religious persuasions, and political orders, which are emblematic of cultural change
in Upper Tibet over a period of no less than two millennia.
This work primarily treats the typological aspects of the study of archaic monuments and rock art as the basis for their
periodization. Additional study, involving the vigorous application of chronometric methodologies, will be needed to create a
precise chronology for each of the monument and rock art types surveyed. It is through such study that the cultural development
of Upper Tibet and the nature of its intercourse with adjoining territories will come to be known in the kind of detail that such
an important piece of the world’s ancient heritage deserves. In addition to providing a model of cultural transition and adaptation
in Upper Tibet, chronometric inquiry is required to determine the impacts of Late Holocene (circa 2000 BCE to present) climatic
deterioration on the various archaeological sites. Material culture studies are another area of archaeological research that has
barely begun. The scientific recovery and study of utilitarian and ritual objects is of the utmost importance if we are to flesh out
the cultural specifications, periods of usage and environmental determinants at work at each of the sites catalogued.
5. A Typological Outline of Archaic Monuments and Rock Art
Herein is an outline of the archaic cultural horizon monument and rock art typologies distributed above the ground in all areas
of Upper Tibet. The monument typologies fall into two major divisions: residential (structures in which people resided or
temporarily lived) and ceremonial (non-residential structures chiefly used for religious and burial purposes). Residential
monuments are further divided according to their primary design traits and situational aspects. Ceremonial structures are
subdivided according to their morphological and functional aspects. In Upper Tibet there are also minor physical remains
associated with the ancient agricultural economy. Earthworks located in ’dam gzhung and snying drung may have had a residential
and/or ceremonial function. Rock art of all types forms the aesthetic or graphic division of Upper Tibetan archaeological assets,
while rock inscriptions are the epigraphic component.
1. I. Residential Monuments
1. 1) Residential structures occupying summits (fortresses, breastworks, religious buildings, palaces, and related
edifices)
1. a. All-stone corbelled buildings
2. b. Edifices with roofs built from timbers
3. c. Solitary rampart networks
2. 2) Residential structures in other locations (religious and elite residences)
1. a. All-stone corbelled buildings
2. b. Other freestanding building types
3. c. Buildings integrating caves and rock overhangs in their construction
2. II. Ceremonial Monuments
1. 1) Stelae and accompanying structures (funerary and non-funerary)
1.
2.
3.
4.
a. Isolated pillars (rdo ring)
b. Pillars erected within a quadrate stone enclosure
c. Quadrangular arrays of pillars appended to edifices
d. Domestic pillars
2. 2) Superficial structures (primarily funerary superstructures, burial and non-burial in function)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
a. Single-course quadrate, ellipsoid and irregularly-shaped constructions (slab wall and flush-block)
b. Double-course quadrate, ellipsoid and irregularly-shaped constructions (slab wall and flush-block)
c. Heaped-stone wall enclosures
d. Quadrate mounds (bang so)11
e. Terraced constructions
3. 3) Cubic mountaintop tombs
4. 4) Shrines and miscellaneous constructions
11
For the purposes of this study, the Tibetan term bang so is only used to denote burial mounds. In the Tibetan language this term can also be applied to a
larger range of burial structures.
12
1. a. Stone registers (tho)
2. b. Tabernacles (lha gtsug, gsas mkhar, lha rten, and rten mkhar)
3. III. Agricultural Structures
1. 1) Stone irrigation channels
2. 2) Terracing
1. a) Retaining walls
2. b) Partition walls
4. IV. Earthworks
1. 1) Rampart-like walls and platforms
5. V. Rock Art and Epigraphy
1. 1) Petroglyphs
2. 2) Pictographs
3. 3) Inscriptions and ciphers
A Typological Description and Analysis of Archaic Monuments12
I. Residential Monuments
This division of archaeological sites includes all types of monuments that were designed and built for residential activities.
Within this division are those monuments that were used for human habitational activities, whether of an economic, political,
religious or domiciliary nature. In a land where much of the population is likely to have lived in tents and other temporary
shelters from time immemorial, permanent habitation in well-built edifices must have largely been the domain of the higher
strata of society. In this work, information on 162 residential sites is presented.
I.1) Residential Structures Occupying Summits
In this residential type are all habitational structures located on the summits and prominences of mountains, ridges, hills, and
high rock formations. By the very nature of these geographic locations, such monuments have an inherent defensive aspect to
a lesser or greater extent. Among this residential type are edifices that functioned as fortresses and citadels (habitations designed
and built for military purposes), temples and hermitages (buildings with a religious or ceremonial function), palaces (social elite
residential buildings), and breastworks (networks of ramparts or other types of defensive structures that were temporarily or
permanently inhabited). It must be noted that from a visual appraisal alone the specific occupational functions of individual
edifices or components thereof can only be inferred. In any event, these strongholds, temples, palaces, and hermitages appear
to have been where the ruling and priestly classes exercised their social influence and political control over the agriculturalist
and pastoralist sectors of society.
I.1a) All-stone corbelled buildings
This building subtype represents one of the most prominent classes of residential structures found in Upper Tibet. In the parlance
of the region, this style of architecture is often referred to as rdo khang (all-stone habitation). This form of construction is
characteristic of the archaic cultural milieu of the region, and is eminently well suited to the environmental exigencies of the
harsh landscape. It is in Upper Tibet that all-stone corbelled buildings reached their fullest architectural expression in all of
Central Asia. This building design is exceptionally rugged and structurally stable, and individual examples may in some cases
have endured as habitations for centuries.
All-stone structures feature the use of corbels, stone members that were placed on the upper extent of walls as load bearing
devices for the stone roof assembly. Corbels were simply rested on the tops of walls or were inserted into specially built wall
sockets. Corbels act to support bridging stones and stone sheathing from which the roof was made. Bridging stones were laid
12
This part of the work is based on John Vincent Bellezza, “A Cornerstone Report. Comprehensive Archaeological Surveys Conducted in Upper Tibet
between 2001 and 2004. Documentation of archaic monuments and rock art in the Tibet Autonomous Region. Carried out under the auspices of the Tibetan
Academy of Social Sciences and Ngari Xiangxiong Cultural Exchange Association of the Tibet Autonomous Region.” Tibetan & Himalayan Digital Library.
(http://tinyurl.com/b2hnr. 2005). For more detailed typological and paleocultural information, see Bellezza, Zhang Zhung.
13
diagonally or crosswise in one or more courses over the corbels in order to span the distance between opposite walls. In turn,
large slabs of stones were placed upon the bridging stones to create a complete roof covering. The elementary corbelling technique
employed in Upper Tibet for roofs was only suited for use over small interior spaces (typically 3 m² to 12 m²). Large edifices
were created by juxtaposing multiple, structurally self-contained rooms or groups of rooms together to form a contiguous ground
plan. In some places (such as sites A-10 and A-54) corbels with sockets were used to support the stone flooring of a second
story in the same fashion as roofs were constructed.
All-stone corbelled edifices have many unique design traits. In general, they are massively built, a consequence of the great
weight that the roofs bear on these structures. Walls are between 60 cm and 1.2 m in thickness, and of a slab or block
random-rubble texture. Both dry-mortar and clay-mortar seams are represented in their construction. Roofs are, as a matter of
course, flat and originally must have been layered in gravel and clay to weather-proof the buildings (little evidence of this more
ephemeral aspect of construction has survived). As each room or group of rooms is an isolated unit structurally, the exterior
walls of such structures have an irregular or even a meandering plan. Walls are of variable thickness, with various exterior
indentations and interior recesses common. Both exterior and interior corners tend to have a rounded quality, as this facilitates
the arrangement of corbels. Interior walls are punctuated with buttresses that function to support intervening series of corbels
and roof appurtenances, especially in larger rooms. The floor-to-ceiling height of rooms in rdo khang is usually relatively low
(1.6 m to 2 m). Most buildings are windowless and even in certain structures where there are interior and exterior window
openings, these are small in size.
Single buildings contain between two and one dozen rooms, which are normally arranged in rows or isolated aggregations.
Rooms directly open onto one another or are connected through a small corridor or interclose. Various wings in a single building
usually had separate exterior entrances, as large interconnecting halls and galleries are not possible in rdo khang construction.
Another defining feature of the all-stone corbelled edifices is the very small size of their doorways; these average only around
1.1 m in height. The lintels of the entranceways (and the few windows) are made from stone. The heavy windowless walls and
low doorways of the rooms indicate that they must have been weatherproof and easy to heat. Collections of small rooms also
indicate that a decentralized or compartmentalized domestic ecology was the norm. Individual cells must have been set aside
for the various facets of everyday life such as sleeping, food preparation, storage of provisions, and religious observances.
Rooms were only large enough for individuals or small family units. Cooking, meetings and ceremonial life inside the rdo khang
could only have revolved around small groupings of people.
Customarily, sundry rdo khang on a summit were vertically interconnected to create a staggered array of structures. Naturally
occurring rock outcrops and ledges were commonly used to help support corbelled buildings and to act as one or more walls of
the structure (particularly in the rear). This form of construction is very favorable to incorporation into the adjoining terrain, as
walls could be built to accommodate the twists and turns of rock faces. This high degree of integration with the parent formation
is a distinguishing feature of rdo khang design. Although corbelled edifices individually have low architectural elevations (there
are no high ceilings in rooms, and parapet walls where they exist appear to have been minimal), the stacking of one on top of
another has the effect of producing formidable complexes. It is not uncommon to find these clinging to the sheer walls of a
summit for many vertical meters. In sites that appear to have functioned as hermitages, individual residences tend to be separated
from one another rather than forming aggregated complexes. The use of prominent revetments, a common feature, significantly
increased the elevation of exterior faces. Revetments function to give buildings a stable foundation and to even out the dips and
rises on rocky summits. Rather infrequently, all-stone edifices were integrated with other building types at a single site.
Occasionally, there is also evidence to suggest that the basement or lower story of a building was fashioned as a rdo khang,
while the superstructure was of an alternative style of construction (see site A-51).
The wide distribution of rdo khang through most areas of Upper Tibet and their superb adaptive bearing indicates that they
were a chief residential type for a long period of time in the region. Bronze Age occurrences of corbelled edifices in regions
like the British Isles and Mediterranean may suggest that this form of architecture developed in Upper Tibet at a relatively early
date. The lack of demonstrable monumental precedents in the archaeological record of Upper Tibet reinforces the impression
that all-stone edifices have a very long legacy behind them. Chronometric data on the sites surveyed are now undergoing
compilation; these results furnish the best archaeological evidence corroborating the archaic nature of Upper Tibet’s all-stone
edifices.13
13
On the basis of similarities in size, orientation and ground plan, as well as the presence of an interior pillar marking an analogous area in the Dindun site
(sdings zlum) habitation S4, Mark Aldenderfer infers that the ‘Founder’s House rdo khang’ (part of site B-13) may date to the same period, circa 550-100 BC
(Mark Aldenderfer, “A New Class of Standing Stone from the Tibetan Plateau,” The Tibet Journal 28, nos. 1-2 [2003]: 3-20). A small round of wood was
discovered in the stone rubble of a semi-subterranean rdo khang at the ge khod mkhar lung site (A-89). This specimen has yielded a calibrated radiocarbon
date of circa 200 BC to 100 CE. The historical persistence of rdo khang as active residences until the early second millennium CE, is indicated in the contest
between Buddhist yogin mi la ras pa and the Bon adept na ro bon chung (Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, 65).
14
I.1b) Edifices built with timbers
This heterogeneous monument subtype includes all residential structures that were built with roofs containing timbers. Among
the examples included in this inventory may be sites that were actually founded or redeveloped after the early historic period
that could not be differentiated from older strongholds (because of the possession of similar morphological and cultural
attributions). Further archaeological investigation will be required to clear up this typological ambiguity. Edifices constructed
with wooden roofs located on summits generally have a good defensive posture. As with the all-stone corbelled structures, their
domiciliary usage appears to have varied greatly. Citadels, fortified settlements, temples, and palaces are all probably represented
among this class of habitation. These timbered edifices are of four major wall fabrics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Random-rubble and coursed rubble stone walls
Adobe or unbaked mud block walls (sa phag)
Rammed-earth or shuttered walls (gyang)
Walls of cut earthen slabs
i) Residential structures built with stone walls are commonly encountered throughout Upper Tibet. Where walls are left
standing, this type of construction is readily identifiable: walls are straight and regular and can be of considerable length. As
roofs were built with wooden timbers, the walls supporting them were not required to be as massive as structures with much
heavier all-stone roofs. The regular buttressing and indentations of rdo khang walls is also conspicuously absent. Moreover,
high elevation profiles and large rooms and halls are found with much frequency, especially among Buddhist complexes.
However, what appear to be archaic structures built in this manner share some of the customary features of rdo khang design.
These include edifices with smaller rooms, windowless walls, relatively low entranceways, adeptly constructed random-rubble
slab walls, a high degree of topographical integration into the parent formation, the proliferation of small buildings staggered
vertically across a summit, and series of small ramparts.
None of the stone wall buildings surveyed have their roofs intact but the general constructional pattern and the rare presence
of timber fragments suggests that roofs were constructed much as they were in the Central Tibetan style of architecture. This
entails the laying of timbers across the top of walls and covering them with wooden and/or stone interlinking materials. Once
the roof was completed in this fashion, wattle, clay and possibly Tibetan cement (ar ka) must have been used to build successive
enclosing layers. Unlike the traditional architectural landscape of Central Tibet and Eastern Tibet, there is no evidence of towers
having been erected in Upper Tibet, stone buildings of more than two stories being rare in the region.
A site attributed to the ancient mon in the oral traditions of Upper Tibet skabs ren gyang gog (A-33) was in use as late as the
13th century CE. Chronometric data obtained from skabs ren gyang gog reinforces the view that monuments attributed to the
mon must be understood in a broad historical and cultural framework.
ii) Residential structures built with adobe blocks are commonly encountered in gu ge, that large Transhimalayan badlands
region in the Sutlej (glang chen gtsang po) drainage area of deep gorges and highly eroded earthen formations. While mud-brick
walls are common in Buddhist era buildings (such as monasteries and retreats) in the byang thang, there is scant evidence that
such structures were established in pre-Buddhist times. One exception may be a complex of buildings at brag sgam rdzong
(B-40). It was founded on a slope overlooking the smu kyu gtsang po basin, a rich pastureland.
Adobe block edifices were founded in great numbers in gu ge in the Buddhist era. According to the local oral tradition, they
were also established in the prehistoric epoch and to have been the handiwork of that elusive tribe the mon or skal mon/bskal
mon.14 From an environmental perspective this claim of antiquity for elementary earthen structures is plausible, for building
stones are in short supply in many corners of gu ge, and lithic materials appropriate for corbelling and bridging only very seldom
14
An important textual reference concerning the historical identity of the skal mon of Upper Tibet is found in Mar lung pa rnam thar, written by thon kun
dga’ rin chen and byang chub ’bum (13th century CE). For this reference, a translation and bibliographic information about the text, see Roberto Vitali, The
Kingdoms of Gu.ge Pu.hrang. According to mNga’.ris rgyal.rabs by Gu ge mkhan.chen Ngag.dbang grags.pa (Dharamsala: Tho.ling gtsug.lag.khang lo.gcig.stong
’khor.ba’i rjes.dran.mdzad sgo’i go.sgrig tshogs.chung. 1996), 200 (n. 287), 589. It must be noted that Vitali’s translation of the passage under question differs
in a number of important areas from the one I provide below. Vitali maintains that the concerned passage documents a group of northerners distinct from the
skal and mon, for which there is little grammatical basis. In his excellent study, Vitali may have been persuaded to translate the passage in such a way because
of various other historical references that place the skal mon in Himalayan regions. The Mar lung pa rnam thar records that the mon and another group known
as the skal were pushed out of northern areas of Tibet by the hor (probably a Central Asian Turco-Mongolian group), forcing them to settle further south (in
gu ge?). According to Vitali’s analysis, this event occurred between the demise of the Tibetan empire and the founding of the mnga’ ris skor gsum kingdom
by nyi ma mgon, in the early tenth century CE (Vitali, Kingdoms of Gu.ge Pu.hrang). Evidently, in their new homeland the skal and mon, Bon practitioners,
became amalgamated into one tribal entity. This account provides a historical basis for the pervasive Upper Tibetan oral tradition, which holds that the Byang
thang was once widely populated by the skal mon. This Mar lung pa rnam thar account also documents the creation of a castle by the skal mon, but unfortunately
it is not referred to by name or location. The text reads as follows: “…The four mountains of skal [and] the 13 stong sde (divisions of 1000) of mon were the
people of the north. They were driven out of their country by the hor and arrived in the southern districts. They settled in different places. They built a great
castle. The skal mon king g.yu kha received empowerments and transmissions.* He produced a Bon khams chen (a 16-volume collection analogous to the
Buddhist Yum) in gold lettering.” (skal gyi ri bo bzhi / mon stong sde bcu gsum / byang gi mi yin pa hor gyis yul ston lho ru sleb / yul so so btab / mkhar chen
po rtsigs / skal mon gyi rgyal po g.yu khas dbang lung zhus / bon khams chen gser ma zhengs /). *These teachings were received from thon mi nyi ma ’od zer,
a zhang zhung snyan rgyud master who was alive in the late ninth century CE (Vitali, Kingdoms of Gu.ge Pu.hrang, 200, 222).
15
occur. The antiquity of adobe block constructions is also supported by recently compiled chronometric data from the ru la mkhar
site (A-141) (see below). Systematic survey of sites in gu ge to which oral tradition assigns an archaic identity has brought to
light physical evidence, which tentatively permits adobe structures to be chronologically differentiated from one another. One
distinguishing criterion employed in trying to determine what may be examples of archaic adobe edifices is based on an analysis
of building design. Sites such as ha la mkhar (West) (A-58) strongly contrasts with known Buddhist architecture of the region.
Its highly exposed and isolated aspect, unusual ground plan and extremely deteriorated condition are circumstantial evidence
for the inclusion of ha la mkhar (West) in the category of archaic monuments. This single 32 m long contiguous complex consists
of four rows of tiny rooms that run parallel to the axis of the summit at different levels. No Buddhist monuments or emblems
are found at ha la mkhar (West) and no Buddhist religious lore is attached to the site.
The survey of citadels and other summit residential structures attributed to the ancient mon in the localized traditions of gu
ge demonstrates that most of the facilities exhibiting mud brick wall construction are in fact primarily built of stone. At most
so-called mon sites adobe walls were used for relatively minor constructions and for upper wall courses. What adobe walls do
exist are as a rule much more highly eroded than Buddhist constructions. At none of the mon castles (mon gyi mkhar) are there
large, high-walled buildings (lha khang, ’dus khang, etc.) like those found at virtually every Buddhist monastery in gu ge.
Moreover, sites attributed to the archaic period of construction are often associated with troglodytic communities with few or
no signs of Buddhist occupation. A foundation or refurbishment date of circa 565 to 705 CE is indicated for the adobe block
northwest edifice of ru la mkhar (A-141). The relative position of the radiocarbon assayed sample in the building confirms that
adobe block constructions were indeed part of the archaic architectural canon of gu ge.
iii) Rammed-earth residential structures that local oral tradition places in the archaic period are limited in geographic range
to lower elevation western mnga’ ris and in particular, to gu ge. A single wall of this construction type attributed in the oral
tradition to the zhang zhung kingdom is found at the high point of the stag la mkhar fortress (A-81) in spu rang. In gu ge, summit
strongholds such as byang stang mkhar (A-116) and shar lang mkhar (A-118), two castles that in the local oral traditions are
assigned to the skal mon, have rammed-earth structural remnants. Walls of this type, nevertheless, are found at only a minority
of strongholds attributed to the ancient mon in gu ge. The technological origin and chronology of rammed-earth walls, built by
packing wet earth and clay with a stone matrix between large wooden shutters, is not at all certain. It may be that rammed-earth
structures are wrongly attributed in legend to the archaic period or that they were founded at sites with structural remains from
earlier periods of occupation.
iv) At just a few fortified sites in gu ge another type of wall was formed from naturally occurring compressed slabs of earth,
which were cut from the native formations. Structures built with this type of wall dominate at cho lo phug (A-113) and rag kha
shag mon gyi mkhar (A-115), strongholds attributed by local residents to the mon. At cho lo phug a sequence of chambers were
cut out of the long flat summit, and the slabs resulting from the excavation used to build walls above the top of the excavated
chambers. Parapet walls were also built around the edges of the summit using the same natural earthen slabs. The absence of
monuments indicative of Buddhist occupation at these sites as well as their semi-subterranean aspect encourages the view that
earth slab fortifications do indeed date to the era of archaic residential structures.
I.1c) Solitary rampart networks
Some strongholds in Upper Tibet are exclusively composed of networks of defensive walls traversing summits and adjoining
slopes. At sites such as gnam rdzong (A-48) and stag gzig nor rdzong (A-50) there appear to be few, if any, residential buildings,
but rather a series of ramparts fortifying a strategic mount or rock formation (those in proximity to a high quality pasture or
important pass). These random-rubble dry-mortar breastworks consist of long walls that wind across slopes vulnerable to attack.
Typically, the walls are 1 m to 2 m high on the downhill slope, and slightly elevated or flush with the uphill side of a slope.
These defensive structures are normally around 1 m to 2 m in width, and between 2 m and over 100 m in length. Parapet walls
or ledges were probably built on the outward projecting edge of the ramparts but much of the structural evidence for these
features has disappeared down the slopes with time. A chief characteristic of rampart network design and deployment is that
they appear in multiples, each wall running in a transverse direction at different elevations and somewhat parallel to one another.
An approachable slope may have upwards of eight successive ramparts, one above the other, guarding the higher and more vital
reaches of a site. In addition to being aligned in parallel, defensive walls join one another or branch out in different directions
across ribs of rock and broad acclivities. Some of the wider, more level and sheltered breastworks appear to have functioned as
platforms for camps and the garrisoning of fighters. The intricate arrangement of breastworks as the exclusive or dominant
architectural component of a fortified site bespeaks a special form of defensive posturing by which entire rock formations
functioned as strongholds.
While some sites seem to have been comprised entirely of breastworks, most of the archaic fortifications of Upper Tibet
heavily relied on them for defense. At many citadels defensive walls form an integral part of the complex. These are of three
major types: 1) those staggered below residential structures that are erected on a summit; 2) those that encircle the main nucleus
of habitation (circumvallations); and 3) those that connect various residential structures (curtain-walls).
16
I.2) Residential structures in other locations
This type of residential site includes all monuments situated in any geographic locality other than those set on top of summits.
Such habitations are found on broad slopes (those with higher ground in the immediate area), valley bottoms, ravines, gorges,
benches, esplanades, headlands, and at the foot of or in escarpments and outcrops. However, such sites are seldom found in the
midst of large exposed plains. The same kind of constructional and design elements exhibited by the summit residences are part
of this category of archaic sites. The majority of them appear to have been habitations for religious and other high social status
forms of residency. We might expect that, when most of the population of the Byang thang was housed in black yak hair tents
(sbra nag) and other types of temporary shelters, the occupation of highly weatherproof permanent habitations was a mark of
social distinction and achievement. This, indeed, was the state of affairs in the pre-modern Byang thang. Cave residences are
found throughout Upper Tibet, but in numbers that would not have permitted more than a small fraction of the total population
to avail themselves of such facilities in any given period (with the notable exception of gu ge with its many thousands of caves).
I.2a) All-stone corbelled buildings
These edifices are of the same design and construction as those perched on summits, the main difference between them being
situational in nature. As such, all-stone corbelled buildings or rdo khang located away from high ground lack a strong defensive
aspect. Functional differences in the kinds of occupancy may be implied by these locational contrasts. All-stone edifices removed
from summits tend to be individual dwellings separated from one another by meters or tens of meters of distance. This contrasts
with the clustered plan of many summit sites.
There are differences in design that arose in accordance with varying physical settings. rdo khang in lower, more open areas
often have walled courtyards on their forward (usually east or south) side. These domestic spaces, enclosed by random-rubble
dry-mortar walls, must have been used for chores, social functions and other activities appropriate to the outdoor environment.
Another difference is that these less defensible rdo khang frequently have a semi-subterranean aspect. Typically, the rear or
uphill slope walls were set deeply into the ground, sometimes so much so that the roof was nearly flush with the slope. In areas
where there was an adjacent cliff or rock face, one or more walls of the structure were set partially or entirely below it. Clearly,
this saved on the amount of building materials but there are likely abstract cultural factors at play as well. Rear walls of the
all-stone corbelled buildings frequently have niches and recesses built into them, adding to the underworld atmosphere of the
structures. These subterranean compartments may have had a ritual function such as that connected to the propitiation of chthonic
deities.
I.2b) Other free-standing building types
This subtype includes all habitations built with wooden roofs not located on summits. Many of these structures appear to have
supported timber roofs. Potentially, sites that had semi-permanent roofing materials such as yak hair cloth or hardened yak hide
are also among this category of edifices. The constructional characteristics of sites like lung ngag (B-80) and sde chos skal mon
yul (B-81) are difficult to judge. Their wall design, building dimensions and alignments are such that appear to have supported
less substantial semi-permanent roofing materials. A building with a wooden roof situated in the middle of open ground that
can be attributed to an early period is bu mo lha khang (B-87), a highly unusual adobe block edifice. Among the sites of an
indeterminate subtype are those that appear to be the vestiges of sizable villages, which were seated on wide benches or gentle
slopes. These are usually so deteriorated that only zones of rocky depressions and mounds exist where there were ostensibly
once domiciles (see B-71, B-85).
I.2c) Buildings integrating caves and escarpments in their construction
This building subtype is also defined according to geographic placement. It includes all residential structures that were set in
or around caves, rock overhangs and fissures. Caves, especially when accompanied by freestanding residential structures,
provided one of the most secure and hospitable living environments in the archaic cultural horizon, as they have in more recent
times. Most Lamaist era cave habitations were the domain of religious practitioners, but in archaic times it appears likely that
a wider spectrum of society was housed in this fashion. Local legends indicate that such sites constituted the original nexus of
settlement in numerous locales. This is borne out by the existence of high quality springs at some sites, in stark contrast to the
surrounding, often waterless plains. The formative historical nature of cave settlement appears to be particularly the case in the
Transhimalayan gu ge region.
In the Byang thang most caves are ensconced in limestone formations. The most common architectural feature in this category
of construction is the façade wall, a barrier that served as the front for caves. Stone and mud bays, altars, shelving and platforms
are sometimes found inside the caves. In gu ge, where most of the caves were hewn from earth and gravel formations, arched
recesses and niches are characteristic internal features. Multi-room and even multi-story edifices were also established within
the embrace of caves and rock shelters. These structures possessed both all-stone corbelled roofs (see B-107) and roofs with
wooden beams and wattle (see B-110). In addition to dwellings, sanctuaries and temples were sometimes located in larger
17
caverns (see B-108, B-119). These sites have internal structural features such as ceremonial platforms, partition walls, shrines,
and even pictographs (see B-118, B-119).
II. Ceremonial Monuments
This division of monuments includes all types of archaic archaeological sites that had a non-habitational ritual or symbolic
function. Included within this division are various types of pillars, some of which are associated with superficial constructions
of different kinds (most are funerary superstructures). Other pillar complexes boast above-ground tombs and reliquaries. A
variety of smaller shrines and tabernacles are also part of the ceremonial division of Upper Tibetan monuments.
II.1) Stelae and accompanying structures
One of the most captivating types of archaic archaeological site in Upper Tibet consists of stelae, pillars or menhirs either in a
solitary aspect or in groups forming special kinds of arrays. In this work, descriptions of 110 sites featuring pillars are presented.
The Tibetan generic term rdo ring is applied to pillars of all species in Upper Tibet. These standing stones vary greatly in size
(15 cm to 2.4 m in height) number and layout, which is indicative of a fairly broad variety of ritual applications and cultural
contexts. As with the rdo khang residential monument, pillars without inscriptions reached their highest level of development
on the Plateau in Upper Tibet. Pillars exhibiting different morphological characteristics were erected hewn or unhewn, and were
made from a diverse assortment of rocks (including igneous, volcanic, metamorphic, and sedimentary). Pillars, whatever their
function, were planted firmly in the ground by first excavating a hole to accommodate 30% to 50% of the total length of the
stone. Over the centuries, through the agency of gravity and geomorphologic change, it is common for pillars to have collapsed
or to tilt in a downhill direction. Gently and even radically inclined pillars are encountered at many sites. Pillars in the Upper
Tibetan archaic archaeological context appear to have functioned as political monuments for clans and chieftains, cultic sites
for the worship of deities, good fortune enhancement and harm reduction instruments, and as memorials and ritual dispensation
sites marking cemeteries.
II.1a) Isolated pillars
Pillars that stand alone or in groups (two to 20 in number) in isolation from other structures are commonly distributed in the
Byang thang west of 90° 45΄ E. longitude. Lone pillars are also found in a few locations in gu ge and spu rang. The function,
significance and chronology of pillars that stand alone, without the benefit of other structures that can serve as interpretive
benchmarks, are very difficult to assess. It appears that some pillars, grouped in rows, heralded the existence of cemeteries.
Lines of pillars that probably mark grave sites are found in places like rgyab lung rdo ring (C-13) rdo ring rgyab lung (C-23)
and rdza tshogs rdo ring (C-28). There are probably other examples among the pillar sites recorded where physical evidence of
the tombs has been effaced from view. Individual pillars are also known from certain grave sites (see D-72). Solitary pillars,
especially those raised in gu ge, appear to have had a cult function pertaining to the worship of local deities (see C-14, C-169,
etc.). Some of these stelae are still used in the placation of indigenous spirits at annual community rites (such as the lha gsol,
held during sowing and harvesting). Other solitary pillars could have been erected as territorial markers; such is the local oral
tradition surrounding chu ’khor rdo ring (C-25). Finally, it is also plausible that some of what now appear to be isolated groups
of stelae were in fact erected inside quadrate stone enclosures, the signs of which have been obliterated.
II.1b) Pillars erected within quadrate enclosures
Pillars erected within square or rectangular walled enclosures represent one of the most distinctive types of archaic ceremonial
monuments in Upper Tibet. Due to their unique morphological characteristics and territorial specificity, they serve to delineate
the paleocultural domain of the region. Pillars erected within a quadrate enclosure were most often built in open areas such as
plains, large benches or wide slopes endowed with long vistas to the east. They were customarily founded on well-drained level
or very slightly sloping gravelly or sandy terrain, with a ridge or hill serving as a western backdrop. Some sites overlook lakes,
rivers and marshes, while others are found in waterless areas. One or more pillars are invariably set on the west side of a stone
enclosure, in close proximity to the inside edges of the bordering walls. In most cases, the enclosures are generally aligned in
the cardinal directions and less frequently, in the intermediate directions. One to more than a dozen pillars was planted inside
a single enclosure. Pillars vary significantly in shape and size. They can be tabular, four-sided, three-sided, or irregularly-shaped,
and range in height from 20 cm to 2.4 m. Tabular pillars usually have their two broad sides oriented north-south. They have
both flattened and pointed tops. Some pillars were carefully cut into regular shapes, while at most sites raw stones were used
for installation. Pillars erected inside a quadrate enclosure were constructed from a wide variety of locally occurring lithic
materials, and it is not uncommon for more than one type of rock to have been used in construction, creating structural elements
of contrasting colors and textures.
At some locations, one or more walls of the enclosures are raised above the surrounding terrain in order to maintain a level
interior. Rectangular enclosures regularly have longer dimensions east to west. An exception is encountered in certain rectangular
18
enclosures in far western Tibet, which have longer north to south dimensions. This constitutes a regional design variation with
no other significant morphological differences observed. The enclosures vary in size between 3 m x 3 m and 14 m x 22 m. The
walls forming the perimeter of the enclosure normally contain parallel courses of stones, and range between 40 cm and 80 cm
in thickness. Most enclosures are constructed of unhewn upright stone slabs or blocks (10 cm to 80 cm in length), which are
embedded in the ground. These stones are level with the ground surface or are elevated above it to a height of 10 cm to 40 cm.
However, some enclosure walls are composed of two to four vertical layers of blocks and may be as much as 50 cm in height.
It is not uncommon to find both superficial and built-up wall sections in a single enclosure. In some examples of the enclosure,
there is an opening in the middle of the east wall, which appears to have functioned as an aperture of ritual importance.
Most commonly there is just one walled pillar monument per site but at some places there are two, which are spaced 10 m
to 1 km apart. In more recent times, a significant minority of the pillar sites was used in apotropaic and fortune-bestowing rituals
associated with the indigenous pantheon. Pillars erected inside quadrate enclosures are frequently found in proximity to other
funerary structures such as slab wall arrays, burial tumuli and other types of tomb and funerary ritual superstructures. Funerary
structures are discernable at more than one third the total number of walled pillar sites surveyed. It seems likely that most of
these pillar monuments originally accompanied some form of burial, the signs of which are not necessarily visible on the ground
surface. It does not appear, however, that the pillars were raised directly on top of tombs.
Pillars erected within quadrate stone enclosures appear to have functioned as memorials or commemorative monuments for
the deceased, who were buried in outlying tombs. Special rites may have taken place inside the enclosures such as the depositing
of offerings and the lighting of sacrificial fires. Archaeological investigations show that analogous enclosures of the
Scytho-Siberians and Turks were used for such purposes. The erection of pillars may have acted as a symbol of temporal power,
linking the tribal leadership with their ancestral rulers and deities.15 A localized clan or cultic function connected to the levers
of social and political power is suggested by the solid distribution of the monument throughout its territorial scope.16 Dunhuang
and Bon funerary accounts suggest that the erection of pillars occurred in rites designed to lure the souls of the deceased to the
center of ritual operations, so that they could be sent on to the ancestral afterlife. The funerary pillars of the Bon literary tradition
are known as ‘receptacles of the soul’ (bla yi rten).
Pillars erected within enclosures or in isolated rows occur in the north Inner Asian funerary archaeological record as well.
The morphological, functional and geographic aspects of the late Bronze Age and Iron Age pillar monuments of the steppes
indicate that they have significant cultural and ecological affinities to the Upper Tibetan pillars erected in quadrate enclosures.
These interrelationships are examined in Zhang Zhung: Foundations of Civilization in Tibet. Linkages as cognate ideational,
technological and environmental innovations suggest the kind of timeframe in which the Upper Tibetan pillar monuments
originated and developed. Nevertheless, the rdo ring of Upper Tibet represent unique conceptions of design, spatial ordering
and ritual practice, which are indicative of a cultural entity distinct from its northern neighbors. Cross-cultural archeological
comparisons with the Scytho-Siberians encourage the view that the walled pillars sprang up in Upper Tibet as early as the
beginning of the first millennium BCE. Unlike the tumultuous steppes with their great clashes of peoples and the attendant
disintegration of cultures, the pillars of Upper Tibet seem to have survived as a relict cultural form perhaps through the imperial
period. The geographic isolation of Upper Tibet from the epochal human movements of north Inner Asia and what appear to
have been its relatively stable economic and cultural systems, argue in favor of the long-term persistence of the monument.
Pillars erected inside quadrate enclosures are well distributed throughout Upper Tibet, west of 89º 26΄ E. longitude and south
of 33º 30΄ N. latitude, with the exception of Transhimalayan gu ge. The geographic bounds of this pillar subtype correspond to
what we might call the ‘core area’ of Upper Tibetan archaic cultural entity. The absence of these emblematic monumental
features in the far eastern Byang thang (or in any other region of the Tibetan Plateau) indicates that these regions had different
cultural and/or ethnical compositions. As the pillars erected in quadrate enclosures possess definitive design and constructional
features, setting them apart from the archaeological monuments of adjoining regions, they are admirably suited to serve as
territorial markers delineating the heart of the Upper Tibet paleocultural zone. It would appear, based on the monument’s areal
distribution, that this unique Upper Tibetan ecological and cultural domain is tantamount to the prehistoric and early historic
Zhang zhung cultural sphere of the Tibetan textual tradition.17
II.1c) Quadrate arrays of pillars with appended edifices
Vertically set stones erected in rows aligned in the cardinal directions to produce large formations of pillars share the same
geographic scope as the pillars erected inside enclosures. These pillar arrays were also usually constructed on level or slightly
inclined ground with deep vistas to the east. They are found on the edges of plains or on broad esplanades, often bounded in
15
Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 36.
16
Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, 105.
17
I explore this topic at some length in a paper delivered at the tenth International Association of Tibetan Studies conference held in Oxford (John Vincent
Bellezza, “Territorial Characteristics of the Archaic Zhang-zhung Paleocultural Entity: A Comparative Analysis of Archaeological Evidence and Popular Bon
Literary Sources.” Paper prepared for the International Association of Tibetan Studies Conference X, Oxford, 2003).
19
the west by a ridge or mountain slope. In most instances, fields of standing stones appear to have been established in areas
remote from human settlement, for many of the sites are devoid of permanent sources of potable water. In a single complex,
there were between several hundred and 3000 pillars set into the ground in more or less evenly distributed rows. Considerable
attention was devoted to insuring the orientation of the pillars and the integrity of the grid pattern.
The concourses of stelae vary greatly in size, and cover between 30 m² and 4000 m². The stelae range in height from 15 cm
to 1.4 m, with an average protrusion above the ground of around 40 cm. These pillars were made from either natural pieces of
stone or perhaps from rocks that were roughly cut into shape. The smaller specimens tend to be pointed. Many of the larger
stelae are tabular in form and have their broad sides aligned in a north-south direction. They are made from a variety of stones,
depending on the geological makeup of the locale. The rows of standing stones are positioned 40 cm to 1.2 m from each other,
as are the individual stones that make up a row. At some sites, slabs of stone (10 cm to 1.2 m in length) were embedded in the
ground edgewise, often in parallel courses, around the array of standing stones. The same slab walls are sometime used to
subdivide the concourse of pillars into smaller units. These 20-cm to 40-cm thick slab walls are flush with the surface or protrude
above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. There are also numerous instances of double-course slab walls extending 3 m to 30 m
east of the pillar arrays to create an extensive grid of parallel structures, which are also aligned in the cardinal directions.
One to six meters west of an array of pillars is what appears to have been a mortuary temple cum tomb edifice. The lines of
pillars seem to have almost reached the tomb but at many sites proximate rows have been uprooted. Like the pillars themselves,
these masonry structures are usually aligned in the cardinal directions. They vary greatly in size and complexity, ranging between
3 m to 65 m in length. The tallest surviving temple-tombs are 4.3 m (yul kham bu, C-143) and 3.5 m (sha sha dpal khang, C-145)
in height, but originally they may have been substantially taller. Although none of the top-most part of these structures has
endured, they were almost certainly built with flat roofs, probably of an all-stone corbelled composition. In the larger edifices,
the windowless walls are up to 2.5 m in thickness, creating relatively small, hermetically sealed, interior spaces. This clearly
indicates that these structures were not built for habitation. Where significant elevations have survived, it can be discerned that
most were four-sided structures, the larger of which were divided into two to five or more compartments. It appears that these
robustly built internal spaces were burial or reliquary chambers. Taller walls of the temple-tombs slightly taper inwards in the
Tibetan ‘fortress’ style of construction, a design feature not well articulated in other Upper Tibet archaic monument types. Walls
were constructed of coursed-rubble of variable-sized stone blocks and slabs whose exterior faces were hewn smooth. Masonry
courses were laid flat, as well as in a distinctive ‘herringbone’ pattern, whereby two intervening courses were set diagonally
into the wall. To reinforce larger walls, courses of thin bond stones were also employed at strategic levels. The interior walls
appear to have been built of finer masonry than the exterior walls. Small quartz crystals and pieces of red sandstone are found
scattered at some sites; these may have been employed as decorative or ritual elements.
In the local oral tradition, the monolithic arrays and accompanying mausolean tombs are often accorded a funerary function
associated with the ancient mon tribe. Local reports hold that human skeletal remains were discovered at certain sites, indicating
that they did indeed function as necropoli. Other types of tomb superstructures and pillars are quite often found in close proximity
to the pillar complexes, corroborating this view. It would appear that the edifices appended to the pillars functioned as tombs
and as temples where mortuary and perhaps commemorative rites were conducted for the interred. The ritual function of the
fields of standing stones is a mystery. There is some speculation among local residents that each pillar represented a single
individual, as in the constituent members of an ancient army. Some ’brog pa believe that under each pillar are the remains of
an individual. Such an impression emphasizes the corporate or community-based aspects of the monument as important centers
of ritual dispensation and social interaction. The pillars may have ritually functioned to capture the souls of the deceased before
their send-off to the afterlife. This old Tibetan funerary culture motif would seem particularly relevant if the quadrate arrays of
pillars with appended edifices were founded to honor those fallen in battle. According to the Bon archaic funerary texts, those
who die from violent causes (gri bo) require elaborate apotropaic and fortune-bestowing rites to be carried out in order to
commend the soul to the ancestral paradise. Markers (tho), probably represented by stone cairns or pillars in some cases, are
recorded in these funerary texts as being essential in pressing down (gnon pa) potentially harmful chthonic spirits such as the
klu and sri. This kind of rite was carried out by priests known as ’dur gshen and dri bon po.
The effort made to align the edifices and networks of pillars in the cardinal or intermediate directions is in itself highly
significant. I am inclined to see this orientation as reflecting important religious preoccupations pertaining to the celestial sphere.
Solar, lunar and/or sidereal alignments and calendrical parameters may have been incumbent in the spatial bearing of the
structures. According to Bon ritual literature, many of the deities of Zhang zhung were associated with celestial and meteorological
phenomena, and similar religious traditions may also be implicit in the careful alignment of the pillars and edifices.
The relative scarcity of arrays of pillars appended to temple-tombs (the obliteration of specimens notwithstanding) and the
highly elaborate nature of their construction allude to an exclusive social sphere. It seems most likely that these necropoli are
where the elite of society (the regional priestly and/or ruling classes) carried out ritual functions for those of similar rank, and
where they were ultimately inhumed. Such cultural activities are likely to have been conducted with the large-scale cooperation
and participation of local communities. The existence of great complexes scattered across Upper Tibet from 89° 26΄ E. longitude
20
west to the southeastern extent of gu ge (80° 47΄) may also indicate that there were multiple geographic centers of political
power. A dispersed dominion is supported by the legends of the Zhang zhung kings occupying various residences across much
of Upper Tibet.18 Such archaeological and textual evidence buttresses the widely circulating hypothesis that zhang zhung was
a tribal confederacy or decentralized state, where political power was largely in the hands of the constituent regions and/or clan
factions.
The extensive use of pillars in Inner Asia is first attested in south Siberian Okunev burial sites (middle of second millennium
BCE). Standing stones associated with burial sites are also prevalent at pre-Scythian (1200 BCE to 800 BCE) and Scytho-Siberian
sites (800 to 300 BCE) in north Inner Asia. These pillars were erected in close proximity to funerary ritual enclosures, burial
mounds and other types of mortuary structures. At southern Siberian Tashtyk (first to sixth century CE) sites one or even several
rows of pillars with broad sides directed north and south are a common funerary architectural feature. Prolific use of standing
stones is found at early Turkic (sixth to eighth century CE) burial sites of Mongolia, Tuva, the Altai, Kirgizia, Kazakistan and
Xinjiang. These so-called bulbul stones can number up to 157 in a single row and are usually planted on the east side of slab
wall enclosures (used for ritual or cremation purposes at early Turk burial grounds). The bulbul stones are 10 cm to 70 cm in
height and spaced 50 cm to 5 m apart.19 As the pillar arrays of Upper Tibet share general technological, morphological and ritual
traits with those found in the steppes, it suggests that certain religious conceptions pertaining to death diffused between the
regions as part of a pan-cultural heritage (Bellezza 2008). My findings indicate that Bronze Age ethnical commonalities, as well
as the widespread development of nomadic pastoralism and the riding horse in the first millennium BCE, are likely to account
for the fusion of certain abstract cultural elements in the steppes and Upper Tibet.
Clearly, however, the pillar arrays of Upper Tibet represent a unique form of funerary monument that developed and flourished
only in this region. Nowhere else in Inner Asia did such large numbers of orderly arranged stelae arise at a single site. Moreover,
the above-ground massively built mortuary temple-tombs of the Upper Tibetan context represent a remarkable cultural
achievement, reflecting a good deal of indigenous technological and cultural sophistication. Foot bones extracted from a grave
cleaved in two by a seasonal torrent at khang dmar rdza shag (C-160) have yielded a conventional radiocarbon age of 740 BCE
+/- 40 years. This chronometric evidence indicates that such sites were established as funerary complexes by the first third of
the first millennium BCE. The incorporation of the dated tomb between two pillar complexes at khang dmar rdza shag encourages
us to view the stelae and appended temple-tombs as an integral part of the same spectrum of funerary traditions. As for the
demise of this monument type: it seems unlikely that after spu rgyal Tibet’s annexation of Zhang zhung in the seventh century
CE, such large displays of indigenous power and prestige would have been tolerated or even economically feasible. In any
event, with the coming of Buddhist domination at the turn of the second millennium CE, the use of the arrays of pillars and
temple-tombs must have been completely discontinued.
II.1d) Domestic Pillars
In 1998, a pillar was found erected in a still standing all-stone habitation at do dril bu (B-13). This 65-cm high pillar is found
fixed in the small western-most room of this rdo khang, which has much of its roof still intact.20 With the discovery of a second
pillar in the poorly preserved remains of residential structure RS4 at Dindun (D-64) by Mark Aldenderfer in 2001, a new class
of Upper Tibetan pillar was positively documented.21 The analogous ground plan and relative geographic orientation of the RS4
and do dril bu structures indicate that the domestic pillars belong to the same Upper Tibetan cultural horizon. Aldenderfer’s
dating of collateral organic remains at sdings zlum to circa 550 BCE to 100 BCE, point to the erection of pillars inside habitations
as having an Iron Age context. The habitations in which they were discovered are the largest in their respective residential sites,
seemingly reflecting the high social status of the occupants. Isolated pillars may have been raised as part of local cults connected
to the worship of territorial and clan deities.
II.2) Superficial structures
Superficial structures mostly consisting of stone enclosures, many of which appear to be the superstructures of tombs or funerary
ritual venues, are found all over Upper Tibet. In this work 92 such sites are detailed. Without the benefit of excavation, the
analysis of subsurface grave architecture and the study of grave goods, the typological classification proposed here must be
seen as provisional. It is based on a visual appraisal of the morphology, orientation and constructional qualities of the various
kinds of superficial structures, and makes no provision for chronological development or cultural affiliation. Superficial structures
are found in large numbers throughout Upper Tibet, demonstrating that burial was once a dominant form of corpse disposal in
18
Bellezza, “Territorial Characteristics of the Archaic Zhang-zhung”; Bellezza, Zhang Zhung.
19
On a recent fieldtrip to Mongolia, I observed that at Turk mortuary sites between Khoton nuur and Khurgan nuur and at Jol (all located in the Bayan Olgiy
aimak), the bulbul stones in form and orientation are very much like the rdo ring of the Upper Tibetan arrays. Many of the bulbul stones (20 cm to 50 cm in
height) at these sites are tabular in form and have their broad sides oriented to the north and south. These bulbul stones form east-west oriented rows.
20
Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 239-40.
21
Aldenderfer, “A New Class of Standing Stone”.
21
the region. The archaeological evidence shows that the culture of burial spread widely and took a number of distinctive forms
in the region. Very significant chronological, social, economic, and even cultural variability is likely reflected in the diverse
types of tombs found in Upper Tibet. It has not yet been determined which funerary superficial structures overlie tombs and
which were only used in mortuary rites.
Superficial structures are frequently attributed in the oral tradition to the mon in all areas east of the 89th meridian. They are
commonly labeled mon dur (mon tombs), mon pa’i dur khung (tombs of the mon), mon rdo (mon stones), mon ra (mon
enclosures), and mon khang (mon houses). In the eastern byang thang, the mon do not figure as a legendary motif; rather, large
tomb complexes are often fancied to be the remains of monasteries that were destroyed by Mongol groups such as the 18th
century CE jun gar.
II.2a) Single-course quadrate, ovoid and irregularly shaped structures (slab wall and flush-block constructions)
In regions of the Byang thang west of the 89th meridian stone enclosures consisting of a single line of stones embedded in the
ground occur with much frequency. Among these diverse constructions are walls forming perimeters as well as single line stone
walls subdividing enclosures into smaller units. These walls are built from naturally occurring chunks of stone, hewn stone
blocks, cobbles, and slabs of stone set in the ground edgewise. The most eye-catching among the enclosures are those formed
from slabs of stone that project prominently from the surface. A large range of locally available lithic materials were used in
construction. It is not unusual for a single enclosure to have been built with more than one type of rock, such as limestone and
sandstone together. These fencing stones vary from under 10 cm to over 1m in length. The individual stones of the walls are
level with the adjoining terrain or project 10 cm to 60 cm above it. The enclosures vary greatly in shape and include ovoid,
sub-rectangular, rectangular, square and irregular forms. Individual structures are between 2 m and over 25 m in length. The
sheer differences in scale and the resources needed to build these structures may suggest significant socioeconomic variability.
Many of the superstructures are flush with the surrounding ground but others are significantly elevated above it to a height of
1 m or more. There is a continuous elevational progression between the enclosures and burial mounds (bang so). Inside some
enclosures, a small ring or mound of stones seems to mark the actual location of a burial chamber.
II.2b) Double-course quadrate, ovoid and irregularly shaped structures (slab wall and flush-block constructions)
This monument subtype shares the same morphological, constructional and dimensional traits of the single-course walled
enclosures, save that the perimeter walls are made with two stone courses running parallel to one another. The walls thus created
are between 30 cm and 1.2 m in width. As these walls are inherently more substantial and better developed than single lines of
stones, there are many more design variations among them. Most perimeter walls consist of a single layer of prone or upright
stones embedded in the ground. In other examples courses of blocks or slabs were laid flat in successive vertical courses
(consisting of two to five layers of stones). These enclosures can quite closely resemble the footings of residential structures
(see D-115). In other enclosures, three or more rows of blocks or upright slabs were arrayed in lateral rows to form walls (see
D-45). At still other sites, row after row of small stones was stuck in the ground to blanket much of the interior of an enclosure
(see D-107). The largest complexes of enclosures feature neatly built double-course walls constructed with cobbles, which
sometimes stick prominently out of the ground. Extending over a transection of more than 1 km and numbering in the dozens,
these complexes of far western Tibet may be associated with royal burials (see D-41, C-121).
Superstructures with parallel courses of slabs stuck in the ground edgewise constitute one of the most common monumental
forms in Upper Tibet. They occur with many constructional variations and in many different sizes. Likewise, in Mongolia and
Transbaikalia, the slab graves of the Slab Grave culture (circa 16th to 4th century BCE) represent one of the most widely
distributed types of archaeological monuments. While cultural exchanges between the steppes and the Tibetan Plateau are clearly
indicated, the distinctive morphological characteristics of the slab graves of Upper Tibet demonstrate that they belong to a
unique paleocultural tradition. Rather than a singular class of monuments belonging to one group of people, the respective slab
grave builders borrowed upon similar technical knowledge applied to the same purpose in environments largely suited to the
herding of livestock. The bones of caprids, cattle and horses are found in the ritual slab enclosures of the steppes. Likewise,
’brog pa report finding the bones of these zoological genera in the single-course and double-course enclosures of Upper Tibet.
Copper alloy artifacts of the Scytho-Siberian type have been discovered in the slab graves of the steppes. Those steppic grave
goods compare closely with Tibetan copper alloy objects known as thog lcags, the most prominent of which are copper alloy
buttons, round mirrors with attachment loops and trihedral arrowheads.
II.2c) Heaped-stone wall enclosures
Enclosures created by incoherent or non-descript heaps of stones have the same geographic ambit as the single-course and
double-course walled enclosures. It would appear that they were originally comprised of stones piled together to form
sub-rectangular, oval and irregularly-shaped enclosures with open interiors. In some enclosures stones are still heaped to a height
of 1 m or more but most are considerably more leveled. The demarcation between the double-course and heaped-stone wall
22
enclosures is somewhat ambiguous, for these forms of funerary construction have many morphological permutations, which
are difficult to categorize in one subtype or the other. In the largest single heaped-stone wall enclosure of the mon ra yar rked
site, which is known as rdzong chen (Great Fortress) (D-24), excavations carried out to retrieve stones for house and corral
construction have revealed chambers constructed with large slabs of stone.22 Radiocarbon analysis of human bone samples taken
from these chambers have yielded calibrated dates of circa 710 to 790 CE (leg bone fragment), and circa 610-690 CE (tibial
plateau). These measured radiocarbon ages correspond with Tibet’s imperial period (629-846 CE). This demonstrates that the
largest burial monument at mon ra yar rked was used to inter human remains during the period of Tibet’s greatest territorial and
political expansion.
II.2d) Rectangular mounds (bang so)
Burial mounds are found throughout Upper Tibet but do not appear to be as common as in other regions of the Plateau. These
square or rectangular tumuli are elevated on all sides and have inwardly tapering walls. The mounds invariably have flat tops,
but the tops now undulate or are concave through the agency of centuries of erosion. I suspect that these mounds contain stone
chambers used for interment and mortuary rites, as Tibetan literary accounts indicate. Inner stone chambers may be surrounded
by earthen and rubble mantles, which were encased by stabilizing external stone walls crowned with decorative elements. As
in Central Tibet, bang so are likely to have been constructed in the northwestern uplands at least until the collapse of the Tibetan
empire in the mid 9th century CE. The largest bang so are located in ’dam gzhung (see D-99, D-100), a region adjacent to
Central Tibet. The large rectangular mounds (maximum size: 34 m x 32 m x 7 m) of ’dam gzhung have been heavily plundered
and are still in the process of being despoiled for valuables. Large quadrate funerary mounds are also found in the eastern byang
thang (see D-76), western Byang thang (see D-40, D-119, etc.) and at the southeastern margin of gu ge (see C-121).
II.2e) Terraced constructions
The most common funerary monument in the eastern Byang thang (east of the 89th meridian) consists of quadrate funerary
structures built into the sides of slopes. Typically, the downhill or forward side of the structure is elevated 50 cm to 2 m above
the slope while the uphill side of the structure is flush or just slightly elevated above the slope. These types of funerary structures
form rows that are vertically arrayed, giving them the appearance of terraces. They deviate greatly in size and elaboration. The
simplest terraced structures are less than 1 m high on the forward side and have external masonry features limited to a few
desultory stones or simple single-course walls along the rim, and measure just 2 m to 3 m across. Conversely, the largest
specimens measure 12 m x 14 m, and are like bang so in appearance. Large terraced tombs sometimes boast elaborate masonry
work in the manner of bang so. In fact, in the eastern Byang thang, the delineation of the mounds and terraced funerary structures
is not always clear. Some cemeteries have both kinds of structures, indicating that the mound and terraced forms of burial are
closely interrelated. The largest terraced cemeteries have in the neighborhood of 200 tombs each (see D-74, D-75).
There is also a class of terraced structures in ru thog that exhibits different morphological features from its eastern counterpart.
These small terraced structures are tightly arranged in a vertical line along a steep slope to produce a stepped effect (see D-66,
E-16). From the remaining structural evidence, it would appear that these structures had random-rubble masonry forward and
side walls, which were deeply built into the slope. The rear masonry wall, if there is one, is totally engulfed by the slope. The
tops of these terraced structures may have been completely covered in stonework. The funerary nature of the stepped structures
is corroborated by the local oral traditions. The cultural and chronological relationships between the terraced funerary structures
of the eastern and northwestern Byang thang is still unclear.
II.3) Cubic mountaintop tombs
Another characteristic class of archaic monuments in Upper Tibet is cubic stone tombs. In this survey 22 such sites are presented.
The above-ground cubic tombs were erected on the tops of high ridges and mountains to an elevation of 5600 m. The cubic
tombs were almost always sited on summits thickly blanketed in talus. They were also frequently set on the edge of high points
overlooking steep slopes or cliffs with panoramic views of the adjoining countryside. These sites often comprise the highest
ground around for some distance. The cubic tombs were generally built of locally occurring dark-colored sandstone and volcanic
slabs and chunks (up to 1.2 m in length), laid flat in random-texture, dry-mortar courses. The exterior dimensions of the tombs
range between 1.5 m x 1.5 m x 1.2 m and 2.5 m x 3.5 m x 1.8 m. The walls are usually aligned in the cardinal directions, an
important feature of many pillar and enclosure sites as well. The top of the tombs are flat, and virtually all have been opened
and the contents discarded or stolen.
There is a rectangular chamber set in the center of the masonry carapace elevated around 50 cm above ground level. Measuring
in the range of 80 cm x 50 cm to 2 m x 1.1 m, finer sized stones were used to fashion these central chambers. The chambers are
also normally aligned in the compass points. These 70-cm to 1.1-m deep openings appear to have functioned as reliquaries.
22
Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, 88-89.
23
Their association in the oral tradition with the ancient mon and the occasional adventitious usage of the chambers to accommodate
human burial bear this out. It would appear that skeletal elements, the products of fractional or secondary burials, were deposited
in the central chambers. Given their size, extended corpse burials would not have been feasible (unless they were used for
juvenile inhumations) except in the largest central chambers, a small minority of the total. Tibetan historic era reliquary structures
are mud plastered and colorfully painted, and it does not seem likely that the cubic tombs were originally fabricated as raw
unadorned stone chests.
Curiously, the geographic distribution of the cubic tombs is restricted to western Tibet. They occur both north and south of
the Transhimalaya (Gangs dkar ti se) range, between 84° 33΄ and 79° 03΄ E. Longitude. The cultural factors explaining why the
cubic mountaintop tombs are confined to this specific region are still obscure. Other characteristic monuments of Upper Tibet,
such as the all-stone edifices, pillars erected inside quadrate enclosures, and arrays of pillars appended to edifices, enjoy much
wider territorial dispersal
A Bon scriptural account seems to describe a form of burial for ancient priests known as gshen, which may correspond to
the form and lofty aspect of the cubic mountaintop tombs.23 If indeed this textual source is related to the tombs under consideration,
it indicates that they were used to dispose of the mortal remains of high status priests in prehistoric times. Clearly, the siting of
tombs in high, inaccessible locales intimates an exclusive social sphere of usage. This aura of special status is supported by the
relatively small number of such cemeteries thus far documented.
I have presented ethnographic data to suggest that the lofty aspect of the sites was connected to a belief in a celestial afterlife.24
This is also supported by Tibetan funerary texts that describe a celestial afterlife known as dga’ yul (Joyous Country), a paradise
paralleling in ideal terms the mortal way of life.25 It would seem that the mountaintop tombs served as a kind of launch pad for
the deceased on its journey to the hereafter. Some mountaintop sites (see E-11, E-19, E-30) with their terraces, pads, pathways
and walls all constructed from talus, indicates that there was indeed a complex ceremonial component attached to the burials.
Special attention has been paid to identifying and collecting osteological samples from the ruins of the central depositories.
Only a small fraction of the total number of tombs contain skeletal remains and these are all tiny, hard to distinguish fragments.
The samples collected were partially or fully exposed to the elements and subject to infiltration by foreign organic substances.
Samples taken from tombs of the an ’bri rtse (E-11) (fragment of cranium, human?) and ldan byang ri smug po gdong (E-18)
(human cuspid and jaw fragment, other bone matter) cemeteries have yielded dates so recent as to fall outside the range of
radiocarbon calibration. One sample of bone (species undetermined), collected from the central depository of a cubic tomb near
ldan byang ri smug po gdong, has yielded a calibrated radiocarbon date of circa 1000 to 1210 CE. It is not at all clear, however,
if the sample dated represents part of an original interment or a subsequent addition to the tomb. More stringent sampling will
be required in order to determine the age of the cubic tombs.
II.4) Shrines and miscellaneous constructions
At a number of residential sites in Upper Tibet there are the ruins of shrines that can be assigned to the archaic assemblage of
monuments. These structures are found both outdoors and in caves used for habitation. Most of them appear to belong to the
rten mkhar, gsas mkhar, lha rten, or lha gtsug classes of monuments, cubic or stepped tabernacles used to enshrine and propitiate
indigenous deities. While forms of these monuments are still constructed today, according to Bon tradition, their origins can be
traced to prehistoric times. Fairly well-preserved examples sheltered in caves are sometimes covered in a mud veneer and
decorated with red and yellow ochre and lime pigments. The shrines have square or rectangular bases and were built of stone
slabs and blocks. Some specimens may have had elaborate superstructures, as indicated by the depiction of archaic shrines in
the rock art of Upper Tibet, but few traces remain. Archaic shrines can be distinguished from the ruined bases of mchod rten
by the absence of overhanging masonry tiers, coursed-rubble stonework, etc. Also, unlike mchod rten, some archaic shrines
were partly built underground. It is probable that a wide range of ritual functions and chronologies is indicated for this
heterogeneous class of ceremonial monuments.
Only two sites surveyed to date are composed exclusively of shrines. dpa’ ngar gzhung khang gog (F-1) consists of six large
cubic structures, situated on the edge of an extensive pastureland.26 It is possible that the limestone structures of dpa’ ngar
gzhung khang gog represent an unknown type of above-ground tomb, as their construction is locally attributed to the ancient
mon. The celebrated monument known as gu ru ’bum pa (F-2), located in spu rang, is maintained to the present day (it was
partly destroyed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution). It consists of two large unmortared stepped structures chiefly built of
cobbles tinted red with ochre. According to the local myth, the 8th century CE Vajrayāna hero gu ru rin po che magically built
23
Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, 98. After Helmut Hoffmann, The Religions of Tibet, (New York: MacMillian, 1961).
24
Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 34; Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, 98-99.
25
Bellezza, Zhang zhung.
26
Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet.
24
these twin shrines in the amount of time it took for his disciple to prepare a pot of rice. Stepped shrines of the same form are a
significant motif in Upper Tibetan petroglyphs and pictographs, all of which appear to predate the 13th century CE.27
III. Agricultural Structures
In the vicinity of some residential sites there are the remains of agricultural terracing and irrigation channels. Walls bounding
long abandoned arable parcels (zhing sa) are common in western Tibet (including sites A-13, A-42, A-60, A-62, A-87, A-89,
A-101, A-106, A-125, A-126, B-50, B-79, B-81, etc.). These former agricultural enclaves are commonly attributed to the ancient
mon, who are supposed to have cultivated large areas of what is now only pasturage. At many erstwhile agrarian sites in western
Tibet, all perennial sources of water have dried up. Defunct agricultural holdings are also evident on the shores of dang ra g.yu
mtsho, in the central Byang thang (including sites B-4, B-6, B-55, B-57, B-58, B-59, etc.). Some of these Lake dang ra sites are
attributed, in the local oral tradition, to the prehistoric Zhang zhung kingdom. The lu sngon site (G-3) is especially noteworthy
because the water it carried from deep inside the lu sngon valley flowed to dang ra khyung rdzong (A-5) a fabled capital of
Zhang zhung.
In the face of appreciable geographical evidence, the legends circulating in Upper Tibet (west of the 87th meridian) that tell
of much more widely practiced agriculture in ancient times are undoubtedly based on an authentic collective memory. ru thog,
gu ge and sgar in particular were very much more heavily farmed in the past. These former arable lands are frequently encountered
in proximity to ruined villages and citadels, many of which now lie totally deserted. One implication of larger locally produced
grain reserves is that they may have been used to sustain larger populations. The oral traditions of ru thog claim so much, stating
that this district in ancient times supported upwards of 100,000 people, ten times the current population.28 While such legends
are hyperbolic, they do seem to preserve an authentic memory of a more developed past in parts of Upper Tibet.
IV. Earthworks
This division of monuments is geographically confined to the south side of the gnyan chen thang lha massif, in the snying drung
and ’dam gzhung localities. Four sites consisting of broad earthen walls, 2 m to 3 m in height and of similar width, have been
surveyed. These walls form quadrate structures up to 250 m in length. Within these walls there is highly disturbed ground
covered in pits and small mounds. Earthen platforms are found near some of the walled structures. There is great scope for
further exploration of these enigmatic structures.
I. Residential Monuments
I.1. Residential Structures Occupying Summits: Fortresses, breastworks, religious buildings, palaces,
and related edifices
In this residential type are all habitational structures located on the summits and prominences of mountains, ridges, hills, and
high rock formations. By the very nature of these geographic locations, such monuments have an inherent defensive aspect to
a lesser or greater extent. Among this residential type are edifices that functioned as fortresses and citadels (habitations designed
and built for military purposes), temples and hermitages (buildings with a religious or ceremonial function), palaces (social elite
residential buildings), and breastworks (networks of ramparts or other types of defensive structures that were temporarily or
permanently inhabited). It must be noted that from a visual appraisal alone the specific occupational functions of individual
edifices or components thereof can only be inferred. In any event, these strongholds, temples, palaces, and hermitages appear
to have been where the ruling and priestly classes exercised their social influence and political control over the agriculturalist
and pastoralist sectors of society.
Gnam rdzong
Basic site data
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Site name: Gnam rdzong
English equivalent: Sky Fortress
Alternative site name: Bsam rdzong brag dkar
English equivalent: Meditation Fortress White Rock Formation
Alternative site name 2: Bsam rdzong brag mkhar
English equivalent: Meditation Fortress Rock Formation Castle
27
Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet; Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet; Bellezza, Zhang zhung.
28
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•
25
Site number: A-48
Typology: I.1c
Geographic coordinate (N. lat.): 30° 08.0΄29
Geographic coordinate (E. long.): 83° 30.2΄
Elevation: 5000 m to 5070 m
Administrative location (township): Bar yangs
Administrative location (county): ’Brong pa
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: April 13, 2001
Contemporary usage: None.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS XI, HAS C5
General site characteristics
Sky Fortress is located just east of Dragon’s Nest (’brug mo’i tshang), the relatively low-lying pass (4710 m) connecting Bar
yangs with Rta ra monastery. The site is named lha mo 'brug mo, the wife of the epic hero Gling ge sar. The ancient fortifications
are situated on subsidiary summits of the west half of the approximately 5300-m high Sky Fortress formation. The installation
enjoys good views to the west and north and, in some places, to the southwest as well. Its defensive capability was certainly
focused in these directions as Sky Fortress affords no protection from or advance notice of attack from the east. Sky Fortress
consists of a broad network of dry-mortar random-work defensive walls lacing the upper flanks of an eponymous limestone
mount. The ramparts appear to have been less than 2 m in height, and were constructed from uncut pieces of limestone up to
1.2 m in length. The northern and western orientation of the site supports the oral tradition that military incursions took place
from these directions. The ramparts, staggered at various levels across Sky Fortress, must have provided the defenders with
significant vertical and lateral mobility, allowing the rock formation to function as an integrated defensive feature. In recent
years ma ṇi mantras have been carved into the limestone walls of the formation, reflecting the sacred nature of the locale.
Oral tradition
According to local legend, the Tibetan epic hero Gling ge sar came to the Sky Fortress region to battle the king of Stag gzig,
King of Wealth (nor gyi rgyal po). King of Wealth is said to have had his stronghold in the Tiger Gorge (stag rong) and Gzig
rong valleys to the northwest. This king was very powerful like a tiger and very wealthy because the klu (water spirits) were
his patrons. The defeat of King of Wealth came when his army was routed in a surprise attack from Sky Fortress. Ge sar is said
to have been so powerful that from Sky Fortress he could hit an enemy position with his bow and arrow, some 30 km to the
north, a place which came to be known as ’ben dkar rde’u (White Target Hill).
Site elements
East complex
This highest group of ruins consists of a retrenchment built on a narrow, flat summit. It measures 25 m in length and up to 1.3
m in height.30 In close proximity there remain small segments of other walls. Also in the vicinity there is a small natural tunnel
called Wolf's Lair (spyang tshang) and a natural archway, which are said to cure goats and sheep of diseases when they pass
through these hidden features in the formation.
Central east complex
The central east complex is located farther west at a slightly lower elevation. This comprises the vestiges of an approximately
50 m long wall set in a narrow ravine, which is squeezed between two steep limestone slopes. As this site has no open vistas,
the relatively secret and sheltered location may have been used to garrison troops or store supplies. The area between the
manmade wall and formation is only around 2 m wide. Potentially, this space could have been covered with tarpaulins to produce
temporary shelters.
29
The GPS coordinates given in this work (in 1/10, 1/100 and 1/000 of a minute (΄) of latitude and longitude) are raw figures that have not been calibrated
through the application of base station measurements. Therefore, the actual GPS coordinates will deviate somewhat from those given.
30
Unless otherwise noted dimensions provided throughout this work are for the maximum visual extent of the structure under appraisal. The dimensions of
some structures can only be approximately determined because they do not readily lend themselves to measurement. In some cases, structures are partially
obscured by soil or rubble, or sections are missing, rendering measurement difficult. Uncertainties may also arise in reference to the interface between manmade
structures and the natural terrain. This has the effect of creating more or less arbitrary baseline measurements.
26
Central west complex
The central west complex is located farther west at lower elevation. This group of ruins straddles the top of a saddle with
sweeping views to the north and west. The dispersion measures 80 m (north-south) x 30 m (east-west). There are also minor
structural remains atop the formation west of the saddle. On the east side of the saddle a wall seems to have spanned the 11-m
wide base of a natural archway. This wall has been reduced to 7 m in length, and is a maximum of 1.5 m in height and 1.2 m
in width. There are smaller structural traces found underneath and on top of the arch. Also on the saddle are four small limestone
outcrops, with a total of at least six ruined structures each around 9 m² in area and 1.5 m or less in height. Called Ge sar’s incense
brazier (bsang khang), these structures must have functioned as surveillance posts or donjons. There may have been a rampart
wall along the north rim of the central west complex saddle but not enough remains to make a determination. Just below the
south side of the saddle there is a defensive wall (30 m long, up to 1.5 m in height) enclosing the flanks of the formation.
West complex
The west complex is located directly below the steep south face of the central west complex. The most prominent ruin is known
as Ge sar’s house (khang pa), a residential structure measuring 8 m (east-west) x 6 m (north-south). Walls up to 3 m in height
have survived. These walls have a random-rubble, dry-mortar fabric, in the same fashion as the ramparts. In the vicinity of Ge
sar’s house there are the vestiges of a lengthy rampart (100 m long) and other smaller structural remains. At approximately 20
m lower down there are walls 19 m and 21 m in length, enclosing a level area on the side of the formation. These walls are up
to 1.6 m in height. A little to the west and at a slightly higher elevation there is another defensive wall (18 m long) that also
appears to have once enclosed a shelf, which is now obscured by rock fall deposits.
Rdzong pi phi
Basic site data
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Site name: Rdzong pi phi
Site number: A-49
Site typology: I.1a
Geographic coordinate (N. lat.): 30° 06.8΄
Elevation: 4800 m (lower site), 4840 m (upper site)
Contemporary usage: Almost none at the upper site. The lower site has been used for many years as a pastoral shelter.
It is only inhabited very infrequently.
The upper site of Rdzong pi phi is dominated by a single five-sided building planted on top of a pyramidal limestone formation,
which rises 150 m above the south margin of the Tshwa chu basin. This site has commanding views of this large basin and the
Transhimalaya to the north. In the proximity are two small caves that were modified for human habitation. The lower site consists
of a cave with a three-story masonry façade. Significant early inscriptions in red ochre are found here.
Oral tradition
Local sources believe that the upper site of rdzong pi phi was built and inhabited by a srin mo demoness, which was subdued
by the Vajrayāna hero, Gu ru rin po che (eighth century) . The site is considered Bka' gnyan po (potentially hazardous).
Site elements
Upper site
Summit edifice
The edifice of Rdzong pi phi has a modified square plan. The existence of a stone-roof in one section of the building and its
general design and constructional characteristics indicate that it was an all-stone corbelled structure. The four main walls of
rdzong pi phi are quite closely aligned in the cardinal directions and each measure 4.5 m in length. A fifth or southwest wall
27
facet is 2.2 m in length. The random-rubble block-work walls (50 cm to 60 cm thick) appear to have been lightly mortared.
Variable-sized slabs were used to build the walls, a common archaic style of construction. The walls rise up to a height of 3 m
to 4 m on the exterior side and 2 m to 2.5 m internally. The entranceway was in the south. There are windows in the north wall
(20 cm x 30 cm) and east wall (30 cm x 35 cm). A southwest room has survived largely intact while other internal partitions
have been nearly effaced. The southwest room (outer dimensions: 2 m x 2.5 m) is set 50 cm below the rest of the floor level.
An opening in the lower portion of its outer wall may indicate that it functioned as a lavatory. The roof of the southwest room
is entirely intact: two bridging stones (each more than 1.5 m long) support the stone-slab roof sheathing.
Caves
Approximately 200 m south of the summit edifice, on a limestone shoulder, there is a very small cave with the remains of a
façade (3 m long, 1 m high) built around it. Just below this façade there is a retaining wall built into the rock face. Approximately
200 m southwest of the summit edifice there is a cave (3.5 m deep) with the remnants of a stone façade (3 m long). In the rear
of this cave there are niches and a stone bench that could have had either utilitarian or ritual functions. The cave is now used to
store the belongings of a local ’brog pa family such as winter coats. Long ago a hole was bored into the roof of this cave,
ostensibly as a smoke vent. In front of the façade there are the remains of walls (4 m x 3.5 m) that seem to have once been part
of an anteroom.
Lower site
Cave house
The lower site of Rdzong pi phi is situated below the stronghold, on the east side of the formation. It is dominated by a narrow
cave (6.5 m deep), which has a three-story stonewall built around its mouth. This structure was made of variable-sized stone
slabs laid in random-work courses, which appear to have been lightly mortared. The lowest tier of the outer wall incorporates
a stairway that is now almost completely destroyed. At the base of the stairway there is a landing. The middle level of the façade
contains the entranceway, which is 1.7 m in height and 60 cm wide on its exterior side. There are several steps set inside the
entranceway (1 m long), which access a much smaller inner portal. The 1-m long lintel over the entranceway is the largest stone
used in the construction of the façade. The upper level of the façade encloses much of the cave and supports a small window.
The middle and upper levels of the façade form a single masonry expanse 5.4 m in height and nearly 3 m in width.
Near the entranceway of the cave, oṃ a hum and a counterclockwise swastika were inscribed in red ochre in a vertical row.
Nearby there is another red ochre counterclockwise swastika. In the formation above the façade there is a red ochre clockwise
swastika, and a dbu can inscription that seems to read: jan gso nam pa 'chi. This inscription appears to convey the Buddhist
depreciation of the site. In the rear of the cave there is a panel consisting of a red ochre sun and moon, a tree-like depiction, two
rudimentary specimens of the letter a, and several heavily obscured compositions, all of which form a horizontal array. Like
the letters and swastikas near the entrance, this panel was almost certainly painted by the Bonpo. The motifs on the panel, on
the basis of style and paleography, however, seem significantly older than the pictographs near the entrance. The existence of
these letters and symbols establishes the Bon occupation of Rdzong pi phi, a period of tenure that must be related to the local
tale of the srin mo.
Other structures
Just south of the cave there is a wall (4 m long, up to 1.5 m high) that bounds a level area in the formation 2.5 m deep. This
appears to have been the base of another building but not enough remains to be certain. A little higher up is a shallow
southeast-facing cave with the vestiges of a façade and an inferior retaining wall.
Stag gzig nor rdzong
Basic site data
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Site name: Stag gzig nor rdzong
English equivalent: Tiger Leopard Fortress
Site number: A-50
Site typology: I.1c
Elevation: 4870 m to 4890 m.
Administrative location (township): Khyed lag
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Tiger Leopard Jewel Fortress is located at the confluence of the Rong rgyud and smaller Fortress Valley (rdzong lung) valleys,
neither of which has any contemporary permanent settlement. The ancient stronghold consists of two light-colored limestone
formations that stand side by side. Their upper flanks are crisscrossed by defensive walls. From the higher west summit, which
rises 70 m above the confluence, there are excellent views of the Rong rgyud river valley. The serpentine defensive walls were
established at various elevations along the precipitous south side of the twin limestone formations. The extensive random-work,
probably dry-mortar defensive walls are built of slabs of stone up to 1 m in length. The level areas created behind the ramparts
must have functioned as temporary living and working quarters, as well as for defense. By circumscribing the limestone mounts
with walls, the defenders were able to move around in relative ease and could direct their salvos accordingly. Like Sky Fortress
(A-48), the walls of Tiger Leopard Jewel Fortress are highly eroded and there can be little doubt regarding their antiquity. There
are also a number of minor archaeological sites in the Fortress Valley valley.
Oral tradition
Local ’brog pa believe that Stag gzig nor rdzong is one of the fortresses of Tiger Leopard King of Wealth (stag gzig nor gyi
rgyal po), an invader who is supposed to have come from the northwest (Indo-Iranic borderlands or Central Asia). He is thought
to have conquered major portions of western Tibet in early times. According to the Ge sar epic, stag gzig nor gyi rgyal po was
one of the main adversaries of King Gling ge sar.
Site elements
West formation
Ramparts enclose both the south and east sides (sides overlooking the confluence) of the west formation. Its summit measures
24 m (east-west) x 7 m (north-south) and is ringed by a now discontinuous parapet (up to 1.5 m high). Along the near vertical
southwest side of the summit, a defensive wall was probably not required. Within these walls there is what appears to be the
foundation of a small building (4.6 m x 3.8 m); its wall footings are 75 cm thick and up to 1.2 m in height. What may be another
building foundation (5.4 m x 4 m) is located just below the west side of the summit, and was built against a rock face. Only
walls 50 cm or less in height have persisted among these footings. Approximately 20 m below the summit, a defensive wall (60
m long) encircles the entire south flank of the formation. Small segments, however, are missing. This rampart is a maximum
of 1.5 m high on its down-slope side and usually flush with the uphill side of the formation. It is up to 1.5 m wide and appears
to have also functioned as a pathway that could easily be walked or camped on. The east and west ends of this long rampart
terminate at unassailable cliffs.
On the north side of the west formation there is a wall segment (6 m long, 2 m high), which may possibly have been the
foundation of another small building. There are also wall fragments, the remnants of outworks at the base of the formation. A
minor wall segment is found near the east base of west formation, overlooking the east formation. There are also three wall
sections near the south base of the west formation, 5 m, 8 m and 6 m in length. There appears to have been yet another defensive
wall segment hugging the south slope of the west formation, but it is almost completely destroyed.
East formation
There are the remains of a curtain-wall linking the east and west formations (63 m long). Much of this wall is now leveled, but
certain sections along its north side reach 1 m in height. The south side of this structure is flush with the ground level. There is
some structural evidence (courses of masonry protruding above the ground) to indicate that there was a parallel wall situated
2.5 m to the south. The east formation has a single defensive wall on its south side, 90 m in length. Much of this 1.5-m high,
1.5-m thick structure is still intact. Small traces of the rampart continue around to the west side of the hill.
rDzong lung archaeological sites
In Fortress Valley (Rdzong lung) there are a number of minor ceremonial structures, which like the rampart network, must have
been part of the erstwhile permanent settlement of the locale. There is ample water and plenty of gra ma brush here. On the
south side of the mouth of the Fortress Valley valley, opposite Tiger Leopard Jewel Fortress, there are the remains of a
double-course slab wall engulfed by gra ma brush. The visible wall segment is 6 m in length and 50 cm in width, with the
upright slabs protruding a maximum of 30 cm above the ground. The morphological characteristics of this monument feature
indicate that it is probably part of a funerary superstructure. There is also what appears to be a building foundation in the mouth
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of the Fortress Valley valley. A little way up the Fortress Valley valley, on a bench along the right side of the watercourse, there
are the ruins of two tabernacle (rten mkhar)-like shrines (4830 m). The base of one specimen is largely intact (1.9 m x 3.4 m)
while the other one has been nearly leveled (approximately 6.4 m x 3.2 m). Small pieces of stone plaques inscribed with ma ṇi
mantras are found near the ruined shrines. Several kilometers upstream the Fortress Valley valley bifurcates. In the middle of
a pastoral camp, near this confluence, there are the remains of another shrine, probably of the tabernacle type (4910 m).
Approximately 200 m downstream there is a mon enclosures (mon ra), a heaped-stone wall enclosure (10 m across), built with
stones up to 90 cm in length. This structure appears to be funerary in character.
Dbang phyug mgon po mkhar
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Site name: Dbang phyug mgon po mkhar
English equivalent: Mighty Protector Castle
Site number: A-51
Site typology: I.1a, I.1b
Administrative location (township): Hor pa
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist emblems: A ma ṇi wall and mchod rten (mchod rten).
Castle of Dbang phyug mgon po is perched on the top and southern flank of a hill that rises out of the basin of Owl Valley (’ug
pa lung). The hill is not impregnable, in that access along its western and southern approaches is relatively easy. The strength
of the geographic setting comes from the fact that it is highly isolated (it is far removed from other archaic residential sites as
well as modern centers of settlement). There are the ruins of some 60 formidably constructed buildings at dbang phyug mgon
po mkhar. Many of these structures were two or even three stories in height. Covering an area of nearly 6000 m² (118 m x 49
m), Castle of dbang phyug mgon po is one of the largest citadels surveyed to date. Most structures were built of random-work
masonry, using a light-colored mud-based mortar adhesive. Roofs were mainly constructed with stone corbels fitted into
socket-holes upon which timbers must have rested. In some instances, a band supported by corbels was constructed to act as a
load-bearing structure for the timbers of the roof. A single ma ṇi wall and mchod rten are found north of the castle complex.
These Buddhist structures appear to have been constructed at a much later date.
Oral tradition
According to local sources, dbang phyug mgon po was the powerful bdud demon ruler of the region. He came under attack by
a Tibetan Buddhist army who laid siege to his castle. For a few months the castle withstood the assault, but its water supply
was finally extinguished. Not wanting to let this vital fact to be known to the Tibetans, Dbang phyug mgon po ordered that his
troops smear butter on their hair to simulate that they had just bathed. This ruse had the intended effect and the Tibetan king
believed that the castle still possessed ample water reserves. Not willing to wait much longer, the Tibetan king wanted to storm
the castle but his army had used up their salt supply. Consequently, retreat was imminent. That night, the great Vajrayāna adept
Gu ru rin po che (eighth century) manifested in the dream of the Tibetan king as two yellow ducks and led him to a nearby salt
mine. The next morning, using the geographic cues provided in his dream, a minister of the Tibetan king was able to find the
salt mine. The attack of the castle could now go ahead and it proved successful, leading to the defeat of the bdud king.
Site elements
Fortress
The legend claiming that Castle of Dbang phyug mgon po belonged to the bdud (a class of indigenous demon/deity) suggests
that it was part of the archaic cultural infrastructure of the region. This oral tradition may chronicle a localized incident in the
fall of Zhang zhung and its annexation by the spu rgyal state of Central Tibet. According to Slob dpon bstan 'dzin rnam dag,
the foremost Bon scholar, it seems likely that the Castle of Dbang phyug mgon po citadel is actually that of Gad gi byi ba mkhar,
30
one of the premier prehistoric Zhang zhung centers according to the Bon textual tradition.31 The castle possesses archaic
architectural features such as corbelled stone roofs, small windowless rooms (3.5 m² to 12 m²) and low entranceways (1.1 m to
1.4 m in height). Its great elevation is another indication of considerable antiquity, as no major facilities in Upper Tibet were
built at 5000 m in the historic epoch. Another indication pointing to an archaic cultural origin is the lack of Buddhist monuments
contemporaneous with Castle of Dbang phyug mgon po.
The main collection of buildings at Castle of dbang phyug mgon po is found on a limestone outcrop. Other structures are
scattered below on the south flank of the hill. The citadel seems to have been built with locally quarried limestone cut into flat
blocks 40 cm to 1 m in length. The upper walls of a few buildings were constructed of rammed-earth. Wall elevations of 2 m
to 4 m are common throughout the site, and the tallest extant fragments reach 8 m. The highest rammed-earth segment is 5 m.
Wall thickness ranges between 50 cm and 80 cm. Buildings that may have had relatively large halls are located in the upper
northwest corner of the site. All entranceways appear to have been built with stone lintels, many of which are still in situ. These
doorways are only 50 cm to 70 cm in width. At the junction of the ground and first floors of buildings square socket-holes are
in evidence, some of which still have stone corbels inserted in them. These structural elements were employed to support the
flooring of the first story. The roofs must have been built in a similar fashion, using sockets and corbelling. The corbels are not
massive (around 5 cm thick) and project a maximum of 50 cm from the walls. Given these dimensions and the wall spans
involved, the floors and roofs could only have been made of timbers and not with heavy stone members. No pieces of wood,
however, were recovered from the site.
In the lower west sector of the complex there is a passageway (interior dimensions: 2.7 m x 50 cm) with an all-stone corbelled
roof, built under a larger room. Another similarly constructed passageway lies adjacent to it, but it is filled with rubble and only
a few corbels remain in place. In the lower central sector there is also an alcove (interior dimensions: 80 cm x 1.3 m) with an
all-stone roof, which is part of the lower level of a building. On the west side of the hill, below the main group of ruins, there
are three narrow semi-subterranean rooms that also appear to have had all-stone roofs.
Ma pang spos mo mkhar
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Site name: Ma pang spos mo mkhar
Alternative site name: Mkhar chen
English equivalent: Great Castle
Site number: A-52
Site typology: I.1
Elevation: 4730 m
Administrative location (township): Hor chus
Administrative location (county): Spu rang
Identifiable Buddhist Constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS X, HAS C4
Ma pang spo mo mkhar is situated on the summit of a white limestone outcrop rising 50 m above the left bank of the Rock
Formation River (brag gtsang po) river. The steep flanks of the formation endow the site with a good defensive aspect. The
stronghold is due east and directly in view of the important Bon holy mountain Spos ri ngad ldan. The Ma pang spo mo mkhar
citadel is divided by a saddle into north and south summits. The highly deteriorated remains consist of cobble (primarily 15 cm
to 50 cm in length) rubble and fragmentary wall-footings. Some small sections of the revetment along the rim of the hill have
also survived. There are no free-standing walls left at the site.
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Bellezza, Zhang zhung.
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Oral tradition
Great Castle is said by local elders to be a castle of prehistoric Zhang zhung, some of which refer to it as Ma pang spos mo
mkhar, a name recorded in the famous Bon pilgrimage register Ti se ’I dkar chag by Dkar ru grub dbang (b. 1801). Other local
elders report that it is an ancient Sing pa (generic term for invaders coming from the west) facility.
Textual tradition
A recently authored supplement to the Ti se ’I dkar chag furnishes Bon lore about the Spos ri ngad ldan locale. Much of the
legendary material in this account was compiled by the late Bon physician Bstan 'dzin dbang grags (1922–2006). In this work
it would appear that Ma pang spos mo mkhar is equated with a site called White Formation Summit Fortress (brag dkar rtse
rdzong), “On the east side of Spos ri ngad ldan, at White Formation Summit Fortress, the great religious community ('dus sde)
of g.yung drung lha rtse had one thousand arhats (dgra bcom). It was established by the Zhang zhung abbot G.yung drung tshul
khrims.” Given its relative position and description as a white rock formation, it seems likely that White Formation Summit
Fortress is indeed represented by the ruins under consideration. The literary account continues by stressing the paramount
importance of Spos ri ngad ldan to Zhang zhung history and the Bon religion:
On the west side of Spos ri ngad ldan, on the slopes of the mountain Dpal phu, the monastery of G.yung drung mchog steng had
1600 religious practitioners (gnas brtan). It was established by the Zhang zhung abbot Khri 'bar gtsug phud. Also, on the south side
[of Spos ri ngad ldan], at the mountain of Hrom po dpal, the great religious community of Ṣuperimposed ṣwastika (g.yung drung
brtsegs pa) (Superimposed Swastika) had more than one thousand monks (dge 'dun). It was founded by Gtsug phud tshul khrims.
There is much other history [at Spos ri ngad ldan]. Presently, it is evident that the [Bon] doctrine was transferred to other [places].
Around the vicinity of zhang zhung Spos ri gnad ldan the ruins of old monasteries and fortresses are everywhere visible. Later,
some of them were turned into the places of other religions and each of them has its own history.32
Site elements
South summit
The south summit dispersion measures 65 m x 10 m to 15 m. It is blanketed in igneous and other types of cobble rubble, which
disgorge from both sides of the steep summit. It would appear that a dense collection of buildings once occupied the site.
However, as only partial wall-footings remain, little can be said about the layout and design characteristics of these structures.
On the north and west side of the hilltop, small sections of 1-m high revetments survive. The highest portion of Ma pang spos
mo mkhar is the north end of the south summit.
North summit
This dispersion measures 37 m x 6 m (north end) x 13 m (south end). Like its southern counterpart this sector is covered in
rubble, which suggests that a thick cluster of buildings once stood here. The only structural feature that has endured is remnants
of wall-footings. A saddle 25 m in width connects the two summits of Ma pang spos mo mkhar. The traces of a curtain-wall
running between the two summits are found on the west side of this saddle.
Rgya nyi ma mkhar
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Site name: Rgya nyi ma mkhar
English equivalent: Big Sun Castle (?)
Site number: A-53
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 4670 m
Administrative location (township): Khyung lung
Administrative location (county): Rtsa mda'
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Bstan 'dzin dbang grags, “Gangs mtsho’i nye ’khor gyi dgon pa khag,” Zhang zhung rig gnas: 53: Spos ri ngad ldan gyi nub phyogs Dpal phu’i ri ldebs
su G.yung drung mchog steng gi dgon pa religious practitioners stong dang drug brgya ldan pa Zhang zhung mkhan po Khri 'bar gtsug phud kyis btsugs / yang
de’i lho phyogs Hrom po dpal gyi ri la Ṣuperimposed ṣwastika ’i 'dus sde chen po dge 'dun stong phrag lhag ldan Gtsug phud tshul khrims kyis bzhengs
pa sogs lo rgyus mang yang nye dus bstan pa gzhan la ’phos pa ltar snang rung Zhang zhung Spos ri ngad ldan gyi nye ’khor rnams su dgon shul lam mkhar
shul rnying pa gang sar mjal rgyu yod pa dang / kha shas phyi su grub mtha’ gzhan gyi gnas su ’gyur ba Dang ra ng rang gyi lo rgyus dang bcas pa gsham
gsal /.
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Maps: UTRS V, UTRS X, HAS C3
The castle of Big Sun Castle is located on a flat summit, which rises approximately 150 m out of the expansive Rgya nyi ma
basin. The site enjoys views in all directions and a panoramic sweep of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. A dry-mortar random-rubble
parapet was constructed around the entire rim of the summit, which measures 160 m (east-west) x 32 m (north-south). A number
of ruined buildings are located within this wall, the most prominent of which is an earthen and stone structure on the east end
of the summit. Both adobe block and rammed-earth were used in the construction of Big Sun Castle. At this juncture, none of
the rammed-earth wall structures found at Gu ge sites such as Rgya nyi ma can be confidently attributed to the archaic cultural
horizon. It is also worth noting that rammed-earth constructions are very seldom encountered at Byang thang residential centers
attributed by local sources to the prehistoric epoch. It seems likely that at least some of the remains at Big Sun Castle represent
a Lamaist era facility.
Oral tradition
Some local residents claim that the fortress of rgya nyi ma mkhar was built before Horned Eagle Valley Silver Castle (khyung
lung dngul mkhar), the fabled capital of prehistoric Zhang zhung, but it was never inhabited. As little wealth had been allocated
for its construction by the holder of the bird-horns (bya ru can) Zhang zhung king, the fortress was small and poorly built. When
it was completed the king was pleased, however, and offered the head builder a large sum of gold. People encouraged the king
not to inhabit Big Sun Castle, as it was of substandard construction. It was believed that its geographic aspect is inauspicious
because to the east there is a mountain in the form of a wailing man, to the north there is a wild yak butting in the direction of
the fortress mountain, to the south a howling wolf mountain, and to the west the blackened lid of an upset cauldron (slang nga)
mountain. Residents of Khyung lung township also tell a similar tale set in the historic epoch. It is also said that Big Sun Castle
had a military rivalry with the castle of Mistress Mountain Castle (jo mo ri rang mkhar) (A-54), located 10 km to the north.
Site elements
Castle
Much of the random-rubble, dry-mortar parapet built around the summit has been leveled, nevertheless, there are sections
reaching 1.5 m in height and 1.4 m in thickness. On the east end of the summit there are the remains of a heavily built edifice
(7.5 m x 7.5 m). It was constructed of white stones, red adobe blocks with a high stone matrix and rammed-earth, representing
all three major wall types found in the Gu ge region. The east wall of rammed-earth still attains 3.2 m in height. On the highest
part of the summit, 8 m away, there is a stone building foundation that measures 18. 6 m (east-west) x 12 m (north-south). At
a distance of 16 m from this foundation there is an adobe block structure (8 m x 9 m), which is nearly leveled.
Much of the central portion of the summit is devoid of structures. On the western extremity of the summit there are the ruins
of a building (7 m x 9.5 m) built on a 1 m-tall stone revetment, upon which rammed-earth walls stand a maximum of 1.7 m in
height. Above the rammed-earth walls there are courses of adobe blocks totaling up to 70 cm in height. These adobe blocks are
80 cm in length. The original height of this building must have been in excess of 4 m. There is a circumvallating terrace
approximately 10 m in width situated 5 m to 7 m below the summit. This manmade feature was probably built with a defensive
function in mind. An encircling defensive walkway is also found at the Rock Formation Cave (brag phug) citadel (A-35), in
Ru thog.33
Affiliated sites
g.Ya’ ma mChod rṭen
Another locally well-known archaeological site in the region is G.ya' ma mchod rten (Slate Stupas) (30º 39.8΄ N. lat. / 80º 35.0΄
E. long. / 4950 m to approximately 5100 m elevation). This extraordinary site is in direct view of sacred Mount Ti se, located
90 km to the northeast. G.ya' ma mchod rten is situated on the border of Spu rang and Rtsa mda' counties, at the northern foot
of the Himalayan passes of Sha'u la and Ko sde la (sp.?), in the Chu dkar gtsang po headwaters. G.ya' ma mchod rten consists
of more than 200 red sandstone mchod rten, which local sources say were built by the Rong pa traders of Darchula (members
of the so-called Bhotia tribes) over a period of several centuries. These shrines are 1 m to 3.5 m in height, each of which consists
of three to five tiers (pang rim). They were constructed in a rudimentary manner; no attempt was made to sheath or paint the
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stones. The mchod rten are scattered on a steep mountainside and on a ridgeline below. The mchod rten found on the ridgeline
were grouped together by low-lying interconnecting walls. On some of the monuments rest plaques inscribed with the ma ṇi
mantra. It is reported that the mchod rten were erected by those who lost a family member in the preceding year. It has not been
determined if they had a reliquary function.
Also at G.ya' ma mchod rten there are around 20 rock shelters with circular plans (2.5 m to 4.9 m across). They were built
and used by Bhotia traders as a staging post for their Transhimalayan journeys. These shelters have high, beehive-shaped roofs
made of large overlapping sandstone slabs (constructed in a much more rudimentary manner than the all-stone corbelled structures
of the archaic cultural horizon). Established over an area of 19 m x 46 m, many of the shelters have small south-facing enclosures,
which functioned as simple courtyards. At this encampment several short devanagari inscriptions were carved into stones.
Fortunately, the mchod rtenand rock shelters were not damaged during the Chinese Cultural Revolution; the only threats they
face are the extremely harsh weather conditions of the Great Himalayan range.
Jo mo ri rang mkhar
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Site name: Jo mo ri rang mkhar
English equivalent: Elder Sister Mountain Castle
Site number: A-54
Site typology: I.1a.
Geographic coordinate (N. lat.): 30º 53.4΄
Geographic coordinate (E. long.): 80º 48.8΄
The large all-stone citadel of Jo mo ri rang mkhar is spread out over the top of a flaming orange-red spur, on the south side
Mount Jo mo ri rang. This summit is surrounded by cliffs and very steep slopes, endowing it with an excellent defensive aspect.
The site enjoys a panoramic view of the Rgya nyi ma basin, situated some 500 m below the site. Unlike the open and centralized
location of Big Sun Castle (A-53), Jo mo ri rang is situated at the head of an uninhabited and isolated valley. The Jo mo ri rang
mkhar stronghold consists of three ruined residential complexes: upper, middle and lower. These complexes form contiguous
bands of structures and cover no less than 2000 m² in total. The many diminutive buildings are stacked in vertical arrays, which
spread out along the steep acclivities of the various summit ridges. Some of the edifices in the upper complex were two stories
tall. The present day desolation of the locale contrasts with its ostensible demographic status in ancient times, when hundreds
of people must have lived and worked here. Corbelled stone roofs and semi-subterranean, small, windowless rooms are prominent
design features of the site, firmly placing it in the archaic cultural horizon. All edifices were built with long corbels, bridging
stones and dry-mortar random-rubble walls. Dark gray corbelling and bridging stones, up to 2.3 m in length, are scattered all
over the site. The structural evidence indicates that the buildings were finely built, alluding to the one time presence of a
sophisticated cultural center.
Oral tradition
Possibly the legendary prehistoric Zhang zhung association of Big Sun Castle is really intended for jo mo ri rang mkhar. Local
’brog pa consider Mount Jo mo ri rang very inauspicious, and the deaths of both people and livestock are commonly attributed
to it. It is said that the territorial deity (yul lha) Jo mo ri rang once manifested as an onager (rkyang) and visited a shepherd’s
camp near Gdan chu monastery (located on the headwaters of the Sutlej (glang chen gtsang po)). By circling the tents she slew
many livestock. The five families that lived there erected a prayer flag mast in honor of the territorial deity in an attempt to
placate her. One of the members of the camp was an avid hunter, and on a hunting foray he spotted a onager with a golden
saddle and caparison. When he looked at it a second time it was merely an ordinary onager so he shot it. To his astonishment,
when he arrived at the spot of the kill there was an adept (grub thob) there. He quickly looked away but when he returned his
gaze there was the slain onager. He skinned the dead animal and brought the pelt back to his camp. Soon thereafter, he died
followed by all the other inhabitants of his camp from one cause or another. For a long time afterwards not even livestock or
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wild ungulates would graze in the area. Jo mo ri rang is reputed to make the buildings on her inner (south) side invisible to
onlookers, while at other times visitors see buildings and livestock roaming about. A rock outcrop on Jo mo ri rang in the vicinity
of the citadel is called Female Srin Spear Carrier (srin mo mdung ’khyer).
Textual tradition
I think it likely that Jo mo ri rang is a Buddhist form of the nearly forgotten and demonized ancient Bon goddess Sgra bla'i rgyal
mo, who has Rgya nyi ma (old Bon name: Nyi 'od g.yen dmar rgyal khams) as one of her main residences. This Bon place name
probably refers to a fairly large swathe of extreme southwestern Tibet. The implacable savagery (in the service of religious
ideals) of Sgra bla'i rgyal mo forms a theme in a Bon origin tale appended to a ritual text written for the discharge of wrathful
activities. Textual descriptions of her abode as a place of red rocks very much fits the Jo mo ri rang locale. For instance, in
Gsang gling me ri dzwa this we read:
The female guardian [Sgra bla'i rgyal mo] resides between Mount Ti se and Lake Ma pang on the copper [colored] talus slopes of
G.yen dmar khams, in a castle of blazing metallic chunks (thu lum) of celestial iron.”
The parentage of this important Bon goddess is provided in a canonical (bka') text for the tutelary deity Me ri:
Over yonder in that direction, up in the direction of the setting sun, at Nyi 'od g.yen dmar rgyal khams, in the tabernacle (gsas mkhar)
of blazing metallic chunks, the father is the honored Gangs dang lha yi rgyal po (King of Snow Mountains and lha) and the mother
is the honored Chu lcam rgyal mo (Water Lady Queen) of the miraculous crystal Bza'. Sgra bla'i rgyal mo stag ri rong was manifested
from this wonderful couple.
Site elements
Upper complex
The upper complex is perched on the highest summit of the Jo mo ri rang site. This narrow ridgeline (32 m x 3 m to 4 m) is
densely packed with the walls of crumbling buildings. These structures are staggered in the crags at various elevations. Standing
walls are highly fragmentary and most buildings have been reduced to their footings. Isolated wall segments reach 3.2 m in
height. Only a single roof beam and one corbel (among many hundreds) seem to have survived in situ. From the summit, a south
facing gully (52 m long along the axis of the slope and 14 m wide) spills down the side of the formation. It contains the ruins
of a contiguous band of habitational structures. Flanking the gully are stone ribs that hosted continuous lines of analogous
structures. These edifices were all small (around 10 m²) and built in the archaic fashion with all-stone corbelled roofs. In total,
the upper complex must have contained around 60 rooms and/or interconnected buildings.
Middle complex
The middle complex is located on a 70-m long ridgeline, adjacent to the lower end of the structure-filled gully of the upper
complex. The middle complex contained around 40 rooms in total. Its east or upper end consists of a single line of southern
aspect all-stone buildings. These poorly preserved structures were deeply built into the rocky mountainside, reducing the amount
of stone needed for the construction of their walls. At the lower west end of the middle complex there is a cluster of around 20
rooms and/or buildings. Some of these semi-subterranean structures still have a few roof slabs and bridging stones in place. The
longest in situ bridging stone is 2.1 m. At the western extremity of the complex there is a single two-story tall structure, which
probably contained four lower rooms and four upper rooms. One of the lower rooms still has a substantial portion of its ceiling
intact. The corbelling of the ceiling was skillfully installed to create a robustly designed structure that could easily support a
second story.
Lower complex
The lower complex is located some tens of meters east of the middle complex. It contains a few ruined all-stone buildings of
diminutive size, along a 27-m length of the summit.
Brag chag khong kha
Basic site data
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Site name: Brag chag khong kha (sp.?)
Site number: A-55
Site typology: I.1x
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Elevation: 4320 m
Survey date: May 1 and September 6, 2001
Contemporary usage: The wholesale removal of stones from the site has occurred in recent years.
Identifiable Buddhist emblems and constructions: None.
Brag chag khong kha is located on a fairly flat summit rising 20 m above the left bank of the Sutlej (Sutlej river). This summit
(35 m x 10 m to 18 m) commands excellent vistas of both sectors of Khyung lung village, yul stod and Yul smad. The site
supports a fairly dense collection of dismantled residential ruins. The structural evidence gleaned from the few standing walls
surviving (up to 1.5 m in height), indicates that the buildings once found here had roofs constructed from timbers. Remaining
walls were built of random-rubble and may have been of the dry-mortar variety. The rim of the hilltop appears to have been
circumvallated but very little of this wall remains intact. The stones extracted from brag chag khong kha have been used to build
a crude wall around the agricultural landholdings of Yul smad, which is watered by a stream called Chu sbug.
Oral tradition
According to elders of Khyung lung, brag chag khong kha is an ancient habitation long in ruins, which was part of Ko ron (sp.?),
the original settlement of Khyung lung.
Affiliated sites
Minor archaeological sites in the environs of Ko ron
Stone platforms
Stone platforms are found in Rgyang brag (the site of a lone rebuilt mchod rten). This site is located immediately north of Brag
chag khong kha, atop an unnamed flat limestone formation. The site consists of four elevated limestone masonry enclosures.
These quadrate structures measure 7 m x 5m to 8 m, 6 m x 8 m, 4.5 m x 4.5 m, and 6 m x 6 m. Lightly built, these platforms
are raised around 70 cm above the surface of the formation. Their function is unknown. Nearby, on a limestone shelf overlooking
the Sutlej, are traces of single-course slab wall enclosures
Ruined building
On top of a flat limestone formation, closer to the bank of the Sutlej, there are two mchod rten, which were intact until the
Chinese Cultural Revolution. Next to them are the remains of a building (12 m x 6 m) with a stone foundation and mud-brick
walls up to 2 m in elevation. This structure was destroyed before living memory. At this site, a light-colored round stone (15
cm x 25 cm x 80 cm circumference) was found with deeply engraved but highly eroded scrollwork around one side of it. This
carving appears to be of considerable age.
Stone depressions
In the plain east of rammed-earth (gyang) brag (Walled Formation) is a beehive-shaped outcrop that functioned as a incense
brazier (incense brazier) during the horse racing festival held in the pre-modern times. Incense was burnt in a spherical depression
in the top of this outcrop. A little to the east is a cylindrical hole in an outcrop said to resemble a large monastic horn (dung
chen). This orifice appears to be manmade.
rDo ser po
Closer to Yul stod, in the mouth of the cultivated Ting mur valley, there is a small hill called rdo ser po (Yellow Rock), which
hosts the new Khyung lung monastery built in the 1980s. According to the octogenarian Mes tshe dbang, a native elder of
Khyung lung, a ruined temple was found at Rdo ser po, which had the ground-plan similar to that of Lha khang brgya rtsa, a
chapel founded at Mtho lding. Elders are also under the impression that there was once an ancient settlement at Rdo ser po but
very little can be detected on the surface. The faint remains of walls supporting terraces, especially on the west side of the hill,
are in evidence.
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Mkhar sngon
Basic site data
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Site name: Mkhar sngon
English equivalent: Blue Castle
Site number: A-56
Site typology: I.1b
Geographic coordinate (N long): 31º 04.0΄
Survey date: May 2 and September 9, 2001
The Blue Castle stronghold is so named for the blue earth found on the eponymous summit, which was used to build at least
some the summit structures. Blue Castle in the Yul stod sector of Khyung lung overlooks the north side of the Ting mur valley.
The largest summit structure has been reduced to a lump of earth capping an adobe foundation/revetment. The use of earthen
walls in this structure must be a response to the relative scarcity of stones at the site and the presence of ample deposits of clay.
In the vicinity, on higher pinnacles, small bits of masonry are found. To the south are two major groups of caves, many with
the remains of masonry façades built around them. The advanced deterioration of Blue Castle and its oral history that speaks
of an early establishment may indicate that this was the primary archaic stronghold of Khyung lung. Khyung lung with its three
perennial streams feeding fertile lands must have long been the focus of settlement. Geographic factors which buttress the local
belief in the great age of Blue Castle are the lofty, highly protected nature of the site (with views extending all across Khyung
lung), and its central location. The site is perched above the largest source of agricultural land and irrigation water in the locale.
Oral tradition
According to elders of Khyung lung, mkhar sngon was the first fortress of Khyung lung, founded and abandoned before Mkhar
rtse was established in Yul smad. Near Blue Castle is a pass called Band of Human Corpses (mi ro khyu), where it is believed
that an army or gang of bandits was slaughtered long ago. It is claimed that the population of Khyung lung was once so large
that people living on one side of the Sutlej River did not know all the people living on the other side.
Site elements
Summit complex
The largest earthen structure (approximately 7 m x 4 m) is found on the northern end of the site. This building carcass has a
maximum height of 2.5 m (east side). South and east of this structure, on or near the ridge-top, there are the faint traces of many
other structures. From the main earthen structure, a ridge-line stretches in a southerly direction for 100 m. No structural remains
are visible on this summit but they may well have been obliterated by erosion and the failure of the soft slopes. Beyond this
area, the main ridgeline turns in an easterly direction and gains in elevation. All along this 150 m long, 3 m to 7 m wide summit,
there are the fragmentary remains of revetments (standing walls have disappeared). It appears that a fairly dense agglomeration
of small buildings once stood here. The earthen formation is subject to heavy erosion and it is probable that many walls slipped
down the very steep slopes over time.
Northwest cave complex
Below the summit ridge, on the north and west sides of the formation, there are around three dozen small caves. Many of them
have oblong niches in the walls and a domed recess in the rear, common architectural features of Gu ge cave complexes. Many
of the caves have fire-blackened ceilings, a reliable indicator of human habitation. Most of the caves also have ruined masonry
fronts. These façades were constructed with small (40 cm or less in length) blocks of a local yellowish sedimentary stone, slabs
of a brown stone or with cobbles. Much of the mud-mortar in the joints has washed away, giving the walls a dry-mortar
appearance. In certain places there is evidence that mud plaster was used to cover the façades. There is no evidence, however,
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that any of these highly worn walls were ochre tinted, as is found at the caves of Yul smad, which were used by Buddhist
practitioners.
Southeast cave complex
Near where the north-south oriented ridgeline of Blue Castle turns in an east-west direction, anterooms (12 m x 7 m) with walls
up to 2 m in height enclose three caves. In one of these outer walls there is a window opening 20 cm in height. One 2-m section
of an outer wall was presumably made of adobe blocks, but it has eroded so heavily that it is now only 15 cm thick. One of the
enclosed caves has a deep square recess cut into a central chamber. Another cave has a small platform in the rear. On the south
and east sides of the formation, 10 m to 15 m below the summit, there is a group of around two dozen more shallow caves.
Stretching over a distance of 100 m, a significant proportion of these caves have disintegrated façades as well as the remains
of around one dozen anterooms.
Directly below the 2-m-tall walls enclosing three caves of the southeast cave complex, there is a cave with a domed recess
flanked by two oblong niches. At a nearby location there are extensive anterooms bounding three other caves. The walls of
these anterooms are up to 3 m in height, as is a wall shoring up the formation. These are the tallest manmade structures extant
at Blue Castle. The three caves behind the anterooms have the remnants of mud plastered stone-walls built around their mouths.
In one cave there is a large domed bay in the rear flanked by an oblong niche on one side and stone shelving on the other. A
hearth in this cave appears to have been used fairly recently. The adjacent cave has a long, low, shallow recess in the rear. The
third cave has three chambers. Farther east, at the eastern extremity of Blue Castle, are several more caves and small wall
fragments.
Affiliated sites
There are several Buddhist archaeological sites in the vicinity of Blue Castle.
mChod rten
A number of Buddhist ruins are found on the south flanks of the hillside below Blue Castle. These include a hilltop mchod rten
and several proximate stone and adobe walls situated to the west of the ancient fortress. Lower on the hillside are a number of
other a type of shrine, the largest group of which comprises six specimens. The architectural style of these religious monuments
indicates that they may date as early as the bstan pa phyi dar (second diffusion of Buddhism, 980-1200 CE).
mKhar sngon dgon pa
The most distinctive ruin in the vicinity of the fortress is Mkhar sngon dgon pa (Blue Castle monastery) (4340 m), an adobe-block
(mud-brick) building whose four walls are oriented in the cardinal directions (10 m x 11m). Attaining a maximum height of 6
m, this structure represents a prominent landmark. Its ground plan consists of a large central room surrounded on all sides by a
1.5-m wide passageway. The entrance to the building was in the east. According to local elders, this was a Buddhist temple
built before the Horned Eagle Valley Silver Castle monastery, located on the opposite bank of the Sutlej, in Yul smad. Smaller
adobe ruins are also found in the Mkhar sngon dgon pa area. Between the Blue Castle fortress and Blue Castle monastery there
are two small outcrops, each with two or three caves. On the summits of both these outcrops are the remains of masonry footings,
the largest group of which measures 8.8 m x 3.8 m. It appears that buildings once stood here. Below the largest foundation is a
cave with windows cut into the formation. Below the other outcrop upon which a foundation sits there is a cave with the traces
of a masonry front and what appear to be the fragmentary footings of an anteroom.
Jo mo lha khang
This Buddhist cave shrine is located in Yul stod and contains frescos painted circa the 13th or 14th century CE. A 5.5-m long
passage leads to a chamber (5 m x 4.5 m), which was enclosed by plastered mud brick walls. Fortunately, the excellent artwork
escaped the worst excesses of the Chinese Cultural Revolution, and around 75 % of all but the anterior wall paintings are intact.
Many of the images, however, are highly worn and damaged. The paintings depict Buddha figures in various aspects and several
mandalas (mandala). Above the Sangs rgyas sku stong figures, rows of banners (ba dan) decorate the top of the walls. On the
ceiling copious floral designs surround a large central mandala. Large chunks of surface prepared for the elaborately painted
ceiling are missing.
Nag gtsug mkhar
Basic site data
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Site name: Nag gtsug mkhar
English equivalent: Black Top Castle
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Site number: A-57
Site typology: I.Ib
Elevation: 4280 m
Administrative location (township): Change Place of Residence Mountain Face (gdong spo)
Survey date: May 3, 2001
nag gtsug mkhar is situated 80 m above the left bank of the Spang bkra chu, in one of the Transhimalayan gorges of Gu ge lho
smad. This site occupies the top of a steep dark-colored hill, some 300 m below an esplanade dividing Transhimalayan drainage
basins. It consists of a single structure, the remains of a castle or palace (10.5 m x 13 m). Built of both stone and mud bricks,
the age of this type of architectonic composition is unclear. The lack of Buddhist constructions and the oral tradition suggest a
relatively early foundation date. In any case, the refined design of Black Acme Castle suggests that this was once an important
cultural center. The establishment of an elite edifice at this location is likely to be related to the extensive agricultural lands
found upstream in Spang bkra. The locale has been completely abandoned.
Oral tradition
Agriculture was once carried out in the valley bottom near Black Acme Castle, which some Gu ge residents say was built by
the ancient Mon.
Site elements
Castle
Black Acme Castle is an unusually designed edifice with a deeply recessed entrance and exterior wall spans of multiple alignments.
Only two other examples of this architectural form have come to light in Upper Tibet: ha la mkhar (East) (A-58) and Kol mkhar
(A-122), which are also located in Gu ge. Black Acme Castle consisted of at least five conterminous rooms set at two or three
different levels. Remaining wall partitions are highly deteriorated, precluding a detailed assessment of its ground plan. The long
spans between the walls and the fact that they are not buttressed, indicates that the structure was built with a wooden roof.
Moreover, appropriate building materials for the construction of corbelled stone roofs are lacking in this locale, as they are in
much of Gu ge. The dark-colored stone-walls were finely built of hewn blocks 35 cm to 75 cm in length. These random-rubble
walls appear to have been heavily cemented with a mud-based mortar. The stones are highly weathered and cracked, attesting
to significant age. This seems to justify the local belief that this was an ancient ‘Mon’ or archaic cultural horizon site.
The deeply recessed entrance is on the south side of the building. Massive stone-walls on the south face of the stronghold
reach 3.5 m in height and are still topped by adobe-block (mud-brick) courses, adding as much as another 70 cm to the elevation.
On the north side of the edifice adobe-block walls up to 1.5 m in height surmount a stone revetment. These adobe walls have
lost more than 50% of their mass (much more loss than is typically found in Lamaist era buildings of Gu ge). It is only in a
sheltered niche that the techniques of construction and the seams between individual blocks are discernable. The top of this
interior wall niche (35 cm x 50 cm x 1 m) is supported by small rounds of brushwood. An integral part of this north wall structure,
this wood might hold important clues as to the age of the castle. The upper extent of scrub willow (glang ma) trees in the Sutlej
valley coincides with the gorge below the fortress.
Affiliated sites
Buddhist ruins
In the escarpments surrounding the Spang bkra chu there are at least two cave complexes that were used by Buddhist practitioners.
Near the contemporary settlement of spangs khra there are around 100 caves at Rdzong dkar, on the right side of the valley (see
B-121). Reportedly, a few of the caves contain Buddhist frescos. The site known as Black Acme Meditation House (nag gtsug
mtshams khang), located above Black Acme Castle, hosts about 12 caves and significant evidence of Buddhist occupation such
as discarded folios, a ruined mchod rten> and tsha tsha figurines.
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Ha la mkhar West
Basic site data
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Site name: Ha la mkhar (West)
Site number: A-58
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 4170 m
Administrative location (township): Change Place of Residence Mountain Face
Once a castle or palace, ha la mkhar (West) shares the same general architectonic features as Black Acme Castle (A-57), as well
as a similar geographic aspect. The elegantly presented main edifice of ha la mkhar (West) covers the top of a summit rising
80 m above the Ha la valley. The commanding position of the site lends it the aura of both a stronghold and palace. The main
edifice (23 m x 17 m) contained around 20 rooms. The random-rubble walls of this structure are topped by rammed-earth walls
of varying heights. The Ha la valley is now utterly devoid of permanent settlement.
Oral tradition
Apparently none has survived in the locale.
Site elements
Castle
The walls of the main edifice consist of mud-mortared brownish stone blocks (10 cm to 50 cm long) and are around 50 cm in
thickness. These walls have short spans and are aligned in various directions, creating a multifaceted ground plan. Walls are as
much as 3 m in height on the south side of the structure and as little as 50 cm high on the north side. Above the stone walls there
are bits of highly degraded rammed-earth walls. The tallest extant rammed-earth wall sections are 2.5 m in height. The orifices
(used to accommodate the pins that held the wooden molding in place during the construction of the earthen walls) are lined
with thin pieces of stone. The exterior south wall is the highest elevation feature (up to 4 m) to have persisted at the site. The
entrance to the castle was in the southeast and was built upon a high elevation revetment, which contains cruder stonework than
that of the freestanding walls. The deeply recessed entrance creates an inlet, 4.5 m in length and 2.8 m in width on its exterior
side. This sheltered space progressively narrows towards the core of the building. It appears that a stone buttressed trail led up
to the entrance but very little of it has survived.
In the east exterior wall of the building, near the south corner, there is the only extant window opening (35 cm x 25 cm) at
the site. In the north of the structure there are the remains of an interior mud-block wall, the only one of this type at ha la mkhar
(West). The room partitions are now highly dissolute and reach a maximum height of 1.5 m to 2 m. These dividing walls were
primarily built of stone, at least along their lower courses. The constructional features for the support of a stone roof are not
present at ha la mkhar West, thus we can infer that its roof was supported by timbers. Local rounds of tamarisk, which reach 2
m to 2.5 m in length, may have been used for this purpose. Below the entrance to the main building there was a small dependency,
which has been leveled to its footings.
Ha la mkhar East
Basic site data
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Site name: ha la mkhar (East)
Site number: A-59
Site typology: I.1b
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Elevation: 4320 m
Administrative location (township): Change Place of Residence Mountain Face
ha la mkhar (East) is situated on the opposite side of the Ha la valley from ha la mkhar (West) (A-58). It is perched on the top
of a badland crest at a significantly higher elevation. As such, ha la mkhar (East) enjoys much more panoramic views than its
counterpart. Both mkhar of Ha la are in eyeshot of one another. ha la mkhar (East) is of a particular design found only at two
other sites in Gu ge: Little Castle (mkhar chung) (A-136) and ma nam mkhar (West) (B-77). This earthen structure is composed
of three parallel rows of tiny compartments. This edifice is likely to have functioned as a fortress or religious center, an installation
that required many rooms (probably for the billeting of personnel). The higher, more difficult location of ha la mkhar (East)
may mean that it was a defensive bulwark against a fiercer, more persistent or wider-ranging enemy than those faced by ha la
mkhar (West). At any rate, it exhibits a very different design pattern than the neighboring residential facility. This singular
structure measures 32 m (north-south) x 14 m (east-west), and appears to have been built of adobe blocks. The very small size
of the compartments and their relatively large number (around 18 in total) is not in keeping with the spatial arrangement of
Buddhist monasteries in Gu ge nor elsewhere in Tibet. There is no permanent source of water at ha la mkhar (East) and this
essential commodity must have been hauled up from the valley below.
Oral tradition
Evidently none exists in the locale.
Site elements
Castle
ha la mkhar (East) appears to have contained three rows of rooms with at least six rooms in each, which are oriented along the
east-west axis of the structure. The south and north rows of compartments are set at a lower elevation than the middle or summit
portion of the edifice. Very little of the ground plan remains in place and, due to the advanced level of degradation, the interface
between the building and formation is not very clear in certain places. This extremely dissolved structure was probably built of
adobe blocks. Had it been constructed of rammed-earth, traces of the orifices used in the assembly of the shuttering, should still
be visible. Some of the light-colored mud walls are set on 50-cm high stone foundations. Below the summit, on the south side
of the structure, there is a line of at least six rooms poised above the precipitous slopes of the formation. These rooms were
divided by both stone and adobe partitions. In one room with standing wall segments (up to 1.2 m in height), the rear wall and
one side wall are made of stone while the other side wall is of adobe. Each room in this row measures 2.5 m in width (east-west).
The length of the south facing rooms is no longer determinable because their forward sections have slipped down the mountainside.
The south line of rooms does not extend all the way to the east and west extremities of the remaining portion of the structure.
Interposed between the summit row and south row of compartments there is a terrace or corridor (1 m to 1.5 m wide).
There also appears to have been a row of rooms along the north side of the structure, with a passageway between it and
adjoining summit portion of the edifice, creating a symmetrical ground plan. The north line of rooms, however, is even more
deteriorated than the south row. In the west half of the north row, some traces of partition walls are evident, while much of the
east half of the row has disappeared down the slopes. Through erosive forces the summit portion of the building has been largely
leveled. Small wall segments (up to 1.5 m in height) that abut the summit side of the two axial corridors have persisted. There
is also an isolated interior wall partition (1.5 m high), which managed to remain standing in the middle of the summit. All other
traces of the summit row of rooms have been washed away.
Affiliated sites
Ha la Buddhist ruins
In the bottom of the Ha la valley, there are a number of ruined mchod rten, made with adobe blocks and wooden superstructures.
There also appears to have been a small temple (a Ma ṇi lha khang?) amid the mchod rten. To the north there are the ruins of a
larger temple. These Buddhist temples were destroyed before living memory. There was also a small Buddhist monastery
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suspended in the side of an escarpment north of the ruined castles, which was razed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution. This
site has around 12 caves, some of which were integrated into the buildings of the monastery. It is reported by local sources that
this monastery once belonged to the Sa skya sect, but in more recent times it devolved to Rnying ma practitioners. According
to a knowledgeable native elder named Rdo rje, one of the monastery’s main protectors was a btsan deity called Ha la rgyal po.
mThon lo mkhar
On the right side of the Change Place of Residence Mountain Face valley there are the remains of substantial historic epoch
ruins called Lofty Harvest Castle (mthon lo mkhar). These remains are associated with a historical figure called Mthon lo pha
la. According to local lore, Mthon lo pha la was a district leader (sde dpon) under the authority of nearby Mda' ba rdzong. He
became displeased that a mountain to the east of his castle blocked much of the sunlight. He ordered his men to cut down the
mountain, but this was an insuperable task and the workers eventually revolted and slew him. The west complex of the castle
is found on a small outcrop and is dominated by two high elevation adobe block structures, the largest of which measures 8.5
m x 7.5 m. There are also the remains of stone-wall footings on the summit of the outcrop. On the steep south side of the outcrop,
there is a dense collection of primarily stone foundations and fractional walls split between four main levels (20 m x 30 m). The
east complex is situated on the opposite side of the main road and covers an area of no less than 700 m². It is comprised of highly
degraded ruins of several large adobe and stone buildings.
Shel did
Shel did (sp.?), an extensive but highly dissolute dispersion, is located on an undulating shelf above the west bank of the Gdong
spo chu near the main bridge crossing (31° 07.4΄ N. lat. / 80° 07.2΄ E. long. / 4130 m). One elder of Change Place of Residence
Mountain Face claimed that this was the original monastic site of the valley, but this information was contradicted by other
local residents. It is said that some of the pits on the site represent the vestiges of old gold mining operations. The erstwhile
cobble structures of Shel did appear to be the remains of a settlement. These structures have been reduced to piles of rubble and
depressions in the ground. There are no cave complexes in Change Place of Residence Mountain Face so early forms of settlement
would have had to rely on alternative forms of habitation. The northwest sector of the site (170 m maximum x 200 m) covers
at least 12,000 m². The main road cuts right through this dispersion. A rammed-earth carcass (5 m x 13 m), found amid the
northwest sector debris, is in keeping with monastic construction. The smaller southeast sector (90 m x 100 m) is concentrated
on a prominence jutting out into the Gdong spo chu. This dispersion contains disintegrated revetments concealed in the blanket
of rubble, a clear sign that structures of some kind once stood here. Revetment fragments reach 1.5 m in height. A a type of
shrine was built in the southeast sector in recent times, indicating the presence of a collective memory pertaining to a sacred
site.
Rgyu mgul mkhar
Basic site data
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Site name: Rgyu mgul mkhar
English equivalent: Intestines Neck Castle (?)
Alternative site name: Yen rtse mkhar (sp.?)
Alternative site name 2: Brag dmar ro
English equivalent: Red Rock Ruins
Site number: A-60
Site typology: I.1b
Administrative location (township): Mda' ba
Survey date: May 5 and 6, 2001
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Ruined a type of shrine.
Intestines Neck Castle is one of the largest and most enigmatic residential archaeological sites in Gu ge. It consists of six
prominent outcrops and adjoining areas that hosted scores of buildings containing hundreds of rooms. The fairly dense
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agglomeration of structures covers an area of no less than 30,000 m², on the left side of the Rgyu mgul valley. Intestines Neck
Castle is dominated by six outcrops, natural rock formations. Most of the buildings have degraded to crumbling wall footings
and piles of rubble, but there are sufficient surviving walls, especially on the outcrops, to illustrate the importance of the site.
Once supporting a population of many hundreds, only a small handful of people now reside north of Intestines Neck Castle.
The wide shelf east of the ruins was at one time farmed and this zone of cultivation probably extended north over a distance of
more than 2 km to the present-day settlement.
The structures are mainly made of mud-mortared random-work brown metamorphic stone and light-colored cobbles. Mostly
small stone blocks (15 cm to 40 cm), some of which were hewn flat on their exterior sides, were used in construction. The largest
building stones are 80 cm in length. Greatly deteriorated adobe-block (mud-brick) courses surmount some of the stone walls.
Structural evidence indicates that the buildings were constructed with wooden roofs. On the northern edge of the site there are
over one dozen ruined mud-brick mchod rten. These Buddhist religious monuments may have been erected to neutralize negative
influences emanating from the site. An archaic cultural identity for Intestines Neck Castle is suggested by:
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Its highly marginal place in the local oral tradition.
The hazardous status of the site (Bka' gnyan po).
The absence of prayer flags or other signs of the contemporary veneration of the ruins or its deities.
The lack of buildings with obvious monastic ground plans.
The prominent use of stone for construction and the high degree of integration with the parent formations.
Its unusual position atop six outcrops.
Oral tradition
According to residents of Mda' ba township, Intestines Neck Castle was a large, ancient settlement of the Sing pa (generic term
for invaders coming from the northwest). However, byams ma bsod nams of Mda' babs (born circa 1919), an elder locally
respected for his knowledge of local history, is of the opinion that Intestines Neck Castle was constructed by the Rong pa
(Himalayan peoples) during prehistoric Zhang zhung times.
Site elements
East outcrop
The east outcrop potentially supported around 20 small rooms. The summit of this 20-m high lump of rock measures 26 m x 4
m or less. On the north end of the summit are pieces of a 40-cm high adobe block wall and a 50-cm high stone wall topped by
small traces of adobe. On the south side of the summit there is a stone-wall segment up to 1.5 m in height. Just below the west
side of the summit there is a narrow ledge with building foundations. Footings and wall segments also blanket the very steep
east side of the outcrop in two tiers below the summit. From the base of the formation to a height of 10 m there are no ruins,
nor are there structural remains on the north and south sides of the outcrop due to vertical drops along their flanks. The east
outcrop must have had a well-developed stairway in order to access the various buildings. Close-knit but fragmentary foundations
and small standing wall sections up to 2 m in height surround the east outcrop. They extend 50 m in an easterly direction to the
eastern limits of the Intestines Neck Castle site. Buildings also stretched 25 m south of the east outcrop to the southern edge of
the site. These structures have walls that are around 50 cm thick and wall footings in the vicinity of 1 m thick. On the west side
of the east outcrop there is a stone plinth (2.7 m x 2.7 m) that appears to have once supported a mchod rten.
South central outcrop
A continuous belt of ruins extends from the east outcrop to the south central outcrop. The maximum height of the south central
outcrop above the surrounding terrain is 20 m. On its summit there are the ruins of a building (7 m x 6 m to 10 m) that was built
atop a revetment, which reaches 2 m in height.
Central outcrop
The central outcrop actually consists of two small interconnected outcrops. On the larger outcrop (maximum height 15 m) there
was a diminutive building containing two rooms. In between the twin outcrops there was an edifice (5 m x 3.4 m) that, with its
revetment, attains a maximum height of 3 m. Adjacent to it there is a structure (5 m x 9 m) whose west wall contains a 2-m high
stone wall fragment surmounted by a 1.8-m tall adobe wall. This is the only ground-level adobe wall to have survived at Intestines
Neck Castle. Such a building may have been two stories tall. On the smaller outcrop, which consists of two boulders, there is
a fragmentary building foundation. A small section of wall spans these two boulders. Northwest of the central outcrop there is
what appears to have been the base of a mchod rten or some other type of shrine.
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North central outcrop
This sliver of vertical rock only supported one small building on its summit. At the base of its north side there is a substantial
wall segment 2.5 m in height. The main road through the valley is situated immediately north of the north central outcrop. A
few inscribed ma ṇi plaques are found scattered near the base of the outcrop.
Northwest outcrop
This large rock pinnacle is approximately 30 m in height and hosted extensive residential structures. Many buildings were
clustered around its base. Half way up the west side of the pinnacle, edifices extended over an area measuring 27 m x 4 m to
14 m. The revetment built around the formation to support these structures is still more than 4 m high in places. On the summit
buildings were found on two levels. The upper (east) level measures 5 m x 10 m. It was constructed with stone lower walls and
upper walls of adobe blocks. An approximately 2-m long timber that helps to prop up the inaccessible base of the east summit
structure may well hold the key to the date of its establishment. This load-bearing timber could only have been installed at the
time of construction. With its vertical rock walls, an elaborate stairway must have connected the various buildings of the northwest
outcrop. On the opposite side of the road from the northwest outcrop there is a terrace cut into the slope (6 m x 18 m), whose
retaining wall is 1.5 m in height.
Southwest outcrop
This pinnacle of rock also rises about 30 m above the valley floor. The remains blanketing its summit are no longer accessible.
These edifices were constructed of stonework and adobe blocks. Including their revetments, structural elevations still reach
more than 4 m. On the west side of the formation there is what appears to be the base of a mchod rten and on its south side there
is a ruined Buddhist mchod rten with some of its adobe-brick middle section still intact. The 36-m distance between northwest
outcrop and southwest outcrop is filled with a line of ruined buildings, 8 m to 12 m in width. The western-most extension of
Intestines Neck Castle is found on the west side of southwest outcrop. A little down valley from the main site, a livestock pen
was created from what appears to have been a residential ruin. Its rear wall was built 1 m to 1.2 m into the slope.
Ka gling mkhar
Basic site data
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Site name: Ka gling mkhar
Site number: A-61
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: Approximately 4040 m
Administrative location (township): Mda' ba
Identifiable Buddhist emblems and constructions: Unknown.34
The highly deteriorated primarily mud-block structures of Ka gling are situated on an inaccessible ridge-top, outside the
agricultural village of ka ling. There are also a few stone foundations at the site. ka ling mkhar overlooks the west side of the
Mda' ba valley, and is situated several kilometers down valley from the township headquarters. The compact group of ruins is
approximately 30 m in length, and walls up to 2 m in height have endured. The period in which this stronghold was established
is not at all clear. Local residents believe that the site has a Buddhist identity. At this juncture in the inquiry, antecedent settlement
at Ka gling is a matter of speculation. The important agrarian Mda' ba valley must have supported archaic cultural installations
but their location remains to be determined.
Oral tradition
According to local residents, Ka gling was a castle.
34
I was unable to access the site due to the collapse of the upper reaches of the earthen formation upon which it sits.
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Affiliated sites
Mda' ba mkhar rtse
The Buddhist era fortress of Mda' ba mkhar rtse is located near the township headquarters, and was destroyed during the Chinese
Cultural Revolution. One of its most notable features is a 20-m long tunnel that burrows through the formation. There is also a
deep subterranean well at the site. No archaic architectural traces were detected at this location.
Mi la
At the confluence of the mda’ ba chu and Sutlej (Sutlej river) there is the defunct settlement of Mi la. This locale was once
brought under cultivation. Bounding one side of the alluvial plain is an earthen escarpment with about two dozen erstwhile
residential caves. On the opposite side of the Sutlej are the traces of a pre-modern gold mine, stretching over a distance of more
than 2 km (31° 18.2΄ N. lat. / 80° 00.5΄ E. long. / 3880 m). This location is called Rgyungs rkyang, and consists of many small
piles of cobbles and depressions pock marking a shelf, where shallow pit mining once took place.
Rtsa rang
Basic site data
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Site name: Rtsa rang
Site number: A-62
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 3980 m
Administrative location (township): Rtsa rang
Survey expedition: UTAE, and during the production of the documentary film Guge: Tibet’s Lost Kingdom (June 2006)
Survey date: May 9 and October 23, 2001; June 2006
Contemporary usage: Restored Buddhist temples and a museum.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Many types.
Maps: UTRS V, HAS C2
The large Buddhist monastic complex and elite residence of Rtsa rang was founded well after the second diffusion of Buddhism
(bstan pa phyi dar). On the summit of the flat-topped hill there are the ruins of a Gu ge palace as well as a network of tunnels
and chambers inside the formation. These were used for the storage of provisions, not as a winter palace, as is sometimes claimed.
No archaic structural remains have been detected at Rtsa rang. Nevertheless, there is speculation among the Bonpo that Rtsa
rang was occupied in prehistoric Zhang zhung times. Its status as the Buddhist capital of Gu ge, located in the midst of an
important agricultural pocket, may possibly indicate that it has enjoyed a very long period of tenure. If so, superficial traces of
the earlier period of habitation have disappeared along with much of the agricultural potential of the locale.
Oral tradition
It is often conjectured by Bonpo that a major pre-Buddhist stronghold in the badlands region of Gu ge was located at Rtsa rang.
Affiliated sites
On the opposite side of the Sutlej valley there is a 15-km long string of defunct agricultural settlements known as Kar ru, gi ri,
Sgo gyam, Golden Chest (gser sgam), and Mang brag. Ruined Buddhist temples and cave complexes are found in these
long-abandoned villages. No monumental traces of the archaic cultural horizon were found at these sites. It is thought by some
elders of the region that these settlements collapsed along with the Gu ge kingdom in the 16th century CE. After crossing the
bridge upstream of Rtsa rang to the north bank of the Sutlej, one enters a thorn forest. Heading downstream, the first abandoned
village reached is Kar ru (31° 29.0΄ N. lat. / 79° 41.2΄ E. long. / 3670 m). Extensive farm fields once existed here but now there
are just barren flats. There are a few caves in the escarpment bounding the former agricultural lands. These caves contain arched
niches and other signs of habitation. It is reported that in the Chinese Cultural Revolution some farming took place in Kar ru
for a short while, but this activity was abandoned because of water problems.
A thorn forest and an intervening valley called rtsa chu (sp.?) demarcate the border between ka ru and the next abandoned
agricultural village of gi ri. There are several dozen caves in the escarpment at gi ri, at least one of which has Buddhist murals.
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On top of the escarpment are the ruins of Gi ri mkhar with its tall adobe walls. In the valley bottom are the ruins of a significant
Buddhist monastery (31° 29.4΄ N. lat. / 79° 39.3΄ E. long. / 3640 m). The valley the next community down valley, separated by
a narrow constriction, was called Sgo gyam. Intensive agriculture was once practiced here but there are few caves and no
monumental remains. Continuing down valley, the next derelict village is Golden Chest. Golden Chest had its own monastery
in the valley bottom (31° 30.0΄ N. lat. / 79° 37.5΄ E. long. / 3620 m), and nearby there is a small group of adobe buildings referred
to as Gser sgam mkhar. There are many defunct agricultural lands in Golden Chest. As of 2001, Chinese farmers had been
brought in to resuscitate some of these fields. Continuing downstream, the last village before the Sutlej enters an impassable
gorge is Mang brag (31° 30.4 N. lat. / 79° 35.3 E. long / 3610 m). There is a cave complex in the multicolored escarpment and
the remains of old arable lands at Mang brag. One of the caves contains a chapel with circa 13th century CE murals. Among
them is a panel with portraits of ten of Gu ge’s territorial deity with mostly intact inscriptions naming them, an extremely
important cultural resource.
On the south side of the Sutlej, several kilometers east of Rtsa rang, there is a cave complex in the escarpment at Thang. In
addition to around 30 caves that were once inhabited, there is a large area of disused fields at Thang. Several ruined a type of
shrine are found in the vicinity. It is reported that ancient urn burials were discovered at Thang by local residents and patterned
agates (gzi) removed from them.
Zha ye mkhar
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Site name: Zha ye mkhar
Site number: A-63
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 4420 m
Administrative location (township): Shang rtse
Zha ye mkhar is a dissolved building complex situated on the summit and flanks of a small ridge. It is located approximately 1
km from the village of Shang pa. This relatively small installation occupies the 30-m-tall formation bounding the edge of the
valley. The site is divided into east and west summits by a steep gully. Two masonry ramparts erected at different elevations
barricade this south-facing gully. The staggered breastworks and small habitational footprints clinging to the formation exhibit
morphological characteristics often associated with the Mon, the dominant ethnic group in archaic cultural horizon Gu ge,
according to the oral tradition. There are around two dozen caves at Zha ye mkhar, mostly situated near the base of the formation.
Oral tradition
According to local residents, Zha ye mkhar was a fortress of the ancient Mon.
Site elements
East summit
On the east summit of Zha ye mkhar there are the remains of a single building (8 m x 5 m) with cobble lower walls on which
stand adobe wall sections 1 m to 3 m in height. These walls were constructed on a substantial cobble revetment, 1 m to 1.5 m
in height. Such type of walls could only have supported a building constructed with a wooden roof.
West summit
The nearby west summit had a similarly constructed building (10 m x 7 m), of which only small sections of adobe walls survive.
On the west side of the west summit structure there is a cobble revetment 2 m to 2.5 m in height. Below this revetment there is
a 2.2-m wide level area created by a cobble retaining wall, 50 cm to 2 m in height. Below this wall there is another level area
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(1.5 m in width), surrounded by a cobble wall a maximum of 2.2 m in height. These two masonry terraces probably supported
small buildings at one time. On another terrace (3 m x 5 m), located below the west side of the summit edifice, there is a 65-cm
high adobe wall segment. At just 20 cm thick, this adobe fragment has undergone a tremendous degree of dissolution. The
terrace it sits on is bound by a masonry wall footing totaling 20 m in length. Adjacent to this terrace, on a small pinnacle, there
is a finely built foundation that must have supported an edifice no larger than 3.5 m x 3.5 m. The construction of an edifice on
this tiny pinnacle is in keeping with design attributes of archaic residential sites.
Other ruins
Directly above the village of Shang pa there is another archaeological site locally referred to as a ‘castle’ (mkhar). On a small
summit (2.5 m x 11 m) there are adobe wall fragments (a maximum of 2.5 m in height), which rest upon cobble foundations.
There appear to be other wall-footings in close proximity. Located upstream of the village, above the confluence in the valley,
are the ruins of the Dge lugs pa shang dgon pa.
Chu mur ti mkhar gog
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Site name: Chu mur ti mkhar gog
English equivalent: Water Springs Ruined Castle
Site number: A-64
Site typology: I.1b
Administrative location (township): Chu gsum
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: ma ṇi wall.
Water Springs Ruined Castle was constructed on the summit and flanks of a steep hill rising above the Chu gsum river. This
hill towers 110 m above Chu gsum river, which winds around three sides of it. The large, highly protected fortress boasts a
dispersion of over 7000 m². Interestingly, there are no ruined a type of shrine at the site or in the vicinity, calling into question
the cultural orientation of the stronghold. Moreover, there is no evidence of Buddhist temples at Chu gsum mkhar gog, such as
ochre tinted walls, large open halls with niches for statuary or enclosed galleries. This alone may point to the archaic cultural
occupation of the site because virtually all the hilltop mkhar built in Gu ge during or after the second diffusion of Buddhism
onwards boast chapels (lha khang) and Buddhist ceremonial structures. Be that as it may, the buildings at the site were constructed
in a fashion similar to those postdating 1000 CE. Also, the ruins seem too well preserved to belong to the archaic cultural horizon.
These structures have substantial stone foundations and revetments on which lime-tinted adobe blocks were laid. The site exhibits
uniform design traits throughout, indicating its establishment as an integral complex, probably during a single period of time.
The edifices were extremely well-built, reflecting a place of considerable wealth and significance.
On the northwest edge of the summit there is a single stone wall with around 100 old plaques inscribed with the ma ṇi mantra,
in the dbu can and lan tsha scripts. The heavy wear characteristics displayed by these plaques indicate that they were all made
in the same general timeframe, probably in or around the second diffusion of Buddhism. Among these plaques there are a few
more recent ma ṇi inscriptions.
Oral tradition
According to local sources, Water Springs Ruined Castle was an old fortress whose leader was a figure named Ga'u dpal 'byor.
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Site elements
Summit complex
The flat summit (105 m x 30 m) supported a contiguous array of residential structures. Interior walls have been commonly
leveled to 1.5 m to 2 m in height. Stone revetments (1.5 m to 2 m high) supporting adobe courses 1 m to 2 m in height constitute
the exterior face of the walls. While most partition walls were made of mud blocks, there are also a few rooms with stonework
walls. No structural evidence of the roofing remains at the site, but the relatively large size of the rooms (10 m² to 25 m²) could
only have supported timbers. A few of the buildings have partially intact large window openings in exterior walls, measuring
around 60 cm x 90 cm. Entranceways have been obliterated across the site, and the only dimension obtained was a width of 90
cm in one specimen. The large windows and wide entrances are typical later historic constructional features (such as those found
at Rtsa rang, A-62). On the central southern edge of the summit there is a stone pedestal (1.5 m x 1.5 m) with a maximum height
of 60 cm, which may have functioned as the base of a flag mast.
Forward defensive-works
Below the summit, on a northwest spur, there is another dense group of ruined buildings that extends downward for approximately
90 m. This residential group terminates at a rampart that runs along the west flank of the hill. The base of this rampart was made
of stone courses reaching 1.5 in elevation, which were surmounted by an adobe-block tier, adding another 50 cm to 1.5 m to
the height of the defensive wall. The stone section of this rampart is around 1.5 m thick at its base and tapers to 50 cm in thickness
along its upper reaches. There was a gateway in this rampart wall along the northwest spur. Between the rampart and the inner
slope there is a walkway more than 3 m in width. Integrated into the middle section of the rampart are 17 rooms running parallel
to it. These rooms each average around 10 m² internally, and must have functioned as barracks. In this section of the rampart
there is an oval-shaped watchtower occupying a forward placement in the defensive works. It is 4.5 m high and 4.5 m across.
At what is now the floor level (this structure originally must have been at least 1.5 m taller than present) there are four rectangular
loopholes. At a little lower elevation are the vestiges of what appears to have been a smaller watchtower. Below the southern
extremity of Water Springs Ruined Castle are the remains of another small tower. The rampart winds its way around to the
southwest side of the hill, where a line of about 16 larger rooms abut the defensive wall. The maximum area of one of these
rooms is 25 m². Among these rooms is another tower whose stone walls are topped with courses of adobe blocks.
Southeast complex
The southern extremity of the circumvallation merges with another residential complex, consisting of a sparser arrangement of
buildings. This southeast sector extends 80 m downward from the summit in a swathe 35 m wide. The precipitous nature of the
east slope of the chu mur ti hill precluded the need for a defensive wall along this approach.
Spe mo che
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Site name: Spe mo che
Site number: A-65
Site typology: I.1
Geographic coordinates (N. lat.): 32º 06.1΄
Elevation: 4310 m
Administrative location (township): winter settlement (dgun sa)
Administrative location (county): Sgar
Survey schedule: UTAE
In the middle of the broad Sgar valley, on the left side of the Sgar gtsang po, there is an earthen mound called Spe mo che. This
feature has a circumference of 120 m and a maximum height of 10 m. It is not clear whether this mound represents a natural
landform with anthropogenic modifications or is entirely the remains of a manmade structure. The earthen walls found inside
the mound are so degraded that they are virtually indistinguishable from the surrounding earth. On the east side of the formation,
small rounds of wood are regularly spaced between some earthen slabs. Bone fragments are found inside the mound.
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Oral tradition
According to local residents, the Spe mo che mound is the remains of an ancient fortress founded before Ra la mkhar dmar. It
is said to have been abandoned because the site was inauspicious and Ra la mkhar built in its place. Local lore says that it was
surrounded by inauspicious signs embodied by the encircling mountains. To the south, the mountain was like the gaping jaws
of a wolf ready to devour livestock. To the west, the mountain was dark, like the darkness created by placing a lid on a vessel.
To the north, the mountain was like a butting yak whose horns were menacingly pointed in the direction of the fortress. To the
east, the mountain was like a combative man ready to strike. Spe mo che also seems to be associated with the Mon, that nebulous
ethnic group thought to have inhabited much of Upper Tibet in early times.
Affiliated sites
Graves
Less than 300 m away from Spe mo che, human bones were discovered in 1999 or 2000 by construction workers from lha rtse.
They were digging in the area to make adobe bricks for a new settlement. Among the remains were human skulls but their
whereabouts are no longer known to local residents. By the time of the survey, only a few human leg bones and vertebrae were
found scattered on the surface.
Ra la mkhar dmar
Ra la mkhar dmar (32° 28.9΄ N. lat. / 79° 51.5΄ E. long. / 4300 m) was founded by the first Buddhist king of Stod, Nyi ma mgon
(tenth century), in Sgar county.35 This large citadel is located near the right bank of the Seng ge gtsang po (Indus River), below
its confluence with the Sgar gtsang po. The valley is very broad here and supports excellent pasturelands. The buildings of the
fortress begin just above the valley floor and continue upwards along a rocky limestone hillside for 50 m. Unlike most archaic
strongholds, the facility does not possess a particularly secure geographic aspect. The site is divided by a gully into north and
south sectors, and the ruins have a total dispersion of approximately 4000 m². Contiguous residential complexes are found in
the two sectors. Defensive walls are largely absent from the site, as are buildings with a sharply staggered placement along the
axis of the slope. The buildings were mostly constructed of coursed-rubble that was heavily mortared with red mud. The mud
leaching from the walls has tinted the stones a distinctive red color. In some places mud plaster still clings to the walls.
Primarily small pieces of blue-gray limestone (20 cm to 40 cm in length) were used for construction. Design traits demonstrate
that all buildings supported roofs made with timbers, although none of these roofs have survived. A few walls of the facility
exhibit diagonal courses of masonry interspersed between horizontal courses. This style of stonework is most commonly found
in archaic temple-tombs appended to quadrate arrays of pillars. However, the standard of stonework at Ra la mkhar dmar is
generally inferior to that encountered at the archaic temple-tombs. Buildings of the castle tend to have high elevations, with
many wall sections 3 m to 5 m in height still standing. These structures contained relatively large rooms (commonly 15 m² to
25 m²). A few small window openings are found in certain buildings. The vestiges of ma ṇi walls are located below the site in
the valley bottom.
Mkhar lung mkhar gog
Basic site data
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Site name: Mkhar lung mkhar gog
English equivalent: Castle Valley Ruined Castle
Site number: A-66
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4730 m
Administrative location (township): winter settlement
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According to the La dwags rgyal rabs, Nyi ma mgon built Ra la mkhar dmar in the Horse Year (rta’i lo la ra la mkhar dmar rtsigs), which can probably
be assigned to 910 CE. This same source states that this was the first site occupied in the Mnga' ris skor gsum kingdom. Nyang ral chos 'byung mentions that
Ra la mkhar dmar was located north of Ma pham g.yu mtsho. For these references, see August Hermann Francke, Antiquities of Indian Tibet. The Chronicles
of Ladakh and Minor Chronicles, Texts, Translations, with Notes and Maps. Reprint edition. (Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, New Imperial Series,
1972), 93; Roberto Vitali, The Kingdoms of Gu.ge Pu.hrang. According to mNga’.ris rgyal.rabs by Gu ge mkhan.chen Ngag.dbang grags.pa. (Dharamsala:
Tho.ling gtsug.lag.khang lo.gcig.stong ’khor.ba’i rjes.dran.mdzad sgo’i go.sgrig tshogs.chung, 1996), 548, 553.
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The once large citadel of mkhar lung mkhar gog is situated on a ridge-top more than 400 m above the Sgar valley. It is one of
a chain of archaic strongholds occupying lofty locations above the arable Sgar valley.36 The castle commands excellent views
of the Sgar valley, especially to the north and east, and enjoys a defensibly tenable position. Castle Valley Ruined Castle is
found above the right side of the Mkhar lung chu, in proximity to where it debouches into the main valley. This was an extensive
complex composed of a cluster of small buildings built with cobble walls. The dispersion blankets an area of 190 m along the
axis of the hill (north-south) by 13.5 m to 30 m (east-west). A count of wall footings indicates that this site consisted of around
100 rooms and/or buildings. Most structures have been reduced to their foundations or low-lying wall fragments. The high
elevation of this site and style of construction, whereby tiny rooms predominate, are archaic cultural horizon situational and
morphological traits.
Oral tradition
Castle Valley Ruined Castle is said by local sources to be an ancient Mon citadel.
Site elements
Castle
The south end (13.5 m wide) and the north end (19 m wide) are the narrowest parts of the ridge-spur. Most of the remaining
sections of the summit are around 30 m wide. Ruined buildings are dispersed across the summit. Structures were made with
random-work cobble-stones. Walls must have been lightly mortared, however, no mortar remains in the seams. Walls are between
50 cm to 80 cm in thickness, but nothing above 1.5 m in height has survived, so an assessment of upper wall design is not
possible. It could not be judged whether the walls were possibly constructed with adobe blocks supporting fixed roofs or
alternatively, if they were low elevation stone structures with semi-permanent roofs made of materials such as animal hides or
yak hair. On the east rim of the summit there was an interconnected line of buildings. These mostly had very small rooms (4
m²) but more commodious specimens (12 m²) are also present. On the higher west edge of the hill, which overlooks a defile,
there is a sparser line of structures. The slightly inclined summit is dominated by slopes around 10 m in height interspersed
between the east and west rims of the formation. These steeply inclined slopes tend to be devoid of buildings. What appears to
have been the largest single structure at the site is found on the south side of summit (6 m x 11 m). Other ruins in this area have
exterior dimensions of around 5 m x 6 m.
On the east side of the Castle Valley Ruined Castle hill, around 10 m below the summit, the slope was cut to create a level
walkway averaging 3 m in width. North, or down slope, of the fortress there is a superficial funerary-like structure (3 m x 3 m),
which protrudes 70 cm above the ground.
Affiliated sites
Old Castle Valley (mkhar lung) village
The old Castle Valley (mkhar lung) village site (32° 02.2΄ N. lat. / 80° 01.9΄ E. long. / 4370 m) is located some 5 km north of
Castle Valley Ruined Castle, outside the range of its protective embrace. Covering an area of more than 15,000 m², this sizable
habitation was founded on the foot of a hill bounding the west side of the Sgar valley. Hundreds of people must have once
resided here in a dense agglomeration of houses. Unlike the nearby contemporary village of Castle Valley, with its five households,
the height of old Castle Valley affords it protection from floods, which have been particularly severe in the last decade. According
to local residents, old Castle Valley is connected to a Tibetan ruler who ruled the region before the Gnam ru dpon of the dga'
ldan pho brang period (1660-1959 CE). The settlement, however, is also associated with the Mon, which may suggest that its
foundations date to the prehistoric epoch or early historic period. It is certainly possible that important magnets of sedentary
settlement in the moist and fertile Sgar valley enjoyed a very long period of tenure.
The buildings of the old settlement have been largely leveled and only fragmentary wall footings, wall segments, pits, and
rocky mounds are left. In recent years, some of the stones have been used to build corrals on the site. At the upper end of the
village there are a few adobe wall segments heralding the location of a Buddhist temple, which included a chapel called Mkhar
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Although it is commonly stated that Sgar (Military Encampment) received its name from the military headquarters established here by Dga' ldan tshe
dbang (fl. 1680) in the late 17th century CE, the origin of this toponym may also have something to do with the eight ancient (Mon) fortresses (A-22, A-23,
A-41, A-42, A-43, A-44, A-66, A-67) that encircle the valley.
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lung mgon khang. This protector chapel was destroyed long before living memory. It is reported that the deities Dpal ldan lha
mo and Mgon po were worshipped here. In the vicinity are several ruined mchod rten. Approximately 1 km southwest of the
village is a ruined residential structure said to have been the residence of a district headman. Agricultural lands run right up to
this ruined homestead. This once substantial building (19 m x 23 m) contained at least eight large rooms. It was primarily
constructed of mud-mortared cobble walls, 50 cm to 80 cm in thickness. Wall fragments up to 2.5 m in height have survived.
Most walls are partially intact, thus the structure is in far better condition than those in old Castle Valley village. In a central
wall partition (runs north-south) there is a window (30 cm x 60 cm) whose lintel of tamarisk rounds is intact. Immediately to
the south is a less well-preserved building (6 m x 14 m), said to have been a kitchen (thab tshang). South of the headman’s
homestead are highly eroded plaques with carved inscriptions of the ma ṇi mantra in lan tsha script. This style of inscribed stone
appears to have been produced in the period of the early Mnga' ris skor gsum kings (roughly late 10th to 13th century CE). The
ruins of the headmen’s estate have been partially converted into a livestock pen (corral (lhas ra)) and tent camp (nang ra).
Old Ma lhas village
Like old Castle Valley village, old Ma lhas village is situated at the foot of the A yi la range, on a broad low-lying ridge-top
(32° 04.7΄ N. lat. / 79° 59.3΄ E. long. / 4340 m). In contrast, new ma lhas village is located in the rather marshy valley bottom,
and only supports around one dozen households. The precedent for permanent settlement in the valley bottom extends back to
at least the late 17th century CE, and the establishment of Dga' ldan tshe dbang’s Mnga' ris headquarters near the Sgar river.
Old Ma lhas covers an area of approximately 5000 m², and contains a dense collection of fragmentary mud-mortared cobble
footings and wall segments. There is a number of ruined mchod rten on the site. On the north or higher end of the ruined village
there are the remains of a Buddhist temple, where the local territorial deity mes pha bong (Ancestor Boulder) is supposed to
have been propitiated. The much degraded cobble and adobe block walls of the temple reach a maximum height of 2 m. The
relative position of the Buddhist temple, paralleling the placement of the temple in old Castle Valley, supports a chronological
connection between the two settlements, as attested in the oral tradition.
sGar agriculture
The origin of farming in Castle Valley and Ma lhas is ascribed to the Skal mon, an ethnic group that may have formed part of
the aboriginal substrate of western Tibet. By the sheer amount of defunct farm fields attributed to the ancient Mon, it would
appear that agricultural production in Sgar was at its zenith in the prehistoric epoch. Grain output in sgar may have once been
sufficient to feed several thousand people, engaging hundreds of farmers. Nowadays, in stark contrast, a handful of farmers in
each village struggle to produce any barley at all. The subsistence economic focus has shifted to animal husbandry. It appears
from anecdotal evidence that the agrarian way of life has been waning for centuries. The evidence presented by the old Buddhist
villages of Castle Valley and Ma lhas indicates that agriculture was still an important occupation during the period of the Mnga'
ris kings, but it probably was already in a state of decline.
Modern Ma lhas and Castle Valley still have extensive arable lands but only a small fraction is exploited in any given year.
This is due to a lack of manpower and a chronic shortage of water. A water shortfall also affects other agrarian communities in
Sgar such as Thar lcang, Gnam ru and Upper Fields (zhing ka gong). In recent years, flash floods and an explosion in the rabbit
population have had a detrimental impact on farming as well. Floods in the last decade have destroyed more than ten km² of
farmland and pastureland in the Sgar valley, eliminating the essential land-base of scores of families. In greater Castle Valley
alone, 35 families lost their winter grazing grounds in the devastating floods of 1999.
Lung pa rag pa mkhar
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Site name: Lung pa rag pa mkhar
English equivalent: Tawny Valley Castle
Site number: A-67
Site typology: I.1c
Geographic coordinate ( E. long.): 80º 04.0΄
Elevation: 4610 m
Administrative location (township): winter settlement
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The small residential complex of lung pa rag pa mkhar is situated on the right side of an effluent valley, 350 m above the eastern
edge of the Sgar valley. This site is dominated by a rampart ringing the top of a formation (24 m x 6 m to 7 m). The facility has
expansive views of the sgar valley, and must have been used to secretly monitor activities in the valley. Higher ground around
it could have been used by an enemy to outflank the outpost. However, this is a closed valley and the location of Tawny Valley
Castle is highly secluded.
Oral tradition
None was collected.
Site elements
Castle
On its interior side the main defensive wall is now either flush with the formation or elevated to a maximum height of 80 cm.
On the exterior side this encircling structure reaches a maximum height of 2.5 m. Built with a dry-mortar random-rubble fabric,
the heavy rampart wall is 1.3 m to 1.5 m thick. Locally-occurring, light-colored igneous stones that have varnished reddish
brown were used in construction. Courses of large stone up to 1.1 m in length filled with smaller stones were used on the exterior
face of the rampart. In the middle of the edifice there is a 2.3-m long transverse wall but it is unclear what type of partition this
is. The extant structural vestiges are insufficient to determine if there were permanent or temporary shelters within the ramparts.
The entrance to the facility is found on the north side of the structure (an unusual aspect); a 3-m long natural rock ramp way
sandwiched between the rampart and an outer defensive wall that leads up to it. The bottom end of this ramp is on a small ledge,
creating an opening in the defensive works.
Concealed building
Some distance below the outpost there is a stone building foundation (15 m x 4 m minimum) hidden in a morainal valley. It
was constructed on gently sloping sandy terrain. Its location is as discrete as is possible for a place that still has access to ample
sunlight. The well-built wall footings are 60 cm to 80 cm thick, and are at ground level or protrude up to 50 cm above the surface.
A 4-m long wall bisects the structure. There may be adjacent structural extensions but not enough is visible to know for certain.
Gyam smug mkhar
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Site name: Gyam smug mkhar
English equivalent: Brownish Red Rock Shelter Castle
Alternative site name: Gyam mug mkhar
English equivalent: Pigeon Castle
Site number: A-68
Site typology: I.1b, II.2d
Elevation: 4370 m.
Administrative location (township): Gyam smug
Contemporary usage: Wholesale extraction of stones.
Identifiable Buddhist Constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS I, HAS C1
The small, compact castle of gyam smug mkhar is situated on the west side of the agricultural Gyam smug valley. The ruined
buildings begin a little above the valley floor and continue upward to a small summit, situated approximately 30 m above the
valley bottom. Its position, directly above the valley, indicates that it played a prominent role in the defense of this locale. The
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buildings spill down the steep hillside for about 30 m in a swathe around 15 m in width. Examination of the extant remains
suggests that there were six tiers of buildings. Only some external walls persist, as all interior partitions have been recently
destroyed. The mainly coursed-rubble mud-mortared walls were constructed from pinkish brown sandstone blocks, 30 cm to
60 cm in length. Walls are 60 cm to 70 cm in thickness. Large quantities of stones were removed from the walls of Purplish
Brown Cliff Shelter Castle for building projects in the nearby Mnga' ris prefectural headquarters. This pilferage has seriously
affected the integrity of the archaeological site, eliminating most evidence of its ground plan.
Oral tradition
Purplish Brown Cliff Shelter Castle is variously attributed by local sources to Mon, Sing pa or the Tibetans of the Mnga' ris
kings period.
Site elements
Castle
The most intact part of the castle is its upper or most westerly structure. Its upper wall is 13 m in length and 4 m to 5 m in height,
with much of it revetting the slope. Like the early tenth century CE Ra la mkhar dmar (see Spe mo che, A-65), this wall contains
several herringbone masonry courses. This distinctive design feature is fairly unusual in residential buildings, and seems to
indicate that the two fortresses are chronologically and culturally linked. The geographic aspect of the two sites is also similar
in that the installations are closely flanked by higher ground, hence they were potentially vulnerable to attack from above. From
the structural evidence remaining it appears that the buildings of Purplish Brown Cliff Shelter Castle had wooden roofs. The
central section of the complex contains various broken wall footings. The lower section of the complex is especially fragmentary
and part of the hillside in this area has collapsed.
Funerary mound
To the south, in the plain below the castle, there is a rectangular mound aligned in the cardinal directions. The geographical
aspect, orientation and morphological characteristics of this structure provisionally identify it as a funerary structure (quadrate
mound (bang so)). It was built on gently inclined sandy terrain, strewn with rocks. Made of the same type of stone as the castle,
this mound is elevated as much as 80 cm above-ground level on its uphill or north side. Its south side is highly eroded, making
measurement of its length and height difficult. The south side seems to have been elevated about 1.5 m above the surface. The
approximate measurements of the structure are 3.8 m (east-west) x 9 m (north-south). In close proximity to the tumulus there
is a wall footing of the type that may have once supported a crude masonry structure used to display plaques inscribed with
Buddhist mantras and prayers.
Spu rog mkhar
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Site name: Spu rog mkhar
English equivalent: Crow Castle
Site number: A-69
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 4350 m
Maps: UTRS I
The small hilltop fasthold of spu rog mkhar is situated 40 m above the left or south side of the Seng ge ge gtsang po (Upper
Indus River) Valley. It occupies a secure location with good views of the Indus Valley. The hilltop and ruins are made from a
light-colored stone with prominent black grains, causing the site to be either black or nearly white, depending on light conditions.
True to its name, a flock of crows inhabits the locale. There were three buildings on the summit that are now reduced to their
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foundations. These foundations are set on prominent revetments, 75 cm to 1.5 m in height. The foundations and revetments
were constructed of mud-mortared coursed-rubble. Walls are 60 cm to 70 cm in thickness. These types of structures could only
have supported wooden roofs.
Oral tradition
According to some local reports, Crow Castle was an imperial period facility.
Site elements
North building
The north building may, in fact, have been two separate buildings that followed the contour of the ridge-top. Freestanding walls
are only 50 cm in height. This structure measures 4.8 m (north-south) x 19 m (east-west) and seems to have contained three
large rooms. If there were additional subdivisions of the interior space, the wall partitions have been totally demolished. The
east room is set at a slightly lower elevation than the rest of the structure.
Central building
The central building is located 8.7 m to the west of the north building. It measures 14 m (north-south) x 3.5 m (north half) and
4.8 m (south half). It appears to have been divided into three rooms or sections. The most southerly part of the structure is not
as well preserved as the rest of the building.
South building
The south building is located adjacent to the central building at 2 m higher elevation. It measures 7.2 m (east-west) x 6.5 m (east
wall) and 5.4 m (west wall). Freestanding walls have been reduced to 50 cm or less in height. In this structure there is a flag
mast (dar lcog) for the local territorial deity (territorial deity) of Glang chu gling.
Dung dkar mkhar gdong
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Site name: Dung dkar mkhar gdong
English equivalent: White Conch Castle Face
Alternative name: White Conch Ruined Castle (dung mkhar mkhar gog)
English equivalent: White Conch Ruined Castle
Site number: A-70
Site typology: I.1
Elevation: 4420 m
Administrative location (township): Khul pa
Administrative location (county): Ru thog
Contemporary usage: A shrine for the local territorial deity known as Mkhar gdong (Fortress Face).
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: On the east side of the summit there is a flag mast erected for the territorial deity
of Dung dkar.
Maps: UTRS I, HAS A1
White Conch Castle Face is planted on the flanks and top of a nearly vertical granite formation. Located on the left or west side
of the mouth of the Dung dkar valley, this installation must have been built to defend this agricultural enclave.37 The summit
complex (29 m x 8 m maximum) consists of four levels of densely aggregated buildings spread over a vertical distance of 10
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Less than 50% of arable land in the Dung dkar valley is now being cultivated. A chronic shortage of water in the Dung dkar chu is the main limiting
environmental factor. East of Dung dkar there is another small agrarian community in the valley of Bla nyung. Only about one-third of its potential agricultural
base is now being exploited due to dwindling water supplies. In earlier times, before the desiccation of the Ru thog region was so pronounced (Ru thog is
situated in a multiple rain shadow), these two valleys must have been thriving farming communities. A similar pattern of environmental degradation is found
in the nearby ’tsher lung/mtshe lung valley (Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, 30, 31).
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m, some 40 m above the valley floor. These buildings are likely to have had all-stone roofs but no signs of them have survived.
The highly deteriorated, very small size of the residential structures and defensive walls, staggered at different levels in the
formation, are archaic design traits, which corroborate the oral history of an early foundation date. Each of the terraces formed
behind the ramparts must have sustained a fortified position of archers, slingers or spear throwers. These level areas in the nearly
vertical eminence also may have underpinned either permanent or temporary shelters used by defending troops. All structures
are made of random-work dry-mortar granite-block walls. Some of these variable-length blocks (up to 1 m long) were hewn
flat on their exterior sides, and were used to produce walls 60 cm to 80 cm thick.
Oral tradition
According to local elders, White Conch Ruined Castle (dung dkar mkhar gog) was a castle of the ancient Mon.
Site elements
Summit complex
The walls on the summit are very fractional, precluding a detailed assessment of their ground plan. Exterior walls reach a
maximum height of 3 m and interior walls are 1 m to 2 m high in places. The larger, west end of the summit is separated from
the east end by a notch in the formation spanned by a rampart wall. The western edge of the summit is occupied by a building
with rounded walls up to 3 m in height and 4 m across. In this structure there is a window opening 40 cm in height. The east
end of the summit is encircled by the remains of a defensive wall, now 1 m or less in height.
Defensive works on the west and south flanks
To the west of the summit there are a series of greatly dissolved walls circumscribing terraces with a total length of 20 m. These
terraces may have once supported superstructures. On the flanks of the formation are a series of defensive works consisting of
walled platforms. Below the summit, on the south side of the formation, there is a retaining wall up to 2.5 in height, creating a
level area (2 m x 2 m). Slightly below it is another level area (5.5 m x 2.5 m) enclosed by a highly deteriorated wall. Farther
down, on the southwest side of the summit, there is a fragmentary wall bounding a level area 4 m in length. Nearby on a ledge,
a wall extends for 10 m towards the east side of the summit. Also in the vicinity are the footings of two more defensive walls.
At a lower level, approximately 15 m above the valley floor, there are the foundations of more structures that were closely
arrayed on the side of the formation. Also, about 15 m above the valley floor, on the southwest side of the formation, there is
revetment that blocks out an area of 6 m x 5 m. Less than 10 m from the base of the valley there is an inclined area enclosed by
a retaining wall, 14 m in length and 2 m and 6 m in width. The most substantial portion of this wall is 1.5 m high and 70 cm
thick. Below this area there is a very narrow walled ledge. Such a structure could only have had a defensive function unless it
was also invested with ritual significance.
Structures on the east flanks
At the east foot of the granite formation there are the remains of a wall, 1.6 m in height and 11 m in length. This important
outwork acted to strategically separate the valley bottom from the defended heights. Just above it, on the east side of a cliff,
there is a rampart wall up to 1.3 m in height enclosing a level area (2 m x 4.5 m). This wall incorporates boulders reaching 1.3
m in length. Approximately 20 m higher up is another rampart, a maximum of 2.5 m in height, which creates a level area covering
20 m². Five meters above it is another rampart, a maximum of 1.7 m in height, shoring up a terrace (2.8 m x 2 m). Above it are
the remains of yet another small rampart built on the almost vertical granite walls below the summit.
Sra brtan mkhar
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Site name: Sra brtan mkhar
English equivalent: Hard and Steady Castle
Site number: A-71
Site typology: I.1a
Administrative location (township): Khul pa
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The once important citadel of sra brtan mkhar stands on a rugged granite mount, situated on the north side of the Khul pa valley.
High standing walls give the ruins a formidable appearance. The bulk of the stronghold is perched on three prominent outcrops
set at different elevations along a rocky spine. The use of stone appurtenances in the construction of this facility, the predominance
of tiny rooms, the meandering wall plans, and the prominent revetments all point to an archaic cultural horizon origin. The
largest and best preserved ruins are those of the upper complex (160 m²). They repose on the highest outcrop of the site, poised
80 m above the valley floor. Walls were built of random-rubble chunks of granite (10 cm to 80 cm in length). Below the fortress
there is what appears to have been a sizable residential complex (3600 m²).
Oral tradition
According to local residents, Hard and Steady Castle was a castle of the ancient Mon.
Site elements
Upper complex
Upper edifice
The visual dominance of the upper edifice (6 m x 11m) in the upper complex is due to the existence of exterior wall sections
still reaching 3.4 m in height. These same walls on their interior side are 2.2 m high, the difference being accounted for by the
revetment underpinning the building. In the southwest wall of the upper edifice (exterior height: 2.8 m, interior height: 2.2 m)
there is a window opening (30 cm x 35 cm) with a metamorphic rock lintel. The interior north wall has been cut down to an
elevation of 1.5 m. The upper edifice contained a number of small rooms in the archaic design plan. The vestiges of some room
partitions in the upper edifice are discernable; these being 50 cm to 60 cm in thickness. In the west corner of the interior a recess
in the floor is spanned by two stone members 80 cm in length. In the central north portion of the structure there is a 90-cm long
stone beam bridging a deeper recess. At the southeast corner of the edifice two stone members (1 m long) lie across an area
below the main floor level. It is unclear if this feature is evidence for the existence of an extensive basement or just smaller
compartments of the substructure.
Lower edifice
From the upper building, a narrow stretch covered in rubble leads downward from the top of the formation. This must be the
remains of a walled passageway that accessed the lower edifice (5 m x 7 m?). The interface between the lower edifice and
passageway is no longer distinct. It appears that the lower building was split into three discrete levels, with a 6 m vertical
difference between the lower and upper tiers. The highest elevation wall fragment (southwest) in the lower edifice reaches 3.5
m on its exterior face and 1.8 m inside, reflecting the existence of an underlying revetment. In the southwest wall there is an
aperture (30 cm x 20 cm) with a granite lintel. Inside the lower edifice there is also evidence of subterranean spaces, but in situ
stone flooring was not observed. Dark-colored metamorphic corbels and bridging stones, however, are strewn around the ruin.
From lower points on the formation, the upper complex was accessed via a masonry ramp, 15 m in length and 2 m or more in
width. It ascends a 5 m vertical expanse of the formation.
Central complex
The central complex is situated on an outcrop, 15 m directly below the upper complex. This site consists of a broad notch (12
m x 2.8 m to 8 m) in the spine of the formation, which hosted a compact set of buildings. Very little has survived here. The west
and north sides of the central complex are enclosed by natural rock walls and the other two sides by masonry walls. The maximum
extant wall height of a structure is 2.7 m on the exterior and 1.1 m on the interior, the difference in elevation being accounted
for by a revetment. Such masonry bases created level and stable construction sites and increased the overall stature of buildings.
Lower complex
The lower complex is located 5 m below the central complex on the same spine of granite. A single edifice (4 m x 5.2 m)
overarches a knob of rock. Most of the west and north walls of this building are missing. The maximum exterior wall height is
2 m, with an interior elevation of 1.6 m. On the east flank of the lower complex outcrop there is a band of fragmentary foundations
(14 m x 3 m). Also, inferior to the lower complex on a steep slope there is a nearly contiguous collection of poorly preserved
building foundations (22 m x 24 m). No freestanding walls have survived among these small structures. A typical-sized building
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here measures 3.5 m x 4.5 m. Beyond this zone of ruins there are some outlying wall footings. Although very little of these
lower structures has endured, they must have once constituted a significant monumental presence.
mChod rten gi ri
Continuing downward in a southwest direction from the line of three outcrops, several more building foundations are passed
enroute to Mchod rten gi ri (no traces of mchod rten were discovered here). This inclined rocky zone contains a fairly sparse
arrangement of fragmentary building foundations. Mchod rten gi ri extends for 120 m along the line of the 15º slope and 30 m
laterally. It is enclosed by the Brag gdong dkar po formation in the west and Skyung mo brag in the east. The nature and extent
of the Mchod rten gi ri remains is questionable. They appear to have been part of a substantial residential quarter, the
superstructures of which may have supported semi-permanent forms of roofing, such as those made from yak hides or hair.
Lhun ’bur rtse rdzong
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Site name: Lhun ’bur rtse rdzong
English equivalent: Hill Summit Fortress
Site number: A-73
Survey typology: I.1c, I.2c
Geographic site coordinate (N. lat.): 31º 00.2΄
Administrative location (township): Rta sgo
Administrative location (county): Nyi ma
Survey date: June 20, 2001
Maps: UTRS VIII, HAS B1
Lhun ’bur rtse rdzong is composed of various breastworks built on the rugged heights of a hill overlooking the east side of Dang
ra g.yu mtsho. The site is located where the plain bounding the southeast side of the lake shrinks to a thin strip of rocky land,
just north of a small valley called Khra tshang (Hawk’s Nest). This position enjoys expansive views in all directions, as befits
a stronghold. It consists of two groups of ramparts: one on the summit and one below it on the west side of the formation. The
largest network of walls is found on the summit, which rises nearly 200 m above Dang ra g.yu mtsho. The series of small
protective walls clinging to the formation appear to be an archaic architectural feature, and permanent buildings may not have
been established here. The highly deteriorated ramparts are covered in orange climax lichen and do not seem to have been
disturbed for a long time. They were constructed of random-rubble and may have been dry-mortared, as there is little evidence
of adhesive materials in the joints. The uncut blocks used in construction are mostly between 20 cm and 60 cm in length.
Oral tradition
According to Dang ra g.yu mtsho Bon luminaries, Lhun ’bur rtse rdzong was an ancient Bonpo fortress and religious facility.
Site elements
Upper complex
The large group of defensive wall sections found on the summit encompass an area that measures 40 m (east-west) x 12 m
(north-south). They have been mostly leveled to their foundations. The maximum elevation of a freestanding wall is 60 cm,
while walls that revet the formation reach 1.7 m in height. These walls were purposely hidden from view, suggesting that stealth
was a major tactical consideration in the use of the installation. This concealment was accomplished by setting the walls slightly
behind the summit crags and exposed south ridgeline. A horizontal south rib of rock and a rocky arm 3 m higher and to the
north create a naturally sheltered space between them, which was accented by the construction of the walls. Small rock faces
divide this zone into several levels. Above the two ribs of rock, on the very summit, there is a mass of rock with traces of small
foundations on both its north and south faces. Except for a single access point in the north, sheer rock faces surround the upper
complex.
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Lower site
Directly below the summit, on the west side of the hill, are the remains of a rampart wall 35 m in length, which runs along the
top of a horizontal rib of rock. This wall must have functioned as a forward line of defense.
Affiliated sites
Bon hermitage
Between the summit and lower rampart walls, on the south side of the formation, there is the Bon retreat center of Lhun ’bur
rtse. This site was clearly occupied in more recent centuries. It consists of two main caves and a small building interconnected
by a narrow open-air gallery. The gallery is appended to a covered vestibule leading to a small outer courtyard. The single-room
building is set on the south side of the complex against a cliff. Its walls are of random-rubble that is heavily mortared in mud.
The roof is fully intact and was entirely built of stone in the archaic manner of construction. Finely cut bridging stones were
placed upon corbels at various angles, and stone sheathing laid over them. The entranceway is only 1.2 m in height, a diminutive
size typical of all-stone edifices (rdo khang). The interior dimensions of the room are 2.5 m x 2.5 m, and it has a floor-to-ceiling
height of 1.7 m. Inside the room there is a hearth and shelving, clearly identifying it as having a kitchen/utility function. The
5-m long north cave has a masonry façade with a entranceway 1 m tall. Against one wall is an elaborate stone and adobe altar
with various shelves and niches painted in red ochre. This altar is in good condition and is an excellent example of retreat cave
furnishings. There is plenty of standing room in the cave and a small hole in the ceiling. According to the G.yu bun sprul sku,
Bstan ’dzin tshul khrims, this hole was used in esoteric rdzogs chen practices. Outside the complex there is a masonry wall on
which sit old plaques inscribed with the a dkar du tri su mantra (for the primordial Buddha Kun tu bzang po).
Sdom ra rdzong
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Site name: Sdom ra rdzong
English equivalent: Spider Enclosure Fortress
Alternative site name: Mthon ra rdzong
English equivalent: High Enclosure Fortress
Site number: L-74
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4850 m
Administrative location (township): Gro ba
Survey date: June 22 and 23, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing and the periodic propitiation of the local yul lha, Sdom ra.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: On the west end of the inner structure there is a flag mast erected in honor of the
local yul lha.
Maps:
In the middle of a large basin, just outside the Gro ba township headquarters, there is a 120 m tall, flat-topped hill known as
Sdom ra/Mthon ra. This isolated hilltop has unobstructed views across the extensive Nya bo gtsang po basin. On its summit
there is a symmetrical arrangement of substantial rectilinear footings aligned in the cardinal directions. These footings are
distributed over an area of 1000 m². The symmetrical layout of these structures, their uniform design elements and analogous
erosive qualities indicate that they were built in the same general time period. Four rectangular structures set in the compass
points surround a much larger central structure. The well-built footings must have originally supported significant superstructures.
The regular alignment and straightness of the foundations indicates the superstructures could only have supported wooden or
semi-permanent roofs. The founding of an ancient facility at Sdom ra can probably be explained by the presence of ideal winter
grazing grounds and ample fresh water in the vicinity. Such natural endowments remain very important to the contemporary
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settlement. Stones used for construction were finished and are between 20 cm and 1 m in length. The ground plan and geographic
aspect of Sdom ra rdzong most resemble Rdzong nag (A-2), located 60 km to the east in Srin ya, Shan rtsa county.38
Oral tradition
According to native ’brog pa, Sdom ra is an ancient fortress. One elderly resident associated it with King Ge sar of the Tibetan
epic. Another local account states that the builders tried to extend the walls higher and higher, but in the end they could not
attain a height more than that of a goat.
Site elements
Summit complex
Outer structures
The southwest structure (8.4 m x 6 m) has all four foundation walls intact. They are around 60 cm thick. On the southeast corner
of the structure there is a 1-m high rocky tumulus. The southeast structure (6.7 m x 6.5 m) has walls around 70 cm thick, which
are elevated 30 cm to 80 cm above the surface of the summit. The northeast structure (7.7 m x 6.6 m) has a slightly elevated
area (6.9 m x 4.6 m) within it, which is probably filled with rubble. The north wall of the northeast structure is 70 cm thick and
elevated 40 cm above the ground surface. The northwest structure is of like construction and dimensions.
Inner structure
The central structure was located on the highest point of the summit. It covers an area of 29 m (east-west) x approximately 9 m
(north-south), with an extension adding approximately 15 m². The core central structure lies around 12 m from each of the four
outer structures. Its south section has been leveled but the north section is still elevated on its southwest corner to a maximum
height of 2 m. These walls are made of dry-mortar random-rubble. A wall running east-west bisects the north section of the
inner structure.
Outlying structures
Forty-eight meters below the east edge of the summit is another foundation aligned in the compass points. It measures 17 m
(east-west) x 4.4 m (north-south), and is partitioned into two sections. The better preserved east half has 60-cm thick walls,
which protrude 40 cm to 80 cm above ground.
Byi’u kye
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Site name: Byi’u kye
English equivalent: Little Bird Tea Urn39
Site number: A-75
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4920 m
Identifiable Buddhist Construction: On the south side of the summit, there is a small flag mast and broken pieces of
plaques inscribed with the ma ṇi mantra.
Maps: UTRS VIII
38
A description of Rdzong nag is found in John Vincent Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet: Archaeological Discoveries on the High Plateau. (Delhi:
Adroit, 2001), 89, 90.
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This is one local interpretation of the etymology of the site name.
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The highly dissolute Byi’u kye stronghold occupies a 40-m high hilltop that sharply rises above the confluence of two valleys.
There is a small but good winter grazing ground below the fortress. Regionally important pasturage in the Nya bo gtsang po
valley is located about 6 km away. The dispersion of ruins is found on the summit, a northern spur and on the upper east flank
of the formation. There was probably a conterminous group of buildings on the summit, covering an area of 32 m x 3 m to 6.5
m. Most of the original building materials have spilled down the steep sides of the hill. Stones used in construction were dressed
flat on their exterior sides, and are between 20 cm and 80 cm in length. Byi’u kye, with its small edifices and multiple ramparts,
shares morphological similarities with the so-called Mon castles of western Tibet.
Oral tradition
None could be obtained.
Site elements
Fortress
The most intact remains on the summit are located on its south side. Here there are revetments up to 90 cm in height. On the
rest of the summit there are only fractional wall footings left. From the north side of the summit, a ledge runs along the east
face of the formation gradually descending for 3 m in a southerly direction parallel to the breadth of the summit. On its north
side this ledge is 2 m wide and on its south side 5.5 m wide. Along its outer edge are partial footings of what must have been a
defensive wall. In three places this ledge is revetted. The largest revetment section is 4 m in length and 3 m in width, and was
made from dry-mortar random-rubble slabs. On the south edge of the ledge are two small areas with structural detritus.
Approximately 12 m below the north side of the summit is a spur, measuring 22 m (north-south) x 8 m (east-west), with many
highly dissolute wall footings.
Nag ra brag seng rdzong
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Site name: Nag ra brag seng rdzong
English equivalent: Black Enclosure Lion Rock Fortress
Site number: A-76
Site typology: I.1c
Maps: UTRS VIII
On the south and east slopes and summit of Nag ra brag seng, a black craggy mountain, there are the remains of a network of
ramparts. These formed what was once a fairly extensive defensive installation, overlooking the rich pasturage of the Nya bo
gtsang po basin. These pasturelands are easily monitored from the site. Nag ra brag seng rdzong supported few if any buildings.
All walls were constructed of dry-mortar random-rubble. In the middle reaches of the site, a succession of ramparts stretching
for 140 m hem in various natural terraces and saddles. These level areas along the steep slopes must have functioned as staging
grounds for military operations.
Oral tradition
None was obtained.
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Site elements
Lower rampart
Above the valley floor, on the south slope of the mountain, there is a more than 30-m long wall reduced to its footings (4860
m). This wall is at least 60 cm thick and built of stones primarily 30 cm to 50 cm in length. This appears to have been the
forward-most breastworks at Nag ra brag seng rdzong.
Central ramparts
Higher up the slopes, at the base of a line of crags, there is an extensive group of defensive walls enclosing natural terraces
(4920 m to 4930 m). A series of walls circumscribe a nearly 170 m wide section of the slope. On a rocky spur, on the east end
of this sector, there is a fragmentary wall section, 5 m in length and up to 60 cm in height. Below it, a wall runs along a steep
slope in a westerly direction for 26 m to another spur. It skirts the edge of a saddle. Much of this wall has been leveled to its
footings. Beyond the spur, the wall continues to traverse the slope for another 30 m to the west. In some places it encloses small
saddles that may have supported buildings, but too little is left to make a determination. Little bits of wall, up to 1 m in height,
are found at these locations. Another rampart extends 30 m west of the spur, gaining about 3 m in elevation. It encloses a 3-m
wide natural terrace. Above the east side of this terrace there are the foundations (8 m x 6 m) of what may have been a building
constructed next to a cliff. Within the rubble of this structure is a single stone slab 1.5 m in length that was possibly used as a
roofing element. At the western terminus of the 30-m long defensive walls there is another highly deteriorated transverse rampart
section that encloses a terrace, 6 m to 8 m in width. It is 35 m in length. This wall is interrupted in the west by an outcrop.
Beyond it there is the most westerly rampart, a wall that extends for 40 m along the edge of another terrace, which is 2.5 m to
6.5 m wide. Below the two westernmost ramparts there may have been two other rampart sections bounding terraces.
Summit ramparts
On the north summit crest, a 13-m long wall fences in the west side of a 100 m² saddle (5000 m). This better-preserved wall
has a maximum height of 1.2 m and is 2.5 m thick. There may also have been a wall on the west side of this saddle but virtually
nothing has survived. A couloir drops down from the east side of the saddle for 50 m vertical to another fragmentary rampart,
50 m in length. This lower wall effectively blocked passage from the eastern approaches to Nag ra brag seng rdzong; one side
of it ends in a long drop and the other side terminates against a large vertical spine of rock.
Brag mgo bzhag
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Site name: Brag mgo bzhag
English equivalent: Split Formation Head
Site number: A-77
Site typology: I.1b, I.2c
Administrative location (township): Mtho lding
Administrative location (county): Rtsa mda’
Survey expedition: UTAE and HTCE
Survey date: May 10 and August 21, 2001; May 15, 2002
On the north bank of the Glang chen gtsang po (Sutlej river), opposite Mtho lding monastery, there is a group of more than 30
small habitational caves in an escarpment called brag mgo bzhag. The caves face south and east, the two preferred orientations
of caves used for occupation in Tibet. The summit of brag mgo bzhag is surmounted by cobble structural remains. The summit
complex measures 100 m x 7 m to 15 m. Most of the ruins seem to have long since slipped down the sides of the escarpment.
This one time strategic and defendable facility overlooks the confluence of the Sangs dar chu and the Glang chen gtsang po.
Just west of the site there is a highly weathered four-sided brown sandstone pillar in the valley bottom. This broken pillar has
been reduced to 50 cm in height. The absence of adobe walls, the extreme degradation of the site and lack of evidence for
Buddhist occupation seem to indicate an archaic cultural origin.
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Oral tradition
None was obtained.
Site elements
Summit complex
The arc-shaped summit is situated 60 m above the Sangs dar chu, situated to the east. Access is via a steep ravine that winds
around north and east sides of the formation. There also may have once been a route up from the main group of caves but no
signs of one remain. The other flanks of the formation are blocked by conglomerate outcrops. The original character and extent
of the structures is not clear as very little remains of the site. On the highest part of the summit there are wall segments built
against the formation approximately 6 m in length, which attain a height of 1 m to 1.5 m. These mud-mortared walls (up to 80
cm thick) were constructed of cobbles, 20 cm to 50 cm in length. There are several small caves on the summit as well.
Affiliated sites
Sangs dar jo
On the opposite or west side of the Sangs dar chu, in the Glang chen gtsang po valley, there are a number of ruined mchod rten
at Sangs dar jo. Some of these Buddhist monuments may date to the bstan pa phyi dar (circa 980-1200 CE). This site is associated
with a Buddhist god also named Sangs dar jo. At Sangs dar jo there is a ruined settlement and long abandoned agricultural fields
as well.
mTho lding castles
Rising above the plain of Mtho lding, on the summits of the mesas bounding the south side of the Glang chen gtsang po valley,
are three sites called ‘mkhar’. They include Mkhar bar ma (Middle Castle) located directly behind the town of Rtsa mda’, Mkhar
’og ma (Lower Castle) located to the west, and Bu ri mkhar (sp.?) further to the west. The former two sites are visible from the
township headquarters while the later site is situated several kilometers to the east. Reportedly, there are no manmade ruins at
Bu ri mkhar.
mKhar ’og ma
According to the local oral tradition, Mkhar ’og ma was established by the founder of the Gu ge dynasty Nyi ma mgon (tenth
century CE). There are no longer clear signs of Buddhist monuments at this hilltop location (no mchod rten, ma ṇi stones,
fixtures for statuary, red ochre tinting, etc.). The main residential complex (34.5 m x 22 m) sits on the south summit of the
Mkhar ’og ma formation (31° 28.23 N. lat. / 79° 47.34 E. long. / 4020m). This high point of the formation has excellent views
of Mtho lding and adjoining areas of the Glang chen gtsang po valley. It is dominated by two tall mud-brick and rammed-earth
edifices with massive walls. Timber fragments litter the area around one of the structures. On the lower-elevation north summit
there is a single adobe and rammed-earth structure aligned in the cardinal directions containing seven rooms (31° 28.34΄ N. lat.
/ 79° 47.33΄ E. long. / 3970 m). Below the south summit, the highly eroded trail passes by various caves before entering a tunnel
23 m in length. This steeply inclined tunnel accesses the more open lower northern slopes of the formation and the monastic
complex of Bkra shis mgon (founded circa 1000 CE). Perennial sources of water are found in the gorges flanking both sides of
the Mkhar ’og ma formation.
mKhar bar ma
The south summit complex of the smaller Mkhar bar ma is dominated by two large mud-brick and rammed-earth buildings (31°
28.31΄ N. lat. / 79° 47.93΄ E. long. / 4000 m). The lower structure contains a large hall with the faint remnants of bstan pa phyi
dar period frescoes at the base of the southeast corner. Four figures, three holding a baby Buddha, are visible. Below the paintings
there is a band with highly damaged dbu med inscriptions. In close proximity there is a cave with an adobe block cubicle in
front of it. On the rear wall of this cubicle there was a large fresco, which has been defaced by paint applications and by Chinese
characters gouged into the surface. Below the south summit there are around two dozen caves enroute to a prayer flag mast and
ruined mchod rten. A tunnel below the north summit accesses the northern flanks of the formation. On these flanks are the
remains of an adobe block monastic facility (31° 28.54 N. lat. / 79° 48.01΄ E. long. / 3830 m).
Roughly 60 m to the east of the Buddhist center, on the edge of a steep east-facing slope, there are the remains of a building
(22 m x 14 m) built of sandstone. It was constructed with three distinct elevations. Revetments and freestanding wall segments
reach a maximum height of 1.5 m. There is a subterranean room (7 m x 4 m x 1.7 m) below the second tier of the structure. Its
east-facing entrance is accessed from the lower tier of the structure. This is the only edifice of its architectural type surveyed in
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the environs of Mtho lding. Its age and function are enigmatic. The architectonic qualities of this edifice may suggest an early
foundation date.
Brag la rdzong
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Site name: Brag la rdzong
English equivalent: Rock Hill Fortress
Site number: A-78
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4780 m
Administrative location (township): Zang zang
Administrative location (county): Ngam ring
Survey expedition: HTCE
Maps: UTRS XIII
Brag la rdzong is located on a summit southwest of Bkra bzang monastery. This site is situated approximately 80 km east of
Gtsang lha phu dar, the mountain that traditionally divided Zhang zhung from Bod.40 Only fragments of a revetment that encircled
the summit (24 m x 10 m) remain in place. The circumvallation of the summit is reminiscent of some of the ‘mon gyi mkhar’
of western Tibet. Steep ravines surround this well protected site on all but the north side. None of the revetment extends above
the rim of the summit. It was built of both stone and sod bricks. This is the only instance of the use of sod at an ostensibly ancient
site. There are no structural elements visible within the encircling walls. Fragments of defensive walls are also found below the
summit.
Oral tradition
According to local sources, Brag la rdzong was a stronghold of the ancient Hor, a tribe that dwelt in the region before the time
of Gu ru rin po che. According to local tradition, Tibet was invaded by three Hor Kings called Gur dkar, Gur nag and Gur ser.
It was Hor gur ser rgyal po who is believed to have invaded Bkra bzang and adjoining areas from the northwest. The local
cultural expert Kun dga’ don grub opines that this figure may have originally come from the bha ta hor region (in Central Asia)
in the imperial period.
Site elements
Fortress
The north side rampart is 2.5 m to 3.5 m in height. The lower half is built of variable size stone blocks up to 1 m in length, which
were hewn flat on their exterior faces. The upper half of the rampart is composed of highly eroded sod blocks at least 50 cm in
length. This part of the retaining wall appears to have been around 1.5 m thick. The south rampart was entirely built of stone,
and is 1.1 m thick and about 1 m in height. The remaining traces of the east and west walls are of similar construction. On the
south flank of the hill there are faint remains of other walls. On the southwest side of the hill, a highly deteriorated defensive
wall extends for 20 m up to the summit. About 10 m below the east and north sides of the summit, a continuous level band (100
m long and around 5 m wide) was excavated from the hillside. Much of the center of this level strip of ground has eroded into
a shallow gully. Evidently, this structure was built to protect the installation on its two most vulnerable flanks. Even from this
position, it is still 20 m vertical down to a connecting saddle. An earthen embankment resembling the cut of a modern road was
constructed north of the summit. There is a spring situated around one-half km from Brag la rdzong.
40
A discussion of this geographic demarcation is found in John Vincent Bellezza, “Territorial Characteristics of the Archaic Zhang-zhung Paleocultural
Entity: A Comparative Analysis of Archaeological Evidence and Popular Bon Literary Sources.” Paper prepared for the International Association of Tibetan
Studies Conference X, Oxford, 2003. Currently in press.
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bkra bzang monastery archaeological sites
Bkra bzang monastery is the most important rnying ma pa byang gter (Northern Treasure) tradition site in Tibet. It was founded
by the great treasure revealer (gter ston) Rig ’dzin rgod ldem ’phru (14th century CE). He is believed to have been born at the
site of the current abbatial residence (bla brang). Although most of the rnying ma textual treasures were discovered at Zang
zang lha brag, 40 km to the northwest, it was in Bkra bzang that Rig ’dzin rgod ldem ’phru opened the portal of scriptural
treasures. The current lama of the monastery is Rig ’dzin pad ma ’gyur med (born circa 1955), the 25th in a biological lineage
beginning with the great gter ston himself. This lineage traces its genealogy to hor gur ser rgyal po. According to local lore,
Gu ru rin po che spent seven days at the monastery’s Pad ma sgrub phug (Lotus Religious Attainment Cave) (4860 m), propitiating
the deity Phur pa. Local tradition also says that the son of King Khri srong lde btsan, Mu ne btsan po (late 8th century CE), and
the son of the last Tibetan emperor, ’Od srung (late 9th century CE), sojourned at Pad ma sgrub phug.
Below the bla brang, cultivation is said to have once taken place in the narrow Sne mo lung valley. Foundations of small
houses of unknown age are found in the valley bottom. Currently, the upper extent of cultivation (where barley fully matures)
is found a few kilometers to the southeast, in the village of Drung kho.
On the very peak of Ri bo bkra bzang, rising 400 m above the valley, there is the temple of Lha khang rtse (4950 m). Between
it and the lower but larger temple complex of Bar lha khang, there are a number of wall remnants that appear to have been part
of an archaic rampart network. These traces of a stronghold are not connected to Buddhist deeds or buildings in the sacred
geographic tradition of Bkra bzang. Although there is no local tradition regarding Ri bo bkra bzang being inhabited before the
time of Gu ru rin po che (8th century CE), the close proximity of a ‘Hor fortress’ suggests that it also may have been an important
site before the period of Buddhist occupation. The summit at Lha khang rtse has a much better panorama than Brag la rdzong;
therefore, it seems likely that, at the very least, it functioned as a surveillance post for the fortress. The most prominent of the
old defensive walls is found on a formation called Brag bu chung (Little Child Rock), which is said to look like a mother holding
a young child in her lap (4920 m). This structure consists of two revetments interconnected by a parapet wall constructed above
a rocky overhang (total length 7 m). The two revetments each create a level area of approximately 25 m². These structures were
well built with thin pieces of masonry using no mortar, in the archaic technique of construction. They have undergone much
erosion and subsidence, which in itself is indicative of considerable age. Near Pad ma sgrub phug is a site called Mtho ris skas
(Ladder of Heaven), a steeply inclined masonry ramp (1 m to 3 m wide and 10 m high) wedged into a notch in the formation.
This also appears to have been a defensive feature founded prior to Ri bo bkra bzang becoming a Buddhist center. A similar
construction is found at Sha ba brag (A-3).
Mtho chu mkhar
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Site name: Mtho chu mkhar
English equivalent: Lofty River Castle
Site number: A-79
Site typology: I.1a
Elevation: 4830 m.
Administrative location (township): Dar ma
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: ma ṇi mantras have been recently carved into the formation.
A tower-like ruin situated in the Mtho chu valley has been assigned the name Mtho chu mkhar for the purposes of this study.
This archaeological site appears to be innominate. It is situated on the western edge of the Mtho chu valley approximately 2 km
above its mouth. The main edifice of the site is still about 5 m tall, and it is planted on top of a rock outcrop, adding another 10
m to 15 m to its elevation. This structure appears to have consisted of three stories, the tallest all-stone edifice documented to
date in Upper Tibet. The walls of the tower taper slightly inward, in the manner of traditional Central Tibetan monumental
architecture. The walls at the base of the building are around 1 m thick and about 75 cm thick in the upper sections. The remains
of a smaller residential structure are also found on the site. It would appear that Mtho chu mkhar was a fortified habitation,
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which belonged to high-ranking members of the archaic horizon society. Its location is not particularly well insulated from
attack, so it seems plausible that it existed within a residential web of temporary shelters.
Oral tradition
Local ’brog pa ascribe Mtho chu mkhar to the ancient Mon.
Site elements
Tower
The tower is built of light-gray sedimentary stone and red and tan sandstone cut into variable-sized blocks (20 cm to 1 m long),
averaging about 40 cm in length. The random-work courses were mud mortared but much of the adhesive has washed out from
the walls. What mortar remains is heavily impacted and covered in lichen. The modified square ground plan has an indenture
on one side and measures 7 m x 4.4 m x 4.4 m x 3.6 m on each of its four main faces. The two walls of the cut-away section
measure 1.5 m x 1.6 m. The current maximum exterior elevation of the structure is approximately 5 m, but in order to accommodate
a roof it was at least marginally taller. The ingression is in the south, the indented side of the edifice. The integral portal has a
height of 1m and a width of 80 cm. It accesses a vestibule that runs the entire north-south length of the structure. The all-stone
corbelled roof over the vestibule is still fully intact. On its rear west side there is access to the second floor, which is set 1.2 m
higher. This level is divided into two rooms by a 75-cm thick partition wall. Two stone floor joists, more than 1.5 m in length,
are still in place. In the south room some of the corbels are in situ as well. Directly below these two rooms there may have been
a basement but, if so, it has either collapsed or been sealed off by rubble. The vestibule also accesses an upper room directly
above it, which appears to have constituted part of the third level of the tower.
Outlying structures
Below the entrance, at the southeast base of the outcrop, are the remains of another all-stone habitational structure. Its walls
have been reduced to 1.1 m or less in height. This structure was built against a cliff; its three freestanding walls measure 1.5 m,
3 m and 2.5 m. There is much rubble from these walls lying at the base of the structure. Above this carcass there appears to be
the remains of a buttressed stairway, which accessed the entrance to the tower.
Nag ra rdzong
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Site name: Nag ra rdzong
English equivalent: Black Enclosure Fortress.
Site number: A-80
Site typology: I.1b.
Geographic coordinate 9E. long.): 82º 15.1΄
Administrative location (township): Hor chus
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: On the upper formation there is a small wall with inscribed prayer plaques and a
prayer flag mast for Sing pa a tsa ra, the local yul lha.
Maps: UTRS X
The fairly large defensive complex of Nag ra rdzong overlooks the north side of the Bon sacred lake Gung rgyud mtsho (4770
m). A perennial stream runs below the fortress. Its various residential complexes occupy three light-colored limestone formations,
providing it with a secure posture. The upper complex is by far the largest; being comprised of five building groups spread over
a 115 m length of the summit. The middle complex (30 m x 16 m) has been largely obliterated. The small lower complex is
comprised of just a couple small structures. At the foot of these three formations are other structural remains. The ground plan
of the structures (straight and regular) demonstrates that they were constructed with wooden roofs. Buildings were constructed
of unhewn blocks, mostly between 20 cm and 40 cm in length (the longest building stone is 1 m).
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Oral tradition
Nag ra rdzong is said by local ’brog pa to be the ancient fortress of a personality from the Subcontinent called Sing pa a tsa ra.
Agriculture is supposed to have once been practiced in the Nag ra valley, but few signs of cultivation were detected.
Site elements
Upper complex
Building group 1
Building group 1 is located on the west end of the summit (19.5 x 8.5 m). The remnants of wall partitions indicate that it contained
large rooms or buildings aligned in the cardinal directions. The highest revetment reaches 1.1 m.
Building group 2
Building group 2 is located on the crest of the ridge 15 m to the east of BG1. It was probably composed of five rooms or
interconnected buildings (21.5 m x 7 m). A foundation on the north side of BG2 is 1.5 m thick. This masonry mass must have
had a special function. Some walls exhibit herringbone courses of masonry.
Building group 3
Building group 3 is located 10.4 m to the northeast of BG2. This collection of structures was built at two or more different levels
on the ridge-top (38 m x 5 m to 8.5 m). Revetments attain a height of 1.2 m. A wall at the southeast corner of BG3 is 1.5 m in
height, about 50% of which is freestanding. This is virtually the only part of a superstructure to survive at Nag ra rdzong.
Building group 4
The eastern extremity of building group 4 is adjacent to the east wall of BG3. This is the highest elevation group of structures
at the site (40 m x 4 m to 6 m). The north end of BG4 is on the ridge-top, with its axis following the south slope downward.
Building group 5
The upper end of building group 5 is adjacent to the middle of the south wall of BG3. The axis of BG5 follows the southwest
line of the slope, thus its structures were set at various elevations. BG5 measures 45 m x 5 m to 7 m.
Middle complex
The formation on which the middle complex sits is situated 100 m south of BG5 of the upper complex, on a smaller outcrop
(5010 m). A small hanging valley intervenes between the upper complex and middle complex formations. In this valley, a highly
dissolved residential structure (5 m x 9 m) was built against the base of the upper formation. Very little of even the foundations
of the buildings that once comprised the middle complex remain intact. They were founded on a level shelf endowed with a
natural bulwark of stone to the south. The density of structures at this location is unclear. On the east end of the middle complex
summit there is a ruined house almost certainly built after the fortress was in ruins. Along the north edge of the summit are the
vestiges of a defensive wall that enclosed the shelf.
Lower complex
The lower complex is situated 45 m west of the middle complex. A foundation (11 m x 6.5 m) sits at the base of this outcrop.
On the formation there is a wall (7 m long and 2 m high) built against a rock face. This must have been a defensive feature. In
the hanging valley that runs between the various formations are four building foundations arrayed across the valley bottom.
These faint remains each average around 30 m².
Stag la mkhar
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Site name: Stag la mkhar
English equivalent: Tiger Hill Castle
Site number: A-81
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 4150 m.
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Administrative location (township): Skyid thang
Contemporary usage: Light grazing and illegal excavations carried out in search of valuable artifacts. Many small holes
have been recently dug at proximate monasteries.
Rising 260 m above the town of Spu rang is the celebrated Stag la mkhar, a large fortress and monastic complex. The parent
hill is on the right bank of the Rma bya gtsang po (Karnali river). According to the Bon tradition, a fortress on the hilltop was
founded in the prehistoric Zhang zhung period.41 This hill, known as Sman gyi rgyal mo stag ri rong (Queen of the sman Tiger
Hill Valley), also hosted the dge lugs pa monastery of Bshad ’phel gling, as well as an earlier monastery belonging to the sa
skya sect. This same hill also supported the old Tibetan government (dga’ ldan pho brang srid gzhung) headquarters (rdzong)
of Spu rang. Verification of the cultural identity of structures attributed to prehistoric Zhang zhung was not possible. Its
morphological and design characteristics vary little from those exhibited by the sa skya pa monastery. Nevertheless, the strategic
location of the Sman gyi rgyal mo stag ri rong hilltop near a main river confluence, in western Tibet’s largest agricultural enclave
and the paucity of contending strongholds, lend credence to the literary and oral traditions attributing an archaic cultural monument
to this location.
Oral tradition
A single earthen wall segment of the prehistoric epoch stands on the summit of the Stag la mkhar hill. In the local oral tradition,
this castle is variously called Stag lha mkhar (Tiger God Castle) and Stag mo ris bkra stag lha mkhar (Female Striped Tiger
Tiger God Castle).
Site elements
Zhang zhung fortress
The hill of Sman gyi rgyal mo stag ri rong rises to the west until, at its highest point, it is suspended above the old Buddhist
monasteries. On the 15-m wide summit there is a highly eroded V-shaped rammed-earth wall, 15 m in length, a maximum of
1 m thick and approximately 6 m high. The mouth of the ‘V’ is 5 m wide. There are, more or less, 12 horizontal rows of orifices
in this wall, in which pins used to hold the shuttering in place during construction were inserted. Capping many of these orifices
is a stone in the wall and in some places adobe blocks. The walls of the ruined Sa skya monastery are constructed in a similar
fashion, while those of Bshad ’phel gling are much less weathered, contain far fewer orifices and only average 40 cm to 60 cm
in thickness. In addition to the landmark wall segment, there is cobble building rubble on the summit. This rubble is scattered
west and south of the summit. Faint traces of another wall are found on the steep south flank of the summit.
Cave complex
Immediately north of Sman gyi rgyal mo stag ri rong there is a south facing cave complex with around 40 individual caves.
These evidently were used by Buddhist religious practitioners, because there are many ma ṇi mantras carved on the cliff face
and among the domiciliary remains.
Byi’u mkhar
Basic site data
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Site name: Byi’u mkhar
English equivalent: Little Bird Castle
Site number: A-82
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4650 m
Administrative location (township): bar ka
See Bellezza, “Territorial Characteristics of the Archaic Zhang-zhung” for an analysis of the pre-Buddhist status of the site.
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Administrative location (county): Spu rang county
Survey expedition: HTCE and TUE
Survey date: May 7, 2002 and September 8, 2005
Contemporary usage: As an integral part of the Byi’u monastic complex. Over the years, stones have been appropriated
from the site for various monastic constructions. In 2003, much of the remainder of the site was dismantled to build a
new Buddhist temple on the summit.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A tiered shrine known as gu ru ’bum pa and a cubic protector shrine (btsan khang)
were constructed in the east crags of the summit from pre-existing building materials. It is reported that these two shrines
withstood the Chinese Cultural Revolution largely unscathed.
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Until its final eradication several years ago, Byi’u mkhar was situated atop the 60-m high pyramidal rock formation of Byi’u
(Little Bird). Located on the northeast shore of Ma pham g.yu mtsho, the summit of Byi’u is 80 m long and a maximum of 24
m wide (west side). The circumambulatory path around the holy lake and the important route between ma phang g.yu mtsho
and La lnga mtsho (links the Himalayan conduit of Spu rang and the uplands around the pilgrimage center of Mount Ti se) could
have been effectively controlled from this position. It does not seem likely that such a strategically and economically vital
location would have been ignored during the archaic cultural horizon. Immediately east of Byi’u mkhar is the famous monastery
of Byi’u with its Gu ru rin po che cave. As such, the Gu ru rin po che myth may have been contrived to supplant or suppress
awareness of an earlier occupation. The probable archaic cultural origin of the fortress is supported by:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The absence of a Buddhist narrative associated with the stronghold.
Its highly strategic position on important lines of communication.
Its prime geomantic placement on the waterway linking two sacred lakes.
The presence of cave shelters, hot springs and ample fresh water resources nearby.
The existence of archaic cemeteries and isolated pillars in the vicinity.
Oral tradition
According to the local oral tradition, the name Byi’u mkhar comes from a small bird that flew into the cave of Gu ru rin po che.
It is also said that from this location Gu ru rin po che went to the southwest country of the Srin po (man-eating ogres) in the
form of a little bird (byi’u). However, the current head of the rnying ma pa Byi’u monastery, Pad ma chos ’phel (born circa
1939), has not been able to confirm either of these stories. The local Gu ru rin po che myth also states that the Vajrayāna master
meditated in his cave for seven days, and during that time a miraculously speaking sandalwood image of himself appeared from
Ma pham g.yu mtsho. This highly valued statue was enshrined at Byi’u monastery until it was stolen in the Chinese Cultural
Revolution. Originally, the Buddhist holy site was known as Pad ma rgyas pa’i lha khang (Temple of the Spreading Lotus) and
successively as Byi’u pad ma’i mkhar (Castle of the Little Bird Lotus), Byi’u zam bzo mkhar (Little Bird Fashioned Bridge
Castle), and finally under the ’brug pa bka’ brgyud subsect, as Byi’u dgon pa. In the Chinese Cultural Revolution, texts recording
the history and lore of the monastery were lost. Recently, at the behest of prefectural authorities, the head lama of Byi’u monastery,
Pad ma chos ’phel, authored a four folio text that contains much of the same information recorded above. Locally, it is said that
the formidable fortress on the summit once had a wall encircling it. In this period, the Ganga chu at the base of the formation
was supposedly much deeper and spanned by a bridge that was guarded from the stronghold.42
Textual tradition
According to Bon lore recorded in Ti se dkar chag by Dkar ru grub dbang, Byi’u, known as Bya skyibs brag (Bird Shelter
Formation), was visited by great Bon saints circa the 11th and 12th century CE: “On Bird Shelter Formation there is the religious
practice cave of Gu ru rnon rtse, Dam pa ’bum rje and [Spa ston] Bstan rgyal [Bzang po]. These three were actually sanctified
with the blessings of Rgyal ba gshen rab.”43 A recently written supplement to the Ti se dkar chag confirms that bya skyibs was
indeed an ancient Bon religious center:
42
Historical information on the Byi’u locale is also recorded in Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po, Mnga’ ris chos ’byung gangs ljongs mdzes rgyan (Lha sa: Bod
ljongs mi dmangs dpe skrun khang. 2006), 152. He asserts that Pad ma mkhar is a site with impressive stone walls, wooden building materials and many shards
of ceramics scattered about (Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po, Mnga’ ris chos ’byung, 154). It is not clear, however, what site the author actually has in mind here. Gu
ge tshe ring rgyal po confirms that an account in the Btsun mo bka’ thang regarding a pilgrimage to Ma pham g.yu mtsho by King Khri srong lde btsan and his
queen, Lha lcam ’phrul dgu sgyur ma, refers to the Byi’u locale (Pad ma rgyas pa’i lha khang) (Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po, Mnga’ ris chos ’byung, 154). According
to Btsun mo bka’ thang, the sandalwood statue of Gu ru rin po che was fashioned by King Khri srong in memory of his religious master.
43
For this account, I have use the copy of the Ti se’i dkar chag recently published in the journal Zhang zhung rig gnas (Dkar ru grub dbang bstan ‘dzin rin
chen. “’Dzam gling gangs rgyal ti se’i dkar chag tshangs dbyangs yid phrog.” Zhang zhung rig gnas: 35.)
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bya skyibs monastery of the west bathing head: In the time of the early speech doctrine, in the bird shelter of the golden bluff, was
that known as the divine community (lha sde) of G.yung drung bkod pa (Well Arranged Swastika). In later times, ’Bri gung spyan
snga shes rab ’byung gnas (13th century CE) and his circle of 500 meditators stayed here for a long time, and the ’bri gung pa took
ownership [of this place].44
Site elements
Fortress
As of 2002, the long-term Buddhist redevelopment of the site and the wholesale removal of the old stone structures made it
extremely difficult to assess the original architectural character of the stronghold. The radical recasting of the site since that
time now makes the task of assessment virtually impossible. As of 2002, the east side of the summit was under the complete
domination of the monastery. Other sections of the hilltop, however, appeared to host the obscured remains of a defense facility.
There were structural traces of a 1-m-thick circumvallating parapet wall on various parts of the rim of the summit. There were
also vestiges of what were probably ramparts on the abrupt west and north flanks of the formation. On the southeast side of the
hill, sections of revetments up to 2 m in height were extant. Some vestiges of these defensive works are still in situ. A considerable
amount of stone rubble was found on the summit and spilling down the east, west and south sides of the hill. Now the rubble
has been cleared and the entire hilltop has been given over to Buddhist activities. Several monastic residences were built from
the structural detritus of the old fortress on the flat west summit. Some of these houses were destroyed before living memory
and others reportedly built just 60 years ago. All buildings on the west summit were recently razed and are now undergoing
reconstruction.
Dbang brag phug
Basic site data
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Site name: Dbang brag phug
English equivalent: Power Rock Cave
Site number: A-83
Site typology: I.1, I.2c
Administrative location (township): Dung dkar
Survey date: May 15, 16, 2002.
Dbang brag phug is situated on the south side of the Dbang chu, a tributary valley of the Dung dkar chu. It consists of a series
of terraces and much building rubble spread over the lower slopes of a hill, as well as a highly degraded summit complex. The
site appears to be that of a fortified settlement consisting of a stronghold built above a village. No contemporary centers of
sedentary occupation are found in the Dbang chu valley. The Dbang chu watercourse now only flows intermittently. Dbang
brag phug must have been founded when the locale still possessed a more reliable supply of water. The lower site covers
approximately 3000 m² and begins at the base of the hill. The easily defended summit complex contains various protective wall
fragments and several small caves. The highly dissolute state of the ruins, the small staggered rampart fragments, the absence
of Buddhist landmarks, and its weak representation in the local oral tradition point to the archaic status of Dbang brag phug.
The physical evidence demonstrates that the Dbang chu valley was very marginal to the important Buddhist centers of Dung
dkar and Phyi dbang, of which it is closely allied geographically. There is very little potential arable land around Dbang brag
phug, probably an important factor in the neglect of the site during the Buddhist era.
44
See Bstan ’dzin dbang grags, “Gangs mtsho’i nye ’khor gyi dgon pa khag ,” 54: nub kyi khrus sgo bya skyibs dgon / gsung bstan thog ma’i dus gad pa
gser gyi bya skyibs can g.yung drung bkod pa’i lha sde zhes ba ste / dus phyi ’bri gung spyan snga shes rab ’byung gnas ’khor sgom chen lnga brgya dang
bcas pas yun ring du bzhugs shing ’bri gung pas bdag tu bzung /.
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Oral tradition
According to villagers of Phyi dbang and Dung dkar dbang, Brag phug is an ancient settlement.
Site elements
Lower site
The terraced lower site begins at the base of the Dbang brag phug hill and extends upwards for about 20 m vertical. The large
amount of building rubble dispersed on the terraces seems to support the local belief that a village once stood here. Traces of
the footings of retaining walls are found along the edges of the terraces. The largest intact wall fragment is 11 m in length and
50 cm in height. On one of the terraces structural disjecta membra was converted into a now disused sheepfold. At the northeast
corner of the site two wall segments were built into the slope. One of these segments (1m x 1m x 1m) appears to be part of a
retaining wall. The other wall segment is 1.6 m in length and 60 cm in height. Smaller superficial traces continue for several
meters around.
Summit complex
Defensive structures
Above the lower site, the slope gradient progressively increases until the flanks of the summit are vertically aligned. The summit
complex is almost entirely surrounded by escarpments that could not have been easily scaled. All extant structures have a
mud-mortared random-rubble texture made of unhewn stones (generally 15 cm to 60 cm long). These structures are highly
disintegrated and few coherent wall segments remain. Below the summit on a small shoulder is a building site (8 m x 14 m)
reduced to scattered stones. Just below the shoulder is a wall segment built into the slope, 2 m in length and 60 cm in height.
Higher up, in a steep gully below the summit, there are two defensive walls segments spaced 8 m vertical apart. The lower
specimen is 2.2 m in length and 1.2 m in height. The upper specimen (located just below the rim of the summit) is 1.5 m long
and 1.5 m in height. Between these two walls, which must have fully spanned the gully, there is what appears to be the footing
of another wall. These structures must have functioned to protect the summit (40 m x 8 m) from approaching attackers. The
south summit (side most vulnerable to incursion) seems to have been fully encircled by a wall but little of it is still extant. The
largest fragment of this defensive wall is only 1 m in length and 1 m in height, and contains just 20 stones (up to 50 cm in
length). The summit is strewn with rubble, but there is very little indication of what kinds of structures were once fixed here.
Summit caves
In the earth and gravel formation of the east side of the summit there are six small caves. The easternmost cave (3 m x 4.5 m)
contains an oblong niche and two deep arched recesses hewn from the walls. These are typical design features of caves throughout
Gu ge in all periods of occupation (the architectural precedent for this type of design can be traced to the archaic cultural horizon).
Directly above the easternmost cave is a cave (2.5 m deep) with dual chambers and a very small entrance. Between these two
caves there is a 1-m long, 40-cm high wall fragment that may have been part of an upper cave anteroom. Adjacent to the
easternmost cave there is another cave whose entrance has been destroyed. Immediately west of this cave there is a chamber (4
m x 4.5 m) that has been partially filled in by rubble. Directly above this obstructed cave is a smaller specimen (2.5 m x 2.5 m).
To the north of this smaller cave there is a partially collapsed specimen.
mKhar rtse phyi dbang rnam rgyal
The most substantial locus of past settlement in the area is found near Phyi dbang village. On a strategically vital formation, set
above the confluence of the village’s two main agricultural valleys (Dung dkar chu and Phyi dbang chu), there is the great
Buddhist fortress of Mkhar rtse phyi dbang rnam rgyal. According to the local oral tradition, it was founded by a scion of Glang
dar ma, the last Tibetan emperor of the imperial period. This may refer to Nyi ma mgon, the founder of the Mnga’ ris skor gsum
kingdom. The adobe block and rammed-earth walls of the castle are found on the east side of the summit, and many of them
still attain a height of 4 m to 6 m. No structural remains that could be attributed to the archaic cultural horizon were detected at
the site. On the sides of the large formation and on an adjoining badland hill to the west there are upwards of 3000 caves, making
it probably the largest cave complex in Gu ge. Many of these caves have cut niches and recesses and fire-blackened ceilings,
which is clearly indicative of human habitation. The ruins of a large monastery destroyed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution
dominate the north side of the summit. Reportedly, it belonged to the sa skya pa, and was the chief monastery of this sect in Gu
ge. It appears to have been in decline for a long period, and before the Chinese Communist period, there were only a handful
of monks in residence there.
Local officials report that the current population of Phyi dbang village is between 80 and 90 people. According to the legend
collected during survey work, the west side of the Phyi dbang rnam rgyal formation is called Nang stong (Inner One Thousand)
and the east side Phyi stong (Outer One Thousand), each of which is said to have been home to 1000 households. On the other
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hand, Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po reports that, at the height of Buddhist Gu ge power, 1000 households residing inside Mkhar rtse
phyi dbang rnam rgyal and 1000 households outside the walls of the citadel.45 The massive depopulation is attributed to an
epidemic that hit in the distant past. It is very likely, however, that regional desiccation and falling agricultural production, as
well as the declining fortunes of the Gu ge kingdom, played critical roles in the reduction of population. At present, the spring-fed
streams that run through the Dung dkar chu and Phyi dbang chu valley systems are only sufficient to bring a fraction of the
fertile lands under the plow in any given year. The presence of so many caves, perennial water sources and an ample agricultural
land-base may point to the Phyi dbang rnam rgyal formation as having been inhabited since the prehistoric epoch. The existence
of three cemeteries in the area, dated to the second half of the first millennium BCE, indicates that the environs around mkhar
rtse mi dbang rnam rgyal was indeed an important cultural center in the Iron Age.46
Spo sa mkhar gog
Basic site data
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Site name: Spo sa mkhar gog
Site number: A-84
Site typology: I.1x, I.2b
Administrative location (township): Sde rog
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A couple simple flagpoles on the summit of the site dedicated to the famous Yul
lha known as Ge khod.
Spo sa mkhar gog is located in the mouth of a 1-km deep mountain cove, on the east side of the Ru gsum/Ri gsum/Rog gsum
valley. The ruined stronghold sits on an isolated rock outcrop, which is a maximum of 45 m in height. The south face of Ru
thog’s most important yul lha, Ge khod gnyan lung, is visible from the site. The light colored igneous outcrop has very steep
slopes on all sides, endowing it with a fairly strong protective quality. The entire summit (60 m x 3 m to 5 m) is cloaked in the
remains of small mud-mortared random-rubble buildings. The stepped walls and series of revetments in the granite crags,
creating many structural elevations, along with the tiny size of the edifices, are archaic design traits. Likewise, the
semi-subterranean aspect of some structures points to an archaic cultural origin.
In addition to the fasthold, there appears to have been an extensive sedentary settlement built around the base of the outcrop.
These lower ruins all fall within the protective umbrella of arrow fire that could have been released from the fortress. Hundreds
of people potentially once lived in the old village Spo sa mkhar gog. Agriculture was not practiced at this location, as it is
extremely rocky. There is no contemporary permanent settlement in the vicinity. Like many other ancient habitations in Ru
thog, Spo sa mkhar gog was never the object of resettlement in more recent times. The lower site consists of around 50 heavily
built foundations of residential structures. From the little that is left, it could not be determined if these shelters had permanent
roofs or ones made of perishable materials such as yak hide or hair. These residential structures are dispersed over an area of
approximately 3000 m². The orange climax lichen found on many of the stones shows that the site has not been heavily disturbed
in a long time.
Oral tradition
Residents of the Ru gsum valley call Spo sa mkhar gog a Skal mon castle.
45
46
Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po, Mnga’ ris chos ’byung, 226.
For information on these prehistoric funerary sites see Chinese Institute of Tibetology, Sichuan University, “Trial Excavation of Ancient Tombs on the
Piyang-Donggar Site in Zanda County, Tibet,” Kaogu 6 (2001): 14-31; Chinese Institute of Tibetology, Sichuan University, “Survey of Gebusailu Cemtery in
Zanda county,” Kaogu 6 (2001): 32-38; and references to these sources in Bellezza, Zhang Zhung.
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Site elements
Castle
There are many revetments, footings and standing wall fragments on the summit. The very narrow nature of the summit helped
to limit the dimensions of the individual structures. The tallest revetment built against the formation is 2 m; these walls
unmistakably had a defense function. They must have been the bases of ramparts, which surrounded the summit in an intricate
pattern of short walls interspersed between the natural crags. The walls of the old buildings are around 60 cm thick and are made
with variable sized stones, 20 cm to 60 cm in length. Mostly granite was used in construction but gray stone and occasional
chunks of milky quartz were also exploited. On the south side of the summit there is a revetment fragment 1 m thick. One of
the most intact and largest buildings (3 m x 3.3 m) is found near the north side of the summit. Its walls reach 2.5 m in height
and, like other structures at the site, much of the mud-mortar in the walls has washed away. On the less steep and rocky east or
inner side of the formation, buildings may have extended in a band 20 m in height from the edge of the summit to the base of
the outcrop. This east flank dispersion is 30 m in width and is thickly blanketed in rubble.
Ancient village
Evidently, there was a well-built settlement comprised of a tight cluster of houses, situated on broad, moderately inclined rocky
slopes. The existence of so many stones on or near the site provided a ready source of building materials. Wall fragments reach
1.5 m in height, but, in general, the level of preservation of the structures is very poor. The habitations range in size from 15
m² to 45 m², and were built as much as 1.2 m below the ground.
Northeast sector
The northeast sector is located at the base of the inner side/east of the fortress outcrop. It consists of a contiguous zone of at
least two dozen small but heavily built foundations, covering an area of 53 m (east-west) x 46 m (north-south). On the north
end of the northeast sector there are old enclosures resembling corrals. Wall segments commonly attain 1 m in height. The
foundations often integrate naturally occurring boulders, some of which are more than 1 m in length. The robustly constructed
walls tend to be built of larger stones (40 cm to 70 cm), and are 70 cm to 90 cm thick. Outside of the northwest sector, there are
several other foundations on the edge of the outcrop, extending to its southeast side.
Southeast sector
Located 21 m to the southeast of the northeast sector, the smaller but more steeply inclined southeast sector measures 22 m x
22 m. The space between the northwest and southeast sectors is devoid of any major constructions. The rear or up-slope walls
of the at least one dozen buildings established here are commonly built 1.2 m into the ground. The individual foundations range
in size between 7 m² and 42 m². The smaller foundations might represent supplemental rooms or outbuildings of some kind.
South sector
On the south side of the formation, at lower elevation, there are three separate buildings or a single building divided into three
wings, covering an area of 18 m x 6 m. This structure was built at three different levels in line with the slope gradient. In close
proximity there are at least three smaller foundations. Lower down there is a carcass (6 m x 7 m), its walls set deeply into the
rear slope. Adjacent to it are several smaller building footprints. Two interconnected foundations (11 m x 15 m), as well as the
footings of a single building (7.8 m x 6 m), are found at the lower end of the south sector.
Mkhar ru mkhar gog
Basic site data
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Site name: Mkhar ru mkhar gog
English equivalent: Castle District Ruined Castle
Site number: A-85
Site typology: I.1b
Survey date: May 22, 24, 2002
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Mkhar ru mkhar gog is located on the west side of the Ru gsum valley, opposite Spo sa mkhar gog (A-84). The site strategically
dominates the confluence of the Sde chos and Ru gsum valleys. It consists of both lower and upper complexes of residential
buildings surmounting a rugged granite ridge. Structures are made from the same type of granite found at Spo sa mkhar gog.
The stronghold enjoys an excellent vantage point with good views of both the Sde chos and Ru gsum valleys. The lower elevation
smaller complex contains a number of habitational structures. The upper complex consists of one large building (22 m x 15 m)
and minor outlying structures. The lofty location of the facility and the presence of all-stone corbelled architecture indicate that
Mkhar ru mkhar gog is an archaic site.
Oral tradition
According to the villagers of Sde chos, Mkhar ru mkhar gog is a castle that belonged to the ancient Skal mon ruler of Sde chos.
The Skal mon commoners are thought to have resided in a large village situated on rocky benches at the south edge of the valley
(see B-81).
Site elements
Lower complex
The upper part of the lower complex (14 m x 3.2 m) contains fragmentary walls up to 2 m in height, which envelop crags on
the summit. Walls are between 40 cm and 50 cm thick and are situated at a variety of elevations. There is a window opening in
an east wall (40 cm x 30 cm). The upper part of the lower complex is accessible via a natural stone chute in which the remains
of a staircase are found. Below the chute, on both the summit ridge and the west flank of the formation, there are more ruined
structures, blanketing an area of approximately 400 m². The small buildings here appear to have been split between three different
levels and form a dense agglomeration. Only very dissolute wall footings and standing wall segments have persisted. The
buildings of the lower complex were built of mud-mortared (profusely applied) random-work, with blocks primarily 20 cm to
40 cm in length. To the north of the lower complex there is a gap in the granite ridge-top in which there appears to have been
a gateway. Bits of masonry cling to both sides of this opening in the formation.
Upper complex
The large main edifice was constructed on a high revetment, and is set at two different elevations. It was comprised of at least
14 rooms, the largest of which have internal dimensions of 3.5 m x 3.3 m and 2.8 m x 3.4 m (most westerly room). The relatively
commodious rooms and the absence of wall buttressing indicate that this edifice was primarily constructed with a wooden roof.
All-stone structures, however, are also in evidence. Wall sections are commonly 1.5 m to 4 m in height. Consequently, the
building still possesses a distinctive profile. The mud-mortared random-rubble walls incorporate variable-sized granite stones
(10 cm to 80 cm in length), some of which were hewn flat on their exterior sides. The lower or south level is in far worse
condition than the upper tier of the structure. The entrance in the south punctuates a forward wall, 1.3 m thick. There are recesses
in the floor of the lower level, each around 1 m in length and 80 cm in width, which are partly covered by small stone slabs.
These members probably constituted part of the sub-flooring used to create a level base. There are a few beams made of a gray
metamorphic stone strewn around the site. The stone lintel over the entrance between the lower and upper tiers of the building
is still in situ. Against the outer walls of the upper level there are several small stone chests. Perhaps these were used for ritual
purposes. The remains of a walkway along the steep slope leading up to the stone chests are still visible. Just to the south of the
main edifice, on a separate peak, there is an isolated structure (3.5 m x 3.5 m) with walls 1 m to 1.3 m in height.
sDe chos agriculture
The approximately 5-km long Sde chos valley contains extensive arable holdings, less than 20% of which are still cultivated.
This wholesale abandonment of prime agricultural land has one major environmental cause: the lack of water. So critical has
the water situation become for the people of the 35 households of Sde chos village that they must travel far upstream to a little
spring to meet their daily needs. According to elderly residents, water for the irrigation of the barley crop was more plentiful
in their youth. This reduction in water appears to be a long-term phenomenon. The long-term observations of Ru thog natives
indicate that the process of desiccation is only intensifying in northwestern Tibet. The region is subject to multiple rain shadow
effects created by the Himalaya, Karakorum, Transhimalaya, and Kunlun Ranges. It now receives less than 200 mm of precipitation
per year. All throughout the Sde chos valley there are the remains of disused agricultural parcels. The walls around these fields
become ever more indistinct in a down valley direction. This suggests that the abandonment of arable land first began in the
lower reaches, furthest from the source of the Sde chos chu. The lower valley also experiences considerably higher evaporation
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rates than the more sheltered upper valley, and this may have been an important factor in the dereliction of the fields. Around
the lower valley plots there are the vestiges of stone walls and many have been encroached upon by sand deposits. On the other
hand, some abandoned fields higher up the valley still have integral retaining walls. The discarding of farmland appears to have
been a relentless process until cultivation is now confined to the immediate environs of Sde chos village. We can infer that, as
the water in the Sde chos chu diminished (it now only flows during wet summer seasons), more and more fields were left fallow
and eventually completely forsaken. The regression of viable farmland in the Sde chos valley is plainly visible from Mkhar ru
mkhar gog, which affords a superb recapitulation of the cultural impact of regional climatic change.
Above Sde chos village, the main valley bifurcates into the southwest Srib lung and northwest Phu lung branches. The source
of water for the village comes from the Srib lung valley, with a 6000-m high mountain at its head. Around 20 years ago, an
impoundment was built below the village to trap summer runoff. It supplements a reservoir (rdzing) that was constructed in
pre-modern times and which was recently renovated. Both of these sources are fed by diversion channels that run off the Srib
lung chu. Higher up the Srib lung chu, directly on the main watercourse, there is another reservoir. It is thought to have been
constructed by the ancient Mon. The downstream wall is around 30 m long and as much as 2 m in height. This impoundment
is no longer used and its catchment has filled with sand. Interestingly, a shrine for the water spirits (klu khang) is no longer
maintained in Sde chos; the residents must have given up hope for more water generations ago. The chief klu mo of Sde chos
is known as A ma smar mdzes.
Mkhar po che
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Site name: Mkhar po che
English equivalent: Great Castle
Site number: A-86
Both a summit stronghold and a lower residential site are found at Mkhar po che in the Sde rog valley. The summit complex is
comprised of small contiguous structures built in the crenellations of a granite formation (27 m x 3 m to 4.5 m), as well as
structures situated on the southwest flank of the formation. Although there are no stone roof appurtenances at the upper site,
these buildings were small enough and of the requisite design to have accommodated all-stone roofs.
Beginning at the north foot of the formation, 80 m below the summit installation, there are the remains of walled terraces
and foundations. They are situated on rocky slopes with a 20º to 45º gradient. The lower settlement covers an area of approximately
18,000 m². This is one of the largest archaic residential complexes surveyed to date. Most building foundations are concentrated
at the upper end of the site. Like Spo sa mkhar gog (A-84), lower Mkhar po che was protected by the presence of a bastion in
the heights. The fortification of such centers of habitation in Ru thog might possibly be connected to its geographic crossroads
position, and invasions originating from the north and west. The housing structures were purposefully built into the slopes and
against boulders, giving them a proximity to the earth that probably had both utilitarian (less stone needed for construction) and
ritual (ideal for the worship of chthonic deities) implications. The impression given by the ruins is that of a bustling settlement
of many dozens of rudimentary rock shelters and associated structures built on top of one another. Conceivably, many hundreds
may have once populated lower Mkhar po che. Nevertheless, there are no cultivatable lands in the locale, and it is devoid of
contemporary permanent settlement.
Oral tradition
According to residents of Sde rog township, Mkhar po che was an ancient Skal mon castle.
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Site elements
Castle
The ancient stronghold is accessed by the little that remains of a stairway, which ascends the near vertical walls of the formation.
It begins at the northwest foot of the granite spire. On the high north end of the summit there are four buildings and/or rooms,
reached via an entryway on the east side of the formation. This portal still has its gray stone lintel in place. Below the entranceway
there is a chamber in the formation that is at least 2 m deep. Along the east flank of the formation, what remains of a passageway
on a ledge leads to the three rooms of the south summit. There are also the vestiges of two rooms along the side of this passageway.
From the edge of the summit a collection of ruined buildings follows the southwest side of the ridgeline downward. This line
of small structures contained at least nine interconnected buildings (38 m x 7 m to 9 m). There are also several outlying structures
in extremely poor condition to the south of this row of buildings. At the south base of the formation there are a few ill-defined
structural remains as well. The tallest extant wall segment at the Mkhar po che castle is 3 m. The 50 cm to 60 cm thick walls
of the various structures are composed of mud-mortared random-rubble containing pieces of granite, mostly 10 cm to 50 cm in
length.
Ancient village
The zone of terraces and foundations making up the ancient village extends to within 20 m vertical of the Ru gsum valley floor.
The many stones found here provided ample building materials for the construction of the settlement. In total, there are at least
150 walled terraces and no less than 60 structures that appear to be the footings of buildings. The terraces are irregularly shaped
and average around 50 m². The retaining walls creating them are made of chunks of granite (up to 1 m in length), which were
laid without mortar. These highly disintegrated walls are up to 1.5 m in height. The function of this system of terraces is not
immediately obvious. They possibly served as a base for the erection of temporary shelters such as tents or other types of
domestic operations. Due to the deterioration of the site, the building foundations are not well delineated from the retaining
walls. Only small sections of double-course mud-mortared wall footings have survived. These walls are 60 cm to 80 cm in
thickness and contain variable-sized stones to 1 m in length. The sub-rectangular foundations (15 m² to 40m²) often integrate
large naturally occurring boulders. In one place, three stone beams (60 cm, 80 cm and 80 cm long) rest tenuously upon the top
of the wall of a small room. Two of these in situ members are made from granite and one from a tan metamorphic stone. This
evidence demonstrates that at least certain structures at lower Mkhar po che were built with all-stone roofs.
She rang mkhar lung
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Site name: She rang mkhar lung
Site number: A-87
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4710 m
she rang mkhar gog is a small stronghold located on top of a rocky spur, overlooking the confluence of the She rang and Mkhar
lung valleys. These are effluents of the Ru gsum, a valley system rich in archaic cultural horizon archaeological sites (see A-84,
A-85, A-86, A-88, A-89, B-34, B-35, B-36, B-79, B-80, B-81). This inherently defendable stronghold is suspended in the crags,
110 m above the valley floor. The site coincides with the demarcation of the upper extent of agriculture in the She rang valley
and the higher pastoral lands. Like Mkhar po che (A-86), spo sa mkhar (A-84) and other summit installations in Sde rog township,
this fortress must have been established to rule over and protect a local community.
Oral tradition
According to residents of Ru gsum, she rang mkhar gog was a Skal mon (an aboriginal tribe) castle.
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Site elements
Castle
The easiest access to the facility is via the north side of the ridge-spur. The stronghold (10.8 m x 5.8 m) was built at two levels.
In most places it has been reduced to its revetments and footings. The maximum height of the revetments is 2 m. The higher
south tier is separated from the north tier by a 1.5 m vertical rise. The ingression is in the north, between walls inset 2 m into
the structure, creating an inlet. This design feature is reminiscent of the entryways of Ha la mkhar West (A-58) and Nag gtsug
mkhar (A-57), in Gu ge. The outer opening of this inlet is 1.8 m in width and the inner access is 90 cm across. The vertical
distance between the outer and inner thresholds of the ingress is 1.5 m, thus stairs must have been built to span this height. The
heavy walls of the inlet rise to an elevation of 2 m. The entry between the two levels of the building is in the west and is set in
an interclose, 1.8 m in length. An 80-cm long threshold stone stretches across this entrance. Most of the mud-mortar has washed
out of the random-rubble walls. A bluish metamorphic stone, which has weathered to a brown color, was used in construction.
These roughly dressed stones are primarily 20 cm to 70 cm in length, and the walls are around 50 cm in thickness.
Dbyi lung
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Site name: Dbyi lung
English equivalent: Lynx Valley
Site number: A-88
Site typology: I.1c, I.2c
Elevation: 4380 m
On the west side of the mouth of the waterless Dbyi lung valley (a tributary of the Ru gsum valley system) there are a series of
defensive walls. These dry-mortared random-rubble walls of Dbyi lung run along the steep flanks of a rocky ridge. These
structures are up to 1 m in height, and must have been used in the defense of the Dbyi lung valley. The site is divided by a cliff
and a gap of approximately 100 m into south and north sectors.
Oral tradition
According to Ru gsum residents, the Dbyi lung ruins are that of an ancient Skal mon stronghold.
Site elements
South sector
The south sector is dominated by a wall 60 m in length, enclosing an uneven terrace 4 m to 6 m wide. This wall is made of
granite boulders covered in orange climax lichen, some of which are more than 1 m in length. At a slightly lower elevation there
are the remnants of a much smaller wall. A cleft in the face of the cliff above the terrace may have once afforded shelter.
North sector
The north sector also consists of one main wall that enclosed a level area cut into the slope. The wall is 40 m in length, and is
best preserved along its middle section. Much of what was the terrace behind the rampart has been obliterated by the failure of
the slope. To have fully enclosed this section of the ridge, this wall would have had to extend 20 m more to the edge of a cliff,
but no signs of such a wall section are visible. About 30 m above the defensive wall there is a cave (11 m x 10 m) with at least
a 5-m high ceiling. Around its mouth are the vestiges of a façade, which appears to have small bits of mud plaster sticking to
it. The remnants of masonry adhering to the mouth of the cave indicate that this wall was at least 4 m in height. The habitation
of this cave is likely to have been associated with the defensive walls below.
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Ge khod mkhar lung
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Site name: Ge khod mkhar lung
English equivalent: Demon Conqueror Castle Valley
Site number: A-89
Site typology: I.1a, I.2c
Survey date: May 25-27, 2002.
The very important archaic citadel of Ge khod mkhar lung is named after Ge khod, the mountain god (lha ri) of Ru thog. This
sacred snowy peak towers above the head of the Mkhar lung valley, in direct view of the archaeological site. Geographic access
to this territorial god (Yul lha) and the ritual structures associated with it must have been controlled from Ge khod mkhar lung.
The castle also overlooks a fairly extensive agricultural enclave that is still partially active, although much of it seems to have
been destroyed by flooding and fluvial depositions. The all-stone corbelled facility of Ge khod mkhar lung is stacked on an
almost vertical spine of rock 110 m in height. Rising above the bank of the Mkhar lung chu there are a number of notches on
this spine, which supported the buildings of the main complex. From the valley below this formation presents a formidable sight
with its various levels of structures adroitly clustered on rock ledges and perches. In addition to the fortifications on the spine
of the formation, there are extensive semi-subterranean residential ruins on the gravel and rock strewn slopes to the east. The
most prominent of these is what appears to have been a temple complex with two underground chapels. All Ge khod mkhar
lung structures were built of mud-mortared (lightly applied) random-rubble. Some of the variable length stones (up to 1 m) were
hewn flat on their exterior faces. The well-built walls are generally 60 cm to 80 cm thick. The buildings probably had an exterior
mud-based finish but none of it remains intact. Arable lands located in the valley bottom below the site are likely to have
furnished the economic infusions needed in the construction and maintenance of such a large residential facility.
Chronometric data indicates that Ge khod mkhar lung was active as a residential center by circa 200 BCE to 100 CE (see
below). This periodization roughly corresponds with the transition from the Tibetan Iron Age to the protohistoric period (probably
an anachronistic extension of the Iron Age in Tibet). The antiquity of Ge khod mkhar lung may prove to have very important
ramifications for assessing the age of various Bon textual traditions associated with Zhang zhung. For one thing, the establishment
of the Ge khod mkhar lung citadel and ritual props suggest that the historical basis for certain Bon myths, rituals and practices
may predate the dawn of the historic epoch by at least five or six centuries. By extension, the Ge khod mkhar lung chronometric
evidence also seems to indicate that the Upper Tibetan infrastructure of all-stone corbelled residential centers was already
established or in the process of being so by 100 CE.
Oral tradition
According to residents of Sde rog township, Ge khod mkhar lung was an ancient Skal mon castle.
Site elements
Riverside complex
On a steep slope just above the Mkhar lung chu there is a retaining wall, 11.5 m in length and a maximum of 2.5 m in height,
which creates a 2-m to 3-m wide terrace behind it. To the rear of this terrace there are three small caves, which appear to have
been cut from the earth and rock matrix. They have fire-blackened ceilings, a telltale sign of habitation. Two of the caves also
have masonry façades. The wall around the mouth of the middle cave is 4.3 m in length, and still has large quantities of mud-mortar
in the seams. In the east cave there is an oblong niche and two domed recesses, just as are found in the caves of the Gu ge
badlands.
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Level one complex
This sector boasts the best-preserved building (18.5 m x 7.8 m) at the Ge khod mkhar lung site. A good portion of this main
building’s all-stone corbelled roof is intact. Smaller buildings are found directly below it on ledges. A poorly preserved part of
the main structure extends from the rocky backbone to the adjoining slope. This wing of the well-preserved edifice contained
several small rooms. Exterior walls attain an elevation of 5 m and interior walls 2.5 m, creating a striking profile. The intact
entrance (1.4 m x 80 cm) to the principal part of the main building is in the east. It accesses a long room that runs the length of
the forward section of the lower level of this edifice. On the east side of this long room, six or seven stone steps lead up to the
second level of the structure. Walls still project 1 m above the lower level roofline, indicating that this was a two-story edifice.
In addition to the long room, there are four lower level rear rooms connected to it by a short corridor. There is an intact entrance
(1.4 m x 60 cm) between the forward and rear sections of the main building.
The southwest room of the rear section (interior dimensions: 1.6 m x 2.2 m) of the main building has a floor-to-ceiling height
of around 2 m. In one corner of this room there is a stone-lined recess in the floor (60 cm across, 50 cm deep), which appears
to have been covered by stone slabs. This may have been a concealed storage facility of some kind. The largely intact ceiling
is comprised of bridging stones and stone sheathing resting upon corbels. Some mud plaster remains on the interior walls. The
separate entrance to the southeast room (both its lintel and threshold stone are in situ) is 1.1 m high and 70 cm wide. From the
southeast room (1.1 m x 2.2 m), the two north rooms are accessed via an intact entranceway (1.4 m x 60 cm). While the southeast
room has much of its roof intact, the roof over the north rooms is fractional.
Some fungus-infected mud plaster clings to the walls of the north rooms. In the northwest room (2.3 m x 2.8 m) there are
several niches and a stone shelf. In the southeast corner there is a stone box (70 cm x 60 cm x 40 cm) that must have been used
for storage. In the northeast room (2.9 m x 2.8 m) there are several niches and a small alcove. In the west side of the north wall
(wall built against the rocky spine of the formation) there is an alcove, which contains a unique stone and mud construction.
Covered in mud plaster, this 80 cm-tall ritual structure was painted black and white, however, not enough of the pigment residue
have survived to ascertain the design scheme. Upon the square base of this structure (70 cm x 70 cm) are two graduated tiers
of the same plan. The bulbous mid-section above them has an arched opening (15 cm x 15 cm) that accesses a hollow center.
There are no other openings to the center of the structure, precluding its function as an incense brazier (which it superficially
resembles). Surmounting the rounded mid-section are three more quadrate tiers, the top-most of which has a rounded rim. The
top of the structure is within 20 cm of the ceiling of the recess in which it is housed. Its most likely identity is a religious
receptacle or shrine of the gsas mkhar or rten mkhar class (used to enshrine deities for ritual purposes). It is very uncommon
to discover such a well-preserved shrine inside archaic residential ruins. A small shard of unglazed red-ware was also found in
the northwest room.
Barracks
On the east side of the spine of the formation, across the breadth of the adjoining slope, there are around eight all-stone structures,
one set on top of the other. It was in one of these dependencies that a piece of wood was found, which yielded a radiocarbon
date of circa 200 BC to 100 CE.47 Each of these buildings supported a single row of small semi-subterranean rooms. The low
profile and forward position of this series of habitational structures suggests that they were used by a subsidiary social grouping.
Such structures are in an inherently more vulnerable position than those perched in the crags. Their ‘lesser’ relative position,
combined with the minimal height and shallow depth of the structures, suggests that these were politically and strategically of
less importance and probably occupied by lower status residents. They may have served to garrison troops, as servants’ quarters
or as artisan workshops.
The lowest dependency is found in the vicinity of the level one complex (17 m x 3 m). It probably contained five rooms. It
was built 1.5 m into the rear or uphill slope. The two rooms on its southwest end of the structure still have corbels bearing down
upon the rear wall. About 5 m directly above the lowest dependency and also running transverse to the angle of the slope is a
similar structure (21 m x 5 m). Its west side is built into a cleft in the rocky backbone. There is one in situ corbel in the rear wall
of the west end of the building. Above this structure is a similarly constructed specimen, approximately 33 m in length, but very
little of it has endured. Five rooms in a single row are still distinguishable. On the east side of the structure, its north or rear
wall is deeply set into the slope. Above it is yet another analogous structure in extremely poor condition, which is about 36 m
in length.
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An approximately 8-cm long fragment of a round of softwood was discovered sheltered in one of a series of outbound semi-subterranean structures, which
formed a dependency of the main citadel. This wood specimen has yielded a calibrated radiocarbon date of circa 200 BCE to 100 CE. As such, a late Iron Age
or protohistoric periodozation for at least some of the structures at Ge khod mkhar lung site is indicated. The assayed round of wood was around 4 cm in
diameter; consequently it came from a source that was not so long lived. It is likely that smaller pieces of wood like this one were exploited soon after being
cut. The use of the analyzed specimen as a material cultural object at Ge khod mkhar lung is likely to have occurred in a period generally corresponding to its
measured radiocarbon age. Small rounds of wood such as the one under scrutiny could have been used as architectural elements or as parts of implements with
a wide range of functions. Technical specifications: Radiometric, sample no. Beta 200752; Conventional radiocarbon age: 2040 +/-70; 2 Sigma calibrated result:
Cal 2150 to 1860 BP (years before present); Intercept of radiocarbon age with calibration curve: Cal 1990 BP; 1 Sigma calibrated result: Cal 2100 to 1900 BP.
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Several meters above the 36-m long structure are the hazy remains of the same type of buildings, extending up the slope for
another 40 m. This group of ruins has an east-west breadth of about 20 m. The top end of this group of ruins corresponds with
the elevation of the level three complex. A few wall segments in these semi-subterranean structures reach 1.2 m in height;
nevertheless, most wall footings are obscured by rubble.
Level two complex
The level two complex is found on a series of ledges, beginning about 15 m above the level one complex. It extends 54 m up
the backbone, over a 20 m vertical expanse. At the bottom end of the complex, exterior walls reach 3 m in height and interior
walls 2.5 m. The lowest building and the one immediately above it are around 5 m wide, the width of the ledge. The lowest
building has a small intact north-facing entrance. Some corbels are still resting on top of the upper/north wall of this structure.
Inside the lowest building there is a 1.5-m deep, 1-m wide cavity in the floor, revealing the formation underneath. To create a
level floor, stone slabs were laid across the crags, some of which are still in situ. The adjacent building has been reduced to its
foundations and freestanding wall segments no more than 50 cm in height. To the north of these two structures there is a steep
rise in the backbone, which terminates in a ledge up to 17 m wide. This ledge is only accessible from the west slope. On it there
is a sparse assortment of destroyed buildings. Just above this ledge, on the west slope, there are the remains of a wall 23 m in
length and up to 1.2 m in height, which is connected to the rocky backbone of the citadel and an outcrop in the west. This
defensive outwork was designed to restrict access between the precipitous flanks of the hill below the wall and the less severe
slopes above it.
Level three complex
This large group of buildings begins 25 m above the high end of the level two complex. A vertical rock face separates them.
Built on a large knob (44 m x 13 m) in the backbone of the formation, the exterior walls of this dense aggregation of no less
than nine buildings, reaches a maximum height of 5 m. In the most southeasterly structure there is a window opening (35 cm
high) with an intact stone lintel. On the south side of this building there is a deep recess in the floor exposing the formation
below. Some pieces of the stone-slab flooring have survived in place. The interior walls of the southeast building are up to 2.5
m in height. The adjacent southwest building is almost leveled. The next building to the west has heavily buttressed walls and
a few in situ corbels resting upon them. Its three rooms were clearly overlain with an all-stone roof. The third building on the
west edge of the outcrop is in very poor condition. There is a small gap between the third and fourth building on the west rim
of the outcrop, however, they are interconnected by a curtain-wall. The fourth edifice on the west side of the outcrop has a small
window in the west wall, flanked by two small square niches inside. The north wall also has a small aperture and a larger niche.
This wall appears to have extended right across the rocky platform upon which it sits. The fifth west structure had at least three
rooms, and a lintel between the north and central room is in situ. The sixth and most northerly west structure has been mostly
obliterated.
On the east edge of the formation, the building adjacent to the lowermost southeast specimen has freestanding walls up to
2.5 m in height. The third building on the east side of level three has been nearly leveled. Its walls continue to the cliff bounding
the north side of the indenture in the spine of the formation. A structural extension to this edifice appears to have functioned as
a fortified ramp, which traverses the formation to the east slopes and the complex of semi-subterranean dependencies located
there.
Summit outpost
On the next highest knob in the spine of formation there is a single building (10 m x 3.5 m), the highest structure at Ge khod
mkhar lung. The exterior walls reach 4 m in height, including the revetment that was needed as a load-bearing device and to
even out the floor. There is a small opening in the west and north walls of this structure. This building may have functioned
either as a surveillance post or ritual venue. In a crease in the slope east of the summit structure there are a series of interconnected
terraces; these small structures either had a defensive or ritual function.
Temple
At the same elevation as the level one complex, east of the semi-subterranean dependencies, a relatively large edifice (18 m x
14.7) stands alone. Its design is suggestive of a ritual center. It contains four tiers of rooms built deeply into the rear slope. The
upper tier hosted a row of four rooms. The room in the northwest corner of the upper tier (room 1) still has corbels attached to
the rear wall. The room beside it (room 2) has most of its all-stone roof intact. The beams and corbels run diagonally as well as
in a perpendicular fashion in room 2. Like other rooms in this building, it is small (2.4 m x 2.5 m) and irregularly shaped. The
floor-to-ceiling height in room 2 is around 2 m, and there is a smoke hole in the roof. The top of the rear wall is flush with the
slope, illustrating how deeply this room was built into the ground. There is a partition wall in room 2 that was used to help
support the extremely heavy roof. It is 1 m long on one side and 1.6 m long on the other side, conveying how irregular the
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ground plan of the structure is. The entrance (1 m x 50 cm) to room 2 is in the preferred eastern direction. The two upper tier
rooms (room 3 and room 4) in the east are highly fragmentary.
The second tier from the top of the edifice consists of two subterranean chambers. They are accessed from the east side of
the third tier. Each chamber had a north-facing entranceway with stone lintels and jambs (1.4 m x 70 cm). These are connected
to antechambers, which are approximately 2 m in length. The east subterranean chamber has largely collapsed, filling it and the
antechamber with rubble. The west subterranean chamber is 4.5 m deep and 2.5 m high. To the east of the east underground
chamber there is an alcove in the north or upslope wall, on which there is a little mud plaster. Some of this plaster is tinted with
red ochre, an ostensible sign that this was a religious center. This identification is also supported by the subterranean chambers,
which have the aspect of chapels (they face in direction of the sacred mountain Ge khod). The large east room or hall of the
third tier (5.5 m x 7.5 m) must have had a wooden roof, if any. Its entrance is in the east. There is a small adjacent room internally
connected to the large east room. The west portion of the third tier constitutes a separate wing of the building and had independent
entrances. The west portion of the third tier is comprised of two small rooms (2.7 m x 1.6 m and 2.9 m x 1.7 m), built 1.7 m
into the slope. The freestanding forward wall of this wing is 2 m in height. The north facing entrance in one of these two rooms
is still intact (1.3 m x 60 cm). The fourth or lowest tier of the ‘temple’ has been almost completely destroyed.
East backbone structure
In the crags that enclose the east side of Ge khod mkhar lung site there are the remains of a single all-stone structure (11m x 3
m), built against a cliff at 4430 m elevation. It consisted of a single line of three or four rooms. Farther east, in a small side
valley, there is an isolated building, measuring 10 m x 7 m (33º 20.9΄ N. lat. / 79º 44.5΄ E. long.). Very little of this structure
remains. It appears to have been split into two different levels.
Affiliated sites
Between the Ge khod mkhar lung valley and the Ru thog basin there is a pass called Ser ’bras la (sp.?). Just east of the prayer
flag mast marking this pass there are the remains of what may be a funerary superstructure (33° 21.614΄ N. lat. / 79° 40.569΄
E. long. / 4350 m). It consists of single-course walls that form a rectangular perimeter (4.1 m x 3.3 m). These walls are composed
of stones up to 70 cm in length, which protrude prominently above the ground. The only long view from this site is in the north,
the direction of Ru thog rdzong.
Chu lung ’og ma mkhar
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Site name: Chu lung ’og ma mkhar
English equivalent: Lower Water Valley Castle
Site number: A-90
Site typology: I.1b
Administrative location (township): Ru thog
Contemporary usage: Propitiation with incense of the gods (lha gsol).
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: tsha tsha receptacles are found on the lower east side of the base of the hill, above
the village of Chu lung stod ma. On the summit there is a small flagpole.
The fairly small (1100 m²) but adeptly constructed Chu lung ’og ma was founded on a granite hill overlooking the confluence
of the Chu lung ’og ma and Ru thog valleys. It possesses a strategic position in the middle of this important agricultural locality.
The facility covers the summit and east flank of the formation almost to its base. The relatively long wall spans are not buttressed,
indicating that most structures were built with wooden roofs. The stronghold was constructed of random-texture granite cobbles.
These stones tend to be smaller in size (10 cm to 50 cm in length). Most of the mud-mortar that cemented the walls has washed
away.
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Oral tradition
According to local villagers, Chu lung ’og ma was a castle that guarded the western portal of Bshan pa sme ru rtse’s Hor kingdom
in Ru thog (see fn. 80).
Site elements
Castle
There were around ten rooms in several buildings packed on the two levels of the summit (20 m x 15 m). The maximum external
wall elevation is 4.5 m (including the revetments) and interior wall segments reach 2.7 m. There are several window openings
in walls, measuring around 30 cm x 30 cm. The lower sector runs for 40 m along the angle of the slope and is around 23 m in
width. Most of the east flank structures are highly degraded. The exception is near the base of the hill where four small buildings
have most of their walls intact. The largest of these buildings measures 5.5 m x 4.8 m. These four structures represent a later
phase in the development of the site. Other minor structures near the foot of the Chu lung ’og ma mkhar formation have been
redeveloped for pastoral usage.
’O ma dkar chung
The ’O ma dkar chung (Little White Milk) mchod rten is located northwest of Chu lung village. According to local legend, three
ancient religious practitioners called Jo mo spun gsum (Three Sister Mistresses) built it. One of them made a spring magically
appear, providing the water needed for construction. Another sister milked a wild yak (’brong) to obtain milk to color the mchod
rten, while the third sister actually built the structure. The monument has no real spire (’khor lo), just a simple bulbous finial.
Mar lung
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Site name: Mar lung (sp.?)
Site number: A-91
Site typology: I.1c
Identifiable Buddhist: None.
East of the contemporary village of Chu lung ’og ma, on the base and flanks of a rocky mount, there are the remains of an
ancient settlement called Mar lung. In conformance with the historic geographic trend in Upper Tibet, settlement in this region
has shifted from the rugged upper margins of the valley to the valley bottom. The site features several ramparts lining a granite
formation and a lower series of terraces. These structures possess characteristic archaic morphological characteristics.
Oral tradition
According to local villagers, Mar lung was an ancient Mon habitation.
Site elements
Mountain complex
The slope with the remnants of defensive walls faces in a northwesterly direction. This is the general direction from which early
invaders came, according to the western Tibetan oral tradition. The upper site is enclosed by two rocky ribs, offering some
protection from the brunt of the elements. On the east rib there is a single structure (6 m x 4 m) with mud-mortared random-work
walls (50 cm thick). Variable-sized pieces of granite up to 1 m in length went into its construction. The most likely identity of
this east rib structure is a fortified habitation. It is set on a crag that is just wide enough to accommodate its breadth. Access is
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via a narrow ledge along a steep rock face. Approximately 30 m higher, on the summit of the formation, there are one or two
similar structures (they were not visited during the survey). These summit structures appear to be the remains of lookout posts.
Between the two rocky ribs, beginning at the same elevation as the east rib structure, there are a series of parallel walls that
seemed to have extended across the breadth of a steep slope. These walls linked both rocky ribs into an integral defensive
complex. These breastworks are all in a state of advanced decay, therefore, their dimensions and configurations are not very
clear. The highest wall is nothing more than a fragment several meters in length. A few meters below it is the longest extant
wall section. It begins at the west rib and traverses 18 m of the slope. Tiny traces of the wall continue eastwards, suggesting
that it ran to the east rib. If so, its original length was around 50 m. On the downhill side this rampart is as much as 1.8 m in
height, while on the uphill side it is generally level with the slope. This dry-mortar random-rubble granite wall contains stones
up to 1 m in length. Just 60 cm below this structure there is another wall segment that starts at the west rib and traverses the
slope for 10 m. Downhill, at a distance of 2 m, there is another small wall section. About 90 m further downhill are minute
fragments of other defensive walls.
Lower terraces
Below the network of walls circumscribing the upper slope, there are a series of terraces that envelop the north and east sides
of the formation, in a swathe around 100 m wide. These terraces blanket an area of roughly 10,000 m², and occupy gentle
boulder-strewn slopes that sweep down to the valley floor. The last terraces are situated 20 m vertical above the valley bottom.
Only wall footings have survived, so the nature and extent of these structures is not readily apparent. There are some double-course
wall footings among them, which are suggestive of building foundations. These terraces may have been used as a rocky base
for rudimentary forms of habitation like those other Ru thog sites such as spo sa mkhar (A-84) and Mkhar po che (A-86). Some
of the eastern terraces were converted to corrals and wind shelters, but these have been long abandoned. Also in the east sector,
at the base of the formation, there are the remnants of at least five parallel walls, outworks that cover an area of no less than
1000 m². Some of these defensive structures appear to have been subsequently modified, probably for pastoral use.
There are the remains of a structure (9 m x 7 m) that has been reduced to a pile of rubble situated 120 m southeast of the east
end of the terraced zone. Twelve meters east of this structure there is a fragmentary enclosure (2.5 m x 3.5 m) made with stones
up to 1 m in length, which might be a funerary superstructure. On the northwest corner of the terraced site there are two ungulate
petroglyphs and a third indistinguishable carving that were made on a flat boulder. These appear to date to the prehistoric epoch.
Lug ri sna kha
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Site name: Lug ri sna kha
English equivalent: Sheep Mountain Prow
Site number: A-92
The formation upon which the Lug ri sna kha reposes is commonly thought to have the form of a sheep. On the top of this
formation (45 m x 3 m to 24 m) which rises 50 m above the southwest side of the Ru thog basin, there are the ruins of what
appears to have been a fortress or palace. The Lug ri sna kha complex also extends to the inner or south side of the formation.
The floor plan of most buildings indicates that they were built with timber roofs. lug ri nag kha was one of four summit installations
flanking the large, moist Ru thog basin (see A-16, A-17 and A-93). The Ru thog basin was and still is the most important
agricultural pocket in the Ru thog district. Chronometric data obtained from an assayed in situ rafter (see below) indicate that
at least some portions of Lug ri sna kha date to later historic times.
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Oral tradition
According to the residents of Ru thog, Lug ri sna kha was an ancient Mon castle. The deity inhabiting the site was a protector
of Ru thog’s Sgo nub monastery (located on Rdzong ri, in Ru thog rnying pa), which was destroyed in the Chinese Cultural
Revolution.
Site elements
Summit complex
On the summit there are a tightly joined group of about 15 mud-mortared random-rubble buildings. Little mortar, however, is
still left in the seams. Including the revetments, present-day structural elevations reach 4 m to 5 m in height. Revetments up to
3 m in height and freestanding walls 1 m to 1.5 m are commonplace. The highest or west portion of the summit is less than 3
m wide. It gradually widens to around 12 m in the middle and 24 m on its eastern extremity. The 50-cm to 70-cm thick walls
were built with stones up to 60 cm in length. The exterior faces of the stones were cut flat. In the central section of the summit
there are also a couple standing walls made of adobe blocks (50 cm x 20 cm x 10 cm). The adobe walls are up to 2 m in height,
and consist of alternating courses of blocks set into the wall lengthwise and widthwise. These highly weathered walls are devoid
of a mud veneer. In Ru thog, adobe-block walls are not associated with archaic cultural sites. Below the east side of the summit
there is a small ruined building.
South structures
Below the summit, on the south side of the formation, there are the carcasses of several small buildings adhering to near vertical
rock faces. Their prominent apron walls and an elevated stone pathway connecting various ledges clad much of the south face
of the formation in masonry. Underneath an elevated section of the pathway there is a narrow chamber capped by a stone
containment (1 m thick), which is supported by six hardwood timbers (50 cm to 80 cm in diameter). A 5-m high retaining wall
supports this section of the pathway, creating the narrow, concealed chamber below. The radiocardon assaying of a timber
overlying the chamber indicates this section of the Lug ri sna kha was constructed only 300 to 500 years ago. Below the foot
of the formation, the pathway continues to be elevated as much as 1.5 m above the slope atop a prepared stone bed. On its
approach to the south side of the formation, the 2-m wide, evenly graded path winds around the proximate hillside. It must have
provided a rather grand entry to the installation. The lower end of the walkway falls away into steep, east-facing talus-covered
slopes.
North structures
Just above the north foot of the formation there is a highly deteriorated building foundation. On ledges a few meters above it
there are two other building foundations. Further up, about halfway to the summit, there is yet another demolished structure.
Affiliated sites
mKhar rtse
The old residential complex of Mkhar rtse is located north of Ru thog rdzong ri (33° 27. 6΄ N. lat. / 79º 38.5΄ E. lat.). It is perched
on a limestone formation above mkhar rtse mtsho. Towering 40 m above the lake basin, this conterminous complex is comprised
of the limestone revetments and adobe block walls of substantial buildings. Mkhar rtse (Castle Peak) enjoys panoramic views
in all directions. Access is via almost vertical expanses of rock, in keeping with its fortress attribution in the local oral tradition.
The existence of small defensive structures on ledges below the summit of this site is also a design trait of Upper Tibetan
strongholds. Nevertheless, the high elevation walls (up to 6 m), fairly large rooms and traces of red ochre tinting endow the site
with architectural characteristics of Buddhist temples founded after the early historic period. Perhaps it represents the vestiges
of a fortified palace with chapels. There is a single building on the west summit (6.3 m x 6.5 m), several structures on the central
summit (15 m x 11) and residential remains on the lower east summit (16 m x 6m). On a saddle below the summit there are
three large rebuilt mchod rten, said to have been originally founded by a lama named Nam mkha’ blo gros as reliquaries (sku
gdung). The location of these mchod rten support the Buddhist identification of the site.
The late lama of the Ru thog rdzong monastery (Lhun grub chos lding), Blo bzang bstan pa (born circa 1933), was under the
impression that Mkhar rtse was founded in the bstan pa phyi dar period (in personal communication, 2001–2005). Elders of
Ru thog relate that when a La dwags army was laying siege to Mkhar rtse, the queen of the castle washed her hair in melted
butter. She let this butter pour over the hillside, giving the La dwags army the impression that the citadel still had ample water
reserves. This stratagem is supposed to have saved Mkhar rtse from ruination.
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Kha ser ra mo rgya mo mkhar
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Site name: Kha ser ra mo rgya mo mkhar
English equivalent: Yellow Mouth Black Female Goat Castle
Site number: A-93
Site typology: I.1c
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A small flagpole on summit for the local Yul lha.
Kha ser ra mo rgya mo mkhar was an archaic cultural stronghold of some importance. It is located on the upper flanks and
summit of a 100-m high hill that rises above the northeast side of the Ru thog basin. Both Rdzong ri (A-17) and Lug ri sna kha
(A-92) are visible from this position. In part, the name of the site must be derived from the tan sandstone found here, which has
a yellowish cast from a distance. The steep walls of the formation endow the fortress with a strong geographic posture. The
structures found here are in an advanced state of ruin, consequently there is only a limited amount of information that can be
gleaned about the layout and design of the installation. The bulk of the stronghold consists of a series of defensive walls arrayed
across the summit and upper flanks of the formation. Only tiny traces of what were ostensibly buildings have survived. All
structures are built of small pieces of sandstone (primarily 10 cm to 30 cm in length) laid in random-rubble courses.
Oral tradition
According to the villagers of Ru thog rnying pa, Kha ser ra mo rgya mo mkhar was the first fortress of Ru thog. While it was
being built by the ancient Mon, the local Yul lha in the form of a giant black female goat with yellow markings on her face
destroyed the installation with her horns. An attempt was then made to relocate the castle at the foot of the Dung khyi (Conch
Dog) formation, but this Yul lha appeared as a giant conch dog and molested the site, thus construction was aborted.48 Thereafter,
a fortress was finally established at Rdzong ri.49 The name kha ser (Yellow Mouth) is also said to relate to gold mining that took
place in this area well in the past.
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Dung khyi is the name of a cliff and small settlement just north of Rdzong ri. It is the site of a shrine for Byang btsan, the Yul lha of O byang, who is said
to have passed this way enroute to his present residence.
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Rdzong ri (4340m) (A-17) is set in the middle of northwestern Tibet’s most important nucleus of settlement, Ru thog rnying pa. The prime location of Ru
thog rdzong ri at the center of a network of agricultural valleys rich in archaic cultural sites, indicates that this was a very important location since antiquity.
The large flat-topped 100-m high Ru thog rdzong ri is where the Hor (a tribe that came from the north) chieftain Bshan pa sme ru rtse is traditionally thought
to have established his headquarters in ancient times (Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 102–104). Bshan pa sme ru rtse is supposed to have called this
stronghold Mdzo mo ru rdzong (Female Yak Hybrid Army Division Fortress). After the epic hero Gling ge sar defeated the Hor of Ru thog, Bshan pa sme ru
rtse became an ally of the Tibetans. What was thought to be the embalmed body of Bshan pa sme ru rtse was enshrined at Ru thog rdzong ri for many generations.
The salt used in the embalming process was considered a great sacramental substance (sbyin brlabs). Local legends speak of Bshan pa (Butcher) having this
name because he killed many bdud demons, including his mother and father. He is also believed, however, to have been an incarnate deity. In one Ru thog
legend, enroute to Rdo dmar, Bshan pa sme ru rtse along with the armies of Ge sar attacked Byu ru nor rdzong, a stronghold of the bdud demons, and destroyed
it. Bshan pa sme ru rtse is said to have been mortally wounded in this campaign. This is refuted by other Ru thog elders who believe that Bshan pa sme ru rtse
died of old age.The monasteries and fortress of Ru thog rdzong ri were entirely destroyed the Chinese military invasion of 1959 and during the Chinese Cultural
Revolution. According to one local legend, the name Ru thog was derived from the first army division (ru) of the Hor that was established here (Chos ngag,
Stod mnga’ ris kyi dgon sde’i lo rgyus dag gsal mthong ba’i me long, [Lha sa: Bod ljongs mi dmangs dpe skrun khang. 1999], 100). A more credible etymology
upheld by the eminent Bon scholar Slob dpon bstan ’dzin rnam dag and others is that Ru thog (surmounted horns) refers to the ancient Zhang zhung custom of
enshrining the horns of wild ungulates on the top of houses, temples and castles. According to Dkon mchog tshe ring of the Rgya dpon clan (born Wood Ox
Year, circa 1925), who is now widely recognized as Ru thog rnying pa’s most knowledgeable elder, the oldest village of Ru thog was situated on the lower
flanks of Rdzong ri. It was destroyed before living memory and the village relocated to the adjacent valley bottom. The base of the hill used to be encircled
with a defensive wall punctuated by gateways in the four cardinal directions. Dkon mchog tshe ring states that when he was a child remnants of this wall were
still visible. A tale is told by Ru thog elders that during a La dwags siege of Ru thog rdzong ri (A-17), the protectress Dpal ldan lha mo washed her hair in
butter, letting it pour down the hillside. This is supposed to have fooled the La dwags army into believing that the citadel still had ample water reserves, so they
withdrew from Ru thog. The hill of Ru thog rdzong ri is said to have the shape of an elephant and to be the residence of the territorial god (Yul lha) known as
Glang bo che. According to local mythology, this elephant hill reared up during a La dwags attack, saving its inhabitants from harm. So high did Glang bo che
rise up in the sky that the fortress came to be known as Ru thog gnam rdzong. Other highly respected elders of Ru thog rdzong interviewed for this work include
the late Spen ba tshe ring (born in the early 1920s), a highly adept singer of local ballads, and the late Blo bzang bstan pa (born circa 1934), the last head of
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Site elements
East summit complex
An examination of the tiny sections of freestanding walls on the summit suggests that a mud-based mortar was used in the
construction of the buildings. Near the east end of the summit a freestanding wall segment is 1.8 m in length and 60 cm in height.
It appears to have been part of a building roughly covering 12 m². The rim of the east summit (40 m x 4 m to 6 m) is lined with
the remains of a defensive wall up to 1.5 m in height. Just below the summit, on the south side of the hill, there is a 1-m to 1.2-m
high revetment wall, creating a level area (5 m x 2.5 m) that may have also supported a residential edifice. Likewise, just below
the north side of the summit, a revetment (up to 1.7 m high) creates another flat (5.2 m x 5.8). There appears to be a wall footing
on top of the upper edge of this structure. This revetment continues around to the southeast flank of the formation to produce
another level area of narrower proportions.
Southeast spur ramparts
At the junction of the east summit and a southeast spur there is a small but well-defined area of defensive walls. The rocky
backbone extends southeast for about 70 m, on which there are the remains of a defensive wall running the entire length. On
an eastern spur-tip, a revetment (up to 1 m in height) forms a level area (5.5 m x 4.5 m). On the nearby western spur-tip there
is a similar structure (5 m x 14 m) that supports a parapet wall (50 cm high). This latter revetment is in close proximity to the
breastworks on the south flank of the formation.
Southern ramparts
Across the breadth of the south side of the hill there are a series of ramparts that extend about halfway down to the basin. They
are a maximum of 1.2 m in height on the downhill side and usually flush with the uphill slope. Any freestanding masonry masses
have long since disappeared. There appear to be five main structures following the natural inclination of the slope, which
converge at different points and elevations to create a network of interconnected walls and protected pathways. This type of
breastworks must have been predicated on a defensive strategy in which the hillside itself was the fasthold, obviating the need
for many buildings. Using these walls as cover, defenders could be deployed at will along the formation. Tactically, this style
of ramparts seems to reflect the existence of a highly mobile force of archers and slingers who could sweep across the hillside,
unleashing a curtain of fire.
West summit complex
The west summit is directly linked to the east summit, but it is around 4 m lower in elevation. The west summit (33 m x 4 m to
14 m) is blanketed in quite a bit of structural debris. Flanking the summit crest there are revetments that may have hosted
buildings. On the east end of the summit there appears to be a building foundation (6 m x 4.5 m). Immediately below this
foundation on the south side of the hill there appears to be another slightly smaller foundation. Near the west end of the summit
there is another building foundation (6.5 m x 5 m). Beyond this point, the summit crest continues for an additional 18 m, but it
is only around 2.5 m wide. There are traces of a wall along the length of this narrow stretch of the summit, especially on the
south side.
Rde’u nag gu mkhar
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Site name: Rde’u nag gu mkhar
English equivalent: Black Hill Castle
Site number: A-94
Site typology: I.1x
Geographic coordinate ( E. long.): 79º 55.2΄
Elevation: 4380 m
Administrative location (township): Border of Khul pa and Sde rog
lhun grub chos sdings. According to the Ti se’i dkar chag, King Mu mar thog rgod, holder of the resplendent eṇta horns of the bird, dwelt at Ru thog, as one
of the monarchs of prehistoric Zhang zhung (Bellezza, “Territorial Characteristics of the Archaic Zhang-zhung”). The Bonpo commonly identify Ru thog
rdzong ri with the Zhang zhung castle. The ancient Zhang zhung citadel is also known as Ru thog gnam rdzong and Ru thog khyung rdzong dkar po.
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Contemporary usage: Light grazing. A shepherd’s shelter (’brog lhas/lhas kha) was constructed against one of the intact
walls of the central structure.
Rde’u nag gu mkhar is sited on a 30-m high promontory that juts into the south side of the Khul pa valley, where it is joined by
a northern effluent. Very little of the complex of buildings that stood on the hilltop has persisted. A circumvallating wall was
constructed on the rim of the summit, which covers 85 m x 23 m to 30 m (approximately 1800 m²). Ringing the inside of this
wall is an almost continuous line of approximately 25 building foundations. This type of ground plan almost certainly was
designed for defensive purposes. There are very few standing walls and nearly all the footings are disjointed. Most of the central
portion of the summit is devoid of structures. Structures were skillfully made with a dark blue metamorphic stone that takes on
a black color in certain lighting. The block-work is composed of pieces of stone, primarily 10 cm to 60 cm in length, which
were hewn flat on their exterior faces. The neatly built 50-cm to 60-cm thick footings and extant freestanding wall fragments
demonstrate that they supported superstructures. Structural evidence at the site points to the existence of smaller buildings (8
m² to 40 m²), which may possibly reflect that they were constructed with all-stone corbelled roofs.
Oral tradition
Local residents call Rde’u nag gu mkhar an ancient Mon castle.
Site elements
Castle
The tallest freestanding wall segment at the site (1.8 m high) formed the south side of a building on the central high point of
the summit. Much of the rest of this mud-mortared, random-rubble structure (4.5 m x 4.7 m) has been destroyed. This central
building divides the summit into north and south sectors. The rampart surrounding the hilltop is most substantial along its south
side, because an adjoining saddle made this the most likely breaching point in the event of an attack. Small sections of the
defensive wall attain 2 m in height in the south sector. The rest of the encircling rampart snakes above the steep slopes of the
promontory and was less robustly constructed. There is a couple of building foundations on the southeast side of the summit,
the best preserved of which measures 4.5 m x 4.5 m. On the southwest side of the hilltop there are around eight more foundations.
On the northeast rim there is a collection of contiguous foundations that appear to have comprised around six small buildings.
In one specimen, the west or rear wall was built 1.4 m into the slope, in the manner of all-stone corbelled structures. There are
probably another nine foundations along the northeast edge of the site. There is also a foundation (2.7 m x 3 m) on the saddle
adjoining the summit and a foundation (4 m x 3.7 m) on the little rise south of the summit.
Mthon kha lung mkhar
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Site name: Mthon kha lung mkhar
Site number: A-95
Site typology: I.1x
Administrative location (township): Ra bang
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A small prayer flag mast on the summit of the north spur.
The smaller residential center of Mthon kha lung mkhar is situated on two 20-m high rocky spurs, flanking the left or west side
of the Mthon kha lung valley. The site has excellent views of the main Ra bang valley but is of fairly limited defensive value.
All traces of superstructures have vanished from the site; only random-rubble wall-bases survive. These were built with
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variable-sized dark gray stones (20 cm to 80 cm in length) with dressed exterior planes. The remains are in line with function
as a fortification. It can readily be imagined that fairly substantial buildings once stood at Mthon kha lung mkhar.
Oral tradition
Mthon kha lung is an ancient castle, according to local residents.
Site elements
South spur
The most extensive ruins of Mthon kha lung mkhar are found on the south spur and occupy an entire outcrop. They consist of
revetments planted on three different levels, each spaced 2 m to 3 m vertical apart. This group of structures extends for 27 m
along the axis of the formation, and is 2.5 m wide on its south or high end and 9 m wide along its middle and north sections.
North spur
Small remnants of revetments are found on the north or outer edge of the north spur. These attain a maximum height of 1 m.
On a saddle on the south side of the formation there is a single wall segment, 5.8 m in length and up to 60 cm in height.
Mgul ring
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Site name: Mgul ring
English equivalent: Long Neck (?)
Site number: A-96
Site typology: I.1x
Administrative location (township): Ru ’thor
Elevation: 4860 m
Survey schedule: HTCE
Survey date: June 13, 2002.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: An old cairn (la btsas) is on the summit.
Maps: UTRS VI, HAS D1
Mgul ring is located on a large rocky formation that rises 130 m above the north shore of the great salt lake Ngang la ring mtsho.
The site has commanding views in all directions. Sheer rock walls on all sides make this summit an ideal defensive position. A
rocky crest divides the summit into north and south complexes. Highly deteriorated ruins of buildings are found in the north
summit complex and long, winding ramparts in the south summit complex. The presence of walls ringing the east, west and
north rim of the summit, and its unassailable location clearly indicate that Mgul ring was a stronghold.
Oral tradition
The local ’brog pa call Mgul ring an ancient Mon site.
Site elements
South summit complex
The ramparts along the west and east sides of the south summit contain no visible signs of mortar in the joints. These walls are
around 70 cm thick and stand up to 1.5 m against the formation. The maximum freestanding height of the parapets rising above
the rim of the summit is 60 cm. Mostly, smaller stones were used in construction, but stones up to 1 m in length are also found.
The west rampart winds around the summit for approximately 120 m; in some places small sections are now missing. Extending
20 m below the west side of the summit are other rampart fragments. The serpentine east summit rampart is about 90 m in
length. The elevation difference between the northern and southern sections of the south summit walls is about 15 m. Apparently,
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no defensive wall was built on the south rim of the summit because of the presence of vertical rock faces. On the east side of
the formation there are the remains of a walled pathway that switchbacks its way between the summit and an esplanade below.
North summit complex
The level north summit (33 m x 14 m) hosts a contiguous zone of building foundations now reduced to crumbling footings. The
largest of these (12 m x 6 m) is aligned in the cardinal directions. Walls reach 60 cm in height and are 70 cm to 90 cm in
thickness. These structures were built of smaller (up to 50 cm in length) metamorphic and volcanic stones, with smoothly hewn
exterior faces. The circumvallation also extends around the north rim of the summit.
Lower complex
Below the north side of the summit, at the base of a cliff, there is a level area enclosed by a wall, measuring 14 m x 25 m. This
highly degraded wall must be another defensive feature. Inside the walled area there is a lone 1-m high highly eroded pillar. Its
function is enigmatic. Adjacent to this walled area, on the northeast side of the formation, there is a small cave with the vestiges
of a masonry façade.
Mgar gtsang mkhar
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Site name: Mgar gtsang mkhar (sp.?)
Site number: A-98
Site typology: I.1b
Survey date: October 16, 2002
Maps: UTRS I
Mgar gtsang mkhar is perched on top of a red limestone hill, which rises 40 m above the Seng ge gtsang po (Indus) valley. It
consists of a single conterminous residential complex and a couple of small dependencies. The ruined buildings face east along
a sharply inclined slope. Although access from below is difficult, higher ground flanks the installation to the north, thus it is
not particularly defendable. Its somewhat insecure position and general architectural composition are traits it shares in common
with Gyam smug mkhar (A-68) and Ra la mkhar dmar (see A-65). A fairly close cultural and temporal relationship is therefore
probably indicated. The relatively long and regular 50-cm thick walls could only have supported wooden roofs. All outer walls
are generally aligned in the cardinal directions. No internal room partitions remain at the site. Structures have heavily mud-mortared
(much of it is now gone) coursed-rubble walls composed of uncut pieces of limestone (20 cm to 40 cm in length). There are
also herringbone courses of masonry in a few walls.
Oral tradition
None was obtained.
Site elements
Castle
The complex has two main sectors: south and north. The south sector is comprised of a single building (8 m x 11.5 m), with
standing wall sections up to 1 m in height. The revetments add 2 m to its elevation. As no interior partitions are extant, this
structure may have contained just a single hall. The north sector of the complex (26.5 m x 6 m) begins 3 m to the north, and
consists of five tiers of buildings along the axis of the more than 45° slope. Two tiers of structures rise above the south sector
structure, one tier of structures is even with it and two tiers are situated at a lower elevation. A curtain-wall (3.7 m long, up to
3 m high), connects the south and north sectors of the site. The uppermost tier of the north sector has freestanding wall segments
up to 1.5 m in height. Approximately 3 m below the lower end of the north sector structures there is a small fragment of what
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must have been a defensive wall. Thirteen meters south of this wall, at the same elevation, there are two foundations separated
by a vertical distance of 60 cm (6 m x 4.2 m and 5 m x 2 m). These 70-cm thick wall footings must have been part of outlying
buildings.
Pictographs
There are several indistinct red ochre applications in a cleft near the base of the formation below Mgar gtsang mkhar.
Stang mkhar rtse
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Site name: Stang mkhar rtse
Site number: A-99
Site typology: I.1x
Administrative location (township): Za rang
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A partially rebuilt monastery.
On the summit of a ridge suspended above the agricultural village of Stang stand the highly deteriorated remains of Stang mkhar
rtse. The physical evidence seems to corroborate local claims that a castle once stood here. It would appear that, before the
establishment of Buddhist monasteries on such hilltops in the Rong chung and Lho smad regions of Gu ge, a network of archaic
strongholds protected the agrarian settlements. On the south side of the lower west summit of Stang mkhar rtse there are dissolving
wall footings covering an area of 40 m x 7 m. Local pieces of limestone, up to 1 m in length, were employed in their construction.
A small ruined retreat house is situated 30 m west of these ruins. In between the footings and house, at the base of a pinnacle
known as Rdo rje chen mo, there is another area of wall footings (30 m x 5 m) that may have once been part of cliff dwellings.
On the east end of the west summit there is what looks to be the base of defensive walls, 10 m to 15 m in length.
Oral tradition
According to local villagers, Stang mkhar rtse was an ancient fortress.
Affiliated sites
sTang ’phags pa
On the flanks of the Stang mkhar rtse formation there is the partially rebuilt Stang ’phags pa monastery.50 At one time, the
buildings of this Buddhist monastery extended to the east summit. The upper facility was destroyed long ago, say local residents.
It is also reported that, at the lower monastery, an approximately 1.5-m high pillar engraved with the triple gems (dkon mchog
gsum) motif and oṃ a hum mantra was destroyed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Among the inscribed plaques salvaged
from the site are those with highly worn lan tsha script ma ṇi mantras, which could potentially date to the bstan pa phyi dar.
Za rang mkhar rtse
Basic site data
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Site name: Za rang mkhar rtse
Site number: A-100
Site typology: I.1x
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For information on this monastery (called Stang ’phags pa/Steng ’phags pa mthong ba don ldan dgon) see Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po, Mnga’ ris chos ’byung,
326-329.
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Elevation: 3950 m
Survey expedition: HTCE and HTWE
Survey date: October 20, 2002 and July 17, 2004
Za rang mkhar rtse enjoys unobstructed views of the Za rang locality. On a spur tip 500 m above the Za rang valley floor there
are ruins that were radically altered in the early 1960s, in order to build a small Communist Chinese military outpost. Bunkers
and an adobe-lined room sunk into the ridge-top were built to monitor this border area. To the east of these modern retrenchments
a level pad was constructed on the ridge-top, probably for military exercises. This Chinese military facility has been abandoned
for many years now. Despite the radical alteration of the site, some of the original walls (revetments) have survived and are
platform-like in appearance. They have a random-rubble texture and were built from limestone and sandstone blocks (10 cm to
70 cm long). Many of the stones used in the older constructions were carefully hewn into shape. The remains of a stone-buttressed
trail lead over a knob on the ridgeline to the main cluster of ruins (32 m x 7.5 m to 14 m).
Oral tradition
A largely ruined stronghold called pho brang (palace) existed here until the Chinese Communist period. The conical spur used
to be revetted with masonry facing, measuring around 10 m long on each of the four sides.
Phi’a mkhar
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Site name: Phi’a mkhar (sp.?)
Alternative site name: Ar jag mkhar
Site number: A-101
Site typology: I.1a
Phi’a mkhar is located upstream from the Za rang township headquarters. There are two significant residential complexes sitting
on the narrow northern flank of a large knife-edge ridge. By virtue of their position, these installations receive good eastern and
western exposure. Walls were well constructed of random-rubble blocks and slabs averaging 20 cm to 60 cm in length (maximum
length: 1 m). Due to the extreme deterioration of most structures, it could not be determined what kind of roof they supported.
The very small size of the rooms is often a characteristic of all-stone corbelled architecture. Whatever mud-mortar was used to
cement the wall joints has nearly all dissipated. This large and powerful center (approximately 2200 m²), in terms of the quality
of the stonework, seems to have been unmatched by subsequent architecture in the region. An archaic cultural identity for Phi’a
mkhar is supported by a combination of the following factors:
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Its inauspicious status in local folklore.
The absence of Buddhist constructions and emblems of any kind.
The unusual northern aspect of the site on steeply inclined stone slopes.
The staggered layout of the upper complex and the ridgeline curtain-wall.
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5. The substantial wall construction, which may have supported all-stone corbelled roofs.
6. The rear walls of some buildings set deeply into the slope.
7. The small size of rooms (4 m² to 7 m²).
Oral tradition
According to local villagers, Phi’a mkhar was once the fortress of bandits.
Site elements
Upper complex
The upper complex (3750 m) of Phi’a mkhar spans the entire breadth of the slope, endowing it with a good defensive posture.
It would not have been possible to outflank this installation, as it is sandwiched between vertical rock faces. The upper complex
is divided into north, east and south sectors.
South sector
The south sector was built on a rib of rock enclosed by a huge rock face that towers above it and a small outcrop that forms the
high point of the upper complex. The south sector contains a fairly dense agglomeration of residential structures disbursed over
an area of 40 m x 24 m. Highly eroded bits of footings and walls are all that is left. Maximum exterior wall elevations are 3 m
and interior walls rise to 1.8 m. Along the abrupt east-west oriented slope of the south sector there were probably four or five
tiers of small buildings. A little mud plaster is still in situ on the inner side of a tiny wall segment
North sector
The north sector of the upper complex is dominated by an L-shaped edifice, 18.5 m and 14 m long along its two axes. This
structure is around 5 m wide. The largest single room is only 2.8 m in length. The 14-m long wing of the edifice is split between
three different levels, the highest of which forms the high point of the north sector. The forward or downhill wall is a maximum
of 3.3 m high externally and 1.5 m high internally (the difference is accounted for by an underlying revetment). There are the
remains of an 85-cm wide ingression on the south side of the 18.5-m long wing, the point from which the south sector was
accessed via a rocky ledge.
East sector
The east sector of the upper complex lies adjacent to the north sector and hosts various ruined residential units spread across a
fairly steep slope. The upper end of the east sector has a single line of north-facing rooms (25 m x 3 m to 4 m). Below these
rooms there is a fairly dense group of nearly obliterated structures that were probably arrayed on four different levels (25 m x
14 m). Inferior to this group, at the edge of a precipice, there is a single structure (3.6 m x 2.7 m), whose exterior walls rise to
2.8 m and its interior walls to 1.2 m.
Lower complex
The lower complex (3660 m) is situated directly below the upper complex on a rocky brush-dotted slope. On its southwest side
there is a large edifice (22 m x 6.5 m) with a forward wall that reaches 3 m in height (2.5 m of this height is made up by a
revetment). Freestanding segments in this southwest structure are commonly 1 m in height, however, very little of the plan is
still discernable. Immediately northeast of this building there is a structure with a single line of rooms (18 m x 5 m) running
perpendicular. Built at the edge of an abrupt drop, this northeast building was deeply set into the rear or uphill slope. This long
and narrow structure probably continued for another 25 m east, but it is so ruined that a positive determination about its overall
size could not be made. On the west side of the lower complex there is another line of very poorly preserved rooms, totaling
about 17 m in length. Only part of the base of the forward wall is intact.
Curtain-wall
On the far end of the northeast edifice of the lower complex there begins a curtain-wall that ascends the face of the ridge to the
upper complex. It is more than 200 m in length and built of random-rubble masonry of a cruder quality than the buildings.
Significant 1-m to 2-m high portions of this 60-cm-thick wall have survived. Its function is not immediately apparent because
it was set on the edge of a slope that could not have been scaled. This unsually long curtain-wall may have been built as a
prestige monument. The much more approachable route to Phi’a mkhar, situated below the lower complex, does not seem to
have any such wall. A lower wall, however, may well have been completely obliterated and reabsorbed by the rocky slope.
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Ba lu mkhar
Basic site data
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Site name: Ba lu mkhar (Spu gling)
English equivalent: Dwarf’s Castle
Site number: A-102
Site typology: I.1a
Elevation: 4590 m
At Ba lu mkhar seven all-stone corbelled domiciles (rdo khang), containing around 30 rooms in total, were constructed on the
summit of a Himalayan outlier. The highly remote site has stunning views of both the Great Himalaya and the Transhimalayan
A yi la range. Cliffs on all sides encircle the location, providing it with an excellent defense capability. Access is via a 20-m
high rock chimney in the formation, which must have once supported a stairway. The seven rdo khang are built of locally-occurring
brown sandstone in the typical fashion (with buttressed walls, stone corbelling, bridging stones, and stone sheathing). These
detached buildings were raised on the sandy and brush-covered summit, which is inclined at around 30º. Ba lu mkhar is one of
the only sites of this typology to be discovered in the badlands region of Gu ge. This monument constitutes one piece of evidence
that demonstrates Gu ge’s close architectural relationship and cultural affinity with the high plateau to the east. The all-stone
structures of Ba lu mkhar appear to represent an elite residential (religious?) center of the archaic cultural horizon. The walls
are constructed of dry-mortar random-rubble slabs and blocks, 20 cm to 60 cm in length. Walls are 50 cm to 60 cm in thickness.
Oral tradition
Given its remote location and culturally marginal position, only a very small handful of people from the nearby village of Spu
gling has ever reached Ba lu mkhar. Two reasons are given for the site name:
1. It is associated with bears (interestingly, balu is the Hindi, Nepali and Pahari word for the Himalayan black bear).
2. Dwarfs called ba lu built this castle (bala is the Hindu dwarf incarnation of the god Vishnu). Local sources cite the tiny
doorways of the complex as verifying this belief.51
Site elements
Residential Structure RS1
Very little of residential structure RS1, the most easterly habitation (3.4 m x 9.6 m), has survived. Its walls appear to have been
oriented in the compass points. Fragments of the forward or downhill wall reach 1.6 m in height. The rear wall has been almost
obliterated.
Residential structure RS2 (8 m x 8.3 m) is located 24 m west of RS1. This largest edifice of Ba lu mkhar was split into three
levels. The upper tier probably contained three rooms. The west room of the upper tier (2.7 m x 1.2 m) is the only one at Ba lu
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In the oral tradition of western Tibet sba lu/ba lu are anthropomorphous creatures empowered by the yul lha. They can be bearers of wealth. They are said
to have built walls known as ba lu mkhar in mountains. In the Ge sar epic, Ba lu was a spy working between the countries of Hor yul and Gling yul (Rohit
Vohra, The Religion of the Dards of Ladakh: Investigations into their Archaic ’Brog-pa Traditions [Ettelbruck: Skydie Brown, 1989], 120). In Dardic ’brog
pa mythology, ba lu is a dwarf who roams on the wind (Vohra, The Religion of the Dards of Ladakh, 120). In La dwags there is a ruined castle called Sba lu
mkhar/Ba lu mkhar*. Its walls are built of shuttered earth that rest upon mud mortared stone foundations. On the basis of inscriptions and petroglyphs found
in the proximity, La dwags’s Ba lu mkhar may have been founded as early as 800-1000 CE. See Neil Howard, “The Development of the Fortresses of la dwags
c. 950 to c. 1650 AD,” East And West 39 (1989): 281, 282. According to Francke, the probable spelling is Sba lu mkhar (located 3 km from Khalatse) (August
Hermann Francke, “Archaeological Notes on Balu-Mkhar in Western Tibet,” Indian Antiquary xxxiv (1905): 203).
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mkhar to have a partly intact roof. The stone roof was built in the customary way with corbels and bridging stones overlaid with
stone sheathing. The longest roof member is 1.2 m. The uphill edge of the roof is flush with the ground, creating a
semi-subterranean aspect. The current floor-to-ceiling height of this room is just 1.1 m. The 1.1-m long lintel over the entranceway
(1 m x 60 cm) is in situ. Naturally occurring boulders form the rear walls of the other two rooms in the upper tier. The rear walls
of these rooms were built 1.1 m into the ground and they are each about 2 m wide. Very little of the upper tier east room remains.
The middle tier consists of two relatively large rooms that had an entrance independent from the upper tier. A good portion of
the walls of the west room (2.1 m x 3.2 m) are still standing. The forward wall has a maximum internal height of 1.7 m. The
rear wall of the west room was built into the slope directly below the upper tier rooms. The intact entranceway (1.3 m x 70 cm)
also accesses the middle tier east room. Only some of the stone flooring in the east room has endured. Below the flooring there
is a 1.1-m-deep, 80-cm wide recess that opens onto the lower tier east room. The lower tier of RS2 contains five rooms. The
separate entrance to the lower tier east room is in the east. The forward wall of the lower tier middle room attains 2.3 m in height,
with 60 cm of this as a revetment. There is a recess built into the rear wall of the middle room There are also three highly
deteriorated west rooms in the lower tier. The rear wall of these rooms was constructed about 1 m into the slope, and their
forward or south wall has a maximum elevation of 2 m.
Residential structure RS3 (3.8 m x 4 m) is located 5.5 m east of RS2. The rear wall is set into the slope to a depth of 1.6 m.
There is one in situ corbel bearing down on the rear wall. The side walls (east and west sides) are freestanding to a height of
2.3 m. The forward wall has been destroyed.
Residential structure RS4 (10 m x 4 m) is located 11.6 m southwest of RS2 at the same elevation. It appears to have contained
two relatively large rooms. The remains of a 1.2 m thick partition wall divide the two rooms. Also, between the rooms there
appears to have been an 85 cm wide interclose, which would have helped support the heavy roof. Very little else of this structure
is extant.
Residential structure RS5 (3.1 m x 4.5 m) is located immediately above RS4. Due to the movement of the slope its rear wall
has been eradicated. The forward wall has a maximum exterior elevation of 1.6 m and an interior height of 90 cm. The 85-cm
wide entrance to the building is in the east. The lintel is 1 m in length, but the height of the entrance was not measurable due to
the deposition of earth inside the structure.
Residential structure RS6 (8.9 m x 3.7 m) is located 4 m west of RS5 at the same elevation. The failure of the slope has destroyed
the rear wall. The forward wall is also missing; only segments on its east and west sides remain. A room partition is also partly
intact. The east side of this 1-m high partition wall fragment has a niche (30 cm x 35 cm).
Residential structure RS7 (3.8 m x 7.4 m) is located 2 m west of the upper tier of RS6. This structure appears to have had an
upper tier of rooms, at least along some of its breadth, adding nearly 3 m to its north-south dimension. However, due to the
slippage of the slope, very little structural evidence is visible. The lower tier had three rooms. The rear wall of the west room
has a niche lined with stone slabs (55 cm x 35 cm). The forward wall of RS7 has been destroyed. A freestanding west wall
segment is 1.4 m in height.
Dkar dung mkhar
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Site name: Dkar dung mkhar
English equivalent: Conch White Castle
Site number: A-103
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 4260m
Administrative location (township): Ri gong
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Contemporary usage: Religious devotions.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A new chapel, reliquary mchod rten and other religious emblems.
Dkar dung mkhar is the name of ruins located on an isolated eponymous hilltop rising above Dkar dung village (the highest
elevation agricultural settlement in Spu rang smad). This conical hill has commanding views south over the Spu rang valley.
Occupying an extremely strategic location, the old stronghold straddled the route between the pastoral highlands of Spu rang
stod and the agricultural valleys of Spu rang smad. Important lines of trade and communication are likely to have been controlled
from this point. Earthen wall remnants on the north side of the summit are identified as belonging to a bstan phyi dar era
monastery. Dissolving foundations and revetments to the south of this ruined monastery are reported to be the traces of Dkar
dung mkhar. This facility appears to have consisted primarily of earthen structures. There are also highly obscured cobble wall
fragments. A reliquary mchod rten of a personality known as Skyi’u mtshams pa rin po che now stands on the ruins of Dkar
dung mkhar. Below the summit on a wide shelf are thickly arrayed cobble foundations of what is supposed to have been the
original village of Dkar dung. Ancient habitations in Upper Tibet were customarily situated above the valley bottoms on high
ground. On the flanks of the Dkar dung hill are shrines to the local protective deities, Dmag zor rgyal mo and Mes do lha btsan
(the Yul lha of La lnga mtsho).
Oral tradition
According to elders of Dkar dung village (including its religious head, Dngos grub rdo rje), the first fortress of Dkar dung, Dkar
dung khyung rdzong dkar mo, was founded no less than 900 years ago. At around that time a Buddhist monastery known as
Mang bzhug dgon pa was also established on the north side of the summit.52 It was eventually destroyed by the Sing pa (probably
the Ladakhi). In the time of the fortress, the village of Dkar dung was situated on a bench elevated above the south and west
foot of the Dkar dung hill. It is said that around 100 residences were once located here. South of mang bzhung dgon pa, a rnying
ma monastery associated with Nam mkha’ khyung rdzong (a well-known 19th century religious center nestled in the Spu rang
Himalaya) was eventually built. It was destroyed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution. This monastery stands on the site of the
old fortress, as does the recently built Ma ṇi lha khang. Local sources also state that the Dkar dung hill was once encircled by
a defensive wall punctuated by four gateways. Tshe ring chos ’phel, a cultural luminary residing in India, opines (in personal
communication) that the fortress of Dkar dung mkhar may date to pre-Buddhist times (the prominent geographic position of
the site encourages such speculation).
Bar gyi mkhar
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Site name: Bar gyi mkhar
Site number: A-104
Site typology: I.1b
Geographic coordinate (E. long..): 79º 32.7΄
Elevation: 4370 m
Administrative location (township): O byang
Survey expedition: HTAE
According to the historical text ’Khor chags dgon pa’i lo rgyus deb gter dngul sku mched gsum gyi sngon byung gtam, in the tenth century CE, the king
of Spu rang under the behest of the great Dkar dung master Chos rje ’dzam gling grags pa founded the monastery of Gser mkhar grags pa’i gtsug lag khang,
as well as a lower and upper castle at Dkar dung (Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po, Mnga’ ris chos ’byung, 115).
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The diminutive stronghold of Bar gyi mkhar is perched on the crest of a steep limestone spur, approximately 40 m above the
east side of the Bar basin. The basin of Bar adjoins the north shore of Mtsho mo ngang la ring mtsho. The slopes leading up to
the facility are very steep, which afforded it with a good defensive posture. Although only a few families now reside permanently
in Bar, the presence of two additional fortresses (A-104 and A-105) in this locale indicate that it was once much more heavily
populated. These three fortresses seem to reflect the existence of a localized social and military apparatus of considerable strength
in the past. Echoes of this type of polity are still present in the traditional organizational patterns of the Upper Tibetan shepherd
camps known as tsho pa, shog pa and sde.
Bar gyi mkhar enjoys panoramic views of the Bar basin and Mtsho mo ngang la ring mtsho. This fortified residential facility
overlooks a high volume spring that issues from the base of the reddish brown formation on which it was built. The mythological
profile of such isolated fortresses in Ru thog and the absence of any structural evidence pointing to Buddhist occupation suggest
that this site belongs to the archaic cultural horizon. The bulk of Bar gyi mkhar consists of a contiguous complex (17 m x 5.5
m to 7.6 m) constructed of limestone and conglomerate blocks. The wall construction and load-bearing spans involved indicate
that the structures built here had wooden roofs. The wall joints contain copious amounts of a beige clay-based mortar. Mostly
uncut stones, 30 cm to 1 m in length, were used in construction.
Oral tradition
According to local residents, Bar gyi mkhar was an ancient fortress.
Site elements
East complex
The axis of this east complex runs roughly east-west, and is set at the same elevation. The east complex consists of a large,
almost L-shaped central space surrounded by wall segments, with a maximum exterior height of 3.2 m and a maximum interior
height of 1.6 m. The presence of small outcrops inside these walls calls into question whether the central part of the installation
ever supported a roof. Flanking the west side of the east complex is a building that appears to have contained three small rooms,
but only the south room has substantial in situ partition walls. The interior of the south room measures 2 m x 2.7 m. The north
room has a window or loophole (30 cm x 30 cm), which decreases in width toward the exterior side of the wall. This window
is situated in an alcove that constitutes the widest portion of the north room (1.6 m). The entrance to this suite of three west
rooms is found in the most northerly one. This 1-m wide ingress appears to have been the main entryway to the fortress. Perhaps
a walkway led up to this access point, but no signs of it are still detectable on the steep flanks of the formation.
West edifice
This edifice is comprised of just a single room (3.2 m x 3.8 m). In the north wall are two loopholes, one of which is only partially
intact. The more westerly loophole has an internal width of 45 cm, tapering to just 10 cm wide on its exterior side. There may
also have been a small window opening in the south wall of this structure.
Ri bong mkhar ru
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Site name: Ri bong mkhar ru
English equivalent: Rabbit Castle District
Site number: A-105
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4310 m
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The residential complex of Ri bong mkhar ru sits on a small bluish limestone outcrop, situated on the north side of mtsho mo
ngang la ring mo. It is located right on the lakeshore, 2 km east of the opening to the Bar basin. Only a single rocky ridge
separates it from Bar gyi mkhar (A-104). The Ri bong mkhar ru outcrop directly rises approximately 15 m above the lake, but
is only around 10 m high on its inner side. The accessibility of the site and the lack of breastworks or other signs of fortifications
indicate that this installation was not a safehold. Like ruins found on many other shorelines in Upper Tibet, Ri bong mkhar ru
may have been an archaic religious center. Such facilities were often built on southern exposure outcrops, headlands and islands
in the great lakes, which spread across the entire breadth of Upper Tibet. Typological identification of Ri bong mkhar ru is
hampered by the very poor state of the ruins.
The axis of the Ri bong mkhar ru complex is oriented north-south along the spine of the outcrop. This orientation is parallel
to this particular stretch of the lakeshore. The so-called mkhar is comprised of the foundations and fragmentary walls of four
small buildings. These structures were made with 55-cm to 80-cm thick dry-mortar, random-work walls. These walls contain
unhewn stones 15 cm to 60 cm in length. Mostly limestone blocks were employed in construction, but some conglomerate and
metamorphic stones were also used. If such walls supported roofs they are likely to have been made of wood.
Oral tradition
According to local residents, Ri bong mkhar ru was an ancient fortress.
Site elements
Residential complex
Residential structure RS1 (5.9 m x 8.6 m), the most northerly building, appears to have contained three rooms, two small ones
flanking a larger central hall. B-1 is situated on the summit of the outcrop. It has wall segments that reach a maximum height
of 1 m on the exterior side and 50 cm inside the structure. Outer wall segments up to 70 cm in height have survived in the highly
deteriorated east room.
Residential structure RS2 (4.6 m x 3.5 m) is located 4.8 m south of RS1. It appears to have consisted of a single room, but most
of this structure has been leveled to the foundations.
Residential structure RS3 (7.3 m x 5.1 m) is situated 11 m south of RS2. It consists of two nearly leveled rooms. What remains
of the plan shows that the south room is considerably smaller than the north room.
Residential structure RS4 (6.2 m x 5.2 m) is located 14 m south of RS3. It probably contained two rooms. Exterior wall fragments
reach a maximum height of 1.2 m. In the proximity there appear to be two tiny wall fragments on the rim of the formation,
overlooking mtsho mo ngang la ring mo. These may be vestiges of a wall that enclosed this flank of the site.
Terracing
On a shelf, between the summit of the outcrop and the lakeshore, there is also evidence of minor structural dispersions. These
appear to have constituted terracing. On the lower northern flanks of the outcrop there are the remains of four walled terraces,
covering an area of approximately 17 m x 12m. The enclosed areas are more or less level. The upper two walls are highly
damaged. The lower-middle terrace wall is 6.5 m in length and was built of stones up to 80 cm in length. It has a maximum
height of 80 cm on its down-slope side, while its upper side is flush with the ground surface. The lower terrace wall appears to
have incorporated naturally occurring boulders up to 2 m in length into its construction. The function of these terraces is
enigmatic. They could either have had economic (campsites, work area, etc.) or ritual uses. Between the lakeshore and the north
end of the summit of the outcrop, two wall remnants, 3.7 m and 5 m in length, create a level area against a cliff. This may well
have been another building site.
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Sbal pa mkhar
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Site name: Sbal pa mkhar
English equivalent: Frog Castle
Site number: A-106
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4500 m
Contemporary usage: A small disused prayer flag mast is on the summit.
On the top of a 20-m high conical hill, heaps of stones mark the location of a small citadel known as Sbal pa mkhar. This site
is located at the head of a narrow valley called Sbal pa g.yu gdong (Frog Turquoise Face). The summit (9.5 m x 10 m) of this
limestone formation is blanketed in rubble, which pours down the flanks of the hill for a distance of 2 m to 5 m on all sides.
The steep hillside gives the site a fairly good defensive position, however, higher ground to the north and south could potentially
have been used to harass the occupants with volleys of arrows and stones. The structures were built of uncut limestone blocks
of variable size (15 cm to 80 cm). Only small sections of the rampart that encircled the summit are still intact. They were
constructed of random-rubble. Cultivation once took place in the Sbal pa g.yu gdong valley below the citadel. This narrow
valley has a good spring, which drains into the Bar basin before disappearing underground. From Sbal pa mkhar there are
excellent views of the long and narrow mtsho mo ngang la ring mo.
Oral tradition
Sbal pa mkhar is said by local sources to have been an ancient fortress.
Site elements
Summit complex
On the south and east sides of the summit, ramparts between 60 cm and 1.5 m in height have persisted. There is also a small bit
of an integral revetment on the north side of the summit. The substantial wall-bases and copious amounts of rubble suggest that
substantial structures once stood at Sbal pa mkhar. Approximately 5 m below the summit, on the east slope, there is a foundation
(5.2 m x 4.1 m), where ostensibly a building once stood. Most of the footings are intact and they incorporate naturally occurring
boulders within them. The west foundation wall is built 70 cm into the uphill slope, while the east wall footing rises 1.2 m above
the downhill slope. These walls are around 60 cm thick and were built of random-work. There may also have been a small
edifice on the slope below the west side of the summit, but structural evidence was largely effaced by the construction of a now
disused ’brog pa shelter.
Lower site
At the southern base of the hill, on the edge of a gully, there are the remains of another foundation (4.8 m x 5.8 m). It was built
of large stones that drew in situ boulders into its construction. The uphill wall of the structure is set 90 cm into the ground. Some
tens of meters farther south there is another structure that appears to have had a domiciliary function (6.4 m x 3.9 m). Parts of
all four walls are intact and they are generally aligned in the cardinal directions. The rear or west wall is built 80 cm into the
slope. The east wall stands freely to a height of 1.1 m. The 40-cm to 60-cm-thick walls are made of random-work. This structure
was partitioned into east and west rooms. Its constructional features and physical decay seem to suggest that this is a monument
of significant age. Its relationship, if any, to the hilltop fortress is unknown.
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Affiliated sites
Buddhist monastery
The historic sedentary occupation of the locale is represented in a small Buddhist monastery or hermitage situated on a low-lying
ridgeline, enclosing the opposite side of the Sbal pa g.yu gdong valley. This site consists of three small and highly eroded adobe
buildings. The largest of the buildings measures 4.8 m x 4.8 m, and has standing walls that reach 2 m in height. The lower
building encloses a cave that now functions as a shepherd’s camp. This cave has courses of masonry lining its lower walls and
a stone bay, probably marking it as a place of religious practice (sgrub phug). Below the monastic buildings there is the base
of a simple mchod rten, and what appears to have been a Rigs gsum mgon po mchod rten; these are still especially popular in
Ru thog (they have three bum pa of contrasting colors).
Old agriculture
From the summit of Sbal pa mkhar it can readily be seen that the vale of Sbal pa g.yu gdong hosted one contiguous strip of
arable land. These lands are surrounded by the roots of a wall and are subdivided by the remains of other walls. Roughly 2 km
south of Sbal pa g.yu gdong there is a smaller agricultural parcel. According to an O byang township resident named Bkra rnam
(born circa 1924), when he was a young boy, this land was being cultivated by an individual named Bsod nams nor rgyal. This
pre-modern cultivation appears to mark the last significant occupation of the site.
Skyid rdzong
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Site name: Skyid rdzong
English equivalent: Happiness Fortress
Site number: A-107
Site typology: I.1b
The large fortress of Skyid rdzong is perched some 70 m above the east end of the large agricultural plain of O byang. The site
commands fine views of the east side of mtsho mo ngang la ring mo, as well as the north face of the famous Yul lha mountain
of Ru thog known as Ge khod gnyan lung. The size of the Skyid rdzong facility and the presence of another ancient stronghold,
approximately 3 km to the west,53 underscore the economic importance of O byang in earlier times. Situated high up in a rocky
fastness, Skyid rdzong is naturally endowed with considerable protection from attack. The nearly vertical terrain surrounding
the site made it immune to threats originating on higher ground. There are both upper and lower complexes at Skyid rdzong,
which were built with variable-sized (15 cm to 60 cm) unhewn bluish limestone blocks. The block-work was joined with a
gravelly light-colored mud-based mortar. The formidably built upper complex contains about 20 rooms and extends across a
rugged ridgeline for 44 m. Given the size of the rooms, much or all the upper complex must have been built with wooden roofs.
The similarly built lower complex has both east and west sectors separated by a distance of 40 m. The two sectors are connected
by a walkway that traverses a steep flank of the formation.
Oral tradition
According to local villagers, Skyid rdzong was built in ancient times so that the inhabitants of O byang could escape a devastating
flood.
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This is the stronghold of Brag gdong (A-18), situated directly above the settlement of O byang. For information on this site, see Bellezza, Antiquities of
Northern Tibet, 104, 105.
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Site elements
Upper complex
The 44-m long axis of this conterminous group of buildings runs in a northwest-southeast direction. The southeast extremity of
the upper complex consists of a single structure straddling the summit, which is 2 m or less in width and 6 m in length. Its walls
stand to 1 m in height, plus an additional 50 cm of underlying revetment. This southeast structure appears to have been a sentinel
post or forward defensive station. It is attached to the rest of the complex by a narrow rib of rock several meters in length.
Northwest of this rib there are the vestiges of a single room (5 m x 7m) that also covers the breadth of the summit. To the
northwest of this room the fortress widens to two rooms abreast. There are three pairs of relatively large rooms extending across
16 m of the axis of the complex. These paired rooms are about 6 m in width. Sufficient wall partitions are in place to assess the
ground plan. These rooms have an irregular form: the alignment of the walls is in conformance with the various planes and
nooks of the crags, not with a grid layout. This intensive integration into the parent formation is a common archaic architectural
trait. Part of the north wall of the middle section of the complex rises to 3 m in height, the tallest freestanding structure extant
at Skyid rdzong. In this wall segment there are five small windows. To the northwest of the three pairs of rooms, the complex
widens to as much as 16.7 m, and contains three or four rooms abreast, stretching along 12 m of the axis. At the northwest
extremity, the highest elevation part of the upper complex, there is a room with internal dimensions of just 1.2 m x 2.1 m. The
tallest wall at the site is located near this northwest corner. It has a maximum height of 6.2 m, but only about 1 m of this elevation
is freestanding.
Intermediate structures
Below the rib of rock connecting the southeast extremity of the upper complex with the bulk of structures, there is a fissure in
the formation that once contained a stairway. Most of the stones of this staircase, however, have been swept away. Originally,
it connected the upper and lower complexes, which are separated by about 15 m of vertical distance. In between the two complexes
are the remains of a single building built against a cliff (5.3 m x 2 m). This structure has a stonework base and an adobe upper
section consisting of around seven vertical courses of highly eroded mud blocks. This is the only adobe wall evident at Skyid
rdzong.
Lower complex
The walkway joining the east and west sectors of the lower complex is supported by a revetment, some of which is still intact.
The larger west sector (11.8 m x 12.6 m) has been leveled to its revetments in most places. In some sections these revetments
are as much as 2 m in height. On the east side of the west sector there are freestanding walls up to 1.7 m in height. They mark
an area where three rooms once existed. The east sector is dominated by a single room or building (9.3 m x 4.3 m). Its standing
walls span two natural lumps of rock and attain 1.6 m in height. On the east side of this structure, at slightly lower elevation,
there are the remains of one or two smaller buildings. Adjacent to these smaller buildings are traces of the old stone gateway
that marked the entrance to the fortress. On the way down from the fortress to the plain below there are three shallow caves in
the formation. They each have remnants of masonry fronts and open up to a level area on the formation approximately 20 m in
length, which is bounded by the remains of a wall. There are a number of other caves in the limestone range that intervenes
between Skyid rdzong and the fortress of Brag gdong (A-18), which were inhabited in earlier times.
Gdong dmar
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Site name: Gdong dmar
English equivalent: Red Face
Site number: A-108
Site typology: I.1a
Elevation: 4460m to 4480 m
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The small stronghold of Gdong dmar is divided into upper, middle and lower complexes, all of which are in a very poor state
of preservation. The site appears to have had a functional relationship with the defunct agricultural lands located below in the
Chu lung gong ma valley. There is also a ruined settlement of seven ancient rdo khang spread out across sandy slopes and
benches approximately 300 m to the north (B-45). We might surmise that the political and/or religious elite of this agricultural
enclave inhabited the Gdong dmar fortress. The hard to reach stronghold is built in reddish crags that rise 90 m above the valley
floor. This siting must have provided the facility with a secure military position. Flanked by sheer rock faces, potential attackers
would have faced a formidable challenge from the defenders. The dry-mortar, random-rubble block-work contains stones that
are generally 20 cm to 60 cm in length.
Oral tradition
According to local sources, Gdong dmar was an ancient settlement.
Site elements
Upper structure
The upper complex measures just 6 m x 2 m to 4 m. Nearly all traces of the superstructures have disappeared, but revetments
up to 4 m in height still cling to the crags. The remains of a 1-m to 1.2-m wide stone-lined walkway extend down from the upper
complex for a distance of 7 m. The lower sections of this original access-way have been destroyed.
Middle structure
The middle complex is situated on the prow of a spur 15 m below the upper complex. It consists of a single building (6.5 m x
3.3 m) that was constructed against a rock face. Its forward wall is 60 cm thick and 2.7 m in height, 1 m of which is freestanding.
The largest stones in the revetment are 80 cm in length. Only fractional footings of the rear wall have survived. These are found
on the edge of a rock face.
Lower structure
The lower complex is also a single building, which is situated about 5 m below the middle complex. This structure was also
built against a rock face and measures 9.4 m x 2.5 m. The maximum elevation of the forward wall is 3 m, with 2 m of that
standing independently.
Mkhar dkar
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Site name: Mkhar dkar
English equivalent: White Castle
Site number: A-109
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4730m to 4790 m
Administrative location (township): lcags khang
Contemporary usage: A single string of prayer flags was recently hung on the summit.
The large citadel of Mkhar dkar sits astride a dark-colored conical hill in the midst of a now uninhabited plain. The main portion
of the facility is located on the summit of this 130-m high steeply inclined formation, well out of reach of higher terrain. This
protected geographic position is typical for ancient Upper Tibetan strongholds. The site has encompassing views to the east,
south, and west. To the west is the Tibetan frontier region extending to the Indus (Seng ge gtsang po) valley. Like many other
archaic castles in the region, few standing walls remain at Mkhar dkar. The footings and revetments that have endured clearly
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show, however, that this was a large and puissant facility, which potentially had wide regional significance. Wall textures consist
of mud-mortar and dry-mortar random-work of variable-sized stones. Many of the dark-colored (metamorphic?) blocks used
in construction were dressed.
Oral tradition
Area residents say that Mkhar dkar was an ancient castle.
Site elements
Summit complex
Northern outworks
The most northerly structure at the site is situated just below the east side of the summit. It is an isolated defensive wall segment
(1.6 m x 1.6 m x 1.2 m). Some tens of meters to the south, on an east-facing rib of rock, a rampart immunized the castle on its
most vulnerable flank. This defensive wall extends down from the summit for 38 m and, with its revetments, reaches a maximum
height of 1.8 m. At the lowest point of this rampart there are the remains of a small battlement (2 m x 2 m). There is another
ruined habitational structure (4 m x 5 m) where this wall joins the summit. The walls of this habitation now have a maximum
elevation of 90 cm, most of which is taken up by the revetment. The large summit complex is located 32 m south of this structure.
North building
From the south, one enters a 5-m long section of footings on the narrow northern edge of the summit complex. The main cluster
of edifices begins just south of this point. Its 35-m long axis is roughly oriented north-south. The north building (9.1 m x 5.8
m) is slightly higher than others on the summit. This edifice has maximum exterior wall elevations of 2.7 m and interior elevations
of 1.4 m, the difference being made up by an underpinning revetment. From the remaining of wall partitions it can be seen that
this building contained four or five rooms of varying size. The interior wall joints show that a mud mortar was used in construction,
although most of it has washed away. The stonework consists of rocks 20 cm to 70 cm in length used to construct walls 45 cm
to 65 cm in thickness. There are openings in the north and east walls near the floor level. These defensive or ventilation features
are between 20 cm and 40 cm in width. Immediately south of the north building, on both rims of the summit, there are the
remains of parapet walls that extend 10 m to the south. These parapets are 50 cm to 80 cm thick and up to 1.3 m in height, 50
cm of which is freestanding. The summit in this area is 5 m wide.
South aggregation of buildings
On the east side of the summit, south of the parapet walls, there are the highly fragmentary leavings of a building, which contained
two rooms (7.3 m x 6 m). There is a gap of 3.6 m between this structure and those situated on the south side of the summit. The
south summit probably consisted of four interconnected buildings covering an area of 10.7 m x 16.5 m. Standing walls here
only reach 50 cm, but revetments add another 1.5 m to their elevation. Three meters below the south buildings, on the east flank
of the hill, there are the vestiges of a single building (4.8 m x 3.7 m). Ten meters below the south buildings, lies the only structure
built on the west flank of the summit. This outlying defensive-work (4 m x 3.1 m) sits on a revetment 1.8 m in height. No
standing walls have survived.
Southeast and south ramparts
Below the summit, on the southeast and east sides of the dkar mkhar hill, there are a series of no less than 15 dry-mortar ramparts
sequenced at various elevations. These were generally constructed on ledges interspersed between nearly vertical expanses of
rock. The network of ramparts extends down from the summit for 60 m vertical. The sheer west side of the formation required
no such protective treatment. The ramparts are comprised of 1-m to 3-m high walls bounding the ledges or slopes. They range
in length from 3. 5 m to 9 m, and create level spaces between them and the formation. In a few spots there is evidence of standing
walls up to 50 cm in height, indicating the existence of a parapet or possibly the base of a small edifice. The staggering of what
appear to have been fighting platforms across the outer face of the formation is a typical design feature of archaic strongholds
in Upper Tibet.
Shrine
Near the lowest extension of ramparts there are the remains of a well-built solitary shrine, which is probably of the rten mkar
or gsas mkhar class. Finely dressed stones were used in this dry-mortar construction (1.9 m x 1.7 m). Its four walls are oriented
in the cardinal directions and have been reduced to around 40 cm in height. On the quadrate base of the shrine there are traces
of a small hollow stone bum pa-like structure, which adds another 60 cm its elevation.
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Mdo gsham mon gyi mkhar
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Site name: Mdo gsham mon gyi mkhar
English Equivalent: Below the Valley Confluence Castle of the Mon
Alternative site name: Rdo gsham mon gyi mkhar
English equivalent: Below the Rocks Castle of the Mon
Site number: A-110
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 3960 m
The brownish gray adobe-block structure known as Mdo gsham mon gyi mkhar is found suspended approximately 70 m above
the east side of the Mdo gsham valley. It consists of two highly eroded exterior walls of a building, which run the breadth of a
narrow shelf. Undoubtedly, much of this structure has long since disappeared down the steep slopes of the mountainside. The
site is interconnected to an esplanade called Sbug, which is elevated above a long stretch of the Mdo gsham valley. Mdo gsham
mon gyi mkhar has a fairly good defensive position overlooking agricultural lands on the opposite side of the valley. The
so-called mkhar is also located on the opposite side of the valley from a ruined Buddhist monastery known locally as ’Byams
pa lte lugs (said to be named for a large ’Byams pa statue with a prominent navel that was once enshrined here).
Oral tradition
Mdo gsham mon gyi mkhar is thought to be a castle of the ancient Mon. Local residents who claim that mysterious shrieks are
sometimes heard here, consider the site inauspicious.
Site elements
Castle
The south wall of mdo gshams mon gyi mkhar is 12.5 m in length and its east wall is 14.5 m in length. On the north end of the
east wall there is an additional 1.8-m long wall segment that runs perpendicular to it. The highest exterior point of the walls is
2.5 m and the highest interior face rises 1.5 m. The walls have been reduced to 20 cm or less in thickness near the top and 40
cm or less at the base. The adobe contains a high proportion of gravel and small cobbles. The joints of the adobe blocks are still
visible in a few places. These small building blocks are just 20 cm long and 10 cm high.
Mdo gsham mon gyi yul
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Site name: Mdo gsham mon gyi yul
English equivalent: Below the Valley Confluence Land of the Mon
Alternative name: Rdo gsham mon gyi yul
Alternative name English Equivalent: Below the Rocks Land of the Mon
Site number: A-111
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: upper site: 3940 m, lower site: 3870 m to 3890 m
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Identifiable Buddhist constructions: The lower site has a ma ṇi wall.
Mdo gsham mon gyi yul is located roughly 2 km down valley from Mdo gsham mon gyi mkhar (A-110) The upper site is
likewise situated about 70 m above the east side of the Mdo gsham valley. However, instead of an intervening esplanade, the
slope it sits upon is directly connected to the eastern range of badlands. The site has a very good defensive posture and was
virtually invulnerable from attack arising in any direction. Very little structural evidence has survived, probably in part, because
the earthen formation it sits upon has been subject to rapid erosion and the periodic catastrophic failure of the slopes. The lower
site, set directly below the upper site, consists of rubble-strewn surfaces and depressions extending over an area of 200 m x 60
m. The structures on this moderate slope have been heavily impacted by the construction of a masonry wall that runs along the
entire length of the site near its lower reaches.
Oral tradition
According to local villagers, Mdo gsham mon gyi yul was a castle and village of the ancient Mon. This site is considered
inauspicious and cries are said to emanate from it. Local residents allege that gold, banded agates (gzi), turquoise, and other
valuables were at one time recovered here. It is also reported that ceramic vessels full of bones were discovered in the vicinity.
Urn burials are sometimes reported from other parts of Upper Tibet as well.
Site elements
Upper site
On a 34-m long 8-m to 10-m wide ridge-crest there are small fragments of cobble- and block- wall footings. Below the sheer
walls of the summit are structural vestiges that resemble ramparts. On the lower or west end of the ridge-crest there is a 15-m
long bluff in which masonry and adobe blocks are embedded. These wall remnants are up to 4 m in height. The masonry walls
exhibit a texture of alternating courses of stone blocks and cobbles (up to 50 cm in length). The presence of these tall well-designed
structures may suggest that significant buildings once stood here. Below the bluff there is a ridge-prow (23 m x 21 m) that hosts
highly obscured traces of wall-footings. These also appear to have been building foundations of some kind.
Lower Site
The lower site is elevated 5 m to 20 m above the valley floor. It appears that much of the detritus of the original structures was
exploited to make the large wall that now dominates the site. This wall, built before living memory, has the design characteristics
of a ma ṇi wall, but no inscribed plaques are found on it. It may have been constructed to subdue the inauspicious (non-Buddhist)
aura of the site and to modify its archaic architectural character. Perhaps the resources to furnish it with religious plaques were
never realized. On the south end of the lower site of Mdo gsham mon gyi yul there is indeed a ma ṇi wall with plaques of varying
ages. The highly eroded specimens of the six-syllable mantra in lan tsha script may well date to the second diffusion of Buddhism
(bstan pa phyi dar). Particularly at the northern end of the site, there are a series of shallow depressions that appear to be
consistent with residential foundations. If so, this would corroborate local claims that this was once a (Mon) village. Only one
integral wall on the edge of a depression was detected. This 4.5-m long double-course wall segment is around 60 cm wide and
appears to have formed part of the corner of a foundation. A wall fragment of the same general type and length is found clinging
to a slope above the south end of the lower site. In the middle of the site there is yet another in situ wall, built into the edge of
a 4-m high bluff. This wall is 5.6 m long and less than 50 cm in elevation.
Affiliated sites
mdo gsham mug mkhar dgon
The current village of Mdo gsham is situated on the west side of the valley opposite Mdo gsham mon gyi yul. Reportedly, it
has 16 households and a population of around 80. Further downstream, where the Mdo gsham valley enters a defile, there are
the remains of the impressive Buddhist monastic complex of Mdo gsham mug mkhar. This sprawling installation clearly indicates
that a much larger population once inhabited the valley. It is said to have received its name from the many pigeons found here
(in the Mnga’ ris dialect mug gu means pigeon). Situated on the right or east side of the valley, large mud-brick and rammed-earth
buildings line the summit and sides of a large formation. The mesa-like formation blanketed in ruins is reminiscent of nearby
Rtsa rang (A-62), although Mdo gsham mug mkhar is somewhat smaller. It is said that a functioning monastery, a branch facility
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of Mtho lding, existed at the site until the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Only one mchod rten in Kha dam pa style is still
maintained at Mdo gsham mug mkhar. Interestingly, local villagers also refer to the summit complex as Smu mkhar; smu being
a kind of mythical monster of ancient times. The smu is widely encountered in the mythology of Gu ge lho smad. This myth
may preserve a historical memory of the archaic occupation of the Mdo gsham mug mkhar site. This view is given weight by
the fact that the site, with its extensive summit and strategic position above a defile, is probably the most desirable spot for
habitation in the Mdo gsham valley. We must, therefore, consider the possibility that, in the archaic cultural horizon, the two
so-called Mon sites of the valley (A-110, A-111) were subsidiary to this location in terms of population and cultural significance.
In keeping with this hypothesis, it would appear that the two minor ‘Mon’ sites were not the object of Buddhist resettlement,
while the chief archaic site of Mdo gsham was thoroughly redeveloped.
Lung phug
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Site name: Lung phug
English equivalent: Spiritual Transmission Cave
Site number: A-112
Site typology: I.1x
Contemporary usage: There is a small prayer flag mast on the summit.
Lung phug is one of two strongholds located just east of the agricultural village of Gser kha. Gser kha is reported to have 18
households and a population of 70. Village elders say that around 70 years ago there were just seven households in this village.
The presence of two ruined citadels, however, seems to indicate that in ancient times the population of Gser kha was significantly
larger. Small Buddhist retreat centers are located on the opposite side of the valley at places called Bsam phug (Meditation
Cave) and Khang gog (Ruined Houses). The obscured remains of the Lung phug stronghold are found directly above a tableland
and gullies with a number of caves cut into them. Habitation of these so-called Mon caves is confirmed by the traces of cobble
façades found around some of them. On the end of the tableland directly above Gser kha there is the shrine for the local yul lha
Rdo rje g.yu sgron ma. The stronghold is perched on a summit towering approximately 60 m above the valley floor. The axis
of the site is oriented roughly east-west, and is 60 m in length. Only minor structural vestiges have endured.
Oral tradition
According to local residents, Lung phug was a castle and troglodytic settlement of the ancient Mon. The site is considered
potentially dangerous (bka’ gnyan po).
Site elements
Summit complex
East sector
Access to the east sector of the summit is from its west side of the formation and now includes a scramble up a fissure. The
summit is connected to the range bounding the east side of the valley, but it is not approachable from this direction. Other
approaches also present vertical expanses, thus the site is endowed with a good defensive aspect. The east sector summit is now
only 2 m to 4 m wide, but a significant portion of it appears to have slipped down the sides of the formation. There is much
rubble lying on the surface. At the eastern extremity of the east sector there is a random-work cobble wall segment precariously
attached to the formation. None of it still stands independently above the summit. This wall segment is 1.3 m in length and 1.5
m high. Also on this narrow east end of the hilltop (1.5 m below the top) there is a 2-m long wall segment composed of cobbles
and sandstone blocks (10 cm to 20 cm long). On the west end of the east sector there is a cobble and adobe-block wall 2 m in
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length and 2.5 m in height. It tenuously rests above the south rim of the summit. The highly eroded adobe blocks are 40 cm
long and 10 cm in height.
West sector
The main portion of the west sector is situated approximately 5 m lower than the east sector of the summit. The west sector
summit is 10 m to 20 m wide. Embedded in various parts of the summit are small pieces of double-course cobble footings (40
cm to 50 cm thick). This part of the summit also has cobble disjecta membra scattered all around it. Many other old building
stones are likely to have fallen off the summit over the course of time. The structural remains seem to indicate that edifices once
stood on the west sector summit, but their design and extent are not at all determinable. On the east end of the west sector, at
the southernmost extension of the formation, there is a lone wall segment 1.5 m in length and up to 2.3 m in height. This highly
worn adobe wall has two courses of cobbles near its base. The presence of two wall segments more than 2 m in height at Lung
phug is an indication that significant structures were once established here. On the south side of the west end of the summit
there is another adobe-block wall remnant, 1.6 m long and 1.1 m high. Another wall vestige (1.2 m long and 50 cm high) made
mostly of cobbles is located farther west on the south rim of the formation.
Well
About halfway between the summit and base of the Lung phug formation, along the main access route, there is a 9.5-m long
tunnel that leads to the south side of the formation. This tunnel opens to a narrow ledge that gains access to another tunnel bored
deep into the hillside. This was once a well as the presence of water and the local oral tradition indicate. It is no less than 30 m
down to the water line. This seems to demonstrate that the Lung phug stronghold possessed a secure supply of water in case of
a siege. The well was also highly useful, in that permanent sources of water in the valley are located quite some distance from
the site. The large monastic complex of Rab rgyas gling (also in Shang rtse township) is also said to have had such a well. Local
oral tradition also maintains that there was once a castle at Rab rgyas gling. No physical evidence pointing to the establishment
of an archaic fortress, however, was detected during a reconnaissance of this site.
Cho lo phug
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Site name: Cho lo phug (sp.?).
Site number: A-113
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4150 m
Cho lo phug is the northern stronghold of gser kha village, and like its southern counterpart, Lung phug (A-113), it has a
commanding position over the Gser kha valley. The mesa-like formation on which it reposes is only a distance of approximately
200 m from Lung phug. On its steep flanks there are a number of old residential caves. A long cave at the base of the Cho lo
phug formation is still used for storage. Access to the summit is by way of the southwest face. Cobble footings are in evidence
along the route to the summit. The axis of the summit runs northeast-southwest and is 64 m in length. This flat summit is 6 m
to 12 m in width. Much of it has been excavated to a depth of 1.5 m to 2.5 m to create a warren of small semi-subterranean
rooms. Walls were constructed above the rim of the summit. They now reach a maximum height of 80 cm. These walls are
primarily composed of natural earthen slabs that must have been extracted from the excavated rooms. There is no indication of
what type of roofs these structures had. This site exhibits one of the only examples of rooms created from open excavations
surveyed to date. Moreover, the extent of the remains at Cho lo phug indicate that this was once a fairly large facility.
Oral tradition
According to local villagers, Cho lo phug was a castle and troglodytic settlement of the ancient Mon.
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Site elements
Castle
The semi-subterranean earthen rooms are concentrated along the east half of the summit. A significant percentage of them were
destroyed through the collapse of a portion of the east side of the summit. The shearing of the formation and the network of
rooms sheltered within is plainly visible. Some of the rooms sunk into the summit are interconnected while others are not. In
the central portion of the east rim of the summit there is a defensive wall segment (6.5 m long, a maximum of 1 m high and 50
cm thick). It is made from granite cobbles and natural earthen blocks. Presumably, the entire summit was hemmed in by a
parapet wall but only scant evidence remains. This includes the remainder of a defensive wall around the north rim of the summit.
None of it, however, is still freestanding. Some of the west side of the summit was not excavated. Instead, it has various 40-cm
thick double-coursed cobble wall-footings affixed to it. The longest of these wall segments is 8.9 m. It is unclear what type of
superstructures these walls supported.
On the south end of the summit there is a room that was burrowed into the formation (1.8 m x 1.3 m). It has overlying earthen
formation as its roof. Just below the summit, on the south side of the mesa, a rectangular-shaped cave was dug out. Its ceiling
is 2 m high and it has a number of small oval niches in the walls and two large recesses in the rear, one of which is more than
2 m deep.
Affiliated sites
A few kilometers down valley of Gser kha there is the large cave complex of Shis shed (sp.?) (31° 47.5΄ N. lat. / 79° 31.1΄ E.
long. / 4070 m), which stands above Shis shed village. On the summit of the formation there is a ruined sa skya pa monastery.
To the north of the monastic complex are the ruins of what is said to have been a fortress. Like the monastery, this ruin has high
earthen walls
Mkhar ltag
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Site name: Mkhar ltag and Klu mkhar
English equivalent: Upper Aspect Castle and Water Spirits Castle
Site number: A-114
Site typology: I.1x
Geographic coordinate (E. long.): 79º 32.6΄ E. long
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Probably structural remains.
Mkhar ltag and Klu mkhar are two ruined citadels located in the proximity of the village of Rag kha shag. Due to access problems
and the destruction of most remains, it is difficult to assess the importance and architectural composition of these strongholds.
Local residents deny that these castles have any association with the Mon, but no oral tradition save that they were ancient
castles seems to have been preserved. The agrarian character of the settlement, the lack of Buddhist constructions, the fortress
attribution of the site, the general geographic pattern of early citadels in the region, and the presence of cobble wall structures
may suggest that at least parts of Mkhar ltag and Klu mkhar date to the archaic cultural horizon. A cluster of no less than 14
mchod rten called Zlum zlum mchod rten is found on a shelf on the opposite side of the valley. The siting of this Buddhist
monument well away from the castles also raises questions about their cultural orientation.
Oral tradition
According to local villagers, Mkhar ltag and Klu mkhar were twin ancient castles.
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Site elements
Summit complex of mkhar ltag
Although a good trail comes within tens of meters, the summit complex of Mkhar ltag has not been reachable in living memory.
The summit is approximately 45 m in length and very narrow, as confirmed by a 6.5-m long cave about 15 m below it, which
opens on both sides of the formation. There are around one dozen caves on the east face of the formation, 10 m to 15 m below
the summit. Some small bits of cobble fronts are still in place but most forward sections of the caves have collapsed and have
been swept away by the failure of the slopes.
Higher ground is found to the west of the Mkhar ltag summit, but 15-m high vertical walls of the formation protect the high
point of the castle. Small cobble wall segments are visible on the east side of the summit, yet most of these walls have disappeared
along with parts of the summit. It appears that the summit hosted a single line of diminutive fortifications. Below the summit,
the west face of the escarpment is lined with a cobble and block wall (10 m long). This must have once been part of a rampart,
because there does not seem to be any other reason for wall remnants to be suspended in a vertical face some meters below the
summit.
Cave complex of mkhar ltag
On a wide shelf below the cave complex of Mkhar ltag there are scattered cobbles, the detritus of past structures. According to
a local account, a small mchod rten was found in one of the caves until being destroyed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution.
Klu mkhar
Klu mkhar is situated directly above the village of Rag kha shag. A gully separates it from Mkhar ltag, which lies to the north.
The summit of Klu mkhar rises some 40 m above the village. Only the west portion of the summit is still accessible. On the
summit there are earthen wall fragments of fairly minor proportions, which appear to date to after 1000 CE. Below the summit
on the flanks of the formation are various caves. A long cave at the eastern base of the formation is used for storage. No cobble
walls were spotted at Klu mkhar.
Rag kha shag mon gyi mkhar
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Site name: Rag kha shag mon gyi mkhar
English equivalent: Rag kha shag Castle of the mon
Site number: A-115
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4180 m (midpoint)
The cave complex of Rag kha shag mon gyi mkhar is in a precipitous earthen formation, situated several kilometers down valley
from the village of Rag kha shag (named for a noble family). If summit facilities were located at this site they are no longer
visible from below. There are over 20 caves in the west-facing vertical formation. Virtually all of the caves have lost substantial
parts of their fronts due to slope failure and erosion. Arable land that was recently brought back under cultivation is found in
the valley below the site. It would appear that the caves represent an ancient troglodytic settlement that likely had an agrarian
economic base. The habitation function is borne out by the niches and bays hewn into certain caves. It may be that Rag kha
shag mon gyi mkhar was active in the same period as the cave settlements of Rag kha shag (A-114), which appear to represent
a larger and more desirable locus of settlement. By following a series of extremely narrow ledges, it is possible to reach the
midpoint of the cave complex. At this level, on the prow of the formation, there is a wall approximately 20 m in length and 1
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m in height enclosing a natural shelf. It is made of natural earthen slabs cut from the formation and has two cobble vertical
courses laid diagonally at its base. Caves and a walled ledge situated at higher elevation are no longer approachable.
Oral tradition
According to local sources, Rag kha shag mon gyi mkhar was an ancient castle of the Mon.
Byang stang mkhar
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Site name: Byang stang mkhar
Site number: A-116
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 4180 m (midpoint)
Contemporary usage: Minimal religious activity.
Tucci and Ghersi first visited the castle of Byang stang in the early 1930s.54 They record its name as Mkhar po che. The ruins
are located on the main summit (57 m x 12 m to 35 m), rising 40 m above the village of Byang stang. The highest point of the
summit is dominated by a single rammed-earth structure. This is the only edifice at the site whose plan is still discernable. In
contrast, most other structural remains of the castle are in a state of advanced decay. The way in which wall segments are arrayed
across the entire summit does seem to indicate that a large facility was once located here. In the side of the formation overlooking
the village there are around 50 caves; these appear to have comprised the original settlement of Byang stang. Most of the forward
sections of the caves have been obliterated by the collapse of the formation. Interestingly, the shrine for the local yul lha, Thang
dkar chu lung dkar mo, is situated on a hill located farther from the village. Ruined Buddhist temples were also founded in
alternative locations. These locational patterns seem to support the Mon or non-Buddhist identification of the site. It seems
likely that the construction and maintenance of Byang stang mkhar and the cave residences would have required a larger
population than is now found in the village (currently 15 households with a total of around 70 people).
Oral tradition
Byang stang mkhar is said by local villagers to have been an ancient Skal mon castle.
Site elements
High point structure
The four walls of the large rammed-earth edifice on the vertex of the summit are still partially intact (11.4 m x 11.7 m). These
walls stand as much as 6 m above the summit. The 50-cm to 60-cm thick walls are punctuated by rows of stone-lined rectangular
orifices used to accommodate shuttering pins during construction. The rammed-earth building was partitioned into at least four
rooms. Three of these rooms are situated against the north wall. In the east room, near the current ground level, there is a
rectangular window (50 cm x 25 cm). Its lintel consists of five small rounds of wood that seem to belong to two different species
of tree. There is also a similar window in the south central room with a crosshatch wooden lintel.
Other summit structures
The summit structures present an incongruous picture. Except for the high point building, nearly all the remaining walls on the
summit are so deteriorated that it cannot be determined whether they are of the adobe block or rammed-earth type. The only
exceptions are several other rammed-earth fragments and a 4-m-tall adobe-block wall on the east edge of the summit. This
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Giuseppe Tucci, and Eugenio Ghersi, Cronaca Della Missione Scientifica Tucci Nel Tibet Occidentale (1933) (Roma: Reale Accademia D’Italia, 1934).
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contrast in the physical condition of the various ruins may possibly be explained by different dates for the establishment and
destruction of these monuments. All structures were made from local gray earth with an admixture of gravel. Some of the extant
walls may have formed a parapet along the edge of the summit. The summit slopes steeply down towards the east. On the east
side of the summit there are two caves that have been converted into a local religious retreat. The main summit is now cut off
from a smaller 20-m long summit to the west, but it is likely that they were once connected. There are a few signs of minor
structures on the west summit.
Affiliated sites
Buddhist monuments
A little downstream of Byang stang there is a ruined Buddhist temple and mchod rten known as Lha khang gog po (Ruined
Temple). It is located on a bench overlooking the right side of the valley floor. There is another Buddhist facility called Mon
lha khang up valley from Byang stang, perched on a ridge on the left side of the valley, It is supposed to have once been occupied
by the Mon. On the opposite side of the valley from Mon lha khang there is another ruined Buddhist temple and mchod rten
called Rgyud lang (sp.?).
Ri rtse rgyab
Several kilometers up valley from Byang stang there is a cave complex and ruined earthen buildings in the badlands formation
at the agricultural village of Ri rtse rgyab (31º 58.9΄ N. lat. / 79º 29.8΄ E. long. / 13 households). In addition to what is referred
to as a mkhar, there is reported to have been a small lha khang on the same summit. The history and development of Ri rtse
rgyab mkhar does not seem to have been retained in the local oral tradition. Approximately 1 km upstream of Ri rtse rgyab,
where the valley narrows to form a gorge, there are the ruins of another Buddhist residential complex. Roughly 50 m above this
site, a small earthen ruin crowns the top of a conical formation. Known as Bsam phug, there are various caves in the flanks of
this formation. This site appears to have been another locus of early settlement.
Mkhar dmar po
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Site name: Mkhar dmar po
English equivalent: Red Castle
Site number: A-117
Site typology: I.1x
Administrative expedition: Shang rtse
Administrative location: Rtsa mda’
The large ruined citadel of Mkhar dmar po is found on a mount that towers above two branches of the gorge, which is situated
upstream of Ri rtse rgyab village. This gorge is now completely uninhabited. The reasons for the founding of such a large
stronghold at this location are not readily apparent. There is neither agricultural land nor signs of an old settlement in the vicinity.
It may be that the installation was built to protect the lower agricultural villages from incursions originating on the wide esplanade
that abuts the A yi la range to the north. The size and location of Mkhar dmar po bespeak its position as a premier installation,
which may have dominated the political life of the entire Ri rtse rgyab valley. The existence of breastworks at the bottom end
of the facility identifies it as a fortress or fortified settlement.
In addition to two summit complexes, Mkhar dmar po contains a chain of ruined buildings and cave shelters on the lower
flanks of the mountain. Large earthen buildings are situated on two summits, while most of the lower structures were constructed
from mud-mortared random-work masonry. Brownish and bluish blocks and slabs, mainly between 10 cm and 50 cm in length,
were used in construction. A considerable amount of mud plaster clings to some interior walls and even to a few exterior walls.
It is possible that the masonry buildings had all-stone corbelled roofs but not enough structural evidence is in place to know for
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certain. Due to the incoherent nature of the physical evidence, it is difficult to gauge the plans or architectural composition of
Mkhar dmar po. The groups of diminutive buildings clustered around caves and outcrops, the style of ramparts, the stonework,
the extreme degradation of the structures, and the lack of Buddhist emblems at the site, all suggest that this was an archaic
cultural horizon facility.
Oral tradition
Mkhar dmar po is said by local residents to have been an ancient castle.
Site elements
Lower flank structures
Ramparts
From the foot of the gorge, wall remnants seem to mark the existence of a stone buttressed trail, which led up steep slopes to
the entrance of the citadel at around 4240 m elevation. This trail appears to have been around 2.5 in width. Just below the
entrance are the vestiges of what appears to have been a forward battlement (2.8 m x 1.8 m). Parts of all four walls are intact
and they reach a height of 1.5 m. Above the forward battlement, fragments of a rampart built on a steeply inclined rib of rock
extend upwards for 24 m. This defensive wall has a maximum height of 1.3 m and is around 50 cm thick. West of this rampart
are various ruined buildings (Residential structures RS1 to RS6). Approximately 50 m downhill of the entrance to the stronghold
there is a line of broken ramparts built on the edge of a vertical face overlooking the gorge. Perched around 20 m above the
gorge, fragments of this defensive wall extend for 28 m. This constituted the forward-most defensive bulwark at Mkhar dmar
po.
Residential structure RS1 is located 17 m south of and roughly 6 m lower in elevation than RS2. This is the lowest building at
mkhar dmar po (4.6 m x 4 m) and was constructed on a rocky eminence. The exterior walls of RS1 attain a height of 3 m and
interior walls 1.5 m, providing an indication of how prominent the revetment built to support the structure was. A 3.5-m deep
cave was cut into the earthen and conglomerate formation underneath RS1. In the rear of the cave there is a deep arched recess
and one oblong niche, typical features of habitational caves in gu ge. It is about 40 m downhill from RS1 to the ramparts
overlooking the gorge.
Residential Structure RS2 group
This group of structures is situated 14 m west of the 24-m long rampart. The south side of residential structure RS2 consisted
of three or four small rooms. The two best preserved ones measure 4.2 m x 3.4 m and 2.7 m x 2.6 m. Their exterior walls reach
a maximum height of 2.3 m and 1.5 m on the interior side. Adjacent to these structures, at the same elevation, there is a row of
rooms 17 m in length. Only small sections of the forward wall in this structure have endured.
Residential structure RS3 is situated 4.7 m from RS2, at 2 m higher elevation. RS3 measures 6.3 m x 6.8 m. Exterior walls of
this masonry building attain 2.5 m in height and interior walls 1.4 m.
Residential structure RS4 is situated 3 m (1.5 m vertical) from RS3. RS4 is another multi-roomed structure (5.3 m x 9 m) and
was built in three tiers. The middle tier incorporates a fairly large in situ boulder under which there is a hollow. RS4 is in a state
of advanced decay and walls have been reduced to 1.1 m or less in height.
Residential structure RS5 is the highest elevation building group among the lower ramparts. It is located 9 m uphill from RS4.
Its 20-m long axis parallels the rocky spur that stretches across the slope. The width of this structure varies between 3.4 m and
9 m, and exterior walls reach a maximum height of 2.3 m. In the remains of one of the lower rooms there is a small cave. The
bottom portion of a window opening appears to be found in an upper room.
Adjacent to residential structure RS4, overlooking the westerly branch of the gorge, there are the structural vestiges of RS6
building (16. 5 m x 5.5 m). Fragments of the forward or down-slope revetment and superstructure are up to 2.3 m in height. Not
much else remains of this edifice.
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Upper flank structures
Cave complex
The precipitous upper reaches of Mkhar dmar po begin 14 m above RS5. There are minor structural remains along this 14-m
distance. At the base of southwest facing slopes and cliffs are several small caves. The most prominent among them is oval-shaped
with two large recesses in the rear, flanked by four arched niches on one side and one niche on the other side. The floor space
of this cave measures 3 m x 3.5 m. Its roof is still blackened, a legacy of habitation.
Residential Structure RS7 group
Approximately 20 m uphill from the small cave complex begins a series of structures occupying successive heights along the
base of a cliff, the residential structure RS7 group. There were at least five of these interconnected buildings extending 28 m
up the slope. They have a northwest aspect. The second and third buildings from the bottom end of RS7 were built around the
mouth of caves. Above the lowest of this series of buildings, on a southeast-facing ledge, there is a structure that consisted of
at least three rooms. It now measures 5 m x 6 m but at one time it was somewhat larger: small sections have collapsed and fallen
down a precipice. The northwest room of this edifice was partially built into the formation. Its exterior walls reach 1.9 m and
interior walls 1.1 m in height. Directly above this structure, on another ledge, there is a now inaccessible ruined building. On
the more open north slope in front of RS7 there are lesser structural traces.
Sixty meters north (20 m vertical) of the upper extent of residential structure RS7 there is a single building measuring 8 m x 9
m (4370 m). It originally consisted of two or more rooms. Part of the interior rear wall was built as much as 1.2 m into the slope.
Exterior walls have a maximum elevation of 2 m and interior walls 1.7 m. A significant amount of mud plaster still clings to
the interior walls. In a cliff behind this structure there is a 5.8-m deep cave.
Summit complexes
Approximately 15 m vertical above residential structure RS8, at the top of a steep gully, there are the remains of a gateway,
from which access to the two summit complexes is gained. A wall 5 m in length and as much as 3 m in height was built between
two rock spurs, effectively sealing off access to the summit. The large east summit complex is virtually inaccessible. It consists
of a dense collection of masonry, adobe block and rammed-earth structures, with some standing walls 4 m or more in height.
The east summit complex is spread over an area of roughly 600 m². The architectural character of the east summit structures
and their relatively good state of preservation, suggests that they were established at a later date than the lower structures of
Mkhar dmar po. The much smaller west summit complex covers an area of just 9 m x 4.7 m (4410 m). The buildings of the
west summit complex were arranged in three tiers but very little has survived. In the middle tier there is a small cave with a
stone lintel over its entrance.
Shar lang mkhar
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Site name: Shar lang mkhar
Site number: A-118
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 4280 m
The large citadel of Shar lang mkhar overlooks the eponymous valley. Facing east, this installation is set 50 m above the valley
floor on the rim of an unassailable escarpment. Shar lang mkhar consists of both southwest and northeast complexes. In addition
to rammed-earth, adobe block and masonry edifices, there are subterranean facilities in both complexes. The highest portion of
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the two complexes is dominated by a single large rammed-earth structure. It seems likely that these high status edifices represent
a subsequent redevelopment of the site. The variety of structures and constructional techniques at Shar lang mkhar suggest that
the site went through various stages of development over the centuries. The blackened ceilings of the caves and underground
passageways indicate that the subterranean network underlying the site was inhabited for a relatively long period of time. Access
to Shar lang mkhar is from the summit of the flat-topped formation. A descent of several meters along a narrow approach is
required to reach the castle, leaving potential intruders vulnerable to attack. A curtain-wall that spanned the distance between
the two complexes served as an important defensive feature, which was designed to restrict access to the site. It is implausible
that a workforce equal to that of the current village could have founded and maintained the powerful Shar lang mkhar installation
(Shar lang reportedly has a population of 70 in 12 households).
Oral tradition
According to the local villagers, Shar lang mkhar was an ancient Skal mon castle. The abode of the local Yul lha of Shar lang,
Kyum grang (sp.?), is a shrine situated on a small black rock outcrop some distance north of the citadel. No contemporary deity
resides at the site.
Site elements
Curtain-wall
Twenty meters of the curtain-wall that joined the two complexes of Shar lang mkhar is still intact. This represents about one-third
of its original length. This defensive wall is as much as 3.5 m in height, and is set 5 m to 10 m below the two summits of the
fortress. This structure has a combination of rammed-earth, adobe block and cobble-wall fabrics.
Southwest complex
The southwest complex (48 m x 24 m) is comprised of a dense array of ruined buildings, in keeping with a complex ground
plan. In total, there were at least 60 rooms constructed here. Most walls in the southwest complex are made from adobe blocks
and attain a maximum elevation of 4 m. Some of these adobe walls have course of cobbles integrated into them.
Access to the southwest complex is by way of a small hole that was cut into the north face of the summit. This access point
was created after the collapse of the original route to the installation. The hole is conveyed to a cave within the citadel. Inside
the southwest complex the north side of the formation has cobble wall fragments with intervening courses of sandstone slabs,
up to 3 m in height, embedded in it. Certain walls also have sandstone-slab bases. Some structures were hewn into the top of
the summit along the south side of the complex to create a semi-subterranean network of rooms. They are, however, in very
poor condition. The adobe blocks used in the construction of the various buildings were of a standard size: 40 cm x 20 cm x 10
cm.
On the south side of the summit, facing east, there is a line of three caves. The north cave (3.4 m x 1.9 m) has three recesses
in the rear, the largest of which is 1.3 m deep and 1 m high. Like other caves and subterranean passageways at Shar lang, this
cave has an approximately 2-m tall ceiling. The south cave (5.3 m x 2.8 m) has a deep arched recess in the rear wall and one
recess in a side wall. There are also several niches in the walls. The middle cave (3.4 m x 1.9 m) also has a large recess in the
rear.
There are also caves in the north portion of the summit. In some places their roofs have collapsed, leaving gaping holes in
the summit. The largest cave in the north of the complex (3.3 m x 3 m) has a 1.6-m deep bay in the rear wall. In the right wall
there is a niche (1 m x 1.3 m) partly enclosed by a masonry wall. Also on the right wall of this cave there is a mud and stone
closet (1 m x 55 cm x 1 m) with two openings in its base. The function of these appointments is not readily apparent. The largest
cave in the north of the complex is connected to the summit by a 2.8-m long passageway. The exterior entrance of this passageway
has an in situ stone lintel and sill. The ceiling of the passageway is lined with stones, which in design is not unlike that of an
all-stone corbelled roof. Moreover, parts of its two walls are lined in cobble masonry. On the right side of the passageway there
is a 1-m deep recess below the floor level. In a nearby cave (4.4 m x 3.3 m) there are two 1.6-m deep bays cut into the rear wall.
Beside the bays there is a mud-plastered masonry wall creating an enclosed space (1 m x 90 cm x 70 cm).
There is an axial corridor along the south portion of the summit. Also on the south portion of the summit, an adobe-block
wall has a stone lintel over an entranceway (1.4 m x 70 cm). Another constructional feature of the southwest complex is walls
made of cobbles and sandstone slabs embedded into a light-colored clay and mud matrix. A 6-m high fragment of this unusual
wall type is also found in the north portion of the complex. Another salient architectonic trait is the presence of a window (35
cm x 30 cm) in one wall.
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Northeast complex
The northeast complex (22 m x 18 m) contains a much smaller group of dilapidated buildings than the southwest complex. On
the east side of the north portion of the southwest complex there is a tunnel. This is a tunnel (15 m long, 1.5 m wide, 3 m high)
that drops down 5 m to a ledge situated below the curtain-wall that joins the two complexes of Shar lang mkhar. This ledge runs
for 22 m between the two complexes. On the north end of this ledge, a 15-m long tunnel winds its way up to the summit of the
northeast complex. The remains of a series of steps cut into this tunnel ascend for about 10 m to the south side of the northeast
complex. Near the top of the tunnel are three interconnected cave rooms. These caves have the characteristic arched recesses
and oblong niches, as well as a natural band of red clay around the base of the walls. There are also several other caves near the
head of the tunnel but these have been largely destroyed.
The northeast complex consists of a contiguous cluster of buildings. On the south end of the complex there are the remains
of rooms created by excavating the top of the summit. The large rammed-earth structure on the crown of the summit (6 m x 6
m) has wall segments that probably reach 8 m in height. These walls have small square orifices lined with blocks and slabs,
which were used to accommodate shuttering pins during construction. In the north wall of this rammed-earth structure there are
two triangular loopholes. On the north end of the northeast complex there are two caves, which face east towards the Shar lang
valley.
Mar dkar byu ru mkhar
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Site name: Mar dkar byu ru mkhar
English equivalent: White Butter Coral Castle
Alternative name: Bsam grub khyung rdzong
English equivalent: Wish Fulfillment Khyung Fortress
Site number: A-119
Site typology: I.1b
Geographic coordinate (E. long.): 79º 14.7΄ E. long
Elevation: 4280 m
Administrative location (township): Ti yag
mar dkar bya ru mkhar is another one of the archaeological sites visited by Giuseppe Tucci in the early 1930s, which he reports
as having been built by that elusive ancient tribe, the Skal mon.55 The large defunct castle reposes on a ridge overlooking a
ravine that divides the village of Blug into south and north sectors. mar dkar bya ru mkhar is easily approached from the village
via a broad, moderately inclined slope. The geographic aspect of the sites is therefore not especially impregnable to attack. The
existence of ramparts on the other flanks of the castle suggests that this more vulnerable east side also had a defensive wall, but
no evidence for one was detected. The site consists of one massive installation whose four outer walls measure 42 m (west), 29
m (south), 52m (east), and 43 m (north). The castle is comprised of two major elevations: the upper west/main level and the
lower east/forward level. From what remains of the installation, it was not possible to glean the configuration of the ground
plan. All structures were built of random-rubble, with variable-sized stones 10 cm to 70 cm in length. Mostly bluish limestone
was used for construction but brown sandstone and other types of stones were also used. Some of these stones were hewn into
shape. It is unlikely that a population equivalent to the current one in Blug (112 residents in 24 households) could have built
and maintained such an impressive facility. This probably points to a much larger local population base in past times.
Oral tradition
According to villagers of Blug, Mar dkar byu ru mkhar was a Skal mon castle. It is believed that the main elevation is hollow
and contains a lower level of rooms. This seems a physical possibility given the architectural aspect of the ruins.
55
Tucci, Cronaca Della Missione Scientifica.
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Site elements
Two level plan
Different walls of the castle have different textures: the wall dividing the main and forward levels is massively built, while the
south wall of the installation is more lightly constructed using smaller stones. There are also significant adobe wall segments
on the site. The adobe blocks used possess the structurally sound dimensions of 40 cm x 20 cm x 10 cm. The adobe walls are
around 50 cm thick and the stone walls are 30 cm to 50 cm in thick. Most of the 12-m wide east/forward tier of the castle has
been razed. Only sections of the downhill wall, near the north and south corners of the complex, are still intact. These wall
fragments stand up to 3 m in height.
Main tier
The west/main level of the castle is set at 5 m higher elevation than the forward tier. The 5-m high wall dividing the two tiers
was built in two tiers, and appears to be over 1 m thick near its base. None of this wall is still freestanding. It must have once
supported a substantial superstructure, adding at least another 2 m to the overall height of the complex. As much as 1.7 m of
the upper section of this massive dividing wall is constructed of adobe blocks. The main level has a few remaining adobe and
stone wall fragments scattered about, none of which stand more than 1.2 m above floor level. Most of the mortar and the adobe
blocks have dissipated, obscuring much of the floor. The main level of the castle inclines towards the west/rear, gaining
approximately 5 m in elevation. This suggests that it may have contained different levels of structures.
South wing
On the south side of the main tier there is a separate south wing about 10 m in width (north-south). On its east or lower side this
wing merges with the structures of the forward level of the installation, which is situated about 2 m lower in elevation. The
upper portion of the south wing is set 3 m lower than the main level, and is bounded on the west and south by a lightly constructed
masonry wall that rises 3 m to 3.5 m out of the ground. The floor of the south wing is largely obscured by rubble. Against the
south and west wall are evenly spaced wall partitions, now no more than 1.5 m in length, which create the remains of a suite of
five compartments. In the south wall there are the remains of three large windows with exterior masonry hoods built around
them, sheltering their upper portions. Also in the south wall, about 1 m up from the ground, there is a small rectangular opening
and a small triangular opening.
Ramparts and revetments
On the north and south sides of the mar dkar bya ru mkhar complex the ridge drops precipitously into the valley below. On
these two flanks there are prominent revetments up to 3.5 m in height. Like the wall dividing the main and forward levels of
the castle, the revetments were generally built in two steps, adding to the structural integrity of the complex. Below the west
wall, natural rock spurs with the vestiges of ramparts extend into the adjoining chasm. The longest of these defensive wall
fragments is around 20 m. Approximately 20 m below the north and west sides of the castle there is a sloping ledge several
meters in width with traces of rampart walls (40 cm to 50 cm thick), which encircled its north and west flanks. On the north
side of the castle, these rampart fragments stretch for 48 m and are as much as 2.3 m in height, 80 cm of which is freestanding.
The remains of a 7-m long gateway wall protects the north ledge from the easy east slope access to the site. Given the substantial
protective features found on the other approaches to Mar dkar byu ru mkhar, we might expect that a elaborate defensive bulwark
once stood guard along the broad east slope as well.
Brag dkar mkhar
Basic site data
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Site name: Brag dkar mkhar
English equivalent: White Rock Castle
Alternative site name: Btsan lha’i mkhar
English Equivalent: Castle of the lha and btsan
Site number: A-120
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 4350 m
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Brag dkar mkhar consists of a single complex of contiguous structures set on a ridgeline eminence. The site unfolds on broad
slopes 200 m above the village of Snu. The ridge on which Brag dkar mkhar sits plunges 1000 m down to the Glang chen gtsang
po (Sutlej River). The castle is raised 20 m above the main ridgeline, affording some obstruction to a direct assault. There are
no ramparts or other forward defensive features at the site, so Brag dkar mkhar was not particularly well insulated from military
threats. The lofty location, however, has the air of prestige and exclusivity about it. We might infer from the size and placement
of the facility that the social and political elite of Snu once occupied this site. The population at that time was probably significantly
larger than the 75 souls (18 households) who live in the contemporary village. There is no obvious source of water on the
ridge-top, calling into question from where such a large facility obtained this vital resource. In times of stress the carriage of
water all the way up from Snu may not have been a viable option. Perhaps a spring was hidden in the folds of the formation to
the east of the castle.
Brag dkar mkhar measures 55 m along its axis and is between 9 m (north wall) and 16.5 m (south wall) in width. The large
castle complex is set on a continuous revetment that is still largely intact. This underpinning structure is between 2 m and 3 m
in height on each of its four sides. The installation was constructed from a yellowish brown stone (resembling sandstone) set
into random-work courses with thick joints, which were heavily cemented with a reddish mud-based mortar. Both blocks and
slabs were used many of which were cut into shape. These stones are generally 10 cm to 50 cm in length, with a maximum
length of 80 cm. At 30 cm to 50 cm in thickness, the walls of the castle were not massively constructed.
Oral tradition
The villagers of Snu call Brag dkar mkhar a Skal mon castle.
Site elements
Earthen and stone composite wall
On the west side of the north portion of the Brag dkar mkhar complex there is a wall fragment consisting of an 1-m-tall masonry
revetment, on which a 80-cm high vertical wall segment of rammed-earth (?) was erected. A 1-m high random-rubble wall
segment surmounts this earthen segment and this, in turn, is topped by another 80-cm section of earth. Finally, there is a crowning
stone section to this wall, of which only the bottom part survives. This 3-m high composite wall fragment is the only one of its
type surveyed to date.
West row of rooms
From the northern extremity of the site, extending south for 37 m along the west side of the complex, there is a row of about
13 rooms. The footings and some standing wall segments of the partition walls are extant. The two most northerly rooms have
the best-preserved walls. In some places the exterior west wall along this row of rooms is freestanding to a height of 3 m. There
are earthen sections in the west wall as well. In some places the entire wall has disappeared down the precipice. In the tenth
room from the northern edge of the complex there is a small westerly structural extension built on a ledge.
East row of apartments
Adjacent to the east side of the west row of rooms there is an axial corridor, 65 cm to 1 m in width. On the east side of this
corridor, beginning at the north end of the complex and continuing for a distance of 8.5 m, all structures have been leveled. This
area of the facility must have contained at least two rooms. Immediately south of this zone there are the remains of a single
room. South of this single room, extending from the corridor to the east wall of the complex, there are a series of two-room
apartments. The partition wall between each two-room set runs parallel to the axis of the castle. From north to south there are
two apartments and then a small intervening gap or room. South of this break in the plan there are five more sets of apartments.
The southern extremity of these five pairs of rooms is opposite the axial corridor from the south end of the west row of 13 rooms.
Beyond this point there are four more sets of apartments extending to the south wall of the complex. The rooms of these
apartments are of variable size. Significant wall sections still exist in this part of the castle. These walls stand up to 4 m in height.
Some of the apartments have small-enclosed areas (around 1.5 m x 1.5 m) that were built against walls abutting the axial corridor.
These pigeonholes seem to have had openings facing the corridor near ground level. Unfortunately, not enough of these structures
has survived to positively ascertain their function. If they functioned as latrines it is unusual that the opening face inwards, as
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most latrine pits are situated against the exterior walls of buildings. Alternatively, such compartments might possibly be the
remnants of a heating system, consisting of a hearth in each apartment.
South end rooms
At the southern extremity of the complex, adjacent to the paired rooms at 2 m higher elevation, there are two small rooms. In
the outer wall of the south room there is a narrow window opening (40 cm x 10 cm). This window looks out on the Glang chen
gtsang po valley. South of the west row of 13 rooms and west of the two small elevated rooms, there are upwards of 10 rooms
in the southwest portion of the complex. These structures are situated at a somewhat lower elevation than the row of 13 rooms.
The most distinctive room has rounded walls enclosing an area sunk about 1 m below the surrounding floor-level. This structure
is about 3 m across but not enough of it is intact to know if its upper part was also rounded. The floor plan of this oval room
resembles that of a rdo khang, possibly indicating a ceremonial function. It is difficult to see how religious or other ceremonial
activities (whatever their cultural orientation) could not have been conducted in such an important facility as Brag dkar mkhar.
The castle, however, does not have the large halls or chapels (lha khang) common in the Buddhist dgon pa of Gu ge. The exterior
wall near the southwest corner of the complex stands 4 m to 5 m in height. The elevation of this wall segment suggests that this
end of Brag dkar mkhar may have been two stories tall. In the thick mortar-filled joints of this wall woody roots and twigs were
inserted as bonding materials.56 A timber 8 cm in diameter forms a structural divide between two vertical sections of this wall.
Ma ṇi thang mkhar
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Site name: Ma ṇi thang mkhar
English equivalent: ma ṇi Plain Castle
Site number: A-121
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4200 m
The impressive citadel and surrounding ancient settlement of Ma ṇi thang mkhar is one of Gu ge’s most important archaic
cultural sites. It is one of three castles in the region related to the Skal mon that were surveyed by the renowned Tibetologist
Giuseppe Tucci in the early 1930s.57 Ma ṇi thang mkhar was founded on a rise some 3 km south of the village of Snu. It was
more heavily constructed and occupies a less lofty location than the local stronghold of Brag dkar mkhar (A-120). Ma ṇi thang
mkhar stands above a large ruined village and defunct agricultural lands that are also attributed by local residents to the ancient
Mon. The formidable extent and majestic form of this site seems to indicate that it supported a population significantly larger
than that of contemporary Snu (75 souls). The Ma ṇi thang mkhar castle is situated on an old route leading across the Glang
chen gtsang po river to the Za rang district and on eastern ones accessing important valleys of Shang rtse. A small stretch of the
Glang chen gtsang po can be seen from the site.
Ma ṇi thang mkhar consists of a single conterminous complex, which measures 44.5 m (east-west) x 16 m (east wall) to 22
m (west wall). Its plan is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. What remains of the superstructure of this powerful installation
rests upon heavily built 2-m to 3-m high revetments, most of which are still intact. All structures are composed of mud-mortared
random-rubble texture walls containing hewn stones (generally 20 cm to 80 cm in length). Freestanding wall segments reach
1.8 m in height, but most are 1 m or less in height. The heavy walls of Ma ṇi thang mkhar (50 cm to 80 cm thick) call into
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A woody root (3 cm in diameter) from a joint in this wall was extracted for radiocarbon analysis. This specimen yielded a calibrated date of 1660 to 1950
CE (conventional radiocarbon age: 130 years B.P. +/- 50 years). The young age of this specimen is possibly explained by contamination effected through
waterborne infiltration of more recent organic matter.
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Tucci, Cronaca Della Missione Scientifica.
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question whether this was an all-stone facility of the rdo khang type. There is no evidence, however, of stone sheathing or
corbels on the site.
Oral tradition
Some villagers of Snu claim that Ma ṇi thang mkhar was a Skal mon castle.58
Site elements
Citadel
Elite architecture
The citadel contains 13 separate apartments, raising questions as to the nature of occupancy. Were these the various residential
units of an aristocratic extended family or ruling elite, or did they have an alternative function? What is clear is that there are
no commodious rooms such as ceremonial halls or large common spaces in the castle (these are characteristic features of large
Buddhist edifices). It may be that the decentralized plan of the installation (like many other early monuments in Upper Tibet)
reflects strong tribal features in the social makeup of the ancient upper class. In other words, domestic decentralization may
possibly allude to leaders who ruled in a consensual fashion or in close consultation with their people. While the apartments
may possibly have housed unrelated groups of ministers or other personnel, the chieftain or king possibly resided in sequestered
quarters found within the complex.
Grand entrance
The large entrance to the citadel is in the east. It is flanked by a 7-m long wall in the south and a 2.2-m long wall in the north,
forming a sheltered and prestigious ingression. The walls flanking the entrance are spaced 2 m apart. There must have been
steps leading 3 m up from the foot of the revetment to the floor of the interior but none have survived. Below the entrance, a
5-m wide path turns south. It is buttressed on its east side by a retaining wall up to 1.4 m in height. The path disappears in the
terraces below the castle.
Floor plan
Set slightly south of the inner entrance there is a 1.7-m to 2.1-m wide axial corridor running nearly the entire length of the
citadel. The installation is full of standing wall fragments permitting a general assessment of its ground plan. East of the south
entrance wall there is a group of perhaps three rooms set off from the rest of the complex. On the south side of the east-west
axial corridor there are seven apartments, each consisting of a pair of rooms. To the north of the corridor there are six more such
apartments. The partition walls dividing the two rooms of each suite run parallel to the axis of the facility. These apartments
vary somewhat in size; typical interior dimensions being 8 m x 3.5 m. Each suite had a walled off area (less than 2 m x 2 m)
with an opening onto the medial corridor. These openings were built at the floor level and measure around 50 cm x 50 cm. Some
of the apertures still have in situ stone lintels, 60 cm to 70 cm in length. The ground plan and design of these apartments recalls
a similar feature in the nearby Brag dkar mkhar installation (A-120). As discussed above, the function of these masonry
pigeonholes in each apartment is not clear. Perhaps they were part of a sophisticated heating system. If they were indeed latrine
pits, does the fact that they open internally and not outwards in the direction of the old village point to a citadel closely allied
to the villagers that lived below? In other words, the architectonic evidence may suggest the existence of a strong tribal framework.
Identifying these enclosures as latrine pits presupposes a careful system of waste management. Instead of sullying the outer
community with waste it would have had to be collected and disposed of properly. This prospective domestic scenario seems
to reflect a society with a confederated or consensual form of government. West of the 13 apartments there is a section of the
complex (10 m x 12 m) raised 2 m higher. This elevated area contained around nine small rooms. Perhaps these rooms represent
the apartments of the controlling individual or family of Ma ṇi thang mkhar.
Old village
Beginning 7 m below and just south of the entrance to the citadel there is a terraced belt (40 m x 18 m), which extends around
the entire north side of the complex. There are two main terraces hosting contiguous structures that appear to be the vestiges of
domiciliary foundations. There are, however, few coherent wall sections remaining. The north terraces merge on the west side
of the citadel with analogous structures extending farther west along the broad slopes. The west zone of rubble filled pits covers
an area of 150 m x 60 m (approximately 7000 m²). There is about a 20 m vertical difference between the higher and lower ends
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Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po speaks of a rivalry between the upper (Brag dkar mkhar) and lower (Ma ṇi thang mkhar) castles of Snu (he refers to this village
as Snub), where Ma ṇi thang mkhar was victorious leading to the pilferage and burning of the property of Brag dkar mkhar (Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po, Mnga’
ris chos ’byung, 250, 251). Both of these castles are said to have belonged to the Buddhist kings of Gu ge (Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po, Mnga’ ris chos ’byung,
250, 251).
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of the west zone of dispersion. The terraces were cut on a north-facing slope, an unusual aspect for habitation (although the site
gets good east and west exposure). There are no less than 200 tight-knit autonomous structures on the terracing north and west
of the citadel. In some places small sections of coherent wall-footings are discernable. Even where relatively well preserved,
the foundations are usually level with the surface or elevated above it no more than 50 cm. Larger specimens measure around
11 m x 6 m, and the footings indicate that they contained at least six small rooms. Smaller specimens are around 8 m x 4 m in
size. These structures were built with the same type of stones and block-work as the citadel. It appears that some of the domiciles
had walled courtyards on the downhill side. Other more irregular structures found on the site may have had livestock and/or
agricultural functions. Immediately north of the village remains there is disused agricultural terracing, which local residents call
Skal mon farmlands. All other arable lands in Snu are still under cultivation.
Shrine
On the western edge of the old settlement dispersion there is a lone structure resembling the base of a shrine of the rten mkhar
or mchod rten class. It was built of random-work masonry. It is well aligned in the cardinal directions, and its base measures 4
m x 4.5 m. On the 1-m high base there are the remains of another masonry tier that is also quadrate in shape (2.4 m x 2 m, 50
cm in height).
Kol mkhar
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Site name: Kol mkhar (sp.?)
Site number: A-122
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 3630 m
The small stronghold of Kol mkhar is situated 500 m vertical below Snu village and 300 m above the Glang chen gtsang po.
The location of this facility deep inside a gorge is possibly best explained by the existence of a route across the Glang chen
gtsang po from below this point. This facility could have monitored or controlled the river crossing, helping to regulate trade
in the region. The site consists of a single fairly well aligned building (9.5 m x 9.3 m) that straddles a narrow ridge-top. This
structure has an open ground plan with no partition walls visible. Exterior wall elevations reach 1.6 m and interior wall elevations
1 m in height. Walls are composed of random-rubble texture, and are 35 cm to 45 cm in thickness. Brown sandstone and to a
lesser degree, bluish limestone, was employed in construction. Stones are generally 10 cm to 30 cm in length with the longest
specimens reaching 50 cm.
Oral tradition
According to villagers in snu, kol mkhar is named for the Kol ba’i bla ma (sp.?). He was so called due to the Kol mediation
cave located at a somewhat lower elevation. Kol ba’i bla ma is said to have meditated here sometime in the past.
Site elements
Castle
The entrance is nestled in an inlet on the east side of the edifice. This indenture is composed of two walls that project 1.6 m
from the main body of the building. This architectural feature is reminiscent of the entranceways found in Ha la mkhar West
(A-58) and Nag gtsug mkhar (A-57). The entryway walls are as much as 2.3 m high on their exterior sides. Set 1.7 m apart, the
enclosed space between the entryway walls rises 1 m to the floor level of the stronghold. This rise must have been ascended by
a stairway but nothing of it remains. The original route up the steep east slope to the facility has also been obliterated. Access
to the facility is now from the north along the ridge-top. Some stones in the walls of the stronghold were set both vertically and
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horizontally to create an alternating texture. On the same summit, 17.5 m to the south, there is a single poorly preserved 4 m
long wall fragment at ground level.
Affiliated sites
rDo rje gling
In the Rong chung region of Ti yag township there is a site called Rdo rje gling, which is said to have been a fortress before
being converted into a monastery. According to local sources, this monastery was destroyed long ago.59 Rdo rje gling is found
on steep slopes on the opposite side of the valley from Mar g.yang village, at 3500 m. It occupies a strategic position in the
valley. The site covers an area of approximately 60 m x 20 m. Walls are of the rammed-earth and limestone block types. A
number of ruined Buddhist buildings are found on the site as well as a Rigs gsum mgon po shrine. This shrine, situated at the
highest point of the site, was founded on an old revetment. If indeed a fortress was once situated at Rdo rje gling, this substantial
foundation structure is likely to have belonged to it.
Skam srang mon mkhar
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Site name: Skam srang mon mkhar
English equivalent: Dry Plain Mon Castle
Site number: A-123
Site typology: I.1c
Administrative location (township): Ma mig
Administrative location (county): Sger rtse
Survey expedition: HTWE
Maps: UTRS III, UTRS VII, HAS A3
The rampart network of Skam srang mon mkhar is located on a ridge-top that rises above the west side of Lag skor mtsho.
Across the lake to the south is the local yul lha mountain known as Mnga’ bdag. The summit of the Skam srang limestone
formation has unassailable vertical rock faces on nearly all sides. Access to the summit is via the north face and a series of steep
gullies. The broad ridge-top hosts many level and near level shelves, as well as hidden nooks beside rocky outcrops. The ramparts
of the site were designed to fend off a military incursion from the approachable north side of the formation, and are situated
some 300 m above Lag skor mtsho. These defensive walls are around 70 cm thick. They are constructed of variable-sized (to
70 cm long) uncut hunks of limestone laid in dry-mortar random-work courses. These stones are spotted with orange climax
lichen. The only source of water on the summit seems to be seasonal rainfall that collects in small recesses and crevices in the
limestone surfaces.
Oral tradition
According to local elders, Skam srang mon mkhar was an ancient Mon stronghold.
Site elements
Defensive wall network
A steep climb up a gully leads to a saddle and the most forward of the defensive walls, which overlooks the north side of the
ridge-top. This structure (32° 02.344΄ N. lat. / 84° 02.016΄ E. long. / 4760 m) is 13 m long and has a maximum down-slope
height of 1.4 m and a maximum upslope height of 70 cm. The wall contains small pieces of limestone used to close up the
chinks, an unusual feature in rampart construction. On the same saddle are two more ramparts: 7 m and 5.7 m in length (they
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According to Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po, the Rdo rje gling fortress was occupied by a famous local headman (dpon po) during the time of the Gu ge kings
(Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po, Mnga’ ris chos ’byung, 286).
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are up to 1.5 m high on the exterior side). Originally, these three defensive walls may have been part of more extensive and
significantly taller structures.
Higher on the ridgeline are other series of ramparts defending the northern approaches to the site. They were built on rocky
prows projecting above the heads of gullies that lead up to the summit, conferring a formidable defense capability on the site.
L-shaped walls among them appear to have enclosed rock outcrops to create rudimentary but effective battlements. The locations,
dimensions and physical characteristics of these walls are as follows:
1. Rampart R1: 32° 02.267΄ N. lat. / 01.753΄ E. long. / 4840 m – 6 m long, 20 cm to 40 cm high, highly degraded.
2. Rampart R2: 02.281΄ / 01.734΄ / 4840 m – 5 m long, 30 to 40 cm high, contains two to three coherent vertical courses
of stones.
3. Rampart R3: 02.277΄ / 01.785΄ / 4840 m – 5.4 m and 3.6 m long, outer face up to 80 cm in height, inner face flush, an
L-shaped structure and the most westerly specimen reconnoitered.
4. Rampart R4: 02.326΄ / 01.602΄ / 4850 m – 11 m and 5 m long, up to 70 cm in height, L-shaped (in the corner of the
two walls there is a loophole, measuring 60 cm x 30 cm supported by a 40-cm long stone lintel).
5. Rampart R5: 02.354΄ / 01.538΄ / 4840 m – the remains of three battlements with the following characteristics:
6. West – 4 m long, around 90 cm high, appears to have enclosed an outcrop;
7. Central - 3 m and 2.4 m, around 80 cm high on the outer face, inner face less height, L-shaped structure;
8. East – 4.8 m and 2 m, 1 m maximum height, L-shaped, appears to have enclosed an outcrop.
9. Rampart R6: 02.337΄ / 01.652΄ / 4830 m – 5.4 m and 3.2 m, up to 1 m in height, L-shaped.
10.Rampart R7: 02.300΄ / 01. 722΄ / 4830 m – length?, outer face up to 60 cm in height, inner face flush with the slope.
Mkhar gog rdo rje g.yu sgron ma
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Site name: Mkhar gog rdo rje g.yu sgron ma
English equivalent: Ruined Castle of Rdo rje g.yu sgron ma
Site number: A-124
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4370 m
Administrative location (township): Bkra shis sgang
Maps: UTRS I
Mkhar gog rdo rje g.yu sgron ma is located on the left bank of the Seng ge gtsang po (Indus river), on a light-colored hilltop
that sits west of the border village of Bde mchog. It is named for the popular Tibetan Brten ma goddess. The summit rises 120
m above the old agricultural settlement (much of this arable land now lies fallow). The relatively large amount of farmland the
Bde mchog locale must have at least in part provided the economic impetus for the construction of the castle. The facility has
a fairly good defensive posture due to the steep slopes that surround it. The stronghold forms a contiguous complex of tight-knit
buildings, with an axis 65 m in length (oriented northeast-southwest). The complex has a maximum width of 38 m. There must
have been at least 80 rooms/buildings at Mkhar gog rdo rje g.yu sgron ma in total. Narrow, open passageways appear to have
connected the various structures. Undoubtedly this site was founded when the local population was significantly larger than at
present. All buildings are highly degraded although many wall segments reach a height of 50 cm to 1 m. No roofing materials
are in situ. All structures were built of light-colored unhewn granite blocks, generally 20 to 50 cm in length. The mud-mortared
walls (40 cm to 60 cm thick) have a random-rubble texture. Archaic morphological features of the site include the diminutive
size of the buildings and other structural features indicative of all-stone corbelled edifices such as upslope walls deeply inset
into the ground.
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Oral tradition
Some Tibetans of the region variously attribute rdo rje g.yu sgron ma mkhar to the Mon or Sing pa.
Site elements
North rim structures
The north rim of the summit is lined with a continuous band of small rooms/buildings. The largest of these structures has interior
dimensions of 2 m x 5 m, but most are significantly smaller (around 4 m² or 5 m²). The dimensions of these interior spaces are
such that they could have accommodated all-stone corbelled roofs (but little evidence for this feature remains). The lining of
the edge of a summit with edifices, but no ramparts or curtain-walls, is also encountered upstream at ‘Mon’ sites such as mkhar
lung mkkar gog (A-66). The inner or uphill walls of the northern rim structures are built as much as 1.5 m into the ground. Most
of the north rim structures sit upon low elevation revetments, but one building surmounts a revetment 2 m in height. Approximately
4 m to 5 m below the north side of the summit, a level area was cut along the slope. This transverse walkway is 5 m to 7 m wide
and continues around to the east face of the hillside. No such circumvallation is found on the south side of the formation. There
was possibly a section on the southwest flanks of the hill but most of it has slid away. More complete circumvallations are found
at western Tibetan sites like Rgya nyi ma mkhar (A-53) and Brag phug (A-35). These types of encircling passageway probably
had tactical functions relating to the deployment of defenders.
Other structures
The east side of the summit complex is also ringed with small structures set as much as 1.7 m into the ground on the uphill side.
In one such structure, depressed 1.1 m, there are the roots of a buttress forming a divide between two small rooms with rounded
corners. Two granite members 1 m in length (likely functioned as roof appurtenances) were found among the rubble of this
structure. These morphological features are typical of rdo khang architecture. Nevertheless, there appear to have also been larger
buildings with regular ground plans that are likely to have had wooden roofs at the site. One such structure has interior dimensions
of 6 m x 6 m (located near the upper east end of the summit). Likewise the structures along the south rim of the summit appear
to have been larger and taller than those on the north and east rims. There are larger structures towards the center of the rdo rje
g.yu sgron ma mkhar complex as well. One of these central buildings had a floor space measuring 10 m x 2.5 m to 3 m. At the
southwest corner of the summit there is a small remnant of what may have been an earthen wall. The east side of the summit
extends well beyond the zone of ruins. A gully 2 m deep was cut to demarcate the complex from the undeveloped eastern portion
of the summit. This excavation may have been part of a defensive outwork.
Ko logs mkhar gog
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Site name: Ko logs mkhar gog
Site number: A-125
Site typology: I.1a
Elevation: 4550 m
Survey date: July 1, 2004
Maps: UTRS I
Ko logs mkhar gog is situated on the end of a rocky spur, on the southwest edge of the Seng ge gtsang po valley. Fifteen to 30
m below the site, the ko logs chu debouches from a mountain gorge. Its geographic position parallels those of other mkhar in
Sgar such as Zhing mkhar mkhar gog (A-22) and Mkhar lung mkhar gog (A-66). Below the stronghold there is a rocky piedmont
– caravans plying this stretch of the Seng ge gtsang po valley would have passed along easier terrain closer to the river’s edge.
Ko logs mkhar gog, an integrated complex, consists of all-stone corbelled structures (at least in part). The axis of this single
cluster of low-elevation buildings runs northwest-southeast and is 36.5 m in length (the length of the spur). The complex is
primarily 6 m to 8 m wide (the width of the spur). The edges of the summit are completely revetted. These prominent revetments
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are 1 m to 3 m in height. In some places along the rim of the rocky summit, fissures are bridged by stone members around 80
cm in length, forming the base of the revetments. Multiple ramparts guarded the main access-way to the castle on the southeast
side of the spur. The entire facility was built of variable-sized uncut granite blocks (generally 20 cm to 40 in length) laid in
random-rubble courses with ample amounts of mud mortar. Most of this mortar, however, has dissolved from the wall seams.
Granite blocks up to 70 cm in length are found in some walls. All walls at Ko logs mkhar gog are around 50 cm thick.
Extensive cultivation took place in the lands below ko logs mkhar, but these agricultural holdings were smaller than those
found near mkhar gog rdo rje g.yu sgron ma (A-124), a larger facility. Currently, a few pastoral families (mostly from gyam
smug township) pasture their livestock in the area. It is reported by residents that some arable land will soon be brought back
into production.
Oral tradition
According to residents of the region, Ko logs mkhar gog was either an ancient Mon or Sing pa castle.
Site elements
Southeast summit sector
The southeast extremity of the summit spur is 6.7 m in width. There appears to have been two rooms located here but standing
walls just 50 cm in height still exist. Immediately to the northwest, at 1 m higher elevation, there is a band of at least five or six
rooms stretching across 17.3 m of the summit (3 m to 6.3 m wide here). Only the footings of the partition walls are partly intact.
Revetments are up to 1.7 m in height. In the east wall of this group of rooms there are the remains of the main entrance to the
citadel. It rises 1.5 m and steps must have once scaled this inlet. About 2 m below the base of the entrance there is a revetted
rocky ledge (5 m x 2.5 m x up to 1.9 m). The main access route to the castle appears to have passed via this ledge. This horizontal
projection probably functioned as a landing and as a defensive platform if need be. About 6 m lower down there is another
revetted ledge (3.5 m x 4.3 m). Approximately 6 m further down is yet another revetted ledge (6 m x 4 m). The walls lining this
ledge are 3 m in height, 70 cm of which is freestanding. A stone-filled depression on top of the structure is spanned by a single
in situ large stone corbel protruding 50 cm from the parapet wall. This must have been one element in either a floor or roof
assembly, the rest of which is no longer extant. Between the lower ledge and the middle ledge above it there are traces of the
retaining wall that were constructed around the access route, as well as another revetted ledge (2.5 m x 3 m x 1.2 m) projecting
from a rock rib.
Central summit sector
The central summit sector consisted of at least 13 or 14 rooms set at about 2 m higher elevation than the southeast summit sector.
These structures are highly fragmentary and their precise ground plan is no longer evident. The width of the central summit
sector is around 6 m. The largest single room has a floor space measuring 2.3 m x 3.2 m. One of the rooms (2.7 m x 1.2 m) is
situated below an adjoining room. The semi-subterranean aspect of this room and the small size of the rooms in general suggest
that the summit complex may have been of an all-stone (rdo khang) composition. Another room (1.4 m in length) has rounded
corners, a trait of all-stone corbelled edifices as well. An entranceway (1.3 m wide) opens to the two east sectors of Ko logs
mkhar gog. Farther south in the central summit complex there appears to have been an entrance accessing the east side of the
formation. This was a twin entryway with a dividing wall between the two openings (75 cm and 85 cm wide).
Northeast sector
The northeast sector on the east flank of the summit begins about 2.5 m from the summit complex. Several steps must have
once led down to the northeast sector (8 m x 6.5 m). It consisted of at least four rooms. The north portion of the northeast sector
is better preserved than most other structures at Ko logs mkhar gog. Standing wall segments up to 2 m in height resting upon
1-m high revetments have survived here.
Central east sector
Two meters lower and at a distance of 4.8 m from the northeast sector there is the central east sector (6.7 m x 3.2 m). The central
east sector appears to have consisted of several small rooms built at two distinct elevations. The forward wall (3 m in height,
1.2 m of which is freestanding) of the lower level is punctuated by a small window opening (30 cm x 30 cm) with its lintel (50
cm in length) still in place. Along the upper extent of the rear wall of the lower level there are three large stones that protrude
25 cm outwards to create a plate, which must have helped to support the roof assembly. In the rear wall of the upper level of
the central east sector there is a buttress with a massive stone corbel resting upon it. A roof slab (70 cm in length) is also in situ
in a corner of an upper room. This structural evidence establishes that at least some (if not most or all) of Ko logs mkhar gog
was of an all-stone corbelled composition.
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Gser gzhung mkhar gog
Basic site data
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Site name: Gser gzhung mkhar gog
English equivalent: Golden Pasture Ruined Castle
Site number: A-126
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 4490 m
Maps: UTRS I
Gser gzhung mkhar gog sits atop a reddish outcrop not far from where the Gser gzhung chu leaves the embrace of the range of
mountains bounding the southwest side of the Seng ge gtsang po valley. The old castle occupies the entire length of the outcrop
(41 m). The outer side of this knob of rock (35 m in height) provided a fairly defensible position, as well as high social visibility
in this stretch of the Seng ge gtsang po valley. A single line of structures, arrayed east-west, once stood on the outcrop. Although
significant wall elevations are found, no remains of the roofs are extant. The regular ground plan of the rooms indicates that the
roofs were made of wood. Poplar and willow trees thrive further down the Seng ge gtsang po valley in La dwags, but perhaps
they once grew in this region as well. The east end of the summit is 4.7 m wide but most of it is around 6 m in width. The
revetments supporting the buildings along the edges of the formation are minimal – 1 m or less in height. Below the west side
of the summit there are the remains of a single wall (6 m long, up to 3.2 m in height) clinging to a rock face, which was probably
constructed for defensive purposes. This wall creates a staging platform 1.9 m in width. Gser gzhung mkhar gog was built from
the same light-colored uncut granite blocks (generally 15 cm to 40 cm in length) as the neighboring strongholds of Mkhar gog
rdo rje g.yu sgron ma (A-124) and Ko logs mkhar gog (A-125). The random-rubble walls (45 cm to 60 cm in thick) were heavily
cemented with mud.
Defunct arable lands in the vicinity of Gser gzhung mkhar gog appear to have been significantly smaller in extent than those
at Ko logs mkhar gog (A-125). This more limited land-base is reflected in the size of the facility, which is smaller than Ko logs
mkhar gog.
Oral tradition
Area residents call Gser gzhung mkhar gog a castle of the ancient Mon or Sing pa. Mes dgra ’dul, an older local resident, stresses
the foreign (Indian) origins of the builders of Gser gzhung mkhar gog.
Site elements
Summit complex
From west to east the structures of the summit complex have the following interior dimensions and physical characteristics:
1. Residential structure RS1 (3.6 m x 3. 6 m) appears to have had a passageway on its north side.
2. Residential structure RS2 (2.5 m x 5.4 m) appears to have had a passageway on the north side of this mostly leveled
building. The revetted passageways adjoining S1 and S2 are likely part of the main entrance to the summit complex.
3. Residential structure RS3 (2.3 m x 3.5 m) may have had a small room appended to its north side.
4. Residential structure RS4 (3.7 m x 4.5 m maximum) has walls up to 2 m in height and an L-shaped floor plan.
5. Residential structure RS5 (5.1 m x 2.8 m, walls up to 1.6 m in height) probably had three rooms. There is a 1.1-m gap
between S4 and S5.
6. Residential structure RS6 – (4 m x 4.9 m, walls up to 1.2 m in height).
7. Residential structure RS7 – (4.3 m x 5.1 m, walls up to 1.4 m in height). There is a gap 1 m in width between S6 and
S7.
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8. Residential structure RS8 (6 m x 4.4 m, walls up to 1.7 m in height) is irregularly shaped and the most easterly building
at the site. This structure probably contained two or three rooms. The east end of the summit is slightly higher and
narrower than the west end.
Outlying buildings
On the sandy northern flank of the hill, about 6 m below the western portion of the summit, there are the poorly preserved
remains of two more buildings. The west structure (6.5 m x 4.5 m), despite having wall fragments up to 1.6 m in height, has
been mostly obliterated. This destruction can be partially attributed to the failure of the slope upon which it was built. The east
structure (7 m x 4 m?) is even more fragmentary. Its forward wall reaches 1.4 m in height. The main access route to the summit
probably passed by these two outlying buildings.
Mkhar nag
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Site name: Mkhar nag
Site number: A-127
Site typology: I.1a
Elevation: 4270 m
Contemporary usage: Unknown.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Unknown.
The ruins of Mkhar nag stand on the flanks and summit of a dark-colored rocky mount, which rises 120 m above the waterway
flowing between spang gong mtsho and Mtsho mo ngang la ring mtsho. The summit seems to have hosted a cluster of buildings
as is found at many other strongholds of Ru thog. There is also a network of old defensive walls staggered along the south face
of the formation. The east side of the hill appears to have ruined ramparts as well. There are structures on the lower west side
too, but their identity could not be judged. All original structures of Mkhar nag appear to have a random-work texture built
using dark slabs of rock. The dominant use of rock slabs and the orientation and style of structures at Mkhar nag suggests that
they belong to the archaic cultural horizon.
The Chinese Communist military (PLA) constructed reinforced concrete structures at Mkhar nag often using the older ruins
as foundations. These constructions have seriously affected the integrity of the archaeological site. Such types of fortifications,
built in the 1960s or 1970s, were designed for conflicts involving light infantry forces and are no longer of strategic importance.
A functioning PLA garrison is located at the southern foot of Mkhar nag. Due to the ongoing nature of military operations the
survey team was not permitted to access the ruins.
Oral tradition
According to natives of the area, Mkhar nag was once an agricultural settlement. A smaller agricultural enclave is said to have
been located in the Dpal gzhung (sp.?) valley to the east (debouches into the Ngang la ring mtsho basin at 79° 28΄ E. long.).
Bye dkar mkhar gog
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Site name: Bye dkar mkhar gog
English equivalent: White Sands Ruined Castle
Site number: A-128
Site typology: I.1b
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Elevation: 3900 m
Contemporary usage: A single prayer flag mast.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Scattered inscribed plaques that appear to have been part of an old ma ṇi wall on
the approach to the castle, and possibly a Buddhist edifice amid the structures of the stronghold.
Bye dkar mkhar gog, located southwest of Bye dkar village, is perched on top of a rocky prominence. The once large citadel is
divided into southeast and northwest (main) complexes. The ruins of Bye dkar mkhar gog are highly degraded: all that is left
are a few scattered stone wall fragments and much rubble. The buildings and individual rooms tended to be small. The thinness
of the walls and the lack of buttressing indicate that most, if not all, of the buildings of Bye dkar mkhar gog were constructed
with wooden roofs. Walls (40 cm to 50 cm thick) contain small uncut blocks (10 cm to 40 cm long) and are of a heavily
mud-mortared random-rubble texture. The diminutive size of the structures, the presence of irregular ground plans and the
staggering of buildings around crags all hint at an archaic cultural status for Bye dkar mkhar gog. Unlike the neighboring
monastery of Rnam rgyal lha rtse, this more removed site is endowed with a good defensive posture. The main complex of Bye
dkar mkhar gog can be subdivided into east and west sectors.
Oral tradition
According to respected elders in Bye dkar village such as ’Jigs med snyan grags (born in the Dog Year, circa 1922) and Bkra
shis bsod nams (born in the Pig Year, circa 1923), Bye dkar mkhar gog was an ancient castle destroyed long before living
memory. Bye dkar village (3570 m) has a population of just over 200 people, but reportedly at one time its four parts (gling
bzhi) supported a population of around 500.60
Site elements
Northwest complex
The axis of the northwest or main complex is aligned east-west and is 85 m in length.
West sector
The west sector of the northwest complex, a tight collection of limestone and sandstone structures, straddles the summit of the
outcrop (primarily 15 m to 20 m wide). The west sector appears to have been circumvallated. The summit of the outcrop is
ringed by a revetment (up to 1.5 m in height, none of which is freestanding) that was part of this defensive work. Most of the
summit is surrounded by vertical limestone faces. At the lower or west end of the west sector a building or room is distinguishable
(interior dimensions: 5.7 m x 2.4 m maximum). One of its standing wall fragments reaches 2.4 m in height, 40 cm of which is
part of the revetment. The east end of the west sector is about 10 m higher than the west end and contains the vestiges of several
buildings. They include one with two rooms (exterior dimensions: 6 m x 5.2 m maximum); a structure of one room built 1 m
into the summit (5.3 m x 3.6 m), and a building with several small rooms (9.4 m x 4.2 m). The eastern extremity of the summit
narrows to a knife edge and hosts no structural detritus.
East sector
The east sector is sheltered below the summit on the south side of the outcrop. The west end of the east sector supports a single
line of structures that extend beyond the eastern edge of the west sector. The east side of the east sector is 22 m wide and probably
supported three tiers of buildings along a 45° slope. Many of these structures have fallen down the steep sides of the formation.
On the east end of the east sector there is a relatively well-preserved building with a single room (5.4 m x 5.1 m). Mud plaster
still adheres to the interior and exterior of the 2-m to 3-m tall walls. There is a small prayer flag mast inside this building. Its
physical state of preservation and design traits are out of character with the rest of the site. The morphology of this structure
suggests a Buddhist identity, possibly a house used for retreats. Fifteen meters below the east sector there is a lone building (5
60
Bye dkar is situated on a plateau perched high above the Za rang gtsang po. The four parts of the village are Bye dkar proper, Lung smad, Byang dgon,
and Khang grang (sp.?), each of which once had a Buddhist temple. Barley, wheat, radishes, turnips, green leafy vegetables, apples, and apricots are all cultivated
here. Water is of critical concern in Bye dkar. In the summer of 2004, both of the village’s reservoirs ran dry.
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m x 4.2 m) with revetments up to 2 m in height. This is likely to have been an outwork guarding the southern flank of Bye dkar
mkhar gog.
Southeast complex
This small installation is located 57 m southeast of the main complex. It occupies a rocky knob (4.5 m x 10 m). The southeast
complex has been reduced to fragmentary revetments that line the formation. These revetments reach a maximum height of 1.5
m. Between the northwest and southeast complexes there are the footings of a quadrate structure (3.8 m x 3m) aligned in the
cardinal directions. These appear to be the foundation of a ceremonial structure. Its configuration and location is in conformance
with shrines found at various archaic citadels.
rNam rgyal lha rtse
The moderately sized monastery of Rnam rgyal lha rtse (31° 36.5΄ N. lat. / 79° 00.2΄ E. long. / 3830 m to 3870 m), a Buddhist
complex, was founded on southern slopes directly below Bye dkar mkhar gog. A monastic structure also sat on top of a limestone
summit to the north of Bye dkar mkhar gog.61 Below Rnam rgyal lha rtse there is a saddle. The main source of water for the
village passes over the top of this saddle. An irrigation channel brings the water from deep inside a chasm known as khra lang
(sp.?). Rnam rgyal lha rtse was destroyed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution. In addition to buildings with long, straight,
high-elevation earthen walls set on limestone foundations, there were 14 or 15 main mchod rten at the main monastic site. The
old assembly hall (’dus khang) is said to have had 18 pillars. On the summit of the outcrop north of the saddle there was a single
building constructed upon a prominent limestone revetment. This revetment may constitute traces of fortifications that probably
once stood here. Given the strategic location on a main route to Bye dkar and the vulnerability of the site’s flanks to attack, it
seems likely that defensive works were established on the north summit to help protect access to Bye dkar mkhar gog. No
attempt, however, was made to fortify the monastic facility here as it was founded after 1000 CE, an era of changed strategic
concerns.
Dbu rtse mkhar
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Site name: Dbu rtse mkhar
English equivalent: Acme Castle
Site number: A-129
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 3960 m
Contemporary usage: Buddhist religious activities.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A temple complex.
The old castle of Dbu rtse mkhar is situated above the village of Chu gser 62 on the west end of a level ridge-top. The site was
subsequently redeveloped and Chu gser dgon pa founded here.63 The castle ruins are concentrated on the east end of the site,
which covers an area of 54 m x around 15 m. A revetment rings the entire site. The east end of this defensive structure base is
around 4 m in height. It was designed to protect this vulnerable east approach to the installation. Other flanks of the ridgeline
terminate in cliffs. As the oral tradition maintains, the buildings of Chu gser dgon pa were planted on top of pre-existing structures.
On the east end of the site there are low-profile unplastered stone structures, which appear to be reconstructed buildings that
originally belonged to the citadel. They are windowless and have low ceilings and small entranceways (1.1 m x 75 cm to 1.2
61
It is not clear when Rnam rgyal lha rtse was founded (sometime during the period of the Gu ge kings). For information on this site see Gu ge tshe ring
rgyal po, Mnga’ ris chos ’byung, 334-336.
62
About 50 people reside in Chu gser. In 2004, a freak flood destroyed some of its precious farmlands in an otherwise unusually dry year. There is a single
sacred juniper tree (lha shing) left in the village, a relic of once extensive juniper cover. Scrub juniper (ba ma) is still found in the environs.
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The monastery of Chu gser was founded by lo chen rin chen bzang po in the 11th century CE (Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po, Mnga’ ris chos ’byung, 324).
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m x 85 cm). There are also wall buttresses between the various small rooms. These architectonic features suggest that these
were originally all-stone corbelled structures. They now have wooden roofs, however. In pre-modern times these buildings are
said to have housed monks and to have been used for storage. In some places the ramparts around the site were also rebuilt.
This reconstruction is evidenced in the low quality stone courses and irregular seams. The parapet wall rises as much as 70 cm
above the summit.
Oral tradition
According to local sources, an ancient castle called Dbu rtse mkhar stood at this site before the founding of Chu gser monastery.
It is said that the fasthold was built to protect Chu gser from ancient Mon invaders. The monastery of the subsequent era had
three main parts: the assembly hall (’dus khang), the protector chapel (mgon khang) and the lama’s residence (bla brang). These
all appear to have been relatively small structures. Only a tiny assembly hall has been rebuilt circa 1987. On the east side of the
site there are two shrines (pho brang) for local protective deities: Rtse bla (an archaic cultural god) and Rdo rje ’bar ba (a
Buddhist god).
Chu sti mkhar
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Site name: Chu sti mkhar
English equivalent: Water Castle
Site number: A-130
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4140 m and 4200 m
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A lone stone plaque inscribed with the ma ṇi mantra and tshwa tshwa enshrined
on rock ledges, both of which are found at the lower site of Dbu sti dgon pa.
Clinging to the right side of the huge defile that restricts access to the amphitheatre of Ri ba is the complex of Chu sti mkhar,
as well as two lower complexes known as Dbu sti dgon pa. Dbu sti dgon pa and Chu sti mkhar are primarily built of limestone
and sandstone blocks (10 cm to 50 cm long) laid in random-work courses. There are also a few adobe-block walls at Dbu sti
dgon pa. The lack of Buddhist architectural elements and the extreme location of Dbu sti dgon pa seriously call into question
its Buddhist identity. I am of the opinion that Dbu sti dgon pa was an integral part of Chu sti mkhar, as the analogously designed
facility rising above it is called. Their morphological congruencies suggest that they share both temporal and functional qualities.
Religious activities notwithstanding, Dbu sti dgon pa is likely to have had military and political functions. This spectacular site
appears to have had significant strategic and geomantic value.
Oral tradition
According to the oral tradition of Ri ba,64 Dbu sti dgon pa was founded before Lha khang dkar po, a temple attributed to Lo tsa
ba rin chen bzang po of the 11th century CE.65 Dbu sti dgon pa is said to be the vestiges of an ancient Buddhist monastery. On
the other hand, the analogously constructed Chu sti mkhar is thought to have been a castle. Some in Ri ba believe that Chu sti
mkhar was occupied by the epic hero Gling ge sar.
64
My two main informants in Ri ba were Tshe ring lhun grub (the monastery caretaker) and Ngo grub btsan ’dzin (born in the Tiger Year, circa 1950). The
village of Ri sti gang (population of 170) has an extremely fine geographic setting in the midst of a relatively well-watered amphitheatre. On its low end is a
rocky defile rising perhaps 500 m or more, which cuts the site off from the Za rang valley. Access from the Za rang valley to Ri ba is via the chu gser la (4480
m). Below the village of Ri ba there are the remains of another settlement called Sti ri. Reportedly, it was forcefully vacated circa 1970. According to local
lore, Ri ba was once considerably larger and more populous. The sheer number of archaeological sites at this locale seems to bear this out.
65
For information on Lha khang dkar po see Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po, Mnga’ ris chos ’byung, 314, 315.
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Site elements
dBu sti dgon pa
The two complexes of Dbu sti dgon pa sit upon revetments up to 3 m in height. About 5 m below the main complex (27 m x 2
m to 5 m) there are the faint remains of another complex (20 m x 14 m) built on steep east-facing slopes.
Main complex
Dbu sti dgon pa occupies a well-guarded position above steep slopes of scree. The trail that accessed the site from the east has
disappeared with time. The main complex (axis runs northwest-southeast for 27 m) is built on a rock spur that is only 2 m
(southeast side) to 5 m (northwest) wide. This is hardly the setting for a Buddhist monastery. The main complex contained
around five buildings or rooms. Except for a small break in the southeast, these structures are contiguous. What may have been
a defensive work on the southeast edge of the spur constitutes a separate structure. The higher northwest side of the spur boasts
the best-preserved room at the site with walls reaching 2.5 m in height. These high wall fragments have mud plaster on both
their exterior and interior sides. The interior dimensions of this room are 5.6 m x 4.6 m. Near the northwest wall of this room
there is a damaged masonry structure 2 m in width and 1 m in height. Its length is no longer determinable. The local guides are
of the opinion that this structure was an altar. Small rounds of wood (maximum circumference: 25 cm) are embedded in the
floor of this room. There are also twigs in some of the walls of Dbu sti dgon pa.
On the northeast side of the main complex, near its entrance, there is a highly degraded adobe wall fragment. In the northeast
wall of the main complex there is an opening (25 cm x 25 cm) located near ground level. Above it is the stone sill of what must
have been a window opening. The entrance on the northeast side of the complex (situated about half way along its axis) passes
through a corridor approximately 1 m in width. Below the entrance there are the remains of a stone-lined trail. About 30 m north
of Dbu sti dgon pa, at the same elevation, there is a small outcrop with masonry remnants. This appears to have been the outer
entrance of the installation.
Lower complex
Only bits of the outer walls of the lower complex have survived. The entrance to the complex in the northeast has partly survived.
It is 2.2 m wide and flanked by walls that are still 1.7 m to 2.7 m in height. These are the only surviving freestanding walls in
the lower complex. The remainder of the structures have been reduced to the revetments, which reach a maximum height of 3
m.
Chu sti mkhar
Chu sti mkhar (12.7 m x 3.6 m) appears to have been a companion facility, and may be where the highest status residents of the
site dwelt. Access to Chu sti mkhar is up over very steep exposed slopes. It is poised on the tip of a spur on the edge of the Ri
ba defile. It was during the survey that the local guides first visited Chu sti mkhar, a good indication of how marginal this place
is to contemporary sacred geographic conceptions. The single edifice (12.7 m x 3.6 m) of Chu sti mkhar contained three rooms.
The axis of this structure parallels that of the spur upon which it was built. The two upper rooms are highly deteriorated, but
the lower room has wall fragments up to 2 m in height.
Affiliated sites
mKhar stod
Across the defile, on the opposite side of the Ri ba chu, are extensive cliff dwellings called Mkhar stod (Upper Castle). They
are situated at around the same elevation as Dbu sti dgon. Not only is this location highly dramatic, it is well insulated against
attack. Mkhar stod can only be approached via almost vertical slopes to the east. The structures of Mkhar stod are placed against
sheltered ledges and are constructed from adobe and random-work masonry. They are spread over a transection of roughly 120
m. On the east side of the site there are two lines of structures, one set on top of the other. Along the lower line are substantial
stone structures, one of which has an entrance with its timber lintel intact. On the west side of the site there is a much more
degraded complex of structures. In total there were approximately 40 buildings/rooms at Mkhar stod. The morphological character
of the site is not in keeping with Buddhist monuments and no Buddhist emblems could be detected with binoculars. Mkhar stod
is no longer accessible without technical climbing aids.
Ri ba mon mkhar
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Site name: Ri ba mon mkhar
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Site number: A-131
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4330 m
The ruins of Ri ba mon mkhar are located upstream of Ri ba village, on the top of a prominence that rises above the left bank
of the Ri ba chu. This conspicuous site, 40 m above the stream, is not particularly well protected; higher ground flanks its south
side. Very little of the sandstone ruins that once stood here remain – only small fragments of revetments. Most of the structures
have long since poured down the steep slopes. There has also been a major slope failure engulfing the north side of the summit,
carrying away an unknown portion of the facility. Given its location, Ri ba mon mkhar is likely to have been a palace and/or
fortification. The summit is 21 m in length (southeast-northwest) but is now only 2 m to 3 m wide (clearly, at one time it was
somewhat wider). While never a large installation, small structures extended at least 5 m below the summit along the south side
of the hill. On this south flank two revetment fragments have survived (7 m in length and up to 70 cm in height, 2.5 m in length).
On the west side of the summit a revetment segment 8 m in length is still in place, as well as a smaller wall fragment on the
north rim of the summit. Stones in these walls reach a maximum length of 70 cm. Little else at the site remains in situ. Just
south of Ri ba mon mkhar there is an abandoned field.
Oral tradition
According to local lore, Ri ba mon mkhar was an ancient Mon castle.
Affiliated sites
Ri jo ba khang pa
On the east edge of Ri ba there is an old house that reportedly belonged to the ri jo ba, the foremost members of a special class
of religious practitioners who were influential during the time of the Buddhist Gu ge kings.66 It is also locally reported that this
house was once owned by relatives of the third Karma pa, Rang byung rdo rje (born in Mang yul gung thang in 1284 CE). This
residence, which miraculously escaped destruction during the Chinese Cultural Revolution, has a random-rubble base and adobe
block upper walls. There are both newer and older windows in the two- to three-story tall structure. The Ri jo ba khang pa is
now occupied by an elderly woman.
Ri lti sgang mkhar
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Site name: Ri lti sgang mkhar
Site number: A-132
Site typology: I.1x
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For information on the ri jo ba see Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po, Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po’i ched rtsom phyogs bsgrigs (Lhasa: Krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun
khang, 2005), 159-170.
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Ri lti sgang mkhar towers 200 m above the village of Ri lti on the north side of the valley. It is likely to have flourished in the
same general time period as the other mkhar of Za rang. Every village of Za rang (save for Skab rag) was once guarded by such
strongholds. The siting, design and physical condition of the ruins indicate that Ri lti sgang mkhar was an archaic cultural
facility. The site occupies a strategic position directly above the village at the head of the Ri lti valley. The summit on which
the stronghold was planted is readily defendable and difficult to outflank. This summit is 79 m in length (with an east-west
axis). The amount of rubble strewn about indicates that significant structures were once found here, but their size and configuration
cannot be ascertained. Only fragments of highly eroded revetments have endured (up to 1.5 m in height). Small vestiges of
revetments that lined the southern rim of the summit are intact. These are probably the remains of a once formidable
circumvallation. Very little of the defensive walls that encircled the stronghold are detectable on the north side of the summit.
Structures of Ri lti sgang mkhar were primarily constructed of blue limestone and to a lesser degree of brown sandstone. The
revetments have a random-rubble texture. No mortar was detected in the seams. Blocks used in construction (some may have
been hewn into shape) are mostly 10 cm to 50 cm in length. About half the arable landholdings of Ri lti sgang (current population:
38) are being worked. More intensive economic activity and a larger population were probably associated with the construction
and residency of Ri lti sgang mkhar.
Oral tradition
The villagers of Ri lti consider Ri lti sgang mkhar an ancient stronghold.
Site elements
West sector
The west sector is 35 m in length. It terminates in an almost vertical rise of 10 m along the ridgeline. The western extremity of
the summit is the lowest and widest (15 m) part of the site. There is a small partially intact revetment in the middle of the rubble
of the west sector.
East sector
Vertical rock faces surround the east sector of the summit. The west side of the east sector summit is 4 m to 5 m in width. The
ridgeline widens in the east to 10.5 m and then narrows to 4.5 m on its east end (the highest point of the summit). There are four
or five revetment segments that run perpendicular to the axis of the summit. These are situated at different elevations and likely
formed the base of a stepped line of buildings. Below the west half of the east sector, small wall fragments extend along the 45°
slope for a distance of 23 m from the summit. It would appear that buildings once stood on this slope as well.
Phug mkhar
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Site name: Phug mkhar
English Equivalent: Cave Castle
Site number: A-133
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 4110 m
Contemporary usage: Seasonal pastoral settlement in lower caves.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Ruined mchod rten.
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The Phug mkhar formation rises 60 m above the eponymous valley. This is an isolated earthen formation unconnected to the
badland canyons bounding the north side of the Phug mkhar valley. The location presents a fairly good defensive aspect. Due
to extreme degradation and geomorphologic changes, very little structural residue remains at the site. Around 20 caves used for
habitation and other purposes are found in the vicinity of the Phug mkhar formation. Some of these caves are occupied in the
winter by the pastoralists of Bar village. The two structures of the summit complex are the only ones that still rise above ground
level at Phug mkhar. Below them there is much building rubble on broad, almost level slopes. The stretch of the streambed that
runs below castle usually has running water, and a small spring is located north of the site at the base of the canyon. A relative
abundance of water accounts for present-day seasonal settlement of the site, and must have been a determining factor in the
establishment of the ancient facility as well. In the valley bottom there is a good stand of tamarisk trees, a source of fuel and
building materials. There are no traces of arable land at Phug mkhar. However, en route between the village of Bar and Phug
mkhar, the large tableland at spu gling chung ma was once intensively cultivated. Some farming still takes place here in years
with ample rainfall.
Oral tradition
Local sources report that Phug mkhar was an ancient Mon stronghold.
Site elements
Summit complex
On the summit (no longer accessible) of Phug mkhar there is a moderately sized building carcass with parts of three walls intact.
It was built of sandstone slabs (maximum length: at least 50 cm). The walls of this structure reach no less than 2 m in height.
Approximately 7 m directly below the summit edifice, on the south side of the formation, a highly eroded earthen building (with
a few stone courses visible on its south side) has been cleaved in two by the disappearance of a large piece of the parent formation.
This structure appears to have been of modest proportions. Roughly 15 m north of the summit a tiny wall fragment still clings
to the highly eroded ridge-top. It is less than 1 m in length and 50 cm in height (none of which is freestanding). Similarly,
approximately 7 m below the west side of the summit there is a tiny wall remnant. It contains just six sandstone blocks, each
20 cm or less in length. This wall fragment is embedded in a steep slope. These two wall traces, as minor as they are, appear to
signal that the summit and the areas immediately below it supported a contiguous zone of structures.
Shelf and esplanade
Below the summit on the south side of the formation there is a shelf (23 m x around 15 m) that appears to have been a building
site, but only rubble and possibly a few in situ stones of footings are all that is left. About 2 m below this shelf there is a sloping
esplanade (36 m x 37 m) that also has a fair amount of blue limestone and brown sandstone rubble scattered upon it. On the
east side of the esplanade along its narrower upper extent (situated less than 20 m below the summit) there is the foundation of
what appears to have been a significant building. However, not one coherent wall fragment has survived. On the south rim of
the esplanade, there is the base of a ruined earthen and stone mchod rten (3.5 m x 3.5 m).67 On the east rim there is a single line
of stones extending around 1 m, the only coherent wall section still existing on the esplanade. Perhaps defensive works once
existed on the low end (south) of the esplanade.
Lower slopes
Below the esplanade, steep slopes drop down to the valley floor. A few meters lower than the esplanade, 15 m to the northeast,
there is a cave on the south side of the formation (3.6 m x 2.3 m). The remains of a façade wall (4.4 m in length, 40 cm thick,
1.3 m to 2.3 m in height) barricade the mouth of this cave. This mostly random-rubble wall contains both blocks of limestone
and slabs of sandstone. Near its top there are three vertical courses of herringbone masonry, each separated by conventional
stonework courses. This particular stone-working technique appears to have been developed no later than circa 500 CE and
continued to find expression in architectural monuments (residential and ceremonial) of western Tibet until the bstan pa phyi
dar.68
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This mchod rten must have been erected by the Buddhists to subdue negative influences emanating from the ‘Mon’ castle. The Phug mkhar site with its
highly valuable hydrological resources would have continued to be inhabited during the era of Buddhist domination, as it is today. On a ridgline at the same
general elevation, on the opposite side of the valley, there are three derelict mchod rten, which are said to have been destroyed before living memory. Two
other mchod rten at the east foot of the Phug mkhar formation are reported to have been desecrated during the Chinese Cultural Revolution. These various
mchod rten of Phug mkhar appear to have served as instruments for the symbolic vanquishment of the site, reassuring Buddhist inhabitants that the older ‘Mon’
habitations would not cast a pall over their lives and aspirations.
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Bellezza, Zhang Zhung, 146.
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Cave shelters
To the east, across a gully from Phug mkhar, three cubic masonry structures were built inside a cave. Their function is not
evident. Sockets in a nearby wall suggest that these structures may have helped to support a wooden frame roof. The cubic
structures (50 cm to 70 cm in height) are made from smaller stone slabs. In the rear wall of the same cave, an L-shaped wall
(1.5 m and 1.1 m in length, 40 cm in height) forms a platform (25 cm to 40 cm in width). The grand aspect of this cave at the
base of its own formation and the unusual masonry structures inside suggest that it may have been an archaic shrine of some
kind. High above this cave on the same formation, structural detritus scattered on a ledge once formed façades around two
shallow caves.
Ba lu mkhar
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Site name: Ba lu mkhar (Rtsa mda’)
Site number: A-134
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 3640 m
Ba lu mkhar/Sba lu mkhar is situated on the south (left) bank of the Glang chen gtsang po, about 12 km downstream of the
famous castle of Rtsa rang (A-62). It reposes on a dark-colored sandstone and limestone outcrop, which rises 60 m above the
valley bottom in a locale known as mug gyam. A small agricultural pocket was once located here. The site is at the west or
downstream end of a long stretch of the Glang chen gtsang po valley, which is endowed with many arable plains and shelves
elevated above its banks. Farther downstream the river enters an impassable gorge. Immediately upstream of Ba lu mkhar there
is a location called Men thang thang kha with a long ruined ma ṇi wall. The highest point of Ba lu mkhar is occupied by a single,
high-elevation stone and adobe edifice. Its design characteristics (such as long spans between load-bearing structures and wall
fabrics) indicate that it possessed a timber roof. This was a well-built, tall and robust structure, which clearly belonged to elite
aspects of ancient society. It was fortified by an elaborate series of defensive walls and outbuildings erected below. These
ancillary buildings may have been all-stone structures.
Stones used in construction at Ba lu mkhar are of variable size (generally 15 cm to 70 cm long). Stonewalls are of a
random-work fabric. The absence of Buddhist emblems (ubiquitous at Gu ge’s Buddhist centers), an unusual mythology and
architectural design (staggered ramparts, high integration into the parent formation, small rooms, etc.) point to an archaic cultural
identity. The design of the stone and adobe edifice at the top of the site is reminiscent of the similarly placed northwest edifice
of Ru la mkhar (A-141), founded or rebuilt circa 565 to 705 CE. The adobe-block superstructures of these buildings rest upon
extremely prominent outward projecting revetments.
Oral tradition
According to local mythology, Ba lu mkhar was built and occupied by a race of dwarfs, the ba lu (see fn. 82).
Site elements
Summit edifice
The summit edifice measures 18 m (northwest-southeast) x 10.5 m (southwest-northeast). The superstructure is composed of
brown sandstone slabs and blocks, a good many of which were hewn into shape. Standing stonewalls are around 65 cm thick.
The forward or northeast side of the summit edifice has been leveled to its dry-mortar (?) limestone and sandstone revetment
(up to 50 cm in height). The front of the building rises above a vertical cliff about 15 m in height. The southwest or rear of the
summit edifice has a maximum interior height of 1.6 m and a maximum exterior height of 4 m, the difference being accounted
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for by the prominent revetment upon which the superstructure was built. Up to about 1.5 m in elevation, freestanding walls
consist of slabs and blocks embedded in a heavy mud/clay matrix. Above the stonework of the rear wall there are several highly
degraded adobe-block courses.
There is a row of five rooms abutting the rear wall, comprising the upper tier of the summit edifice. The room partitions
against the rear wall are only partially intact. They are composed of adobe blocks that have been reduced to around 15 cm in
thickness. Along the southeast end of the rear wall there is a single room (4.2 m x 3.9 m). Along the central portion of the rear
wall there are two rooms (2.7 m x 3.8 m, 2.4 m x 3.7 m). There are also two rooms (1.3 m x 3.7 m, 1.5 m x 5 m) along the
all-stone northwest end of the rear wall, which have an earthen and stonework partition wall. The forward or northeast tier of
the summit edifice probably consisted of three or four rooms. Only fractional footings are still extant in the forward portion of
the building. The southeast and northwest faces of the summit edifice also rest upon high revetments (2 m to 2.5 m in height).
An axial corridor (around 1.3 m in width, running northwest-southeast) appears to have cut between the two tiers of rooms
in the summit edifice. This corridor is situated 50 cm higher than the forward line of rooms and about 1 m lower than the line
of rear rooms. The entrance (90 cm wide) to the summit edifice is in the southeast. It is flanked by standing walls up to 2.5 m
in height. On the northeast side of the entrance a few dissolving adobe blocks rest upon the stonework. The entranceway accesses
a vestibule 3.3 m in length. Stairs must have once been found in the entranceway in order to scale the approach to the building.
The entrance hall appears to have opened to a single room (3.4 m x 1.3 m) situated near the center of the floor plan. Only some
of its footings are in place.
There are six triangular loopholes in the southwest (rear) wall of the summit edifice, five of them punctuating adobe courses
and one (northwestern specimen) in stonework. These loopholes form a horizontal row. Two upright stones make up the sides
of the loophole in the stone wall. There is also a triangular loophole in the southeast wall at the same height. The adobe-block
southeast wall attains a height of nearly 2 m. On the northwest side of the summit edifice, just below the base of the revetment,
there is an isolated wall (2.4 m long, up to 1.8 m high), which may have been a defensive outwork of some kind.
Outlying structures
Level 1 structures
Just south of the summit edifice, on a saddle, there is a residential structure (4.6 m x 4.6 m) built as much as 1.1 m into the
ground. Its south wall was constructed at three different elevations, probably in the mode of a fortification. Southeast of the
summit edifice at a distance of 4.5 m, there are the remains of walls that enclosed stone outcrops, covering an area of 6.2 m x
3.2 m. These are the vestiges of another residential dependency. Its maximum wall height is 1.6 m, 60 cm of which is freestanding.
Structural remains continue to the southeast for another 5.5 m at two distinct lower elevations in a belt around 4 m wide. There
are the remains of a cliff dwelling 7.3 m southeast of the structure set 1.1 m into the ground. It was constructed on a rock shelf
(18 m x 4.5 m to 8 m) below a cliff face and appears to have consisted of a single line of rooms (maximum wall height: 1.3 m).
About 4 m below this cliff dwelling, against another cliff, there is a residential structure (7.3 m x 3 m), which probably consisted
of an upper room and lower room. Its highly fragmentary walls are no more than 70 cm in height. In between the two rooms
there is an opening (60 cm x 50 cm) with an intact lintel (55 cm in length).
Level 2 structures
A multi-roomed structure (7.7 m x 4 m) is found 13 m north of the lower cliff dwelling. This structure is located about 15 m
below the northeast face of the summit complex at the base of a cliff. Its upslope wall extends 70 cm into the ground. Nearby,
there are the remains of another highly fragmentary residential structure (4 m x 2.7 m) set as much as 1 m below the surface.
There are two other wall fragments found at the base of this cliff, the probable remains of defensive works. They line two narrow
rock ledges separated by a 3 m vertical drop. These walls rise to a height of about 1 m, none of which is freestanding. Judging
by the amount of rubble lying in the proximity, these defensive wall fragments must have been part of relatively substantial
structures. Little of the upper defensive wall has endured. The lower defensive wall is about 30 m long in total but now is
discontinuous. About 7 m farther down, at the base of a small cliff, there is a now discontinuous wall 29 m in length. This wall,
now no more than 60 cm in height, lines a rock ledge 1 m in width.
Level 3 structures
Farther down, at the base of a southwest facing rock outcrop, there are the remains of another residential complex (11 m x 4.2
m). Only small wall fragments up to 80 cm in height remain intact. To its southwest are footings of a structure (2.3 m x 3.5 m)
set in a depression in the formation. To the southeast of the level 3 residential complex there are small bits of defensive walls.
Below the level 3 bench there are a couple unmodified ledges and then a steep drop to the valley floor below.
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Outer ramparts
At the same elevation as level 1, level 2 and level 3 structures there are the remains of five ramparts established to protect the
vulnerable outer flank of the site. These highly deteriorated structures are a maximum of 1.5 m in height on the downhill side
and flush with the upper slope. They extend a maximum distance of 30 m south of the core Ba lu mkhar site. From top to bottom
the ramparts are 18 m, 6 m, 6.5 m, 9 m, and 2.5 m in length. These ramparts are once likely to have been more extensive.
Rong lha rgyal mtshan mon khang
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Site name: Rong lha rgyal mtshan mon khang
English equivalent: Valley God Victory Banner Mon House
Site number: A-135
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4880 m
Administrative location (township): Ru kyog
Administrative location (county): Sa dga’
Survey expedition: TUE
Survey date: September 2, 2005
Contemporary usage: A small shepherd’s shelter (’brog lhas) was built on the summit.
Maps: UTRS XIII
Rong lha rgyal mtshan mon khang is situated on the tip of a reddish spur that projects out from a large outlier of the
Transhimalayan range. This site occupies a dramatic and central position in the Ru kyog valley, and is endowed with an excellent
defensive posture. Cliffs and rock faces surround all sides of the spur, save for a single chute on its west side. This chute must
have been the main access route to the facility. The site is named for a snow mountain that rises to the east (Rong lha rgyal
mtshan). The axis of the spur tip is oriented north-south. The Ru kyog gtsang po runs around its west side and a small tributary
skirts its east flank. Only scant structural remains have survived on the summit. The rampart blocking access to the summit
from the chute below is an excellent indication that this site functioned as a stronghold. It appears that substantial buildings
stood here but all of them have been reduced to fragmentary footings and revetments. Rong lha rgyal mtshan mon khang can
be divided into three complexes: south (lower), central and north (upper). These three complexes were designed and built in a
similar manner indicative of an integral installation. Structures were made from uncut brownish-red metamorphic blocks and
to a lesser degree of light-colored cobbles. Stones used in construction vary in length from 10 cm to 70 cm. Its morphological
characteristics, lack of Buddhist emblems, oral tradition, extreme isolation, and altitudinous aspect indicate that Rong lha rgyal
mtshan mon khang is an archaic cultural facility.
Oral tradition
Local ’brog pa believe that Rong lha rgyal mtshan mon khang was an old Mon residence. Some elders say that the ancient
Bonpo resided here.
Site elements
South sector
The south sector occupies a level portion of the summit and measures 11.4 m (north-south) x 7 m (east-west). It has been
diminished to just footings, which are around 90 cm in thickness. Their uniform design and bulk indicate that they supported
superstructures. The highest wall fragment is only 30 cm, while most walls are level with the summit. The south sector is bisected
(east-west) by a wall footing. It is unclear if this was part of an internal partition or the external barrier of a building. Adjacent
to the south sector, on the west side of the spur, there is another zone of highly dissolute structures (17 m x 9 m). These structures
were built on a steep slope with a 4 m vertical difference between the high and low ends. This may suggest that there were
buildings here set at two distinct elevations.
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Central sector
The central sector begins 3 m from the south sector at 2 m higher elevation. On its southern extremity, what appears to have
been a revetment (70 cm high) was built into an acclivity on the summit. The main portion of the central sector is situated 5.5
m north of this revetment. It is about 5 m higher than the south sector, and measures 27 m (north-south) x 4.8 m to 7.2 m
(east-west). It is also comprised of footings that appear to have once supported buildings. These footings are well aligned in the
cardinal directions. Evidently, the main portion of the central sector was divided into four units by east-west running walls. At
the southwest corner of the central sector, a revetment with a random-rubble texture 70 cm in height has endured. On the east
side of the central sector, there is the most developed wall fragment left at Rong lha rgyal mtshan mon khang. It is 80 cm to 1.2
m in height and is composed of uncut blocks and cobbles (10 cm to 50 cm in length). Some of these stones host orange climax
lichen.
North sector
The north sector is situated 8 m north of the central sector at 4 m higher elevation. Measuring 9.8 m (north-south) x 6.7 m
(east-west), it consists of highly fragmentary footings. The rampart wall guarding the entrance to the stronghold is situated
below the north sector on the west side of the formation. This poorly-preserved rampart is 6.5 m long, a maximum of 1.2 m in
height and up to 1 m in thickness. It is of a random-work dry-mortar composition.
mkhar chung
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Site name: Mkhar chung
English equivalent: Little Castle
Site number: A-136
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 4220 m
The single earthen hulk of Mkhar chung is situated on a relatively flat summit suspended 130 m above the Bral gdong po valley
floor. The access routes to the site must pass through the difficult earthen and gravel formations that surround it. The north and
west sides of Mkhar chung are protected by steep gullies and other sides by sheer drops. To the north a flat-topped ridgeline is
connected to the steep slopes that rise out of the badland canyons to the broad esplanade abutting the A yi la Transhimalayan
range. Mkhar chung is invested with a commanding position in that all of the surrounding esplanade is visible from this vantage
point. Unlike Buddhist sites in the Bral gdong po valley, Mkhar chung appears to have had a defensive function, just as its name
suggests. It is a long, narrow structure reminiscent of the lone buildings of Ma nam mkhar (West) (B-77) and Ha la mkhar
(West) (A-58). All three of these sites feature two or three long rows of small rooms oriented along the axis of the building.
Mkhar chung is likely to be an archaic cultural site because of the oral tradition associated with it, the lack of Buddhist emblems,
the high elevation location, the highly disintegrated state of the ruins (it is much more degraded than the Buddhist structures in
the area), and its unusual design characteristics.
Oral tradition
According to lore prevalent in Bral gdong po, Mkhar chung is the oldest monument in this valley system and is not Buddhist
in character.
Site elements
Mkhar chung measures 55 m (east-west) x 7 m (north-south) and is quite closely aligned in the compass points. Its width is hard
to determine as only a 2.5-m long segment of the south wall is still intact. The edifice dips slightly in elevation from east to
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west. Standing walls reach a maximum height of 3 m and are highly eroded to 50 cm or less in thickness. They appear to be
constructed of rammed-earth (traces of the orifices used to hold the shuttering pins are visible). The walls of Mkhar chung
contain copious amounts of a stone matrix. The base of the walls is comprised of several vertical courses of multicolored cobbles
and brown sandstone blocks and slabs (10 cm to 50 cm in length). The revetment on the north side of the edifice is of the same
type of stonework and is around 1 m in height.
The north wall of Mkhar chung is fairly continuous except for a gap 15 m wide near its west end. The traces of the stone
revetment embedded in the north rim of the formation near this gap, however, shows that the north wall was originally continuous.
Near the east end of the gap the north wall makes two 90° bends to the south, each 1.3 m in length. At the east end of Mkhar
chung, along the rim of the formation, there are the faint remains of a wall that appears to have protected this flank of the
installation from the gully below. A tiny extant segment of this wall suggests it was around 75 cm thick. Little of the west wall
of Mkhar chung is still intact. Much earth is heaped up against the east wall, obliterating any traces of room partitions that might
have survived. The only surviving south wall segment is a masonry structure that was heavily mud mortared. This fragment
(2.5 m long and 1.5 m in height) is composed of sandstone blocks and metamorphic cobbles.
Affiliated sites
Bral gdong po dgon pa lho ma
There are two ruined Buddhist complexes in the Bral gdong po valley, north and south. The oldest one, Bral gdong po dgon pa
lho ma, is situated on the south side of the valley (31° 31.8΄ N. lat. / 79° 54.5΄ E. long. / 4120 m). It is perched on a series of
benches elevated 30 m above the valley floor. An older foundation date for the south monastic complex is supported by the
local oral tradition. The largest group of ruined mchod rten and the main temple of the south site appear to date to the bstan pa
phyi dar (or shortly thereafter). The temple, with its multiple transverse spans, is of a design typical of early Gu ge Buddhist
architecture. There are also a number of outlying mchod rten complexes at Bral gdong po dgon pa lho ma. The most unusual
feature of this Buddhist center is that it is surrounded on three sides by stone walls (built primarily of sandstone blocks), which
are topped by a series of rounded masonry structures similar in shape to the bum pa of mchod rten. There are scores of these
interconnected structures extending for hundreds of meters. None of the surmounting structures are complete (total height of
the walls has been reduced to 1.5 m or less). We might conjecture that the walls of mchod rten-like structures were covered in
a mud veneer and lavishly painted. These walls are situated behind (to the south of) Bral gdong po dgon pa lho ma and to its
east and west. An analogous wall is found further west. The axes of these walls are oriented parallel to the slope of the benches
upon which they were built, that is, towards the north Buddhist complex of Bral gdong po. The mchod rten-like walls are arrayed
in such a way that from Bral gdong po dgon pa lho ma they seem to embrace both formations of the north Buddhist complex.
These intricately constructed walls, at least in part, may have been built to subdue inimical influences coming from the direction
of what became the north Buddhist complex, the original nucleus of settlement in Bral gdong po.
Bral gdong po dgon pa byang ma
The modern village of Bral gdong po (population: 56) is situated at the foot of the formations that supported the north Buddhist
center. Lhun grub chos gling, a small contemporary temple, is also found in the vicinity. It was destroyed in the Chinese Cultural
Revolution and was partially rebuilt until 2004. Bral gdong po dgon pa byang ma, the north Buddhist complex, is divided
between two formations: east (’du kang) and west (mgon khang). This monastic center remained viable until the Chinese Cultural
Revolution. The smaller building carcasses show that this was not a particularly large Buddhist center. The east and west
formations (separated by a steep gully) each contain about 100 caves of the Gu ge type. They begin at around 4140 m elevation
and extend up to 4200 m. Mkhar chung is situated 20 m above the upper extent of caves in the east formation.
Defunct agriculture in the Bral valley
A perennial stream still feeds a significant arable land-base near Bral gdong po village, but most cultivated lands in this valley
system have been abandoned. Defunct agricultural holdings stretch along the bral valley, especially on its right side, all the way
downstream to the confluence of the bral and gdong po valleys. Above this confluence is Drin sa (sp?), once a large agricultural
plain and significant Buddhist center (31° 31.5΄ N. lat. / 79° 52.5΄ E. long. / 3980 m). It now lies utterly abandoned. In the
earthen formation bounding the right side of the valley there are around 100 caves, which were probably the original locus of
settlement at Drin sa. It would appear that at some point in time, this preexisting cave complex was transformed into a Buddhist
center. On the summit of the formation with the caves there is a significant rammed-earth shell with tall, straight walls. The
Buddhist hierarch or chieftain of the locale may have occupied this high status redoubt. In a cave near the base of the Drin sa
formation there are murals dating to circa 1000 to 1200 CE (painted in a provincial and somewhat naive style probably by native
Tibetan artists). With its extensive agricultural lands, hundreds of people may have once lived in the lower bral valley (now
devoid of permanent settlement).
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Defunct agriculture in the gdong po valley
In the upper gdong po valley, a mostly abandoned agricultural settlement is located at Gdong po gong ma (31° 32.8΄ N. lat. /
79° 53.7΄ E. long. / 4130 m). There are ruined mchod rten complexes at this location. Disused arable land extends all the way
down the gdong po valley to the confluence with the bral valley. Much of this land is now highly eroded and dissected. It is
reported that a minimum of cultivation took place in the gdong po valley during the Chinese Cultural Revolution but no longer.
Residents of Bral gdong po village observe that in dry years the Gdong po chu is not a reliable source of water. In the lower
gdong po valley there is the old Buddhist center and agricultural settlement of Gdong po ’og ma (31° 32.1΄ N. lat. / 79° 53.0΄
E. long. / 4050 m). In the midst of abandoned farmlands here there is a ruined mchod rten complex and around 50 caves in an
adjoining formation. The top of this formation is capped with a large rammed-earth carcass with adobe block upper walls. Called
a ‘mkhar’, it likely marks the location of an elite habitation. This structure (rising about 60 m above the valley) with its high,
straight walls is clearly part of a site founded after 1000 CE. At one time hundreds of people may have lived and worked in the
gdong po valley.
Mkhar lung
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Site name: Mkhar lung
English equivalent: Castle Valley
Site number: A-142
Site typology: I.1a?
Elevation: 4790 m
Administrative location (township): Seng smad
Administrative location (county): Dge rgyas
Maps: UTRS V, HAS A2
Mkhar lung is situated on the left side of the Seng ge gtsang po (Indus river), in a north-south running tributary valley, atop an
unassailable rock outcrop. The approaches to the stronghold are steep and readily defended from the heights. mkhar lung towers
200 m above the tributary valley and is in view of the Seng ge gtsang po. While the location is hidden and secluded, the local
stretch of the Seng ge gtsang po may have been controlled from this point (as well as the stronghold serving as a defensive
bastion). Mkhar lung is divided into the larger north complex and the higher south complex situated several hundred meters
apart. Like many of the ancient strongholds of the byang thang, buildings of diminutive proportions appear to have been built
at the site. Most of the extant structures of Mkhar lung were defensive works, probably consisting of ramparts and parapets. All
structures are made from a beige (metamorphic?) rock and a brownish rock of variable length (up to 70 cm), which in some
cases may have dressed exterior faces. These stones were laid in dry-mortar random-rubble courses.
Oral tradition
According to local ’brog pa, Mkhar lung is an ancient citadel. Some local sources call Mkhar lung the castle of A khu khro
thung, a figure in the Ge sar epic.
Site elements
North complex
The north complex sits above vertical rock faces on almost all sides. It measures 16 m (north-south) x around 5 m (east-west).
Access to the site is by way of a series of ledges along the east side of the formation. The north complex can be subdivided into
three sectors: north, central and south. The west wall of the south and central sectors is the formation itself.
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North sector
The north sector has an open plan and it is uncertain whether its outer walls supported buildings or were simply ramparts. The
maximum interior height of walls in the north sector is 1.2 m and the maximum exterior height is 1.8 m.
Central sector
A small structure of just one room constitutes the central sector (interior dimensions: 2.4 m x 2.1 m). The rounded corners of
this room and its small entranceway (1.2 m x 60 cm) seem to indicate that this was an all-stone structure. The entranceway is
spanned by two lintel stones 70 cm in length. Standing walls reach 1.8 m in height. The west wall of this structure is the parent
formation and much of it stood below the top of it, typical rdo khang morphological features. The walls of the north and central
sectors are generally around 70 cm in thickness.
South sector
The south sector of the north complex is wedge shaped. None of its interior plan has survived. Outer walls of the south sector
have been mostly leveled to the revetments, but freestanding segments up to 1.2 m in height have also persisted. The outer south
wall (6 m long, 1 m wide, with two bends in it) is 2 m to 3 m high, nearly all of which is a revetment. The exterior side of the
south wall contains two vertical slabs of rock capped by a lintel that seem to have created a rudimentary window or loophole.
A second example of this type of aperture in the south wall is far less intact. The main entrance to the north complex appears
to have been in the outer east wall of the south sector, much of which has been destroyed. Leading down from the entrance are
several in situ stone steps. Below these steps there is a ledge with the remains of an 18-m long retaining wall, which winds
around to the south side of the formation.
South complex
A rocky ridgeline leads between the north and south complexes. The low end of the south complex is a broad shoulder with
vertical rock expanses below it. The remains of a defensive wall 18 m in length guard its approach. On the west side of the
shoulder there is a rampart wall (5.7 m long, around 1 m thick) that extends up to the crag supporting the main structure of the
south complex. Much of this rampart is leveled but certain sections attain a height of 1.5 m. The crag above it is encircled by a
wall that creates a protected space (8 m x 4.8 m). This wall has a maximum height of 1.5 m (exterior face). The undeveloped
nature of the revetments and the lack of internal structures suggest that this was not a building but rather an open breastwork.
Extending from the east flank of this crag a rampart (maximum height of 1.7 m, around 1 m in thickness) zigzags down the
steep slopes for 60 m. It appears to have been constructed to protect the site from the broader and less steep terrain to the south.
Brdzi gdan chung ba
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Site name: Brdzi gdan chung ba
English equivalent: Lesser Scent Block
Site number: A-137
Site typology: I.1c
Elevation: 4880 m
Administrative location (township): Rgod tshang smad
Survey expedition: THE
Maps: UTRS V
The minor fortifications of Brdzi gdan chung ba are found on a pyramidal limestone mount that divides the upper Brdzi gdan
valley into two branches. This hidden location appears to have been constructed as a defensive refuge against attacks emanating
from the valley below. Brdzi gdan chung ba, a place only of local importance, could only have accommodated a relatively small
number of personnel. The core of the site consists of three highly dissolute wall fragments. Built at the base of crags, these walls
extend for 30 m along the top of a small saddle. They appear to have been a frontline defensive feature for those stationed in
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the crags above. The random-work dry-mortar walls are constructed from uncut chunks of variable-length light-colored limestone.
All that remains of the west wall is a small fragment (2 m long, 1.5 m high, 1 m thick). The central wall is 7.5 m long, around
50 cm high and 1.1 m wide. The east wall fragment (4 m long) is highly deteriorated. Above this series of three walls there are
tiny traces of other defensive walls in the crags. They reach a maximum height of 80 cm. On the north side of the saddle at the
base of the crags there is what appears to be the foundation of a small defensive feature (1.5 m x 1.2). It is situated about 20 m
higher than the three main walls.
Oral tradition
Local residents call Brdzi gdan chung ba an ancient Mon installation.
A rong mon mkhar
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Site name: A rong mon mkhar
Site number: A-138
Site typology: I.1c
Survey expedition: THE
Maps: UTRS V
The rampart network of A rong mon mkhar is found on the top of a limestone mount, which rises above a bifurcation in the A
rong valley. This limestone bulwark in the A rong valley rises some 400 m above the east side of the Khri tsho basin. The high
quality pasturage and plentiful water of the Khri tsho basin and the adjoining larger basin of Dpa’ ngar gzhung (in the Seng ge
gtsang po flood plain) have been magnets of settlement since early times. Other archaic strongholds in the proximity are Sha
ro mon dur (A-32) and Dpa’ ngar gzhung mkhar gog (A-31). The tawny-colored formation of A rong mon mkhar is very
precipitous and inherently defensible. It has commanding views to the north in the direction of the big basins. This site probably
served as a refuge from attack and the final line of defense for the locality. Its inhabitants must have faced a very fierce enemy
to have built such a high and isolated safehold. It is only accessible via the southeast branch of the A rong valley via a steep
and narrow slope. There are no signs of permanent dwellings at A rong mon mkhar. The dry-mortar random-work ramparts
were constructed using uncut hunks of limestone. They form a highly developed symmetrical defensive array on the summit.
It is unclear how the inhabitants of A rong mon mkhar obtained drinking water. Presently, there is no water in the A rong valley
(except when there is snow melt or possibly during a heavy bout of summer rains).
Oral tradition
According to local residents, A rong mon mkhar was an ancient Mon facility.
Site elements
Upper summit
The low end (4820 m) of A rong mon mkhar is comprised of a breastwork that protected this constricted approach (only 3.5 m
wide) to the stronghold. Only two fragments of the wall built at this strategic juncture have survived (2.9 m long and 1.3 m
high, 9.6 m long and 1.1 m high). This was the forward line of defense for A rong mon mkhar. Above the breastwork the slopes
rise to a saddle (4840 m) with a precipitous drop on its southwest side. The top end of this saddle connects to a narrow rib of
rock with the vestiges of a defensive wall and steps that lead up to the summit. This fortified access route inclined at 45° is 21
m in length and reaches the southeast edge of the summit installation. The base of what appears to have been a breastwork (3.8
m x 3.8 m) straddles the top at this spot. Although it is up to 2.5 m in height (on its forward or southeast flank), no freestanding
walls are left in this structure. This guarding gateway to the summit, the tallest structure remaining at A rong mon mkhar, is
likely to have been a significant defensive feature. It accesses the upper summit, which is up to 15 m wide. The remains of a
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parapet wall line the northeast edge of the upper summit. With a long vertical rock face below, no such wall was necessary
along the part of the summit overlooking the southwest branch of the A rong valley.
Lower summit
The upper summit admits to the lower summit, a zone 55 m in length and a maximum of 30 in width. The lower summit along
its north-south axis is oriented at a 30° angle. There are traces of a parapet wall on the rim of the lower summit overlooking the
southeast branch of the A rong valley. On account of large vertical expanses of rock, a parapet wall was not needed on the side
of the summit that soars above the southwest branch of the A rong valley. The lower summit is dominated by two parallel series
of ramparts. There appear to be seven ramparts in each series built at graded elevations. Each of these walls is between 4 m and
11 m in length and are 80 cm to 1 m high on their forward or downhill side. Some of the ramparts form platforms up to 2 m in
width, which could have been used for domestic functions (by erecting temporary shelters of some kind). Conceivably, bowmen
could fire in unison from behind these walls, unleashing a curtain of arrows. Perhaps this wall network was also used for ritual
purposes.
Shang rtse bon mkhar
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Site name: Shang rtse bon mkhar
English equivalent: Shang rtse Bon castle
Site number: A-139
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 4300 m
Survey expedition: WYLE
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: tshwa tshwa litter the cave floors.
Shang rtse bon mkhar is perched on the summit of a precipitous badlands formation, rising 100 m above the confluence of a
narrow gorge and the Shang rtse valley. The important Gu ge agricultural enclave of Shang rtse still boasts a relatively high
volume perennial stream. On the top of the formation there is a rammed-earth and adobe block carcass (approximately 14 m x
8 m), which faces southeast towards the Shang rtse valley. The severe gradient of the slope suggests that this single edifice was
split between three different elevations. Most of the structure, however, has disappeared down the slopes. Shang rtse bon mkhar
commands an excellent position over the north side of the broad Shang rtse valley, supporting its stronghold attribution in the
oral tradition. Arrayed below the summit are 12 to 15 shallow caves that were once inhabited. The scant structural evidence
remaining is insufficient to positively identify Shang rtse bon mkhar as an archaic facility.
Oral tradition
According to Shang rtse township elders, Shang rtse bon mkhar was an ancient Bon castle. This is verified in a manuscript
entitled Stod mnga’ ris shang rtse dgon gi lo rgyus mdor sdus, by Bsod nams rdo rje. The information pertaining to Shang rtse
bon mkhar in this eight page manuscript came from the Gu ge physician, Dpal ldan ye shes (a disciple of Khyung sprul nam
mkha’ ’jigs med rdo rje (died 1956)). It records that the Bonpo of prehistoric Zhang zhung had their mkhar built on a square
knob to the west of the main shang rtse mkhar. It is stated that many Bon folios were buried in the caves at Shang rtse bon
mkhar, among which was a Bon divination text.
Site elements
Castle
The little of the carcass that remains has undergone quite a bit of erosion, but the earthen walls have retained much of their mass
(they are around 50 cm thick). The uppermost portion of the outer wall of the structure (the bulk of what still exists) appears to
be primarily composed of rammed-earth. The orifices for the shuttering pins are regularly distributed across this wall segment
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(maximum height: 2.5m). Each orifice has a small stone header. There are also a few unbaked mud-brick wall fragments that
formed interior wall partitions, but they are too heavily degraded to yield information on the ground plan of the facility. In
several of the caves there are Buddhist tshwa tshwa (votive clay plaques) with impressions of mchod rten, ma ṇi mantras, the
god phyag na rdo rje, and a sitting Lokeśvara (?). These tshwa tshwa appear to mark the symbolic occupation of the site by the
Buddhists. No Buddhist monuments, however, appear to have been founded here.
Affiliated sites
Shang rtse mkhar
On a hill above the north side of the Shang rtse township headquarters there is a large cave complex and the extensive remains
of a monastery known as Shang rab brtan byams pa gling. Reportedly, a fortress occupied the summit (25 m x 11 m). The ruins
here consist of substantial adobe walls built upon cobble foundations set at various levels. The fortress site is situated approximately
2 km east of Shang rtse bon mkhar. Dating to after 1000 CE, shang rtse mkhar appears to have been well integrated into the
Buddhist infrastructure of the site. Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po reports that the kings of Gu ge spent their summers at shang rtse
mkhar (a cooler location than Rtsa rang).69 The entire monastic complex was destroyed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution and
no attempt has been made to rebuild any of it. A new Buddhist temple has been established in the valley bottom. With over 100
caves, the troglodytic settlement of Shang rtse must have constituted the heart of residency in the Shang rtse valley. This locale
is rich in arable land, much of which is still under cultivation. Given its natural endowments, the shang rtse mkhar site may also
have been an important habitational center in the archaic cultural horizon. There is no obvious reason why the early inhabitants
of the region would have chosen to ignore this prime location for the far less valuable site to the west. The much smaller and
more marginal site of Shang rtse bon mkhar may be where the Bonpo (either physically or symbolically) were shunted to after
the bstan pa phyi dar and the Buddhist domination of Gu ge.
Shi ri mon mkhar
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Site name: Shi ri mon mkhar
Site number: A-140
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4390 m
Shi ri mon mkhar is located on a highly eroded, variegated earthen ridge-top, approximately 3 km north of the Shang rtse valley.
To the west the site is bounded by the Hur (sp.?) valley, which still has a perennial source of water. The Hur watercourse probably
extended further up valley at one time, providing a fairly convenient source of water for the facility. This hidden and isolated
location is too far away from the Shang rtse valley to have exercised effective strategic control over it (this role would have
been much better served by Shang rtse bon mkhar (A-139) and its counterpart, shang rtse mkhar). Shi ri mon mkhar occupies
the highest point of a long ridgeline, situated 200 m above the Shang rtse valley. Its lofty and austere location is typical of
archaic cultural horizon installations, as are its prominent revetments and stonework. There are just a few caves in the vicinity
of Shi ri mon mkhar, indicating that this was not a major nucleus of settlement. It is likely to have been inhabited by a political
and/or religious elite. Although there is a lack of ramparts and other outlying defensive works (possibly these have been eradicated
by the failure of the slopes), the flanks of the formation are steep, providing the facility with a quite respectable defensive
posture.
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Gu ge tshe ring rgyal po, Mnga’ ris chos ’byung, 235.
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Oral tradition
Shi ri mon mkhar is said by Shang rtse township elders to have been an ancient Mon castle.
Site elements
Castle
Shi ri mon mkhar consists of a single edifice (10 m x 9 m), which appears to have had both north and south entrances. It is
composed of random-work walls that contain copious amounts of a light-colored clay-based mortar. Variable-sized pieces of
sandstone and conglomerate (up to 1 m in length) were used in construction. Shi ri mon mkhar, like many other archaic
strongholds, is set on prominent revetments. The maximum extant height of the structure is 4 m, nearly all of which is made up
by a revetment. Partially intact wall footings suggest that Shi ri mon mkhar was divided into at least four rooms. Freestanding
wall fragments are now no more that 70 cm in height. No interior wall partitions have survived. On the west side of the structure
there is a lower revetment (1 m high), which extends out laterally for 1 m. Above the lower revetment there is an upper revetment
(2 m high). On the north side of Shi ri mon mkhar the revetment is up to 3.2 m in height. On the south side of the edifice the
revetment is around 2 m in height. On the east flank of Shi ri mon mkhar a two-tiered revetment has a vertical expanse of 4 m.
Thick buttressing against the east revetment may indicate that a smaller superstructure was appended to this side of the main
edifice.
The standing walls of the castle superstructure are 60 cm to 75 cm in thickness. At the south entrance (1 m wide) a standing
wall fragment is up to 1.1 m thick. The south entrance appears to have led to a landing that may have been at a slightly lower
elevation than the adjacent rooms. The south portion of the edifice has an unclear floor plan. It appears to have contained two
rooms. The north half of the structure appears to be comprised of two rooms as well, separated from one another by a corridor.
The east room has internal proportions of 1.1 m x 2.6 m, and the west room is of similar proportions. The corners of these two
compartments are rounded, a design feature reminiscent of rdo khang. Shi ri mon mkhar may well have been of an all-stone
composition, however, there is very little structural evidence left to assess. No roof appurtenances are found on the site.
On the west side of the castle edifice there is an interconnected curtain-wall, protecting it from incursions originating in the
north (the direction from which there is the easiest access to the site). The top of this wall lies below the base of the edifice. Its
western extremity rests upon a 2-m high revetment (3.2 m in length) that forms a small platform. Beyond this point the formation
drops off abruptly. The somewhat sinuous curtain-wall is 11 m long, up to 2.7 m in height and around 60 cm in thickness. It is
possible that this curtain-wall was part of a more extensive enclosed structure, but if so, all traces have vanished. Interspersed
in the curtain-wall are three triangular windows or loopholes, around 40 cm in height and with a base width of 20 cm. Two of
them are lined with stone slabs. The presence of triangular apertures in Shi ri mon mkhar suggests that this Gu ge design feature
predates the btsan pa phyi dar.
Ru la mkhar
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Site name: Ru la mkhar
English equivalent: Horde Hill Castle
Site number: A-141
Site typology: I.1b
Elevation: 4090 m
Ru la mkhar sits on a rocky prow that rises about 40 m above the broad valley bottom of Ru la. Old terracing and the eroded
surfaces of once tilled land fill the valley. The locale is now completely devoid of people and agriculture. A Shang rtse township
subdivision headman from the nearby settlement of Shis bzhad estimates that Ru la once supported well over 2000 mu of
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farmland (1 mu = .067 of a hectare). As the Shang rtse river still flows quite strongly through this pocket of the valley,
environmental degradation is not likely the only factor explaining the demise of Ru la and other nearby settlements. While a
relatively large population (potentially hundreds of people) may have once resided at this location, robust physical signs of their
presence were not detected. Nevertheless, a little to the east of Ru la mkhar there is an old settlement consisting of 30 to 40
caves hewn out of the earthen formation, which bounds the edge of the valley. As in many other Gu ge locations, these caves
are likely to represent an original locus of settlement.
Ru la mkhar is comprised of a contiguous installation made of blue limestone laid in random-rubble courses. There are also
a few adobe-block upper wall fragments. This site is liable to have once formed the social and economic nerve center of the
breadbasket of Ru la. Its not particularly lofty aspect and the absence of defensive works indicate that it was not a fortress per
se, but rather a palace and/or religious complex. Much of Ru la mkhar has been leveled to its foundations. The installation has
a southeast-northwest axis, in line with the ridge it is poised on. There are two building sectors: southeast/lower and
northwest/upper. A 3.5-m tall expanse of rock separates the two sectors. Various wall sections in both sectors contain herringbone
courses of masonry. The oral tradition, lack of Buddhist emblems, herringbone stonework, and prominent revetments all indicate
that Ru la mkhar is an archaic cultural facility. This has been corroborated by the radiocarbon dating of a structural timber
extracted from the northwest edifice of the facility. A foundation or reconstruction date of circa 565 to 705 CE is indicated for
the northwest edifice of Ru la mkhar (see below). The relative position of the dated sample confirms that adobe-block constructions
were indeed part of the archaic architectural canon of Gu ge.
Oral tradition
According to a township subdivision headman residing in the village of Shis bzhad, Ru la mkhar long predates the establishment
of the region’s Buddhist temples and monasteries. The local oral tradition maintains that Ru la and the adjoining locales of Shis
bzhad and Brgya sde once supported sizable, thriving communities. The sheer amount of arable land, ruins and troglodytic
settlements in these locations supports this view of history.
Site elements
Southeast sector
The southeast sector is 35 m in length. Its southeast/downhill side is 6 m wide, while towards the northwest this sector widens
to 15 m across. Freestanding wall fragments are no more than 80 cm in height. Revetments add 1 m to 1.5 m of elevation to the
structures. Much of the perimeter wall surrounding the southeast sector has been leveled and no interior partition walls have
survived. The mud-mortared random-work walls are around 60 cm to 70 cm in thickness. Variable-sized pieces of limestone
(up to 70 cm long) were used in construction, but most of the stones are small. The floor plan has been almost totally obliterated.
Scant footing fragments suggest that the southeast sector was divided into at least four sections. The walls flanking the entranceway
have a maximum elevation of 2.2 m. These walls extend beyond what must have been the actual opening to the interior, creating
an inlet 2.1 m in width. This passageway must have once supported a stairway but all that is left is a natural ramp of stone. On
the southwest/exterior wall comprising the inlet, above the 70 cm or 80 cm of freestanding stonework, there are the faint remains
of adobe-block courses. These add 20 cm or less to the total height of the wall. The adobe wall traces have been eroded to the
point that they are no more than 20 cm in thickness. The inner wall of the inlet reaches 2.5 m in height, including its revetment,
the highest elevation structure in the southeast sector.
Northwest edifice
The northwest or upper sector of Ru la mkhar consists of a single edifice (11.5 m x 4 m), which sits atop a highly prominent
revetment. The high walls of this edifice and its position at the vertex of the site, suggests that this was the highest status
habitation at the site. No interior wall partitions are intact in this stone and adobe structure. The limited structural evidence
suggests that it was divided into two rooms: southeast (forward) and northwest (rear). The revetment on the northeast side of
the structure attains 2 m in height. The rear or northwest face of the edifice rests upon a revetment with rounded corners, which
extends 2 m laterally beyond the superstructure. This unusually designed revetment is 1.8 m in height, and the walls above it
add another 1.6 m to the height of the structure. The rear freestanding wall segment is made entirely of adobe blocks, which
have been subjected to extreme erosion. Most other freestanding walls fragments are less than 1 m in height. In the southwest
corner of the northwest edifice there is a highly degraded adobe wall segment (2.5 m in height) resting upon a high revetment
(around 1.8 m in height).
At the base of the interior rear wall of the northwest edifice, wood bonding materials are still in situ. I was able to extract a
well-preserved piece of gra ma wood (15 cm long, 10 cm in circumference) for radiocarbon analysis.70 The excellent physical
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Radiometric, sample no. Beta 235999; Conventional radiocarbon age: 1370 +/-70; 2 Sigma calibrated result: Cal 1390 to 1170 BP (years before present);
Intercept of radiocarbon age with calibration curve: Cal 1290 BP; 1 Sigma calibrated result: Cal 1330 to 1270 BP.
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condition of the sample facilitated species identification. This piece of wood was structurally integral to the construction of the
adobe-block wall. Along with similar pieces of wood it helped to stabilize the interface between the stone revetment and adobe
superstructure. These bonding materials lie perpendicular to the axis of the wall and could be extracted with relative ease and
with minimal disturbance to the structure. The sample tested yielded a conventional radiocarbon age of circa 565 to 705 CE,
corresponding to the late protohistoric and early imperial periods. Given the relatively small diameter of the piece of wood
assayed, it is not likely to have been cut down too many years before it was used in the construction of Ru la mkhar. It is likely,
therefore, an excellent indicator of when the northwest edifice was either founded or rebuilt. It is possible that rather than
reflecting the establishment of the installation, the chronometric evidence may be applicable to a reconstruction process. In any
event, adobe-block superstructures are relatively easy to demolish and rebuild. If a foundation date is indicated, it may well
reflect chronological values pertinent to the southeast/lower sector of the facility. Both sectors of Ru la mkhar share the same
ensemble of constructional traits (system of revetting, adobe-block upper courses, random-rubble limestone fabric, and close
structural integration).
The raising of Ru la mkhar is probably linked to the agricultural land-base of its environs, which must have provided the
cereal surpluses needed to support an elite monumental and social infrastructure (regional and interregional trade notwithstanding).
We can be quite confident, then, that a viable farming community existed at Ru la mkhar until at least the seventh or eight
century CE. The genesis of agriculture in the area, however, is likely to date to a much more remote period, given the generally
more conducive environmental conditions of earlier times and the inherent economic and strategic significance of extensive
arable lands. If Ru la mkhar was founded before circa 630 CE, it was built as part of an indigenous (Zhang zhung) polity. A
later foundation date (circa 630 to 750 CE) would indicate that this facility arose within the pan-Tibetan imperium before the
reign of King Khri srong lde btsan.
Shrine
Southeast of the residential complex, 15 m lower in elevation, there are the remains of a cubic shrine (1.7 m x 1.7 m). This
ceremonial structure shares the same axial alignment as the mkhar. Probably of the rten mkhar or gsas mkhar class, the heavily
damaged masonry structure is now 1 m or less in height. This type of monumental form and its relative placement are typical
of many Upper Tibetan archaic cultural residential facilities.
Affiliated sites
Ru la mkhar gog po
The Lamaist complex of rather diminutive size known as Ru la mkhar gog po has design features that date it to the 11th to 14th
century CE (31° 46.7΄ N. / 79° 30.5΄ / 4050 m). It was primarily constructed of adobe blocks in the midst of the Ru la agricultural
holdings. The faint outlines of aureoles on the walls, auxiliary chapels and outlying mchod rten are some of its more conspicuous
features. Although there is some speculation among area residents that this was a Bon temple, this seems very unlikely given
the general religious complexion of Gu ge in the period in which it was built. The existence of a temple at this location may
suggest that agriculture persisted at Ru la at least until the vestigial period.
Down-valley settlements
Just down valley from Ru la there is the contiguous agricultural settlement of Brgya sde. It is now totally abandoned. Its name
is said to be derived from the 100 households that are supposed to have once lived among its vast farmlands. A small summit
stronghold built of earth stands guard over Brgya sde. It is no longer accessible. Brgya sde merges with another extensive old
agricultural settlement called Lha dkar. Recently, a residential complex was established here and a small portion of the arable
land brought back into production. Down valley from Lha dkar there is an old agricultural settlement known as A brtsan.
Reportedly, a large cave complex and a ruined Buddhist monastery and fortress are found here. Beyond A brtsan the Shang rtse
valley drops off into an uninhabited gorge that terminates at the Glang chen gtsang po.
I.2. Residential Structures in Other Locations: Religious and Elite Residences
This type of residential site includes all monuments situated in any geographic locality other than those set on top of summits.
Such habitations are found on broad slopes (those with higher ground in the immediate area), valley bottoms, ravines, gorges,
benches, esplanades, headlands, and at the foot of or in escarpments and outcrops. However, such sites are seldom found in the
midst of large exposed plains. The same kind of constructional and design elements exhibited by the summit residences are part
of this category of archaic sites. The majority of them appear to have been habitations for religious and other high social status
forms of residency. We might expect that, when most of the population of the byang thang was housed in black yak hair tents
(sbra nag) and other types of temporary shelters, the occupation of highly weatherproof permanent habitations was a mark of
social distinction and achievement. This, indeed, was the state of affairs in the pre-modern Byang thang. Cave residences are
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found throughout Upper Tibet, but in numbers that would not have permitted more than a small fraction of the total population
to avail themselves of such facilities in any given period (with the notable exception of gu ge with its many thousands of caves).
Bon po phug
Basic site data
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Site name: Bon po phug
English equivalent: Cave of the Bonpo
Site number: B-114
Site typology: I.2c
Elevation: 4670 m
Administrative location (township): Hor
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Old ma ṇi plaques and ma ṇi mantras carved into the formation at the site.
Bon po phug, the site of a 7-m-deep cave and minor ruins, is located in a side valley that empties into the Brag gtsang po. Bon
po phug is situated just east of the sacred Bon mountain Spos ri ngad ldan. Only faint structural remains exist of what is locally
believed to have been a Buddhist monastery (it may have been inherited from the Bonpo). Even most of the foundation walls
have been eradicated. The structural vestiges are spread over an area of approximately 24 m x 11 m around the mouth of the
cave. It appears that this cave was completely enclosed by walls. Only a small segment of the south wall has survived. This
random-rubble structure is about 2 m tall and 70 cm in thickness. There are possibly structural extensions to the west, the
direction of a now disused corral. Against a smaller outcrop, 72 m north of Bon po phug, there are the obscured remains of
foundations measuring 18 m x 5.5 m. There are old ma ṇi plaques at Bon po phug, confirming that it was at least symbolically
occupied by the Buddhists. In the mouth of the valley in which the site is located, there is a wall with centuries-old inscribed
plaques.
Oral tradition
According to local elders, Bon po phug is a Bonpo cave that came to be occupied by the sa skya pa, who built a small monastery
here.
Textual tradition
The area around Spos ri ngad ldan is supposed to be particularly rich in archaic ruins. In a recently authored supplement to the
famous Bon pilgrimage guide, Ti se’i dkar chag, entitled Gangs mtsho’i nye ’khor g.yi dgon khag, we read about a prehistoric
Bon cave around Mtsho ma pang, which may well refer to Bon po phug:
…During the beginning of the doctrine of speech of Rgyal ba gshen[Rab], along the east of Spos ri ngad ldan, on the east side of
the lake [Ma pang], at the Bon cave in Brag lung na ba dmar ldeng (Brag gtsang po valley), there was the great [religious] community
known as Drung mu khri rtse, the seat of the lama abbot Rdzu ’phrul ye shes and his student Ye shes tshul khrims. Presently, a
footprint of the abbot on a rock near the monastery ruins is visible.
A phug
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Site name: A phug
English equivalent: ‘A’ Cave
Site number: B-115
Site typology: I.2c
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Elevation: 4890 m
Contemporary usage: A Buddhist retreat cave.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Buddhist religious accoutrements.
Maps: UTRS VI, UTRS X, HAS C4
A phug is located directly above the ’brug pa bka’ brgyud monastery of Rdzu ’phrul phug, on the east side of the pilgrim’s
circuit (ri skor) around the holy mountain of Gangs dkar ti se (Gangs rin po che). Bon tradition maintains that their ancient
practitioners used this site. A 14.5-m long outer retaining wall was built up around A phug, forming a 3-m- to 6-m wide level
area in front of the cave. This area was used by inmates to sun themselves and for household chores, etc. The mud plastered
masonry façade around A phug is now in a state of disrepair. There is no indication of when these walls were constructed, but
we might expect that they have been modified over the centuries. The cave consists of two outer chambers with a total length
of 7 m. One of these chambers was used for cooking and one for sleeping. An inner chamber (2 m x 2.8 m) has a large white
letter a on the ceiling that is said to have been self-formed. This inner chamber, the chapel of the cave, contains a large bay with
three shelves that were used for religious articles, as well as a niche in the wall. Also in the inner chamber, low walls surround
the place for meditation. These were designed to prevent practitioners from sprawling out.
Oral tradition
Tibetan Buddhists commonly believe that A phug was used by the great saint Mi la ras pa (1040-1123) for meditation.
Textual tradition
According to Gangs ti se’i lo rgyus by the late Gangs ri ba chos dbyings rdo rje, it was Rje btsun mi la ras pa who magically
scrawled the letter a with his finger.71 The Bonpo, however, claim A phug as their own. In the Ti se’i dkar chag by Dkar ru grub
dbang (born 1801) it records that, “On the east side of the great gangs ri (Snow Mountain) there is A ti gsang ba g.yung drung
phug (Secret A ti Swastika Cave), ([now] called A phug). The door of this cave has the shape of a letter a.”72
Site elements
Proximate caves
There are caves on either side of A phug, five on the west side alone. These caves also have large retaining walls in front of
them, creating sheltered level places for domestic use. There is a row of four more caves in the formation above the western
edge of the Rdzu ’phrul monastery precinct. Called Phug chen (Great Caves), these four caves are located in a conglomerate
cliff. Near the two most westerly caves there are the highly fragmentary remains of two or three forward rooms.
Shod tram phug
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Site name: Shod tram phug
Alternative site name: Shod kram phug
Alternative site name 2: sho khram phug
Site number: B-116
Site typology: I.2c
Elevation: 5350 m
Administrative location (township): Sta rgo
Gangs ri ba chos dbyings rdo rje, “Gangs ti se’i lo rgyus,” in Bod ljongs nang bstan (Lhasa: Bod ljongs shin hwa, 1990), 58.
Dkar ru grub dbang bstan ‘dzin rin chen, “’Dzam gling gangs rgyal ti se’i dkar chag tshangs dbyangs yid phrog.” in Mdzod phug rtsa ba dang spyi don
dang gangs ti se’i dkar chag (Dolanji: Ṭibetan Bonpo ṃonastic Centre: ḍolanji, 1973), 520.
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Contemporary usage: A pilgrimage site for Bonpo devotees and spirit-mediums.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Affixed to the smoke-blackened roof of the cave there are the usual offerings left
by pilgrims: dabs of butter, tufts of white wool, paper prayer flags (rlung rta) and old protection cords blessed by lamas
(srung mdud).
Maps: UTRS VIII
Shod tram phug is the fabled cave of Upper Tibet’s spirit-mediums (lha pa/dpa’ bo). This is where spirit-mediums go for prayer,
purification and to test their aptitude for embodying the divinities.73 This modest site is situated on the east slopes of Rta rgo
ngo dmar lha btsan, one of the nine major peaks of the Rta rgo range. The so-called cave is found in the proximity of the sacred
tarn known as Nag mer mtsho. This cave is actually a cavity (3.2 m x 3.2 m) excavated underneath a large flat boulder. Stonewalls
and a stone façade (up to 1.6 m high) prop up the roof. Outer walls also have been built around the cave to produce open-air
sitting and work areas. The rudimentary random-rubble, dry-mortar walls covered in orange lichen appear to have stood for a
long time.
Oral tradition
Shod tram phug is an ancient monument used by the spirit-mediums of yore. According to the spirit-medium Karma rig ’dzin
(born circa 1935), the Vajrayāna master Gu ru rin po che (8th century CE) went to Shod tram phug and magically raised its
ceiling, after being defeated by the mountain god Ngo dmar lha btsan in a contest for supremacy. 74
Textual tradition
Shod tram phug is a cave associated with the great Bon rdzogs chen master Dmu shod tram chen.75 His tenure in the nearby
valley of nyi ma lung is documented in Zhang zhung snyan rgyud bla ma’i rnam thar by Spa ston bstan rgyal bzang po (14th
or 15th century CE) (Bellezza 2005: 70; Reynolds 2005: 135, 481).76 According to Legs bshad mdzod by Grub dbang bkra shis
rgyal mtshan (1859-1935), Dmu shod kram (probably circa tenth century CE), a ’ja’ lus pa (obtainer of a rainbow body) who
meditated at Gangs gnyan rta sgo, passed away at the age of 117 in the manner of a lion jumping into the sky.77
Site elements
Rock shelter
The 90-cm high entrance to the rock shelter is in the northeast, in the front wall propping up the overarching boulder. There are
also less well-built outer walls, creating two small courtyards on either side of a central corridor. This corridor leads directly to
the entrance of the cave. The courtyards and corridor cover an area of 7.5 m x 3.5 m. The ceiling of the cave slopes down towards
the entrance. Inside there is a single small stone platform.
Nag mer mtsho
A masonry wall on which inscribed plaques have been placed, built sometime in the pre-Communist period, surrounds the small
spring-fed tarn of Nag mer mtsho (5370 m). True to its name, this body of water is often black in color. In the sacred geography
of the region it is envisioned as the right eye of the great lake goddess Dang ra g.yu mtsho. Religious adepts are said to obtain
visions by gazing into Nag mer mtsho.
Khyung lung yul smad
Basic site data
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Site name: Khyung lung yul smad
English equivalent: Khyung Valley Lower Village
Site number: B-117
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Bellezza, Calling Down the Gods.
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Bellezza, Calling Down the Gods, 157, 158.
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John Vincent Bellezza, Divine Dyads: Ancient Civilization in Tibet, (Dharamsala: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, 1997), 403.
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Bellezza, Calling Down the Gods, 70; John M. Reynolds, The Oral Tradition from Zhang-Zhung: An Introduction to the Bonpo Dzogchen Teachings of
the Oral Tradition from Zhang-zhung known as the Zhang-zhung snyan-rgyud (Kathmandu: Vajra Publications, 2005), 135, 481.
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Samten Karmay, trans, The Treasury of Good Sayings: A Tibetan History of Bon, (London: Oxford University Press, 1972), 56, 147a.
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Site typology: I.2c
Survey expedition: UTAE and SSI
Survey date: April 30, May 1 and August 27 to September 8, 2001
Contemporary usage: A pilgrimage site.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Prayer flags at various locations, a ruined monastery, a series of broken mchod
rten, retreat caves, and ma ṇi walls.
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The main cave complex and associated ruins of Khyung lung yul smad are found in the lower portion of Khyung lung village.
The site occupies a multi-colored (gray, blue-gray, white, yellow, red, and brown) badlands formation below a broad esplanade,
on the right side of the Glang chen gtsang po (Sutlej River). The ruined residential complex of Khyung lung mkhar rtse (also
locally known as Khyung lung dngul mkhar and Lha mo rdzong) occupies the highest part of the site. According to a local
sacred geographical tradition, the prayer-flag mast on the rim of the esplanade above the monastery is envisioned as being
planted on the head of a giant horned eagle (khyung) facing in the direction of the Glang chen gtsang po valley. The long ridge
descending from Mkhar rtse is the khyung’s body and the escarpments flanking it, the mythical bird’s outstretched wings. All
buildings at the site have random-work or adobe-block walls and appear to have been built with timber roofs.
There are over 250 caves at Khyung lung yul smad, most of which exhibit clear signs of occupation in the form of façades,
plastering, and domed and oblong niches and bays. These caves were either cut into the gravel and cobble conglomerate
formations or existing natural caves modified for occupation. A significant number of the caves had small buildings consisting
of one or two anterooms erected in front of them. Some of the caves are no longer accessible due to the shearing and collapse
of various parts of the parent material. The majority of caves are between 9 m² and 20 m² in floor area. The largest cave recorded
measures 5 m x 6 m. Typically there is a large recess or bay in the center of the rear wall, opposite the entrance. Small niches
often flank this concavity in the wall. Where there are hearths, they are often set in front of the rear bay. Many of the caves have
arched entranceways cut into the escarpments. The tops of some of these arches terminate in key-hole-like extensions. These
pointed upper slots in the entrances are sometimes connected to a groove carved into the ceiling of caves, which functioned to
allow smoke to efficiently escape from the interior. These internal architectural features of the Khyung lung caves are reproduced
throughout Gu ge, wherever there are analogous geological formations.
The uniformity in the design of cave entrances and wall recesses in Gu ge reflect a regional architectural tradition that persisted
over a very long period of time. From a survey of sites, it is clear that this type of cave was used in both the prehistoric and
historic epochs. The precise function of the recesses and niches may have varied according to the occupational status of the
occupant and period of occupancy. In addition to use by anchorites immersed in religious practice, it appears that such caves
comprised the habitations of a wider spectrum of archaic society. The groups of caves in Yul smad (and Yul stod) are likely to
have formed the original nucleus of settlement in Khyung lung.
Caves at Yul smad are arrayed as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Right wing of the khyung – approximately 35 caves
Body of the khyung – approximately 150 caves
Left wing of the khyung – approximately 50 caves.
mkhar-rtse – approximately 18 caves
Oral tradition
Native villagers report that most caves, the lower ruins and the Mkhar rtse summit complex of Yul smad were abandoned before
living memory. The monastery of Khyung lung at mid-elevation, however, was partially active until the Communist period.
Local elders believe that the site was occupied by the Bonpo before devolving to the Buddhists. It is popularly said that the
population of Khyung lung was at one time so large that people from one side of the Glang chen gtsang po did not know everyone
residing on the opposite side of the river. In one legend the founding of Khyung lung is related as follows: In ancient times there
were three brothers in ya la (sp.?), a location in Khyung lung. The elder brother announced, “I am going to Spu rang.” The
middle brother said, “I am going to sha khog la (a Himalayan pass accessing Uttaranchal).” The youngest brother declared, “I
will settle in Khyung lung.”
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Site elements
Esplanade
On the rim of the esplanade (approximately 4450 m), overlooking the cave complexes, a retaining wall, approximately 40 m in
length, surrounds a prayer flag mast. The age and original function of this structure is not clear. The design of the wall could
possibly reflect that of a revetment for the support of buildings, but no such residual evidence for habitations is visible. The
prayer flag mast at this location serves as the shrine for the Khyung lung village Yul lha known as Spi’u (sp.?). Although all
elderly informants of Khyung lung agree on the name of the Yul lha, no lore about this deity appears to have been preserved.
On the other hand, the main protector (srung ma) of Khyung lung monastery is reported to be the goddess Dpal ldan lha mo.
mChod rten dgu pa
Near the bank of the Glang chen gtsang po, at the base of the escarpment containing the ruins and caves, there is a group of
mchod rten that local people indicate was already in a state of disrepair by the time of the Chinese Cultural Revolution. This
site is called Mchod rten dgu pa after the number of shrines found here. Several long ma ṇi walls with stone plaques inscribed
with Buddhist prayers are also found on the right bank of the Glang chen gtsang po. Some of the highly eroded plaques of the
ma ṇi mantra in lan tsha and dbu can scripts could possibly date to the second diffusion of Buddhism in Tibet. Other plaques
such as those with the name of Blo bzang grags pa date to the dge lugs pa occupation of Khyung lung. According to a local
myth, when a boulder was broken during the construction of a ma ṇi wall, located in the gully between the formations composing
the khyung’s right wing and body, a huge black serpent came forth and slithered away to Spu rang. It crossed the pass between
the Khyung lung valley and Rgya nyi ma, and that is why it is called Spu rang ’khyol (local variant of ’khyil; a twisting or
winding motion).
Lower building group
The main group of lower ruins is found in the gully situated below the right wing of the khyung. The constructional traits and
plans of the buildings located here shows that they were built with wooden roofs. Walls consist of profusely applied mud-mortared
random-rubble and are not of a high standard of workmanship, as is encountered in many Upper Tibet religious edifices
constructed in later historic times. Some of the walls are still tinted with ochre, indicating that they had a religious function.
These structures are arrayed on moderate slopes on each side of the gully, and cover an area of approximately 100 m x 20 m to
30 m. In some places the slopes have failed, engulfing ruined walls. In certain areas the walls of the gully contain strata with
significant bone and charcoal remains. This is an indication of significant geomorphologic change to this area of Yul smad. It
appears that landslides engulfed entire zones of habitation. There are around 50 caves in the escarpment flanking the east side
of the gully (khyung’s body) and 35 caves on the west side (part of the right wing of the khyung). Many of these caves have
masonry façades and smoke blackened ceilings, clear indications that they were once inhabited.
Nag chung phug
Below Mkhar rtse is the cave of Nag chung phug, where the 8th century CE Bon saint Dran pa nam mkha’ meditated, or so
believe the monks of Gu ru gyam. It is also reported that the lama Khyung sprul nam mkha’ ’jigs med rdo rje (died 1956) stayed
here before founding Gu ru gyam, some 15 km up the Glang chen gtsang po. Khyung lung elders report that he spent two or
three years in Nag chung phug before going to Khu nu, in India. Nag chung phug is also known to local residents as g.yung
drung ’khyil ba. It has three compartments whose walls and floors are beautifully finished in mud plaster. The walls are painted
in black and red ochre and decorated with dots, scrolls and the rgya nag lcags ri border design but little of these motifs has
persisted. There are also faint traces of Buddhist frescos in one room of the cave. Recent Bonpo pilgrims have scrawled
counterclockwise swastikas on the cave wall, as well as the inscription, “a oṃ hum gyer spungs dran pa mu la nye le yo[d] hum
’du”, attesting to the tenure of Dran pa nam mkha’ in Nag chung phug. In a cave adjacent to Nag chung phug two commercial
labels dating to the early 20th century written in both Hindi and English were stuck to the walls. The legible English writing on
one of the labels reads: “Dharmaratna Kularatna, General Merchant, P. O. Gyantse, Tibet”.
Khyung’s body
It is about 160 m from the summit complex of Mkhar rtse to the old Buddhist monastery, situated on the opposite or south end
of the ridgeline that makes up the body of the khyung. In total, there are around 150 caves on the body of the geographic khyung.
On the top and west flank of this north-south oriented ridgeline are many smaller building remains and caves, some of which
have masonry fronts. The collapse of various sections of the slopes has partially buried structures in this sector as well, and
some caves are no longer accessible. In one cave near the ridgeline, several Buddhist lamas are depicted in relatively late frescos
of mediocre quality. In this cave there is also a Buddha figure with its face largely intact.
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Buddhist Monastery
The ruined monastery represents but a small fraction of the Buddhist presence that was once found at Khyung lung as evidenced
in the caves and ruins. It is reported that this dge lugs pa sect religious institution was destroyed and all its scriptures burnt
during the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Local villagers call this monastery dga’ ldan lha rtse. It is said to have been founded
by one of three brothers belonging to a lineage called Chos sku. The founder’s name is thought to be Mgon snang (sp.?). In
general, the ruins found below Mkhar rtse were rather crudely constructed. However, there is one lower wall at the old Khyung
lung monastery, which is of similar high quality as the south wall of the so-called Mkhar rtse fortress. In what was a protector
chapel (mgon khang) of the monastery a band of skulls painted on one wall is still extant. Wooden door frames and other
structural elements found in a few caves in the vicinity of the monastery suggest that they were more recently inhabited than
most others at the site.
Khyung lung mkhar rtse
According to elderly natives of Khyung lung, Khyung lung mkhar rtse was the abode of a line of kings. There are no signs of
heavy religious usage or religious monuments at Khyung lung mkhar rtse, indicating that it did not function as a monastery. It
is more likely to represent a high social-status residence of a chieftain or lama. There is no evidence of defensive outworks as
would normally be found if the facility had actually functioned as a military garrison. Local residents also report that at one
time a long passageway led from the ‘fortress’ to a secret water source. The site is said to be occupied by the protectress I phi
lha mo (Grandmother Goddess), one of three regional sister deities closely related to Dpal ldan lha mo.
All that remains of the original access trail to Khyung lung mkhar rtse is a narrow, highly exposed ledge. The fairly large
edifice was created as an integral facility, and was built in three tiers: upper/south, middle and lower/north. Generally aligned
in the cardinal directions, it measures 23 m x 24 m (its upper end is somewhat narrower). All walls inside the complex and most
exterior walls are made of light-colored adobe blocks (approximately 45 cm x 20 cm x 15 cm). Extant walls are 2 m to 4 m in
height. Mud plaster still clings to interior walls and to a lesser extent, to exterior walls. On some outer surfaces red ochre tinting
is discernable. Walls of this construction could only have supported a timber roof.
Khyung lung mkhar rtse is of historic origin (probably founded subsequent to the early historic period) rather than it being
the Khyung lung dngul mkhar of Zhang zhung fame. The most likely candidate for Khyung lung dngul mkhar is Mkhar gdong
(A-45), a now leveled stronghold near Gu ru gyam identified as such by Khyung sprul nam mkha’ ’jigs med rdo rje after
discovering a stone statue of the Bon saint Dran pa nam mkha’ at this site.78 Covering an area of 20,000 m², Mkhar gdong is
situated at the highly strategic juncture of the broad alpine valleys of Sgar and upper Spu rang and the canyon badlands of Gu
ge. Moreover, it is stunningly set above the confluence of four rivers and is in close proximity to Chu nag (C-121), the largest
burial grounds discovered to date in Upper Tibet.
A historic epoch origin for Khyung lung mkhar rtse is supported by the following factors:
1. The entire complex is only around 800 m² in area. This is far too small for a capital facility, and is dwarfed by the major
citadels of Upper Tibet.
2. It is located on a subsidiary summit below an esplanade, not on a high, isolated summit like most archaic citadels.
3. The site is in a deep-set isolated pocket of the Glang chen gtsang po valley. All major trade routes through the region
circumvent this area for higher and more open terrain (such as the Sgar valley and the Himalayan north slope tablelands).
The non-strategic location of the facility does not seem in keeping with a major early political center. Furthermore, the
siting of Mkhar rtse does not even permit it to convincingly control traffic through Khyung lung, leaving the three
agricultural pockets of the locale (upper: Mur ti, central: Ting mur, lower: Chu sbug) potentially vulnerable to outside
incursions.
4. The edifice was constructed in a style typically found in historic era buildings with open floor plans, high elevation
adobe-block walls and wooden rafters. Furthermore, the design of the wooden jambs and sills (ru bzhi) is of the type
found in Buddhist monasteries and other buildings throughout Tibet dating to the historic epoch. It seems likely that
this generic form of architecture developed after 1000 CE in Upper Tibet, as it is not encountered at archaic cultural
sites.
mkhar rtse upper tier
The north/upper tier of the edifice contains two large rooms or buildings. The west room is adjacent to cave P10 (see below).
The west room measures 7.8 m (north-south) x 6 m (east- west). On the north side of this room there is a recess in the formation
partitioned by a wall into two main parts. This recess (3. 2 m wide x 2.2 m deep x 1.6 m in height) was probably walled off
from the rest of the west room. The function of this nook is unknown. In the wall fragments around the mouth of this cavity, a
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piece of wood was used as a bonding structure between courses of stone. A 10-cm long iron spike protrudes from this piece of
wood. Most of the north and east walls of the east room integrate the natural formation in them. The east room has largely
collapsed and disappeared down the vertical slopes of the escarpment. Its approximate dimensions are 5 m x 5 m. In the rear of
the east room there is cave P11 (3.7 m x 3.3 m x 2. 2 m). The damaged entrance (1 m x 60 cm) to this cave is in an adobe-block
façade. Some brush is embedded in the wall above the entrance. On the southwest side of the cave there is a mud and stone
hearth with a single burner, as well as a berm around its feeding hole to catch ashes. Such hearths are still regularly used in
Tibet. This hearth having just a single burner suggests that it did not service many people. The ceiling of P11, like most other
caves, is smoke blackened. In the northeast wall of this cave there are three niches. The central niche is mud plastered and its
opening is formed by four adobe blocks, which were also plastered and then painted in red ochre. The east niche is also partially
plastered.
mkhar rtse middle tier
The middle tier is the largest portion of Mkhar rtse, occupying roughly 70% of its ground plan. On the west side of the middle
tier, against the north wall, is cave P12. This cave has an oval plan and measures 2.5 m across. The damaged entrance to the
cave is in the east, and its ceiling is about 1.5 m in height. Around the inner walls of P12 there are five rounded niches, the
central two of which are situated on top of one another. There was also an anteroom east of the cave (5.6 m x 2 m). East of this
anteroom there is an open-air walkway that runs west of the west room of the upper tier, and in between the east and west
sections of the middle tier. This walkway then descends below Mkhar rtse, skirting its south wall. Near the southeast corner of
the facility it cuts through the formation, creating a tunnel (4 m x 1.2 m x 1.6 m). In the middle tier, east of the corridor, there
are the remains of four small rooms laid out in a north-south row. East of this row of rooms there are two larger rooms extending
to the exterior east wall of the facility. In the north of these two east rooms there are three rear caves: P13, P14 and P15. They
lie directly below the upper tier east room. The smallest cave, P15, has an independent entrance. P13 is a square cave with
several oblong and two large rounded niches. The entrance to P13 (1.5 m x 80 cm) is situated west of P15. P13 has a 1.8-m
deep entrance that accesses a cave measuring 3.5 m x 3.5 m. The floor of P13 is heaped high with a vegetal substance that
resembles chaff. Village elders state that this came from grain imported from India. The entrance to P14 is found inside P13.
The south wall of P14 is composed of an adobe-block and stone façade wall.
The south room of the east middle tier has two windows in its south or exterior wall. These two rectangular windows were
constructed in typical Tibetan fashion with decorative wooden lintels (kha shing) and spacers (bab). These wooden elements
are in an excellent state of preservation. Rubble has filled the south room to the level of the windows. In the 3-m high wall
segment separating the east rooms of the middle tier from the row of four small rooms there is a large window (1.2 m x 60 cm).
The hewn timber over this window is 1 m in length. On the west side of the middle tier, below P12, there are the foundations
of three or four other rooms. Below them is what appears to have been a single small outbuilding. Under the revetment of this
ruined structure there is a large timber.
mkhar rtse lower tier
The stonework in the south wall of Mkhar rtse is among the most skillfully executed at Khyung lung yul smad. The exterior
south wall is a maximum of 8 m in height and much of it is still over 5 m high. The lower 4.5 m section of this wall is composed
of random-work. Copious amounts of mud-mortar were used in the joints between flat blocks, which are primarily 30 cm to 70
cm in length. This reddish mortar has a high gravel content. At the base of the south wall there are two entrances that accessed
the lower tier of Mkhar rtse. The west entrance opens to an area that has completely collapsed. The lintel of the west entrance
is comprised of four timbers, two hewn outer ones and two middle specimens in their natural, uncut form. These timbers are at
least 1.5 m in length. The east entrance (1.2 m x 55 cm) has a lintel made up of six timbers, five of which were dressed. The
east entrance also has a wooden jamb and sill. It accesses a small room (1.3 m x 2.6 m x 3 m). The ceiling is composed of
timbers above which small rounds were used to create tight-knit panels. In the rear of this forward room an entrance (1 m x 60
cm) accesses a second room (2.7 m x 2.4 x 1.8 m) cut into the formation. The function of these two sequestered rooms is not
known. In the interior south wall above the lower tier there is a socket-hole in which a floor joist of the middle tier was inserted.
An identical socket-hole is found in a high elevation wall fragment in another part of the middle level as well. A single fragment
of a round of wood, probably used for the roof, is still among the ruins.
mkhar rtse cave complex
Just north of the Mkhar rtse edifice there is a complex of at least ten caves that were hewn into the conglomerate formation.
Their regular walls and cut niches and bays indicate the creation of these caves through excavation. A 5.5-m long subterranean
passageway divides the caves into two groups (P1 to P7 and P8 to P10). These caves have blackened ceilings, ostensibly from
long years of occupation. The floors of most or all of these caves are finished in a mud- and clay-based coating.
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Cave P1
(2.8 m x 2.9 m x 1.7 m)
This northern-most cave has an arched west-facing entranceway (1.8 m x 80 cm), and a regular square plan. The interior
walls are mud plastered while the ceiling is not. Like most other inhabitable caves in the gu ge region, P1 has various niches
and recesses in the walls. The most notable example is found in the northeast wall. This 1.2-m wide, 70-cm deep bay starts 35
cm from the floor and extends to the ceiling. This recess was well finished with plaster and has a base of four graduated tiers.
Cave P2
(3.3 m x 3 m x 1.8 m)
Located immediately south of P1, this cave also has a west-facing arched entrance. In the east wall of the cave there is a
recess with the remains of a wooden lintel. Just above it light-colored coarse hand-woven woolen fabric is embedded in the
wall. This fabric appears to be part of the original construction of the cave, serving as a kind of lining.
Cave P3
(2.3 m 2.3 m)
Located immediately south of P2. The entrance is in the west, in an adobe-block façade. There is a wooden beam over the
threshold. The lower half of the cave walls is mud plastered.
Cave P4
(5.3 m x 1.4 m)
This was a forward cave flanking the fronts of P1 and P2. Its current dimensions are highly reduced, as much of its breadth
has eroded away. Virtually none of the ceiling remains.
Cave P5
(3 m x 3 m)
Located directly below P1 and P4. It has a square plan, and its entrance is 1.5 in height, 70 cm in width and 90 cm deep.
Caves P6 and P7
These two caves are situated below caves P1 to P5. Access to them is very difficult.
Caves P8, P9 and P10
These three west-facing caves form a line to the south of the 5.5-m long subterranean passageway. Shallow recesses were
roughly hewn into this passageway. To the east of this row of three small caves there are the remains of what were probably
two or three other caves.
mKhar rtse latrine
There is an elaborately built latrine in relatively good condition 3.5 m west of P6 and P7. It is 3 m high on the west, the side
overlooking the valley below. The privy hole and the privy pit opening in the base are intact. Such latrines are not encountered
at archaic residential sites.
Khyung’s left wing
There are about 50 caves located in this formation, particularly in a U-shaped offshoot. These caves face in the south, east and
west directions. Only two of the caves (west-facing) in this sector exhibit freestanding anterooms. One south-facing cave has
two chambers with three hearths. In the rear of this cave there is an altar or storage area that was plastered and painted red and
yellow. In the upper-most group of 10 caves known as Me tog gling (Flower Garden), I discovered a scrap of an entertainment
page from the Daily Mail of 1930s or 1940s vintage. It must have been brought here by traders and by implication they may
have found shelter in this cave. Two of the caves in this group have walls that were painted in red ochre, one of which also has
white blotches applied to it.
Bse khrab mtshams khang
Basic site data
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Site name: Bse khrab mtshams khang
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English Equivalent: Hardened Leather Cuirass Meditation House
Site number: B-17
Site typology: I.2a
Elevation: 4730 m
Survey date: April 14, 15, 2001
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Prayer flags.
Bse khrab mtshams khang is named after the well-known rnying ma protective deity (srung ma). The all-stone residential
structure of Bse khrab mtshams khang has been reduced to crumbling walls. It sits on a broad sandy slope above Rta ra dgon
pa, a small rnying ma monastery. The well-drained site faces east and overlooks a large marshy basin formed by various branches
of the Tshwa chu river. This area constitutes an important pastoral resource in the Bar yangs region. The exact plan of Bse khrab
mtshams khang is no longer evident. The approximate maximum dimensions of the edifice are 14.5 m x 8 m. Wall fragments
up to 2 m in height have endured. There appears to have been at least eight small rooms in this dry-mortar (?), random-rubble
structure. Fortunately, one of these rooms has survived with its corbelled stone roof largely intact (3 m x 1 m x 1.5 m).
Oral tradition
According to the residents of nearby Rta ra monastery, rnying ma pa meditators used Bse khrab mtshams khang for many
centuries. It is said that six meditation cells in the edifice were intact until the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Much of the structure
was then dismantled to construct livestock pens on the site. These corrals have fallen out of use and many of the stones have
been carried off.
Site elements
Outlying structures
There are reported to have been many ancient walls in the vicinity of Bse khrab mtshams khang and Rta ra dgon pa. Since the
late 1980s, however, the rebuilding of ma ṇi walls and the wholesale removal of stones by truck has eradicated many of these
structures. West of Bse khrab mtshams khang on a small sandy plateau there is a poorly preserved foundation (7 m x 11 m) (31º
10.3΄ N. lat. / 83º 36.3΄ E. long / 4750 m). There are at least eight other crumbling superficial structures 45 m to the northwest
of this foundation, which extend over a 100-m transection. These dissolving walls resemble the superstructures of tombs. Stones
up to 1 m in length were used in their construction. One hundred meters to the northeast of these wall footings there is a remnant
of a slab wall. There are just a few upright slabs in situ, the largest of which is 60 cm in length (it protrudes 15 cm above ground
level). Continuing in a northeast direction for another 28 m there is a double-course slab wall segment (6 m long). The two lines
of slabs are spaced about 70 cm apart. The largest stone in this slab wall is 80 cm in length and sticks as much as 35 cm out of
the ground. Just south of Rta ra dgon pa there are the remains of what appears to have been another slab grave. The largest in
situ slab in this structure is 70 cm in length and it projects 50 cm above the surface.
rTa ra dgon pa
According to the late head of Rta ra dgon pa (Horse Corral Monastery), Mi nyag pad ma dbang rgyal rin po che (died in his
eighties in 2002), it was named after a large horse corral that the epic hero Gling ge sar built at the site. Ge sar is said to have
come to the region to battle his adversary Stag gzig nor gyi rgyal po. Ge sar is also supposed to have founded the monastery
around 900 years ago and to have resided here for sometime. To support his assertion, mi nyag pad ma dbang rgyal cites bdud
‘joms rin po che’s (‘jigs bral ye shes rdo rje) Gsung bum, where it states that Ge sar was active during the second rab byung
(1087-1147 CE).79 Later, the great architect Thang tong rgyal po (15th century CE) is thought to have founded an assembly hall
(’dus khang) of 12 pillars on the site. This structure stood until circa 1943 when it was destroyed by a marauding band of Kazaks.
Unfortunately, a registry (dkar chag) containing valuable information about the monastery was destroyed in the Chinese Cultural
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‘jigs bral ye shes rdo rje, Bdud 'joms 'jigs bral ye shes rdo rje'i gsung 'bum dam chos rin chen nor bu'i bang mdzod (Kalimpong: Ḍupjung ḷama. 1979-1985),
vol. ka, no. 824
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Revolution. After the Kazak attack a lama called Shangs rin po che built a smaller temple at the site, which survived until the
Chinese Cultural Revolution. In 1989, after returning from exile in Dol po, mi nyag pad ma dbang rgyal rebuilt the current
monastery on the same site as the old assembly hall. The presence of what appear to be slab graves as well as the archaic
architectural style of Bse khrab mtshams khang illustrate that the highly desirable Rta ra site has been occupied since ancient
times. The localized Ge sar epic tale preserves this fact in a distorted or allegorical fashion.
Affiliated sites
rKyang bum rdzong
South of the Yar lung gtsang po river in Hor pa township there is a later historic era fortress known as Rkyang bum rdzong (30°
04. 44΄ N. lat. / 83° 01. 48΄ E. long.). According to some local sources, this fortress is so named because its protective deities
appeared as 100,000 stampeding onagers to defeat the Gorkha enemy of the late 18th century CE. It is also reported that Rkyang
bum rdzong was associated with the Sing pa of the cis-Himalaya. This rammed-earth facility was established on the top of a
pyramidal hill rising 40 m above the broad Yar lung gtsang po valley. The site has three main complexes: north (11 m x 8 m)
central (7 m x 12 m) and east (11 m x 21 m). There are also ruined mchod rten and inscribed plaques at Rkyang bum rdzong.
Significant amounts of timber fragments litter the site.
Stag rong mtshams khang
Basic site data
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Site name: Stag rong mtshams khang
English equivalent: Tiger Gorge Meditation House
Site number: B-19
Site typology: I.2a
Administrative location: Skyed lag
Administrative location: ’Brong pa
Stag rong mtshams khang, situated high above the right/west side of the Stag rong gorge, is a highly obscure monument consisting
of three all-stone corbelled structures (rdo khang) in an advanced state of decay. This particular locale is called sa lhas, a
boulder-strewn grassy slope. The remaining corbels, ground plans, constructional features, and semi-subterranean aspect of the
structures demonstrate that they had an all-stone composition.
Oral tradition
According to local ’brog pa, Stag rong mtshams khang was an ancient Bonpo place of meditation.
Site elements
All-stone corbelled structures
Upper rdo khang
The upper rdo khang has been utterly leveled. In close proximity there is a corral-like enclosure of significant age.
Middle rdo khang
The middle rdo khang is situated a few tens of meters from the upper rdo khang. The main part of the middle specimen has
parts of all four walls intact (3 m x 5 m). The rear wall was built at least 1 m into the slope upon which pieces of two corbels
rest. The middle rdo khang may have had an extension but this could not be determined with any exactitude.
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Lower rdo khang
The lower rdo khang is situated nearly 100 m downhill of the middle rdo khang. The main structure is set as much as 1.5 m
into the slope, clearly giving it a semi-subterranean aspect. On top of the rear wall several corbels are still in situ. There appear
to be structural extensions west of the main part of the lower rdo khang.
sTag rong
The narrow gorge and hot springs of Stag rong is still considered by local Buddhist ’brog pa to be a sacred site of the Bonpo.
According to the Bon Ti se’i dkar chag, Stag sna rong/Stag sna gling, was where the Zhang zhung king Stag sna gzi brjid had
his castle Stag sna dbal rdzong.80 It would appear by the description given in this account of Stag sna rong that, by being situated
at the foot of Spos ri ngad ldan (some 180 km to the west), an area larger than the single Stag rong valley is described in this
text. In the local sacred geographic tradition of Stag rong, the site is said to have been a stronghold of King Stag gzig nor gyi
rgyal po. He is said to have had two priests: A bong, the tiger lama, and Mi bong, the lama with the magic lasso. The river of
Stag rong passes under an area of geothermal activity. This geographic oddity is referred to as the self-formed bridge of King
Ge sar. The geomantic heart of the site is a high volume hot spring called Srin po snying chu. Pinnacles of mineral precipitates
thrown up by the hot springs represent the Bon deity Stag la me ’bar and his circle of 18 Dregs pa spirits. Other light and dark
pinnacles called Las dkar nag (White and Black Destiny) represent heaven and hell. There are also ‘palaces’ of the lha, Gnyan
and klu, vertically arrayed to reflect the characteristic placement of these deities in the sky, earth and underworld realms of the
tripartite universe (srid gsum/srid pa gsum).
Zhabs dkar sgrub phug
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Site name: Zhabs dkar sgrub phug
English equivalent: Meditation Cave of zhabs dkar
Site number: B-20
Site typology: I.2a
Elevation: 4900 m
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Scattered plaques with ma ṇi mantras.
Zhabs dkar sgrub phug is an important complex of all-stone corbelled structures (rdo khang) representing an archaic religious
center (gsas khang/gsas mkhar). Its name therefore is somewhat of a misnomer, for rather than a meditation cave or small retreat
house this was a large residential facility. Zhabs dkar sgrub phug is now disused and does not appear to have had much usage
even in the pre-modern period. The facility is situated on a rocky bench poised 50 m above the Rdzong chu valley, on the west
side of the Ti se pilgrim’s circuit (skor lam). Zhabs dkar sgrub phug is found approximately 500 m west of Rdzu ’phrul monastery,
on the opposite side of the Rdzong chu from the mountain known as ye shes khyung ri. This is one of at least nine gsas khang
sites (also B-9, B-10, B-21, B-22, B-33, B-41, B-42, and B-113) around Gangs rin po che, representing a very significant early
cultural presence at the celebrated sacred mountain. The edifices of Zhabs dkar sgrub phug exhibit archaic traits common to the
rdo khang typology such as:
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All-stone roof and random-rubble walls.
Small irregularly shaped rooms laid out in a decentralized plan.
Small entranceways and windowless walls.
The integration of natural boulders and ledges into the structures.
Low elevation structures.
A semi-subterranean dimension.
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7. A lofty aspect well above the valley floor.
Oral tradition
According to the monks of Rdzu ’phrul phug and elderly natives of Mount Ti se (gangs ri ba), Zhabs dkar sgrub phug is the
site where the renowned rnying ma lama Zhabs dkar po tshogs drug rang grol (1781-1851 CE) spent time in meditation.
Site elements
Zhabs dkar sgrub phug main edifice
The Zhabs dkar sgrub phug main edifice contains around 20 small-scale rooms as well as several dependencies. Such a facility
could potentially have been the refuge of several tens of inhabitants. The main edifice measures 11.5 m (north-south) x 26 m
(east-west), roughly equivalent in size to the modern monastic complex of Rdzu ’phrul phug. Partially dressed variable-sized
stones (primarily between 10 cm and 70 cm long) were used in construction. Most walls were mud mortared but some also
appear to be of the dry-mortar variety. In one wall towards the middle of the main edifice, near the primary south-facing
entranceway, chink-stones were inserted into the wall joints, a construction technique common in historical era buildings of
Central Tibet. Many of the walls of the main edifice still reach 1.8 m in height. The highest elevation wall (2.5 m) is the outer
southwest corner of the structure. The interior dimensions of most rooms range between 2.3 m x 1.7 m (4 m²) and 3.7 m x 3 m
(11 m²). The smallest room in the main edifice measures 1.8 m x 70 cm.
The rear of the main edifice was built into a ledge that helps to form the north wall. The rear portion of the structure contains
a single line of ten larger rooms aligned east-west. The third room from the west end of the main edifice (rampart R3) has part
of its stone roof intact. The longest in situ bridging stone is 1.3 m. R3 was partially divided into two sections, one of which has
three niches in the walls. The largest cubby-hole measures 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm. The other subdivision of R3 has the remains
of a hearth. The entrance to this room is largely complete (1.2 m x 70 cm). Both its lintel (1.1 m in length) and sill are in place.
R3 must have been used by Zhabs dkar for household chores. It is the only room at the site that is still in relatively good condition,
and this may point its refurbishment by the celebrated lama. The actual Zhabs dkar sgrub phug is located to the north or rear of
R3. This subterranean chamber is set about 1.7 m below its anteroom. A 70-cm wide stone stairway leads down to the small
chamber, which was probably the geomantic nexus of the ancient facility. This room is lined with masonry on three sides, while
its rear wall and roof are part of the formation into which it was built. Zhabs dkar sgrub phug proper contains a stone sleep
platform, and along the rear wall there is an altar with a niche for a ritual water vase (bum pa). This subterranean chamber
affords excellent shelter from the elements, but I venture to speculate that due to the archaic cultural origin of the site, it was
never particularly popular with Buddhist practitioners.
In front of the anteroom to Zhabs dkar sgrub phug there appears to have been a row of four small rooms running perpendicular
(north-south) to the rear line of ten rooms. What was the main entrance to main edifice is located in the south wall, east of the
row of four rooms. The forward or south wall east of this destroyed entrance structurally incorporates a natural wall of stone
into its construction. The east forward portion of the main edifice may have served as a courtyard. To the north of this open
space lie the six east rooms of the rear row. There also seems to have been two forward rooms on the east end of the main
edifice. A forward room on the west side of the edifice possesses an in situ corbel and bridging stone.
The dependencies
Below the west side of the forward wall of the main edifice there are other structural remains, which probably constituted two
or three rooms. They cover an area of 4.5 m (north-south) x 10 m (east-west). Three meters west of the rear west wall of the
main edifice there is an isolated building (2 m x 2 m x 1.5 m), with its corbelled stone roof still whole. Its entranceway (1.3 m
x 50 cm) lintel is still in place. There are two rooms inside this structure with a small doorway between them. In the rear room
there are several niches in the walls. Several meters east of the east wall of the main edifice there are the faint remains of another
small building (4.5 m x 2 m). About 10 m above the main edifice there are fractional foundations clinging to the side of a cliff.
They seem to have given rise to two buildings approximately measuring 6 m x 8 m and 8.5 m x 4 m. In the latter structure the
forward/south wall reaches 2 m in height.
Proximate sites
In close proximity to the wrecked gsas khang complex there is a site called Zhabs dkar dur khrod, a sky burial ground comprised
of naturally occurring horizontal slabs of rocks, said to be in the form of a swastika. Nearby is the ruined Zhabs dkar mchod
rten (built by Zhabs dkar himself?).
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rDzu ’phrul phug (Cave of Miracles)
The ’brug pa bka’ brgyud monastery of Rdzu ’phrul phug enshrines a cave that is believed to have been used by the well-known
Buddhist ascetic Mi la ras pa (1040-1123 CE). In front of the cave there are two stone members that are believed to have figured
in a famous magical contest, which well-known Buddhist accounts claim was held between Mi la ras pa and a Bonpo named
Na ro bon chung. Moreover, some monks say that Mi la ras pa used these stones as his walking stick. These stones members
were broken during the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Three more stone members from this apocryphal contest are propped up
at the monastery’s main prayer flag mast. These stones are a maximum of 1.3 m in length. They are of the type commonly found
at archaic all-stone building sites throughout Upper Tibet, which functioned as corbels and bridging stones. Their legendary
pedigree and proximity to the so-called Zhabs dkar sgrub phug suggest that originally they were architectural elements belonging
to this monument.
I am inclined to see the magical contest between the Bonpo and Buddhist as an allegory for a wider scale political and cultural
conflict between the two religions, which played itself out all over Upper Tibet, circa 1000 to 1200 CE. According to Bon
tradition, rdzu phrul phug was under their custody in early times. As one of the key sacred sites around the Mount Ti se pilgrim’s
circuit, its control would have been crucial in the subjugation of the region’s Bonpo and the consequent Buddhist requisition
of the holy mountain. The existence of a major gsas khang in the same vicinity, which almost certainly was founded before
1000 CE as an archaic cultural facility, reinforces the historical significance of this location.
Bon historical notions regarding the significance of Rdzu ’phrul phug and the antiquity of their tenure at the site are noted
in a commentary to Dkar ru grub dbang’s 19th century CE Ti se’i dkar chag:
rdzul ’phrul phug monastery: In very early times the cave of this monastery was established by Ston pa [Gshen rab], thus it is
renowned as the Cave of Miracles monastery. Later, since the excellent Rje btsun mi la ras pa, there were always religious practitioners
there. From the original cave a monastery gradually developed and was named Cave of Miracles.
The Ti se’i dkar chag itself has this to say about the site:
The omniscient Ston pa[Gshen rab], the chief, and his circle, visited in person the miraculous mountain called Rdzu ’phrul phug.
They then went on foot to the eight-spoked wheel crystal formation. Through their sorcery the armies of the black bdud and srin of
Nyang collapsed all the mountain formations. The stones rained down on the body of Ston pa. At that instant, the radiance of Ston
pa’s mind manifested the lha, klu and humans [in the form] of great powerful strongmen (gyad). The klu laid down the foundation
(it is [now] said that it was laid by Mi la ras pa). The human [strongmen] raised the sides. The lha erected the roof and the secret
miraculous cave appeared [to shelter ston pa gshen rab]. [Here] there are clearly visible body-prints of Ston pa, the footprints of the
Khye’u chung and the handprints of the great powerful strongmen. ([Now] it is said that these are Rgod tshang pa’s). At present
[this site] is renowned as Rdzu ’phrul phug.
Sman bla pho brang
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Site name: Sman bla pho brang (South)
English equivalent: Medicine Buddha Palace
Site number: B-21
Site typology: I.2a
Sman bla pho brang (South) is simply named for the Sangs rgyas sman bla pho brang mountain on which it reposes. It is located
1 km up the Stobs chen valley from its confluence with the Rdzong chu. The site has long views all the way to the bar ka plain,
south of Ti se. The extent of the structural remains located at Sman bla pho brang (South) indicates that this residential site was
larger than any of the contemporary Buddhist monasteries at Mount Ti se. The three all-stone complexes of Sman bla pho brang
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(South) represent a very important nucleus of early settlement at Ti se. They are likely to represent an archaic religious center
of the gsas khang/gsas mkhar class. These three complexes are situated 90 m to 170 m above the right side of the valley floor.
Their lofty location, all-stone corbelled construction and other constructional features identify them as belonging to the archaic
cultural horizon. The three complexes are designated as east, west and upper. All three have a southern aspect. The east complex
and west complex were built on rocky gra ma brush-covered slopes. The random-work, 50-cm- to 80-cm-thick walls appear to
have been both mortared lightly with mud and of the dry-mortar variety. The blocks were partly hewn into shape, and are
primarily between 30 cm and 1 m in length. Roof appurtenances are mainly 1 m to 1.5 m in length. Despite there being a heap
of old ma ṇi plaques around the base of what appears to be a ruined mchod rten some distance from the east complex, the Sman
bla pho brang (South) site seems to have been the object of very little Buddhist activity.
Oral tradition
None was obtained.
Site elements
East complex
Main edifice
The large main edifice of the east complex is set on a 15° slope next to a ravine, and measures 16.5 m (north-south, in line with
the slope gradient) x 21 m (east-west, lateral slope direction). It was built in four main elevations: lower tier, lower-middle tier,
upper-middle tier, and upper tier (5030 m). Corbels and bridging stones lie scattered around the site and farther afield.
The lowest or most forward foundation wall of the main edifice is well aligned in the cardinal directions, and other walls
more or less follow this orientation. The 3.5-m wide lower tier of the structure may only have consisted of a retaining wall and
not a superstructure, but little structural evidence is left to appraise.
The middle tier of the main edifice is approximately 6 m wide. The east half of this level of the structure appears to have
consisted of a walled courtyard. The east-facing entranceway to the east half of the middle tier opens onto this courtyard. This
appears to have been the main entrance of the main edifice. This entryway measures at least 1.2 m high x 70 cm. Located in a
2.3-m high wall segment, the lintel over this entrance is in situ. It accesses an axial corridor with lower-middle tier rooms set
on both its north and south sides. Outside the main entrance there seem to be the remains of another room that appears to have
had an independent entrance. On the north side of the medial corridor there is a room largely filled with rubble (1.5 m x 1.2 m).
There were two or three niches built into the walls of this room. The lintel and roof of this north room have endured; the doorway
accessing it is typically small. From the central corridor there is a 1-m long aisle that runs perpendicular (south-north), which
accesses one or two rooms set on the south side of the lower-middle tier. The walls around these rooms are very fragmentary.
From these forward lower-middle tier rooms there is access to a rear lower-middle tier room, which has a largely intact roof.
The internal dimensions of this irregularly shaped room are 1.3 m x 2 m. None of these lower-middle tier rooms extend as far
as the external west wall of the gsas khang. The upper-middle tier rooms are also reached via the central corridor. Above the
entire lower-middle tier and axial corridor, and extending to the exterior west wall of the main edifice, there were probably
seven or eight small rooms in total, however, most partitions between them have been destroyed. The upper-middle tier covers
approximately 50 m².
The upper tier of the main edifice appears to have consisted of three relatively large rooms with an east-west orientation. In
addition, there is another room to the rear of the central room. This rear central room (2 m x 1.3 m) has a large central niche.
Not including their exterior walls, the row of three rooms measures 6.7 m x 2.4 m. Internally, walls still reach a height of 2 m.
A lone roof slab over the central room is in place as is one corbel on the rear wall of the east room. A large boulder is integrated
into the exterior west wall.
Adjacent to these upper tier rooms there is a relatively large room to the east, which has an independent entrance. It has
interior dimensions of 3.2 m x 2 m (not including the entrance area) and exterior dimensions of 4 m x 4.5 m; these relative
proportions convey the general massiveness of the gsas khang walls. The roof over the west half of this independent upper tier
structure has survived. It is of typical construction: stone beams run diagonally over the corners of the walls, upon which
transverse bridging stones were laid. This understructure supports the roof slabs. There are also large corbels protruding from
the east half of the rear wall as load-bearing structures. In the south wall there is a niche and possibly a small window below it.
This independent east room opens onto the middle tier room that probably had an independent entrance.
Outlying structures
Just above the main edifice of the east complex there are two walled level areas, the larger of which measures 13 m x 7 m. The
disintegrated walls of these enclosures have been reduced to 1 m or less in height. Their function is not known. The base of
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what appears to have been a mchod rten (3.7 m x 3.5 m) is located on the opposite side of the ravine from the main edifice. In
close proximity there is a highly degraded enclosure, measuring about 3.5 m across. Approximately 15 m above these structures,
at the edge of a ledge, there are the remains of what appears to have been a later historic period retreat house (3.5 m x 5 m).
Upper edifice
The upper edifice is comprised of a single rdo khang built on a shelf against a cliff (5080 m). It measures 9 m (east-west) x 8
m (north-south). Roof members are strewn around the site; clearly this was an all-stone structure. This building consists of two
rows of cells: a forward/lower tier and a rear/upper tier.
The lower row of compartments in the upper edifice is highly degraded, but on the east end of the structure small sections
of the roof have survived on top of collapsed walls. The lower row of rooms does not appear to have extended as far west as
those of the upper tier.
An 80-cm thick wall separates the lower tier from the upper tier of the upper edifice. Between this wall and the upper row
of three rooms there is an 80-cm wide axial passageway, which runs the entire east-west breadth of the upper edifice. This
passageway is situated at the same elevation as the upper tier compartments. It was roofed as evidenced by a single bridging
stone spanning the corridor at the juncture of the west and central rooms. The three rooms of the upper tier have intact roofs
and entranceways. The rear of these three rooms was built into the adjoining cliff and their roof is flush with the level of the
uphill slope, according them a semi-subterranean aspect. The exterior west wall at 2.5 m is the highest elevation structure extant
in the upper edifice. The interior dimensions of the west room are 1.9 m x 1.1 m x 1.8 m. There is a niche in the forward wall
and an aperture (35 cm x 45 cm) in the side wall that opens to the central room. The entranceway to the west room (1.3 m x 60
cm) is partially blocked by debris. The central room (2 m x 1.4 m x 1.8 m) has an entranceway at least 1 m in height and 70 cm
in width (it is also obstructed by debris). There is an internal opening (45 cm x 45 cm) between the central and east rooms. In
the east room (2.6 m x 2 m x 2 m) there are the remains of a hearth against the rear wall, as well as a niche in this wall. In the
east wall there is a shallow, floor-to-ceiling alcove with stone shelving. There is also a stone structure of unknown function
extending from the alcove to the middle of the room. The entranceway to the east room is 70 cm wide; its height is unclear due
to obstructions.
West complex
Several hundreds of meters to the west of the east complex of Sman bla pho brang (South) there are the vestiges of eight buildings
(residential structures RS1 to RS8), which comprise the west complex of the site (4980 m to 5000 m). This complex is composed
of smaller rdo khang established on a gra ma-blanketed shelf. The buildings vary about 20 m in elevation (the west end is
lower). The individual structures are numbered below as they appear from east to west.
Residential structure RS1 measures 6 m (east-west) x 4 m (north-south). It appears to have been a single house, which is now
reduced to footings and dissolving walls, 1 m or less in height.
Residential structure RS2 measures 6 m (east-west) x 4 m (north-south) and is situated in close proximity to RS1, at 10 m lower
elevation. Its fragmentary walls have been reduced to 1 m or less in height. Part of the wall that divided the structure into two
parts is visible. There is one in situ corbel on the upper/north wall.
Residential structure RS3 measures 5 m (east-west) x 4 m (north-south), and is situated 9.5 m west of RS2. The walls of this
structure are fragmentary. A niche and a corbel have survived in place in the north wall.
Residential structure RS4 measures 9 m (east-west) x 6 m (north-south), and is situated 3.5 m west of RS3. The east half of the
building may have consisted of an open courtyard. The west half of the structure was partitioned into three rooms: north, central
and south. Most of the walls in the south room have been destroyed. On its best preserved north wall four corbels and one small
bridging stone are still in place in the south room. The central room has wall segments up to 1 m in height and one surviving
corbel. The rear wall of the north room is up to 1.5 m in height and has two corbels resting in place.
Residential structure RS5 measures 8.5 m (east-west) x 5.5 m (north-south), and is situated 17 m west of RS4, at a slightly lower
elevation. Its crumbling walls reach 1.5 m in height. One in situ corbel is found on the west wall and one on the north wall. At
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the southeast corner of the building a relatively large room has endured with much of its roof intact (2.5 m x 2.5 m). Its entrance
measures 80 cm x 50 cm.
Residential structure RS6 measures 6 m (east-west) x 4 m (north-south), and is found 10 m west of RS5. It boasts three in situ
corbels on the east wall and three on the north wall. A large conglomerate boulder was integrated into the north wall, and a deep
recess is found under its west side.
Residential structure RS7 measures 8 m (east-west) x 9 m (north-south), and is located 16 m southwest of RS6, at approximately
7 m lower elevation. This building is divided into three tiers: lower, central and upper. The lower or south tier was probably a
courtyard; its entrance is in the southeast corner. The central tier probably consisted of a row of rooms but virtually nothing
remains. The upper tier is comprised of two rooms with a semi-subterranean aspect. The upper tier west room has two niches
and two corbels still in place in the north wall or upslope wall. The exterior west wall of the upper tier west room reaches 2 m
in height. Its floor-to-ceiling height is around 1.5 m. The roof and entranceway (1 m x 50 cm) of the upper tier east room are
well preserved. The room is partially divided by a wall buttressing the roof. The total length of the upper tier east room is 4 m.
From its entrance a smaller 1.4-m wide outer section is accessed; this leads to the larger rear part of the room (1.8 m wide).
Residential structure RS8 measures approximately 6 m x 6.5 m and is situated 21 m west of RS7, at a slightly lower elevation.
The walls of this structure are largely dissolved. The west wall straddles naturally occurring conglomerate boulders.
Ras chen phug
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Site name: Ras chen phug and Gnyan po ri rdzong
English equivalent: Mighty Mountain Fortress
Alternative site name: Myang po ri rdzong
Site number: B-22
Site typology: I.2a
Contemporary usage: Ras chen phug is a Buddhist pilgrimage site.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Ras chen phug has various religious accoutrements. Gnyan po ri rdzong is festooned
with minimum prayer flags.
Two lofty all-stone complexes known as Ras chen phug and Gnyan po ri rdzong are found upwards of 150 m above Chos sku
monastery, and some 230 m above the Lha chu valley. These two facilities were established on rocky shelves suspended in the
mostly vertical slopes of the mountain known as Gangs ri lha btsan pho brang. Located on the opposite side of the Lha chu from
Ti se, this rugged formation is popularly known as the dwelling place of Gangs ri lha btsan, the fierce protector of the Gangs
rin po che pilgrimage center. A deep couloir separates the Ras chen phug and Gnyan po ri rdzong sites. These facilities probably
represent religious centers of the gsas khang/gsas mkhar class.
Ras chen phug and Gnyan po ri rdzong have the typical design and constructional characteristics of the all-stone edifices
known as rdo khang. These structures have random-rubble walls composed of cut stone blocks primarily 30 cm to 70 cm in
length. A minimal amount of mud-mortar was used to cement the joints of some walls while other walls appear to be of the
dry-stone variety. These walls generally exhibit much higher quality stonework than that found in the Buddhist monastic facilities
of Chos sku, situated directly below the site. The presence of these important residential monuments helps to establish the
cultural prominence of Ti se during the prehistoric epoch and/or early historic period. Unlike the Buddhist monastery of Chos
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sku, the placements of Ras chen phug and Gnyan po ri rdzong were chosen for their inherent strategic qualities. It can be readily
imagined that the entire Lha chu valley was once controlled from this point.
Oral tradition
Local sources state that Ras chen phug and Gnyan po ri rdzong are Buddhist religious complexes that once also hosted Bonpo.
The Bonpo ecclesiastic presence is now symbolically relegated to a small cave on the opposite side of the Lha chu valley. The
local oral tradition acknowledges that the two facilities devolved to the Buddhists after 1000 CE.
Site elements
Ras chen phug
On the west side of the couloir that plunges down the steep flanks of Gangs ri lha btsan pho brang is the so-called Ras chen
phug (8 m x 13 m). Rather than a cave or small retreat house, this facility was actually a high social status building belonging
to the archaic religious milieu of Upper Tibet. A few cairns (la btsas) and prayer flags (rlung rta) are found at the site. According
to the tradition preserved by the monks of Chos sku monastery, Mi la ras pa (1040-1123 CE) and/or his disciple Ras chung ba
rdo rje grags (1084-1161 CE) meditated at Ras chen phug, explaining why it is a Buddhist pilgrimage place, albeit of minor
importance. Whether this tradition is apocryphal or not, it nicely illustrates the way in which archaic cultural assets were shorn
of their original identity and function and invested with Buddhist meaning and legitimacy.
The well-built edifice of Ras chen phug has walls up to 1 m thick, which are not aligned in the cardinal directions. The
well-cut roof members strewn about the site reach 1.5 m in length. This building contained two main tiers of rooms: forward/south
and rear/north. The forward or south wall of the edifice is upwards of 2 m in height in the vicinity of where it affronts the two
rooms of the west portion of the forward tier. There is also a southwest wing (2.5 m x 2.3 m) in Ras chen phug, which consists
of one or two ruined rooms. There is still a lone corbel in position on the rear wall and one on the southwest wall of the southwest
wing. East of the southwest wing of Ras chen phug there is the 1.8-m wide central forward room, much of which has collapsed
upon itself. The east section of the forward tier (4.6 m x 2.4 m) of the edifice probably contained two rooms. Near the northeast
corner of Ras chen phug some corbels remain in situ.
The forward wall of the rear tier of Ras chen phug is 2 m in height, while its rear wall was built into the slope, thus giving
the structure a semi-subterranean aspect. The main entrances to the surviving rear tier of rooms is from the east forward section.
A south-facing entrance (1 m x 70 cm) opens to a fully intact room (1.6 m x 1.5 x 1.8 m), which now functions as a rudimentary
Buddhist shrine. Adjacent to the south-facing entrance is an east-facing entrance (1 m x 60 cm) with a 1.2 m long lintel still
intact. This entrance accesses a well-preserved separate suite of compartments. Entering inside Ras chen phug from this point,
a narrow 4.5-m long passageway makes four right angle turns to reach a relatively large room (3.2 m x 2.5 m x 1.3 m), set deep
inside the building. This room also functions as a Buddhist shrine. Rather than merely providing tortuous access to a single
room, the elaborate plan of the passageway, with its four turns and two small alcoves, may have been accorded with residential
or ritual functions. The short wall spans thus created also help to support the extremely heavy stone roof.
gNyan po ri rdzong
The probable gsas khang complex of Gnyan po ri rdzong is situated nearly 1 km east of Ras chen phug. This large installation
is perched on a slanting rock shelf that protrudes from the precipitous south flank of Gangs ri lha btsan. This magnificent location
before the south face of Mount Ti se is very inaccessible and defensible. There may have once been a spring supplying Gnyan
po ri rdzong with water but presently there are no signs of it. Gnyan po ri rdzong consists of the remains of seven buildings
rarely visited by pilgrims, and it is only marked by a small prayer flagpole. A tally of buildings and rooms of Gnyan po ri rdzong
suggests that when fully active this installation could have sheltered as many as 50 people. Worked stones up to 90 cm in length
are found in the walls, and tiny flat pieces of stones were frequently used to chink the joints between larger stones.
There are no Buddhist inscribed plaques or shrines at Gnyan po ri rdzong, so it seems likely that Buddhist reoccupation of
the site was largely symbolic. According to the monks of Chos sku monastery, Gnyan po ri rdzong was inhabited by the early
Bonpo and subsequently brought under Buddhist control by Mi la ras pa. The monks are under the impression that the bka’
brgyud pa physically occupied the site as part of their first religious center at Gangs ri lha btsan pho brang. Any such physical
occupation must have been relatively short-lived because no effort was made to establish permanent Buddhist monuments here.
Residential structure RS1 (7 m x 7 m) is situated near the top end of the site, and probably contained around six rooms split
between forward/south and rear/north tiers. Three large stone steps lead up to the east-facing entrance (1.3 m x 60 cm). In the
east wall (up to 2.5 m in height), north of the entrance, there appears to be a small window. The entranceway opens to a relatively
large forward east room (perhaps more than one room?) of which little remains. In addition to the forward east room, there is
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a very small room extending further east but very little of it survives. There are also two forward west rooms, the inner one of
which has an intact entranceway (90 cm x 50 cm). The wall between this inner west room and the rear tier east room is intact.
The entranceway (1 m x 50 cm) and roof of the rear tier west room (2 m x 1.6 m x 1.8 m) are intact. There are four niches built
into the south wall of this room. The rear tier central room has lost its roof. The rear tier east room is of a similar size to the rear
tier west room. Its roof is still partially in situ.
Residential structure RS2 is situated 13.5 m southwest or 10 m vertical below RS1. Very few traces of this structure have
survived, save for a 6-m long wall fragment a maximum of 2.4 m in height.
Residential structure RS3, the largest Rdo khang of the site, is located 22 m south of RS1, at roughly the same elevation as RS2.
It measures 13.5 m (east-west) x 9.8 m (north-south). Its forward or south rooms have been largely obliterated. The rear west
room is also highly fractional. The smaller of the two rear central rooms has its roof partly in place. There is a large niche in
the rear wall of the larger central room. A typically small entrance between these two rear central rooms has endured. There are
also two rear east rooms that share a common west-facing entrance (1.2 m x 70 cm). The combined length of the two rear east
rooms is 3.1 m (north-south) and the width of the rooms is 1.3 m and 1.6 m respectively. The stone roof of the narrower room
is in situ and the roof partially intact in the wider room. The floor-to-ceiling height of the two rear east rooms is around 1.8 m.
Two meters to 2.5 m west of RS3 there are the vestiges of a retaining wall built into the side of the couloir.
Residential structure RS4 is situated 8 m down slope of RS3. It measures 8 m (east-west) x 3.5 m (north-south). Only scant
structural fragments have persisted, the highest of which is 1.9 m.
Residential structure RS5 is found 15 m northeast of RS6, at the same elevation. This small building (6 m x 3.6 m) was built
against a rock, and contains a forward room and a rear room. On the partition wall between the two rooms there is one in situ
corbel.
Residential structure RS6 is located 12 m north of RS5 and 16 m east of RS1. It consisted of three tiers of rooms, and measures
10.4 m (east-west) x 5.2 m (north-south). The east side of the building has been mostly destroyed and most outer walls have
been reduced to rubble. In the southeast corner of the structure there are partition wall segments and one corbel in place. The
forward room of the west half of RS6 has been leveled to its wall-footings. The entranceway (1 m x 65 cm) between the forward
west room and forward central room has nonetheless endured. There is also another entrance on the east side of the forward
central room. Part of the roof over the forward central room has survived. In the middle tier central room there is a deep recess
in the west wall with the remnants of stone shelving. There is also a small window in the east wall and small bits of roofing
adhering to the walls of the rear central room. The total length of the two middle tier and rear tier central rooms is 5.4 m. An
entranceway (1.3 m x 50 cm) connects the middle tier central room to the one extant rear room (1.4 m x 1.9 m). The all-stone
roof is fully integrated in this backroom.
Residential structure RS7 is located 9 m north of RS1, at the highest point of the site (4990 m). This small structure was built
against a cliff and measures 4 m (east-west) x 2.5 m (north-south). Only parts of the outer south and west walls are left standing.
The east wall-footings are also in situ.
Lower rdo khang
On a ledge above Chos sku monastery there is yet another rdo khang (6 m x 5 m) (4930 m). The south or forward wall of this
structure has been mainly reduced to its wall-footings. Fragmentary walls still stand in the north portion of the building, and
there is one in situ corbel resting on the 1.7-m high northeast corner. In the couloir, at nearly the same elevation as the lower
rdo khang, there is a cave in each of the two cliff faces that enclose it. The west cave has footings in front of it, which may have
supported an anteroom (5 m x 6 m). The west cave (6.5 m x 2 m) was partitioned by walls into two or three chambers.
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Affiliated sites
Chos sku monastery
The monks of Chos sku (4850 m) report that their monastery was founded circa 1250 CE by a disciple of Rgyal ba rgod tshang
pa named Sangs rgyas gnyan po. The current assembly hall (’dus khang) and protector chapel (btsan khang) were rebuilt in the
same place as their pre-modern predecessors. This ’brug pa bka’ brgyud monastery is renowned for its talking statue of Chos
sku ’phags pa, which was once a protector of the Buddhist kings of Gu ge. This sacred image is said to have been brought from
India to the monastery with the aid of the wily god Gangs ri lha btsan.
Extensive monastic ruins are found on the slopes below the Chos sku monastery. At this lower site there were at least one
dozen sizable buildings and a number of smaller ones as well. The size of the rooms and characteristic constructional features
of the structures demonstrate that most if not all were made with timber roofs. In aggregate, these ruins constitute a much larger
monumental presence than that of the contemporary monastery. These lower structures are somewhat susceptible to rockslides
originating from the couloir above and this may have had something to do with their abandonment. Cultural luminaries such as
Shes rab bzang po (the head lama of sag thil monastery in Sger rtse) report that a large contingent of monks inhabited these
ruins some 800 years ago. The monks of Chos sku say that the 19th century CE lama Pad ma bde rgyal reoccupied some of the
structures below their monastery with his many followers.
Also below Chos sku monastery there are a series of caves in the cliffs, the most famous of which is Glang chen phug
(Elephant Cave). Gu ru rin po che is supposed to have meditated in this cave. Glang chen phug is 6 m in length and has several
collateral chambers. Two other caves in the vicinity associated with Gu ru rin po che are Chos phug (Buddhism Cave) and Pad
ma phug (Lotus Cave). Another cave, Khyung phug (located below the Gu ru sgrub chu spring), is thought to have a self-formed
khyung (horned eagle) on the ceiling.
Jo mo ri rang
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Site name: Jo mo ri rang
Site number: B-23
Site typology: I.2a
Survey date: April 30, 2001 and October 25, 2002
The three rdo khang of Jo mo ri rang are found on steep gra ma-studded slopes, on the opposite side of the valley from Jo mo
ri rang mkhar (A-54). This lower site is much less protected and more open than that of the castle. The edifices were built in
the ordinary fashion of all-stone corbelled edifices. They have robust random-rubble walls that were either constructed with a
minimum of mud-mortar or with no mortar at all. Mostly slabs of variable length (20 cm to 1 m long) were used to build the
structures. Well-formed dark gray roof appurtenances were employed in construction as they were in the Jo mo ri rang mkhar.
The three buildings of Jo mo ri rang are designated: upper, middle and lower.
Oral tradition
None was collected.
Site elements
Upper rdo khang
The upper rdo khang is the largest at the site and measures 8.6 m (north-south) x 6.4 m (east-west). This edifice is divided into
four main sections and contained around seven rooms. The stone roof of the northeast room is partly intact and has in situ
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bridging stones up to 1.9 m in length. The floor-to-ceiling height of the northeast room is about 1.7 m. There are two niches in
its north wall. The northeast room has two entrances that still have their lintels in place: southwest and southeast (both 1.2 m x
65 cm). Three and a half meters above the upper rdo khang there is what appears to have been the base of a rten mkhar or some
other kind of shrine (2 m x 2 m x 2 m). Its interior has been gutted and its original shape and height are unclear.
Middle rdo khang
The middle rdo khang (7 m x 2.8 m) is situated 15 m downhill from the upper rdo khang. This structure contained at least two
rooms, but there may well have also been a lower or forward section that has been completely obliterated. In one of the rear
rooms there is an in situ bridging stone, 1.7 m in length.
Lower rdo khang
The lower rdo khang (8.5 m x 3.5 m) is situated 28 m downhill of the middle rdo khang. In addition to the extant structural
remains, there may have been a forward tier of rooms but the physical evidence left behind is inconclusive. A lintel over an
entranceway between two rear rooms has persisted in the otherwise poorly preserved remains.
Spyil bu dgon pa
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Site name: Spyil bu dgon pa
English equivalent: Hut monastery
Site number: B-24
Site typology: I.2a
Elevation: 4850 m
Survey date: April 30, 2001 and October 25, 2002
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Plaques with the ma ṇi mantra.
Spyil bu dgon pa consists of a single archaic style temple (gsas khang/gsas mkhar) built on gently sloping ground at the foot
of Mount Jo mo ri rang. This all-stone corbelled structure probably contained around eight rooms, and measures 5.3 m (east-west)
x 11 m (north-south). The rear or north side of the building has been heavily damaged by the construction of a now abandoned
7-m long corral. Despite there being roofing sections partially intact, Spyil bu dgon pa is highly deteriorated, precluding a
detailed assessment of its ground plan. The walls are made of random-work composed of variable-sized stones (mostly slabs,
10 cm to 70 cm in length). A light-colored clay-based mortar was used, most of which has leached out from the walls. Corbels
and bridging stones up to 1.9 m in length are scattered about the site.
Oral tradition
A tale circulates in the region concerning Spyil bu dgon pa: It was the residence of a lama named Sbrul rgyal (Serpent King).
This lama was a heavy beer (chang) drinker. He owned a magical chang container that always met his needs. Sbrul rgyal had
a woman servant named Jo mo (mistress/elder sister; the mountain Jo mo ri rang is supposed to have been named after her).
Sbrul rgyal gave her strict orders never to open the chang container. One day Jo mo was overcome with curiosity; she wanted
to know why the container provided the lama with an inexhaustible supply of chang. After much hesitation, she opened the
chang container and a serpent jumped out and slithered away to Spu rang, a land with much beer. The escape of the
wealth-bestowing snake caused Sbrul rgyal’s chang supply to run dry. That night because of her disobedience Jo mo rgyal died
and was turned into a walking corpse (ro lang). By touching Sbrul rgyal and his disciples while they slept, they also became
walking corpses. Spyil bu dgon pa is said to be still haunted by these ghosts and to be a dangerous place as a result. Although
the characters and happenings in this tale do not seem very Buddhist-like, paleographic evidence indicates that in the early
historic period this facility was in Buddhist hands. This is corroborated by Mkhas mchog rdo rje (born in the Iron Dog Year,
circa 1934) of Rtsa mda’, an individual knowledgeable in Bon history (he was a student of Khyung sprul rin po che in Mnga’
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ris for one year). He reports that the lama of Spyil bu dgon pa was named Sbrul chang, a rnying ma pa who attracted many
disciples around him. mkhas pa rdo rje adds that Sbrul chang was born in Khams a very long time ago.
The present incarnate lama of Mdun chu monastery reports that the first ’brug pa bka’ brgyud lama of Mdun chu also spent
time at Jo mo ri rang. The Mdun chu lama adds that in the time of the Fifth Dalai Lama, Mdun chu was converted into a dge
lugs pa institution.
Site elements
gSas khang
On the east side of the single structure some bridging stones and roof slabs are in situ, but the rooms underneath them have been
largely filled with rubble. At 2 m, the southeast corner of the edifice is the highest elevation portion of the edifice remaining.
In the south wall there is a 90-cm high opening overlaid with stone beams, which may have once been an entranceway but it is
now partially obstructed by rubble. There is also an entrance in the southwest extremity of the structure (1.1 m x 45 cm).
ma Ni stones
The carved ma ṇi plaques found at the site document two distinctive periods of Buddhist occupation. The presence of these two
styles of plaques confirms that the site has had a very long Buddhist tenure. The oldest plaques, which number 34, have dbu
can lettering directly engraved into the stones, while the later plaques are made by removing the layer of stone surrounding the
letters to create a relief carving. In the highly worn early plaques the letters are quite crudely executed and have a calligraphic
form known from early historic period inscriptions and texts: elementary and rather stilted. All but two of the early plaques
were made from a dark-colored stone. These older plaques rest on what appears to be the original shrine wall (8.5 m long, 50
cm thick and around 85 cm in height). This masonry wall is aligned in a north-south direction. Much of the southern extremity
of this clay-mortared wall has collapsed. In Upper Tibet, it is highly unusual to discover inscribed plaques of sufficient age to
have been carved during the first Buddhist diffusion (bstan pa snga dar).
Immediately north of the early ma ṇi wall there is a rectangular shrine (1.5 m x 1.5 m x 1.7 m), which is aligned in the cardinal
directions. A few ma ṇi stones rest upon the flat top of this rten mkhar type shrine. This ceremonial structure is entirely made
of random-rubble. On its south side there is a 90-cm deep hollow (35 cm x 45 cm), which must have been used to enshrine
sacred materials or phenomena. The top of the shrine is comprised of dark-colored stone beams like those found at the other
archaeological sites of Jo mo ri rang (A-54, B-23). The walls of Spyil bu dgon pa begin 3.8 m north of this shrine. The later
period ma ṇi stones are concentrated on their own rudimentary wall some distance away from the edifice.
Ri’u dgon pa
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Site name: Ri’u dgon pa 81
English equivalent: Little Mountain Monastery
Site number: B-25
Site typology: I.2a
Elevation: 4850 m
Administrative location (township): Dung ru
Survey date: May 28, 29, 2001 and October 25, 2002
Contemporary usage: Religious shrine and livestock holding area. Also a source of well-formed stones beams and slabs.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Walls with recently carved plaques of the ma ṇi mantra. These walls are found on
the east and west sides of the complex. A few large carved plaques rest on the roof of the main building. There is also
a reliquary mchod rten enshrined at the site. A prayer flag mast has been erected in one of the all-stone dependencies.
Maps: UTRS II
Sometimes am chung (Little Rock Formation), a hill in the vicinity of the the site, is appended to its name: Ri’u am chung dgon pa.
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Ri’u dgon pa is a monument of the utmost archaeological and historical importance. Ri’u dgon pa’s extreme isolation from
other residential sites adds to its cultural and geographic significance. While there is a string of archaic temples and citadels in
lower elevation western Ru thog, this is the only all-stone corbelled complex to be found on the lofty plains of northeastern Ru
thog. At one time, Ri’u dgon pa was clearly the premier religious facility in the region, illustrating that sedentary habitation
extended into this marginal physical environment (very high, cold and dry). This unique all-stone temple complex has architectural
features of both the Bon gsas khang and Buddhist dgon pa. The site is located at the base of a black ridge that is said by local
people to have the shape of a khyung (horned eagle). The monument consists of a large main temple (18 m x 13.5 m) and several
dependencies and mchod rten-like shrines, which overlook the confluence of three rivers (a rare geographic occurrence this far
north on the Plateau).
All structures are built in a uniform fashion, indicating that ri’u dgon pa was founded as an integrated facility. As such, the
various structures were probably constructed in the same general time period. There appears to be no structural evidence to
show that Ri’u dgon pa was ever modified or underwent major refurbishment. The implication of this may be that it had a
relatively short lifespan as a major religious center before devolving to individual meditators. The most notable constructional
feature of the facility is that it was built entirely of stone. Moreover, the quality of the stonework is exceptional. Ri’u dgon pa
exhibits Buddhist monastic design traits such as relatively large entrances, inner courtyards, shrine rooms in the west, and the
use of embellished doorjambs (ru bzhi), lintels and cornices (lithic equivalents of Tibetan architectural elements known as bab
and kha shing). On the other hand, the warren of small, irregularly shaped windowless rooms, semi-subterranean aspect and
corbelled roofs are design characteristics derived from the gsas khang religious architecture native to Upper Tibet. This
juxtaposition of the two major forms of Upper Tibetan temple construction may indicate that Ri’u dgon pa represents a transitional
architectural form. If this is indeed the case, a periodization to the early historic period is best indicated. This is the time period
in which native and Buddhist forms of religion and culture first encountered each other in far-reaching ways.
In recent years, the long stone members of Ri’u dgon pa have been hauled away wholesale in trucks for use at area ’brog pa
camps. These appurtenances are considered sacred and have often been engraved with ma ṇi mantras. In 2006 some of the stone
members were returned to the site. This dismantling of the various edifices of Ri’u dgon pa threatens the site’s continued survival.
If the conservation of archaic cultural monuments ever becomes a priority in Tibet, because of its unique architectural qualities
and integral condition, Ri’u dgon pa deserves urgent attention.
Oral tradition
In local folklore, the foundation of Ri’u dgon pa is connected to the King Ge sar epic. Ge sar’s uncle Gcen po spa rgyal tsha
sha dkar is said to have resided in the region (at Rgyal tsha rong dmar to the east), and he apparently was responsible for the
construction of the religious facility. The area around Ri’u dgon pa is reported to originally have been called Rgyal tsha rdzong.
West of the site there is a prominent black formation called Rdo tshang nag kha and in the vicinity, the support mountain (rgyab
ri) of Rgyal tsha. The goddess A stag klu mo is also supposed to have resided at Ri’u dgon pa. Near the monastery is a shrine
for Dung skyong dkar mo. On account of its springs, many other klu and Klu mo are thought to reside at this locale as well.
These legendary tales suggest in themselves that the site is of considerable antiquity, and the personages associated with it may
point to a Bon origin.
It is also believed that Ri’u dgon pa was once a branch monastery of Mtho lding, one of Mnga’ ris’s most important Buddhist
centers. In pre-modern times the site was associated with serious meditation practice. It is said that Mtshams pa kun dga’ rdo
rje, a disciple of the 15th Karma pa, meditated here. Ri’u dgon pa was heavily vandalized during the Chinese Cultural Revolution.
According to two regional elders (including one whose relative is enshrined in the Ri’u dgon pa reliquary mchod rten), sometime
after its founding, Ri’u dgon pa came under an inauspicious spell. One night this caused the death of a monk who became a
reanimated corpse (ro lang). This reanimated corpse began touching the sleeping monks around him causing them to also die
and become reanimated corpses. One monk, however, managed to wake up before being murdered and bolted from Ri’u dgon
pa. Fearing for his life he took his ritual thunderbolt (rdo rje), a staff (’khar rgyug) and his wrap (gzan) and threw them up in
the air. These objects magically traveled far and wide, eventually landing at Mtho lding in Gu ge. The discovery of these objects
at this site was taken as a sign that a monastery should be established there. As a result, the great Mtho lding dgon pa was built.
This tale, as apocryphal as it may be, clearly places the founding of Ri’u dgon pa in an earlier timeframe than the bstan pa phyi
dar facilities of western Tibet.
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Site elements
Main temple
Exterior features
The outer dimensions of the main temple are as follows: 18 m (south wall), 13.5 m (east wall), 14 m (north wall), and 13 m
(west wall). The outer walls have numerous angles, creating a series of nooks inside the building and shortened spans for the
heavy stone elements of the roof. The south or downhill wall is the highest structure at the site; it is uniformly 3.5 m to 4 m in
height. The north or upslope wall is deeply set into the ground. The west half of the north wall has a maximum height of only
1.3 m, while the east half of the north wall is flush with the slope. These elevations include a parapet wall that extends 50 cm
above the roofline. Except for the main entrance in the east, the alignment of the main building in the cardinal directions was
not a significant consideration.
In the south wall there are two stone gutters that convey runoff from the roof to the ground below, thus protecting the masonry
from waterborne damage. Also in the middle of the exterior south wall, at ground level, there is a 1-m high privy pit. Near the
west corner of the south wall there is the temple’s only exterior window (25 cm x 30 cm). It is set in an indentation that measures
35 cm x 50 cm. East of the main building there are remnants of walls with small alcoves overlaid with stone beams. These walls
appear to have been part of a gallery that enclosed an outer courtyard, 17 m in length. This enclosure is now used as a winter
livestock pen. On the east end of the corral there are the remains of an entrance or alcove bridged by stone beams up to 2.5 m
in length, the longest appurtenances at the site.
Most of the bridging stones in the roof of the main building are 1.5 m to 2 m in length. The wall thickness of the main temple
ranges between 50 cm and 70 cm. The random-rubble walls are of the dry-mortar variety or with seams that were minimally
mud mortared. Sandstone slabs of variable size (15 cm to 90 cm in length) were used in wall construction. Walls were heavily
plastered on both their interior and exterior faces. Clay and possibly other mineral substances were added to this plaster to harden
it, as it has proven extremely durable. There is evidence to show that both the exterior and interior walls were tinted with red
ochre.
Entrance
The only entranceway to the main temple is set in the middle of the east wall. As with other constructions at Ri’u dgon pa, this
entrance exhibits intricate masonry of a high degree of workmanship. The masterful stonework of the site is seldom matched
in other ancient temples in Upper Tibet. The lintel and sill of the entryway (1.3 m x 90 cm) are composed of various worked
stone slabs up to 1.6 m in length. As with various inner entrances, the outer entrance features the use of cut stones laid horizontally,
which are the lithic equivalents of a multi-tiered lintel (kha shing) and small decorative spacers (bab). These functional and
ornamental features of doors and windows are commonly represented in Tibetan architecture from the early historic period
onwards. The bab of Ri’u dgon pa are well-hewn stones, 25 cm to 40 cm in length, and between 4 cm and 8 cm in width and
thickness. On either side of the outer entrance to the temple, large stone panels were inserted in stone frames to create wall
dividers.
Inner east courtyard
The outer entranceway accesses a small vestibule that has part of its stone roof intact. Its floor-to-ceiling height is 1.6 m. One
step leads down from the vestibule to the unevenly shaped inner east courtyard (5.3 m x 3.3 m). The walls surrounding this
courtyard are a maximum of 2.2 m in height. To the left of the inner east courtyard entrance there is an alcove (1.5 m x 1 m).
To the south of this space there is a latrine with a hole in the floor that opens to the privy pit. This privy pit is conveyed to the
exterior of the building. The roof over the latrine has survived the vandalism of recent years.
North courtyard
On the north side of the east courtyard, immediately to the right of the main entrance of the building, an entranceway with five
stone steps leads up to the north courtyard (7.8 m x 4.7 m). Like the east courtyard, there is no evidence that the north courtyard
was ever roofed. There is a large niche in the north/rear wall of the north courtyard.
Southeast wing
On the east side of the inner east courtyard there is a small entranceway, without any embellishment of the jambs (1 m x 80
cm), which opens to a central corridor with five adjoining rooms. This southeast wing (5.7 m x 5.1 m) has two north rooms,
two south rooms, and one east room at the end of the medial corridor. The floor-to-ceiling height of the southeast wing is around
1.7 m. This part of Ri’u dgon pa probably functioned as living quarters for the inmates. In recent years, most of the roof
appurtenances have been removed from the southeast wing, endangering its continued existence. The southeast wing is now
occasionally used to shelter shepherds.
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Inner east courtyard south room
On the south side of the inner east courtyard there is an elaborate entranceway of the same design as the main entrance. It opens
to a relatively large room (3.7 m x 3.1) that is partitioned by a wall buttress into two parts. Its roof has only partly survived.
There are two recesses and a niche in the walls of the south portion of the room. In recent times this room was used to store
animal dung.
West courtyard
On the west side of the inner east courtyard there is another ornamented entranceway (1.4 m x 90 cm) that accesses the west
courtyard (5.4 m x 4.8 m). Three upright stone panels were placed on one side of this entrance and one panel on the other side.
Until several years ago, the floor in this courtyard was lined with large slabs, most of which have been taken up or broken by
local ’brog pa. Immediately to the right or north of the west courtyard entrance there is a single room (3 m x 1.9 m) with a large
open entrance (1.9 m x 1.4 m). There are two niches in this room as well as a smoke hole in the intact roof. There is also a small
window in the east wall. Perhaps this room functioned as a kitchen (thab tshang).
Northwest shrine rooms
On the northwest side of the west courtyard there is a pair of shrine rooms with an enduring stone roof. The floor-to-ceiling
height in these larger rooms is around 2 m. Several steps lead up from the open entrance to the east room (3.7 m x 1.5 m). In
the east wall of the east room there is an entranceway (1.1 m x 60 cm) that accesses the north courtyard. Three steps lead up to
this entranceway, which is flanked by vertical stone panels. A fairly elaborate entrance (1.4 m x 70 cm) connects the east and
west rooms. The west room (3.1 m x 1.9 m) has a total of seven niches in the walls. The hearth that was built in the middle of
this room is not an old appointment. On the other hand, the skylight (50 cm x 50 cm) in the middle of the ceiling appears to be
an original feature.
Southwest shrine rooms
This wing of the main temple consists of three rooms with a fully intact roof. Three steps lead up to the elaborate entranceway
(1.5 m x 1.4 m), which is divided into two halves by a single well-cut narrow stone jamb. The lintel consists of multiple stone
slabs, and vertical stone panels flank the door. The exterior entranceway opens to a room (2.6 m x 2 m x 1.8 m) with a recess
in the west wall, which is partly enclosed by its own doorway. In the south wall of this room there is another intricately designed
entranceway (1 m x 50 cm) that accesses two rooms with a ritual function. The larger room (2 m x 3 m x 1.9 m) opens directly
onto the west inner courtyard, and has a stone mchod rten covered in white plaster standing in one corner of the room. This
mchod rten is of floor-to-ceiling height. According to the septuagenarian member of the Se ro clan who is in charge of the
upkeep of the chapels, this is a reliquary (sku gdung) shrine that contains the remains of his grandfather O rgyan mgon po, a
meditator at Ri’u dgon pa. The mchod rten was desecrated in the Chinese Cultural Revolution and subsequently rebuilt by the
family. There is also a small rudimentary altar in this room with water bowls and butter lamps, which is only infrequently used
for religious ceremonies. In the south wall there is the only small window in the exterior wall of the building. There is also an
interior window in the north wall that opens onto the west courtyard. In the east wall of the large ritual room there is an
entranceway leading to a smaller room, which is reported to have functioned as a protector chapel (mgon khang).
Structures east of the main temple
Near the eastern extension of what was probably the outer courtyard of the main building there are the remains of three all-stone
rten mkhar or mchod rten. All three of these cubic shrines have central axes (srog shing) made of stone extending above the
top of the structures. This central design element identifies these elementary shrines as rten mkhar or mchod rten. The uppermost
specimen is 2.2 m in height and is coated in white plaster. The middle specimen is 1.8 m high and the lower one consists of just
a square base. Below the rten mkhar or mchod rten there are the obscured vestiges of an all-stone building. A little farther east
near several new ma ṇi walls there are the traces of another rdo khang, 3.5 m in width. Only one room on the west side of the
structure has survived with its stone roof intact. In one of the walls of this building there is a window (35 cm x 35 cm), with an
ornate lintel that includes a row of stone spacers (bab).
Structures west of the main temple
West of the main building there are the ruins of three more rdo khang and two smaller one-room, all-stone huts. The upper hut
(2.5 m x 2.2 m) has a window in the east wall near ground level, which overlooks the main building. The window frame is made
in the elaborate fashion characteristic of Ri’u dgon pa. The door is in the south and there is a niche in the interior north wall.
The roof is of an all-stone construction and the walls are plastered with clay. The lower hut is of the same design (2 m x 2 m)
and has a maximum down-slope elevation of 2 m. It has an intact doorway in the south (1 m x 70 cm), several niches, and a
window in the east near ground level. In the middle of the floor there is a 50-cm deep stone-lined pit (80 cm x 80 cm). This pit
must have had a ritual function, perhaps for fire offerings (sbyin sreg). Between the upper and lower stone huts there is a
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rudimentary shrine consisting of a square base (1.1 m x 1.1 m x 80 cm). A central stone axis protrudes 60 cm from the top of
the structure.
The lower rdo khang (5 m x 4.3 m) contained at least four rooms. Its entranceway is well preserved and there are several
niches in the rear wall. In the northeast room a window was built near ground level. Walls of the lower rdo khang reach 1.7 m
in height, but none of its stone roof has endured. Only part of the shell of the upper east rdo khang has survived. It was built
with the same plan and general dimensions as the lower rdo khang. Like its better-preserved lower counterpart, the upper east
rdo khang also has a tiny southwest room with an intact lintel. There are two niches in the rear or upslope wall of the upper east
rdo khang and a window in the east wall near the ground. The upper west rdo khang has been reduced to foundation remnants.
There is a small integral revetment fragment on the west side of the structure. On the cliff above the rdo khang and stone huts
there is another shrine, which also consists of a square pedestal with a protruding stone central axis.
Rdzu ’phrul phug
Basic site data
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Site name: Rdzu ’phrul phug
English equivalent: Miracle Cave
Site number: B-26
Site typology: I.2a
Administrative location (township): Rta sgo
Contemporary usage: The main temple complex is used as a religious shrine.
Maps: UTRS VIII
Rdzu ’phrul phug is located on the east flanks of the sacred mountain Rta rgo ngo dmar lha btsan, some 500 m above the Bon
monastery of Se zhig. Rdzu ’phrul phug consists of a complex, Rdzu ’phrul phug proper, and 24 other residential units of the
rdo khang type. The Rdzu ’phrul phug subterranean chamber is situated in a walled compound, planted on top of a ridgeline
that bounds the right or south side of the Nyi lung valley (5100 m). There are no permanent contemporary habitations in the
proximity of Rdzu ’phrul phug, in part, because of its high elevation. All walls at the site have a random-rubble texture and are
of the dry-mortar type or were minimally mud mortared. These walls are composed of uncut, variable-sized igneous rocks,
which average 30 cm to 60 cm in length. Even the corbels and bridging stones were unhewn. The walls of the various rdo khang
are 60 cm to 80 cm in thickness.
There are three major sectors at Rdzu ’phrul phug: upper south, lower south and north. The upper south sector (Residential
structures RS1, RS2 and RS3) is situated on slopes elevated high above the right side of the Nyi lung valley head. The north
sector (Residential structures RS4 to RS17) is spread across a shelf perched above the left side of the upper Nyi lung valley in
a locale known as mtho mo (sp.?), at somewhat lower elevation than the upper south sector. The lower south sector includes
Rdzu ’phrul phug proper and the residential structures in its immediate vicinity (Residential structures RS18 to RS24). These
are found on the ridge bounding the right side of the upper Nyi lung valley. In total, this large religious center could have housed
well over 150 residents. In contrast, Se zhig monastery probably never held more than several dozen practitioners.
Oral tradition
Rdzu ’phrul phug is probably so named because in a popular folktale it is believed to have been magically constructed. According
to the senior-most Bon scholar Slob dpon bstan ’dzin rnam dag, who spent two and a half years based at Se zhig monastery,
most ruins in the vicinity of Rdzu ’phrul phug were probably founded in the Tibetan imperial period (617-841 CE) by an
individual named ’Dzi bon dbang grub. According to a popular legend, when the circa 13th century CE Bon adept Nam mkha’
blo ldan came to the locale, he was met by the mountain deity Ngo dmar lha btsan, who offered to help him build a retreat center.
The mountain god told him, “If you build the walls, I will build the roof. If you build the roof, I will build the walls.” Nam
mkha’ blo ldan decided it would be easier for him to build the walls. After the saint was done with his task, Ngo dmar lha btsan
simply took a large boulder and flung it upon the walls, completing the construction of Rdzu ’phrul phug. The roof of the
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structure was too low, however, and Nam mkha’ blo ldan kept banging his head. One day, in order to make the ceiling higher,
he took his gshang and sliced off a piece of the boulder comprising the roof.
Site elements
rDzu ’phrul phug
Rdzu ’phrul phug stands on the broad crest of the ridge enclosing the right side of the upper Nyi lung valley. It is comprised of
a walled compound (16.5 m x 13 m) whose entrance is in the southeast. Three steps lead up to the entrance, which opens onto
a courtyard. In the rear of the compound there are four interconnected rooms that ostensibly were used as chapels and/or as
meditation residences. The entrance (1.5 m x 70 cm) to the freestanding northeast room (3 m x 2.5 m x 2 m) is in the west. The
design of the walls (long, straight and uniform) indicates that the northeast room supported a wooden roof, the only structure
at the site that appears to have done so. There is a niche and a well-built hearth against the west wall. The timber roof, relatively
large entranceway and the presence of a large window (30 cm x 60 cm) in the east wall of the northeast room seem to indicate
that its establishment or reconstruction postdates other Rdzu ’phrul phug structures. This modification of the northeast room
must be related to its close proximity to the subterranean chamber of Rdzu ’phrul phug, the geomantic heart of the site.
Next to the northeast room, at the very rear of the compound, is the northwest chamber. This appears to have been the main
sanctum at Rdzu ’phrul phug. Five steps lead down to this subterranean chamber. Its roof is a naturally occurring boulder whose
rear side is level with the surface of the ridge-top. In order to build this chamber the soil underneath this boulder had to be
removed. The overlying boulder is supported by the masonry walls lining the chamber (4 m x 3.3 m x standing room). There
is an altar with a large bay constructed of stone and mud against the rear or west wall. There are three niches in the west wall
and one niche in the south wall. Pilgrims have affixed tufts of white wool, paper rlung rta and old protection cords (srung mdud)
to the ceiling, as well as dabbing butter on it. There is a prayer flag mast on the roof of the rear of the chamber, supported by a
1-m high parapet wall. There are also a couple of large cairns in the vicinity.
The central room of the Rdzu ’phrul phug compound is in very poor condition. Its forward wall is up to 1.3 m in height and
its rear wall 2.3 m high. The rear wall of the central room forms part of the rear wall of the compound. The south room (2.2 m
x 1.6 m) supported a stone roof, as evidenced by three in situ corbels supporting a single piece of stone sheathing. The lintel
over the entranceway (1.2 m x 70 cm) is still place. There is a small niche in the west wall of the south room. Inside the compound
as well as behind it there are old stone plaques mainly inscribed with the Bon ma tri and a a dkar mantras. Outside the compound,
north of the subterranean main shrine room, there is the foundation of an independent building (2.5 m x 4 m).
Upper south sector
Residential structure RS1 is located on a steep flank of the ridge (an outlier of Rta rgo ngo dmar lha btsan) that encloses the
west side of the site. At 5180 m it is the highest elevation structure at Rdzu ’phrul phug. RS1 has been reduced to fragmentary
80-cm thick foundation walls that stretch for 5.5 m. It is primarily built of stones 40 cm to 60 cm in length. This isolated structure
was raised against a large igneous boulder.
Residential structure RS2 is situated on the slope below RS1 (5150 m). This large ceremonial building or multifaceted shrine
complex can be divided into south, central and north sections. The extant physical evidence is not sufficient to determine if RS2
had a residential component or was solely a group of rten mkhar-like shrines. This uniquely designed installation was constructed
of stones mainly 40 cm to 80 cm in length.
The south section of RS2 consists of two square rooms or cubic shrine structures that measure 3 m (north-south) x 7.2 m
(east-west). The south section structures have completely collapsed, making positive identification of their function difficult.
The west room or structure is less disintegrated and has standing walls (1.5 m to 1.7 m in height) surrounding a cavity.
The central section of RS2 was comprised of a row of quadrate rooms or shrines, which measure 4 m (north-south) x 16 m
(east-west). Standing wall fragments are between 1 m and 1.7 m. The westerly or upslope structure is the most intact part of the
central section, and has a cavity in the middle.
The north section of RS2 is dominated by a tiered shrine structure that is probably of the rten mkhar class (or alternatively,
it was a receptacle for votive clay figurines known as tshwa tshwa). This shrine measures 2.8 m x 3 m, and is 1.5 m high on its
west or upslope flank and 2.5 m high on its down-slope side. The west side of the base consists of five graduated tiers, each
made up of a single course of worked stones. In the upper part of the shrine there are openings on the south, west and north
sides. Inside this tiered shrine are highly deteriorated small conical tshwa tshwa. One older tshwa tshwa with the image of a
Bon (?) deity was also found. These tshwa tshwa, like the recent plaque inscribed with the Bon ma tri mantra found at RS2,
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may be later additions to the monument. The heavily built roof of the tiered shrine consists of bridging stones and slab sheathing.
Adjacent to this shrine there is another specimen in poorer condition, which measures 3.5 m (north-west) x 2 m (east-west) x a
maximum of 1.4 m. On the north side of the RS2 complex there are the square bases of two smaller shrines. Likewise, 2 m south
of RS2 there are the bases of two other shrines (each: 2 m x 2 m x 1 m).
Residential structure RS3 is situated 4.5 m north of RS2. This rdo khang measures 12 m (north-south) x 9 m (east-west), and
hosted at least six rooms. The rear or upslope wall is built as much as 1.8 m into the ground, while the forward revetment is 1.5
m to 2.5 m in height. Originally this revetment must have supported standing walls around 2 m in height. In the northwest
portion of the structure there are two rear rooms with several corbels and pieces of sheathing in place. The placement of these
roofing elements near the current middle reaches of the rear wall is an indication of how much infilling has occurred.
North sector
The numerical ordering of the north sector structures reflects their relative east-west positions. RS4 is on the western geographic
extremity of the mtho mo shelf and RS17 is on the opposite east end of the shelf.
Residential structure RS4 (8.5 m x 7.5 m) is a rdo khang, which has been reduced to its foundations and low-lying wall segments
(5100 m).
Residential structure RS5 (10.5 m x 7 m) is situated 19 m southeast of RS4. Four large corbels are in situ on the rear or north
wall. At the northwest corner one corbel is elevated 1.6 m above the floor level, providing an indication of the original ceiling
height. There is a niche near the northwest and northeast corners of RS5. The northwest room approximately measures 1.6 x 3
m. There are also five or six corbels and several roof slabs along the west wall of the structure.
Residential structure RS6 (17 m x 7.5 m) is found 12 m north of RS5. This building was built in three tiers, the lowest of which
was probably a courtyard. The middle tier has been reduced to wall-footings and piles of rubble. The better preserved upper or
rear tier consisted of at least two rooms. The remains of a partition wall still stand between them. Several corbels are still in
place on the west wall. Maximum wall height of the upper tier is 1.5 m.
Residential structure RS7 (8 m across) is located 20 m east of RS6. It has been leveled to its foundations. RS7 appears to have
contained two rooms.
Residential structure RS8 is found 30 m northeast of RS7. This small rdo khang was severely degraded by the removal of stones
to build two nearby corrals. The recent construction of these corrals has had a deleterious impact on other north sector edifices
as well.
Residential structure RS9 (6.5 m x 5.5 m) is located 40 m east of RS8. Only crumbling foundations and small wall fragments
are left. The best-preserved wall segment is in the northwest portion of the structure.
Residential structure RS10 (9.5 m x 13.5 m) is situated 38 m east of RS9. This highly deteriorated structure must have contained
several rooms and a forward courtyard.
Residential structure RS11 (6 m x 8.8 m) was built 8 m east of RS10. Integral walls up to 1.2 m in height still persist.
Residential structure RS12 (4.5 m x 7 m) is located 37 m east of RS11. The east half of the building has been reduced to its
foundations while the west half has standing wall sections to 1 m in height.
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Residential structure RS13 is situated 22 m east of RS12. It has two east rooms (8 m x 6.5 m) and a 3.4-m long west room. The
northwest corner of the structure stands 1.7 m in height and has two large corbels in place. The lintel over the 60-cm wide
entranceway to the west room is intact. The walls of the east rooms have been cut down to 1 m or less in height.
Residential structure RS14 (6 m x 9.5 m) is situated 24 m northeast of RS13. The rear or upslope wall is built 90 cm into the
ground and has one corbel in place. All other walls are highly dissolved and are less than 1 m in height.
Residential structure RS15 (5 m x 6.5 m) is located 38 m east of RS14. The walls of the single west room are between 1 m and
1.2 m in height. The walls of what probably constituted two east rooms are severely degraded.
Residential structure RS16 (7 m x 4 m) was founded 17 m south or downhill of RS15. Very little of it has survived.
Residential structure RS17 (6 m x 4.5 m) is situated 55 m south or downhill of RS16. It consists of one rear and one forward
room (5050 m). The lintel over the entranceway (1m x 50 cm) between the two rooms is still intact. The wall between the rear
and forward rooms is 1.5 m to 2 m in height; other walls are more disintegrated.
Lower south sector
Residential structure RS18 (3.5 m x 1.5 m) is found on a steep hillside on the right side of the Nyi lung valley below Rdzu ’phrul
phug proper. This semi-subterranean rock shelter, established against a boulder, is called Ro bas sa (Tomb). This name seems
to indicate a mortuary function for this structure, but this could not be confirmed. The upslope masonry wall of RS18 was set
1.5 m into the ground and has one in situ corbel remaining.
Residential structure RS19 (9 m x 6 m) is located 16 m south of the Rdzu ’phrul compound. The rear wall is set 1.2 m to 1.8 m
below the surface. Two small rooms in the rear of the structure have maintained their stone roofs. The rear west room (2 m x
2.2 m) has a naturally occurring boulder as its roof. There is a large niche in its north wall, and the floor-to-ceiling height of
this room is 1.4 m to 1.6 m. The rear west room entrance measures 85 cm x 50 cm. The rear east room has a corbelled roof
integument. A third rear room is bereft of its roof. Several forward rooms in RS19 have been degraded to footings and wall
segments less than 1.2 m in height.
Residential structure RS20 (9 m x 8. 3 m) is situated in a hollow at a slightly lower elevation than RS19. On the rear wall about
one dozen corbels and a lone roof slab are in situ, rising above what appears to have been two rooms. The rear wall was built
1.5 m into the slope. The forward rooms have been reduced to footings and wall segments under 1.4 m in height.
Residential structure RS21 was built in another hollow several tens of meters south of RS20. This small shelter was constructed
underneath a boulder. Its masonry façade is fairly well preserved. In the proximity there are two modern livestock pens.
Residential structure RS22 is found in the vicinity of RS21. This small rdo khang was built against a boulder, and has several
in situ corbels on the rear or north wall.
Residential Structures RS23 and RS24
Lower on the ridge-top, or to the east of RS22, there are two more rdo khang (5060 m). Residential structure RS23, the south
rdo khang, has two small rear rooms, one with a natural boulder roof and one with a corbelled roof. Residential structure RS24,
the north rdo khang, has an intact rear or west room with its corbelled roof in place. Below these two buildings there are two
low elevation structures built around large boulders. Their function is not clear.
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Phug chen
Basic site data
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Site name: Phug chen
English equivalent: Great Retreat Shelter
Site number: B-27
Site typology: I.2a
Elevation: 4980 m
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A small wall with ma ṇi plaques.
Maps: UTRS VIII
The all-stone corbelled edifice of Phug chen is found at the foot of a mountain of the same name. The site occupies well-drained,
moderately sloping sandy and rocky ground. To the east there is a stream running through the swampy Phug rong valley bottom,
an effluent of the Nya ba gtsang po. The relatively lush pasturage in the Nya ba gtsang po basin must have endowed the region
with the economic power to establish phug chen, as well as other proximate sites (B-28, B-29, A-74, A-75, A-76). The skillfully
built walls of this probable religious center are composed of dry-mortar random-rubble. The walls contain dark-colored dressed
slabs, primarily 40 cm to 65 cm in length and 5 cm to 15 cm in thickness.
The relatively large main entrance and two exterior windows may possibly identify Phug chen as having an early historic
period origin. It cannot be determined if this facility originally belonged to the Bonpo or Buddhists. The strong degree of
interactivity between these two religions throughout the early historic period is suggested by the juxtaposition of their motifs
in the petroglyphic art of Bshag bsangs, a site located 25 km to the east (I-16). The rivalries and alliances implicit in this rock
art record may have had a bearing on the cultural legacy of Phug chen. There is no permanent contemporary settlement in the
area and this probably helped save the monument from vandalism and pilferage. Phug chen could probably be rehabilitated as
an archaeological monument with relatively minimal effort and resources (provided the right expertise is available).
Oral tradition
Local ’brog pa recognize Phug chen as an ancient religious site. According to one octogenarian, the facility was once inhabited
by Sman ri sprul sku, a Buddhist lama from Sman ri monastery in Khams. Afterwards, a lama from a certain Stag lung monastery
is said to have occupied the site.
Site elements
Phug chen (13 m x 11 m), like many other all-stone corbelled edifices, has a semi-subterranean aspect; its rear or west wall is
set 80 cm to 1.1 m into the ground. The height of the interior rear wall in the north room is 2.2 m, more than half of which is
underground. The structure was built in three tiers, the most forward of which is a courtyard. The middle tier and rear tier consist
of two rooms each; these rooms average 3.2 m² to 4 m² in size and 1.7 m to 2.2 m in floor-to-ceiling height. Much of the roof
over these four rooms has been preserved. The highest elevation freestanding wall is the forward section of the south wall (2.5
m). The independent walls of the courtyard are up to 1.8 m in height. The courtyard (5 m x 5 m) entrance is in its forward wall.
A separate wing of Phug chen is located on the north side of the standing structures, and has been reduced to its foundations. It
occupies a 9.6 m (east-west) x 4.8 m (north-south) portion of the total extent of the building.
The main entrance (1.6 m x 90 cm) to the four rooms of the two upper tiers is in the rear (west) wall of the courtyard. It
accesses a small vestibule that leads to the middle tier north room. There is a 50-cm wide window in the east wall of this room.
In the west wall of the middle tier north room there is the entranceway to the rear tier north room. This 80-cm wide entranceway
is obstructed by rubble but appears to be less that 1 m in height. There is also a window (40 cm x 45 cm) in the wall dividing
the middle tier north room and rear tier rooms. South of the middle tier north room there is an interclose (60 cm to 1.5 m in
long, 90 cm wide) leading to the middle tier south room. A typically constructed portal in the west wall of the middle tier south
room accesses the rear tier south room. There is a small window opening (12 cm x 25 cm) in the south wall of the middle tier
south room.
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Shrines
Near the edifice there is an all-stone cubic shrine (1.6 m x 1.6 m x 1 m). Its roof is partially intact. A hollow in this shrine was
presumably used to enshrine tshwa tshwa but none are to be found inside. Beside this shrine there is a small wall with inscribed
plaques.
Kya rang
Basic site data
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Site name: Kya rang (sp.?)
Site number: B-28
Site typology: I.2a
Elevation: 5180 m
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None
Maps: UTRS VIII
The all-stone edifice of Kya rang is named after the valley system in which it was built. This edifice reposes on a piece of level
ground, on an otherwise steep and rocky ridge between two stream courses. Its walls are not as finely built as Phug chen (B-27),
but they have nonetheless proven durable. Several decades ago the Kya rang edifice served as a corral. There appear to have
only been two rooms in Kya rang, thus this was a minor facility in which only an individual or a small number of people could
have lived. The walls surrounding the residential quarters may possibly be a later historic addition to the site. The remote,
high-elevation Kya rang appears to have been built primarily for religious purposes.
Oral tradition
According to local ’brog pa, Kya rang is an ancient religious center.
Site elements
The single structure measures 9.4 m (north-south) x 9 m (east-west) and is dominated by an open courtyard. The local ’brog pa
built a small extension onto the edifice verified by local reports and its crude construction. In order to build this extension stones
were removed from Kya rang, inflicting significant damage upon it. The 50-cm- to 70-cm-thick walls of the original structure
are composed of random-rubble that was either of the dry-mortar variety or lightly mud mortared. Dark-colored slabs up to 1
m in length and between 5 cm and 15 cm thickness were employed in construction. In the north wall there is a slab 1.5 m in
length, but it is unclear if this is an original building material
The entrance to the Kya rang edifice is in the south and from it one enters a walled compound. There are no buildings on the
east half of this walled up area and no signs that there ever was. The forward third of the west side of the compound is also
open. In the central west portion of the facility there is a residential structure. Its forward portion measures 3 m (north-south) x
4 m (east-west). The foundation of the highly dissolute forward portion of the edifice is elevated 50 cm above the forward or
south slope. Its west/rear wall is up to 2 m in height and two corbels resting upon it extend 40 cm and 50 cm over the floor
space. These corbels are set 40 cm to 50 cm below the rim of the wall – bridging stones and sheathing slabs must have rested
upon them to meet the top of the walls. The rear room (3.1 m x 3.2 m) of the edifice has fairly regular walls. The rear wall of
this room is built into the upper slope to a depth of 1.1 m. One corbel on the forward wall of the rear room is in place. The stone
roof must have been very adeptly constructed in order to span this relatively large room. The 60-cm wide entrance to the rear
room is in its east wall. The maximum height of the interior walls of the rear room is 1.7 m.
Stag chen
Basic site data
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Site name: Stag chen
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English equivalent: Great Tiger / Great Warrior
Site number: B-29
Site typology: I.2a
Elevation: 5080 m
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None
Maps: UTRS VIII
The three residential edifices of Stag chen are named after the valley in which they were founded. They are situated on steep
slopes above the grazing lands of the valley floor. The three edifices were built at the same general elevation and look out on
the water rich Nya ba gtsang po basin. They are likely, at least in part, to have had a religious function. These gsas khang/gsas
mkhar type edifices are designated the north rdo khang, southeast rdo khang and southwest rdo khang. The stonework of these
all-stone corbelled structures is very similar to Kya rang (B-28). They were built of dark sandstone-like slabs laid in random-work
courses. Several tens of people may have once inhabited Stag chen, one of three rdo khang sites in the vicinity (see B-27 and
B-28). The area, however, is now completely uninhabited, not least of all because of its high elevation and severe climate.
Oral tradition
According to local ’brog pa, Stag chen is an ancient religious center.
Site elements
All-stone edifices
North rdo khang
This irregularly-shaped north rdo khang is the smallest of Stag chen’s three edifices. It overlooks a branch of the Stag chen
valley endowed with running water. Its dimensions are 3.9 m (north-south) x 3.5 m (south wall) to 4.3 m (north wall). Additionally,
on the southwest side of the structure there are the remains of an adjoining room (2.4 m x 1.4 m). The rear or upslope wall of
the structure was built 90 cm into the ground, while the forward or east wall has a maximum standing height of 2.5 m. A couple
of corbels still rest on the rear wall. The other walls of the north rdo khang are highly fragmentary.
The main entrance in the north rdo khang is found in the south wall (1.5 m x 80 cm) and it has an intact lintel. From the outer
entrance a vestibule (1.8 m x 70 cm) accesses its two rooms. The east room entrance (1.5 m x 70 cm) is situated halfway down
the vestibule and the west room is accessed from the rear of the vestibule via another entranceway (1.4 m x 70 cm). The east
room (3 m x 90 cm to 1.1 m) runs nearly the entire north-south length of the building. The floor-to-ceiling in the east room
clearance is around 1.7 m. There is a window opening in the forward wall (40 cm x 40 cm) as well as a small damaged niche.
The typically constructed all-stone roof over the east room is more than 50% intact. The west room (1.6 m x 1.5 m) has a
floor-to-ceiling height of 1.4 m. The mostly intact roof is flush with the uphill or west slope. Adjacent to the west side of the
vestibule, there is a space raised above the floor level (1 m x 1.2 m), which may have been used for storage. On the south side
of the building there is a walled landing (8 m x 6 m). Walls bounding this landing have a maximum height of 1.6 m. Two attached
wall remnants may have been part of a stairway leading up to this elevated masonry mass.
Southeast rdo khang
The southeast rdo khang is perched above the same branch valley as the north rdo khang, some 42 m to the south. The external
dimensions of this irregularly-shaped structure are 11 m (west wall), 6.5 m (south wall), 11.8 m (east wall), and 3 m (north
wall). Natural rock formations make up a significant portion of its external north and south walls. The building has forward/lower,
middle and rear/upper tiers of rooms. Roof slabs strewn around the site are 1 m or more in length.
The larger forward tier of the southeast rdo khang is in an advanced state of decay. It has foundation walls at two different
levels and potentially supported four or more rooms. The lower-most wall segments may have been part of the main entrance
to the building. Three steps lead up from the lower tier to the middle tier entrance (1.1 m x 70 cm), which is found in a wall
section 2.3 m in height. The remains of several rooms are found in the middle tier.
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The rear or north wall of the rdo khang extends 1 m below the slope and more than 1 m above it. Due to in-filling, the corbels
in the north wall are now suspended just 1.2 m above the floor. There are two rooms in the upper tier and they share the same
east-facing entranceway. The rear north room (3.3 m x 2 m to 2.2 m) has a maximum floor-to-ceiling height of 2 m. It is
partitioned into two sections by a wall jutting 60 cm from the rear of the structure. A roof slab still rests on this partition wall.
The back half of the rear south room (3 m x 1.1 m) is still covered by the roof. There is a small stone table in the back of the
rear south room.
Southwest rdo khang
The southwest rdo khang of Stag chen is situated 40 m west of the southeast rdo khang on the opposite side of a rocky rib. It
sits astride a rock outcrop that rises above a waterless ravine. The southwest rdo khang has a maximum forward elevation of
nearly 6 m, making it a particularly high profile all-stone edifice. The exterior dimensions of this long narrow, east-facing
structure are 17.7 m (east wall), 5.3 m (north wall), 18.3 m (west wall), and 3 m (south wall). The upper part of the rear wall is
flush with the slope while the forward wall stands as much as 4.3 m in height. The forward wall is set on a prominent revetment
(up to 1.6 m in height), endowing it with a very high elevation. The southwest rdo khang contains a single line of six rooms.
This edifice is locally referred to as Stag chen gnam sgo (Great Tiger Sky Door), on account of its narrow two-story entrance
open to the sky above (although it was once fully enclosed by a roof).
There were two entrances to the southwest rdo khang, which accessed a north suite and a south suite consisting of three
rooms each. The north entranceway has been obliterated; it was located in the northern-most room (room 1). The main entranceway
(1.5 m x 70 cm) is on the east side of the edifice along the highest elevation section of the forward wall of the structure.
Room 1 (3.6 m x 2 m) of the north suite has no roof left and only fractional walls. Room 2 (3 m x 3 m) is accessed by an
internal entrance (1.2 m x 70 cm) that opens onto room 1. Like rooms in the south suite, the rear or west wall of room 2 is largely
composed of an uneven rock face. In the east or forward wall there is a window (30 cm x 25 cm). In the north wall there is a
small niche. Most of the roof over room 2 is missing; its floor-to-ceiling height is around 1.6 m. Room 3 (2.5 m x 2.3 m) shares
an internal entrance (1 m x 70 cm) with room 2. Part of room 3 was walled off to create a separate chamber. None of the roof
over room 3 has survived.
Room 4 (2.7 m x 2 m) of the south suite is isolated from room 3; it is accessed via the main entrance and room 5. More than
50% of the roof is intact, and its floor-to-ceiling height is a maximum of 1.5 m. The longest in situ roof member is 1.4 m. There
is a small stone table inside room 4.
The entrance between room 4 and room 5 is 1 m in height and 70 cm width. Room 5 (3.1 m x 3 m) has direct access to the
east-facing entrance of the southwest rdo khang. The entrance is located directly below room 5. There is one niche in the south
wall of room 5. Much of the roof over this room has been destroyed. The floor-to-ceiling clearance is around 1.5 m. In room 5
there is a 60-cm wide passageway that descends 2.5 m to the main entrance. Stairs must have once been installed in this vertical
passageway but few signs of them remain. An internal entrance (1 m x 60 cm) connects room 5 and room 6, the most northerly
compartment in the rdo khang. Much of room 6 (3.2 m x 2 m) is filled with rubble and only a small portion of its roof has
endured.
Outlying structures
Below the outcrop on which the southwest rdo khang stands there is a terrace (10 m x 4 m to 5 m or more) formed by a forward
retaining wall up to 1.5 m in height. In the gully just above Stag chen gnam sgo there is a rectangular ceremonial structure (1.8
m x 80 cm). This shrine structure is 80 cm high on its downhill side and flush with the surface on the uphill side (its
semi-subterranean aspect may be connected to the worship of chthonic spirits). On the ridge south of the southwest rdo khang
there is a poorly preserved square shrine structure (1.7 m x 1.7 m x 70 cm). These two ceremonial structures are possibly shrines
of the rten mkhar class, but they do not appear to have hollow interiors. They may instead have functioned as platforms that
supported certain types of ritual articles.
Phug dgu chu sum
Basic site data
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Site name: Phug dgu chu sum
English equivalent: Nine Retreat Shelters Three Streams
Site number: B-30
Site typology: I.2a
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Administrative location (township): Dar ma
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Plaques inscribed with the ma ṇi mantra and the deity Spyan ras gzigs.
The nine rdo khang of phug dgu chu gsum are found at the head of the Mtho chu valley, an effluent of the Mar tshang gtsang
po (upper Brahmaputra River). The headwaters of the Mtho chu valley form a closed amphitheatre with a spring and marsh
with the Rtsan la (sp.?) pass above the site. The nine all-stone residential structures of phug dgu chu gsum are all more or less
aligned in the cardinal directions and face in a southerly direction. This probable ancient religious site is extremely remote and
seldom visited; although at one time it may have housed more that 50 residents. The rdo khang, while not well preserved, were
superbly constructed from red stone. The rooms were generally small (around 4 m²) as is typical in all-stone corbelled edifices.
The robustly constructed random-rubble slab walls are approximately 50 cm thick. A dark-colored rock of variable-length (up
to 1 m long) was used in construction. Corbels and bridging stones up to 1.5 m in length are scattered all around the site.
Oral tradition
phug dgu chu gsum is reported by local residents to be an ancient religious center.
Site elements
rDo khang complex
rdo khang RS1 and RS2 are situated at the bottom end of the site. Residential structures RS3, RS4 and RS5 are set approximately
5 m higher up on broad slopes. At 5 m more elevation are residential structures RS6 and RS7, the third level structures. Residential
structure RS8, the fourth level structure, and residential structure RS9, the fifth level structure, were established some meters
higher.
Residential structure RS1 measures 14 m (east-west) x 4.4 m (north-south). The east half of the rdo khang has been felled to
its foundations. Near the east wall a tabular stone is planted in the ground. This rdo ring was broken and is now only 45 cm in
height (basal girth of 1.1 m). Perhaps the standing stone marked the establishment of the building, like at certain Lamaist sites.
On the eastern half of the rear/north wall a large corbel protrudes 70 cm over the internal space. The rear wall was set 1 m to
1.2 m into the slope. A partition wall with a maximum height of 1.2 m divides the east and west halves of RS1. There is a small
niche in the west side of the partition wall. In the west half of the structure there is a north-south oriented partition wall remnant.
Residential structure RS2 is located 16 m east of RS1. This large structure measures 17 m (east-west) x 7 m (north-south). On
the west end of the ruin there is both a forward and rear room. In the west wall of this forward or south room there is a niche,
and there is a niche in the rear wall of the rear west room as well. In the rear west room and the adjacent rear room there are
corbels and bridging stones clinging to the rear wall. The portion of the outer rear wall in this area is built 1.6 m into the ground.
The entranceway between these two rear rooms is intact (1.2 m x 50 cm). East of these two rear rooms, the rear tier of the rdo
khang appears to have been comprised of one relatively large room. The east section of the rear wall is not so well preserved
and extends 1 m or less into the slope. Adjacent to the forward west room there is another forward room that has collapsed.
Among the detritus of this room are sheathing slabs up to 2 m in length. East of this collapsed room there is another forward
room with an intact entranceway (1.1 m x 80 cm). At 1.8 m, its north wall is the highest remaining fragment at RS2. Farther
east only exterior wall traces have endured in the forward part of the edifice.
Residential structure RS3 is located 13 m north of RS2. This poorly preserved structure measures 8 m (east-west) x 4 m
(north-south). The northwest corner of the rdo khang constitutes its most undamaged portion and was built 1.1 m into the slope.
In the north/rear wall near the west corner of RS3 there are two niches, one on top of the other.
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Residential structure RS4 is situated 6 m northwest and slightly upslope of RS3. It measures 11 m (east-west) x 6.5 m (north-south).
This structure has been mostly flattened to its foundations. Wall segments to 1 m in height exist near the southwest corner.
There is a small niche in the west wall of RS4.
Residential structure RS5 is located 8 m west of RS4. Its dimensions are 14 m (east-west) x 5 m (north-south). Only external
wall fragments up to 1 m in height have survived in this highly deteriorated structure.
Residential structure RS6 is situated 11.5 m north of RS5. The main portion of the building measures 6.3 m (east-west) x 3.5
m (north-south). There is also a lower/south (3.6 m x 2.8 m) extension containing one room centered in front of the main
structure. The main structure is partitioned into three rooms. The east entrance opens to a vestibule that extended to the rear
east room. The rear east room boasts a few in situ roof slabs. The rear and side walls of the rdo khang are partially intact. The
rear or north wall of RS6 is set 1.3 m into the ground and the side walls reach 1.2 m in height. In the outer west wall there is a
small niche.
Residential structure RS7 is found 24 m east of RS6. This smaller structure measures 6.2 m (east-west) x 4.9 m (north-south).
The rear wall was built into the slope to a maximum depth of 1.5 m. In the largely whole rear wall, near the west corner, there
is a small niche. The south or forward wall of RS7 stands to a height of 50 cm. The room partitions have been mostly destroyed.
Residential structure RS8 was established 17.5 m northwest of RS7 and 9.5 m north of RS6. This rdo khang measures 15 m
(east-west) x 6 m (north-south). Most exterior walls now attain a height of 1 m or less; only the central portion of the forward
wall is taller (1.4 m). In the southeast corner of the structure there is a partly integral room. About half of the rear wall of RS8
has survived.
Residential structure RS9 measures 8.4 m (east-west) x 5 m (north-south). The east side of this building has been razed to the
ground. On the west of the structure, side wall segments up to 1.3 m in height have persisted. Both a forward room and rear
room are discernable in RS9.
Buddhist shrine
Some 48 m south of the rdo khang complex, across the valley divide, there is a neglected Buddhist shrine complex, consisting
of the base of a mchod rten or rten mkhar class shrine connected to walls that run north-south. This masonry base (3 m x 3.2
m) is best preserved on the west side where it is 1.4 m in height. Straight walls rise above a broader 40 cm high basal section.
There is no evidence of a bum pa or any other kind of superstructure. It was constructed of dark bluish slabs that have weathered
to a red color, 20 cm to 60 cm in length and 2 cm to 8 cm in thickness. These stones were laid in random-work, dry-mortar
courses. On the south side of this cubic structure there is a wall 9 m in length, which has been reduced to 50 cm in height. This
wall appears to have been originally around 1 m thick. Another wall links the big shrine to a smaller shrine situated 8 m to the
north. This linking wall has been almost obliterated and the smaller shrine is very poorly preserved. The inscribed plaques found
at the site are all highly eroded and feature the ma ṇi mantra.
A 1-m high plaque partially submerged in the soil sits in the shrine complex. This plaque features a standing Spyan ras gzigs
(Avalokiteśvara) figure adeptly carved in shallow relief. It appears to date to the period of the second Buddhist diffusion (bstan
pa phyi dar). This highly worn relief plaque of Tibet’s patron deity documents the Buddhist occupation of phug dgu chu gsum
as early as one millennium ago. The implication of this Buddhist artifact may be that the residential facility, after first being
established by archaic religious practitioners, was reoccupied by the Buddhists. This reoccupation was probably nominal given
the extreme elevation of the site. Moreover, no fixed Buddhist emblems are found near the rdo khang.
The Spyan ras gzigs bas relief image is ornamented with two necklaces, earrings and a five-diadem crown. The figure is
attired in an Indian style skirt and holds the stem of a lotus in each hand. Below the deity, a butter lamp (mar me) and sacrificial
cake (gtor ma) were carved and lower on the plaque, swirling lines represent the world ocean. Above the deity’s head the sun
is on the right side and the moon on the left side. Also, on the left side of the deity, a vertically oriented inscription reads: jo bo
ti bzang po la na mo, and on its right side there is the inscription: oṃ a hum. Jo bo ti bzang po is an old Upper Tibetan manifestation
of spyan ras gzings.
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Gzims phug
Basic site data
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Site name: Gzims phug
English equivalent: Abode Cave
Site number: B-31
Site typology: I.2a.
Administrative location (township): Las yor
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: mchod rten and a ma ṇi wall.
The all-stone religious center of Gzims phug was founded on bluffs that rise above the right bank of the Tshwa chu (Salt River).
The south and north bluffs are separated by an approximately 100-m wide ravine. The site consists of three residential loci:
north bluff complex, south bluff complex and foot of the south bluff complex. The adeptly built structures of Gzims phug have
an eastern aspect. The random-rubble, mud-mortared walls contain variable-sized blocks and slabs, some of which reach 50 cm
to 80 cm in length. Most of the stones have a reddish color and many of them were dressed. All buildings at the site exhibit
similar aging processes such as obdurate mortar supporting lichen growth. Most of the mortar, however, has washed out of the
joints. This uniformity in the physical condition of the structures seems to indicate that Gzims phug was established as an integral
installation.
The presence of significant Buddhist shrines at Gzims phug, the placement of the site near the bottom of a river valley as
well as certain morphological features (relatively high elevation structures, tall entranceways, a commodious rear room, a rear
window and other windows, and buildings with an above-ground aspect) seem to indicate an early historic period foundation
by Buddhists. The construction of Gzims phug relied on the materials and building techniques incumbent in the construction
of the rdo khang, an architectural form derived from the archaic cultural legacy. The all-stone corbelled facility appears to have
been built as part and parcel of Upper Tibet’s first florescence of Buddhist monuments. The establishment of Gzims phug
therefore seems to coincide with a late phase in the practice of the old architectural traditions of the region. The size, design
and standard of quality exhibited by Gzims phug single it out as an important Upper Tibetan religious site.
Oral tradition
According to local ’brog pa, Gzims phug is an ancient religious center.
Site elements
North bluff complex
Outlying structures
From the foot of the north bluff, a trail ascends to what appears to be an old gateway. Approximately 7 m beyond the gateway,
a wall running north-south separates the main complex from the access route. At its northern extremity, this wall turns east to
join a lone building (3.3 m x 3.8 m). This building contains a single room with a few corbels still attached to the walls, indicating
that it was built with a stone roof. The north wall extends 50 cm above these corbels, indicating the presence of either a parapet
wall or a roof with successive layers of bridging stones. The intact entranceway (1.2 m x 60 cm) to this small building faces
west towards the main building. The east-west wall continues past this dependency, sequestering it from the main building. This
now discontinuous wall has a maximum height of 2.5 m on its forward or east side and a maximum height of 1.5 m on its inner
side. The main building is located approximately 5 m west or uphill of this encircling wall.
Main building
The main building measures 13 m (north-south) and 8 m (east-west) and is generally aligned in the cardinal directions. Exterior
walls are up to 1 m in thick, illustrating the strength of this structure. The rear or west wall stands fully out of the ground and
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is still around 3 m in height. The north section of the rear wall is capped with a 50-cm-thick layer of stones mixed with mud.
In the west wall there is a single window with a large lintel (25 cm x 50 cm).
The north portion of the main building is divided into three tiers of rooms oriented east-west. The forward or east tier has
been largely destroyed. The forward wall is up to 2 m in height, although most of it is considerably lower. This wall does not
appear to have been very straight (as is often the case with rdo khang). There are a few in situ corbels on the walls of the forward
tier. The east-facing entranceway (1.4 m x 60 cm) to the middle tier is still intact. This entranceway accesses a small room (1.6
m x 2.3 m) with a portion of its roof still in place. Immediately north of the middle tier entranceway there is an entrance (1.3 m
x 50 cm) to another small room (1.5 m x 1.7 m). The roof in this room is partially intact and is set about 1.6 m above the floor.
In the east wall there is a window (20 cm x 25 cm) that opens onto the forward tier. Some red ochre tinted mud plaster is still
attached to the interior walls of this small room. This room must have been a chapel or sanctum of some kind.
Access to the rear tier of the main building is via the middle tier room with the east-facing exterior entranceway. The rear
entranceway is whole (1.4 m x 50 cm) and leads into a relatively large room (4.5 m x 2.3 m) whose end coincides with the
exterior west wall of the main edifice. The east side of this room is buttressed, creating various nooks some of which have in
situ corbels resting above them. This large rear south room was entirely built above-ground. The rear/west wall of this large
room extends about 1 m above the in situ corbels to produce a parapet-like structure. The floor-to-ceiling height of the rear
south room was approximately 1.6 m. This size and relative placement of this room suggests that it had a common ceremonial
function. There is also an adjacent small rear south room with a window in the rear wall (as already noted above). This is the
only rdo khang surveyed to date with an upslope-facing window. There are a few in situ corbels in the small south rear room.
The exterior lines of the building suggest that there was yet another rear south room but nearly all vestiges of it have been
effaced. On the southeast side of the rear west room there is an entranceway (1.3 m x 50 cm) that accesses another middle tier
room. The stone roof over this room (2 m x 2.4 m) has largely survived, and was constructed of bridging stones laid diagonally.
The ceiling is 2 m high in this room. In the south wall there is a window (50 cm x 25 cm). Much of the mud plaster covering
the walls in this middle tier room has remained intact.
The smaller south wing of the main building is accessed via an entrance on the south side of the forward tier. The lintel over
this large entranceway is still intact, however, most of the south wing has disintegrated; only a majority of its rear or west wall
has survived.
North bluff shrines
Southeast of the main edifice there is a ruined Buddhist mchod rten. Part of its bulbous bum pa is still intact. The upper tier of
the base (3.5 m x 3.5 m) overhangs the lower tier of the base, a common design feature. Vertically placed stone slabs prop up
the overhanging sections of the upper tier of the base. Many old plaques inscribed with the ma ṇi mantra rest around the mchod
rten. At the foot of the north bluff there is a substantial wall with many old carved plaques of the ma ṇi mantra as well as a few
representational specimens. The most notable ones feature a mchod rten and the god of compassion Spyan ras gzigs. Potentially,
the very oldest inscribed plaques at the site date to the second diffusion of Buddhism in Tibet.
Cave
On the south side of the north bluff complex, the remains of a stone-buttressed trail lead down to the ravine that geographically
divides the Gzims phug site. On the descent from the north bluff, one encounters a two-chambered cave cut into an earthen and
conglomerate cave. The roof of the forward chamber has collapsed. Two stone slabs that formed part of the doorjamb in the
forward chamber entrance are still in situ.
South bluff edifice
This site consists of a single highly incoherent habitational structure (8 m x 4 m). Its floor space was completely built
above-ground. A few corbels are in position on the west wall, the best-preserved portion of the building. The west wall, where
still intact, is 2 m in high and nearly 1 m thick. On the west or exterior side of this wall there is a stone gutter.
Foot of the south bluff complex
Largest building
The largest building in the foot of the south bluff complex measures 13 m (north-south) x 6.5 m (east-west) and appears to have
been laid out in the cardinal directions. Standing walls reach a maximum height of 2.5 m and are at least 50 cm in thickness.
There are four rear or west tier rooms. Some corbels in the southwest room are in situ. There was also a forward tier of rooms
in this building but they have been obliterated.
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Two other buildings
Just 1.7 m south of the large edifice there is another residential structure that measures 8 m (north-south) x 3 m (east-west). This
building consists of a single row of three or four rooms. Much of the north side of the structure has been annihilated, precluding
a detailed assessment of its plan. The west wall of the structure was partially built into a slope abutting a cliff. The most southerly
room (1.7 m x 1.7 m) has sections of all four walls as well as its entranceway (1.2 m x 60 cm) in place. The adjacent room has
what resembles a stone gutter facing into it. Nine meters downhill there is a third structure in the foot of the south bluff complex,
most of which has been reduced to ground level. Probably measuring 12 m (north-south) x 8 m (east-west), south wall segments
reach 1 m to 1.2 m in height.
G.ya’ bcud brag phug
Basic site data
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Site name: G.ya’ bcud brag phug
Alternative site name: g.ya’ bcud mtshams khang
Site number: B-32
Site typology: I.2a
G.ya’ bcud brag phug, the site of highly decomposed rdo khang, is named for a medicinal herb (see C-110). G.ya’ bcud brag
phug is located at the head of the g.ya’ bcud valley, near where it joins the Snying ’khrod valley. This stretch of the g.ya’ bcud
valley is endowed with perennial springs and is very isolated. At present it is completely uninhabited. To the west, high ridges
hem in the site. Access is from the southeast, a direction in which potential adversaries could be spotted a long way off. G.ya’
bcud brag phug consists of seven southeast-facing all-stone edifices built against cliffs on the left side of the narrow upper
valley. The rdo khang were heavily constructed and possess random-work walls containing variable-sized blocks. The walls
tend to be thick (70 cm to 90 cm) and composed of many larger stones (70 cm to 90 cm in length). The wall-joints were mud
mortared, most of which has washed away leaving an obdurate lichen-covered residue. Very little of the stone roofs of the
structures remain intact.
Oral tradition
G.ya’ bcud brag phug is said by local residents to have been an ancient religious center.
Site elements
rDo khang complex
Residential structures RS1, RS2 and RS3 are found in the valley bottom.
Residential structure RS1 (4910 m) is the lowest elevation structure at G.ya’ bcud brag phug. All that remains of this rock shelter
is a fragmentary foundation approximately 5 m in length, which overarches a 1-m wide ledge. Just below RS1 there is a cave
that does not appear to have been modified for human use, probably because of water seepage.
Lower shrine
On the opposite side of the valley from RS1 there is a ruined shrine that was built on a grassy slope. It consists of a masonry
platform aligned in the compass points, which is elevated 50 cm above the ground surface. It measures 5 m (north-south) x 2.5
m (east-west). Upon this platform are the remains of two degraded superstructures, approximately 1 m in height. Little can be
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said regarding their original design or function. This shrine most resembles a mchod rten or rten mkhar. In terms of weathering
and structural deterioration, the shrine seems to be an integral part of the G.ya’ bcud brag phug complex.
Residential structure RS2 (4930 m) is located some tens of meters up valley from RS1. RS2 contained around ten rooms and
its forward wall is 21 m in length; thus it appears that this was the largest edifice at the site. The structure was probably built in
three tiers, the uppermost of which terminates at a cliff face. At the very highest point of the building there is a 3-m deep cave
that is divided into two chambers. The masonry walls and stone roof surrounding this cave are partially intact. The best-kept
freestanding room in RS2 is the upper tier west specimen (1.9 m x 2.2 m to 3.3 m). The walls of this room are up to 1.5 m in
height and 90 cm in thickness, robust enough to have supported a stone roof. The rest of the building is dissolute; only foundations
and a few scattered wall segments endure.
Residential structure RS3 (4930 m) is situated 12 m up valley or west of RS2 at the edge of a cliff. This structure (8 m x 4 m)
was probably constructed in two tiers but only highly decayed exterior walls survive. There is also part of the wall dividing the
two tiers of the edifice but none of it is freestanding. A forward (southeastern) wall segment is 2 m in height.
Residential structures RS4, RS5 and RS6 were built on dark scree-strewn slopes below the rocky formation that crowns the
valley.
Residential structure RS4 (6 m x 5 m / 4950 m) is situated 63 m west of RS3. The forward section of the building has been
largely obliterated. There also appear to have been two upslope or rear rooms. A wall buttress partially separates the two rear
rooms. The rear wall was built 1.2 m into the slope. A few corbels and one roofing slab are in situ.
Residential structure RS5 (4950 m) is located 6.5 m directly upslope of RS4, and was built against a cliff. Mostly destroyed,
this structure appears to have been approximately 6 m in length. Supported by the cliff, the rear wall is 1 m to 1.2 m high. A
single in situ bridging stone still adheres to the rear wall.
Residential structure RS6 (5.2 m x 3 m / 4940 m) is situated 14 m southwest and slightly downhill of RS5. Only some pieces
of its exterior skeleton are extant. A forward wall fragment attains an elevation of 2.3 m. There is one corbel positioned on the
rear wall.
Upper shrine
Eighteen meters down slope from RS6 near the valley bottom there are the remains of another shrine. The base of this structure
(4 m x 4 m) is slightly raised above-ground level and is aligned in the cardinal directions. Resting upon it are the remains of a
superstructure (2.5 m x 2.5 m x 1 m) that has degraded into an amorphous pile of rubble. Like the lower shrine, the upper shrine
appears to have been an integral part of the residential complex.
Residential structure RS7 (10 m x 4 m / 4970 m) was built on top of a distinctive dark-colored ridge-top. From this vantage
point there are excellent views of the surrounding terrain. This structure appears to have had rooms set at two elevations against
a cliff. A forward wall section is up to 2.5 m in height. A shallow cave was incorporated into a lower level room. In the upper
level of RS7 a round surveillance structure was subsequently constructed with stones extracted from the rdo khang. Built
sometime in the pre-modern period, a portion of its simple slab roof has survived. This rudimentary structure has a small window
opening in the east wall.
Lung bstan phug
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Site name: Lung bstan phug
Site number: B-33
Site typology: I.2a
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Identifiable Buddhist constructions: ma ṇi walls and gutted shrines.
The 15 all-stone structures of Lung bstan phug occupy a narrow gully, amphitheatre, cliffs, and ridgelines sandwiched between
the Lha chu and Ser lung valleys of Mount Ti se. While the Buddhists undoubtedly occupied this site, it appears to have been
founded during the archaic cultural horizon. The adequate shelter offered by these residential structures must have been attractive
to bka’ brgyud pa ascetics during their 12th and 13th CE century colonization of Ti se. The rdo khang generally face in a
southwesterly direction and are of the same construction, size, setting, and elevation as those found in the vicinity of Gyang
grags monastery (B-9). Typically, rear walls were set deep into the slope, giving the buildings a semi-subterranean aspect. The
larger specimens (around 8 m x 12 m) have three tiers of rooms or a forward courtyard and two upper tiers of rooms. Smaller
specimens generally have two tiers of rooms. The rdo khang were robustly and adeptly constructed from uncut and dressed
pieces of brown sandstone, 20 cm to 80 cm in length. The random-rubble walls retain traces of the mud-mortar that once filled
the joints.
All rdo khang from RS5 to RS15 are in view of La lnga mtsho and the Himalaya beyond. At certain times of the year the
availability of drinking water may be a problem at Lung bstan phug, but it seems likely that when the facility was active, water
resources were more secure.
Oral tradition
According to natives of Mount Ti se (gangs ri ba), lung btsan phug was a Buddhist retreat center. Elderly gangs ri ba residents
assert that Lung bstan phug is also known as Shel phug (Crystal Cave).
Textual tradition
According to Bod yul gnas kyi lam yig gsal ba’i dmig bu by khyung dkar sman ri ba slob dpon bstan ‘dzin rnam dag, Ti se gangs
kyi shel phug was the residence of a nu phrag thag, a prehistoric Zhang zhung master, who was a chief recipient of Bon teachings.82
He is recorded as residing high up on the south side of Ti se. This site is likely to be one and the same as Lung bstan phug and
probably alludes to the archaic residential center located here.
Site elements
rDo khang complex83
The rdo khang RS1 is the lowest elevation specimen at Lung bstan phug (5010 m). This south-facing structure is set on the left
side of a gully and is in relatively good condition. It has a pronounced semi-subterranean aspect. Below RS1 are two old walls
upon which there are plaques inscribed with the ma ṇi mantra.
Residential structure RS2 (5020 m) is located directly above RS1. This small edifice may only have had two rooms (east and
west). In the west wall of the west room there is a large niche and in the south wall there is a window. There are also a couple
in situ bridging stones in the west room. Only fragmentary walls survive in the east room.
Residential structure RS3 is found on the opposite side of the gully from RS1 and RS2, approximately 100 m west of RS2. It
was built against a cliff. Only scant structural fragments are left.
82
Khyung dkar sman ri ba slob dpon bstan ‘dzin rnam dag, Bod yul gnas kyi lam yig gsal ba’i dmig bu. (Dehli: Bod kyi bon dgon do lan ji, 1983), 40. For
biographical information about this prehistoric saint see Bellezza, Zhang Zhung, 211, 214, 284.
83
Due to time limitations in the field, I am not able to provide the dimensions or more details about the various structures found at Lung bstan phug.
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Residential structure RS4 (5060 m) was built upon a ledge on the right side of the same gully that hosts RS1, RS2 and RS3.
The remains of a central entranceway connect its forward and rear tiers.
Residential structure RS5 (5090 m) is situated on a ridgeline above RS4. It overlooks the Lha chu to the west. This structure
appears to have had two forward and two rear rooms. Some corbels and bridging stones are in place as are lintels over the
entranceways to the various rooms. In close proximity there is an old ma ṇi wall and what appears to be the base of a mchod
rten.
Residential structure RS6 (5080 m) is situated southwest of RS5 on the same ridgeline. Very little of this structure remains
intact.
Residential structure RS7 (5130 m) is located at the bottom of the amphitheatre that opens up above the gully in which the lower
altitude rdo khang were built. This larger structure with three different levels was built on broad slopes. The lower or forward
tier may be that of a courtyard.
Residential structure RS8 (5170) is found on the right or west rim of the amphitheatre. This fairly well-preserved structure was
built on a ledge against a cliff, situated just below a ridge-top. The structure appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions
and to have contained three tiers of rooms. The west half of the building has fared much better than the east side. There seems
to have been two rear rooms, which still have several in situ bridging stones. The floor-to-ceiling height in these rear rooms
was not less than 1.8 m. There is a niche in the rear wall. In between the rear wall and adjoining cliff there is an intervening
closed space that may have been used for storage purposes. On the west side of the middle tier there is an interclose and
entranceway accessing the rear rooms. The roof over these structures is still intact. A bit of the stone roof has also persisted
over the small forward tier west room as well.
Residential structure RS9 (5180 m) was constructed on the ridge-top above RS8. It overlooks the Lha chu. This edifice has been
mostly leveled. Nearby, there is a ruined cubic shrine of the type found at other archaic cultural sites.
Residential structure RS10 (5160 m) is found on the right rim of the amphitheatre, east of RS9. This small rdo khang was built
on an outcrop. It has been largely destroyed.
Residential structure RS11 (5160 m) was established in the bowl of the amphitheatre against a small cliff. This larger rdo khang
probably had three tiers of rooms. Exterior walls and interior partitions are around 1 m in height. The rear wall is supported by
the cliff and is 1.5 m in height. A few corbels remain in situ.
Residential structure RS12 (5170 m) was also established in the bowl of the amphitheatre on more open ground. Measuring 8
m x 10 m, it contains three tiers of rooms. Walls up to 1.5 m in height have endured. There is a niche in the rear room and one
in the middle room of the west side of the structure.
Residential structure RS13 is located roughly 200 m north of RS12, on the rim of the amphitheatre. It was not visited during
the survey.
Residential structure RS14 (5320 m) stands well above the amphitheatre on a cliff, just below the summit of the site. This is a
smaller rdo khang with a southeast aspect. A single corbel has survived in place in one of the two rear rooms. Stones were
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extracted from the structure in order to build a nearby room in the cliff. This probable Buddhist meditation cell exhibits much
cruder masonry than the rdo khang.
Residential structure RS15 (5320 m) possesses the same aspect as RS14, but it is slightly better preserved. Evidently, there were
two tiers of rooms. Walls up to 1.2 m in height and two large corbels have survived in situ.
Sde chos dgon pa
Basic site data
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Site name: Sde chos dgon pa
English equivalent: Buddhist Division monastery
Site number: B-34
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Inscribed plaques and the base of a mchod rten
The two significant residential structures (south and north) of Sde chos dgon pa were established below the confluence of the
branch valleys that form the main Sde chos valley. This religious center (gsas khang/gsas mkhar) was built on the gently sloping
valley floor. The surrounding terrain is sandy and rocky but arable lands are also found in fairly close proximity. The equal
degradation of the structures and the uniform wall types suggest that the two buildings formed an integral installation. In total,
the structures contain about 24 rooms as well as three latrines. This domestic arrangement might point to the tenancy of two
dozen or more people at the site. The existence of this religious complex is probably attributable to the extensive agricultural
base that was once found in the Sde chos valley (see A-85). The old agrarian economy likely generated the resources necessary
for the maintenance of this fairly large nucleus of habitation.
The floor level of the two buildings is situated entirely above ground. The two edifices were constructed with both all-stone
and timber roofs. These structures therefore represent an unusual hybrid type of residential monument. As with other all-stone
structures, Sde chos dgon pa does not have large central halls or regularly shaped and arranged rooms. Exterior walls and
partitions are largely intact and commonly reach 2 m in height. Much of the mud-mortar used in the 45-cm- to 60-cm-thick
random-work walls is extant. The granite blocks used in construction are primarily 20 cm to 50 cm in length. Although Buddhist
monuments are located at the site, it is not at all clear who founded Sde chos dgon pa. Either the Bonpo or Buddhists could have
established this archaic facility. The early inhabitants of Upper Tibet, however, did not usually favor valley bottom sites and a
fully above-ground aspect for the construction of their gsas khang. Taken as a whole, the structural evidence seems to point to
a transitional phase in the construction of Upper Tibetan religious edifices (from gsas khang to dgon pa), presupposing an early
historic periodization for Sde chos dgon pa.
Oral tradition
The elders of Sde chos state that Sde chos dgon pa was an ancient monastery established before the Buddhist monasteries of
Ru thog’s Rdzong ri.
Site elements
South edifice
The outer walls of the south edifice (4460 m) are irregularly-shaped and are configured with 21 different wall planes. The
perimeter of this structure measures approximately 70 m. In addition, there is a forward or east courtyard that measures 10 m
(north-south) x 5 m (east-west). The walls enclosing this open space have crumbled to their foundations. There appear to have
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been three east entrances to the south edifice. On the exterior south side of the south edifice there is a 50-cm high parapet wall,
adding significantly to the building’s elevation.
The 60-m wide north entrance is positioned outside the courtyard and accesses a north wing that seems to have constituted
five rooms. None of the internal entrances between these rooms have survived in the fragmentary wall partitions. The northeast
room (2.2 m x 2.8 m) of the north wing has a niche in the north wall. An L-shaped room measures 3 m x 3 m on its long sides.
The other three rooms of the north wing are each around 8 m². None of the roof has persisted in the north wing, but evidence
from other parts of the south edifice suggests that it was constructed with both stone and timber roofing materials.
The entrance to the central wing of the south edifice was obliterated along with the wall in which it was built. The central
entrance was situated inside the courtyard. The central wing of the facility apparently had six rooms. Among the rooms in this
portion of the structure is a latrine in the southeast corner of the building. It has a hole in the floor that is conveyed to a privy
pit with an east-facing opening at the base of the exterior wall. The largest room in the central wing is the central north room
(5 m x 3.5 m). This relatively large room with its long straight walls must have been built with a timber roof. The other five
rooms are significantly smaller and may have had stone roofs. There is a niche in a wall of the northwest room and one in the
southwest room.
The south entrance gains entry to the south wing of the building with its seven small rooms and latrine. The irregularly-shaped
rear room has corbels attached to the tops of the walls, indicating that a stone integument covered them. The largest room in
the south wing is the central north specimen (2.7 m x 3.2 m). There are two niches in the north wall of this room. From the
central north room there is an entranceway (1 m x 50 cm) to the west compartment and an entranceway (1.1 m x 50 cm) to the
south compartment (situated in the southwest corner of the south edifice). There are two niches and a recess (1 m x 50 cm) in
the west compartment. Many of the roof corbels in the tiny west room are in situ. The maximum floor-to-ceiling height of the
west room is 1.8 m. Accounting for the corbels, bridging stones and sheathing slabs, the total height of the west room must have
been around 2.2 m. The stone roof in the south room (1.8 m x 1.5 m) is partly intact. The floor-to-ceiling height of this room is
around 1.6 m. There was also a central south room as well as three forward rooms in the south wing of the south edifice.
North edifice
The north edifice (4470 m) is situated 75 m northwest of the south edifice, at slightly higher elevation. It measures 8.3 m (east
wall) x 11 m (south wall) x 9.7 m (west wall) x 10.4 m (north wall). This building is generally aligned in the cardinal directions.
Although none of the roof is extant in the north edifice, the walls are much straighter than the south edifice, indicating that it
was largely or entirely constructed with a timber roof. Many of the walls still reach 1.5 to 2 m in height. The north edifice
contains five rooms: northwest (3.5 m x 2.7 m), southwest (3 m x 3.1 m), northeast (2 m x 2.6 m), southeast (2.7 m x 2.5 m),
central (6.5 m x 3.6 m), as well as a small entrance vestibule. The latrine is accessed from the southwest room. The latrine
comprises a small extension of the main body of the structure. The latrine privy pit and its exterior wall opening are still intact.
There is also a small courtyard on the east side of the building. Inside the courtyard there is a broken stone mortar formed from
a hollowed boulder.
sde chos shrine
Two meters north of the south edifice there is a rectangular masonry structure (5.6 m x 1.9 x 1.3 m). Local elders report that it
is the base of a Rigs gsum mgon po mchod rten that was destroyed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Beside it is a crudely
built wall with a few shards of old inscribed plaques.
mChod rten bdun bu
A couple kilometers down valley from the agrarian village of Sde chos there is a row of ancient mchod rten called mchod rten
bdun bu. They are set in the midst of defunct agricultural fields. According to village elders, these mchod rten were built by
that ancient tribe, the Skal mon, and were destroyed before living memory. This oral tradition, the absence of inscribed plaques
and the fact that no contemporary observances are held at the site may suggest that these shrines were built by the Bonpo. The
six mchod rten (perhaps there was once a seventh specimen as the name suggests) form a north-south line 28 m in length. They
were primarily built of granite blocks and corbels but some adobe blocks are also interspersed in the constructions. Structures
are composed of random-rubble walls, containing stones 20 cm to 70 cm in length.
The two north and two south mchod rten each have a single bum pa, and were designed in a similar fashion to modern
variants. The two middle mchod rten had multiple bum pa (local accounts claim that each of these specimens had five bum pa).
The number given to each mchod rten reflects their sequential position from south to north:
mchod rten 1
The MT1 shrine (2.75 m x 2.75 m) is approximately 3 m in height and was apparently covered in a mud-based veneer tinted
with red ochre. The base and cylindrical bum pa are hollow. The base appears to consist of two tiers: a lower main tier and an
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upper tier of lesser height. The corbels, stacked diagonally on top of one another to create the top section of the base, are visible.
These corbels are all less than 1 m in length. The lower two rungs of the spire (’khor lo) are extant. This spire was probably
short and squat as is common in early mchod rten architecture.
mchod rten 2
MT2 (3 m x 3 m) is of the same design and construction as MT1. The cylindrical bum pa tapers slightly outwards towards the
top.
mchod rten 3
There is a portal (1m x 70 cm) in the east wall of the 1.6-m high base of MT3 (4 m x 4 m). The 50-cm to 70-cm thick exterior
walls enclose a substantial interior, which is divided by a north-south partition wall into two sections. A 1.6 m long bridging
stone spans the partition wall and exterior south wall. A 1.2-m long capstone still covers the northeast corner of the base. What
ostensibly are the remains of a small bum pa rest upon this stone slab. A very small fragment of the southeast bum pa has also
survived.84 In situ corbels are also found on top of the east wall of the mchod rten base. The exact purpose of this hollow base
is not known, but it is likely to have had an enshrining function.
mchod rten 4
MT4 (4 m x 4m) is of the same design and construction as MT3. Its base has been reduced to an incomplete shell.
mchod rten 5
MT5 (3 m x 3m) is of the same type as MT1 and MT2.
mchod rten 6
The 1-m high base of MT6 (2 m x 2m) was mud plastered. Some adobe blocks cap the base but not enough of them remain in
place to gauge the type of structure they created.
Lha lung
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Site name: Lha lung
English equivalent: Divine Valley
Site number: B-35
Site typology: I.2a
Geographic coordinates (E. long.): 79º 45.5΄
In the upper Lha lung valley there are seven all-stone corbelled structures dispersed over a fairly wide area. At the head of the
narrow and rocky Lha lung valley stands the main Yul lha (territorial deity) of Ru thog, the mountain Ge khod gnyan lung.85
All but the lower two rdo khang are in direct view of Ge khod gnyan lung, the residence of a god important to the Bonpo to the
present day. The terrain of the valley is thickly covered in gra ma brush. Archaic cultural horizon anchorites must have used
these secluded residential structures for religious practice. All the rdo khang have mud-mortared random-rubble walls, however,
much of the mortar has disappeared from the exterior joints. Thin blocks and slabs up to 80 cm in length were used in construction.
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mchod rten with elongated bases and rows of small bum pa, which were almost certainly built by the Bonpo, are found at the Do dril bu site at Bkra ri
gnam mtsho (B-13) (Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 243) and on the north shore of Da rog mtsho (Bellezza, John Vincent. “A Preliminary Archaeological
Survey of Da rog mtsho.” The Tibet Journal 24, no. 1 [1999]: 66).
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For lore and textual information about this sacred mountain see Bellezza, Calling Down the Gods; Bellezza, Zhang Zhung.
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The exterior faces of these stones appear to have been hewn flat. There is now no permanent source of water in the upper Lha
lung valley, but there certainly must have been one when the facility was built and used.
Oral tradition
Some residents of ru thog assert that Lha lung was a Skal mon residential installation.
Site elements
rDo khang complex
The numbers assigned to each rdo khang reflect their relative position in the valley. The highest elevation specimen is RS1 and
the lowest specimen is RS7. RS1 to RS5 face south towards Ge khod gnyan lung.
Residential structure RS1 (6.5 m x 7 m / 4550 m) is found in the valley bottom and has a good southern exposure. It was
constructed on a level piece of ground in between two gullies. This structure seems to have had four very small south rooms,
all of which have been leveled. There are also two much better preserved north rooms with wall segments up to 1.5 m in height.
The northeast room has a few in situ corbels resting on the walls. The internal height of the northwest room is 1.3 m but some
infilling is likely to have occurred over time. Bearing down on the corbels in the northwest room are several sheathing slabs up
to 1 m in length. Extending 11 m from the south face of the building there is a wall that partly encloses an open courtyard space.
Residential structure RS2 (11.5 m x 7 m / 4750 m) is in poor condition. It appears to have consisted of two tiers of small rooms.
Slabs and bridging stones are strewn around the site. One bridging stone, (1.3 m in length) cut to have four even sides, is found
among them. The rear wall of RS2 was deeply built into a steep and rocky slope. On the northwest side of the rear wall, a few
corbels and roof slabs are in place. On the east side of the rear wall there is a recess covered with stone slabs. Part of the roof
still covers what was probably the central rear room; this room has been almost completely filled with earth and rubble.
Residential structure RS3 is located 9.5 m east of RS2. Its fractional foundation seems to measure 8 m x 4 m.
Residential structure RS4 is situated 30 m east or down valley of RS3. It was built at the base of the slope. Very little of this
structure is in evidence, but it appears to have been comprised of three tiers of rooms. In what may have been the middle tier,
there is a small 1.6-m high wall fragment punctuated by an integral entranceway (1 m x 50 cm).
Residential structure RS5 (4730 m) is situated approximately 70 m down valley from RS4. It was founded at the base of a steep
talus-blanketed slope on the right side of the Lha lung valley. The entire forward or southwest section of the structure has been
demolished. RS5 measured 9 m by a minimum of 5 m. The rear or northeast wall was built into the slope to a depth of 1.8 m.
Some corbels and bridging stones are still attached to the rear wall. There were either two or three rear rooms. Three niches are
found in the back wall of the rear rooms.
Residential structure RS6 (7.5 m x 6 m / 4660 m) is found in the valley bottom roughly 200 m below RS5. It was built at the
foot of the slope flanking the left side of the valley and is bounded by ancient moraines. All but the west corner of the carcass
has been reduced to piles of rubble. The west corner was built 1 m into the adjoining slope and has one in situ corbel. This wall
contains many stones 40 cm to 70 cm in length. Bridging stones and corbels are dispersed around the ruin.
Residential structure RS7 is located 25 m east of RS6, in the middle of the valley floor. This structure is also bounded by ancient
moraines. Its size and design characteristics have been lost through the construction of a corral (Ru thog dialect = lhas kha). On
the west and north side of the corral there are bits of the original walls. In a 1.2-m high-northwest wall fragment, a niche has
survived.
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Other structures
On a shelf above the left side of the mouth of the Lha lung valley there is what may be the foundation of a small residential
structure (4500 m).
Ge khod mkhar lung
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Site name: Ge khod mkhar lung (Lower
English equivalent: Demon Destroyer Castle Valley
Site number: B-36
Site typology: I.2a
Ge khod mkhar lung (Lower) sits on the edge of the Ge khod mkhar lung valley. The site is under the shadow of the Ge khod
mkhar lung castle (A-89), situated just to the west. Ge khod mkhar lung (Lower) is comprised of a residential complex consisting
of caves and structural vestiges. Although this site is highly degraded, it appears to have once been the focus of significant
settlement. The structural dispersion covers an area of 30 m x 70 m, and extends 10 m up the slope bounding the right side of
the Ge khod mkhar lung valley. At the bottom end of the site there is a group of corrals built deeply into the slope. They were
created from old buildings, some of the footings of which exist in the walls of the livestock pens. These corrals no longer seem
to be in use. The upper part of the site consists of no less than 12 collapsed or partly collapsed caves, which had been hewn
from the earth and rock of the slope. At the mouth of a few caves are traces of masonry façades. The caves appear to have been
relatively small in size.
Oral tradition
According to some Ru thog natives, Ge khod mkhar lung (Lower) was an ancient Skal mon residential site.
Affiliated sites
East residential structure
In the first side valley, east or upstream of the Ge khod mkhar lung citadel, there is another building foundation (33º 20.8΄ N.
lat. / 79º 44.8΄ E. long / 4420 m). This very poorly preserved structure (8 m x 12 m) is found on a moderate slope squeezed
between two gullies. It appears that this was once a substantial edifice. Like most structures at Ge khod mkhar lung, this ruined
building is in direct view of the Bon holy mountain Ge khod gnyan lung.
Valley bottom remains
In the bottom of the Ge khod mkhar lung valley, under the shadow of the ancient citadel, there appears to be many traces of
manmade structures. So little evidence remains that their existence could not be positively established. The entire valley floor
is covered in boulders that appear to have been deposited by a devastating flood originating from the Lha lung valley. The
present-day seasonal agricultural village of Ge khod mkhar lung may also have obscured traces of earlier settlement. Other
archaic citadels in the region (Mkhar ru mkhar gog (A-85), Spo sa mkhar gog (A-84), She rang mkhar lung (A-87), and Mkhar
po che (A-86)) are associated with extensive residential remains, so we might expect that the important valley of Ge khod mkhar
lung was as well. The presence of arable land in the valley adds to the likelihood that it has long been a focus of sedentary
settlement.
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Dgon pa’i do
Basic site data
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Site name: Dgon pa’i do
English equivalent: Island of the Monastery
Site number: B-37
Site typology: I.2a
Elevation: 4250 m
The small island of Dgon pa’i do hosts the vestiges of all-stone residential structures. This island is located less than 1 km from
the south shore of the freshwater lake mtsho mo ngang la ring mo. Dgon pa’i do is only accessible on foot in the winter or by
boat during other times of the year. This insular site must have provided the ancient settlers with a strong defensive posture.
The early settlement of the island is liable to have had religious and geomantic dimensions connected to the sacred status of
mtsho mo ngang la ring mo. The placement of the residential facility in the midst of a lake goddess afforded it an innermost or
secret aspect, as well as a mantle of social and economic exclusivity. There were no less than six habitational structures at Dgon
pa’i do, which could have potentially housed more than two dozen people. The scant structural evidence preserved at the site
indicates that these buildings were of the rdo khang type. All structures at Dgon pa’i do have a southern aspect and were
constructed with random-rubble walls. These highly weathered walls were mud mortared but much of this adhesive material
has disappeared with time.
Oral tradition
Dgon pa’i do is said by area residents to have been an ancient monastery.
Site elements
Island complex
West structures
On the 20-m high conical summit of the island there are faint traces of what must have been a ritual cairn (la btsas) or shrine
of the rten mkhar or lha gtsug class. Below the summit on the southwest side of the island there is a tiny ruined building (2.5
m x 2.5 m) built into a cliff. Its exterior walls reach 1.3 m and interior walls 90 cm in height. Adjacent to this structure there is
a foundation (4 m x 4.7 m) that must have supported an independent building. On a wide bench 13.5 m to the south there are
the ruins of a cubic shrine (1.3 m x 1.3 m x 50 cm). Upslope, or 13.5 m to the north of this shrine, there are scant remains at
two levels under the summit. These are the probable vestiges of another building. On the same bench as the shrine, 8 m to the
northeast, there are traces of another small residential structure whose rear flank was built into a steep slope (3.4 x 3.3 m).
Another residential structure may be located 19 m southwest of the shrine but almost nothing of it has endured.
Best preserved building
A little more than 5 m northeast of the structure measuring 3.4 m x 3.3 m there is the best-preserved building at Dgon pa’i do.
Its design and constructional features identify this structure as a rdo khang. This all-stone edifice was split between two elevations
(6.7 m x 5.2 m). Its walls are 50 cm to 60 cm thick. The lower level has been mostly eliminated. The upper level consists of
two rooms: southwest (90 cm x 1.3 m) and northeast (3 m x 1.8 m). These two rooms were built 1.2 m into the rear slope. The
rear rooms are interconnected by a tiny entrance (60 cm x 60 cm). The tiny southwest compartment is too small to have been
inhabited and must have had an alternative function (storage or ritual?). The forward wall of the rear tier attains a maximum
height of 1.6 m. There is a small niche on the exterior side of the wall in front of the rear southwest room. Bits of mud plaster
still stick to the interior walls of the edifice.
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Other structures
Directly below the best-preserved edifice of Dgon pa’i do there are the vestiges of an adjacent building or outlying wing. Only
small wall-footing fragments have survived. This once large structure was probably built in two tiers across an 11-m transverse
section of the slope. There is another small building foundation (4 m x 3 m) 19 m northeast of the best-preserved edifice.
Mtha’ ser gog
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Site name: Mtha’ ser gog
English equivalent: Yellow Ruin at the Margin
Site number: B-38
Site typology: I.2a
Elevation: 4440 m
Administrative location (township): Ra bang
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A wall with inscribed plaques of the ma ṇi mantra.
Mtha’ ser gog, sits on the west or left side of the Mthon kha lung valley. This probable all-stone building is so named for its
location at the margin of the marshy valley bottom and the well-drained slopes of the adjoining ridge. The archaic design and
construction of Mtha’ ser gog indicate that it was a rdo khang, The structure is situated at the foot of a prominent red formation,
approximately 3 km up valley from the contemporary village of Mthon kha lung. The building faces east, the direction of the
one exterior entryway. Significant exterior wall and interior partition segments are intact, reaching 1 m to 2 m in elevation.
None of the roof appurtenances, however, have survived intact. The overall dimensions of the five-room edifice are 9.3 m
(north-south) x 8.6 m (east-west). There is also a very poorly preserved small structural extension on the northeast side of the
building. Mtha’ ser gog contains three rear/west rooms and two forward/east rooms divided from one another by a corridor.
Oral tradition
According to local elders, Mtha’ ser gog was being used as a retreat house several generations ago.
Site elements
Residential complex
Main edifice
The 60-cm- to 80-cm-thick walls of the main edifice are robust and somewhat irregular in plan. The mud-mortared, random-work
walls are composed of both granite and dark gray metamorphic blocks and slabs. The stones are primarily 10 cm to 60 cm in
length, and reach a maximum length of 1.3 m. Most of the exterior faces of the stones were cut flat. The exterior rear or west
wall of the main edifice has a height of 1.5 m and an interior height of 2.3 m, illustrating the way in which the rear rooms were
built into the slope, according them a semi-subterranean aspect. The interior corners of the rooms are somewhat rounded, another
common design feature of rdo khang architecture. There are small areas of clay-based plaster remaining on the interior walls
of the building, especially in the northwest room. There are also small traces of ochre tinted plaster on the exterior north wall.
The northwest room (2.3 m x 4.4 m) of the rear tier is the largest in the main edifice (it may have been partially divided by
a partition wall). The wall dividing the northwest and central west rooms of the rear tier (80 cm thick) still reaches its original
height of 1.7 m in some places. This partition wall was massively constructed to support the great weight of a stone roof. There
is a central corridor that runs between the rear and forward tier of rooms. This corridor is up to 1.5 m in width and directly
connected to the outer entrance vestibule (1.3 m x 2.6 m). An approximately 70-cm wide entrance in the south wall of the
corridor leads to the northwest room. The central west room (2.5 m x 3.2 m) of the rear tier appears to have been one undivided
space. The southwest room (1.6 m x 4.4 m) of the rear tier may have been broken into east and west parts by a buttress that
served as an intermediate load-bearing structure. The northeast room of the forward tier (2.6 m x 2.5 m) is particularly decrepit.
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The southeast room (2.4 m x 3.7 m) of the forward tier has its entrance in the north wall of the vestibule. The southeast room
is bisected north-south by a 1.2-m long buttress, which helped to support the stone roof.
Outbound structures
Adjacent to the south side of the main edifice there is a now disused corral. Its construction was undoubtedly destructive to the
religious center, which provided a ready source of building materials for the ’brog pa herders. Three meters north of the main
rdo khang there is a fragmentary foundation (4.4 m x 4 m). There may also be a small building foundation on the north side of
the main edifice. There are the remains of a cubic shrine (1.1 m x 90 cm x 1 m) reposing on a slope, 14 m southwest of the main
building This shrine was skillfully constructed of dressed stones and was mud mortared. There is a foundation of what appears
to have been a building with two rooms (3 m x 7.5 m) situated 30 m uphill of the main edifice. It was built with a cliff as its
backdrop. A forward wall segment in this structure reaches 1.2 m in height. There is some structural evidence to indicate that
a wall followed the line of the slope south of the main edifice and this upper level structure.
Buddhist shrines
A wall with inscribed plaques is found immediately west or upslope of the main rdo khang. There are still many old carved
stones at this shrine. Some distance down valley of Mtha’ ser gog there is a ruined mchod rten. It was also built on the left edge
of the valley and is composed of dark gray metamorphic stones.
mthon kha lung agriculture
In the contemporary period, cultivation is carried out in the lower reaches of the Mthon kha lung valley. This agriculture,
however, is minimal and many fields lie fallow each year. It would appear that more intensive agriculture was practiced when
the valley’s water was in more plentiful supply.
Khang pa dmar gog
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Site name: Khang pa dmar gog
English equivalent: Red Ruin House
Site number: B-39
Administrative location (township): Khra tshang
Administrative location (county): Mtsho chen
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Recently carved plaques primarily featuring the zhi khro deities and the savioress
Sgrol ma. Old plaques with the ma ṇi mantra are found in the vicinity of the spring that waters the site.
Maps: UTRS VII, UTRS XI
Khang pa dmar gog is found on the rocky lower flanks of the ridge bounding the left side of the ’bur mo valley. Below the site,
a spring issues forth to join the valley’s watercourse. There are three ruined stone residential complexes on the steep hillside,
constructed at different elevations, which exhibit archaic architectural traits. These three complexes have analogous constructional
features and degradation characteristics, suggesting that they formed an integral site in terms of function and chronology. Walls
are of the mud-mortared, random-rubble variety. The brown stones used in construction were mostly unworked, and tend to be
smaller (10 cm to 40 cm in length), but longer examples are also found in the wall fabric. The inferred occurrence of both stone
and timber roofs at Khang pa dmar gog suggests that it represents an architectural transition between the Bon gsas khang and
Buddhist dgon pa. As such, an early historic period date seems indicated.
Oral tradition
According to local ’brog pa, Khang pa dmar gog was an ancient religious center.
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Site elements
Upper complex
The upper complex consists of two edifices.
North building
The north building (4.2 m x 3.6 m) has been reduced to its footings.
South building
The adjacent south building (6 m x 4.8 m) has 50-cm- to 60-cm-thick walls, which reach a maximum exterior height of 3.2 m
and a maximum interior height of 1.7 m, the difference in height being accounted for the underpinning revetment. The rear wall
of the south building was built into the slope to a depth of 1 m. It appears to have contained a single room as there are no partition
walls visible. The south building has the long, straight walls of a structure built with a timber roof.
Middle complex
The middle complex is situated 7 m directly below the upper complex. It is comprised of two buildings.
South building
The south building (5.7 m x 4.5 m) appears to have contained just one room. The rear or west wall is built 3 m into the slope,
giving the south building a strong semi-subterranean aspect. The forward or east wall is up to 4 m in height, half of this elevation
being made up by a revetment. In the rear wall of the south building, about 1.9 m above the floor level, there are sockets that
must have accommodated stone corbels or wooden beams. This architectural feature probably indicates that the south building
was two stories tall. Similar sockets are encountered at Dbang phyug mgon po mkhar (A-51). Near the upper extent of the
forward wall there are the remains of a 55-cm wide window. In the north wall at floor level there is an opening (40 cm x 45
cm), the function of which is unclear. There is also a small opening in the north wall that may have been designed for ventilation.
Small remnants of mud plaster are found affixed to the interior walls of the south building.
North building
The north building stands 2.8 m north of the south building at the same elevation. The north building (9 m x 4.7 m) appears to
have been partitioned into a single row of three rooms. In the south wall, which reaches a height of 2.7 m, there is a window
opening (25 cm x 25 cm). The forward wall has been reduced to the revetment and freestanding fragments (a maximum of 50
cm in height). The forward wall has a total maximum height of 2 m. In the south room there are two small niches in the rear
wall and in the rear wall of the middle room there is a larger niche. The south room is only 1.5 m in width and between it and
the middle room there is an intervening 60-cm- to 80-cm-thick curved partition wall. There is a 90 cm gap between the south
and middle rooms. The total length of the south and middle rooms is 5.5 m (north-south). The middle room is 3 m in width. At
the foot of the revetment, below the middle room, there is a cavity (40 cm x 45 cm x 40 cm). The design features (heavy wall
buttressing, room alignments and ground plan) of the south and middle rooms of the north building indicate that they were built
with a stone roof. The north room of the north building is now little more than a section of revetment against the forward slope.
The north room was narrower than the adjoining rooms.
Lower complex
The lower complex consists of a single building divided into two rooms, which measures 8.4 m (north-south) x 3.8 m (east-west).
The forward wall is over 2 m in height and is comprised mainly of a revetment. Freestanding walls have been mostly obliterated.
From the available structural evidence, it could not be determined whether this structure had a stone or timber roof.
Shrine
At the northwest or upper end of Khang pa dmar gog there is a cubic structure (1.3 m x 1.3 m). It is situated 44 m north of the
upper complex at 7 m higher elevation. On its downhill flank, this structure is 70 cm in height while its uphill side is flush with
the slope. Such semi-subterranean aspect shrines are fairly common at the archaic residential centers of Upper Tibet, and are
likely to have been used in the worship of elemental deities. On the top of the ruined ceremonial structure there is an old carved
plaque.
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Brag sgam rdzong
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Site name: Brag sgam rdzong
English equivalent: Rock Formation Chest Fortress
Site number: B-40
Administrative location (township): Smad pa
Administrative location (county): Shan rtsa
Maps: UTRS IX
Brag sgam rdzong is situated on the spur of a ridge overlooking the rich pasturelands of the ’Brug gtsang po basin. The location
commands wide views of the ’Brug gtsang po basin in all but the eastern direction. The site consists of six buildings that were
established on a turf-covered southern aspect ridgeback. These structures are set 5 m to 7 m vertically apart in a more or less
single line on the approximately 15° slope. Although the site is called a fortress (rdzong), the rather exposed spur it was built
on is not particularly defensible. The high ground of an adjoining summit outflanks the site. Furthermore, there is an absence
of the defensive bulwarks usually associated with Upper Tibetan strongholds. Brag sgam rdzong is more likely to have been an
elite residence with both religious and social functions. The highest edifice of the site (RS1) exhibits rammed-earth (gyang)
walls, a construction feature rarely found in archaic cultural horizon Byang thang architecture. Other walls of the complex are
of the random-rubble clay- or mud-mortar type. These walls (60 to 70 cm thick) contain variable-length stones (primarily a
blue-gray metamorphic rock?), the exterior faces of which were hewn flat. Except for RS1, all edifices were built with all-stone
corbelled roof assemblies. This is the most easterly site in Upper Tibet to still have in situ evidence of such constructions. Unlike
all-stone structures at some other sites, those at Brag sgam rdzong are not well aligned in the cardinal directions.
Brag sgam rdzong apparently drew its economic well-being from the extensive pasturage that lies below the site (regional
and inter-regional trade notwithstanding). To the south and east of the ridge there are a series of springs that must have provided
water for the inhabitants’ use. The use of composite rammed earth and stone walls, as well as the oral tradition surrounding the
site, suggest that Brag sgam rdzong dates to the early historic period. The archaic cultural identity of Brag sgam rdzong is
supported by the following factors:
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Its lofty and isolated setting on an exposed Byang thang ridge.
The largely all-stone corbelled construction of the complex.
The complete absence of Buddhist emblems and contemporary ritual usage.
The oral tradition connected to the site.
Oral tradition
Local elders have preserved the following legend: When Tibet was looking for a Buddhist capital in the 7th century CE Brag
sgam rdzong was considered before Lha sa. The site, however, was found to be unsuitable. The fortress was then founded at
this location. Later, it met its end when a group of bandits harried the area. This led to a duel between the bandit chieftain and
the leader of Brag sgam rdzong. As a result, both figures were killed. The two antagonists are said to be buried at the site.
Township officials of Smad pa report that substantial amounts of human remains have been found in the vicinity of the fortress
during the construction of houses.
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Site elements
Residential complex
Residential structure RS1, elevated 70 m above the ’Brug gtsang po basin, is the highest and largest structure of Brag sgam
rdzong. It boasts of stone and rammed-earth walls 4 m to 5 m in height. Although its original height is not known, RS1 appears
to have been two stories tall. Its three eastern aspect wall alignments each measure 5.8 m, 2.4 m and 3 m. Its other walls measure:
7 m (south), 9.6 m (north) and 9.8 m (west). The lower portions of the walls (up to 1.3 m high) are composed of random-work
with variable-sized stones (primarily 20 cm to 50 cm long). These stone walls are surmounted by highly eroded rammed-earth
upper walls (now 50 cm to 60 cm thick). The rammed-earth contains a prominent gravel matrix and stone slabs are embedded
in a few places in these walls. The regularly spaced orifices used to hold the shuttering pins during the construction process are
visible all along the earthen walls.
On its exterior north and west faces, RS1 is reinforced by stone buttresses up to 2 m in height. The entranceway is on the
east side of the building. From a landing, it climbs 2 m to the interior of the building. There are three main partition wall fragments
still in situ in RS1, but originally it may have been subdivided into more rooms. Near the west corner of the interior, two corbels
protrude around 20 cm from the outer wall. These corbels are suspended 60 cm above the current floor level (originally, the
floor appears to have been much lower). In close proximity to these in situ corbels are the remains of a basement (3 m wide,
1.5 m deep). The roof of this inferior space is composed of corbels and bridging stones, which are now obscured by much earth
and stone debris. There are the remains of a partition wall in the basement.
RS1 is enclosed by substantial retaining walls in all directions. The dimensions of these low-lying walls are as follows: 15.6
m (north), 19.8 m (south), 9.8 m (west), and 8.6 m (east). South and east of RS1, along the edge of the rocky formation, there
are random-work walls that reach 2.3 m in height. Perhaps this was a ceremonial feature.
Residential structure RS2 was built into a cliff face on the east side of the ridge. It is situated approximately 7 m below RS1.
RS2 consists of a façade wall (3.6 m long, up to 4 m high) that encloses the side of the cliff. The top of the façade has a 60 cm
overlap (created by the progressive inward placement of the vertical courses of masonry), indicating that RS2 had an all-stone
corbelled roof. The façade is punctuated by an intact entranceway (1.2 m x 65 cm). The single room inside (2.2 m x 2.4 m) has
a floor-to-ceiling height of at least 2 m.
Residential structure RS3 (6.8 m x 6 m) is situated 21.5 m from RS2 in a downhill or southerly direction. Built on a rock outcrop,
this building apparently consisted of four rooms. The stone walls of RS3 are 60 cm to 70 cm thick, and up to 2 m in height on
the downhill/east side of the structure. The two south/lower rooms are heavily disintegrated. The entranceway to RS3 is in the
east corner of the south half of the structure. This entranceway (90 cm x 55 cm) climbs about 1 m from the exterior side of the
building to the interior. In the northwest room three pairs of corbels as well as two bridging stones are still affixed to the walls.
The bridging stones (1 m long) were laid diagonally across two corners of the northwest room. There is a niche in the south
wall, a niche in the west wall and two niches in the north wall of the northwest room (the largest of which measures 50 cm x
35 cm). In the northeast room there are two in situ pairs of corbels and a bridging stone in the corner.
Residential structure RS4 (6.3 m x 6.5 m) is located 22 m downhill of RS3. The lower part of this edifice is situated on the edge
of an east-facing cliff. All walls in this structure have been reduced to 1 m or less in height. RS4 was built with two distinct
elevations. The lower tier is highly degraded thus little can be said about its ground plan. The upper tier probably contained two
or three small rooms. The upper/rear wall of RS4 is set 80 cm into the slope.
Residential structure RS5 (6.6 m x 4 m), a highly dissolute structure, is situated 34 m down the ridgeback from RS3. Its walls
are around 60 cm thick. RS5 was probably divided into at least two rooms. The south wall (exterior height: 2 m, interior height:
1.4 m) is the most intact element remaining in the structure. The rounded corners of the south wall are a telltale rdo khang design
trait.
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Residential structure RS6 (4.8 m x 10.2 m) is situated 32 m downhill of RS5. This structure has been reduced to its footings. It
is bisected by one main partition wall footing.
Sman bla pho brang
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Site name: Sman bla pho brang (North)
English equivalent: Medicine Buddha Palace
Site number: B-41
Site typology: I.2a
Elevation: 5220 m
The single all-stone corbelled structure of Sman bla pho brang (North) is located in the valley immediately north of the Sman
bla pho brang mountain. This hanging valley is an effluent of the Rdzong chu in which runs the east side of the Ti se pilgrim’s
circuit. The rdo khang is situated on the right side of the valley about 30 m above its floor. This valley is constricted by the
steep flanks of the mountains and does not enjoy the panoramic views of other rdo khang sites at Ti se. Its hidden location must
have afforded Sman bla pho brang (North) a considerable degree of privacy and security, ideal for religious practice. It was
built on a moderately angled boulder-strewn slope and is aligned in the cardinal directions. This structure is of the same type
found at other locations around Ti se (B-9, B-10, B-20, B-21, B-22, B-33, and B-42). The most important of these, Gnyan po
ri rdzong (B-22) and Gyang grags (B-9), are likely to have been the archaic political nerve centers of Ti se.
Oral tradition
None was collected.
Site elements
Sman bla pho brang (North) measures 8.7 m (east-west) x 5.5 m (north-south), not including what may have been a forward
vestibule, which adds 1.5 m to its north-south dimension. The orange climax lichen growing on the dissolving walls shows that
they have been standing for a very long time. No mortar was detected in the solidly built random-rubble walls. Corbels and
sheathing (up to 1.5 m long) lie scattered in the rubble. Variable-length stones (12 cm to 90 cm) were carefully selected for their
regular exterior faces. Walls have been reduced to 1 m to 1.5 m in height. The entranceway to the edifice is located in the outer
east wall. The south-facing structure contained two rows of rooms built at almost the same elevation: north/rear and south/forward.
There were probably three rooms in each row. The rear wall of the building is set only 40 cm below the uphill slope. The forward
wall, which probably enclosed a vestibule, has been nearly obliterated. In the west room of the south row there is a large corbel
in place. On the east side of the building there are the remains of a walled enclosure (6.5 m x 4.5 m). This must have been an
open-air domestic space.
A dbang
Basic site data
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Site name: A dbang
Site number: B-42
Site typology: I.2a
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A dbang,86 a settlement of all-stone corbelled edifices, is located in the eponymous valley east of the Ti se pilgrim’s circuit. The
site occupies the north rim of an amphitheatre in the upper portion of the A dbang valley. Below this amphitheatre, the many
rivulets of the a dbang chu converge. The nine poorly preserved rdo khang of the site were built on a series of rocky and
turf-covered shelves. The shifting sandy soil appears to have hastened their disintegration. Although the structures are quite
widely spaced, they are all in view of one another. A pass called Nang chu la connects A dbang with Rdzong chu on the Ti se
circumambulatory trail. The edifices of A dbang have a southern or southwestern aspect and are in eyeshot of La lnga mtsho.
From vantage points just above the site ma pang g.yu mtsho can also be seen. Although all the Rdo khang are extremely degraded,
it appears that they were constructed in the typical fashion. All structures have been leveled below the roofline. Rather than
being oriented in the cardinal directions, these buildings were aligned in conformance with local topographic conditions. There
are no signs of mortar in the random-rubble walls (50 cm to 60 cm thick). Gray slabs of variable length (primarily 20 cm to 60
cm long) were used in the construction of these walls. Scattered among the debris of the Rdo khang are corbels and roof sheathing
(up to 1.5 m long).
A dbang was an integral community occupying an exclusive geographic zone. It probably catered to the religious and perhaps
political elite of the region, who physically removed themselves from the main centers of economic production (pastoral and
agricultural) located in lower elevation areas. Unlike some of the archaic residential sites around Ti se, there are no signs that
the Buddhists reoccupied A dbang. Its location outside the confines of the Ti se circumambulatory path appears to have made
this site of marginal importance to the Buddhists of the area. Given the extent of the ruins, several dozen people may have once
resided at any given time at A dbang. There would be little use for a single individual to occupy the eight or nine rooms that
seem to have comprised most buildings. As such, these rdo khang may have housed family units or groups of religious
practitioners.
Oral tradition
None appears to exist.
Site elements
Residential complex
Residential structure RS1 (9.3 m x 4.3 m)87 is located on the edge of a grassy prow (30° 58.04΄ N. lat. / 81° 22.98΄ E. long. /
5170 m). It is possible that there was also a forward tier of rooms in this building (adding about 4 m to its width) but the structural
evidence is inconclusive. Most of RS1 has been reduced to fragmentary foundations but small standing wall segments (up to
60 cm high) also exist.
Residential structure RS2 (13 m x 5.1 m) is located directly above RS1 on a small rocky shelf (58.08΄ / 23.04΄ / 5210 m). A
forward wall fragment (1.5 m long, 1 m high) has survived but the rest of the structure has been leveled. It appears to have had
two rows of rooms oriented laterally with the slope. These rows are at the same elevation and each probably contained four
rooms. The rear wall of RS2 is built into the uphill slope to a depth of 50 cm.
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Possibly the spelling of this toponym should be A wang, reflecting a Zhang zhung language orthography. A place called A wang that appears to be located
in Gu ge is noted in conjunction with medieval military campaigns (Vitali, The Kingdoms of Gu.ge Pu.hrang, 827, n. 357).
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The first dimension given for the various rdo khang conforms to the tranverse plane of the slope.
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Residential structure RS3 (7.2 m x 4.6 m) has been reduced to a dissolute foundation overgrown with turf (58.12΄ / 22.97΄ /
5210 m).
Residential structure RS4 (14 m x 8 m) is situated 10 m northwest of RS3. This relatively large structure had two or three rows
of rooms all built at the same elevation. Most walls have been leveled but in spots they reach up to 80 cm in height. Most partition
walls have been destroyed so the ground plan of RS4 is ambiguous. The rear wall of RS4 is built about 50 cm into the uphill
slope.
Residential structure RS5 (approximately 7.2 m x 7.2 m) is situated 35 m northwest of RS4. RS5 sits on its own turf-covered
shelf. Only the tiniest bits of coherent footings have survived.
Residential structure RS6 (11.2 m x 12.2 m) is the largest structure at A dbang, and occupies its own grassy shelf (58.16΄ /
22.90΄ / 52 10 m). It contained three rows of rooms, probably with three rooms in each. The rear row of rooms is situated about
70 cm higher than the two forward rows. Only small coherent wall segments remain in RS6; these reach a maximum height of
60 cm. An east wall fragment is built 90 cm into the slope.
Residential structure RS7 (10 m x 8.4 m) is located directly below RS6 at the foot of a slope (58.13΄ / 22.90΄ / 5190 m). This
edifice has been reduced to heaps of stones except for its rear wall, which was built 50 cm to 90 cm into the uphill slope.
Residential structure RS8 (9 m x 8.5 m) is situated 20 m west of RS7 on the same shelf (58.13΄ / 22.88 ΄ / 5190 m). This structure
is so deteriorated that even little of its foundation is coherent. There is a small lhas ra (corral) amid rubble on the edge of a shelf
53 m southwest of RS8. This corral and stones dispersed around it could possibly have been part of another rdo khang or a
shrine complex.
Residential structure RS9 was built on the same shelf as RS7 and RS8 (58.10΄ / 22.89΄ / 5190 m). RS9 is so fragmentary that
even its overall dimensions are unclear.
Srin mo rdzong
Basic site data
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Site name: Srin mo rdzong
English equivalent: Fortress of the srin mo
Alternative site name: Sog lcam khang
English equivalent: House of the sog po Lady
Site number: B-76
Site typology: I.2x
Elevation: 4650 m
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Plaques with the ma ṇi mantra and mchod rten.
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The remains of what is reported to have been a residential structure called Srin mo rdzong are found on a sandy plain in the
midst of Sog village. The fragmentary foundations of the single structure are aligned in the cardinal directions, and are elevated
about 1.5 m above the surrounding plain. The main foundation measures 13 m (north-south) x 10 m (east-west) and contains
stones predominantly 70 cm to 1.2 m in length. On this foundation, a mchod rten and wall with ma ṇi plaques were built with
stones extracted from the ruins. Traces of wall-footings are also found 6 m east of the main foundation. A smaller building is
said to have once stood here. The oral traditions associated with the site suggest that it has an ancient origin. Its local identification
as a fortress is suspect, however, because it is not located on high, protected ground.
Oral tradition
According to villagers of Sog, a six-sided building attributed to the ancient Sog po (a Turco-Mongolian or Indo-European group)
was founded at Srin mo rdzong. The Sog po are thought to have colonized the locale in the distant past. It is said that the ruins
resembled those at Bal tshwa gyang khrog near Dar rgyas gling, Sa dga’ county. Local elders report that this windowless edifice
had an east-facing entrance around 1 m in height. The structure stood in a fairly good state of preservation until it was gradually
demolished beginning in the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Elders report, however, that the edifice did not have a roof during
their lifetimes. In the pre-modern period the walls of the so-called fortress were taller than the present day mchod rten (they
were probably around 4 m in height). The stones removed from the monument were used to build corrals around Sog village.
Some ’brog pa claim that a stone with an inscription somewhat resembling Chinese was found in the foundation of the structure.
According to A rus sman bla (born circa 1920), a recognized expert on local history, Srin mo rdzong was founded around the
same time as Bal tshwa gyang khrog (there are very impressive ruins at this site).88 He believes that it was in use until the Lha
sa government period (mid-17th century to 1959 CE), and was once occupied by a sing pa (invaders from the northwest
Subcontinent) army.
According to local folklore, seven Srin mo (a man-eating demoness) sisters once occupied the site. One night the Srin mo
decided to build themselves a house (Srin mo only work at night, say local elders). These evil beings had already built the
foundation and walls when Gu ru rin po che, the 8th century CE Vajrayāna hero, arrived to stop them. Had the Srin mo been
able to complete their dwelling it would have had very deleterious consequences for the entire countryside. Gu ru rin po che
magically made the sun appear early. The sunrays caught the Srin mo unaware and they perished in the light of the day. Gu ru
rin po che left his hat (dbu zhwa) behind in order to subdue the locale. His hat became the supporting mountain (rgyab ri) of
Sog village known as Sog rgyab ri.
Affiliated sites
Tomb
Approximately 200 m southwest of Srin mo rdzong there are the vestiges of an enclosure that may have measured around 7 m
x 7 m. All that is left are two stones protruding about 30 cm above the surface. Reportedly, when local residents dismantled this
enclosure several years ago the bones of at least two humans were unearthed. These skeletal remains are said to have represented
an adult and juvenile. Minute traces of what appear to be bleached human bones are found in the vicinity.
Fortifications
On the lower summit of Sog rgyab ri (4830 m) there are two small superficial structures that local sources say are ancient
fortifications (dmag ra). Called Gu ru dbu zhwa dmag ra, these minor structures were built on level, rocky ground. They have
been reduced to 60 cm or less in height and measure approximately 2 m x 2.5 m. Stones up to 90 cm in length went into the
construction of these so-called dmag ra.
Ma nam mkhar
Basic site data
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Site name: Ma nam mkhar (West)
Site number: B-77
Site typology: I.2b
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According to Slob dpon bstan ’dzin rnam dag (in personal communication), this location is probably the same as Stag rtse bya ni, which is associated with
the Ya ngal clan of gshen practitioners. Ya ngal yang ston chen po shes rab rgyal mtshan is recorded as migrating from Stag rtse to Glo bo in the 12th century
CE (Guntram Hazod, “The Yul Lha Gsol of Mtsho Yul. On the relation between the mountain and lake in the context of the ‘land god ritual’ of Phoksumdo
(Northwestern Nepal),” in Reflections of the Mountain. Essays on the History and Social Meaning of the Mountain Cult in Tibet and the Himalaya, edited by
Anne-Marie Blondeau and Ernst Steinkellner, 91-112 [Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1996]: 92).
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Elevation: 4650 m
Administrative location (township): Mda’ babs
Ma nam mkhar (West) was built on the edge of an escarpment that rises approximately 40 m above the left or west side of the
Ma nam/Ma nams river valley. The large adobe block structure has a ground plan similar to that found at Ha la mkhar (East)
(A-59) and Mkhar chung (A-136), characterized by linear series of small rooms. Ma nam mkhar (West) could potentially have
contained more than 40 rooms, but most physical signs of them have been eradicated. The design of this large edifice contrasts
strongly with that of Buddhist temples and monasteries in Gu ge. Moreover, there are no Buddhist emblems or oral traditions
associated with the site. This evidence probably signifies an archaic cultural identity. Although Ma nam mkhar (West) is
surrounded by sheer cliffs on its east and north flanks, the other approaches to the site are open. The oral tradition attributing a
castle identity to the site is therefore questionable.
Oral tradition
According to villagers of Ma nam, Ma nam mkhar (West) was an ancient castle.
Site elements
Castle
The east side of the 50-m long (north-south) Ma nam mkhar (West) sits on the edge of an escarpment, while its west side bounds
a shelf. The long edifice was built on a natural rise, 1.5 m to 2.5 m in height, which is accented by a gully that forms on its west
side. The walls are highly eroded but still regularly reach 2 m to 3 m in height. The edifice was built on a cobble base (1 m to
1.2 m high) endowing it with a fairly high elevation. Parts of both the east and west sides of the structure have slipped down
the slopes. So highly eroded are the adobe-block walls that their seams are only visible in a couple of sheltered nooks. The north
end of the building is around 7 m wide and may only have supported a single room. The structure then widens to around 10 m.
Ma nam mkhar (West) is divided by a longitudinal wall (north-south), which runs from the north end of the edifice to within
14 m of its southern extremity. On the west side of this dividing wall there is a row of at least nine rooms that progressively
narrow to the south. From north to south they begin at 2.5 m in width (east-west) narrowing to about 1.2 m, constituting what
may have been no more than a passageway. These rooms are each 2 m to 3.5 m in length (north-south). The fragmentary nature
of the walls and the loss of significant parts of the west side of the building preclude a detailed assessment of its plan. East of
the longitudinal wall the edifice is up to 6 m in width, and in certain areas there may have been two parallel rows of rooms
oriented north-south. This is borne out by a couple of partition wall segments that create intermediate spaces near the north end
of the structure. South of the longitudinal wall the edifice widens to around 13 m, creating walls which run at right angles to
the axis of the structure. The ground plan of the south end of the building is not clear. On the west side of the southern portion
of the structure there was a narrow row of rooms or a passageway.
Affiliated sites
Ma nam mkhar (East)
In addition to the famous 11th century CE Buddhist monastery of Ma nam, situated in the valley bottom, there is a so-called
castle on the summit of an earthen formation rising 250 m above Ma nam village. This Buddhist facility, known as Ma nam
mkhar (East), is located east of the village. It consists of three small ruined chapels (lha khang) made of adobe blocks, locally
called: Lha khang dmar po, Lha khang dkar po and Rgyal ba byams pa lha khang. In the latter temple there is a 2-m high clay
statue of the Buddha to come, Byams pa, fully exposed to the elements. These Buddhist chapels consist of typical high elevation
walls cloaked in mud plaster, ochre tinting and small traces of frescos. They are said to have been destroyed before living
memory. There are over 30 shallow caves in the vicinity of the monastery. Some of these caves have cut niches and recesses
and fire-blackened ceilings, telltale signs of human occupation. Below the three chapels there are minor remains of stone walls.
Perhaps these structures, as insignificant as they seem to be, were part of an earlier castle that existed at the site. According to
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local legend, the Yul lha of Ma nam, I phi ser gyu, destroyed either a Hor pa or Sing pa army at this location by creating a torrent
with the water in which she had washed her hair.
Byi’u sing pa’i mkhar
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Site name: Byi’u sing pa’i mkhar
English equivalent: Little Bird Castle of the sing pa
Site number: B-78
Site typology: I.2x
Elevation: 4660 m
Byi’u sing pa’i mkhar is situated less than 2 km south of the famous monastery of Byi’u, on a bluff overlooking ma pang g.yu
mtsho. These ostensible residential remains are situated immediately south of the lake outlet known as Gang ga chu. The main
concentration of structures covers approximately 400m², between a rocky knob in the east and a cliff face in the west. Until
quite recently, significant walls were found here but they have been dismantled and the stones removed to build structures at
the burgeoning Byi’u village. A road passes directly below the site so it was relatively easy to haul the stones away by truck.
Virtually only one section of an east-west running revetment has survived intact, otherwise the site is blanketed in loose uncut
blocks of limestone. The integral revetment is 11 m in length and parallels the axis of the bluff and ridge above it. This wall
was primarily built of large stones (up to 1.1 m in length) set in random courses. On the higher reaches of the bluff, possible
wall-footings are found among old and new cairns.
The local identification of the byi’u sing pa’ mkhar as a stronghold may not be correct. There was a hilltop fortress at nearby
Byi’u, a much more strategically sound location (A-82), and this would appear to obviate the military value of the site. Immediately
to the west of the facility there is higher ground from which a devastating attack could have been launched. Upper Tibetan
fortresses of the archaic cultural horizon were never established in such vulnerable locations. It is more plausible that this site
was a religious center of some kind. The lack of a localized Buddhist identity and the site’s attribution to a foreign group
potentially allude to an archaic cultural origin, but morphological evidence is lacking at the site.
Oral tradition
Local elders state that Byi’u sing pa’i mkhar was a castle of the Sing pa.
Affiliated sites
Funerary cairns
There are long, slim, tapering cairns on top of the bluff at Byi’u sing pa’i mkhar, Local sources refer to these as mon rdo (stones
of the Mon), and are said to have been erected by people of Himalayan origin whilst on pilgrimage to ma pang g.yu mtsho.
These pre-modern shrines were raised to commemorate the recent death of family members, a custom found among various
Himalayan rim-land peoples of Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh. The placement of these shrines on high ground mimics the
much older custom of building tombs on mountaintops in Upper Tibet.
Yul lung
Basic site data
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Site name: Yul lung
English equivalent: Village Habitation
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Site number: B-79
Site typology: I.2b
The agrarian settlement of Yul lung was founded on the west half of an ancient alluvial fan, which formed in the mouth of the
Yul lung valley, a tributary of the She rang valley. The stable geomorphology of the site and perennial water sources permitted
the founding of a large settlement here. To the south and west there is a zone of extensive agricultural lands that appears to have
lain fallow for centuries. Yul lung begins just above the valley floor and extends up a gradually inclined slope for 20 m vertical.
The nucleus of settlement is situated in the southwest sector of the site and is dispersed over 6500m², in a dense aggregation of
substantial structures. There are also several ruined buildings in the northeast sector of the site. This agrarian settlement potentially
supported hundreds of inhabitants. Ironically, not even one permanent pastoral camp (dgun sa) still exists in the she rang valley.
The residential structures are very much degraded; all that remain are highly fractional walls and footings buried among huge
piles of loose rubble. It would appear that the village was made up of large multi-roomed buildings set in a contiguous array.
The room spans, wall design and the fact that there are no stone roof members among the ruins indicate that these edifices were
constructed with wooden roofs. Timbers of poplar and willow are available in Ru thog, and are plentiful in the adjacent regions
of La dwags (Ladakh) and Khu nu (Kinnaur).
Oral tradition
Local sources refer to Yul lung as an ancient Skal mon village.
Site elements
Main village
Construction traits
The remains of the various edifices of Yul lung have 50-cm- to 80-cm-thick random-rubble walls composed of unworked granite.
These rounded stones required copious amounts of mud-mortar to be applied to the joints. Many of the granite blocks have a
yellowish patina and orange climax lichen growing on them, indicating that they have been exposed to the elements for quite
awhile. A significant amount of a metamorphic gray stone was also used to build the structures. In places, the rear slope walls
were built into the ground to a depth of 1 m. Standing walls still commonly reach 50 cm to 1.2 m in height. In certain structures
there are circular pits approximately 1 m in depth. Shepherds may have once used these pits as shelters.
Main village largest edifices
At the northeast corner of the main village there is a building (27 m x 27 m) with walls up to 2 m in height. Much of this
multi-roomed edifice, however, has been reduced to its foundations. On the south or lower side of this building there are granite
boulders resting on the surface or partially buried, which appear to have been integrated into it as a cyclopean structure. These
boulders are up to 1.4 m in length and 1 m in height. There appears to be another monumental building in the south part of the
main village but the melding of its ruins with adjacent structures makes it difficult to gauge its size.
Main village shrine
At the southwest corner of the main village there are the vestiges of a shrine complex. These cubic and rectangular shaped
structures have the following dimensions: 1) 2 m x 2 m x 80 cm, 2) 1.6 m x 1.6 m x 1.1 m, 3) 4.2 m x 1.9 x 70 cm, and 4) 5.5
m x 1.6 m x 1.2 m. These random-rubble mud-mortared constructions appear to be solid. There are no signs of superstructures
or embellishments remaining at the shrines. In close proximity there is a highly eroded adobe-block foundation (7.3 m x 5.2
m), the only one of its kind at Yul lung.
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Large enclosure
North of the main village there are the substantial remains of walls forming an irregularly shaped enclosure open on its south
side (45 m x 28 m x 24 x 33 m). These enclosing walls are 80 cm to 1 m in thickness and up to 1 m in height. With the exception
of one or two small foundations this enclosure appears to have been devoid of structures. On the south edge of the defunct
village there are several modern corrals whose construction has had little impact on the vast amounts of stone detritus found at
the site.
North sector
There are the remains of two more important buildings 20 m north or upslope of the large enclosure on the north end of the
main village. These two buildings are spaced 28 m from one another. Both the east specimen (15.7 m x 15 m) and west specimen
(15 m x 17 m) have been reduced to fragmentary footings and wall segments. There is another large building (22 m x 17 m) 32
m north of the northeast corner of the main village. It is located at the northeastern extremity of the Yul lung site.
She rang agriculture
On the left or northeast side of the shes rang valley there is a large swathe of defunct agricultural parcels. This broad belt of old
farmland extends from above the mouth of the shes rang valley to the upper extent of Yul lung, situated approximately 4 km
upstream. The many old fields have been long abandoned as evidenced by a thin layer of gravel that has been deposited over
most of them, and the leveling of all the stone walls (zhing ra) that once bounded the various plots. According to local tradition,
these lands were tilled by the ancient Skal mon people.
Up valley from Yul lung there are no signs of agriculture for a distance of 3 km. Higher up the shes rang valley there is the
ancient agricultural enclave of Rdzing rul (Ruined Reservoir). The locale is so named for the destruction of its ancient irrigation
system. Most of the extensive so-called Skal mon fields of Rdzing rul have been damaged through flooding. The residents of
Sde chos and Lung ngag, using the water of the she rang chu, have brought a small fraction of these fields back into production,
however, in the year that this survey was conducted (2002) no cultivation was being carried out here. The intensive cultivation
of the She rang valley could only have occurred when water resources were much more plentiful than they are today. The
long-term desiccation of the region must have been a primary factor in the depopulation of She rang, anthropogenic factors
notwithstanding. Farther up valley, at Mkhar lung, there is the highest elevation agricultural pocket in the She rang valley (4600
m). These ancient fields remain neglected.
Lung ngag
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Site name: Lung ngag (sp. ?).
Site number: B-80
Site typology: I.2b
The abandoned settlement of Lung ngag sits upon a bench on the right side of the Lung ngag valley. The site has a northeastern
aspect and is situated near the mouth of the valley. Most of the structural remains of Lung ngag are highly degraded and only
fractional footings and wall sections have endured. The main or east sector (41 m x 35 m) consists of a dense collection of what
appear to have been residential units. It is difficult to discern how many buildings were located on the bench making up the east
sector. There are also middle and west sectors containing a variety of ceremonial and utilitarian structures, which probably
reflect differing stages in the historical development of the Lung ngag site. Among these structures are shrines and what appear
to be threshing pads.
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Oral tradition
According to local sources, Lung ngag was an ancient Skal mon village. There is a local belief that this settlement was politically
and culturally connected to the fortress of Mkhar po che (A-86), located on the opposite side of the Ru gsum valley. These two
archaeological sites are separated by about 3 km.
Site elements
East sector
Dominant stone structures
The east or main sector of Lung ngag is dominated by structures that consist of walls of variable-sized pieces of granite that
incorporate naturally occurring boulders into them. These structures appear to be the foundations of small buildings but the
structural evidence is somewhat ambiguous. Based on evidence from other habitations attributed to the Skal mon in the region,
we can surmise that these structures were probably between 15 m² and 50 m² in size. It is not at all clear if such structures had
permanent timber roofs or ones made of more perishable materials such as woven cloth or hides. Standing walls reach 50 cm
in height and must have been heavily mud mortared, as the rounded granite stones used in construction require copious amounts
of adhesive material to give walls their necessary structural integrity.
Other structures
At the southeast or upper end of the east sector there is a highly eroded, isolated adobe-block wall segment, 4 m in length and
2.5 m in height, which appears to have constituted the corner of a building. This wall was built on a stone footing, and may
belong to a different phase of site development from that of the dominant stone structures. On the forward edge of the east sector
bench there is a four-sided pillar of white granite (1.3 m x 1.4). It appears to be a natural hunk of stone that was in all probability
planted vertically in the ground. Its function is not apparent.
East sector shrines
In close proximity to the lone adobe wall segment there are the remains of what appears to have been a shrine, a rectangular
structure measuring 2.2 m x 90 cm x 1 m. At the lower end or northwest extremity of the east sector, near the edge of the bench,
there is another shrine-like structure. This square masonry pedestal (2.2 m x 1.7 m x 40 cm) is surmounted by a highly dissolved
earthen structure reduced to 70 cm in height. Just above the east sector at the top of the moderately sloping bench there is what
appears to be a larger shrine. It consists of a stone plinth (6.3 m x 4.6 m) upon which a hollow cubic structure was erected (2.6
m x 2.6 m x 1.7 m). Tiny traces of red ochre are found on the mud plaster of the exterior walls. The outer walls of the plinth are
50 cm thick and built of granite. Unfortunately, the extant remains do not permit a detailed analysis of the design of this ceremonial
structure. The contemporary Yul lha of Lung ngag is a local mountain deity called Gangs lha dkar po. Provided this was a deity
of ancient times, its worship could possibly be linked to one or more of the shrines found at the site.
Middle sector
Beginning 8 m west of the main sector there is an irregularly shaped perimeter (27 m x 41 m) made from a single line of boulders
embedded in the ground. These boulders are up to 1.8 m in length. The function of this 10° sloping enclosure is not known. At
the lower end of the enclosure there are two structures that appear to be the foundations of two small buildings. Immediately
west of the enclosure there is a shrine (9 m x 1.4 m) of which 75% has been leveled. On the east end of this ritual construction
an adobe superstructure resembling a bum pa is erected on top of the 1.1-m high stone plinth. This 80-cm high adobe superstructure
is too degraded to discern its original form. Its stone base has remnants of mud plaster on it. Nearby, a single line of boulders
protruding as much as 70 cm above the ground form a circle 5.4 m in diameter. The interior of this enclosure is clear and level,
and it most resembles a threshing pad.
West sector
The west sector of the old Lung ngag settlement is situated 110 m west of the east sector. It was built on its own bench, which
is elevated 10 m above the valley floor. Overlooking the rim of the bench there is a line of four structures extending for 120 m.
These appear to be the foundations of decimated buildings. From east to west they measure: 1) 17 m x 11 m, 2) 12.6 m x 4.4
m, 3) 7 m x 5.3 m (these foundation walls are set as much as 1 m into the ground), and 4) 18.5 m x 11 m (this appears to have
been a multi-roomed structure). Above the east portion of this line of structures there are three more circular structures (up to
7 m in diameter) that resemble threshing pads. Above the bench on a level area of the slope there are the remains of two more
buildings, spaced 10 m apart. These fragmentary foundations measure 12 m x 8 m and 18 m x 8 m.
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Lung ngag agriculture
Below the old settlement remains there are many defunct agricultural fields in the valley bottom, which are attributed to the
Skal mon. The modern village of Lung ngag (around ten households), also located in the valley bottom, cultivates but a small
fraction of the arable land-base of the valley. Factors accounting for this loss of productive capacity would appear to be
depopulation and the deterioration of the regional climate. The lower Lung ngag valley no longer enjoys a perennial watercourse.
Sde chos skal mon lung pa
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Site name: Sde chos skal mon lung pa
English equivalent: Buddhist Division Aboriginal mon Village
Site number: B-81
Site typology: I.2b
Sitting upon a series of benches on the right side of the Sde chos valley there is an extensive array of ruins, covering an area of
approximately 15,000 m². Known as Sde chos skal mon lung pa, the lower end of the site is elevated about 15 m above the
valley floor. Old agricultural fields extend to the edge of the site. Sde chos skal mon lung pa consists of a dense aggregation of
what appear to be residential structures, many of which have a semi-subterranean aspect. The structures are all heavily disintegrated
and only fractional footings and wall segments to 1 m in height have survived. The degradation of structures is so pronounced
that many of them are nothing more than incoherent piles of stones. The settlement can be geographically divided into dominant
lower and upper benches, with smaller intervening benches in the down valley portion of the settlement. In total, there are around
150 structures of all sizes, possibly representing the abodes of hundreds of people. There is no evidence of ceremonial architecture
at the site.
Oral tradition
According to the villagers of Sde chos, Sde chos skal mon lung pa was an ancient Skal mon village.
Site elements
Settlement
Structural traits
The probable residential structures of Sde chos skal mon lung pa range in size from 15 m² to 50 m². It is not known if they had
roofs of timber and/or stone, or roofs made of more perishable materials (such as animal hide or woven hair). There are also
some smaller rudimentary foundations at the site, which almost certainly did not have high elevation walls or roofs. The existing
walls have a random-rubble texture and appear to have been rather crudely constructed. The walls contain variable-sized pieces
of natural granite up to 1 m in length. Large in situ boulders (1 m to 2 m in length) were often integrated into the foundations.
There are also some granite slabs (up to 1.5 m in length) scattered around the site, which may have been used in roof construction.
These extant slabs, however, are numerous enough to have been only employed in the construction of a small fraction of the
structures. The building stones have acquired a yellowish or brownish patina, as well as orange climax lichens. These building
materials appear to have stood undisturbed for a long time.
The spatial arrangement of structures at the Sde chos site is as follows:
1. Down valley section of the lower bench – approximately 43 foundations
2. Up valley section of lower bench – 15 foundations
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Small ancillary bench below the up valley section of the lower bench – 15 foundations
Intervening lower middle bench – 19 foundations
Intervening upper middle bench – 8 foundations
Down valley section of upper bench – approximately 7 foundations
Up valley section of upper bench – approximately 48 foundations
Lower bench
The down valley section of the lower bench includes several structures built below its rim. Above them, on the rim of the bench,
large upright slabs of granite and smaller boulders were set into the ground, possibly as part of a substantial wall demarcating
the settlement. The largest slabs are 2 m in length and protrude 1.4 m to 2 m above ground level. Much of the down valley part
of the lower bench is set in a depression, stretching between its rim and the lower middle bench. This endows the structures
located here with a hidden and sheltered aspect. This siting probably afforded some protection from the elements. A structure
in the up valley section of the lower bench has two upright stones sticking 80 cm out of the ground. These two stones are spaced
80 cm apart and seem to have formed part of a north-facing (direction of the valley) entrance. A nearby structure has a recess
(40 cm x 40 cm x 80 cm) in the wall, formed by a stone slab placed over a cavity in the wall.
Intervening benches
In the up valley direction, the smaller middle benches merge with the lower and upper benches. The structures of the lower
middle bench have rear walls built as much as 1.5 m into the slope. Some of these structures were established in natural
depressions. Likewise, some structures in the upper middle bench were built in a natural hollow. Rear walls extend into the
slope to a depth of 1 m.
Upper bench
Some of the up valley upper bench structures were built in natural depressions. In one structure a 2-m long slab of granite creates
a deep cavity in the rear wall.
Rdo ring khang ro
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Site name: Rdo ring khang ro
English equivalent: Long-stone Ruined House
Site number: B-82
Site typology: I.2x
Elevation: 4870 m
Administrative location (township): Ru ’thor
Maps: UTRS VI
Although the Rdo ring khang ro site does not contain compelling structural evidence of an ancient settlement, I have included
it in the survey of sites due to the local oral tradition with which it is associated. Rdo ring khang ro is situated in a side valley
just north of a vast basin. This valley has a number of springs. The well-drained gravel-covered ground of the putative ancient
settlement is found on the north margin of the valley at the foot of a rocky hill. The location has been heavily impacted by the
construction of pastoral camps in the pre-modern period, which still receive some usage in the wintertime. So thorough was the
transformation of the site that virtually nothing of an earlier settlement can be detected on the surface. On the west end of Rdo
ring khang ro there may be fragments of old footings incorporated into pastoral enclosures but the structural evidence is not
conclusive.
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Oral tradition
Rdo ring khang ro is an ancient Mon habitation, say local ’brog pa. The large corrals (with walls up to 2 m in height), the old
ma ṇi wall, and shepherd shelters at the site were constructed with stones extracted from the ancient ruins.
Spu gling yul stong
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Site name: Spu gling yul stong
English equivalent: Abandoned Village of sPu gling
Site number: B-83
Site typology: I.2b
Elevation: 4360 m
Contemporary usage: Minimal pastoral activity.
Spu gling yul stong is located on the north side of the spu gling chu, opposite the contemporary village of Spu gling. The
buildings at Spu gling yul stong were skillfully and substantially built, unlike the crude stone walls and adobe superstructures
of the present-day village.89 The buildings of Spu gling yul stong formed three tight clusters on the crest and flank of a ridge,
and cover an area of approximately 2000 m² site. On the south and east sides of the ridge there are sheer 60-m drops to the spu
gling chu. There are three sectors of aggregated residential ruins: south, central and north. The uniform design and construction
traits show that this was probably an integrated site in terms of cultural orientation and chronology. Spu gling yul stong appears
to have been a much more developed and populous village than its present-day counterpart. Several corrals have been constructed
near the ruins, but the extraction of stones for their construction has had a minimal impact on the site due to its large mass.
Oral tradition
According to an older resident of Spu gling named Bsam grub, Spu gling yul stong was an ancient Mon village. It is reported
that in pre-modern times Indian traders used to camp at Spu gling yul stong.
Site elements
Ancient village
The structures of Spu gling yul stong are very decayed and only a few wall fragments over 1 m in height have survived. Ground
plans are now highly ambiguous. In fact, much of the site consists merely of piles of rubble. Rear walls were often set deeply
into the slope giving the edifices a semi-subterranean aspect. Walls (around 60 cm thick) have a random-rubble texture and
contain variable-length stones (generally 15 cm to 60 cm long), which were hewn flat on their exterior sides. A gray and tan
rock (resembling sandstone) was used in construction. The remains are highly weathered and most of the clay-based mortar has
washed out of the seams. The type of wall construction shows that most or all of the buildings of Spu gling yul stong were built
with wooden roofs.
South sector
The south sector is spread over the crest and east flank of the ridge. It measures 30 m (east-west) x 35 m (north-south). The
south sector consists of a dense collection of interconnected residences built at three or four levels. On the east slope below the
main cluster of structures there are one or two ruined small buildings. Rear walls were customarily built into the uphill slope to
a depth of 1.6 m. In several places, rear walls have rounded corners. Revetments shoring up the structures are up to 1.5 m in
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The pre-modern village of Spu gling and its Communist period successor were founded on the same level stretch of ground. Each of the Communist period
houses is erected inside its own compound.
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height. On the south flank of the hill, about one-half the distance to the spu gling chu, there appears to be a minor archaeological
dispersion but only a few wall fragments are extant.
Central sector
The central sector is situated 12 m north of the south sector. Measuring 15 m (east-west) x 14 m (north-south), it extends across
the edge of the crest of the sandy ridge and along its east flank. The central sector contained approximately 15 interconnected
rooms/buildings built at various elevations along a steep slope gradient. At the northeast corner of the dispersion there is a
free-standing wall segment 1.8 m in height. Other walls 1 m to 1.5 m in height have also persisted, but generally the remains
are highly fragmentary. Rear walls are built into the slope to a depth of 1.3 m. On the southwest side of the central sector there
is a niche (40 cm x 40 cm x 35 cm) in a wall at ground level. On the crest of the ridge adjacent to the west side of the central
sector there is possibly a small extension of the site, but too little remains on the surface to make a positive determination.
North sector
The north sector is found within a few meters of the central sector and measures 23 m (east-west) x 20 m (north-south). A
substantial portion of the north sector extends to the west flank of the ridge, as well as covering the summit and a little of the
east slope. This was another conterminous zone of residences. An extension of the west slope structures continues all the way
to the ceremonial structure (see below). This extension covers an area of 7 m (east-west) x 11.5 m (north-south). The remains
located in the west slope extension are set into the slope to a depth of 2 m. North of the north sector, along the rim of the east
slope, there are traces of substantial revetments (up to 1.5 m high). These probably mark another building site.
Shrine complex
On the summit of Spu gling yul stong, between the south and central sectors, there is the ceremonial component of the site. It
consists of a square masonry plinth, measuring 4.8 m on each side, which is aligned in the cardinal directions. This plinth extends
50 cm out of the ground on its north side and 80 cm on its east side. The south and west side of the plinth are flush with the
ground surface. This setting appears to be an original design feature because there is no visible evidence of geomorphologic
modification to the local terrain. Upon the plinth there is a superstructure (up to 2 m high) that appears to have consisted of a
large cubic element surmounted by a smaller, possibly spherical erection. In the top of the structure there is a cavity (75 cm x
75 cm) that is now only a few centimeters deep. A wall interconnected to the west side of this ceremonial structure runs along
the summit in a westerly direction for upwards of 10 m. The south edge of this random-work wall is flush with the surface,
while its north side is elevated around 50 cm above the surface. The semi-subterranean aspect of this shrine complex seems to
endow it with an archaic cultural identity. It may possibly have been used in the worship of chthonic deities.
Skyid sgrom dgon pa
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Site name: Skyid sgrom dgon pa 90
Site number: B-118
Site typology: I.2c
Elevation: 4770 m
Administrative location (township): Gzhung smad
Contemporary usage: Pastoral camp.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Painted Rigs gsum mgon po mantras.
Maps: UTRS VIII, HAS D4
The cave complex of skid sgrom dgon pa is found in a red and white limestone escarpment, which runs along the north side of
a small eponymous valley. In the valley there are various springs, thus this site, with its adequate shelter, is ideal for human
settlement. skid sgrom dgon pa consists of three interconnected caves found behind a big ledge that forms in the formation. This
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This site was documented by Dpal ri ba blo bzang bkra shis (Lecturer, Arts Department, Tibet University) and two of his Chinese colleagues, in July 2001.
It was through his kind offices that I came to learn of Skyid sgrom dgon pa.
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35-m long, 3-m- to 4-m wide ledge appears to have been fully enclosed by a masonry façade, tiny portions of which have
survived along the eastern and western extremities. The three caves of the site have heavily fire-blackened ceilings and are now
used to corral sheep and goats. The caves have the following dimensions: east chamber (around 7.3 m x 7.5 m), central chamber
(10 m x 11 m) and west chamber (approximately 9.5 m across).
On the west wall of the west chamber the Buddhist Rigs gsum mgon po mantras were painted long ago in red ochre on a
white background. The painting of these mantras seems to have been carried out in order to bring the site within the auspices
of Buddhism. The lack of other Buddhist monuments at the site, its subterranean aspect, and the existence of Bon pictographs
in other caves in the area (J-15, J-16), allude to a Bon identity for the cave sanctuary. The residential center of Skyid sgrom
dgon pa was probably a religious center of the prehistoric and/or early historic (archaic cultural horizon) inhabitants of the
region. Certainly the presence of a good supply of fresh water and adequate shelter suggest that it has long been the focus of
habitation. As Skyid sgrom dgon pa is still in economic use and located near ’brog pa habitations, the preservation of its structural
remains is not as good as it might have been otherwise.
Oral tradition
The ’brog pa of the area call Skyid sgrom dgon pa an ancient cave monastery.
Site elements
Anterooms
It would appear that the ledge in front of the caves supported a series of anterooms. This ledge is suspended approximately 20
m above the valley floor. The masonry wall lining the outer rim of this natural structure is highly eroded and fragmentary. The
random-work façade of the central chamber was constructed of variable-sized pieces of limestone (15 cm to 70 cm long) that
were profusely mud mortared. The east portion of the façade has a maximum height of 3.5 m and is 1 m thick at the base. Near
the top section of this stonework front there is a small window. Minute traces of red ochre coloring are still distinguishable on
the façade.
Cave complex
From the ledge there are south-facing entrances to both the west and central chambers. The central chamber contains a room
(5.7 m x 3.8 m x 2 m) with well-built freestanding masonry walls that sequester it from the rest of the cave. There is a niche in
the north wall of this room. A passageway connects the central and west chambers. The entrance to the west chamber descends
around 3 m to the outer ledge below. Where this entrance joins the west chamber, there is a 2.5-m long wall that forms a landing.
In the rear of this 3-m high cave there is a naturally elevated area. In front of this uplifted space there is an adobe platform (1.6
m x 1 m x 20 cm). The east chamber appears to have remained in a raw state.
Sgar gsol brag phug
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Site name: Sgar gsol brag phug 91
Site number: B-119
Site typology: I.2c
Elevation: 4780 m
Administrative location (township): Ma g.yo
This site was documented by Dpal ri ba blo bzang bkra shis in 2001.
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The large cave sanctuary of Sgar gsol brag phug is perched in a limestone escarpment, which overlooks an extensive marshy
basin spread out some 80 m below it. This is the site of extremely important Bon pictographs (J-16). The south-facing cave
consists of one large chamber, 48 m long and 4.5 m to 9 m in width. The mouth of the cave is roughly 10 m in height and above
the entrance there is a natural skylight. The floor gradually rises towards the rear of the cave and the ceiling tapers downwards
but this grotto remains spacious in all places. The structural remnants found in and around Sgar gsol brag phug appear to be
just a small portion of what once stood in this cave. These various walls and footings seem to have had both residential and
ceremonial functions. The large size of the cave and its substantial anthropogenic modification point to the existence of a
significant archaic cultural installation. Most of the rock paintings are found on the right wall of the cave. The lofty location
and the presence of Bon pictographs probably identify Sgar gsol brag phug as an early Bon religious center.
Oral tradition
Some local ’brog pa maintain that Gu ru rin po che visited Sgar gsol brag phug.
Site elements
Façade
Outside the mouth of the cave grotto there are the remains of stone steps flanked by masonry walls, which line each side of the
entrance. These walls extend for 8 m and join the vestiges of an elaborate façade that spanned the mouth of the cave. The 50-cm
to 70-cm thick cave façade that barricaded the mouth of the grotto is partially intact along its east and west extremities. The
façade was skillfully built with a random-rubble texture, and contains stones that average 20 cm to 30 cm in length (full range:
15 cm to 50 cm long). Copious amounts of mud-mortar were applied to the wall joints. The east segment of the façade is 5.5 m
in length and up to 5 m in height. The west fragment of the façade is 7.5 m in length and a maximum of 4 m in height. The base
of a room (2.1 m x 1.5 m) elevated above the cave floor is ensconced in the west portion of the façade.
Internal cave structures
Behind the cave front, wall-footings line each side of the narrowest portion of Sgar gsol brag phug. These walls are 5 m in
length, a maximum of 1.5 m in width and 30 cm to 40 cm in height. What kind of structure they contributed towards is not
known. Farther back, on the right side of the cave, there is an enclosure (13 m x 5 m), which is also composed of masonry
footings. These wall remains are about 60 cm wide and elevated around 50 cm above the floor of the cave.
Dgon ro dmar lding
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Site name: Dgon ro dmar lding
English equivalent: Soaring Red Derelict Monastery
Alternative site name: Lcags sgo brag
English equivalent: Iron Portal Formation
Site number: B-120
Site typology: I.2c
Elevation: 4700 m
The residential complex of Dgon ro dmar lding is elevated 90 m above the east side of the narrow Lcags sgo brag lung valley.
The precipitous red and white limestone formation provides the facility with an isolated aspect and a good defensive position.
Sheer limestone walls tens of meters above and below the site potentially insulated it from unwanted incursions. Many of the
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masonry walls are covered in orange climax lichen, an indication of considerable age. The walls were built with a limestone
random-rubble texture and are 50 cm to 70 cm in thickness. Variable-sized stones went into the construction of the walls. Many
of the standing structures are found on a large rock ledge and the steeply inclined slopes that extend below it. In the contemporary
period, the nearest permanent water source is located in the Dar lung valley, approximately 1 km away. Unlike nearby Rta ra
dmar lding (B-124), no attempt was made to materially alter the archaic cultural character of Dgon ro dmar lding. This highly
inaccessible site appears to have been abandoned for a very long time.
Oral tradition
A local tale is told about a Bon magician (sngags pa) who once stayed at Dgon ro dmar lding and used to fetch water with a
magic vessel.
Textual tradition
According to Dpal gzims phug o rgyan chos gling gi byung ba brjod pa skal bzang gyi dga’ ston, by rig ‘dzin chos ‘phel
(published by bod ljong mi dmangs dpe skrun khang), the gtsug lag khang of Lcags sgo brag (Dgon ro dmar lding) was brought
under the control of Blo gros mtha’ yas, the founder of nearby Dpal gzim phug (established in 1095).92 This event seems to
mark the demise of the archaic cultural facility (the account notes that the founder and history of the gtsug lag khang are not
clear). As there are no palpable Buddhist emblems at Dgon ro dmar lding, this Buddhist occupation may have been largely
symbolic. Given this textual reference, it appears that the original name of the site was Lcags sgo brag (still the name of the
abutting valley). Whether the gtsug lag khang referred to a specific structure at the site or to all its residential loci collectively
is a moot point.
Site elements
Habitational tunnels and revetments
After climbing up the flank of the formation, a small ledge with two revetment fragments is reached. These retaining walls are
3.2 m in length and a maximum of 2.3 m in height, and 6 m in length and a maximum of 2.9 m in height. The revetted ledge
accesses a 13-m long natural tunnel that leads to the west side of the formation. The remains of a barricade wall are found in
the mouth of this south tunnel (6.8 m wide). Much of the rubble from this barricade is strewn around the floor of the south
tunnel. On the west side of the south tunnel there is a sloping ledge, 3 m to 10 m wide and 108 m in length. This ledge forms
the main portion of Dgon ro dmar lding. All along the north and west edges of the main ledge there are the remains of revetments,
which may have once supported walls that enclosed the entire complex. A particularly well-preserved revetment fragment on
the south end of the main ledge is 4.4 m in length. A façade (7.5 m long) on the north side of the ledge bends to the east and
bounds a natural tunnel (20 m x 7 m). The remains of a wall are also found in the west mouth of this north tunnel. Inside the
north tunnel there is a small freestanding wall fragment that is thickly covered in a cracked mud veneer. Like the south tunnel,
the north tunnel must have constituted a habitational venue.
Unusual structure
On a 6-m wide portion of the main ledge, south of the north tunnel, there are the vestiges of an approximately 11-m long edifice.
A wall fragment (3.6 m in length) of this structure, which runs perpendicular to the escarpment, is covered in a red ochre-tinted
mud veneer. This masonry fragment is a maximum of 2.8 m in height and is surmounted by a tiered structure (85 cm in height)
reminiscent of the lha rten, lha gtsug or rten mkhar class shrines. Painted white, this structure has a square pedestal (35 cm in
height) topped by four graduated square tiers, which are capped by a rounded upper tier. These five tiers have a total height of
50 cm. This stepped structure must have once been suspended above the forward portion of the freestanding building, perhaps
flanking its entrance as a ritual protective device. This building enclosed a narrow cave 19 m deep. On the walls of this cave
are six smallish red ochre counterclockwise swastikas, documenting the Bon occupation of the site. There are two swastikas on
the right wall, three on the left wall and one near the mouth of the cave. Also on the right wall are two faint red ochre spoked-circles
and an incomplete letter a.93 The circle that is most distinguishable has eight spokes.
Other freestanding structures
Further north are the vestiges of another structure that was established on the main ledge at the foot of the overhanging escarpment,
which rises above Dgon ro dmar lding. This habitational structure measures approximately 6 m x 10 m. In close proximity there
is a masonry wall fragment (2 m long) that runs perpendicular to the escarpment. In this wall there is an entranceway (85 cm x
92
Rig ‘dzin chos ‘phel, Dpal gzims phug o rgyan chos gling gi byung ba brjod pa skal bzang gyi dga’ ston (Lha sa: Bod ljongs mi dmangs dpe skrun khang,
2006), 10. See textual tradition section in the B-124 entry for more information about this text.
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Illustrated in Bellezza, Zhang Zhung, 188 (fig. 352).
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90 cm) with an intact lintel. This lintel is primarily made up of three stones 60 cm to 70 cm in length. Closer to the south end
of the site, on the 3-m- to 4-m- wide main ledge that stretches out below the escarpment, there is a zone 25 m in length comprised
of footings that once supported buildings. These structures enclosed two caves. One of these caves is 14 m deep and has the
remains of masonry façade (5.7 m in length) around its mouth. The other cave is quite large but does not have standing room.
Srin po’i rdzong
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Site name: Srin po’i rdzong
English equivalent: Fortress of the Srin po
Site number: B-43
Site typology: I.2a
Administrative location (township): Re co
Contemporary usage: Minimal hay storage.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Ruined mchod rten.
The cliff dwellings of Srin po’i rdzong overlook the 20-km long Bang khur mtsho and the snowy peaks of the La dwags
Transhimalaya range. This site has a western aspect (much less common than an eastern or southern aspect). It appears to have
been the original kernel of settlement in the Bang khur mtsho basin, a rich pastoral natural resource. Extensive springs are
located in the vicinity of Srin po’i rdzong. In the basin below the cliffs there is the seasonal pastoral settlement of Ra ru gtsug
(sp.?), a large collection of corrals. There is an upper complex and lower complex of structures at Srin po’i rdzong. They consist
of small slab wall buildings nestled in the cliffs that almost certainly had all-stone roofs. The random-work walls are almost
entirely of the dry-mortar variety. These heavily built shelters have walls around 70 cm thick that contain stone slabs (some
blocks as well) up to 1.5 m in length. These buildings were clearly constructed to endure for a long time. The ruins now, however,
are in a poor state of preservation.
Oral tradition
According to residents of Re co, in ancient times, Srin po’i rdzong was the haunt of man-eating spirits called Srin po.
Site elements
Lower complex
The lower complex of Srin po’i rdzong was built on ledges suspended above a rocky bench, which is elevated about 15 m above
the valley floor. This bench runs for some 75 m along the base of an escarpment and is around 12 m wide. The ruins of the
lower complex are found 3 m to 4 m above it.
On the northern edge of a 75-m long bench forming the base of the lower complex there are the remains of a quadrate masonry
structure (1.8 m x 1.8 m x less than 1 m), which was probably a shrine of some kind. On a small ledge 24 m south of this structure
is residential structure RS1, which consists of the scant remnants of a wall that was probably part of a little domicile. On the
bench between RS1 and RS2 there are fragmentary footings and these continue south all the way to the terminus of the site.
Their function is not evident. They may have supported enclosures used as summer camps, for storage or for other types of
economic activities.
Residential structure RS2 is located on a series of ledges 17 m south of RS1. The RS2 dispersion measures 9.1 m x 16.4 m. Part
of the forward wall of the edifice is still intact. Its exterior wall is up to 2.7 m in height, 70 cm of which is freestanding. The
bulk of the exterior wall is made up of a substantial revetment. The south end of RS2 is set on a ledge about 5 m wide and has
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been leveled. Above this ledge there is a fragmentary mud-mortared wall that encloses a small cleft in the cliff face. It is unclear
whether this feature was used for storage purposes or for religious functions. Below RS2, a retaining wall (up to 1.5 m in height)
was built at the edge of a terrace. The roots of another wall below RS2 divide the main bench into east and west sections.
Residential structure RS3, located 9 m south of RS2, covers an area of 16 m x 8.8 m. It was constructed along a rock ledge.
Although revetment fragments reach 1.7 m in height, these were much less developed than the revetments of RS2. In one upper
wall segment there is a small hollow that may be the remains of a niche. Against the cliff a storage area for grass was built in
recent times. Below the ruins of RS3 there is a wall fragment (2 m long, 1.5 m high) upon which a good deal of rock fall has
accumulated. This wall is another vestige of the original settlement. Below it there is a wall remnant on the main bench that
seems to have acted as the gateway to RS3. This robustly constructed wall fragment is up to 1 m in height and between 80 cm
and 1.4 m in thickness.
mChod rten of the srin po
At the foot of the cliff dwellings of the lower complex there is the base of a ruined mchod rten (3.4 m x 2.2 m), which is said
to have contained the bones of a man-eating Srin po, who is supposed to have lived at the site in ancient times. Reportedly, this
mchod rten was destroyed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Local sources say that this mchod rten helped prevent the Srin
po from reappearing and causing harm. Next to the mchod rten of the Srin po are the scant remains of what appears to have
been another mchod rten.
Upper complex
The upper complex is situated slightly to the south of the lower complex about 50 m higher up in the cliffs. It enjoys an almost
impregnable position. The main portion of the upper complex occupies a ledge with a substantial revetment wall built around
it, indicating that important structures once stood here. Access from below is difficult and is impossible from above (without
technical climbing gear). The revetment hemming in this entire ledge (24.5 m long, up to 5 m wide) is up to 1.5 m in height,
posing a formidable obstacle to intruders. On the south side of this ledge there are the traces of a small rock shelter (3.4 m x 2.2
m). Its forward wall is set a maximum of 70 cm below the rim of the ledge. On the north end of the ledge there is also the
foundation of a small building (3.3 m x 3.5 m). Standing wall segments to 40 cm in height have survived. Some of the middle
portion of the ledge along with its structures appears to have fallen away. Roughly 20 m below this ledge are several small wall
fragments. It is not clear whether they were part of a buttressed trail, fortifications or residences.
Khra ’dra
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Site name: Khra ’dra
Site number: B-44
Site typology: I.2a
Elevation: 4640 m
The single all-stone corbelled structure of Khra ’dra clings to a bluff suspended about 20 m above the eponymous watercourse,
which flows through the left fork of the Ra ma valley. The site is named for a rocky conical mount that rises above the mouth
of the effluent valley. Khra ’dra is situated just below the rim of a long bench that runs along the left side of the valley. The rdo
khang (8 m x 4.7 m) was built in two tiers, each of which may have supported three rooms. Only scant structural evidence is
still at hand. Much of the structure has been swept down the bluff and portions of it have been buried. The walls (45 cm to 60
cm thick) are of the dry-mortar random-rubble variety and contain variable-length stones (20 cm to 80 cm). The maximum
extant elevation of a wall fragment is 1.7 m. Some of the structure has been filled with sand that has fallen from the bluff. This
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heavily built structure clearly had an all-stone roof assembly. On the east side of the upper tier, a couple of roof slabs are still
in situ. The larger of these slabs (1.2 m long) shelters a space that has almost completely filled up with soil. A partially submerged
corbel 1 m in length was detected at the site. In a wall of the lower tier another corbel appears to be in situ.
Oral tradition
According to local sources, kha ’dra is an ancient residential structure.
Affiliated sites
Khra ’dra agriculture
Khra ’dra, the left effluent of the Ra ma valley, supports the most extensive agriculture still carried out in Re co. These viable
fields are situated amid ancient ‘mon’ agricultural lands. Old retaining walls (zhing ra) are visible everywhere. Perhaps only
10% of the original farmland in the Ra ma valley is still being cultivated. According to Don grub phun tshogs (born circa 1923),
a native of Ra ma, the Khra ’dra chu used to feed many of the upper fields and all those on the west side of the main valley in
ancient times. The Khra ’dra chu is now sometimes dry even in the summer months, so the fields it used to irrigate have been
long since abandoned. Don grub phun tshogs attributes the radical reduction in the agricultural production of ra ma to a water
shortage. He adds that ‘Mon’ fields are found in other valleys (such as ’Om lung, Dza’u (sp.?) and Gnyan lung) in the region,
but these were much less extensive than those in Ra ma. It is somewhat anomalous that no remains of a settlement or elite
architecture were discovered in the Ra ma valley, given its erstwhile economic importance. It does, however, support three
different funerary sites (D-94, D-95 and D-96).
Gdong dmar rdo khang
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Site name: Gdong dmar rdo khang
English equivalent: Red Face All-Stone Houses
Site number: B-45
Site typology: I.2a
Gdong dmar rdo khang is situated about 300 m to the north of Gdong dmar (A-108), an archaic stronghold that must have once
watched over it. The seven all-stone residences found here were built on a sandy slope and on the bench above it, both of which
rise above the Chu lung gong ma valley (4390 m). These structures were widely spaced apart, affording the inhabitants a good
deal of privacy. These well-built edifices were constructed from mostly unhewn blocks of granite. The random-rubble texture
walls were mud mortared (although most of it has disappeared with time). The rdo khang were designed and built using the
standard features of this monument typology. Like the neighboring fortress, these structures must have been where the archaic
cultural priestly class and/or ruling elite of the area once resided. It would seem that the commoners who worked the nearby
fields lived in temporary shelters. Extensive cultivation once took place at Chu lung gong ma, supported by a stream coming
from a side valley. This valley no longer produces a perennial source of water and all arable lands have been abandoned.
Oral tradition
According to local sources, Gdong dmar rdo khang is an ancient settlement.
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Site elements
Residential structure RS1 (5. 6 m x 5. 8 m) sits on a moderately inclined sandy slope on the south end of the site, above the
slopes on which RS5, RS6 and RS7 were built. The upper tier of RS1 is partly intact while the lower tier has been reduced to
its foundations. The outer rear or upper wall of the structure was built 50 cm into the ground. There are several in situ corbels
(90 cm long) resting on the rear (northwest) wall. The current floor-to-ceiling height here is only 85 cm, illustrating how much
in-filling has taken place. A standing rear wall segment has an exterior height of 1.2 m.
Residential structure RS2 is situated 92 m northwest of RS1 on the south edge of the bench. Most of RS2 has been leveled and
the full extent of the foundations is not evident. It may have been as much as 6 m to 8 m in length; however, standing walls now
form a structure measuring 4 m x 3.9 m. A heavy buttress (1 m long and 70 cm thick) protrudes from the rear wall of the structure,
a typical rdo khang design feature.
Residential structure RS3 (6.7 m x 2.9 m) is located 140 m northeast of RS2, near the north end of the bench. This structure
appears to have contained only two rooms (north and south). Wall thicknesses in RS3 vary between 50 cm and 80 cm. The wall
dividing the two rooms is as much as 1.7 m high. On the south and north sides of this partition there are small niches. There are
also two niches in the walls of the north room. An entrance on the east side of the structure leads to the south room. In front of
the building there are two walls (12 m and 9 m in length) that begin 6 m apart but which gradually diverge further. These appear
to have formed a courtyard, a common feature in rdo khang established away from summits.
Residential structure RS4 (5.3 m x 3 m) is found 38 m northeast of RS3, at the east edge of the bench. It consists of two rooms
with the partition wall between them partly intact. The forward wall of the structure is also largely intact (up to 1.6 m high). In
this wall there is an east facing entranceway (90 cm x 70 cm) with an in situ lintel (80 cm long). In front of the forward wall of
RS4 there is a courtyard (7 m x 6 m) with all three of its walls partly standing (up to 1.1 m in height). Originally, these courtyard
walls were double-coursed but may have been rebuilt later in a more rudimentary fashion. A large in situ boulder was incorporated
into one of the courtyard walls.
Residential structure RS5 is situated 66 m north of RS4. This structure was aligned in the cardinal directions. Its rear/west tier
housed three rooms (5.8 m x 2.3 m), as probably did its forward/east tier (6.1 m x 2.6 m). Several corbels are still in place in
the rear tier of rooms, the longest of which (1.1 m) rests on a partition wall. The entranceway (90 cm x 70 cm) to the rear tier
is in the east and opens to the middle room. The lintel (80 cm long) over this entrance is still in situ. The forward or east wall
of the rear tier reaches 1.4 m above ground level, while the rear wall was built 1 m into the uphill slope. The two walls partitioning
the rear tier into 3 rooms extend 1 m from the rear wall. In front or to the east of this buttressing are the entrances to the north
and south rear rooms (adjacent to the entrance between the two tiers of rooms). These rear tier room entrances measure 90 cm
x 60 cm and 1 m x 60 cm. The forward tier of the structure has been reduced to fragmentary footings. Its entrance also appears
to have been in the east (a gap 50 cm wide in the wall exists here). The forward wall of the east tier has a maximum external
height of 1.6 m, 70 cm of which is below the floor level. There is a hole on the south side of the forward wall that may be the
remains of a latrine pit.
Residential structure RS6 is located 39 m east or downhill of RS5, at roughly 10 m lower elevation. It is situated in the same
hollow as RS5 but in a less pronounced part of it. Like RS5, RS6 is generally aligned in the cardinal directions and hosted two
tiers of rooms. The rear tier of the structure, measuring 7 m (north-south) x 4 m (east-west), contains two relatively large rooms.
The rear north room (3 m x 2.7 m) has a forward wall that is fully intact (stands 1.6 m). The rear wall of the north room is also
well preserved. It was built 1.5 m into the ground, giving the rdo khang a semi-subterranean aspect. The east-facing entrance
to the rear north room measures 1.2 m x 70 cm. The rear south room is not in as good condition and its entranceway has been
destroyed. Its partly integral forward wall is 1.4 m high while its rear wall was built 1.4 m into the uphill slope. Near the top of
the south wall (at ground level) of the rear south room there is a niche. There is also a rectangular niche (45 cm x 30 cm x 50
cm) in the rear wall of this room. The forward tier (9 m x 4.4 m) of rooms in RS6 has been razed, thus its floor plan is no longer
evident. The forward wall of the forward tier, while not coherent, reaches 1.2 m in height, all of which is below the floor level
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of the structure. In the north side of the forward wall there is a hole (1.6 m deep, 80 cm wide), which may have been a latrine
pit. A stone capping this cavity is 1.4 m in length.
Residential structure RS7 (6.3 m x 6.3 m) is located 65 m northeast of RS6, at roughly 10 m lower in elevation. This lowest
structure at Gdong dmar rdo khang is situated on a broad slope. It also contained two tiers of rooms. Standing walls in the rear
tier reach 1.5 m while the forward tier walls have been leveled. The rear tier probably contained three rooms. There is a niche
(30 cm x 10 cm) in the north wall of the rear north room and a niche (30 cm x 25 cm x 30 cm) on the south side of the partition
wall (1.2 m in length) dividing it from the rear central room. The partition wall between the rear central and rear south rooms
has been nearly completely annihilated, as has the forward wall of the rear tier.
Mdzo mo lung ra khra bo
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Site name: Mdzo mo lung ra khra bo
Site number: B-46
Site typology: I.2a
Administrative location (township): Lcags sgang
Maps: UTRS I
Mdzo mo lung ra khra bo was built on a broad sandy slope above the right/west side of the Mdzo mo lung (Female Yak Hybrid
Valley) floor. Several kilometers down valley Mdzo mo lung enters the Lcags sgang plain. There are fairly extensive arable
lands in the Mdzo mo lung valley, a portion of which are still cultivated. There appears to have been eight all-stone corbelled
structures at this site, but some are so deteriorated that positive identification could not be achieved. Even the best preserved
specimens are in a very poor physical state. The rdo khang of Mdzo mo lung ra khra bo were substantially built using uncut
granite and a dark gray metamorphic stone. The heavy foundation walls contain stones up to 1.4 m in length. The edifices are
mostly east facing.
Oral tradition
According to local residents, Mdzo mo lung ra khra bo was an ancient Mon settlement.
Site elements
Residential structure RS1 (6.9 m x 3.1 m) has been leveled to its foundations. However, the courtyard (5 m x 6.9 m) on its
forward side is still somewhat intact. Standing walls of the courtyard reach 1.2 m in height. The rear wall of RS1 was built at
least 40 cm into the slope. An old enclosure of unknown function is found 10 m south of RS1.
Residential structure RS2 (9.2 m x 6.6 m) is located 74 m northwest of RS1. Only faint traces of the foundation remain, calling
into question its identity. An upright block of granite in the foundation prominently extends 50 cm above ground level. The
uphill wall of the RS2 is set 1 m below the surface, while the downhill wall was elevated 1 m above the slope.
Residential structure RS3 (6 m x 4 m) is situated in a hollow, 28 m southeast or downhill of RS2. It consisted of two rooms
built at the same elevation. A wall buttress used to support the heavy roof and its semi-subterranean aspect clearly identify RS3
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as a rdo khang. The rear wall was built 70 cm into the uphill slope. On the forward or east side of the structure there are the
remains of a walled courtyard (7 m x 6 m) deeply set into the ground (1.3 m below the surrounding surface). Perhaps another
tier of rooms occupied the rear of what appears to be the courtyard but, if so, all visible traces of them have been obliterated.
Residential structure RS4 (6.2 m x 4.7 m) appears to have consisted of a single tier of two rooms. It is situated 12 m south of
RS3. Its rear wall is set 1 m below the surface. The part of the forward wall straddling the two rooms reaches 1.6 m in height,
the highest elevation structure at Mdzo mo lung ra khra bo. There is much rubble lying in front of the forward wall. Perhaps
some of these stones were part of another tier of rooms.
Residential structure RS5 (4.4 m x 2.8 m) is located 9 m south of RS4. Its rear wall was built at least 1 m into the uphill slope.
It may have had a courtyard in the front (east).
Residential structure RS6 is situated 15 m west of RS5. It is comprised of two interconnecting fragmentary foundations (7.1 m
x 5.3 m, 5.1 m x 4.7 m). These two foundations may have given rise to rooms and a walled courtyard, respectively, but there is
not enough structural evidence in place to know for certain. The rear/west wall of RS6 is depressed 50 cm below ground level.
Residential structure RS7 is located directly below RS6. It too has been reduced to two interconnecting foundations (5.6 m x
5.2 m, 6.2 m x 5.6 m), which may have underlain the rooms and courtyard of the structure. The rear wall of RS7 is set 1.2 m
below the upper level of the slope.
Residential structure RS8 (11 m x 6.3 m) is situated 30 m southeast of RS7 at the same elevation. RS8 is a larger and qualitatively
different type of structure than its counterparts. It consisted of at least five small rooms, each of which is marked by a depression
in the ground around 70 cm deep. This structure appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. Small fragments of
standing walls (up to 1.5 m) have survived, but not enough is in place to accurately gauge the architectural character of the
structure.
Mon bu
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Site name: Mon bu
English equivalent: Son of the Mon (?)
Site number: B-125
Site typology: I.2a
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A ma ṇi wall and a prayer flag mast (dar lcog).
Mon bu is built at the foot of a mountain of the same name, the Yul lha of Dung dkar village. The site occupies a narrow hanging
valley called Sman dha ra (sp.?) situated at the eastern foot of the sacred mountain. It is comprised of five all-stone corbelled
edifices built entirely above the ground. These structures are in close proximity to Mon bu rdo ring (C-169), a cult site for the
worship of the Yul lha. Due to the usage of relatively thin roof slabs, smaller and more delicate corbelling was installed as
compared to many other rdo khang sites. Entranceways tend to be relatively large, but there is no evidence for their having been
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windows in any of the structures. All structures are constructed of blue-gray metamorphic slabs (10 cm to 80 cm in length)
configured in heavily mud-mortared random-work courses. Walls average only 40 cm in thickness. Some walls are finely
constructed of small slabs (10 cm to 25 cm long). None of the edifices are aligned in the cardinal directions, nor is there structural
evidence for hearths. As in other rdo khang, ground plans consist of a multiple of small rooms without an obvious centralized
space.
Certain morphological features of the Mon bu structures (above-ground aspect, larger and more intricately designed entryways,
the light construction of the buildings, and the relatively large size of one specimen) suggest that this site was founded at a later
date (early historic period?) than some of Upper Tibet’s other all-stone installations. Further archaeological research is needed,
however, to confirm this hypothesis. Given the remote and lofty location of the site at the foot of an important regional sacred
mountain, the Mon bu facility may have had a religious function.
Oral tradition
According to inhabitants of Dung dkar, Mon bu was an ancient residential center.
Site elements
Residential structure RS1 is situated 7.5 m north of Mon bu rdo ring. This large structure is 22 m long, 3.7 m wide on its
southwest side and 7 m wide on its northeast side. There are significant wall elevations (up to 1.8 m) all throughout the structure
save for its northeast end. The southwest end of RS1 is only one room wide (rooms 1 to 3). Room 1 has its own independent
entrance. Rooms 2 and 3 are internally connected through an entranceway (1.3 m x 1 m) with an intact lintel. The slightly
rounded corners of the wall plates in rooms 1 to 3 are a telltale sign that they were capped by an all-stone roof. To the northeast
of room 3 the structure widens to two rooms abreast. There appear to have been three such pairs of rooms but the northeast
extremity of the building is almost leveled.
A ma ṇi wall with old inscribed plaques is situated 2.5 m southeast of RS1. Eighteen meters southeast of RS1 there are the
remains of a rectangular masonry structure (5.6 m x 1.5 m x 1.5 m). It is hollow inside and built in a similar manner to the rdo
khang. It may represent an archaic shrine of some kind.
Residential structure RS2 (4.9 m x 7.4 m) is situated 58 m northeast or up valley from RS1. It supported six rooms. Standing
walls reach 1.4 m in height. An entranceway (1 m x 60 cm) between a northeast suite and a southeast suite of rooms is intact.
A stone slab (1.2 m x 50 cm) lying inside the structure was probably used in the construction of the roof.
Residential structure RS3 (12.7 m x 7 m) is situated 5.5 m northeast or upslope of RS2. Its walls attain a maximum height of
1.6 m. A row of four rooms on the southwest end of the structure may have constituted a separate wing. It could not be determined
whether there was a gap of 2 m or interconnecting walls between these four rooms and the rest of the structure. In the southwest
group of rooms there is one intact entranceway (1.3 m x 90 cm). The main part of the edifice had no less than ten rooms. The
southeast half of the main part of RS3 is in poor condition and its ground plan is no longer apparent. The northeast half of the
main portion of RS3, however, is in much better shape. Small bits of the roofing still cling to the corners of its rooms. In the
northeast part of the structure, five entranceways with their lintels (up to 1.5 m in length) intact are still in place. Two of these
are external entrances on the upslope side of the edifice. All the entranceways of RS3 are 1.2 m to 1.3 m in height and 80 cm
to 90 cm in width. In one of walls of a central room there is a small rectangular niche. On the west or upslope side of the main
edifice what may have been an apron wall (4.7 m x 1.1 m x 1 m) creates a platform that extends into one of the rooms.
Residential structure RS4 (5.5 m x 4.9 m) is located 65 m west of RS3 on a small shelf above the valley floor. It consists of four
rooms but only the northeast room (1.9 m x 1.5 m) is in a fairly good state of preservation. The walls of this room reach 1.5 m
in height and its integral entranceway is 60 cm wide (opens internally to another room). A few small corbels and roof sheathing
(up to 1.4 m in length) remain attached to the north wall of the northeast room. They cover about ¼ the total area of the room.
Against two walls of the northeast room there are small tables consisting of just three stone each.
Residential structure RS5 (6 m x 7 m) is situated 6.8 m west of RS4 on the same shelf. This east-facing structure has two tiers
of rooms. The west/rear tier probably had three rooms originally. On a crest 45 m southwest of RS5 there is a prayer flag mast
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on the right edge of the Sman dha ra valley. This mast was built upon an elaborate masonry base. This base has recesses in it
used to enshrine butter lamps and other religious paraphernalia. This masonry mass may be the remains of another ancient
structure, which was modified at some point in time to its current form.
Affiliated structures
Below the Mon bu site there is what appears to be a long disused pastoral camp with a variety of nang ra (tent enclosures) (31°
42.1΄ N. lat. / 79° 55.1΄ E. long / 4750 m). Further down valley there is a roundish enclosure measuring 8 m across (42.1΄ / 55.0΄
/ 4740 m). The stones host orange climax lichen and gra ma brush grows inside, indicating that it has not been disturbed in a
long time. This enclosure may be a funerary superstructure. At still lower elevation is an old pastoral camp with well-preserved
intricately constructed tent foundation (nang ra) (42.1΄ / 54.8΄ / 4700 m). This site is situated above where the streams coming
from the west and east sides of Mount Mon bu converge. At this camp there are three quadrate structures composed of slabs
called nyal sa. It is reported that these unusual structures are sleeping enclosures used by those watching over the herds at night.
Phur bu gyang dmar
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Site name: Phur bu gyang dmar
English equivalent: Ritual Dagger Red Walls
Site number: B-47
Site typology: I.2a
Elevation: 4630 m
Administrative location (township): Men thang
Administrative location (county): Dpal mgon
Survey date: November 2, 2003
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: One highly eroded ma ṇi plaque.
Maps: UTRS IX
Phur bu gyang dmar is planted about 25 m above the lower Ja dkar gtsang po valley floor. The site faces east over an area of
rich winter pasturage known as G.yang sde. The single all-stone edifice was constructed on a steep rocky slope and is aligned
in the cardinal directions. It appears to have consisted of three tiers of small rooms (about one dozen in total). The strongly built
structure was primarily constructed from red sandstone laid in random-work courses with a red mud mortar applied to the seams.
Most of the lower walls of the edifice have been leveled precluding a detailed assessment of its ground plan. Walls are around
70 cm thick and contain variable sized stones (20 cm to 70 cm long). The single red sandstone plaque inscribed with the ma ṇi
mantra found at Phur bu gyang dmar must have been transported here from a collection of such plaques in the valley bottom.
I have compared the architectural features of Phur bu gyang dmar to a description of an ancient gshen residence found in a
Bon bka’ text.94 Remarkably, Bon literature preserves an accurate memory of Upper Tibetan rdo khang design features.
Oral tradition
According to local lore, a sngags pa named Phur bu inhabited Phur bu gyang dmar in ancient times. The site is considered
potentially dangerous (bka’ gnyan po).
Site elements
Phur bu gyang dmar measures 8 m to 10.5 m (north-south, the lateral direction) x 9.5 m (east-west). Only the footings of the
forward wall of the edifice are still intact. The forward or lower tier (around 3.9 m wide) of this rdo khang is set at two different
elevations. The upper section (1.5 m wide) of the forward tier may have been part of an axial corridor. The middle tier of the
edifice is 3.2 m wide and the third or upper tier is 2.4 m wide. A 5-m long wall segment (up to 1.8 m in height) separates the
middle and upper tiers. The south room (2 m x 1.7 m) of the upper tier is largely intact, the only room in Phur bu gyang dmar
to be so. The lintel (at least 1.1 m long) over the east-facing doorway of this room is still in place. Rubble filling the upper tier
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Bellezza, Zhang Zhung, 294-299.
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south room comes to within 1.2 m of the ceiling. The all-stone ceiling assembly forms a corbelled pseudoarch that projects 70
cm above the rest of the roof line. This is the only corbelled pseudoarch of its type surveyed to date in Upper Tibet. From the
top of the side walls, this beehive-shaped arch (spanning an area of 1.4 m x 1.6 m) tapers inwards toward the apex of the roof
until it is only about 30 cm wide. Stones cap the opening in the top of the arch. The stones making up the interior of the arch
are covered in sediment and a black organic growth. A small north wall fragment in the upper tier is also extant (80 cm long,
90 cm high). In addition to red sandstone, there are a few conglomerate blocks in this north wall fragment. The remainder of
the rear tier north room has collapsed as has most of the rest of the building. There is, however, a single in situ south wall
fragment (2 m long, 50 cm high).
Directly below the Phur bu gyang dmar rdo khang at the foot of the slope, three sides of quadrate stone enclosure (4.8 m x
5.3 m) are in place. It was built with blue limestone, red sandstone and a conglomerate. The fragmentary walls of this superficial
structure are around 60 cm thick. Its function is unknown. On the edge of a shelf, 28 m up slope of the rdo khang, there are the
faint remains of a platform-like structure. At the same elevation 93 m to the south, is a much better preserved structure probably
of the same type (2.1 m x 1.9 m x 60 cm). It is oriented to the angle of the slope rather than the compass points. This structure
is probably an archaic shrine and is robustly constructed of red sandstone slabs (up to 1 m long) and large chunks of limestone.
Presently, its forward wall is elevated 60 cm above the surface (its original height is not known), while its rear wall is flush with
the slope. A similar but not as well-preserved structure (2 m x 2.1 m) is situated 50 m downhill. This more lightly-constructed
structure (made from the same kinds of rocks) rises 50 cm above the lower slope and is flush with the uphill slope. Stones heaped
upon it appear to be the remains of a superstructure. On the next slope, immediately south of a small gully, there are the faint
remains of what might have been another vertically aligned row of shrines.
Affiliated sites
At the foot of the slope just south of Phur bu gyang dmar there are the remains of a small red sandstone house with two walled
courtyards. It must have belonged to a well-to-do ’brog pa of pre-modern times. It is built in the style commonly used by the
region’s shepherds. In close proximity there is a stone wall with both old and new inscribed plaques. Several kilometers south
of Phur bu gyang dmar, just outside the township headquarters of Men thang, is the locale of Sbu ta (sp.?). Two groups of ruins
are located here: Gzhis ma byang ma and Gzhis ma lho ma. These appear to have been elite residences of later historic times,
but no lore regarding them was collected. The well-built stone structures of Gzhis ma byang ma were established at the edge
of the Ja dkar gtsang po valley on level ground. This complex contained a minimum of 20 rooms and was built with wooden
roofs. A couple of the rooms have been rebuilt but are not currently in usage. Gzhis ma lho ma, which lies closer to the township
headquarters, was not visited during the survey.
Khang pa’i skyed
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Site name: Khang pa’i skyed
Site number: B-48
Site typology: I.2a?
Elevation: 4900 m
Administrative location (township): Phying lung
Survey date: November 7, 2003
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A small ma ṇi wall.
Maps: UTRS IX, HAS D5
Khang pa’i skyed rests on a shelf at the foot of a steep, rocky ridge that rises over the Mgo sbug basin and village. The site,
which is elevated 100 m above the village of Mgo sbug, is in direct view of Gnam mtsho situated 10 km to the south. Small
springs are found in the vicinity of this lone residential structure. The well-built granite edifice (4.8 m x 7.5 m) has been largely
reduced to fragmentary footings. It appears to have been split between two elevations (there is a 30 cm vertical difference
between them). There may have been only one room in each of the two tiers. No standing walls remain at Khang pa’i skyed.
The rear wall was built 60 cm into the slope. To the southeast of the structure there are the remains of footings, suggesting that
a walled courtyard once stood here. It appears to have been 7.5 m long and the width of the building itself. The courtyard was
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set about 70 cm below the lower tier of rooms. Foundation walls are of a random-rubble texture and contain large stones (30
cm to 1 m long). The ground plan of the edifice, its heavy wall traces and the presence of granite members up to 1.4 m in length
on the site suggest that it was of all-stone construction. Next to the ruined edifice there is a ma ṇi wall with highly worn inscribed
plaques that are likely to date to the time of the early bka’ brgyud pa masters. The impression received is that some of the archaic
cultural ruin was dismantled to build this Buddhist monument, probably in order to pacify and requisition the site. An archaic
cultural identity is best in keeping with the morphological and locational characteristics of Khang pa’i skyed.
Oral tradition
None appears to exist in nearby Mgo sbug village. If Khang pa’i skyed was indeed a Buddhist site, some recognition of its
religious status is likely to have been preserved.
Bar mon mkhar
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Site name: Bar mon mkhar
Site number: B-88
Site typology: I.2b
Elevation: 4320 m
Bar mon mkhar is situated on a small earthen outcrop in a mountain cove located on the north side of the Bar valley. On the
outcrop, which rises 4 m to 10 m above the surrounding slopes, are the remnants of a small residential complex. Its siting on
an isolated prominence suggests that it belonged to the upper stratum of archaic society. The summit of the outcrop measures
11.7 m (north to south) x 2.5 m to 7 m. There has been much erosion of this natural feature and it may have been considerably
larger at one time. The outcrop hosts earthen, limestone and sandstone structural traces. So degraded is Bar mon mkhar that its
extent and ground plan are beyond recognition. The general architectonic pattern, location and Mon attribution indicate that
Bar mon mkhar is an archaic cultural site.
Oral tradition
According to local lore, Bar mon mkhar was an ancient Mon castle.
Site elements
Outcrop complex
On the south side of the hillock are two highly eroded primarily earthen wall segments, 3.6 m and 5.6 m in length. The 3.6-m
long fragment stands 2.6 m on the interior side and 3 m on the exterior side. The base of this wall contains random-work blocks
and cobbles and reaches a height of about 1 m. A row of small rounds of wood protrude from the upper extent of the wall. Below
this row of wood a single small timber runs parallel to the axis of the wall. This 3.6-m wall fragment also has two buttresses
against its outer side. The 5.6-m long wall fragment is reduced to the top of the outcrop. This revetment sheathes a vertical
expanse of the outcrop up to 1.5 m in height. It has a cobble base and blocks laid in two diagonal courses near the top. Stones
in this wall are up to 40 cm in length. At the north edge of the outcrop there is a footing fragment 1.4 m in length and 50 cm in
width. It is composed of parallel courses of stones 10 cm to 15 cm in length. There is also a footing segment (2.3 m) on the
south side of the outcrop and a small one in the middle of the summit. These footings were constructed of limestone and
sandstone.
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Outlying structures
Sixty-five meters south of the Bar mon mkhar outcrop, on the side of a slope, there is a masonry plinth. It is 70 cm high on its
downhill side and flush with the upper slope. This plinth is made of larger stones up to 70 cm in length. Local residents also
call this a Mon structure. Similar structures may have been found adjacent to it, as suggested by the analogous contours of the
terrain. There is a zone (16 m x 15 m) of possible structural remains 20 m southeast of the outcrop on high ground. Below the
Bar mon mkhar site there is the adobe block shell of an old tshwa tshwa repository. It may have been founded to neutralize
negative influences thought to issue from the ‘Mon’ residential facility.
Affiliated sites
bar rdzong
The imposing stronghold of Bar rdzong with its more than 80 caves may have been the original nucleus of settlement in the Bar
valley (31° 26.9΄ N. lat. / 79° 26.6΄ E. long.). Certainly, this troglodytic site is the largest of its kind in the environs of Bar.
Nevertheless, all that can now be detected is a Buddhist installation (4370 m to 4450 m), which sits on a formation 110 m in
height. This is said to have been a castle that met its end long before living memory. Bar rdzong was also clearly the site of an
important Buddhist religious center, founded no later than circa 1300 CE, as indicated by murals found in old cave temples at
the site. The high point of Bar rdzong, the east summit (41m x approximately 30 m), supported a tight knit group of adobe
buildings as well as four mchod rten. The buildings were deeply inset (up to 3 m) into the central rib of formation and appear
to have been largely secular structures rather than religious edifices per se. There are no explicit signs of chapels (lha khang)
among the ruins. Many timbers are still an integral part of the east summit (as lintels, posts, beams, wall bonding, and substructures
of walkways). There are four or five caves just below the east summit. What remains of the access route up to the east summit
passes along the north side of the formation. A few caves are found along this trail just before reaching the summit. A passageway
off this trail leads to a single row of at least five caves. The same trail accesses the smaller west summit, which hosts at least
ten caves. Various buildings are found here, particularly along the 20-m long western extremity of the summit.
A trail from the west summit winds down to a ridgeline (35 m x 10 m) with a least ten more caves and a dense cluster of
adobe building carcasses. In two other locations there are eight caves and four caves, respectively. In the most westerly cave of
the latter group there is a large mural (2.4 m x 2 m) of what appears to be the god Dzam bha la. The adjacent cave is fully
covered in Buddhist murals executed to the highest standards of workmanship. Farther down the Bar rdzong formation there
are perhaps 40 more caves but few ruins of buildings. A steeply inclined tunnel 15 m in length leads up from the base of the
formation (4340 m) to the first caves. It is still over 150 m vertical from the foot of the formation to the valley bottom.
Thogs med rde’u ’bur
Basic site data
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Site name: Thogs med rde’u ’bur
English equivalent: All Pervading Hill
Site number: B-84
Site typology: I.2x
Elevation: 4320 m
Administrative location (township): ’Dam gzhung
Administrative location (county): ’Dam gzhung
Maps: UTRS IX
Thogs med rde’u ’bur is situated in the mouth of the Khre chu valley on the northern edge of the ’dam basin. It consists of an
undulating rocky zone (47 m x 48 m). The identity and relative chronology of the site is unclear. It would appear to have once
been a significant area of habitation. The stones of what seem to have been one contiguous complex are embedded in the ground
across the site. This contrasts with adjoining areas which are free from stones. There appears to have been outer walls at Thogs
med rde’u ’bur that are roughly aligned in the cardinal directions. A small contemporary irrigation ditch cuts through the west
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side of the site. It is flanked by small fields, some of which are being cultivated. The barley and peas grown here are used as
animal fodder.
Oral tradition
According to local elders, Thogs med rde’u ’bur was the site of an ancient monastery (dgon pa) called Thogs med bla brang.
The morphological characteristics of the site, however, do not appear to be those of a monastery.
Site elements
A good portion of the level west sector (elevated 1 m to 1.5 m above the surrounding terrain) of Thogs med bla brang is turf
covered and free of stones. Near the upper end of the west side of Thogs med rde’u ’bur informal excavations up to 1 m in depth
have been carried out. They reveal a stone-filled interior but no coherent structures. Much of the rest of the site consists of small
rocky mounds. In the east there are several small foundations (?), now nothing more than depressions ringed with stones. Along
the upper eastern fringe of the site (slightly elevated above the outlying terrain) there is a partly coherent footing 4 m in length
aligned north-south. Impacted structural traces on the upper/north edge of the site reach 2 m in height. The south/lower wall of
Thogs med rde’u ’bur is elevated 1 m to 1.5 m above the lower slope.
Byang ru sdings
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Site name: Byang ru sdings
English equivalent: Northern Division Tableland
Site number: B-85
Site typology: I.2x
Elevation: 4310 m
Administrative location (township): Grong dkar
Maps: UTRS IX
Byang ru sdings is situated on a fairly level low-lying ridge top that is bounded on the east by the Grong dkar chu. On the west
side it is flanked by a ravine. Due to the presence of many rocky mounds and depressions the surface of the site is undulating.
Stones of erstwhile structures are scattered everywhere but there are no coherent walls left. The archaeological dispersion (170
m x 55 m) covers the entire ridge-top and appears to represent what was once a large settlement. During recent informal
excavations human bones and ceramic shards have been recovered from the site. Shallow excavations have taken place all over
Byang ru sdings to collect stones for local construction projects. Township officials report that both square and round stone feet
used to support pillars were also discovered at the site (none were available for inspection because they have been used in the
construction of walls in local homes). In an excavation (1.8 m in depth) that had been carried out on the east side of Byang ru
sdings, a human rib bone and fire-blackened unglazed redware were clear to see. This evidence does indeed indicate that Byang
ru sdings was a locus of permanent habitation.
Oral tradition
According to local sources, Byang ru sdings was a large ancient settlement destroyed by the jun gar in the 18th century CE.
Rkyang thang
Basic site data
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Site name: Rkyang thang
English equivalent: Onager Plain
Site number: B-86
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Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4310 m
Administrative location (township): ’Dam gzhung
Maps: UTRS IX
Rkyang thang is located on the edge of a broad shelf of the same name, which is suspended just above the northern margin of
the ’Dam basin. Rkyang thang also sits above the south bank of the Nya chu, which runs 20 m below it. The core of the site
consists of an undulating rocky dispersion (130 m x 55 m), which is elevated 1 m to 2 m above the surrounding terrain. This
dispersion is marked by rock-filled mounds and depressions. South of the Rkyang thang dispersion there is an extensive zone
of abandoned agricultural fields. These fields cover the Rkyang thang shelf and adjoining areas. The roots of old retaining walls
divide the defunct fields into neatly delineated parcels. The agrarian nature of these fields is confirmed by the local oral tradition.
There is an abandoned Communist period homestead at Rkyang thang. As a rule, ’brog pa do not like to live amid derelict
ancient settlements.
Oral tradition
According to local sources, Rkyang thang was a settlement destroyed by the jun gar (early 18th century CE).
Site elements
What appear to be the coherent footings of buildings are found in the middle part of the Rkyang thang dispersion. These two
fragments measure 13 m and 2.5 m in length and are around 60 cm in thickness. There are also integral wall fragments at the
southwest end of the dispersion. On the north end of the site there are stone ringed depressions, which appear to be the remnants
of a dense cluster of building foundations. The Rkyang thang dispersion indicates that a highly compact settlement once stood
here (unlike the modern pastoral settlements in the ’Dam basin, which are composed of diffuse residences). Rkyang thang has
similar morphological qualities to the dispersion in the lower sector of Skye lung and Lung gsum (D-4).
Bu mo lha khang
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Site name: Bu mo lha khang
English equivalent: Woman’s Temple
Alternative site name: Dpon mo lha khang
English equivalent: Woman Leader’s Temple
Alternative site name 2: Gnam ra’i dpon lha khang
English equivalent: Leader’s Temple of the Firmament
Site number: B-87
Site typology: I.2b
Elevation: 4760 m
Administrative location (township): se le
Maps: UTRS VI, HAS D1
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Bu mo lha khang is a uniquely constructed square edifice set in the midst of a wide plain on sandy ground. It has many highly
unusual design and construction features, making it of particular interest. To the south the site is hemmed in by a low-lying
ridge that blocks views of the Ngang la ring mtsho basin and the Transhimalaya. The beautifully constructed edifice measures
7.2 m to 7.4 m on each of its four sides. Its current height is around 5.8 m and it does not appear to have been much taller
originally. Bu mo lha khang has an open plan interior (5.6 m x 5.6 m). The robustly built walls are around 80 cm in thickness.
The nature of the wall construction and spans involved indicate that Bu mo lha khang possessed a wooden frame roof.
The existence of a variety of funerary superstructures in close proximity to the Bu mo lha khang edifice, suggest that this
high-elevation structure had a mortuary function. This is also indicated by the oral tradition and the placement of the building
in a wide-open plain. Archaic residential sites were much more commonly located in hard-to-reach, defensible locales, while
such open ground was usually reserved for burial. Bu mo lha khang, therefore, may have functioned as a temple-tomb or
mausoleum. Its usage for ongoing cultural activities seems suggested by the presence of window openings. Bu mo lha khang
has been placed in the residential division of sites because of this possible habitational function as well as the domiciliary
functions attributed to it in the oral tradition.
Oral tradition
According to a local folktale, when existence came into being a Bonpo called Na ro bon chung and the epic hero Gling ge sar
decided to build a temple. Na ro bon chung laid the lower portion of Bu mo lha khang in black stone. The two rivals then decided
to hold a horserace to decide how the temple should be completed. If Ge sar won he was to finish the building in white stones
and if Na ro bon chung won the temple he would finish it using black stones. As Ge sar was victorious, Bu mo lha khang was
completed using white construction materials. A variation of this story holds that the defeated character was a Bdud demon.
The demon’s horserace with Ge sar began on a plain near the edifice and finished on the top of the ridge to the northwest of the
site. Another local account says that this site was the summer residence of three female leaders (dpon mo). They died when the
roof collapsed on them and they were buried inside. There is said to be a hollow underneath the floor of the edifice in which
the woman are entombed. It is also believed that in the winter these three female leaders lived in a small lake called Mtsho ka
ba (sp.?), which lies to the east of Bu mo lha khang. It is claimed that smoke can occasionally be seen coming from its waters.
Site elements
Edifice
The lower portion of the four walls of the edifice, a prominent revetment, was built primarily of gray and brown sandstone
(generally 20 cm to 60 cm long) configured in a random-rubble fabric. There are also some pieces of white granite in these
lower wall courses. The stonework of the exterior walls extends 1.3 m to 1.6 m above ground level on all but the east side of
the structure (90 cm high on this side), providing a substantial base. The adhesive used for the stonework is a white clay-based
mortar. The superstructure consists of light-colored earthen blocks with a bluish cast laid in regular courses. These blocks (45
cm x 25 cm x 8 cm) have high gravel content and are especially hard and resistant to crumbling. The factors explaining this
hardness are not immediately apparent. This type of building material has not been detected at any other site in Upper Tibet.
The current floor of the interior of the structure declines to the east (it is elevated 1.3 m to 3 m above the surrounding terrain).
A lip on the floor above the east revetment indicates that, in this direction, the interior was elevated approximately 1.3 m above
surrounding terrain. As the interior slopes up towards the west side of the structure, this could possibly indicate that the interior
space was split between two or more elevations. This is also suggested by the other sides of the revetment, which are significantly
higher than the east base of the building. The seams between each vertical course of earthen blocks (filled with a hard white
mortar) are 3 cm to 4 cm thick. The regular courses thus achieved is of a high order of workmanship. There are also traces of
a white clay-based plaster on the interior walls (around 3 m in height). In the upper section of the west wall there are two openings
that are likely to have become enlarged through damage. There are also various openings in the south and north walls within 1
m of the current top of the structure. Much of the east wall of the superstructure is missing (there is now a 3.9-m wide gap in
it), destroying what must have been the entrance to the edifice.
At the foot of the exterior west wall there are the remains of a slab wall embedded in the surface of the ground. It is quite
well centered between the two sides of the edifice. This superficial structure extends 2.2 m from the building in a perpendicular
fashion. Parallel slabs of stone (around 25 cm in length) were laid in the ground edgewise to create a wall around 30 cm thick.
Such double-course slab walls are a common feature at many archaic funerary sites of Upper Tibet.
In the Spring of 2004, local ’brog pa removed many stones from the revetment of Bu mo lha khang and brought them to
their camps. These stones were taken so that mantras could be carved on them. This pilferage has caused much damage to the
structure. To the credit of local township (shang) officials, a meeting was held shortly afterwards and the herders asked to desist
from removing stones from the monument.
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Funerary enclosures
A rectangular enclosure (6.9 m x 4 m) is located 22 m north of the Bu mo lha khang edifice. The walls of this fragmentary
superficial structure contain parallel courses of stones (granite and sandstone) and are 50 cm thick. In some places additional
stones were interspersed between the parallel lines of masonry. This structure is flush with the surrounding terrain or slightly
elevated above it. There is an analogous double-course enclosure (5.2 m x 6.5 m) situated 69 m east of the edifice. Roughly 70
m southeast of Bu mo lha khang are possibly the faint traces of two other such structures. These enclosures are probably funerary
in nature and belong to the quadrate parallel-course superficial structures typology (II.2b).
Tho
Roughly 100 m west of the Bu mo lha khang edifice are the remains of two long lines of stone markers (tho) that run in a
northwest-southeast direction. Each of these superficial structures is comprised of three to more than 30 stones that are embedded
in the ground. It could not be determined if they were at one time taller or of regular dimensions. The two lines of tho extend
for more than 1 km in the direction of the ridge that encloses the north side of the basin. Near the edifice the clumps of stones
are spaced about 8 m from one another. Farther to the northwest this spacing is not as regular (possibly because of the
disappearance of the structures). The tho are made up of contrasting light- and dark-colored stones. In the local oral tradition,
the east line is envisioned as white, the horseracing course (rta rgyug sa) that Ge sar took. Conversely, the west line of stones
is conceived of as black in color and the course that the Bdud demon or Na ro bon chung took during the race. These superficial
structures are likely to have had a funerary ritual function. They are known from a variety of archaic ceremonial sites in Upper
Tibet.95
Affiliated sites
In gnam ra (the name of the bu mo lha khang locale) there is a sizable stone enclosure, which appears to be a funerary
superstructure (31° 28.3΄ / 82° 46.3΄ / 4770 m). It is situated near a shepherd’s homestead on level sandy ground, not far from
the edge of the basin. This so-called mon dur is aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 11 m (north-south) x 15 m
(east-west). It consists of white granite double-course perimeter walls (60 cm thick) that are mostly flush with the ground surface.
There are also upright stones in the perimeter walls that protrude upwards of 25 cm from the surface. Near the southwest corner
of the structure there is an inner enclosure that measures 1.7 m (east-west) x 3.3 m (north-south). This interior structure may
mark the actual location of a burial.
Zi cha mon khang
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Site name: Zi cha mon khang (sp.?)
Site number: B-49
Site typology: I.2a
Elevation: 4980 m
Administrative location (township): Gzhung pa
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A tshwa tshwa receptacle.
Maps: UTRS VI, HAS A2
The single all-stone edifice of Zi cha mon khang is found on a rocky shelf between light-colored and dark-colored outcrops,
just below the summit of Zi cha nub ma. The poorly preserved structure was built in a sheltered location and has an eastern
aspect. The widest view from the site is to the north. It is one of the only archaic residential sites discovered in Gzhung pa, a
region plentiful in ceremonial pillar sites. Variable-sized stones (up to 60 cm) went into the construction of the random-rubble
walls of Zi cha mon khang. The remains of a cubic shrine (1.2 m x 1.2 m) aligned in the cardinal directions is located 11.5 m
north of the rdo khang. It appears to be an integral part of the residential site.
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For a description of the funerary functions of tho see Bellezza, Zhang Zhung, 492-495.
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Oral tradition
According to local sources, Zi cha mon khang was a residence of the ancient Mon. A tshwa tshwa receptacle in close proximity
to the Rdo khang was built by Karma kun dga’ (born circa 1972), the head of nearby Skya’o klu khang monastery, circa 1988.
He established it to pacify potentially harmful (bka’ gnyan po) influences emanating from the site.
Site elements
Zi cha mon khang is generally aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 6.4 m (west wall), 5.6 m (south wall), 7 m (east
wall), and 5.2 m (north wall). The longer east wall is caused by a small extension in this direction. The east-west dimension of
Zi cha mon khang is as much as 8.5 m if the most outlying footings are taken into account. These forward footings, however,
are so fragmentary that their identity is ambiguous (they could have variously supported a forward tier of rooms, a courtyard
wall or a landing). The highest elevation wall (1.6 m) is along the middle of the west/upper side of the edifice. On the interior
side of this wall segment there are two niches with their lintels intact (60 cm x 50 cm x 40 cm, 30 cm x 30 cm x 50 cm). Other
walls of the rdo khang are only 50 cm to 1 m in height. There were four west or rear rooms; small remnants of their partition
walls are in situ. The layout of what was either the middle or forward tier of rooms in no longer discernable. In the center part
of this tier there is an entranceway (70 cm x 50 cm). Although the heavy 1-m long lintel is in place, much deformation of the
opening has occurred.
Sa rā
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Site name: Sa rā (?)
Site number: B-50
Site typology: I.2a
Contemporary usage: Light pastoral use.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: mchod rten.
Sa rā was once a major agricultural settlement and probably an important cultural center as well, but very little is left. A large
collection of all-stone edifices are situated near the base of the slope that encloses the north side of the broad Sa rā valley. The
movement of scree slopes combined with flooding has taken a heavy toll on the site. The various dispersions found here represent
the onetime existence of no less than 50 or 60 buildings. It is certainly possible that several hundred people once lived at Sa rā.
The nucleus of the site is partly enclosed by a dark-colored ridge. Multiple building groups (Residential structures RS2 to RS10)
once stood here, many components of which had a semi-subterranean aspect. Morphological evidence indicates that most, if
not all, the edifices at Sa rā had all-stone corbelled roof assemblies. Only one intact roof is still found among them. The rdo
khang in such an extensive settlement are likely to have had both utilitarian and ritual functions. The buildings were primarily
constructed of thin slabs of stone (10 cm to 90 cm long) that were laid in random-work courses.
A number of archaic style as well as more conventionally designed mchod rten are also found at Sa rā, the main ceremonial
element of the site. The chronological relationship between the ceremonial and residential elements of Sa rā is not very clear.
Generally the mchod rten are in much better condition than the residences, suggesting that they were constructed at a later date.
This is especially true of those mchod rten built in a standard iconometric manner. In one case, the relative location of a mchod
rten does indeed show that it was founded subsequent to the typical residential complexes of Sa rā.
Extensive fields, now all discarded, lie in the flat valley bottom. The faint outlines of walls (zhing ra) subdividing the old
fields are discernable, extending from the foot of the ridge that bounds the north side of the valley to the watercourse that cuts
through the middle of it. This streambed is often dry or containing just a small amount of water, making agriculture an unviable
proposition nowadays. Desiccation clearly played a role in the abandonment of Sa rā. It is reported that a couple of ’brog pa
families winter at Sa rā.
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Oral tradition
Elders of the region say that Sa rā was an ancient agricultural settlement.
Site elements
Long mchod rten
On a spur elevated about 20 m above the valley floor on the southeast edge of the site there are the remains of an unusual mchod
rten (33° 47.116΄ N. lat. / 79° 11.152΄ E. long.). It is built of dark-colored slabs of stone (up to 1 m long) plastered in mud.
Some of the red ochre painted on the plaster has survived. The long stone rectangular base (9.4 m x 3.3 m x 2.4 m maximum)
sits on a masonry plinth 70 cm in height. Upon the base are five cubic structures, four of which are capped by one or two
graduated tabular structures. The most northeasterly of the cubic structures was built in the same fashion but is too damaged to
have any upper extensions. A substructure of tamarisk rounds is visible inside the northeasterly cubic form. The southeast side
of the base of the mchod rten is flush with the slope, a highly unusual feature, at least if this was a Buddhist variant of the
monument. The five small, square superstructures appear to be bum pa, a standard tabernacular element in mchod rten design.
Similar style monuments are found at other archaic cultural sites such as Do dril bu (B-13) and ’Phrang lam (B-102).96
rDo khang fragment
To the northwest of the long mchod rten there is an isolated wall fragment of stone slabs built 1 m into the foot of the slope
(47.155΄ / 11.140΄). To reach 1 m in height this wall (5.7 m long) contains about 25 vertical courses of stones, providing a
picture of how thin these slabs are generally. The overall structural picture of the Sa rā site indicates that this wall vestige was
once part of an all-stone habitation. The construction of a corral (lhas kha) in close proximity may have contributed to its
destruction, but geomorphologic changes to the loose scree slopes above the structure surely played a part as well.
The residential structure RS1 dispersion roughly measures 20 m x 9 m (47.173΄ / 11.120΄). Only desultory bits of what was
probably more than one building have endured. A rear wall segment (6.6 m long) is built 1.3 m into the slope. This wall segment
exhibits two buttresses, rounded corners and some overlapping among the upper courses of masonry, unmistakable rdo khang
features. The larger of the buttresses is 1.8 m in length, clearly once part of a substantial edifice. In one corner of this wall
shepherds built a pen for kids (ri’u tshang). On a wall fragment on the forward side of the RS1 dispersion there appears to be
faint traces of two or three vertical courses of adobe blocks. The building of a now abandoned corral in the proximity may have
played a part in the dissolution of the structures but slope failure is likely a bigger cause. To the west of RS1 there are the remains
of a residential structure (3.1 m x 4.1 m) set on the tip of rock spur (47.190΄ / 11.114΄). The seams of the slab walls of this
structure (up to 1.1 m in height) contain copious amounts of a mud mortar. Running past this rock spur, at the edge of the slope
between RS1 and RS2, there are what appear to be the remains of a retaining wall (around 80 cm in height).
Residential structure RS2 is a multi-roomed edifice sheltering at the base of a ridge (47.210΄ / 11.083΄). Not much is left of this
relatively large structure (14 m x 9.1 m). There are two niches in a northwest facing wall that is set 1.5 m into the slope.
Residential structure RS3 (approximately 19 m x 7.5 m) is situated 7 m north of RS2. This dispersion also stretches along the
base of the slope that hems in the Sa rā valley. Only small wall segments are extant. On the north end of the RS3 dispersion a
semi-circular structure has survived with its all-stone roof intact. The integral entranceway (60 cm x 40 cm) accesses an interior
space that is only 1.2 m deep and 85 cm high. The roof is made of corbels and slabs and is partially obscured by rubble. Obviously,
this structure was not for human habitation, but it is not clear whether it had a ceremonial or utilitarian function.
Residential structure RS4, located at the base of the slope, is just a very short distance from RS3. This large dispersion (47.5 m
x 18 m) supported a collection of buildings, but they are in an advanced state of decay. Rear walls were built into the slope and
96
For descriptions of these ceremonial monuments see John Vincent Bellezza, “A Preliminary Archaeological Survey of Da rog mtsho,” The Tibet Journal
24, no. 1 (1999): 66; Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 243. When writing about these structures with what appear to be multiple bum pa, I was uncertain
of their religious orientation. Having collected more information on the moumental assemblage of Upper Tibet since that time, I am now of the opinion that
they have a non-Buddhist identity. This is indicated by their unsual design characteristics and their placement exclusively among archaic cultural mouments.
At this juncture, the age of these ceremonial structures cannot be pinpointed. Given the evidence an early historic period origin must be entertained.
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one niche is still found among them. Within the dispersion, a discrete structure has survived with parts of all four walls intact
(3.8 m x 4.4 m).
Residential structure RS5 (41 m x 12 m) is situated on the slopes immediately above RS4. This dispersion once supported several
sizable all-stone buildings. On the northwest end of the dispersion, a rear wall segment (6.5 m long) is set 2 m into the upper
slope. This wall was once part of a relatively large and powerful edifice. Just above the RS5 dispersion there is a row of three
conventionally designed mchod rten (prominent square bases supporting five graduated tiers upon which a rounded midsection
was built). These mchod rten are of both stone-slab and adobe-block construction. There is some red ochre remaining on the
mud veneer covering the structures. There are tamarisk rounds integrated into the graduated tiers (pang rim). The upper slope
has engulfed the bases of this pair of mchod rten. These mchod rten have a Buddhist appearance about them. Their relative good
state of preservation gives the impression that they are not contemporaneous with the rdo khang. They may have been built at
a later date to ritually pacify the site.
In the proximity of RS5 is residential structure RS6 (29 m x 15 m), another contiguous zone of edifices on the slopes. Seven or
8 sizable buildings must have once stood here. This dispersion has forward freestanding wall segments up to 2 m in height.
These were built without very substantial underlying revetments. Stone slabs of various lengths were used in construction (10
cm to 80 cm). These walls were heavily mud mortared, much of which has oozed out of the seams to cover sections of the
stonework. In the remains of an upper edifice, a forward wall segment reaches 2.8 m in height on the exterior side and 2 m high
on the interior, the difference being accounted for by a revetment. There is a window in this forward wall (35 cm x 40 cm) with
a 70-cm long lintel. The rear wall of the same edifice is set 1.8 m below the upper slope. In the bottom of the rear wall there are
two deep recesses (east: 45 cm x 35 cm x 1.2 m, west: 55 cm x 35 cm x 1 m). This rear wall was part of a large irregularly
shaped room (4.9 m x 3.8 m) and has one buttress partly intact as well. Such large sequestered rooms may possibly have had a
ceremonial function, with the recesses representing sacred spaces of some kind (we might speculate that chthonic forces were
propitiated here).
Residential structure RS7 (38.5 m x 18.5 m) is situated northeast of RS6 at the same elevation. This highly fragmentary dispersion
has been reduced to a scattering of small wall segments. Near the high end of this dispersion there is a wall fragment with an
entranceway (55 cm wide) that has been engulfed by the slope. On the northeast side of the dispersion a discrete structure (4 m
x 4.3 m) is discernable. Very little of the forward/lower portion of this rdo khang has survived but the rear wall is somewhat
intact. It is built 1.4 m into the upper slope and contains a deep recess (1.1 m x 90 cm x 1 m). A rear wall buttress in this structure
divided a larger room from an alcove (1.2 m x 70 cm). This buttress was constructed with slabs up to 90 cm in length.
Residential structure RS8 (12 m x 6 m) is situated west of the nucleus of the Sa rā site (47.254΄ / 11.027΄). This single (?)
structure was built at two distinct elevations. Only small wall fragments are still in situ. The rear wall was built 1.3 m into the
uphill slope.
Residential structure RS9 (12 m x 17 m) and RS8 may have originally formed one contiguous complex but there is now a gap
of 5 m between them (47.259΄ / 11.014΄). mchod rten were built inside the dispersion, signaling that they were founded subsequent
to the original residential site. This is also indicated by the relative state of preservation of the ceremonial and residential
juxtapositions. In the valley bottom between RS9 and RS10 there is slab wall (11.7 m long) embedded in the ground. It is aligned
to the slope gradient above, not to the cardinal directions. Such structures are commonly associated with Upper Tibetan funerary
sites.
Residential structure RS10 (50 m x 15 m) is another multi-roomed dispersion at the base of the slope (47.283΄ / 10.970΄). A
number of buildings were established here but little is left. Like other dispersions at Sa rā, rear walls were built into the upper
slopes, giving them a semi-subterranean aspect.
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Tall mchod rten
At the base of the slope, an unusual style mchod rten was built on top of a rocky ledge (47.305΄ / 10.930΄). The base (4.2 m x
2.4 m x 2 m) supports two cubic structures upon which there is a single unit of five graduated tiers. Above this stepped structure
there is a small rounded bum pa. The structures built on the base add about another 2 m to the height of the monument. This
archaic style mchod rten seems likely to have a Bon identity. In front of the tall mchod rten there are corrals used in the winter
by the region’s ’brog pa. In close proximity are the remains of a small rdo khang obscured by a tent enclosure and other pastoral
structures.
West spur tip
On a spur tip above the tall mchod rten there is the ruined base of another mchod rten (3.4 m x 3.3 m) and a residential carcass
(2.8 m x 3.3 m). Three walls remain standing in this structure, which are between 1 m and 1.6 m in height. It appears that adobe
blocks were sandwiched between the stone slabs of these walls. Above these ruins there is a masonry platform with a rudimentary
prayer flag mast (47.313΄ / 10.892΄ / 4320 m). This is the only explicit sign of religious activity still being observed at Sa rā.
Spang bkra rdzong dkar
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Site name: Spang bkra rdzong dkar
English equivalent: Glistening Meadow White Fortress
Site number: B-121
Site typology: I.2c
Contemporary usage: Certain caves are used as pastoral shelters.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Near the north end of the site there are old inscribed brown sandstone plaques and
more recent ones of limestone. On the esplanade below the cave complex there are two extremely eroded Buddhist
shrines, one of which contains clay figurines (tshwa tshwa). In close proximity there is the ruined base of what might
have been a mchod rten. It is reported that there is a cave with Buddhist frescos at the site.
Spang bkra rdzong dkar, located on the east side of an eponymous valley, overlooks the confluence of the two rivers that flow
through this location. Around 210 caves (mostly consisting of single chambers) of the type common throughout Gu ge were
cut into an earthen and gravel escarpment. These caves appear to be the original nucleus of settlement in the Spang bkra valley.
The caves are found from the base of the escarpment to within at least 60 m of its highly dissected flat summit. The lowest line
of caves is suspended 80 m to 140 m above the Spang bkra valley floor. Downstream of the cave complex, the valley closes in
around a gorge. In addition to the two rivers there is a small spring at the foot of the formation.
The Spang bkra rdzong dkar cave complex occupies a central position overlooking extensive agricultural lands. These
farmlands are located on a large flat between the two rivers of Spang bkra. Only a small portion of this land is being tilled at
present. A smaller agricultural pocket was located above the west side of the west branch of the Spang bkra chu. The ample
fertile land and plentiful water of the locale, uncommon natural endowments in contemporary Gu ge, are likely to have been
exploited for a very long period of time. Given its excellent natural resource base, Buddhist occupation of Spang bkra rdzong
dkar (as reflected in the monumental record) appears to have been very minimal (the caves here probably functioned as a
Buddhist retreat center). This seems to suggest that the period of highest site development came earlier.
Oral tradition
Local residents say that Spang bkra rdzong dkar was once a Buddhist center.
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Site elements
The cave fronts are highly eroded thus very few façades or entranceways have survived. As in other caves of Gu ge, these often
have domed recesses in the rear walls flanked by oblong niches. One cave inspected still has a groove in the ceiling, which
functioned to allow smoke to escape. The largest cave that could be accessed is situated near the north side of Spang bkra rdzong
dkar. It is 9 m deep and 9 m wide at the mouth. Towards the middle portion of the bottom end of the site there is a
double-chambered cave with a masonry façade. This masonry structure is covered in mud plaster that was painted white with
lime. In the south portion of Spang bkra rdzong dkar as many as five caves are arrayed vertically. Two caves among them have
red ochre tinted walls and another one has the remains of a masonry façade. Many of the upper caves of the Spang bkra rdzong
dkar escarpment must have been accessed with wooden ladders and suspended walkways.
Gyam chung phug pa
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Site name: Gyam chung phug pa
English equivalent: Small Rock Shelter Cave
Site number: B-122
Site typology: I.2c
Elevation: 5090 m
Maps: UTRS V
The large cave of Gyam chung phug pa is situated in a limestone range that bounds the north side of a large plain. The cave
towers some 550 m above this plain and occupies a highly isolated and defensible location. This capacious cave has two entrances
separated by a distance of 46 m: northwest mouth (26 m wide) and south mouth (16 m wide).
Oral tradition
According to residents of Rgod tshang smad, Gyam chung phug pa was an ancient stronghold from which battles were fought.
Site elements
A steep slope leads up to the northwest mouth of Gyam chung phug pa, which was once barricaded by a massive wall. A 17 m
length of this random-rubble dry-mortar wall is still partly intact. This 2-m-thick structure was constructed from uncut, variable
length (up to 80 cm long) limestone blocks. Its maximum standing height is 1.8 m on the exterior and 2.5 m on the interior. This
structure is likely to have had defensive value. The south mouth (overlooks the plain) was also hemmed in by a huge wall, which
has been reduced to a pile of rubble reaching 3 m in height. Below the south mouth there are unassailable cliffs. The floor of
the cave is uneven and covered in limestone outcrops and rubble. The ceiling is 5 m to 8 m in height and even higher in some
places. There is a distance of more than 60 m from the northwest mouth to the innermost recesses of the cave. The eastern
portion of the cave descends at least 15 m to a little standing water. Although now fouled, this spring is likely to have once
supplied water for the inhabitants of Gyam chung phug pa. Just above the standing water there is a huge pile of ash, which now
resembles fine, dark soil. There are bone fragments among this ash, a sign of significant human occupation. The ash midden
follows the line of the slope, covering an area of around 100 m².
’Om bu zhang zhung dgon pa
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Site name: ’Om bu zhang zhung dgon pa
English equivalent: ’Om bu Zhang zhung Monastery
Site number: B-123
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Site typology: I.2x
Elevation: 4650 m
Administrative location (township): ’Om bu
Contemporary usage: A threshing pad has been recently built.
Maps: UTRS VIII, HAS B1
’Om bu zhang zhung dgon pa appears to have been an important archaic residential center and may represent the original locus
of settlement in ’Om bu, a well-known agricultural village.97 The location of the site, on a rocky shelf at the base of a limestone
formation known as brag btsan (the local Yul lha), is in keeping with the lofty aspect of ancient residential centers at Dang ra
g.yu mtsho and other locations in Upper Tibet. ’Om bu zhang zhung dgon pa possesses a prominent position and a degree of
defensibility typical of archaic cultural sites. The contemporary village, located immediately to the north at 20 m lower elevation,
does not have these characteristics (it was constructed on much more open ground).98 A steep rocky slope separates ’Om bu
village from the ruins of ’Om bu zhang zhung dgon pa. The shelf that hosts the ruins is bounded by a rocky spine to the south.
In the north it is connected to a narrower shelf with no archaeological remains discernable. The site has a western orientation
overlooking Dang ra g.yu mtsho. The total dispersion of ’Om bu zhang zhung dgon pa is 270 m (north-south) long. It is 12 m
to 25 m (east-west) wide on the south end and 30 m to 40 m (east-west) on the north end of the site. This dispersion covers an
area of some 6000 m², reflecting the existence of a significant cultural center. ’Om bu zhang zhung dgon pa was intensively
mined for stones during the Chinese Cultural Revolution, heavily impacting the integrity of the ruins.
Oral tradition
Elders of ’Om bu opine that the ruins of ’Om bu zhang zhung dgon pa represent a religious center built in prehistoric Zhang
zhung times.
Site elements
Residential complex
Only fragmentary foundations and retaining walls are still extant at ’Om bu zhang zhung dgon pa. Despite its decimation, it is
evident that a dense array of structures was once spread out across the site. From the structural footprints persisting, it would
appear that many of these structures were buildings, at least some of which were of the all-stone corbelled type. The shelf was
lined with two or three tiers of buildings, of which there were around 50 in total (each between 10 m² and 60 m²). Potentially
several hundred people once resided here.
Structures at ’Om bu zhang zhung dgon pa are of the dry-mortar, random-rubble type. Stones used in the construction of the
foundations and revetments are of variable length (up to 1.2 m long) but tend to be larger. Superstructures are likely to have
been less robustly built. The white limestone building materials have assumed a reddish color through geochemical processes
and the growth of lichen. The revetment fragments are typically 2 m to 4 m in length and 50 cm to 1.5 m in height. Foundation
walls often incorporate naturally occurring boulders and outcrops that dot the shelf into their construction.
South sector
The south or narrow end of the shelf is very rocky and sloping. Probably the best-preserved structure in this sector measures
6.5 m x 7 m (31° 20.271΄ N. lat. / 86° 45.583΄ E. long.). Within the crumbling footings of its perimeter, there is a depression 1
m deep. The rear/east wall is set 60 cm below the slope. The forward/west wall is nearly flush on its inner side and a maximum
of 1.3 m high on its exterior. A north wall fragment in this structure has survived in relatively good condition. This 80-cm-thick
wall was constructed in a manner congruent with having supported a superstructure (it is double-coursed, uniform in design
and probably with traces of the rubble used to fill the spaces between the courses). Also, in the south sector, there are the remains
of what was almost certainly a rdo khang (20.285΄ / 45.578΄). This structure has a semi-subterranean aspect and a sub-rectangular
97
98
I first noted the existence of this site in Bellezza, Divine Dyads, 394; Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 121.
’Om bu village has been occupied for centuries as maintained in the village’s oral tradition. This is corroborated by the presence of all-stone basements
underneath the oldest houses of the villages. These subterranean structures are called ’og khang (B-56). See Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 138-140.
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ground plan (internal dimensions: 2.8 m x 3 m). Its rear wall is set 1.5 m into the slope while its forward side is placed 50 cm
or less below the surface. The rear wall is capped by two, probably naturally occurring, boulders (1 m and 1.2 m in length). The
rounded corners and overlapping masonry courses of this structure closely match those of rdo khang sites all along the east
shore of Dang ra g.yu mtsho.
Forward structures
A retaining wall, built along the rim of the shelf, may have once supported a standing wall that demarcated the forward/lower/west
flank of the site. On the west edge of the shelf a retaining wall segment 8 m long and 1.5 m to 2 m in height has survived (20.301΄
/ 45.569΄). The most extensive west rim revetment is 13 m long and 1.5 m to 2 m in height (20.340΄ / 45.557΄). Just above this
wall there is a quadrate structure (9.5 m x 5.7 m) with a depression in the middle. There are no coherent walls left in this larger
structure (the remains of a building?). Another, somewhat irregularly shaped, semi-subterranean structure has maximum interior
dimensions of 3.7 m x 7.2 m (20.323΄ / 45.569΄). Its rear/east wall is set a maximum of 2 m below the surface and has in situ
boulders incorporated in it. The forward/west wall of this structure is placed about 50 cm below the surface. Although there are
no corbels left, this was almost certainly the remains of a Rdo khang, as found at other Dang ra g.yu mtsho sites.
Affiliated sites
Glang chen brag khung
Glang chen brag khung (Elephant Grotto) is located in the red limestone escarpment above ’Om bu village (31° 20.51΄ N. lat.
/ 86° 45.77΄ / 4810 m). This shallow cave is suspended 200 m above the village and has a northwest aspect. It is 7 m deep but
only the outer 3 m has a level floor and a fairly high ceiling. The mouth of Glang chen brag khung is bounded by the remains
of a stonewall 13 m in length, with an exterior height of 1 m to 1.3 m (the interior height is somewhat less). The original design
and extant of this degraded façade wall could not be determined. Part of the base of this wall is covered in moss and orange
climax lichen, indications that it is of significant age. Although they too lie in ruins, other parts of the wall appear to have been
built much more recently and are of a far more rudimentary form of construction. The existence of this substantial façade
indicates that Glang chen brag khung may have been used for residential purposes (perhaps as a religious retreat). Nevertheless,
the ceiling of the cave shows no signs of fire blackening. No information about the history of Glang chen brag khung could be
collected. Its location above prime agricultural land and the absence of other caves in ’Om bu, suggest that this site may have
once constituted a prominent cultural feature. Some prayer flags are hung up inside Glang chen brag khung, the only contemporary
usage of the cave.
Below Glang chen brag khung, on steep limestone slopes, there is a location known as ’thag ri rked. A number of small stone
structures (around 3 m x 3.5 m) are found here. These appear to be the foundations of rudimentary habitations of considerable
age. Three of these structures are located at 20.52΄ / 45. 67΄ / 4740 m and one is found at 20.52΄ / 45.64΄ / 4710 m. No information
about ’thag ri rked could be obtained locally. It is certainly possible that the structural remains of this site represent an early
nucleus of settlement in ’Om bu.
Rta ra dmar lding
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Site name: Rta ra dmar lding
English equivalent: Soaring Red Horse Corral
Site number: B-124
Site typology: I.2c
Survey expedition: TUE and THE
Survey date: October 10, 2005 and April 30, 2006.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Plaques inscribed with the ma ṇi mantra.
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The caves, springs and pasturage of the Dpal gzims phug locale provide an excellent natural resource base, which has been
exploited for a very long time. Located approximately 3 km north of Dpal gzims phug monastery, residential structures are
situated in a series of fissures and ledges at Rta ra dmar lding. Ensconced in the limestone cliffs on either side of the Rta ra dmar
lding defile there are the remains of masonry façades, revetments and other types of walls belonging to the archaic cultural
horizon. All walls are configured in a random-rubble, dry-fitted texture. These bluish limestone walls were, for the most part,
heavily built (50 cm to 80 cm thick with stones up to 1 m in length). Such walled grottos are never associated with Buddhist
emblems, at least as regards their primary occupation. Various swastikas painted in red ochre at Rta ra dmar lding mark the
archaic cultural presence at the site, in a period before the Gzims phug locale devolved to the rnying ma pa. It appears that the
monuments of Gzims phug represent three distinctive phases in the cultural development of the region: rock shelters of the
prehistoric epoch, early historic edifices in the cliffs and the rnying ma retreats and temples of later historic times.
Oral tradition
According to senior monks at Dpal gzims phug dgon pa, Dpal gzims phug is the site of ancient habitations.
Textual tradition
Recently a history and pilgrims’ guide to Dpal gzims phug was written by its abbot Rig ‘dzin chos ‘phel of Ma g.yo (born in
1976). This work of 70 pages is entitled Dpal gzims phug o rgyan chos gling gi byung ba brjod pa skal bzang gyi dga’ ston. It
was scheduled to be published by Bod ljongs mi dmangs dpe skrun khang in 2006. rig ‘dzin chos ‘phel kindly let me inspect a
proof copy of his work. Gu ru rin po che is stated to have come to Gzims phug in 768 CE, two years after his time at Bsam
yas.99 It is said that gu rin po che stayed at Gzims phug for seven days, marking the beginning of the site’s Buddhist tenure (rig
‘dzin chos ‘phel, in personal communication). From that time until the actual monastery was founded in 1095 CE (a 327 year
gap), it is thought that local ’brog pa carried out Buddhist rites in the various caves. The founder of Dpal gzims phug was Blo
gros mtha’ yas who arrived at the site in 1095 CE (Year of the Wood Pig, in the second rab byung).100 For around 600 years
there was no throne holder at the site.101 The first throne holder was Rgyal ba gar gyi dbang phyug who arrived in the 17th
century CE.102 Dpal gzims phug was destroyed by the jun gar in 1718.103
The epigraphic and rock art evidence from the site paints a somewhat different picture than the above traditional Buddhist
account. This archaeological evidence establishes that there was indeed an archaic cultural (early Bon) presence at Gzims phug.
No mention of this fact is made in Rig ’dzin chos ’phel’s history. As is customary in Buddhist literature, this ‘dark period’ in
Tibetan cultural history is simply skipped over. The epigraphy and rock art indicates that those practicing non-Buddhist religious
traditions were active at the site long after Gu ru rin po che’s supposed visitation. In fact, encounters between the two contending
religious groups are chronicled in the not always harmonious juxtaposition of their mantras and symbols. Paleographic evidence
indicates that Bonpo remained at Gzims phug for a considerable length of time. The reference to the founding of Dpal gzims
phug monastery in 1095 CE probably heralds the definitive takeover of the site by the Buddhists. The painting of a large ma ṇi
mantra exhibiting unusual paleographic qualities at Rta ra dmar lding (see below) seems to corroborate the conversion to
Buddhism in the same general timeframe as the founding of Dpal gzims phug.
Site elements
rTa ra dmar lding
West rock shelter
Deep in the Rta ra dmar lding defile there is a large east-facing shelter under an overhang.104 This west rock shelter is hidden
from view until one is well inside the gorge. The lofty west rock shelter (24 m wide, 24 m deep) has a defensible position, a
common preoccupation with builders in ancient Upper Tibet. The blue limestone structures have turned red through geochemical
action. The remains of a façade 17 m in length enclose the mouth of the overhang. On the southwest end much of this massively
constructed front wall (80 cm thick) has disappeared. Other portions of it, however, reach 4 m in height on the exterior face and
1 m on the interior. Given its heavy construction and low interior height, this wall is likely to have been much taller originally.
99
Rig ‘dzin chos ‘phel, Dpal gzims phug o rgyan chos gling, 12, 13.
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Rig ‘dzin chos ‘phel, Dpal gzims phug o rgyan chos gling, 16.
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Rig ‘dzin chos ‘phel, Dpal gzims phug o rgyan chos gling, 16.
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Rig ‘dzin chos ‘phel, Dpal gzims phug o rgyan chos gling, 21-23.
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The current throne holder of Dpal gzims phug is Kun bzang rnam grol thub bstan lung rtogs bstan ’dzin, the ninth in the line of Dpal gzims phug spiritual
preceptors. He resides in a monastery near Gzhis ka rtse called pad ma lhun lding.
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The overhanging rock faces of the defile precluded the use of GPS.
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It encloses a fairly level area that extends for 14 m inside the rock shelter. This zone terminates at the faint remains of an inner
wall. Beyond this point, the floor is very rocky and steeply sloping to the rear of the cave. In the rear of the cave, three bold red
ochre counterclockwise swastikas were painted beyond arm’s length. In close proximity there are also fainter counterclockwise
swastikas. Reinforcing its bastion status there are the remains of a small curtain-wall on the floor of the gorge below the west
rock shelter. Wall fragments of a residential structure also cling to the north face of the defile.
South rock shelter
The south rock shelter is suspended above the floor of the gorge, investing it with a protective position. It is situated about 20
m lower in elevation than the west rock shelter. The south rock shelter has a high ceiling just like its counterpart. Only small
remains of its 22-m long retaining wall have survived. On the east end a segment of this wall is 9 m in length; it reaches 2 m
high on the exterior side while its interior is flush with the floor of the shelter. A well-built wall fragment 2 m long was built
inside the south rock shelter at a distance of 5 m from the front wall. This internal feature probably had something to do with
the residential function of the cave. Along the east flank of the south rock shelter there are wall fragments set deep inside a
fissure in the cliff.
Mouth of the defile structures
Above the mouth of the defile on its north side there are the remains of a structure (4 m x 2.7 m) built between the cliff face
and an outcrop. Walls of this small shelter reach 3 m in height and exhibit the masonry texture and degradation of the archaic
cultural horizon. On the edge of the ledge running northeast from this structure there are the vestiges of footings (probably
supported an outer defensive wall) that extend for 23 m. The overarching cliff partially shelters the ledge upon which these
structures were built (much of this ledge is around 6 m wide). In the middle portion of the ledge, a small Buddhist retreat house
was built against the cliff. The stonework is largely intact, mud mortared and covered in lime plaster. Just north of the ledge
there is a fissure in the cliff with the remains of a wall (3 m long) enclosing much of it.
North cliff structures, inscriptions and pictographs
The ledge at the mouth of the defile is interconnected to another ledge to the north that directly overlooks Gzims phug mtsho.
Rising about 50 m above the lake basin, this ledge is 42 m long and 3 m to 7 m wide. Running along the rim of this ledge there
are wall footings, suggesting that it once supported more extensive structures. It is dominated by an old building that evidently
had religious functions (18 m in length), whose walls are largely intact (they are 2 m to 2.5 m in height). This structure contains
a single line of five rooms. Doors between the rooms have stone lintels, as does one of the two small windows in the exterior
wall. Although the design (mud-mortared, high elevation walls, etc.), layout and relatively good condition of the structure
indicate that it was established in a later period than the more primitive rock shelters, its cultural identity is not clear. This kind
of information was not preserved in the oral tradition of Dpal gzims phug.
Above the main entrance to the five-roomed edifice, an archaic style mchod rten (with a small bum pa, long banner, etc.)
was painted on the cliff face in red ochre and white lime (?).105 Perhaps this is a sign that the structure was built and occupied
by the Bonpo. Also, within the confines of this building there is a counterclockwise swastika in white, a design resembling the
conjoined sun and moon (nyi zla) and the word rgon pa written in red ochre. I take this inscription to be an archaic spelling for
monastery (dgon pa), identifying the structure as religious in nature. In close proximity to the five-roomed edifice there is a
small wall with old plaques inscribed with the ma ṇi mantra, a clear indication of the Buddhist occupation of Rta ra dmar lding.
South of the five-roomed edifice there is pictographic panel (1.1 m x 70 cm) that consists of a vertical row of three swastikas,
the top two of which point in a clockwise direction, the bottom one in a counterclockwise direction. These swastikas are flanked
by about 70 small blotches on each side. This white pigment composition appears to have been charged with symbolic meaning,
the precise nature of which is open to debate. Perhaps each dot represents a member of the local community, made in a pre-12th
century CE period when a Bon-Buddhist syncretism possibly prevailed. The integration of swastikas oriented in both directions
may hint at such an accommodation. In any event, the significant level of wear and signs of organic infiltrations indicate that
this panel was painted centuries ago.
On the cliff face immediately north of the five-roomed edifice there are the remnants of ma ṇi mantras written on a white
background. On another panel with a white background, the Rigs gsum mgon po mantras were written. North of these panels
105
According to the great Tibetan intellectual Dge ’dun chos ’phel (1903-1951), the Tibetan stepped mchod rten with a pair of yak horns on top between
which mkhar gong (a soft white stone) was placed is connected to the dmu mkhar (receptacle for dmu deities) of Bon. The author notes that by looking at the
more than 100,000 ruined and intact mchod rten in India, we can know if the Tibetan mchod rten of customary proportions is among their design, it is not. The
four well-known types of mchod rten in India have specifically attributed designs: 1) like a bubble, 2) head ornament, 3) bell, and 4) pile of grain. gde ’dun
chos ‘phel also observes that in India gtor ma (sacrifical cake) offerings of grain, bread, etc. were made, not the high-peaked gtor ma designs of various ancient
Tibetan rituals. The Tibetan ancestors preferred hats and gtor ma in the shapes of mountains. They liked various lha rten (tabernacles) in the shape of very
sharp mountain peaks. The author states his belief that these were part of Swastika Bon practices. See Dge ‘dun chos ‘phel, Dge ’dun chos ’phel gyi gsung
rtsom. rgyal khams rig pas bskor ba’i gtam rgyud gser gyi thang ma vol. 1. (Lha sa: Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 1994), 63, 64.
235
there is a large red ochre ma ṇi mantra adeptly written on a white background. With its reverse letter i and Bon-style oṃ,106 this
mantra can probably be dated to the pre-12th century CE cultural milieu. Above this unusual ma ṇi mantra there is a faded red
ochre counterclockwise swastika. In close proximity the vajra mantra, bla ma and ga shwa ri mum (something to do with a
white-headed mountain deer?) were inscribed in red ochre. Below the unusual ma ṇi mantra there are the traces of a well-executed
counterclockwise swastika (50 cm high) drawn in an off-white pigment. The same pigment was used to obscure nearly all of
it. This appears to be graphic evidence of a Bon-Buddhist rivalry symbolically played out on the rock faces of Gzims phug. The
propinquity of Bon and Buddhist symbols and inscriptions at the site seems to indicate a not always easy co-habitation involving
the practitioners of archaic religious traditions and Buddhism. This convergence must have occurred during the time in which
the religious orientation of this important economic site was being decided once and for all. In the proximity of the inscriptions
there are the remains of an archaic style mchod rten or other type of shrine red ochre pictograph. Its total height is 48 cm but
only the top 30 cm are clearly visible. The clear portion consists of three graduated tiers surmounted by a short shaft and a
crowning spherical structure. The bottom portion of the pictograph appears to consist of a large square base.
Rock shelter south of the defile
There are ancient wall remains south of the Rta dmar lding defile (31° 24.07΄ N. lat. / 88° 42.91΄ E. long. / 4680 m). The degraded
condition of these walls and their highly inaccessible location are signature features of an archaic cultural occupation. The
vestiges of a landing and stairs are found in a fissure below a cave.
Lower sector ruins
At the base of the defile, flanking the south side of the gully containing the seasonal watercourse, there are two heavily-built
foundation walls, each around 21 m in length. This site is called Lhas ra lho ma. Built upon a bench, these walls appear to have
constituted the west and north sides of a large building. These adeptly constructed footings are around 90 cm thick, up to 1 m
in height and contain stones a maximum of 80 cm in length. The walls of Lhas ra lho ma have been incorporated into a corral,
built most probably with stones taken from the old structure. The gully has eroded right to the north foundation wall in spots.
Above these walls there are the highly eroded square bases (3 m x 3m) of what appear to have been mchod rten or some other
type of shrine. Although they have fragments of old inscribed plaques on them, their architectonic makeup is uncertain. On the
opposite side of the gully there are also the ruined bases of unidentified ceremonial structures (24.14΄ / 43.06΄ / 4590 m). This
location is known as Lhas ra byang ma. According to the local oral tradition, some of the ruins in the vicinity of Rta ra dmar
lding are thought to be those of a nunnery destroyed by the jun gar, but their precise whereabouts are not clear.
Chos lung o rgyan bsam gtan gling
To the south of Rta dmar lding there is another gorge called Chos lung o rgyan bsam gtan gling (Chos lung). Its name reflects
Gu ru rin po che’s alleged stay at Dpal gzims phug. High up in this waterless defile there is a lone cave with a heavy façade
wall (24.01΄ / 42.35΄ / 4700 m). This cave (7.5 m x 4 m) has an easterly aspect. The 3.8-m long façade consists of a masonry
front and two walls that outflank the entrance. The seams in this masonry structure contain copious amounts of a clay-based
cement. This façade seems to have been tinted red (in conformance with religious architecture) but most of the color has faded
away. Below the façade there is a stairway 5.5 m in height that is embedded in a cleft in the formation (this stairway may have
been both a prestige symbol and a defensive feature). The intact entranceway (1.2 m x 50 cm) punctuates the middle of the
facade (maximum height 2.4 m). The high, hidden, out of the way location of this nameless Chos lung cave are situational
features connected to the archaic cultural horizon. Its highly remote location and perhaps demographic factors has spared it
from Buddhist cultural modification.
There are a number of Bon inscriptions and pictographs inside the Chos lung cave. A medium red ochre pigment was favored
for use in this cave, as it was in all the Dpal gzims phug environs. Near the mouth of the cave there is a counterclockwise
swastika (23 cm high) and the dbu can letter a (28 cm high). In a recess in the south wall of the cave, not far from its mouth, a
well-drawn reverse swastika was placed inside a square frame consisting of two parallel lines (43 cm x 55 cm). Adjacent to this
framed swastika there is a dbu can letter a also contained within a frame (60 cm x 60 cm). Inside the parallel lines of this frame
there is a band of interconnected triangles. Adjacent to these framed symbols, further inside the cave, there are two
counterclockwise swastikas and the dbu can letter a arrayed in a vertical row. Adjacent to this inscription, deeper in the cave,
a oṃ hum was written (the hum is located below the oṃ). Below this latter Bon inscription are two more counterclockwise
swastikas. A dbu can letter a and another counterclockwise swastika are inferior to them. Also on the south wall, deeper in the
Chos lung cave there is an obscured a oṃ hum.
106
This type of oṃ has five distinct elements. From top to bottom they are: klad kor (the ma or nga), zla tshes, sna ro, a, and a chung.
236
Caves north of chos lung
North of the chos lung gorge, at the base of the escarpment overlooking the gzims phug mtsho basin, there is a 3.5-m-deep cave
with a highly eroded and impacted façade (2 m long, 1 m high) around it (23.94΄ / 42.56΄ / 4610 m). Farther north on a ledge
that runs along the base of the escarpment ((below this ledge steep slopes give way to the Gzims phug mtsho basin), there is
another modified cave (6 m x 4.7 m) called A phug (23.99΄ / 42.71΄ / 4620 m). The remains of a 4-m high stairway embedded
in a cleft in the formation lead up to the mouth of A phug. This cave has a substantial façade (2.5 m in length) and walls set at
a 90° angle that border the entranceway (1.8 m x 80 cm). The stone lintel over the entryway is intact. An a has been engraved
on the rear of the south wall, lending its name to the cave. Between A phug and the next cave to the south there are said to be
the handprint and footprint of Gling ge sar, as well as the prints of his horse and dog. North of A phug, at the foot of the
escarpment, there are six ruined tshwa tshwa receptacles. On the cliff face above these structures, five red ochre counterclockwise
swastikas and five clockwise swastikas were drawn in different places. Some of these swastikas are heavily obscured. These
pictographs mark cultural encounters between the practitioners of archaic religious traditions and the Buddhists. This tshwa
tshwa khang may have been built here to efface the archaic territorial imprint.
Se mo do
Basic site data
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Site name: Se mo do (South)
Alternative site name: Srin mo do (South)
English equivalent: Island of the Srin mo
Alternative site name 2: Nang do (South)
English equivalent: Inner Island
Site number: B-126
Site typology: I.2c
Elevation: 4730 m
Administrative location (township): Spo che
Survey expedition: TILE
Survey date: February 12–14, 2006.
Contemporary usage: Occasional use of site by religious practitioners and shepherds.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A small wall with inscribed plaques, Buddhist mantras carved on the formation,
and prayers and mantras written in red ochre.
Maps: UTRS IX, HAS D5
The various caves and manmade structures of Se mo do (South) are located at the foot of the limestone escarpment forming the
rocky backbone of a 3.5-km long island, which is known as Se mo do/Srin mo do/Nang do. The name Nang do (Inner Island)
reflects the privileged geomantic and strategic position of this island. Clearly, the zenith of material cultural development at Se
mo do was reached in the archaic cultural horizon. In the last millennium only individuals have lived here, those devoted to
religious practice and the occasional pilgrim or herder. Se mo do is very similar in size and aspect to Bkra shis do chung (J-1).
With the possible exception of bkra shis do (J-1, J-2), Se mo do gave rise to the largest archaic cultural center at Gnam mtsho
(4720 m). Cave hermitage associated with famous Buddhist masters (8th to 13th century CE) sprung up on the much more
extensive remains of an earlier phase of occupation. The archaic cultural heritage of Se mo do is well chronicled in a chain of
ruined residential complexes that dot its shores (Phase I occupation). There were no less than 20 Phase I residential loci, ranging
in size from one room to clusters of multi-roomed buildings. The extent of these Phase I ruins gives the impression that as many
as several hundred people may have once resided on Se mo do. This thriving island center consisted of well-built habitations,
each of which was constructed around a cave or cleft in the base of the escarpment. These natural rock shelters appear to have
constituted the inner sancta of the Phase I residential loci.
The remains of what appear to have been large, robustly built buildings indicate that Phase I se mo do was a powerful outpost
of Upper Tibetan civilization. This cultural nucleus could only have been established with economic infusions from the mainland
(currently, the island grasses could potentially support a herd of around 40 sheep and goats). A sequestered island bastion
required adequate food reserves, implements, clothing, etc. that could only come from onshore. It is likely that only the social
elite of the region could command and centralize such resources. This is corroborated by the size and quality of the Phase I
archaic architectural remains; nowhere else in the gnam mtsho basin is there evidence for such a developed archaic residential
237
hub. It seems likely, therefore, that insular se mo do was once the political and social nexus of the region. This is where the
socially privileged chose to live, physically removed from the grazing lands, pastoral economy and manual labor on which their
well-being was based. Being surrounded by the deep and turbulent waters of gnam mtsho on all sides (landfall is a minimum
of 4 km away), se mo do was well insulated from unwanted intrusions and invasion. The island is usually accessed in the winter
months when gnam mtsho is frozen. Wintertime passage to se mo do is relatively secure and can facilitate the movement of
large amounts of supplies.107
Oral tradition
According to cultural luminaries of the region, Se mo do was the most exclusive of Buddhist meditation centers at Gnam mtsho.
Some of the lore concerning the island is also recorded in texts. Probably the most knowledgeable person regarding the oral
tradition of Se mo do is a sngags pa named A thob, who resides at Bkra shis do chung. He mostly learned about Se mo do from
the late Bla ma chos bdag, a monk at Gur chung monastery. They did not, however, visit the island together.
Textual tradition
The fact that Buddhist practitioners reoccupied an archaic cultural center at Se mo do is largely ignored in the Tibetan historical
and biographical texts. The Buddhist historical tradition begins with personalities such as Gu ru rin po che (8th century CE),
Gwa lo rin po che (11th to 12th century CE), Rgyal ba lo ras pa (died 1251 CE), mi la ras pa (1040-1143 CE), Do pa dar ma
shes rab (born 1228 CE), and Ras chung pa (1083-1161 CE), all of whom are supposed to have visited Se mo do.108 These
masters have caves dedicated to them in the oral and textual traditions of Se mo do. Gu ru rin po che is documented as subjugating
the god Klu bdud rdo je (Klu bdud thang lha) at Srin mo do. The taming of the great mountain god Gnyan chen thang lha on
the island reflects its historical and cultural importance. It is also implicit recognition that an earlier religious order existed on
Se mo do. Aware of the island’s historical significance, Buddhist masters of the bstan pa phyi dar developed a fascination with
Se mo do and strove to bring it fully into the ambit of their religion. This is graphically illustrated in the red ochre inscriptions
found in various caves. Mostly composed of mantras, these writings attempt to symbolically establish Buddhist control over
the island. Other inscriptions were written by the Bonpo, which tried to achieve the same ends for their religion. The Bon
inscriptions were made from around 1000 CE (possibly even in the early historic period) to perhaps as late as circa 1250 CE,
when the last Bonpo along the shores of Gnam mtsho were converted to Buddhism.109 Some Bon inscriptions and motifs were
deliberately erased. Curiously, more of an effort was made to efface or tamper with Bon inscriptions at Se mo do than at bkra
shis do.
A period of heightened social tensions between conservative native practitioners of Bon religious traditions and crusading
Buddhists coming from other parts of Tibet can well be imagined. This conflict is liable to have had major political overtones
with various factions joining each of the religious camps. Any such struggles at Se mo do before circa 1000 CE are likely to
have involved cults adhering to archaic traditions, while those after this time may have involved Lamaist practitioners fighting
for ecclesiastic dominance. Be that as it may, Buddhist doctrinal and ecclesiastic victory spelled the end to an earlier era, and
the ancient cultural glories of places like Se mo do were forgotten. For one thing, Buddhist practitioners never saw it necessary
in their writings to acknowledge the borrowing of building materials from the archaic complexes for the construction of their
much more modestly-sized retreats. Neither does the quasi-historical literature of the Bonpo do justice to the ancient cultural
and historical significance of Se mo do.
An oblique reference to Bonpo personages (albeit they had converted to Buddhism) at Se mo do is found in Stag lung rtse
sprul’s gnas bshad where it claims that Gu ru rin po che gave tantric initiations to Dran pa nam mkha’ and Khye’u chung mkha’
lding at this location.110 In Bon texts the eighth century CE adept stong rgyung mthu chen is closely associated with Gnam
mtsho. He is commonly portrayed as an ascetic living a solitary existence, not one involved in vibrant social intercourse. The
text Rig ’dzin rig pa’i thugs rgyud records his death on the island of the bellicose srin po (srin po ’khrugs pa’i gling) in the
west, a reference to Se mo do.111 The Bon ma rgyud (Mother Tantra) tradition hints at the elite character of the island, for it is
107
The use of small craft to reach the island is recorded in a biography of the Buddhist saint, Rgyal ba lo ras pa (1188-1251 CE) (Bellezza, Divine Dyads,
162–165). According to Slob dpon bstan ’dzin rnam dag (in personal communication), boats were produced in ancient Upper Tibet by slaughtering onagers.
The skin of an onager would form the hull, its bones were used for the frame and paddles, and its ligaments for binding the various elements of the craft.
108
These personalities and others are noted in a gnas bshad for Gnam mtsho compiled by the late Stag lung rtse sprul in Bod ljongs nang bstan (1991), as
well as other Tibetan works. See Bellezza, Divine Dyads, 161–166. The original gnas bshad manuscript managed to survive the Chinese Cultural Revolution.
This manuscript of some ten folios was gifted to Stag lung rtse sprul by the bkra shis do sngags pa, A thob. Over the years, A thob has accompanied me on a
number of explorations around Gnam mtsho, for which I am most grateful. His knowledge of Gnam mtsho culture, geography and religion has been of great
help to me.
109
As documented in the Stag lung chos ’byung. See Bellezza, Divine Dyads, 167–173.
110
Bellezza, Divine Dyads, 161.
111
Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 60,61.
238
the home of the central figure of the quincunx of klu-faced goddesses.112 This identification in the ma rgyud tradition shows that
the island was the divine heart of Gnam mtsho and a main focus of religious rites.
Site Elements
Residential complex
Every Phase I residential structure at se mo do appears to have been razed as only fragmentary walls and footings remain. If
left only to natural decay, more extensive portions of these stout structures should have endured. An architectural recreation
occurred at se mo do, reflecting major cultural, political and economic changes buffeting Upper Tibet. As no ground plans are
fully extant, it is not clear what the original configurations of the massive wall traces were. It could not be determined if they
supported permanent roofs or if some merely enclosed open courtyards and patios. It appears that stones from ruined walls were
restacked, adding to the difficulty of ascertaining the architectural identity of Phase I structures. It is certainly possible, given
the thickness and quality of the footings, that these once underpinned all-stone corbelled edifices. Locally available scrub juniper
may also have been employed in the construction of roofs. In either case, individual rooms would have been small in size.
Phase I structures include façades built around the mouth of caves and overhangs, and elevated masonry footings extending
5 m to 14 m out from the base of the escarpment. These footings supported one to three vertical tiers of structures. The forward
or lakeside edge of the foundations is commonly raised 1 m or more above ground level. Freestanding wall fragments (seldom
more than 1 m in height) are limited to outer walls and partition walls subdividing each structure into two to four parts. The
well-built random-rubble walls are 60 cm to 90 cm in thickness. Variable-length (up to 1 m) uncut pieces of naturally occurring
blue limestone were used in construction. There is very little evidence for the use of adhesive materials. The robustly-built walls
of the archaic constructions contrast with the much more lightly and crudely built façades of the Lamaist retreats. These constitute
the Phase II architecture of the island. Often, ma Ni mantras are carved in the formation surrounding the Phase II loci. No attempt
was made by the Lamaists to redevelop the Phase I structures save for the restacking of stones. The Lamaist façades are in a far
better physical state than their archaic counterparts, an important indication of relative age.
There are also a number of rectangular ceremonial structures around the island erected on the lakeshore benches that parallel
the escarpments. These appear to be archaic cultural structures, which in some cases, consisted of at least two graduated tiers.
No attempt seems to have been made to rebuild them, but they are likely to have undergone a Buddhist reconsecration process.
Their numbers underscore the ritual importance of se mo do.
Probably, from no later than 1000 CE, the Lamaists (be they Buddhists or Bonpo) established a mere shadow of the earlier
architectural presence on se mo do. The sum total of their building ventures are a few small shrines and the façades around their
meditation caves (Phase II monuments). The older ruins provided windbreaks and the walls of the retreat caves kept out the
fierce elements, providing the Lamaist inmates with some of the most secure housing anywhere at gnam mtsho. I envision two
historical scenarios in which the Phase I infrastructure of se mo do was either destroyed or fell into disuse: 1) during the
annexation of gnam mtsho by the spu rgyal emperors in circa seventh century CE punitive

Antiquities of Zhang Zhung - Tibetan and Himalayan Library

Transcription

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